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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY ~

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 19, 1929

BOARD OF EDITORS

Epaar W. WooLarD

GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY

JoHuN B. REESIDE, JR.

Evcar T. WHERRY

NATIONAL MUSEUM

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

L. H. Apams S. A. RonwER

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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_ Roger C. WEis

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eM MS

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ERRATA

Vol. 19, 1929

Page 35, line 22: for ‘‘Roemer’’ read ‘‘White (not Roemer).”

Page 116, last line: for ‘“Table IT’ read ‘‘Table 2.”

Page 117, Table 1: below side head ‘‘F; progeny of original plant of strain E”’ insert a

rule across entire table.

Page 120, line 23: after ‘‘a@Ff”’ insert ‘‘flat.”’

Page 123, line 27: delete comma after ‘‘generation.”’

Page 123, line 36: insert arrow (—) between ‘‘aF8F”’ and bracket.

Page 124, line 14: for ‘‘and’’ read ‘‘an.”’

Page 124, last line: for ‘‘435’’ read ‘‘425.”’

Page 142, lines 32, 34, and 48: for ‘‘Asterodiscocylina”’ read ‘‘Asterodiscocyclina.”’

Page 143, lines 8 and 30: for ‘‘Discocylina”’ read ‘‘Discocyclina.’’

Page 143, line 29: for ‘‘Asterodiscocylina”’ read ‘‘Asterodiscocyclina.”’

Page 145, lines 26 and 27: for ‘‘Discocylina’”’ read ‘“‘Discocyclina.”’

Page 145, line 26: for ““Asterodiscocylina’’ read ‘‘Asterodiscocyclina.”’

Page 234, line 27: for “‘uncomformably”’ read ‘‘unconformably.’’

Page 235, line 14: for ‘“‘Discocylina”’ read ‘‘Discocyclina.”’

Page 235, line 16: for ‘‘Asterodiscocylina”’ read ‘‘Asterodiscocyclina.’’

Page 242, line 30: for ‘‘Pseudoceratities’’ read ‘‘Pseudoceratites.”’

Page 245, line 14: for ‘‘specimes’’ read ‘‘specimens.’’

Page 264, line 5 in right column of table, for ‘‘farthert’’ read ‘‘farther.”’

Page 266, last line: delete ‘‘Soc.”’

Page 267, line 27: for ‘‘The table”’ read ‘Table 1, p. 264.”’

Page 269, line 32: for ‘‘remoralis’’ read ‘‘nemoralis.”’

Page 283, legend of fig. 1: for “‘Rhabditella’’ read ““R. (Rhabditella).”’

Page 284, legend of fig. 2: same correction as to fig. 1, p. 283.

Page 284, line 41: for ‘‘Tuffa’’ read ‘‘Luffa.”’

Page 285, legend of fig. 4, for “‘myolablatum’’ read “‘myolabiatum n. sp.”

Page 285, legend of fig. 5: for ““L. myolablatum read “‘myolabiatum n. sp.”’

Page 286, legend of fig. 6: for ‘‘Thelastoma’’ read “‘T. (Thelastoma)’’ and for ‘‘The-

lastomellum’”’ read “‘T. (Thelastomellum).”’

Page 291, line 15: for “‘griesenization’’ read ‘‘greisenization.”’

Page 290, line 3 from bottom: for “‘case’’ read ‘‘cases.”’

Page 319, line 24: for ‘‘0.002”’ read ‘‘0.0002.”’

Page 386, line 13: for ‘‘Baltimore’”’ read ‘‘Biltmore.”’

Page 415, line 40: for ‘“‘prickels’’ read ‘‘prickles.”’

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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OFFICERS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FOR 1929

LEST GE Raa ORCS POU ARSED Et od RAPE EE eT aaNet ALES HrDLICKA

Vice-President representing the affiliated societies:

Anthropological Foresters...... BARRINGTON Moore

CuHarLes L. G. ANDERSON Geographic......... F. V. CoviLuE

Archaeological..... Water HoucH Geological...........D. F. HEwetr

Bacteriological.. Miss Atice Evans Helminthological..ELois—E B. Cram

EAOIOOTCAL Se 5 os a: EK. A. GotpMan Historical........ ALLEN C. CLARK

Botanical....... Rosert F. Griccs Mech. Engr.....H. lL. WaItTTEMoRE

Chemical...... Rateren GincnRistT Medical: .:...)..... Harry H. Kerr

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ME SESPOCHOV UECOE FESTENUS 2: ote tia a or bichie asso 408 oie Be hs H. S. GRAVES

Corresponding Secretary.............

CCOTAUIUGH SCOT AOTY 2 oe ole de wh bs sss

CD AUN ER ce ee ek Par Reed Pgh

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JOURNAL

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Vo. 19 January 4, 1929 ; INO: al

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—The vegetation, stratigraphy, and age

of the “Open Land” peat area in Carteret County, North Carolina.!

ALFRED P. DaAcHNOWSKI-STOKES, Bureau of Chemistry and

Soils, and B. W. WELLs, State College, Raleigh, North Carolina.

INTRODUCTION

From August 26 to September 12, 1928, a brief examination of an

area of peat known as the ‘“‘Open Land”’ was made in Carteret County,

North Carolina, in cooperation with the State College of Agriculture.

The aim was to determine the origin, structure, and age as well as the

peculiar peat problems presented by this type of coastal swamp, also

to study intensively the relation of its distinctive vegetation to certain

habitat factors, and the effects of the removal of excess water by

drainage. é

The “Open Land” comprises approximately 50,000 acres and is

located about 12 miles northeast from Beaufort. The surface of the

peat area has a moderately convex form, characteristic of certain peat

deposits in maritime regions. The area is the highest land, lying from

6 to 11 feet above sea level, and is almost without stream erosion or

relief of any sort except low marginal sandy ridges. It is situated in

the central part of a peninsula which is bounded by Back Sound, Core

Sound, Pamlico Sound, Neuse River, Adams Creek and the Inland

Canal.

HIsTory

Carteret County has been an important gateway to the mainland

(4).2, Explorers and settlers came there at an early date in the history

1 Received November 12, 1928.

2 See list of literature cited, at end of paper.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

of North Carolina, but the material development of the ‘“Open Land”

did not take place until recently. In 1916 a company was formed,

known as the Virginia-Carolina Farms Company, which took over a

large section of the peninsula. ‘The primary purpose was the develop-

ment of the property for colonization purposes. Because of war con-

ditions the title to the land came into the hands of the East Coast

Land Company, and subsequently as a gift into the hands of the

University of Chicago. Extensive drainage operations were begun in

1917, and canals and lateral ditches were dug, designed to carry in

24 hours a depth of three-quarter inches of water from the acreage

assigned to them. No attempt was made to provide for the control

of the water table or to meet the specific requirements for water of

different crops and peat soil conditions. Three sub-districts were

established, each with a separate outlet to sea level. A map giving an

outline of the system of ditches and the boundary of the ‘‘Open Land”

is shown in figure 4.

In 1923 a drainage district was organized, comprising 4575 acres of

the ‘Open Land” area. Agricultural operations began about that

time. Several well-constructed houses, barns, and roads were built,

and experimental plots and test wells were established. Flooding,

drought, fires, and other unfavorable field conditions defeated the

efforts of the settlers, and in 1926 the district, reported to represent

an investment of $700,000, was abandoned. Today the area is visited

only by hunters. The buildings (Fig. 1) are unoccupied and falling

into decay. They could serve for laboratory purposes, if permission

were obtained to use them in peat investigations by different workers

and from different angles at various seasons during the year.

SURFACE VEGETATION

The area represents a striking example of the Coastal Plain ever-

green shrub-bog. The present consocies of the bog proper is domi-

nated by Cyrilla racemiflora. The subdominants are Zenobia cassini-

folia, Pieris nitida, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Smilax laurifolia, Tamala

pubescens. Minor elements which may here and there attain sub-

Fig. 1—General view of ‘‘Open Land’’ peat area showing ‘‘Buck Head Lodge’”’ and

adjoining buildings, now abandoned. Photographed by B. W. Wells, September 10,

1928. :

Fig. 2.—Succession of Solidago fistulosa (light middle distance), initiated by fire;

break in tree-line at right shows where fire came through. Photographed by B. W.

Wells, September 10, 1928.

Fig. 3— Regeneration of Pinus serotina in ‘‘bay’’ shrubs near ditches. Photographed

by B. W. Wells, September 10, 1928.

4. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

dominance are Anchistea virginica, Aronia arbutifolra, Ilex lucida, Gor-

donia lasianthus, Kalmia angustifolia, Magnolia virginica, Pinus sero-

tina. Such a shrub-bog is known-locally as a “‘pocosin,”’ or ‘‘bay.”’ (6).

The Cyrilla, which elsewhere may grow to 15 feet in height, is,

together with the other shrubs, here only 1.5 to 4 feet tall. Fire,

which sweeps the area every 2 to 5 years, keeps the shrub cover low.

Pinus serotina, the only tree on the area, has been almost completely

removed by fire from the central body of the bog, giving the locality

its distinctive open aspect.

Locally where, because of high wind or other causes, the fire has been

intense and has eliminated or weakened the shrubs, an evanescent

herbaceous consocies will initiate the new sere or subsere. The chief

dominants involved are Solidago fistulosa, Hrechtites hieracifolra,

Arundinaria macrosperma, Andropogon capillipes (A. virginicus on

drained areas), and Amphicarpon amphicarpon (Fig. 2). In this con-

nection it is of interest to note that Campulosus aromaticus, the grass-

sedge bog dominant of mineral soil (7), is entirely absent; there ap-

pears to be no tendency, no matter how frequent the fire, toward the

establishment on the peat soils of the relatively permanent grass-sedge

bog associes with its host of species bearing showy flowers.

The drainage factor in a period of five years has not brought about

any change in the shrub complex; the perfectly drained zone imme-

diately next the ditches shows no response. The question of how much

this is due to competition and how much to a possible lag effect of

certain bog soil conditions must remain for further study.

The vegetation of the environing transition areas, where drainage

conditions are improved and the peat is thinner or entirely absent, is

characteristically dominated by Jlex glabra with much Pinus serotina

of fair size. Arundinaria is also prominent in certain places along the

borders. The pccosin pine mentioned constitutes the encircling forest,

extending around the area with but one break on the east side.

Concerning the life form of the shrub-bog plants attention should be

directed to the fact that the leaves of the shrubs are without exception

some slight variant of the simple ovate or elliptic type of foliar organ

and uniformly possess a leathery texture, suggesting xeric structure.

The necessary tests, however, have not been made to prove them bog

xerophytes.

The old field succession in the drained area is the familiar Coastal

Plain Syntherisma-Eupatorium (capillifolium), Andropogon (virginicus,

capillipes) sequence. Solidago fistulosa may be prominent also in the

middle stage. On an area which was tile-drained Eupatoriwm capilli-

JAN. 4,1929 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES & WELLS: OPEN LAND PEAT AREA 5

Main drainage canals_._......--

Laferal ditches ._......--

Section lines_..__..

Eage of pine woods

| Ite.

It ' &s

H iS

Say femme

Heys th ee

1 &

fee ce:

NAD

SeES?

i). 3% { ms

| i= ‘ Teesgauatacns :

5 oy 3

LY. 1

“IN oS | se ee

intin “Ce

-+1—.-—-—1

atk SCALE OF MILES

Fig. 4—Map showing location of the ‘‘Open Land’’ peat area in Carteret County,

North Carolina, and its present system of drainage ditches. From field-data of the

author, prepared by the Division of Agricultural engineering, U. 8. Department of

Agriculture. .

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

folium was found in complete dominance, while the adjoining area,

drained only by ditches, showed Solidago fistulosa as the dominant.

PROFILE FEATURES

The examination of peat profiles was made according to a method

fully described in earlier publications (1). The American peat-sound-

ing instrument was used and a number of characteristics were noted

on the exposed cross-sections of pits and ditches, such as composition

of peat material, color, odor, texture, structure, inclusions, degree of

decomposition, moisture content, distribution of roots, thickness of

peat layers, and nature of mineral subsoil. It would be out of place

to discuss these here in more detail. In the preliminary field work

_much that is important may have escaped attention, nevertheless the

more outstanding facts of the stratigraphy and age of the ‘‘Open Land”

peat area can be summarized as follows:

The profile series over the entire area appear to be essentially the

same. A cross section about 14 miles east of the main office building

(Buck Head Lodge) may be taken as typical of the Beaufort type of

peat land:

SECTION OF ‘‘OpEN LanpD’ Prat Taken 1+ Mites East or Buck

Heap Lopece.

(1) 0-3” thin superficial layer of dry, gray, leafy litter from heath-shrubs

and ferns, on

3-13” black charred, dry, loose, granular, hard organic material with

woody fragments from heath-shrubs burned over about 3 years ago, on

13-4” reddish brown to dark brown, largely decomposed woody debris,

moist, granular, mellow, frequently lumpy at lower level, embedded in a

dense network of rootlets, grading into

4-11" reddish brown, largely decomposed, moist lumpy to cloddy heath-

shrub peat, with well-preserved, living woody roots and underground

stems of heath-shrubs.

11-18" same with an open network of fine roots and rootlets from

surface vegetation; grading sharply into

(2) 18-28” black, sticky, wet, rather compact and impermeable, amorphous

sedimentary peat; without roots or fibrous components, occasionally

woody fragments are present and tap roots of pocosin pine (P. serotina)

growing at the surface.

28-29”" black, sticky, sedimentary peat with an admixture of gray gritty

sand which increases in thickness in an eastward direction; rests on

(8) 29-33’ logs, roots, and stumps in situ of white cedar (Champenpane

thyoides), embedded in a yellowish brown, finely fragmented to granular

woody peat, partly decomposed; portions of it chaffy when dry, free

from sand or silt, moist, rather compact.

JAN. 4, 1929 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES & WELLS: OPEN LAND PEAT AREA 7

33-38”’ same with an admixture of fibrous material from roots of herba-

ceous plants; increasingly sandy at lower. level.

38-45” yellow-brown, finely divided organic debris with large amounts

of fine sand; contains roots and rootlets.

(4) 4548” eray fine sand with small amounts of organic debris, somewhat

mottled and ecross-bedded; varying in thickness and sharply demarked

from

48” gray to bluish gray, compact sand. There is a layer of sea shells

about 3 to 4 feet below the bluish-gray sand (i.e. 8 feet below the surface).

The shell bed consists nearly entirely of species living at the present time.

It is obviously a littoral marine formation.

STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS AND AGE

The sequence of peat layers, as shown in the stratigraphic section

above, affords a basis for inferring the physical conditions which pre-

vailed during the origin and formation of the “Open Land” peat area.

(A) The plain on which the area of peat was formed is the lowest

well defined member of a series of coastal terrace plains that front the

Atlantic Ocean from Maryland and Virginia to Florida. The terraces

are believed to represent sea floors exposed by diastrophic movements

of the coastal region dating from late Pliocene time to the present (8).

The highest terraces, being older and farther inland, were the first to

emerge, while the lower, which are younger and nearer to the ocean,

emerged relatively recently. Stephenson in his account of the coastal

plain of North Carolina (3) has given the name Pamlico to the youngest

of these terraces, and Matson and Sanford in discussing the Pleisto-

cene of Florida (5) regard the lowermost terrace, on which the Ever-

glades are located, as a portion of the Pensacola terrace. Both are

emerged sea-bottoms floored with a bed of sea shells.

During the period of elevation of the shell layer (an off-shore de-

posit) the coarse sand material of shore currents was laid down on it.

The upward movement, it is clear, continued until this sand stratum

was elevated above sea level. The sharpness of the transition. from

the coarse sand to the thin layer of bluish clay-like fine sand, deposited

unconformably, suggests that after the coarse sand was laid down the

locality was still close enough to the sea for tidal inflow, and subject to

the influence of silt-laden fresh and brackish waters. It is believed

that later a beach ridge or low sand dunes, built up by wind activity,

marked the temporary position of the shore during the ‘emergence of

the sea-bottom. Back of it lay a lagoon, upon which wind-blown

sand gradually accumulated. The organic remnants of a marsh

vegetation occurring thereon are still present, but not in the form of

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. I

any well-marked layer of matted fibrous sedge or reed peat. The

ancient marsh was overflowed from time to time by turbid sheets of

water, causing the water to deposit its excess of silt and leaving partly

decomposed branches, bark, and roots embedded in a yellowish brown

fine sand.

(B) Soon after the depression of the sea, or the uplift of the land,

shrubs and trees attained dominance early in the history of the for-

mation of the ‘‘Open Land.”’ Typical profile sections show practically

a pure stand of Chamaecyparis thyoides as the one dominant. The

brown layer of peat, derived from the white cedar swamp, is little else

than a tangled mass of roots, partially decayed stumps, and fallen

logs in a good state of preservation. Less resistant plant remains

falling to the ground decayed to a larger degree, but the accumulation

was faster than decomposition; the permanent wetness of the peat

material, induced by its high water-holding capacity and by poor

drainage conditions, excluded air and the organisms which cause the

final disappearance of all organic matter. How many years elapsed

during this time interval can not be stated with certainty. The

thickness of the woody layer of peat, when more or less saturated with

water, varies between 13 and 2 feet, but estimates based upon the

rate of accumulation of various kinds of plant remains would not be

very reliable.

tinued to accumulate until the process was interrupted by a renewed

sinking of the land. Once more the sea rose, probably owing to the

return of cool waters from melting ice sheets in the north. The land

came to rest at an altitude several feet below its present level. As a

result of the subsidence the area of white cedar swamp became exposed

at first to inundation by flood waters containing gritty sand and silt.

The presence of ripple-marks in the corresponding level of the marginal

sand ridges, exposed along the northern highway, would indicate that

shallow water conditions existed at first. This was followed by a

prolonged period of high water. A high sand barrier-reef or dunes,

whose crest must still have been considerably above sea level at that

time, probably marked the position of the shore during this stage of

coastal subsidence. The partial submergence undoubtedly not only

choked the lower courses of the streams and creeks with their forests

of cypress and gum, but extended the river swamps and the quiet

water of ponds considerably inland.

The composition of the plant community of deep and shallow sur-

yan. 4, 1929 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES & WELLS: OPEN LAND PEAT AREA 9

face waters must have been similar to that of aquatic habitats of

today. Submersed forms and plants with floating leaves were promi-

nent, among them Potamogeton, Castalia, Nymphaea, Myriophyllum,

Philotria, Lemna, and others. This was the period during which the

jet-black to bluish-black, amorphous, mud-like layer of sedimentary

peat accumulated. The botanical composition of the constituent

vegetation has now almost completely disappeared. In texture and

color the layer is quite uniform where tested, except for the partially

decayed tap-roots found here and there derived from a later growth

of pocosin pines. The character of the recognizable plant remains

gives evidence also that the deposition occurred in fresh water and

was uniform over a considerable period of time during which the

coastal region remained essentially stable.

A further point, of more practical bearing, should be added here.

The finely divided, largely decomposed sedimentary organic debris

shrinks under conditions of drainage, and consequently becomes com-

pacted and relatively impermeable to the subsequent passage of water,

air, or salts. Roots of plants pass through it with difficulty. Below

this layer the peat materials are wet; above it the precipitation water

is stagnant and the surface soil is saturated. Periods of drought, on

the other hand, bring a complete reversal of conditions, characterized

by long periods of low soil-water content in the surface layer, and fires

as a major factor in the destruction of crops and cultivated peat soil.

It is interesting to note that both in stratigraphic position and physi-

cal characteristics this middle layer of macerated, sedimentary peat

is closely paralleled by and strictly comparable with that in the Ever-

glades at Okeelanta, Florida, outlined in a table to show the geologic

time range of peat deposits in the United States and Europe (2).

(D) The next event appears to have been a renewed emergence

(differential uplift?) of the land, at least of small amount, which prob-

ably proceeded from south to north, and culminated perhaps only a

few thousand years ago. As the surplus of the surface waters of inland

ponds drained away, shrubs such as Cyrilla quickly assumed complete

dominance in the wetter habitat, later sharing it with typical heaths

and bay shrubs. This community of evergreen, broad-leafed plants

occupied the area and accumulated peat to the present level. In wet

places cushions of sphagnum mosses accompanied the shrubs, but at

no time were they present in sufficient abundance to form a layer of

moss peat. The fact should be pointed out also that formerly Pinus

serolina was not prominent in the “Open Land,” for no reproduction

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

of pines takes place of itself under wet conditions, while the shrubs

predominate in dense stands. With the introduction of drainage the

pocosin pine is establishing itself to a marked degree (Fig. 3), but fires

are reducing its dominance. The size of the hummocks of charred

peat in the extensive, fire-swept area shows that about 10 to 16 inches

of the top layer of heath-shrub peat has been burned off.

CONCLUSIONS

The most striking results brought out by the study of the present

surface vegetation and the stratigraphic features are the natural his-

tory of the origin and formation of the ““Open Land” peat area. The

characteristics observed in the type profile section are briefly described

and important relationships are pomted out between the middle layer

of sedimentary peat and its effects upon surface vegetation, drainage,

fire, and cultural operations.

It is hoped that future work will make considerable progress along

lines of (1) intensive ecological vegetation studies (in codéperation with

the State College of Agriculture), (2) differentiation of profile units

and series of profile analyses to furnish data regarding the physical ~

properties and chemical composition of the different layers of peat,

their microbiological population, the alteration and changes in peat

layers related to vegetation, drainage, fire, and cultivation, (3) records

of consequent shrinkage and fluctuations of the water supply (in

cooperation with the U. 8. Bureau of Public Roads, Division of Agri-

cultural Engineering). It is contemplated to run lines of level, con-

nected to sea-datum. They will include areas of brackish marsh,

heath shrub, natural reforestation and abandoned, cultivated peatland.

Permanent plots will be established in drained and undrained sections

for periodical observations to be made in the spring and fall by a party

of investigators using the main office building as headquarters.

Information of that character has not been available for earlier

observers and is of far-reaching importance in peat investigations as

well as an aid to a broad and impartial judgment on questions of im-

proving the utilization and management of peat areas in North Caro-

lina. The results of such studies are not wholly limited to this state,

however, but are intended to serve to clarify the fundamental peat

problem presented for comparison by other states of the Atlantic

Coastal Plain.

JAN. 4, 1929 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 11

LITERATURE CITED

(1). A. P. Dacunowski. The stratigraphic study of peat deposits. Soil

Sci. 17: 107-131. 1924. See also U.S. Dept. Agr. Bulletins 802 and 1419.

(2). The correlation of time units and climatic changes in peat deposits

of the United States and Europe. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 8: 225-231. 1922.

(3). W. B. Cuarx, B. L. Mituer, L. W. STEPHENSON, and others. The

Coastal Plain of N orth Carolina. N.C. Geol. Econ. Surv. 3: 1912.

(4) A. Lerrerts, H.C. Lay, and C. W. Lewis. Carteret County: economic

and social. Univ. N. C. Extension Bull. 5: no. 13. 1926.

(5). G. C. Matson and 8. Sanrorp. Geology and ground waters of Florida.

U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-supply Paper 319. 1913.

(6) B. W. Wetts. Plant communities of the coastal Plain of North Carolina

and their successional relations. Ecology 9: 230-242. 1928.

(7) A southern upland grass-sedge bog: an ecological study. N. C.

Exp. Station Techn. Bull. 32. 1928.

BOTANY .—Additional Costa Rican mosses... By Epwin B. BAartTRAM,

Bushkill, Pennsylvania. (Communicated by Wiuturam R.

Maxon.)

Since the studies on Mr. Standley’s Costa Rican mosses were com-

pleted,? additional collections from Costa Rica have come in, princi-

pally from Prof. Manuel Valerio, of San José, which not only supple-

ment Mr. Standley’s excellent series in many interesting and important

particulars but also add a number of new species to the apparently

inexhaustible moss flora of this country. There seems to be scarcely

any limit to the opportunities for constructive bryological effort in

Costa Rica, and the success which has attended Professor Valerio’s

activities can hardly fail to serve as a stimulus to any one with an

inclination in this direction, who now and then has a chance to explore

the more inaccessible mountain areas.

In the following enumeration there are 28 species (marked with an

asterisk) which are not represented in Mr. Standley’s collections.

Among these the following seem to be unrecorded from Central Amer-

ica: Anoectangium condensatum, Chorisodontium speciosum, Syrrhopo-

don Gaudichaudu, Pseudosymblepharis circinata, Orthodontvum pellucens,

Leskeodon pusillus, Haplohymenium triste, Erythrodontium squarrgsum, .

and Ctenidium malacodes. Four species, Dicranum costaricense, Pseu-

dosymblepharis Bartrami, Leptodontium Valerianum, and Stenodictyon

sericeum, are described here for the first time, and the remaining 91

of the total of 123 species listed are additional records which have a

decided interest from the viewpoint of local distribution.

1 Received December 1, 1928.

2 Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 26: 51-114. Fig. 1-39. Oct. 31, 1928.

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

Specimens of all the collections have been deposited with the United

States National Museum, excepting those of Mr. Lankester which are

in the Herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.

SPHAGNACEAE

SPHAGNUM RECURVUM Beauv.

Pejivalle, Sept. 14, 1927, Valerio 51.

FISSIDENTACEAE _

FISSIDENS ASPLENIOIDES (Sw.) Hedw.

Piedra Blanca, Oct. 9, 1927, Valerio 87; El Gallito, Province of Heredia,

Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 190, 196.

FISSIDENS OERSTEDIANUS C. M.

Tablazo, Jan. 18, 1928, Valerio 131.

DICRANACEAE

AONGSTROEMIA JAMAICENSIS C. M.

Voledn de Barba, June 26, 1926, Valerio 12; Sept. 5, 1926, Valerio 29.

*MICcRODUS BARBENSIS (Ren. & Card.) Broth.

Tablazo, Oct. 30, 1927, Valerio 92, 94.

DIcRANELLA STANDLEYI Bartr.

Voledn de Barba, July 29, 1926, Valerio 20.

’ CAMPYLOPUS INTROFLEXUS (Hedw.) Mitt.

Tablazo, July 27, 1927, Valerio 34, 36, 37; Volcan de Barba, Valerio 6;

Cerros de Candelaria, Aug. 15, 1926, Valerio 28; El Gallito, Province of

Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 184.

CAMPYLOPUS SUBLEUCOGASTER (C. M.) Jaeg. & Sauerb.

Las Céncavas, Nov. 2, 1927, C. H. Lankester.

CampyLopus HorrMannli (C. M.) Ren. & Card.

Volein de Barba, Valerio 47.

Campylopus filifolius (Hsch.) Mitt. var. longifolius (Bartr.), comb. nov.

The Costa Rican collections referred to C. Harrisi and the var. longifolius

Bartr.’ are evidently forms of C. filifolius, as Mr. R. 8. Williams has suggested,

but they are readily distinguished from the type by the much longer comal

leaves (up to 15 or 20 mm. long) and by the strongly pitted basal cells. The

variation is well marked in the material available. In addition to the col-

lections previously cited the following have since been received: La Hondura,

June 5, 1926, Valerio 3; La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerio 149.

In this variety, as well as in the type form, the leaves are clearly dimor-

phous. Those of the comal tufts are widely spreading with flexuose points,

: Loc. cit. 64.

JAN. 4, 1929 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 13

the blade incurved about 1.5mm. up from the base then channelled above,

costa long-excurrent, blade gradually narrowed upward and 1 or 2 cells wide

for some distance below its termination, serrulate on the margin only a short

way down, alar cells forming large inflated auricles extending to the costa.

The stem leaves between the comose tufts are appressed and closely sheath-

ing, abruptly narrowed from a clasping base about 1.5 mm. long toashort

filiform point about 3 times as long, which is bordered by the narrow blade

almost to the apex, conspicuously decurrent, alar cells inconspicuous or none.

CAMPYLOPUS PORPHYREODICTOS (C.M.) Mitt.

Tablazo, July 27, 1927, Valerio 36a; Tablazo, Aug. 5, 1928, Valerio 156.

CAMPYLOPUS FALCATULUS Bartr.

Tablazo, Jan. 18, 1928, Valerio 128.

PILOPOGON GRACILIS (Hook.) Brid.

San Ignacio, Aug. 4, 1928, Valerio 165; Tablazo, Oct. 30, 1927, Valerio

98; El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 181.

METZLERELLA COSTARICENSIS (C. M.) Broth.

Volcan de Barba, Valerio 22.

HOLOMITRIUM TEREBELLATUM C. M.

Volcan de Barba, June 6, 1926, Valerio 13; El Gallito, Province of Heredia,

Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 114.

*CHORISODONTIUM SPECIOSUM (Hook. & Wils.) Broth.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 107.

The plants in this collection are indistinguishable from authentic specimens

of this species from Ecuador and Bolivia, all of which have the costa indistinct

above and the upper leaf cells irregularly in two layers. Dicranoloma seta-

ceum Bartr.* shows the same leaf structure, but the stems are shorter and more

densely foliate and the leaves are strongly falcate-secund, with flexuose

points. If not a form of C. speciosum, it is evidently very closely related and

should take the name of Chorisodontium setaceum (Bartr.), comb. nov.

DICRANUM FRIGIDUM C. M.

Voledn de Barba, Aug. 14, 1927, Valerio 119, 120.

Dicranum costaricense Bartr., sp. nov. Fig. 1, A-K.

Dioicous. Male plants (?) numerous, up to 1.5 em. high, simple or,

branched, attached to tomentum or older leaves; flowers terminal; perigonal

leaves from a clasping base gradually narrowed to a stout serrulate point,

the costa short-excurrent; antheridia abortive or supra-mature, only a few

shrunken fragments observed. Stems robust, up to 10 cm. high, densely and

more or less interruptedly foliate to the base, tomentose throughout, in loose

4 Loc. cit. 70.

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

deep tufts, yellowish green at the tips, fulvous brown below; leaves flexuose-

spreading all around or rather appressed between the comose tufts, up to 10

or 12 mm. long, ovate-lanceolate, gradually narrowed to a long grooved point,

the margin and costa remotely dentate about one-fourth of the way down;

costa short-excurrent, indistinct in the lower half, about one-third the width

of the leaf just above the alar cells, lightly ribbed on the back, in cross-section

about the middle showing a median row of 6 or 7 guide cells with stereid

bands above and below, the dorsal band much wider than the ventral with

the outer cells differentiated; basal leaf cells rectangular with strongly pitted

lateral walls, 3 or 4 rows on the margins very narrow but hardly forming a

distinct border; alar cells conspicuous, forming an inflated, reddish brown

group extending to the costa, the median and upper cells obliquely rhomboidal

with rather incrassate straight or scarcely pitted walls. Sporophyte unknown. -

Type: La Palma, Costa Rica, altitude 1,500 meters, April 30, 1928,

Valerio 148.

The robust, interruptedly foliate stems, relatively broad costa with but a

few remote teeth on the back, straight-walled upper leaf cells and the con-

spicuous alar group filling the entire leaf base reflect a combination of char-

acters that readily distinguish this species from D. frigidum.

ScHLIEPHACKEA METERIOIDES (R. 8. Williams) Broth.

La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerio 12.

DicRANOLOMA BRITTONAE Bartr.

La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerio 141.

The above number is identical with the type collection from Cerros de

Zurqui, but like that is absolutely sterile. Several points in the description

of Dicranum Goudotii Hampe suggested a relationship with the Costa Riean

moss; but no specimen of Hampe’s species could be located in the Mitten

Herbarium at the New York Botanical Garden, and from the absence of any

notes it seemed evident that Mitten’s description had been copied from the

original source without any critical study of the type collection. Mr. H.

N. Dixon has very kindly compared the two plants and reports as follows:

“Compared with Dicranoloma Brittonae Bartr., D. Goudotii is shorter, with

considerably denser foliation, leaves less crisped when dry; base narrower and

also subula, which is much finer. Nerve 14 times as wide at base and ill

defined. Upper cells smaller and less incrassate, as also are the alar cells.

Subula not fragile, scarcely undulate when dry.”’ In the absence of any

further particulars it would seem that D. Brittonae is specifically distinct, but

whether it properly belongs in Dicranoloma, Dicranum, or Schliephackea is

still an open question. The leaves are very similar to those of Schliephackea

meterioides in outline and areolation, but the margin is only obscurely denticu-

late above and the longer point is strongly spirally twisted when dry.

LEUCOLOMA SERRULATUM Brid.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 112.

ie ————

See

Fig. 1. A-K. Dicranum costaricense Bartr., sp. nov.—A, plant X 3; B, C, leaves X

8; D, E, leaves with young male plants attached X 8; F, one side of leaf base X 56; G,

leaf apex X 56; H, part of upper leaf blade X 300; I, cross-section of costa about mid-leaf

X 300; J, K, mature male plants X 13. ;

L-R. Stenodictyon sericeum Bartr., sp. nov.—L, tip of branch X 8; M,N, leaves X

23; O, leaf apex X 56; P, basal’angle of leaf X 300;Q, R, plants X 14.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

LEUCOBRYACEAE

OcTOBLEPHARUM ALBIDUM (L.) Hedw.

Pejivalle, Sept. 4, 1927, Valerio 47; San José, Jan. 20, 1928, Valerio 135;

San Ignacio, Aug. 4, 1928, Valerio 158; Parismina, July 26, 1928, Valerio

168.

OcTOBLEPHARUM MITTENTI!I Jaeg.

Pejivalle, Sept. 4, 1927, Valerio 46.

CALYMPERACEAE

*SYRRHOPODON GAUDICHAUDII Mont.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 111.

This species has been known from the West Indies and northern South

America, but the above collection seems to be the first from Central America.

SYRRHOPODON INCOMPLETUS Schwaegr.

Pozo Azul de Pirris, C. H. Lankester.

SYRRHOPODON LYCOPODIOIDES (Sw.) C. M.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 198.

POTTIACEAE

ANOECTANGIUM EUCHLORON (Schwaegr.) Mitt.

Cervantes, June 30, 1928, Valerio 161; Cebadilla, Nov. 15, 1927, Valerio

101; Piedra Blanea, Province of San José, Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 175.

*ANOECTANGIUM CONDENSATUM Schimp.

Piedra Blanea, Province of San José, Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 176.

Previously known only from Mexico.

Pseudosymblepharis Bartrami Thér. in litt., sp. nov. Fig. 2, J-Q.

Dioicous. Antheridial flowers not seen. Plants in deep dense tufts,

yellowish green above, brown below; stems about 2.5 cm. high, simple or

sparingly branched, closely matted together in the lower half with reddish

tomentum; leaves erect with crispate points when dry, erect-spreading with

incurved points when moist, very fragile and mostly broken off about half

way down, up to 5.5 or 6 mm. long, carinate, gradually narrowed to a linear-

lanceolate point from an erect, ovate, lightly clasping base; costa relatively

slender, 60—-70u wide toward the base, tapering upward and short-excurrent,

papillose on the ventral surface, nearly smooth on the back, in cross-section

about mid-leaf showing a median row of 4 large guide cells with stereid bands

on both sides and two large cells on the ventral surface; lower basal cells

linear to rectangular, irregular, hyaline and smooth, gradually becoming

narrower upward with thick pellucid walls, strongly pitted toward the costa,

nearly straight toward the margins, gradually becoming shorter and papillose

toward the top of the leaf base, several rows of elongated hyaline cells ex-

tending upward on the margins but not forming a distinct border; upper leaf

cells rounded-quadrate or transversely oval, obscure, rather incrassate,

densely papillose on both sides. Sporophyte unknown.

—

Jie

Ser

Ai 39h

olen

S ~ \

Le iC) ° Ss 9 o>

Fig. 2. A-I. Leptodontium Valerianum Bartr., sp. nov.—A, moist plant X 3; B, C, D,

leaves X 23; HE, F, apices of leaves X 56; G, upper leaf cells and margin X 320; H, one

side of leaf base and part of costa X 320; I, cross-section of costa about mid-leaf < 320.

J-Q. Pseudosymblepharis Bartrami Thér., sp.nov.—J, moist plant X 3; K, leaf <

8; L, broken leaf X 8; M, lower part of leaf X 23; N, apex of leaf X 106; O,- upper

leaf cells and margin X 320; P, part of cross-section of leaf about half-way down X

ewe)

haere

wail rs

(ears)

C2)

CAGES

CSABDE

—

Eo NSO? a ee) oo E

ED \WeID | GES | CD

320; Q, basal cells and margin X 320.

Wows,

22809

O89

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

Type: On log, Cerros de Zurqui, northeast of San Isidro, Province of

Heredia, Costa Rica, altitude 2,000—2,400 meters, March 3, 1926, Paul

C. Standley 50701.

According to M. Thériot this plant is distinguished from S. circinata

(Schimp.) Broth., to which it was referred in the list of Mr. Standley’s Costa

Rican mosses,> by the more erect leaves, especially when moist, the less

conspicuously sheathing leaf base, which is very gradually narrowed upward,

and the more slender nerve. These differences, stressed by M. Thériot, have

been verified by a further study of the material and may be supplemented

by the brittle quality of the leaf points, which is so marked that in most of the

plants only a few entire leaves can be found.

*PSEUDOSYMBLEPHARIS CIRCINATA (Schimp.) Broth.

Piedra Blanca, Province of San José, Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 176a.

In contrast with the preceding collection these plants, segregated from the

tufts of Anoectangium condensatum, no. 176, are identical with specimens

from Mexico and Jamaica.

Leptodontium Valerianum Bartr., sp. nov. Big ae

Dioicous? Antheridial flowers unknown. Plants slender, in compact

tufts, yellowish green above, pale brown below. Stems about 2.5 cm. long,

erect or ascendent, branched from near the base, sparingly radiculose below

and rather densely matted with reddish tomentum in the lower third; leaves

about 2 mm. long, incurved-crispate when dry, flexuose-spreading when

moist, linear-lanceolate, carinate; margin flat, crenulate with projecting

papillae, denticulate below, coarsely and irregularly serrate in the upper half;

costa about 60u wide just above the base, tapering upward and percurrent

or ending just below the apex, in cross-section near the middle showing a

median row of about 6 large cells with stereid bands above and below, the

outer layer of cells on both sides clearly differentiated: upper leaf cells

rounded, 7—8u in diameter, thin-walled, papillose and rather obscure, toward

the base oblong, about 20u long by 5u wide, with more incrassate, pellucid

walls, shorter and subquadrate toward the margins. Sporophyte unknown.

Type: Piedra Blanca, Province of San José, Costa Rica, altitude 2,400

meters, Oct. 9, 1927, Valerio 86.

The narrow, plane-margined leaves, coarsely serrate in the upper half,

readily distinguish this plant from L. filescens (Hampe) Mitt. In gross

appearance it suggests Hymenostylium curvirostre, but under a microscope

or even with a hand lens the strongly serrate leaf margin is, of course, very

distinctive. In the absence of fruiting plants the element of uncertainty

with regard to the generic position of the species is ever-present, but its

affinities are certainly more clearly with Leptodontium than with any of the

allied genera. Professor Valerio has shown a welcome interest in the mosses

of Costa Rica and it is a privilege to be able to associate his name with this

unique plant.

5 Toc. cit. 74.

JAN. 4, 1929 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 19

LEPTODONTIUM SUBGRACILE Ren. & Card.

Voledn de Barba, July, 1926, Valerio 27; Volcan de Barba Aug. 14, 1927,

Valerio 117.

LEPTODONTIUM ULOCALYX (C. M.) Mitt.

Voledn de Barba, June 26, 1926, Valerio 21.

HYopuHILA TORTULA (Schwaegr.) Hampe.

Cebadilla, Nov. 15, 1927, Valerio 21.

*DIDYMODON CAMPYLOCARPUS (C. M.) Broth.

Piedra Blanca, Province of San José, Oct. 9, 1927, Valerzo 90.

*BARBULA COSTARICENSIS Ren. & Card.

Piedra Blanca, Province of San José, Oct. 9, 1927, Valerio 90a.

FUNARIACEAE

FUNARIA CALVESCENS Schwaegr.

Escazti, Valerio 42, 43; San José, July 31, 1927, Valerio 45; Pejivalle

Sept. 4, 1927, Valerio 50; Guarco, Province of Cartago, Rubén Torres Rojas

259.

SPLACHNACEAE

*TayLoriA Moritziana C. M.

La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerio 142.

BRYACEAE

*ORTHODONTIUM PELLUCENS (Hook.) Bry. Eur.

La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerio 137, 138; El Gallito, Province of Heredia,

Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 197.

The distribution of this genus is typically austral and Prof. Valerio’s

collections add a new and interesting element to the Costa Rican moss flora.

The species has been collected previously in Colombia and Ecuador.

WEBERA PAPILLOSA (C. M.) Broth,

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 187.

BRACHYMENIUM SPATHULIFOLIUM Ren. & Card.

Tablazo, July 27, 1927, Valerio 39.

BRACHYMENIUM SYSTYLIUM (C. M.) Jaeg.

Volcan de Barba, July 27, 1926, Valerio 21; Piedra Blanca, Province of

San José, Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 180.

*BRACHYMENIUM BARBAE-MONTIS Ren. & Card.

Cebadilla, Nov. 15, 1927, Valerio 100.

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

ACIDODONTIUM MEGALOCARPUM (Hook.) Ren. & Card.

Volcdn de Irazi, May, 1928, C. H. Lankester.

*BRYUM CORONATUM Schwaegr.

Pozo Azul de Pirris, C. H. Lankester.

BRYUM ARGENTEUM L.

San José, Oct. 30, 1927, Valerio 99.

BryuM rosuticoma Ren. & Card.

Voledn de Barba, Sept. 5, 1926, Valerzo 32; Piedra Blanca, Province of

San José, Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 171.

RHIZOGONIACEAE

RuizoGontum Linpie1 Hampe.

E] Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 110.

RHIZOGONIUM SPINIFORME (L.) Bruch.

La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerio 143.

AULOCOMNIACEAE

LEPTOTHECA COSTARICENSIS Thér.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 183.

BARTRAMIACEAE

*BREUTELIA JAMAICENSIS (Mitt.) Broth.

Piedra Blanea, Oct. 9, 1927, Valerio 88.

BREUTELIA TOMENTOSA (Sw.) Schimp. ae

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 115; Piedra Blanca,

Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 172.

ORTHOTRICHACEAE

MAcROMITRIUM APICULATUM (Hook.) Brid.

Orrabal, Province of Cartago, July 15, 1927, Rubén Torres Rojas 250;

Guarco, Province of Cartago, Sept. 15, 1927, Rubén Torres Rojas 253.

MaAcROMITRIUM CIRRHOSUM (Hedw.) Brid.

Cartago, Aug. 20, 1927, Rubén Torres Rojas 258; Tablazo, Oct. 30, 1927,

Valerio 97; Tablazo, Jan. 18, 1928, Valerio 127; Reventazén, C. H. Lankester.

Macromitrium Tonpuzit Ren. & Card.

Volcan de Barba, July 9, 1926, Valerio 25.

MACROMITRIUM SUBCIRRHOSUM C. M.

Volean de Barba, July, 1926, Valerio 33; El Gallito, Province of Heredia,

Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 106.

JAN. 4, 1929 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES Pal

MACROMITRIUM PALMENSE R. 8. Williams

Volcan de Barba, June 26, 1926, Valerio 2.

MAcCROMITRIUM LONGIFOLIUM (Hook.) Brid.

La Hondura, June 5, 1926, Valerio 15.

MiIcROMITRIUM LAMPROCARPUM (C. M.) Par.

San Ignacio, April 3, 1928, Valerzo 150; San Marcos, June 17, 1927, Valerio

44: Cervantes, June 30, 1928, Valerio 160.

HELICOPH YLLACEAE

*HELICOPHYLLUM TORQUATUM (Hook.) Brid.

Cebadilla, Nov. 15, 1927, Valerio 103. 7

RHACOPILACEAE

RHACOPILUM TOMENTOSUM (Sw.) Brid.

San José, Oct. 12, 1927, Valerio 83a.

PRIONODONTACEAE

PRIONODON LUTEOVIRENS (Tayl.) Mitt.

Volcan de Barba, July 14, 1927, Valerio 54, 66.

PRIONODON FUSCOLUTESCENS Hampe.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 108; Volcin de

Barba, July 29, 1926, Valerio 26.

PRIoNopoN pEnsus (Sw.) C. M.

La Palma, June 5, 1926, Valerio 16; Cerro de Gallito, June, 1926, Valerio

7; Voledin de Barba, July, 1926, Valerio 50; El Gallito, Province of Heredia,

Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 109, 124.

PRIONODON DENSUS (Sw.) C. M. var. MexicaNnus (Thér.) Bartr.

La Carpintera, June, 1926, Valerio 1; Voledn de Barba, May 9, 1926,

Valerio 51.

PTEROBRYACEAE

PTEROBRYOPSIS MEXICANA (Schimp.) Fleisch.

E] Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 105.

PTEROBRYUM DENSUM (Schwaegr.) Hsch.

La Palma, Valerio 26; El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927,

Valerio 118.

METEORIACEAE

*SQUAMIDIUM LEUCOTRICHUM (Tayl.) Broth.

Volcdn de Barba, July 9, 1926, Valerio 25; Tablazo, July 27, 1927, Valerio

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

The above numbers are identical with Ttirckheim 7141 from Guatemala,

and also with a collection from Guadeloupe by Pére Duss under the name of

Pilotrichella longipila Schimp. ‘There is apparently nothing to separate the

latter plant from S. leucotrichum and it would seem, therefore, that Schimper’s

name should be reduced to synonymy.

PILOTRICHELLA RIGIDA (C. M.) Besch.

Pejivalle, Sept. 4, 1927, Valerio 77.

PILOTRICHELLA PULCHELLA Schimp.

La Carpintera, Valerio 5; San Ignacio, Aug. 4, 1928, Valerio 163; El

Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 122.

PILOTRICHELLA FLEXILIS (Sw.) Jaeg.

Volcin de Barba, June, 1926, Valerio 6; Piedra Blanca, Oct. 9, 1927,

Valerio 89; Tablazo, Jan. 18, 1928, Valerio 129, 132; Cervantes, June 30,

1928, Valerio 162; Volcan de Barba, July 14, 1927, Valerio 69.

PAPILLARIA NIGRESCENS (Sw.) Jaeg.

Parismina, July 26, 1928, Valerio 166.

PaPpILLARIA Deppet (Hsch.) Jaeg.

San Ignacio, April 3, 1928, Valerio 152.

PAPILLARIA IMPONDEROSA (Tayl.) Broth.

Volcan de Barba, July 29, 1926, Valerio 33.

A careful comparison of the series of Costa Rican collections with the type

material of P. imponderosa (Tayl.) Broth., from Ecuador, fails to reveal any

tangible or constant distinctions in leaf characters, and there is no doubt in

my mind that P. oerstediana (C. M.) Jaeg. should, as suggested by Mr. R. S.

Williams,® be reduced to a synonym of this species.

METEORIOPSIS PATULA (Sw.) Broth.

Pejivalle, Sept. 4, 1927, Valerio 75.

PHYLLOGONIACEAE

PHYLLOGONIUM FULGENS (Sw.) Brid. var. GRAcILE Ren. & Card.

La Palma, Valerio 11; San Ignacio, April 3, 1928, Valerio 151.

PHYLLOGONIUM VIscosuM (Beauy.) Mitt.

Volein de Barba, July, 1926, Valerio 53; La Palma, June, 1926, Valerio 4.

NECKERACEAE

_ CALYPTOTHECIUM TURGESCENS Broth. & Thér.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 121; Piedra Blanca,

Oct. 9, 1927, Valerio 85.

6 Bull. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 6: 240. 1909.

JAN. 4, 1929 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 23

POROTRICHUM LONGIROSTRE (Hook.) Mitt.

Volcan de Barba, July 14, 1927, Valerio 61.

LEMBOPHYLLACEAE

*POROTRICHODENDRON SUBSTOLONACEUM (Besch.) Broth.

Volean de Barba, July 14, 1927, Valerio 64.

HOOKERIACEAE

*LESKEODON PUSILLUS (Mitt.) Broth.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 185, 195.

This genus is well represented in the Antilles and a single species has been

described from Mexico, but the present collections seem to establish the

first record for Central America.

CYCLODICTYON RUBRISETUM (Mitt.) Broth.

Volcan de Barba, Sept. 5, 1926, Valerio 52.

HOOKERIOPSIS SUBFALCATA (Hampe) Jaeg.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 189.

HooKeRIOpPsis FALCATA (Hook.) Jaeg.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 116.

HooKkertopsis crispa (C. M.) Jaeg.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 200.

Stenodictyon sericeum Bartr., sp. nov. Fig. 1, L-R. ©

Dioicous? No antheridial flowers found. Plants in thin, silky, lustrous

mats, yellowish green; stems creeping, up to 2.5 em. long, irregularly branched,

showing dark red through the delicate leaves when moist, sparingly radiculose

in the older parts, about 1 mm. wide with the rather flattened leaves; leaves

erect-spreading, oblong-lanceolate, up to 1.6 mm. long, concave, lightly

plicate, rather gradually narrowed to an almost capillary, entire or remotely

denticulate, flexuose hair point; margin plane below, usually strongly inflexed

at the base of the acumen, entire below the point; costae double, faint, ending

a little above the middle, smooth on back; leaf cells elongate, prosenchy-

matous, smooth, somewhat more lax toward the base, usually a single row of

short irregular brownish cells at the insertion. Sporophyte unknown.

Tyre: La Palma, Costa Rica, altitude 1,500 meters, April 30, 1928,

Valerio 146.

This species is clearly distinguished from S. nitidum (Mitt.) Jaeg., of

Ecuador, by the more slender stems and the long hair points of the leaves.

The latter character and the essentially entire leaves serve to distinguish it

equally clearly from S. saxicola R.S. Williams, of Bolivia.

HARPOPHYLLUM AUREUM (Beauy.) Spruce

La Palma, June, 1926, Valerio 20; La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerzo 140.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

HYPNELLA PILIFERA (Hook. & Wils.) Jaeg.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 199.

HYPOPTERYGIACEAE

HyYPoPTERYGIUM TAMARISCI (Sw.) Brid.

Tablazo, Jan. 18, 1928, Valerio 130; El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct

28, 1928, Valerzo 188.

FABRONIACEAE

*FABRONIA POLYCARPA Hook.

San José, Oct. 12, 1927, Valerio 82.

THUIDIACEAE

RAUIA SUBCATENULATA (Schimp.) Broth.

Piedra Blanca, Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 170.

*HAPLOHYMENIUM TRISTE (Ces.) Kindb.

Piedra Blanca, Province of San José, Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 178.

Although this species has a rather cosmopolitan distribution it was surpris-

ing to find it among Professor Valerio’s collections, since it had not been

known previously from regions south of the eastern United States.

THUIDIUM MIRADORICUM Jaeg.

La Palma, June, 1926, Valerio 14.

THUIDIUM DELICATULUM (Dill., L.) Mitt.

San Marcos, June 17, 1927, Valerio 72; El Gallito, Province of Heredia,

Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 192.

THUIDIUM ANTILLARUM Besch.

Volcan de Barba, July 9, 1926, Valerio 24.

AMBLYSTEGIACEAE

PLATYHYPNIDIUM AQUATICUM (Hampe) Fleisch.

San José, Jan. 20, 1928, Valerio 134.

BRACHYTHECIACEAE

BRACHYTHECIUM COSTARICENSE Ren. & Card.

Tablazo, Jan. 18, 1928, Valerio 126; Cerros de Candelaria, Aug. 15, 1926,

Valerio 41, 46.

PLEvuROPUS BonPLANDI! (Hook.) Broth.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 186.

JAN. 4, 1929 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 25

ENTODONTACEAE

*HERYTHRODONTIUM SQUARROSUM (C. M.) Par.

Piedra Blanea, Province of San José, Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 174.

The short, cochleariform leaves, nearly as broad as long, and the squarrose

recurved points of the outer perichaetial leaves refer this collection to H.

squarrosum, of South America, rather than to H. teres, of Mexico.

ERYTHRODONTIUM LONGISETUM (Hook.) Par.

Cerros de Candelaria, Aug. 15, 1926, Valerio 46a; Volcan de Barba, June

.26, 1926, Valerio 22; San José, July 31, 1927, Valerio 52; San José, Oct. 12,

1927, Valerio 83; Cartago, Aug. 20, 1927, Rubén Torres Rojas 260, 261.

*HRYTHRODONTIUM SUBDENSUM Broth. & Thér.

Piedra Blanca, Province of San José, Valerio 177.

*HNTODON ERYTHROPUS Mitt.

“La Justa,’ San Vincent, Valerio 13; Piedra Blanca, Oct. 9, 1927, Valerio

84; San Ignacio, Aug. 4, 1928, Valerio 164; Cerros de Candelaria, Aug. 15,

1926, Valerio 41a.

*ENTODON PALLESCENS (C. M.) Mitt.

Piedra Blanca, Oct. 9, 1927, Valerio 84a.

SEMATOPHYLLACEAE

RHAPHIDORRHYNCHIUM Linpieit (Hampe) Broth.

El Gallito, Province of Heredia, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 182.

So far as I can see, this species is indistinguishable from R. obliquerostratum

(Mitt.) Broth., in which case Hampe’s name, being the older, has priority.

SEMATOPHYLLUM CAESPITOSUM (Sw.) Mitt.

Cerros de Candelaria, Aug. 15, 1926, Valerio 27.

*SEMATOPHYLLUM LOXENSE (Hook.) Mitt.

Reventazon, C. H. Lankester; Pozo Azul de Pirris, C. H. Lankester; Piedra

Blanca, Oct. 21, 1928, Valerio 173; Tablazo, Jan. 18, 1928, Valerio 1535

Tablazo, Oct. 30, 1927, Valerio 93.

_ *SEMATOPHYLLUM GALIPENSE (C. M.) Mitt.

Tablazo, Oct. 30, 1927, Valerio 96; Cervantes, June 30, 1928, Valerio 169.

After carefully comparing the Costa Rican collections referred to this and

the two preceding species I am inclined to think that no specific lines can

be drawn with any degree of satisfaction. The extremes, with the broadly

ovate, short-pointed leaves of S. caespitosum at one end, and the oblong-

ovate, more or less long-acuminate leaves of S. galipense, with longer areola-

tion, at the other end, are surely well enough marked; but the intermediate

forms, often on the same plant, seem to preclude any practical distinctions.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 1

Brotherus has, by implication, suggested a similar thought by ignoring S.

loxense, S. galipense, and several other closely related types in the second

edition of Die Pflanzenfamilien, and there is little doubt that a critical revision

of this group, with a large series of collections for comparison, will be necessary

before the real relationship and value of the various forms can be eleared up.

*SEMATOPHYLLUM COCHLEATUM (Broth.) Broth.

Pejivalle, Sept. 4, 1927, Valerio 49.

ACROPORIUM PUNGENS (Sw.) Broth.

Reventazén, C. H. Lankester; La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerio 139.

TAXITHELIUM PLANUM (Brid.) Mitt.

Pozo Azul de Pirris, C. H. Lankester.

HYPNACEAE

HYPNUM POLYPTERUM Mitt.

Vole4n de Barba, July 29, 1926, Valerio 31, 32, 36; Cervantes, June 30,

1928, Valerio 159.

*CTENIDIUM MALACODES C. M.

La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerio 144.

ISOPTERYGIUM CYLINDRICARPUM Card.

Cerros de Candelaria, Aug. 15, 1926, Valerio 43.

MICROTHAMNIUM THELISTEGUM (C. M.) Mitt.

El Gallito, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 123.

MIcROTHAMNIUM REPTANS (Sw.) Mitt.

Tablazo, Oct. 30, 1927, Valerio 95; El Gallito, Dec. 20, 1927, Valerio 123.

MIcROTHAMNIUM LEHMANNII Besch.

San Ignacio, April 3, 1928, Valerio 153; La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerio

136.

MIcROTHAMNIUM MINUSCULIFOLIUM C. M.

La Palma, April 30, 1928, Valerio 147.

MicROTHAMNIUM LANGSDORFII (Hook.) Mitt. -

Cerros de Candelaria, Aug. 15, 1926, Valerio 42.

POLYTRICHACEAE

CATHARINAEA HIRTELLA Ren. & Card.

El Gallito, Oct. 28, 1928, Valerio 193.

CATHARINAEA UNDULATIFORMIS (Ren. & Card.) Broth.

Tablazo, July 27, 1927, Valerio 35.

JAN. 4, 1929 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 27

*POGONATUM BARBANUM Ren. & Card.

Tablazo, July 27, 1927, Valerio 38; Tablazo, Oct. 30, 1927, Valerio 104.

POGONATUM ROBUSTUM Mitt.

Volcan de Barba, June 22, 1926, Valerio 10, 14.

*POGONATUM TORTILE (Sw.) Beauv.

La Palma, July 24, 1926, Valerio 24.

POLYTRICHUM ANTILLARUM Rich.

Cerros de Candelaria, Aug. 15, 1926, Valerio 31; La Hondura, June 5,

1926, Valerio 5.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 19 JANUARY 19, 1929 No. 2

GEOLOGY.—A mastodon skeleton near San Francisco Bay. Evior

BLACKWELDER, Stanford University.

Well preserved remains of mastodons are sufficiently uncommon

to merit the publication of definite records concerning them, especially

when the geologic surroundings have been studied. In June, 1927,

parts of a mastodon skeleton were discovered at the bottom of a pit

that was being dug for a cistern about 2.3 miles west of Menlo Park

station, which in turn is about 28 miles southeast of San Francisco.

The bones which were recovered and are now in the museum of the

Department of Geology at Stanford University consist of a molar

tooth, three sections of a tusk and some fragments of ribs and other

bones. A second tooth was found but was not given to the Univers-

ity. The enamel of the teeth was in such excellent condition that it

was not even discolored, but the other bones were rather fragile.

Although it is possible that the entire skeleton was present, the cost

of digging it out would under the circumstances have been prohibitive.

The section exposed in the pit was as follows:

Feet

CEP ICGlAVEy SOUP eet yon. ev ooAatet ek ek ee Mee OPM 4

os. Mottled drab and russet joint:clay..:.......20. 0uesdeees 11

4. Olive clay with many small chalky nodules............... 1

Pemee GE AL AD ISAT VAGMAN 32.4 oe A gai os estas als ean gh acy Saye )

2. Coarse brown sand and very fine gravel; clean and free

ROMP UOUORIAC eke cicaae hale Sale uae s snes Wih.k 0 a5. + aed

PLO ROLCEU CAV Mere e Lame Mh reine OOM OES ah EY, 1+

The bones were found embedded in the lowest layer of clay (1) and

were partly covered by the sand (2). The impervious nature of the

clay probably accounts for the good condition of the skeleton.

1 Received December 5, 1928.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

The location of this find is on a lot belonging to Mr. John Lebord,

about one-half mile east of the intersection of the Woodside highway

and the foothill road. It is in the plain formed by the coalescent allu-

vial fans that fringe San Francisco Bay. Physiographic evidence

indicates that the entire deposit is of Recent and late Pleistocene

age.

In this connection it may be of interest to recall that the depth and

general position of the mastodon skeleton is about the same as that in

which a human skull was found on the Stanford campus a few years

previously. The suggestion of contemporaneity is not to be lightly

dismissed.

The tooth from this collection was submitted to Dr. W. D. Matthew,

of the University of California, for examination. He found that it

resembled rather closely the teeth of Mastodon merriami and M.

matthewt Osborn—two species, of late Miocene and early Pliocene age,

which have recently been segregated in a distinct genus, Miomastodon,

by Dr. H. F. Osborn. As this genus is very imperfectly known the

reference of the tooth to either of the above species can not be made

with much confidence. The occurrence of the skeleton in the un-

consolidated and entirely undeformed strata of the alluvial plain

indicates strongly that the age is probably not greater than late Pleis-

tocene. In that part of the California Coast Ranges all Pliocene

formations have been strongly folded and faulted and even the early

Pleistocene deposits have been disturbed and much eroded. The clear

implication of the physiographic evidence is believed to be more

significant in this case than the general resemblance of the teeth to those

of a genus not yet known from post-Pliocene formations.

GEOLOGY .—The Cretaceous section in Black Mesa, northeastern

Arizona.! JoHN B. ReEsIDE, JR. and ArtHur A. Baxksr, U. 8.

Geological Survey.

Black Mesa is an elevated area of Cretaceous rocks forming the

central part of a well defined structural basin in northeastern Arizona.

It constitutes a large part of the Hopi Indian Reservation in Navajo

and Coconino Counties; on the northern and eastern sides it extends

a short distance into the Navajo Reservation and therefore enters

* BarLEy WiLuis. Out of the long Past. Stanford Cardinal 32: 8-11. 1922.

‘Received December 18, 1928. Published with the permission of the Director,

U. 8. Geological Survey.

JAN. 19, 1929 REESIDE AND BAKER: CRETACEOUS OF BLACK MESA 31

Apache County also. The geology of the mesa is of particular inter-

est because it is one of the areas composing the westernmost line of

deposits of the Cretaceous of the Interior Province. During the

summer of 1928 the writers had opportunity to see much of the south-

ern, and particularly the eastern and northern margins and were -

enabled to examine in some detail the section at the north end of the

mesa just south of Kayenta. The previous reports on the geology of

the mesa, briefly noted below, and our own observations justify the

assumption that the results obtained on the northern margin will

hold for the whole area. As they are somewhat at variance with the

earlier views it has seemed worth while to record them.

PREVIOUS OBSERVATIONS

In 1861 Newberry? recorded the first description of the southern

side of Black Mesa, assigning the lower [Dakota (?)] coal-bearing rocks

to the Jurassic on the basis of the associated plant fossils and the

overlying beds to the Cretaceous on the basis of both fossil inverte-

brates and plants. What seems to be the Mancos shale of later re-

ports is assigned a thickness of 250 feet, and invertebrates are listed

which would be called today Prionotropis woolgart Mantell, Inocera-

mus labiatus Schlotheim, and Gryphaea newberryt Stanton.

Howell* in 1875 also noted the section of coal-bearing rocks near the

Hopi pueblos on the southern margin of Black Mesa, describing the

succession as 100 to 300 feet of cream-colored sandstone and shale

resting on 300 to 500 feet of dark shale, resting in its turn on soft white

sandstones of Jurassic age.

In 1910 Darton‘ quoted brief descriptions from Newberry and

Howell, and assigned the rocks of Black Mesa somewhat indefinitely

to Dakota and later beds.

In 1911 Campbell and Gregory*® compared the coal-bearing rocks of

Black Mesa with those of the region near Gallup, New Mexico, and

described them as including the Dakota sandstone and probably the

Mesaverde formation, with a thin Mancos shale between. They

2J.S. Newperry. Report upon the Colorado River of the West, explored in 1857-58

by Lieut. J. C. Ives. Pt. 3, Geological Report: 82-83, 129-131. 1861.

7H. E. Howewyu. Report on the geology of portions of Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and

New Mezico. U.S. Geogr. Geol. Surv. W. 100th Mer. 3: 279. 1875.

4N.H. Darron. A reconnaissance of parts of northwestern New Mexico and northern

Arizona. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 435: 54. 1910.

°M. R. Camppevi and H. E. Grecory. The Black Mesa coal field, Arizona.. U.S.

Geol. Surv. Bull. 431. 1911.

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

suggested that the Mancos shale owed its small thickness, as compared

with the Mancos shale of San Juan Basin, either to actual lack of ma-

terial or to a progressive change in the upper part whereby sandstones

appeared westward at lower and lower horizons. The thickness of

the so-called Dakota is given as from nothing to 70 feet, the Mancos

shale as 300 feet, and the Mesaverde as probably not exceeding 500

feet.

In 1917 Gregory,* in a description of a large region including Black

Mesa, added much detail, and interpreted the section in the mesa as

containing Dakota sandstone, Mancos shale, and Mesaverde forma-

tion. The so-called Dakota sandstone was accepted as ranging in

thickness from a few feet to 300 feet or more and containing, in

addition to the usual sandstones, beds of conglomerate, shale, and im-

pure coal. The greater thickness was found on the western side of the

mesa. ‘The Mancos shale was shown to have a thickness of from 490

to 620 feet where complete sections could be measured, the thickness

increasing from southwest to northeast. The Mesaverde formation

was shown to vary much in thickness, owing to the fact that it is the

highest formation over much of the mesa and has been eroded to a

varying degree. At the northeastern prominence, Yale Point, the

formation included 745 feet of sandstone and shale, with coal in the

lowermost part and again in a zone above the middle, and a marine

horizon 200 feet above the base. This thickness is probably near

the maximum remaining on the mesa. Fossils cited in the three

formations: from the so-called Dakota, various plants; from the Man-

cos, Hxogyra laeviuscula Roemer, Ostrea sp., Inoceramus labiatus Schlot-

heim in the lower part, and Prionotropis sp. near the middle; from the

Mesaverde, Ostrea pellucida Meek and Hayden, [noceramus proximus

Tuomey, and Gervillia, said to be of Montana age, in the marine zone

at Yale Point.

Darton’? in 1925 accepted for the rocks of Black Mesa Gregory’s

classification as Dakota sandstone, Mancos shale, and Mesaverde

formation, quoting from Gregory the data given.

Reagan’ in 1925 gave a brief general discussion of the geology of

Black Mesa and the surrounding region. For the Cretaceous he used

°H. E. Gregory. Geology of the Navajo Country. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 93:

68-79. 1917.

7N. H. Darton. A resumé of Arizona geology. Univ. Ariz. Bull. 119 (Geol. 3):

143-155. 1925.

8 ALBERT B. REaGan. Late Cretacic formations of Black Mesa, Arizona. Pan-

Amer. Geol, 44: 285-294. 1925.

JAN. 19, 1929 REESIDE AND BAKER: CRETACEOUS OF BLACK MESA 30

the following divisions, based apparently in large part on the section

near Kayenta: Dakota sandstone, seldom exceeding 120 feet in

thickness. Tununk shale and sandstone, probably exceeding 240

feet and containing Gryphaea newberryt Stanton and Exogyra colum-

bella Meek. Mancos shale, equivalent to the part of the Mancos of

other authors above the Tununk sandstone and exceeding 500 feet in

thickness. Mesaverde sandstone, 350 feet thick and containing many

thick seams of coal. Lewis or Masuk shale, 20 to 30 feet thick. Pic-

tured Cliffs sandstone, 25 feet thick. Zilhlejini coal formation, 200

feet thick, bearing fresh and brackish water fossils and forming the

surface rocks over much of the central part of the mesa. The fos-

sils named are Ostrea glabra Meek and Hayden, Ostrea soleniscus

Meek, and Modiola laticostata White. Reagan’s Zilhlejini formation is

overlain by shales and sandstones and with them was said to be a

possible equivalent of the Fruitland and Kirtland formations of New

Mexico. All the later rocks were spoken of as of Laramie age.

In a later article? Reagan briefly described again the Mesaverde of

Black Mesa and figured the three species found in his Zilhlejini forma-

tion. The present writers have examined the section near Kayenta

and believe that in the lower part of his section Reagan has confused

slumped materials with those in place and that his Tununk division

does not exist. Between the Dakota(?) and the so-called Mesaverde

there is only one shale body, as correctly described by Gregory" for

the nearby Lolomai Point, in the lower part of which occur the fossils

assigned by Reagan to his Tununk shale. The remainder of Reagan’s

section is considered in a later paragraph.

SECTION NEAR KAYENTA, ARIZONA

As just stated above, the writers examined the section, except for

the uppermost part of the coal-bearing rocks, in the margin of Black

Mesa, 4 miles south of Kayenta and 4 miles east of Lolomai Point. A

number of collections of marine fossils were made that offer a check

on the older collections from the Mancos shale, and one from the coal-

bearing rocks that indicates a greater age than usually assigned to

them. The thicknesses given are only approximate but the relative

order of the beds is assured, as the rocks are completely exposed in a

° AtBerT B. Reacan. LHztension of Cretacic Laramie formation into Arizona. Pan-

Amer. Geol. 46: 193-194. 1926.

10 7. EK. Greaory, Op. cit., p. 74.

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

steep slope at the locality where the examination was made. The

section with its fossils is as follows:

SECTION OF CRETACEOUS Rocks IN Buack Musa, 4 Mines SoutTH or

KAYENTA, ARIZONA

Mesaverde formation of previous reports:

Sheer wall of massive reddish-brown sandstone capping the edge of the

mesaana visibletormany miles;alonguite «.. «else see ee 250

Gray to yellow sandstone with minor shale and coal beds, not ex-

anmimeduinn detail eit net is. 5h UPL ee ee 300

Massive buff sandstone, medium grained; no fossils observed........ 50

Platy buff, fine grained, thin bedded sandstone and gray shale, forming

a weak unit. The sandstone layers yielded Inoceramus deformis

Meek, J. wndabundus Meek, I. aff. I. stantont Sokolow, Ostrea con-

gesta Conrad, Ostrea sp., Anomia subquadrata Stanton, Cardium pau-

perculum Meek, Tellina cf. T. subalata Meek, Legumen sp. (n. sp.?),

Mactra sp., Dentalium sp. (n. sp.?), Turbonilla ef. T. coalvillensis

Meek, Turitella cf. T. whiter Stanton, Baculites cf. B. codyensis

Reeside, Placenticeras aff. P. pseudoplacenta Hyatt................. 75

Grit and fine quartz conglomerate, gray to yellow, resting on an

irresular base nodossils Observed. 4). <4... 45se5 a6 see eee 20

Coaliin two thin bedsiun carbonaceoussnale" > 42: scien) ae 40

Massive yellow sandstone; no fossils observed...............200005 50

Mancos shale of previous reports:

Interbedded light gray soft sandstone and sandy shale forming a

transition Zone? no tossils Observede...... sce ooecete ieee eee 100

Dark gray to black shale, much of it flaky; very thin, discontinuous

calcareous fine grained brownish sandstones at afew horizons above

the middle. A layer at 300 feet above the base of the unit contained ©

an abundance of Prionotropis woolgart Mantell of Meek, and a few

individuals of Ostrea sp., Anomia? sp., Mactra? sp., and fish scales;

one 250 feet above the base, Prionotropis woolgarz; and one 200 feet

above the-base, <Globsgermnm Spr isa. <<< ts.3 +s nok on ee ee 390

Light bluish-gray calcareous shale containing a few very thin bands

of dark limestone; basal 10 feet sandy. At the top were found

Inoceramus labiatus Schlotheim, Ostrea sp., Globigerina sp., and a

large fish vertebra; at 120 feet above the base of the unit, Ostrea sp.,

Inoceramus sp., Globigerina sp., Baculites gracilis Shumard, Metoico-

ceras sp.; at 20 feet above base, Inoceramus labiatus Schlotheim,

Ostrea sp., fish scales; at 10 feet above base Liopistha (Psilomya)

concentrica Stanton, Gryphaea newberryi Stanton; at the base of the

unit, Ostrea soleniscus Meek and Hayden. Inoceramus labiatus

was noted at.many horizons in this unit but the crumbly shale

matrix prevented, collection..3%,cc2506-:, + :oleekyd ge be eee eee 150

Interbedded thin, impure coal beds and gray sandy shale, a transition

RIRATG Se cee eve a we a sess eS Seat oe ate a ee 10

Dakota (?) sandstone:

Brown to gray coarse sandstone above, coal and gray shale near

middle, brown sandstone and conglomerate below...............-- 100

Morrison formation (McElmo of authors):

Gray-white to greenish-white sandstone and red and gray shales.

JAN. 19, 1929 REESIDE AND BAKER: CRETACEOUS OF BLACK MESA 35

AGE OF THE DEPOSITS

The Dakota(?) sandstone of Black Mesa has yielded so few paleon-

tologic data that one may say at best only that it is probably equivalent

to the beds widespread in western Colorado, Utah, and western New

Mexico, and now usually designated Dakota(?) sandstone to express

the likelihood that it is not an exact equivalent of true Dakota sand-

stone and the possibility that part of it may be of Lower Cretaceous

age and part of Upper Cretaceous age. There may also have been

an interval between the deposition of these parts not now represented

by sediments.

The shale which has been called Mancos contains an equiva-

lent of the Benton shale only, and is but a small part of the typi-

cal Mancos shale of the northern San Juan Basin in Colorado. It is

essentially the Turonian of the European classification. Fossils distinc-

tive of the highest part of the Benton, such as Prionocyclus wyomingensis

Meek and Scaphites warrent Meek and Hayden, were not observed by

the writers and have not been reported by others, but this zone may

well be represented by the relatively barren and probably nonmarine

zone at the top of the shale and in the base of the overlying formation.

The occurrence of Ostrea soleniscus Meek and Hayden and Gryphaea

newberryt Stanton near the base of the so-called Mancos agrees

with the known range of these species. Hxogyra laeviuscula Roemer,

reported in this zone by Gregory, is also in agreement. ‘The presence of

Inoceramus labiatus Schlotheim and Metoicoceras sp. at somewhat

higher tevels accords with their usual position and indicates that the

lower fourth of the shale is equivalent to the Graneros shale and

Greenhorn limestone of the Great Plains region east of the Rocky

Mountains. A second fourth yielded no fossils. The zone contain-

ing Prionotropis woolgart (Mantell) of Meek, constituting the fourth

above the middle, agrees with the lower part of the Carlile shale of

the Plains (upper Benton), and, as noted above, there is still room for

an equivalent of the remainder of the Carlile in the uppermost fourth.

A shale formation corresponding closely in position and fauna to the

so-called Mancos shale of Black Mesa is known in a belt that includes

the Kaiparowits Plateau, the Colob Plateau, the western margin of

the Wasatch Plateau, and the Coalville region of Utah."

1K. M. Sprexer and J. B. Reesipe, Jr. Upper Cretaceous shore-line in Utah.

Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 37: 429-438. 1926. G.B.Ricnarpson. The Upper Cretaceous

section in the Colob Plateau, southwest Utah. This Journ. 17: 464-475. 1927. H. E.

Grecory and R. C. Moorr. The Kaiparowits Region. U.S. Geol. Sury. Prof. Paper

(In press).

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

The so-called Mesaverde formation has not yielded a large fauna.

The fossils found by the writers in the 75-foot unit 110 feet above the

base of the formation are of Niobrara age and the containing beds

correspond to some part of the middle Mancos of San Juan Basin and

are considerably older than the typical Mesaverde of the same Basin.

They are Coniacian, in terms of the European classification. Greg-

ory records from a similar horizon in his section at Yale Point!? the

Montana species Ostrea pellucida Meek and Hayden, Inoceramus

proximus Tuomey, and Gervillia sp. It is the writers’ belief that these

are misidentifications of species belonging to the same fauna as those

found near Kayenta. For the higher beds Reagan records, as noted

in page 33, Ostrea glabra Meek and Hayden, O. soleniscus Meek, and

Modiola laticostata White. O. glabra of Reagan is a simple type that

might be a variant of the species to which it is assigned, but might

equally well belong to some other simple species and means little for

correlation. If the identification of O. soleniscus is valid, and the

published figure certainly lends credibility to it, the containing beds

(Zilhlejini formation of Reagan) are not younger than Niobrara, for

the latest known occurrence of the species is with Niobrara forms in

beds that correspond in position and fauna to the ‘‘Mesaverde”’ of

Black Mesa. ‘These beds, like the equivalent of the ‘“Mancos,” occur

in the Kaiparowits Plateau, the Colob Plateau, etc. The writers sug-

gest, though the published figure is not very clear, that Reagan’s

Modiola laticostata is M. multilinigera Meek of Colorado age. A

collection made by Gregory (U. 8. Geological Survey loc. no. 11642),

labelled, “Chilchinbito, massive sandstone capping Black Mesa,”

and apparentiy not included in any published record, contains /no-

ceramus stantoni Sokolow, Ostrea sp., Mactra sp., and Volutoderma

sp. (large, undescribed). This fauna, from the highest unit of our

section and in or above Reagan’s Zilhlejini formation, is of Niobrara

age and would support the fossils reported by Reagan. It is the opin-

ion of the writers, therefore, that not only the lower part of the so-called

Mesaverde of Black Mesa but the upper part also is of Niobrara age,

and that there is no warrant for correlating any part of it with the

typical Mesaverde and later formations of San Juan Basin or with

the units recognized in the Henry Mountains of southern Utah.

CONCLUSIONS

The Cretaceous section of Black Mesa resembles that of Kaiparowits

Plateau, Colob Plateau, the western side of the Wasatch Plateau, and

12H. E. Grecory. Op. cit., p. 78.

gan. 19, 1929 BERRY: ANACARDIUM 37

Coalville, Utah, rather than that of San Juan Basin or the Henry

Mountains.

The lowest of the three major divisions, the Dakota (?) sandstone, is

assignable only in a general way to a pre-Benton age.

The middle major division, the Mancos shale of previous reports,

is of Benton age, and represents only a small part of the typical Man-

cos shale.

The highest major division, the Mesaverde formation of previous

reports, is of Niobrara age, and represents a part of the typical Man-

cos shale, and is considerably older than any beds to which the name

Mesaverde could be applied, even in an elastic usage of the term.

PALEOBOTANY.—An Anacardium in the lower Eocene of Texas.}

Epwarp W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

The genus Anacardium contains 8 or 10 species of shrubs and trees

in the existing flora. Outside of cultivation these are confined to the

American wet tropics. The leaves are rather characteristic and the

fruits are exceedingly so.

Saporta, long ago, proposed a form genus, Anacardites, for fossil

leaves supposed to belong to the family Anacardiaceae, but which

could not be referred with certainty to any of the existing genera of

the family. About a score of species have been referred to Anacardites,

but these, with the single exception to be noted presently, resemble

those of genera such as Mangifera, Anaphremium, and Spondias, and

are not like the leaves of Anacardium itself.

The exception mentioned is Anacardites ball: Berry? from the Jack-

son Eocene (Fayette sandstone) in Brazos and Grimes counties, Texas.

Although it can not be conclusively demonstrated, I believe that

this form is closely related to Anacardium, and this identification is

rendered more probable by the discovery of the seed described below.

In 1924 I described the silicified fruits of an Anacardium from the

Oligocene of Peru, and these are practically identical with the existing

Cashew nut. They are present in great abundance associated with

other fruits and seeds at a locality known as Belen, about 6 miles

southeast of Puenta Parifias, Department of Piura, Peru, and I had

the pleasure of visiting the locality and making additional collections

during the summer of 1927. The Peruvian material shows in an un-

1 Received November 23, 1928.

2E.W. Berry. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper92: 177. Pl. 62, fig.7. 1924.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

mistakable manner the features of the nut (seed), the shell and its

secretory lining.

At the time Anacardium peruvianum Berry* was described I had

similar specimens from Colombia, but did not know the exact locality.

This I now know was the valley of Santo Ecce Homo, near Leiva, |

Department of Boyaca, and from what Hettner called the Guaduas

formation. The material was collected by Dr. M. A. Rollot of

Bogoté, and is of great importance in evaluating the age of the

extensive coal-bearing series of rocks in Colombia.

Recently Dr. George Sheppard of the Anglo-Ecuadorian Oilfields

Limited, sent me a collection of fossil fruits from the Ancon Point

sandstone of Santa Elena Peninsula, Ecua-

dor. Among these are several specimens,

not very well preserved but probably repre-

senting Anacardium peruvianum, as Dr.

Sheppard recognized. The exact locality is

Ida Seca, Ancon.‘

A second fossil species of Anacardiwm fruit

was described in 1924 from the middle

Figs. 1, 2—Anacardium Kocene between Arroyo Mancamajor and

Teas n. sp., Eocene Qveias) Department of Bolivar, Colombia.

ais This is a much larger and otherwise different

form from Anacardium peruvianum.

The preceding fossil species, like all of the Recent species, are from

the American Equatorial region. ‘This summer I received from Mr.

Albert J. Kirn a collection of leaves and fruits from the lower Eocene

(Wilcox) near Lytle, Atascosa County, Texas. Among these is a

seed of Anacardium, and this may be named for the collector, and

partially described as follows:

Anacardium kirni Berry, n. sp.

Seed unsymmetrically reniform in side view (Fig. 1) somewhat compres-

sed, broadly rounded distad, narrowed and pointed proximad, somewhat

bean shaped, but less symmetrical than any legume known to me. Length,

17 mm.; maximum width, 12 mm.; maximum thickness, 9 mm., decreasing

proximad (Fig. 2). Surfacesmooth. Sinus about 4mm. above the base. No

trace of the seed coat.

As this species is based upon a single specimen it cannot be properly

described, nor can the possible limits of variation be determined. In the

3H. W. Berry. Amer. Journ. Sci. 8: 124. Figs. 1-8. 1924.

4Gro. SHEPPARD. Pan-Amer. Geol. 49: 271-274. 1928.

5. W. Berry. Idem. 42: 261. Figs. 1, 2. 1924.

JAN. 19, 1929 BERRY: SEEDS OF VITACEAE 39

abundant material of Anacardium peruvianum there is a very considerable

amount of variation in both size and shape, and some variants are not ap-

preciably different from the present Wilcox species. However, it is highly

improbable that a single botanical species ranged from Texas to Peru, and

from the lower Eocene to the Oligocene, which is the main reason for describ-

ing the Texas form as a new species. It adds a strictly tropical element to the

very extensive flora that is now known from the Wilcox Eocene, and marks

the earliest known occurrence of the genus Anacardium.

PALEOBOTANY.—Seeds of a new species of Vitaceae from the Wul-

cox Eocene of Texas. Epwarp W. Berry, Johns Hopkins

University.

In my summary account of the lower Eocene Wilcox flora, which will

be published by the U. 8. Geological Survey as Professional Paper 156,

there are enumerated 48 orders, 82 families, 179 genera, and between

five and six hundred species. ‘Two representatives of the family

Vitaceae, based upon leaf impressions, have been described as new

species of Cissites—a form genus proposed by Oswald Heer in 1866

for fossil leaves of Vitaceae of undeterminable generic affinity.

In a collection of Wilcox fruits and leaves received recently from Mr.

Albert J. Kirn, and coming from a locality near Lytle, Atascosa

County, Texas, there is a well preserved seed which appears to me to

be related to both the tropical genus Ampelocissus, and to the tem-

perate genus Vitis. This is of unusual interest in the questions which

it suggests regarding the relationship of Am~pelocitssus and other

existing tropical genera of the family to the essentially north temper-

ate genus Vitis, as well as the possible northern or equatorial origin of

the family, and especially of its most useful member, the grape.

The new species may be named for the locality, and described as

follows:

Ampelocissites lytlensis Berry, n. gen. and sp.

Seed relatively small, ovate in profile, broadly rounded distad, bluntly and

obliquely pointed proximad, with an inflated crustaceous coat. Somewhat

flattened in the region of the furrows which result from the conduplicate

habit of the embryo. There is a fairly sharp keel between these furrows,

and the furrows themselves diverge somewhat distad and extend for slightly

more than half of the length of the seed. On the opposite side from the

furrows there is a well marked central elongated depression containing the

hilum. This depression is continued upward to the apex as a shallow furrow,

1 Received December 17, 1928.

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

and downward as a narrower raphe groove to the base at the chalazal pointed

end. ‘The surface of the seed is not evenly rounded but is thrown into irregu-

lar obliquely transverse ridges, as in Ampelocissus and Tetrastigma. Length,

4 millimeters; maximum width, 3.5 millimeters; maximum thickness, 1.75

millimeters.

This seed differs from those of Vitzs in the shorter and less prominent raphe;

in the less prominent furrows; and in the transverse ornamentation—hinted

at in the southern ancestor of Vitis rotundifolia Michaux. The fossil lacks

also the cordate apex and the stipitate base of Vitis. It resembles the

seeds of Ampelocissus in all of these features, and I therefore propose the

generic term Ampelocissites for its reception, and regard it as intermediate

between Ampelocissus and Vitis.

The existing genus Ampelocissus of Planchon contains about 60

species of the tropics of both hemispheres. It is largely Old World

(Asia and Africa), but is represented in the Antilles and Central

Y @ &

Fig. 1.—Dorsal, ventral, and side views of Ampelocissites lytlensis Berry, twice

nat. size.

America, being largely replaced in the occidental tropics. by numerous

species of the prolific tropical genus Cissus. The fact that Ampelocis-

sus occurs on three continents is in itself an indication of its antiquity,

and a characteristic seed indistinguishable from those of the existing

species has been described by the writer from the Eogene of north-

western Peru.

The genus V7tis, with about two score existing species, is confined

to the northern hemisphere, although it thrives in cultivation in anti-

podean regions both within and outside the equatorial zone. The

genus Tetrastigma contains about 40 existing species of tropical and

sub-tropical Asia, and Malaysia eastward as far as New Guinea.

A fossil species has been recorded from the upper Eocene of southern

England, but no traces of the genus have ever been discovered in the

western hemisphere.

The family Vitaceae makes its appearance in the geological record

in the uppermost stage (Albian) of the Lower Cretaceous on both

sides of the Atlantic (Maryland and Portugal), and is common through-

out the Upper Cretaceous. These early forms are based upon foliar

remains and are usually referred to Cissites. Fossil leaves that have

JAN. 19, 1929 BERRY: AMYGDALUS 41

been referred to Vitis, sometimes upon evidence that is far from con-

clusive, are found from the base of the Eocene throughout the Ter-

tiary, and seeds occur as early as the upper Eocene.?

PALEOBOTANY.—The genus Amygdalus in North America.: Ep-

wArD W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

The genus Amygdalus, with about five natural species confined to

Asia in the existing flora, and innumerable cultivated varieties in all

warm temperate countries, is usually considered by botanists as

never having been a member of the North American flora, although

some students believe that the genus Hmplectocladus of Torrey, with

four or five shrubby species in the western interior from California,

Utah, and northwestern Nevada to Mexico, is closely related to

Amygdalus.

Much has been written regarding the place of origin and the history

of cultivation of the peach, nectarine, and almond; and the prevailing

opinion appears to be that enunciated by DeCandolle in 1855 and again

in 1895, that the peach was a native of China, and the almond of wes-

tern Asia (Syria and Anatolia), although it is quite possible that the

latter is endemic in other Mediterranean countries, e.g., Greece and

Algeria.

In view of the many similarities between the flora of eastern Asia

and North America, now a somewhat threadbare subject as regards

existing plants, there is no a priori reason why Amygdalus should not

be found fossil in North America; in fact, as long ago as 1883 Les-

quereux described what he called Amygdalus gracilis? from the upper

Miocene of Florissant, Colorado, and this was also reported from the

middle Eocene of Wyoming, and later from the Eocene of British

Columbia. The name gracilis has reference to the leaves on which

the species was primarily based, but these are not distinguishable

from those of Prunus, which are not at all rare in the North American

Tertiary. The two supposed fruits (figs. 14, 15) which Lesquereux

thought might be associated with the leaves are very unconvincing.

They might be what he thought them to be and they might be various

2M. E. J. Coanpier. Palaeont. Soc. 1923: 32. tf. 14; pl. 8, f. 4. 1925.

1 Received December 17, 1928.

7L. Lesquerevux. The Cretaceous and Tertiary floras. Rept. U. S. Geol.

Surv. Terr. 8: 199. pl. 40., f. 12-15; pl. 44, f.6. 1883.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2.

other things—they are certainly too indefinite to prove the presence

of Amygdalus in North America.

Some years ago I encountered rugosely pitted stones similar to those

of a small peach in the lower Eocene (Wilcox) of Tennessee and

Arkansas. These, like the several species of Amygdalus stones de-

scribed from the Tertiary of Europe, which they greatly resemble, are

smaller than those of the existing cultivated forms. The Wilcox

stones greatly resemble those of Amygdalus platycarpa (Decaisne)

of China. This Wilcox species will be fully described and figured in a

volume devoted to the Wilcox flora now in press.

Recently I received from E. EK. Alexander of Spokane, Washington,

a nearly complete specimen and counterpart of what I regard as a

stone of Amygdalus, which may be fittingly named for the collector,

and described as:

Fig. 1.—Amygdalus alexanderi Berry, n. sp., Miocene, Latah formation.

Amygdalus alexanderi Berry, n. sp.

Drupaceous stone, ligneous, ovate in outline, about 2 centimeters in length

and 1.7 centimeters in maximum width as preserved in a crushed condition.

The apparently rounded base is partly cut off by a joint in the clay matrix,

and the apparently pointed apex is incomplete. The surface is strongly

sculptured by a combination of relatively straight and sparingly branched

ridges, less labyrinthine than in modern peach stones; and deep narrowly

elliptical pits.

The stone was thoroughly rotten before it was finally covered by sediment,

as is shown by the destruction of the original contour of the stone and by a

slight overthrust from right to left seen down the middle of the face. The

photograph of the counterpart shows a smooth marginal band in the upper

left hand corner as though the specimen were a half of a stone and this were

a part of the suture surface of the two halves. That the specimen does not

represent a rugose capsule such, for example, as an unusually large Fagus

capsule, which might be expected at this horizon, is clearly shown by the

continuity of the surface in the above mentioned fold. Leaves which have

JAN. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 43

been referred to Prunus are not uncommon in the Latah flora, and it is

possible that these leaves belonged to the same plant which bore these stones.

Although differing slightly from modern.peach stones in the sub-parallel

arrangement of the ridges and pits, I regard it as conclusive evidence of the

presence of Amygdalus in the Miocene of western North America. The

horizon is the Latah formation, and the exact locality is the Brickyard ex-

posure in the city of Spokane.

If this and the Eocene species referred to are correctly determined,

they mean that Amygdalus occurred in the western hemisphere quite

as early as any that are known from the Old World, and that they

were essentially southern or warm temperate in origin. It means

further that peaches were probably an element in the North American

flora from the Eocene throughout the greater part of the Tertiary,

and that the late Miocene form of Washington was not an immigrant

from Asia, but a survivor of the American stock in the far northwest,

whose extinction during the climatic changes due to the elevation of

the Coast ranges is easy to understand.

It is significant that a great many of the elements associated with

Amygdalus alexandert in the Latah flora survive to-day in only the

Asiatic region (Paliurus, Glyptostrobus, ete.), or in the mesophytic

region of southeastern North America (Taxodium, Comptonia, Hy-

drangea, etc.), or in both regions (Hicoria, Liriodendron, Sassafras,

Fagus, Ulmus, Castanea, Tilia, Magnolia, Liquidambar, Diospyros,

etc.), and only a few maintain a precarious existence in restricted relict

environments in the west (Juglans, Platanus, Aesculus, etc.). All

of the few examples mentioned have a long antecedent American his-

tory. Amygdalus thus parallels Paliurus and Glyptostrobus, with which

it is associated both in the lower Eocene and Miocene.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

400TH MEETING

The 400th regular meeting was held March 1, 1928, in Room 43 of the

National Museum. The president, S. A. Rouwer, presided.

The president announced that he had recently appointed a committee on

communications, consisting of Dr. T. E. Snyprr, Chairman, Drs. N. E.

MclInpoo, and C. A. WeiceL. The programs had previously been arranged

by the Corresponding Secretary, with the assistance of other members.

Program: Dr. Tuos. E. Snyprr: A visit to Hawaii. At the invitation

of the Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry of Hawaii, the

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

speaker visited Honolulu to cooperate with territorial entomologists in

attempts to control termites. The beauty of Honolulu, on the Island of

Oahu, the hospitality of the inhabitants, and the fauna and flora were briefly

discussed. The work of the Territorial and Federal entomologists, as well

as those of the Sugar Planters Experiment Station and the Pineapple Growers

Experiment Station, was outlined with particular reference to investigations

of termites. ‘Termites have been recorded from the Hawaiian Islands since

1883, but about fifteen years ago Coptotermes formosanus Schiraki was intro-

duced from the Orient. This species is spreading rapidly and has become

very destructive to the woodwork of buildings. The campaign being waged -

against this subterranean or ground-nesting termite and against the earlier

introduced injurious dry-wood termite, Cryptotermes piceatus Snyder, is

conducted along two lines: (1) Offensive warfare consisting of poisoning the

termites in soil or wood by the use of carbon bisulphid gas and dry Paris

green; and (2) Defensive warfare by proper methods of construction of build-

ings to prevent attack by termites. It is proposed to include in the building

code provisions to prevent termite attack. In the office of the territorial

entomologist is a large map on which the spread of the ground-nesting termite

is plotted. This termite is the more injurious, since the dry-wood termite,

though more widespread, does not so seriously weaken the woodwork of

buildings. The recommended provisions will increase the initial cost of

a building 2 per cent; more stringent recommendations, increasing the initial

cost 10 per cent, are not considered advisable for a mandatory building code.

The excellent educational work being done by Mr. Alexander Hume Ford,

Director of the Mid-Pacific Science Institute, was also briefly described.

(Author’s abstract).

Discussed by Back, Exy, Grar, and McInpoo.

E. R. Sasscer: Some problems in the enforcement of foreign plant quaran-

tines. ‘The speaker discussed problems in connection with the enforcement

of foreign plant quarantines at maritime and Mexican border ports of entry.

Discussed by McInpoo.

C. P. CLauseEn spoke briefly on the life history and biology of some para-

sitic Hymenoptera.

C. T. GREENE, Recording Secretary, pro tem.

401SsT MEETING

The 401st regular meeting was held April 5, 1928, in Room 43 of the Na-

tional Museum. The president, S. A. RoHwer, presided.

OscarR WuitTaker, of Halliburn, British Columbia, was elected to

membership.

The Executive Committee recommended that the Society contribute

$125.00 to the fund for the entertainment of foreign visitors to the Fourth

International Entomological Congress to be held at Ithaca in August, 1928,

this sum to be obtained by contributions from the local members of the

Society.

Program: Max Kaisuivk, Jr. : Experiences in Argentina, Spain,and the Canary

Islands in connection with fruit-fly surveys. A general idea of the agricultural

conditions, especially in regard to water, soil, elevation, and weather, in the

fruit-growing zones in these countries was presented. In Argentina the speaker

found Anastrepha fraterculus Wied on the wing, resting on fruit, and the larvae

in various fruits in the Provinces of Tucuman and La Rioja. Ceratitis capitata

Wied larvae were found in grapes in the Province of La Rioja. After finding

Ceratitis capitata in nearly ripe Almeria grapes in Spain’s two most important

JAN. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 45

grape-growing zones, Dalias and Berja, he proceeded to survey seven other

Almeria grape sections, where he was told that for various reasons—freezing

winter temperatures, high altitudes (up to 3,500 feet above sea level), lack

of other fruit hosts, ete.—he would not find the grapes infested. He found

these sections infested, however, and proved his findings to the satisfaction

of the Spanish authorities. Although the Mediterranean fruit fly is more

abundant on the Canary Islands than at any other section previously in-

spected, there was no infestation by this pest in tomatoes, here or in Spain.

Among the many lantern slides shown was one picturing the vineyard where

originated the infested grapes intercepted in New York in 1926, and where he

now found the Mediterranean fruit fly. Slides showing various vineyard

conditions, hauling, selecting, packing, and shipping were shown. Among

these were some picturing growing conditions for tomatoes, bananas, onions,

and the cactus for cochineal on the Islands.

F. C. BisHoprp: Fighting insects on the great ranches of the Southwest. Range

conditions and practices employed in the Southwest, and the outstanding

problems in which the entomologist is interested were outlined. The ac-

complishments of the Department in controlling some of the external para-

sites of live stock, such as the cattle-tick and the scab-mites of cattle and sheep,

were described, and also the experimental work which the Bureau of Ento-

mology is carrying on in Texas. The importance of developing effective

control measures against goat lice, horse flies, and other insects affecting live

stock, was discussed, and also the extensive range operations, particularly

trapping, which are employed in combatting the screw worm. A number of

lantern slides were shown.

Among the visitors present at the meeting were Dr. BERNARD TROUVELOT

of Station Entomologique, Paris, France, and Dr. JEAN DurrENoy, phyto-

pathologist, also of Paris, France, who, on introduction by the President,

greeted the assembled members.

402D MEETING

The 402nd regular meeting was held May 3, 1928, in Room 43 of the

National Museum. The President, S. A. Ronwer, presided.

The Treasurer reported that 25 members had already contributed to the

Society’s donation to the local committee in charge of the Fourth Inter-

national Entomological Congress and that contributions received to date

total approximately $125, the amount asked for.

Program: Dr. J. R. Curistre: Some aspects of the interrelationship of

insects and nemas. ‘The role of insects as vectors or mechanical carriers of

nemas was briefly discussed. The unique cyst-forming nema, Rhabditis

coarctata and the insect-dispersed ‘‘red-ring’”’ disease of the cocoanut palm

caused by Aphelenchus cocophilus were among the examples noted of this

type of relationship. Brief mention was made of the role of insects as second-

ary hosts of parasitic nemas belonging to the families Filariidae and Spiruri-

dae. Principal emphasis was placed on the role of insects as primary hosts

and the pathological conditions which result from this type of parasitism.

In this connection comment was made on Howardula benigna, a nemic parasite

of various species of Diabrotica. "The economic importance of the Mermithi-

dae was discussed, the discussion being based largely on the results of investi-

gations by the speaker on Mermis subnigrescens and Agamermis decaudata,

parasites of grasshoppers.

Discussed by Howarp, McInpoo, Grar, ALDRICH, CAMPBELL, EWING,

and Hysuop.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

Dr. G. F. Wurst: The disease problem in entomology. Diseases of insects

are an extremely important natural factor in the control of a number of

injurious species, as is shown by the enormous mortality which is continually

being observed among them. Insects being animals, their diseases might

be expected to be, and indeed have been found to be, fundamentally similar

to those affecting man and other animals. In a study of the insect diseases,

therefore, the pathologist is confronted with problems similar to those en-

countered in the study of human and other animal diseases. The training

necessary for the successful study of insect diseases is similar to that of the

human and comparative pathologists. Fungus, bacterial, helminthic, proto-

zoan, and filterable-virus diseases occur among insects. Each of these groups

of diseases is fundamentally similar to a parasitism of insects where an in-

sect is the parasite. In an effort at artificial control of an insect pest by

means of its diseases, results of the same general character may be expected

as are being obtained through insect parasitism. When the maximum num-

ber of environmental factors available is employed in control work, the fungi,

the bacteria, the helminths, the protozoa, and the filterable viruses will be

included. An enormous and extremely important field for research is the

study of the transmission of the diseases of man, of other animals, and of

plants, by insects. Entomologists have a further contact with disease

problems in the injuries done directly by insects to man, other animals, and

plants.

403D MEETING

The 403d regular meeting was held June 7, 1928, in Room 48 of the Na-

tional Museum. President S. A. Ronwer presided.

Mr. Rohwer stated that somewhat more than the amount pledged by the

Society for the entertainment of foreign visitors in attendance at the 4th

International Congress of Entomology held at Ithaca, had already been

received. It was expected that the visitors would come to Washington, and

that the Society would desire to provide some entertainment for them, and

he recommended that the amount over and above the pledge be made avail-

able for any expenses connected with such entertainment. The tentative

program included a visit to Plummers Island, and it had been suggested that a

special meeting of the Society be called and an informal smoker also be

arranged.

Program: R. A. Cusuman: The C. F. Baker Collection. Mr. Cushman’s

talk, illustrated by lantern slides, was largely a description of the methods of

packing the Baker Collection and its transportation from Los Banos, P. L.,

to Washington. He prefaced his remarks by a brief statement of the work

and character of Professor Baker.

Discussed by Ronwer, who commented on the good condition in which the

collection arrived at the Museum and on the general nature of its contents; by

AupricH, who spoke of his personal association with Prof. Baker years ago in

the West, notably in Colorado; and by GraFr, who gave some impressions of

Prof. Baker while a student under him for 2 years.

Dr. McINnpoo gave a brief review of some recent entomological literature.

Dr. ALDRICH gave a brief review of the newly issued 185th fascicle of

“Genera Insectorum,” this being a work on the Empididae by Dr. Melander,

who has devoted a considerable portion of his time since 1900 to its

preparation.

JAN. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 47

SPECIAL MEETING

Following the adjournment of the Fourth International Congress of Ento-

mology at Ithaca, N. Y., August 18, many of the foreign delegates came

directly or indirectly to Washington, where a special meeting of the Ento-

mological Society of Washington was held in their honor. The meeting was

held August 21, 1928, in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club and was

attended by about 200 persons.

President S. A. RonwErR made a brief address of welcome and introduced

as chairman of the meeting Dr. C. L. Maruart, Chief of the Bureau of Ento-

mology and an ex-president of the Society. Dr. Maruarr welcomed the guests,

and told briefly of the social side of the earlier meetings of the Society. He

suggested that, this being a meeting of a local society and not connected

with the Congress, probably no better plan could be adopted than to dis-

cuss the entomological societies of the world. As so many of these societies

were represented at the meeting, such a discussion should prove illuminating.

He called attention to the fact that the two oldest of the world’s entomolo-

gical societies were represented by Prof. EK. L. Bouvier, Honorary President

of the Société entomologique de France, and by Mr. J. E. Collin, President

of the Entomological Society of London. Each of the following visitors spoke

about the entomological society to which he belonged and which he had,

officially or unofficially, represented at the International Congress: FRANz

HEIKERTINGER, Zool.-bot. Gesellsch., Vienna, Austria. ANToINE BALL,

Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat., Brussels, Belgium. Kat Lupvia Henriksen, Zool.

Mus. Copenhagen, Denmark. James E. Coxuin, Ent. Soc. London, Eng-

land. Hassan C. Bry Erriatoun, Plant Prot. Sect. Min. Agric., Cairo,

Egypt. Dr. Epoarpo GripEuu, Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat., Genoa, Italy. Dr.

ELISABETH SkwarraA, Univ. Koénigsberg, K6nigsberg, Germany. Dr. Unto

Saatas, Univ. Helsinki, Helsingfors, Finland. Dr. Canpipo Botuivar y

PrevttTatn, Mus. Nace. cienc. nat., Madrid, Spain. Dr. N. A. Kemner, Ent.

Féren., Stockholm, Sweden. Dr. Atrons Dampr, Mexico, D. F., Mexico.

Dr. N. M. Rimsky-Korsakov, Forst. Inst. Univ., Leningrad, Russia.

Prof. RyszArD BLEDOWSKI, Univ. of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland. W. J. J.

Roepxe, Landbouwhoogeschool, Wageningen, Holland. Dr. E. L. Bouvirr,

Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris, France. Dr. Fritz StetuwaaG, Zool. Stat. Wein-

bauversuchsanst., Neudstadt, Germany. Dr. JAMES WaTERSTON, British

Museum, London, England. Prof. Finrppo Sitvestri, R. Ist. Sup. Agr.,

Portici, Italy. R.G. JEANNEL, Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris, France.

Dr. Maruatt, after Dr. Bottvar had spoken, called upon Dr. C. W.

Stiues, of the U. 8. Public Health Service, and Dr. W. M. Mann, Director

of the U. S. Zoological Park, to speak briefly, and after Dr. Dampr of Mexico

had spoken, he introduced Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE, of the U.S. National

Museum, who gave friendly greetings to the delegates. Prof. E. L. Bouvier,

of Paris, announced that, on the authorization of his government, he and the

French delegation had that day presented to Dr. L. O. Howarp the cross of

Officer of the Legion of Honor. Dr. Maruartr then called upon Dr. Howarp

to say a few words. A fine spirit of enthusiasm prevailed at the meeting.

The older members of the Society remarked that it was probably the largest

meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington that had been held in

the course of its forty-four years of existence.

After adjournment a buffet supper was held in the lobby.

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

404TH MEETING

The 404th regular meeting was held October 4, 1928, in Room 43 of the

National Museum. President RoHwer presided.

Dr. Vasco M. Tanner, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, was

elected to membership.

Mr. Rouwer stated that in accordance with the plans made by the Society

to contribute $125 to help defray the cost of entertainment of the foreign

visitors at the Fourth International Congress of Entomologists held at

Ithaca, the Treasurer had forwarded to the Chairman of the local committee

the amount which the Society had promised. The Society had authorized

entertainment for the foreign delegates who visited Washington after attend-

ing the International Congress, and now it was necessary for the Society to

pay the expenses incurred by the executive committee for entertaining these

visitors. An assessment of $2.00 had been levied upon local members, but

this amount would not be adequate and it was hoped that the necessary

balance of the $240 would be secured by special donations from the members.

He urged that the local members give this matter early consideration, since

the obligations had been incurred by individuals rather than in the name of

the Society, and some of the bills had been paid by the men assuming the

responsibility.

The Chair announced the death of Dr. Jean Brethes, one of the better

known entomologists from South America, who had been particularly in-

terested in the taxonomic phases of entomology and who had devoted con-

siderable attention to the classification of Hymenoptera and Diptera. Dr.

Brethes died at Buenos Aires, July 2.

Program: Austin H. Cuark. Butterflies of the District of Columbia.

There are 86 species of butterflies known from the District of Columbia. One

species, Catopsilia sennae, which is not infrequent in late summer is repre-

sented here by males only. Two others, Danaus menippe and Cynthia cardut,

usually common in the summer, do not survive the winter but the District is

restocked each spring by individuals apparently coming from nearer the sea.

The speaker called attention to the large dark short-winged form of Junonia

coena which is confined to bogs and is very local, designating it as the “‘wet’’

form. He showed a comparable ‘‘wet”’ form of Cynthia atalanta. Neither of

these ‘‘wet’’ forms survive the winter, spring individuals being of the usual

“dry” form only. In the District Cynthia cardui is represented cnly by the

“‘wet’’ form, excepting in early spring when occasional specimens of the small

dull ‘dry’? form may sometimes be seen near the river. Apparently these

wander in nearly every year. The dark shortwinged summer individuals of

Polygonia interrogationis and P. comma are simply ‘‘wet’’ forms of those

species. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by RoHwer, McInpoo, Howarp, Evy, and BRIDWELL.

H. 8. Barser: Cave and other subterranean beetles. Interest in subterran-

ean beetles has been revived by the recent visits of certain European students,

Drs. Jeannel, Bolivar, and Rambusek. That hardly twenty-five blind sub-

terranean species are known from America in contrast with perhaps 500

from Europe may indicate either neglect on our part or a very interesting

problem in zoogeography. It is hoped that greater interest in the investiga-

tion of this fauna may be developed in America. Most insects normally are

sheltered in the ground for part of their lives and pressure of adverse surface

environment, or peculiar fitness to life in the holes left in the subsoil by worms,

decaying roots, rock crevices, or the burrows of large animals, may have

JAN. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 49

shortened their periods of surface activity until they no longer appeared

above ground. Reduction of pigment, wings, eyes, etc., would naturally

follow, accompanied by development of compensatory adaptations. Anillus

was cited as an example of the minute, blind, wingless beetles probably in-

habiting the soil throughout most of the United States, although recorded

only from the Appalachians, Florida, Indiana, Texas, and California. It can

be found under stones in early spring, but special methods of search can be

developed for collecting it and those species which live similarly. Rhadine

is an example of the local specialization from the ubiquitous, light-loving genus

Plantynus to the eyeless and otherwise highly specialized cavernicole de-

seribed as Comstockia subterranea, and the numerous species form a somewhat

regular series grading from habitation under stones in loose rock-falls from

cliffs, or in burrows of animals, to complete adaptation to life in great caverns.

Our few species of the much discussed genus Anophthalmus are, according to

Jeannel 1920 (Bull. Soe. Ent. France, 1920, p. 152), distinct genera from the

cavernicolous species of Europe and are survivals of an old light-loving fauna

which is now known as represented only by a species in Japan, and another

in Northern Europe. As our species are known only from a relatively few

caves east of the Mississippi and south of the margin of the Illinoian and

Wisconsin glacial drift, and as multitudes of caves are known in other regions,

numerous new species may be expected. The speakers’ experience in seeing

seven specimens in more than twenty visits to caves contrasts strongly with

his capture of a hundred specimens in traps set in a few caves and twice

examined. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mann, McInpoo, Howarp, Bripwe.i, and EwIina.

Dr. FRANK E. BuaispELt, Sr., of San Francisco, Cal. expressed his pleasure

at the opportunity of being with us, and gave some reminiscences of previous

visits to the museums of Washington and other eastern cities. He also

gave a brief review of some of his work on various genera of Tenebrionidae,

notably Eleodes and Blapstinus, and mentioned the work of Colonel Casey

on this family. He stressed the value of obtaining detailed data on life his-

tory and the desirability of having on file an extensive series of immature

stages of the insects for study. At the suggestion of Dr. Howarp, he was

requested by the Society to convey our greetings as a Society to our colleagues

on the Pacific Coast.

A. B. GAHAN read extracts from a letter recently received from Alan

P. Dodd, Brisbane, Australia, discussing work of the Commonwealth Prickly

_ Pear Board, and reporting that parasites are not making much headway in

attacking the Cactoblastis now working in prickly pear. ‘There is every

reason to believe that Cactoblastis will solve the prickly pear problem in a

few years; its rate of increase in the field is enormous and the destructive re-

sults are quite extraordinary.”

A. H. Ciark read a letter from Greenfield, Mass., to Mr. Thornton W.

Burgess transmitting a number of insects which were determined by Mr.

A. N. Caudell as the European house cricket (Gryllis domestica). They were

said in the letter to be exceedingly numerous in the houses at Greenfield.

This is the first record for Massachusetts.

J. C. BripweEtt reported recent collection near Barcroft, Virginia, of the

imported willow-leaf beetle, Plagiodera versicolora Laith. Discussed by

RouHWER.

J. S. Wans, Recording Secretary.

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

443p MEETING

The 443d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 14, 1928,

President Hewett presiding.

Informal communications: N. H. Darton exhibited a new geologic map

of New Mexico and a photograph of an unpublished relief map of New

Mexico by Mr. Renshaw. Discussed by Messrs. StosE and CAMPBELL.

W. C. ALDEN showed views of a part of Glacier National Park that has

recently been made accessible. _

Program: C. P. Ross: Early Pleistocene glaciation in Idaho. On and near

Railroad Ridge, Custer County, Idaho, there are deposits of unconsolidated

detritus, believed to be of glacial origin, which are out of harmony with the

present topography. ‘The evidence points to the detritus being the product

of glaciation in early Pleistocene, possibly Nebraskan, time, and indicates

that at that time the country was far less rugged than at present. Valley

cutting of the order of 1,400 feet took place in the interval between this early

glaciation and Wisconsin time, when the cirques and U-shaped valleys which

are prominent features of the present topography were formed. This is in

marked contrast to the erosion of 100 feet and less which has occurred in Re-

cent time.

Similar, though less complete, evidence of ancient glaciation followed by

deep erosion is known on Loon Creek farther north, and on Little Wood River

farther south. All three localities are close to the highest peaks in Idaho.

Evidence of similar conditions in the Pleistocene has been found by other

investigators in Montana, Wyoming, and perhaps Washington. While two

widely separated periods of glaciation are known in northern Idaho, neither

appears to be as old as that here described.

Discussed by Messrs. CAMPBELL, MENDENHALL, Capps, FERGUSON,

ALDEN.

M. R. CaMpBELL: Value of river gravels in the study of deformation. Dis-

cussed by Mr. STose.

kk}. O. Utricn: Paleogeographic data developed in the study of lower Paleo-

zoic stratigraphy in Oklahoma. Discussed by Mr. BASsuLErR.

444TH MEETING

The 444th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 28, 1928,

President Hewett presiding.

The Secretary announced the deaths of J. S. Dituer and T. C.

CHAMBERLIN.

Program: Lton W. Couet, Professor of Geology, University of Geneva,

Switzerland, and Harvard University: Origin of the lakes of the Swiss Alps.

Discussed by Messrs. STosE and MENDENHALL.

445TH MEETING

The 445th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 12, 1928,

President Hewett presiding. Vice-President G. R. Mansfield took the chair

during the presentation of the address of the retiring President.

Presidential address: A review of European metal production.

36TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 36 annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the adjournment

of the 445th regular meeting, President Hewett presiding.

JAN. 19, 1929 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 51

The annual report of the Secretaries was read. The Treasurer presented

his annual report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1142.56 on

December 12, 1928. The auditing committee reported that the books of the

Treasurer were correct.

The results of balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows:

President: S."R. Capps; Vice-Presidents: G. R. MAnsFIeLp, O. E. MEINzER;

Treasurer: H. G. Ferauson; Secretaries: A. A. BAKER, JAMES GILLULY;

Members-at-large of the Council: N. L. Bowen, H. D. Miser, H. N. Suort,

W. D. Couns, J. B. Mertte, Jr.; Nominee as Vice-President of Washington

Academy of Sciences representing the Geological Society: D. F. Hewnrr.

W. W. Rusey, A. A. Bakr, Secretaries.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

A. A. Stoyanorr, Professor of Paleontology at the University of Arizona

spent several days during the first week of January at the National Museum

comparing fossils from the early Paleozoic of Arizona with material in the

Museum’s collections.

Professor and Mrs. Carrot LANE FENTON recently visited the National

Museum to study collections of Devonian brachiopods from Iowa in con-

nection with their work on the development of these forms.

Dr. CHarLes Rynyker, paleontologist with the Gypsy Oil Company at

Tulsa, Oklahoma, visited the National Museum to examine microfossils.

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 2

Obituary

SEBASTIAN JAcoB Maucuiy, a member of the AcapEMy and a former

editor of this Journal, died December 24, 1928, at his home in Chevy Chase,

Maryland, after a long illness. Dr. Mauchly was born in 1878 at Swanton,

Ohio, studied at Ohio State University and University of Chicago, and as

Hanna research fellow received the degree of doctor of philosophy from the

University of Cincinnati in 19138. As physicist with the Department of

Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, he special-

ized in terrestrial electricity and as chief of the Section of Terrestrial Electric-

ity of the Department was responsible for the development and improvement

of many instruments for observing the electric elements at field and observa-

tory stations. He made numerous valuable contributions to this branch of

science and was first to call attention to the apparent universal twenty-four

hour term in the diurnal variation of the Earth’s electric field. This funda-

mental result was deduced by him largely from his discussions of the work at

sea by the CARNnHGIE and he later corroborated this conclusion by extensive

investigations of results at land stations over the entire globe.

Iricu P. Becurr, Ordinarius Professor of Philosophy at the University of

Munich and a member of the AcapEmy, died recently at the age of 46. Pro-

fessor Becher was in charge of the Psychological Institute of the University

and was known for his work in natural philosophy, psychology, and ethics.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

* Saturday, January 19, 1929. The Philosophical Society.

The Helminthological Society.

Wednesday, January 23, 1929. The Medical Society.

The Geological Society.

‘Saturday, January 26,1929. The Biological Society.

Wednesday, January 30, 1929. The Medical Society.

Saturday, February 2, 1929. The Philosophical Society.

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS

odinay: —A mastodon skeleton near San Francisco Ba Eizor B

Geology.—The Cretaceous section in Black Mesa, northeastern Arizona

-°B. Regsipg, Jn. and-Arraur A; BAKER. o.oo hoes ie ete ee

Paleobotany.—An Anacardium in the lower Eocene of Texas. Epwarp W. B

Paleobotany.—Seeds of a new species of Vitaceae from the Wilcox Eocene of j

Epwarp W. Berry. Deeee ert teeter testes e ee eee teen etter cere ten es

PROCEEDINGS ;

The Entomological Sopiety. 0 s05 obs eas Fo aah ci oh cle ook em apt

The Geological Society.” 5). css Veep cet in we ces nlatin's By eee eae bane

ScreNTIFIC NOTES AND Wie wee es aR 1G CRS GES Ne ae pe

Osrruary: 8. J. ies Erich Becher .....:...

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: AueS Hrpiicks, U. §. National Museum.

Corresponding Secretary: L. B. TuckERMAN, Bureau of Standards.

Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

; Vor. 19 Fpsruary 4, 1929 — | No. 3

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Vou. 19 Fresruary 4, 1929 No. 3

GEOLOGY .—Middle Devonian pelecypods of Wisconsin and_ their

bearing on correlation.! ERwiINn R. Pout, Vanderbilt University.

(Communicated by R. 8S. BAsstEr.)

INTRODUCTION

It has been the pleasure and privilege of the writer for the past three

years to engage in a codperative effort, under the auspices of the

United States National Museum and the Milwaukee Public Museum,

to understand more fully the fauna of the Wisconsin Devonian forma-

tions and the relationship of these formations to those of other areas.

A small, roughly semicircular patch in south-eastern Wisconsin pre-

serves Middle Devonian rocks and a lone outlier near the Keweenaw on

Lake Superior, Limestone Mountain, has yielded fossils of Helder-

bergian type. The latter are few, however, and their isolated presence

in the north can shed no direct light on the connections of the Middle

Devonian beds. The only significant fact to be learned from them

is that of marine deposition on the flanks of the old Laurentian

positive area.

The discovery of Middle Devonian types of fossils long ago estab-

lished in a general sense the age of the Milwaukee and Ozaukee County

deposits, but the literature shows a progressive tendency on the part

of paleontologists to recognize the impropriety of unreserved identi-

fications of the Milwaukee species with those described from New York,

Ohio, Michigan, and Iowa. This tendency has brought into question

the hypothetical narrow strait assumed to occupy in Mid-Devonian

time a position within the present boundaries of Wisconsin and

Michigan and to allow either complete or limited communication

1 Received January 3, 1929. Read before the Paleontological Society, December

27, 1928.

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 3

between enormous contemporaneous eastern and western arms of the

sea. It has recently been shown that the formations to the west in

Iowa, to whose described forms many Wisconsin species were com-

pared, belong not to the Middle but to the Upper Devonian—a fact

in itself sufficient to put to rest the assumption of contemporaneity

of the New York, Wisconsin, and Iowa species. Finally, from evi-

dence afforded by a close study of the pelecypod fauna of the Milwau-

kee beds comes the conviction that there has been no commingling of

faunas or species from the east and west.

As early as 1882 Whitfield, in describing several new species from

the Milwaukee formation, pointed to differences in many others. In

1899 Teller and Monroe, amateur collectors but nevertheless close

students, recognized enough difference in many fossils to compare

them with nearly related described forms rather than to identify them

unreservedly. H. F. Cleland described 35 new and well founded

species and pointed to striking dissimilarities from described forms in

as many more species although allowing them to remain within the

scope of those forms. John M. Clarke, than whom in the past genera-

tion none had better knowledge of the New York Devonian, in personal

correspondence with Cleland frequently placed his sanction on an

identification of a Wisconsin species with one from New York only with

the reservation that a question mark be annexed. The Echinoder-

mata, as studied by Weller, Springer, and Cleland, show the distinction

particularly well, for they belong almost without exception to com-

pletely differentiated and easily distinguished new types. The

pelecypod association is unique, not a single instance having been

found of unquestionable identification with forms elsewhere described.

WIscoNSIN DEVONIAN} PELECYPODS

The Devonian section of eastern Wisconsin comprises three phases,

separated from each other at present primarily on the evidence of the

contained faunas rather than upon stratigraphy. Table 1 gives

complete lists of the various pelecypod associations, and it need be

remarked here only that specific distinctions are sharp between the

lamellibranchs of the three formations.

In the Ozaukee and Thiensville beds (manuscript names used by

G. O. Raasch for the lowermost phase of the Wisconsin Devonian),

the preservation of the pelecypods is inadequate for more than generic

comparison. The genera, among them Conocardium, Schizodus,

Janeia, Sphenotus, Leiopteria and Leptodesma, are well-advanced

FEB. 4, 1929 POHL: DEVONIAN PELECYPODS OF WISCONSIN BS)

Devonian types and it is a little surprising to discover them at the base

of the Devonian column in Wisconsin. ‘The association would suggest

a derivation similar to that of part of the lower Cedar Valley of Iowa.

The Lake Church formation (manuscript name of G. O. Raasch),

the stratigraphic position of which is still in question, has yielded a

small, but unique assemblage of fossil pelecypods. The derivation

of the materials and of the fauna is not known. It is difficult to

believe that an association of species so remarkably differentiated

should have developed indigenously in as short a time and under as

normal a condition as is indicated by the less than 20 feet of pure,

dolomitic limestone to which, so far as known, they are confined. The

presence of generic types known to have a northern origin such as

Ilionia, Conocardium (altum and brevialatum groups), Paracyclas

(“elliptica”’ group), Schizodus (appressus group), and Lophonychia,

leads to the supposition of north-eastern if not Arctic connections for

this fauna.

The Milwaukee formation contains a very abundant pelecypod

fauna—43 species in 19 genera. ‘The relationships of this fauna are

with the North-Atlantic Hamilton fauna, whose typical development

is in eastern New York (Table 2).

Mippie DEVONIAN OF THE CENTRAL BASIN

Throughout extended stratigraphic work in the Middle Devonian of

the Central Basin an understanding of the interrelations of the forma-

tions and their contained faunas has been the chief objective. The

predominantly Hamilton aspect of the Milwaukee fauna has already

been noted, and in searching for the path of its incursion we are

immediately struck by its faunal isolation. In the remarkably com-

plete development of Erian deposits in the adjacent south and east we

look in vain for faunal connections. The contemporary invasions into

the states on the south—Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Indiana, and

southern Ohio—brought in generic types known to have a southern

derivation and totally unlike the Milwaukee forms.

Of other comparable sections we have only the profusely fossiliferous

Michigan series. It is natural to look toward these nearest Middle

Devonian deposits for illumination, but here a hitherto entirely un-

suspected problem arises. Only the salient features of the Michigan

section and the exact stratigraphic position it holds will benoted here, for

the detailed sections and evidence for the assignments made are the sub-

jects of present studies by the author. The Silica shale of northwest-

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 3

TABLE 1.—StratigRapHic DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES

A. MILWAUKEE FORMATION

CROMMTNISUG, HOOD LINO o no cla codococos da doaxbenooandessoo

(Cs TANTRA HAIOHHOH DS SEO) Ok hea 3 beatae One et RoR icy ENT AG HOPES El

(CL. TRO RUIGIFAS EON 0 ae Mase noe ave aie os Geet cman en Ny me eg

Ciimitaniaobtusilobas (Cleland) hessesecese eee eee eens iene

AMON avanimagulisn@lelanG nance n ct ocr ice oeieeel Aah

Neacoulla, Grommet IXON|, scacoo0obocadosnaadaccodondocouocods

Narculites laphamimClelandennve vat. (occ eo accserees creeper

Palaeoneilo milwaukeensts (Cleland)....................205

SD MC URCOMSETCLON CONTAC) ja-o eect 11 ats seein

RED ULCRCU OPO INE iy, ata eatacs tse rt eles) ere ef tcte ta tartern eerie ees

5 ATO arate) BTC) 00 leas aig ca Sp rsics REA RORRCMeE Ata tec Aras Peg os Oe Ge ene

ADT ERO s farads 1200) OF IG tee eateroer aly, Sy erate Gratien ea S mas me aid wien Oe ?

9 COUNT COGNAC) IRON, ceogosnoobevohsedonpasobadoOedae x

RUDE S UIUC aE. OM es epee taen atten yer sce crete renienioeys Gicraere i eteene

MLC NLALAPE OLR Pit heehee. tes cde Ae MeCN elacslat a

Nonna (Mons IRN 5s sogadssonb5000d000b0000dDGC0os ane ai

Megambonia wisconsinensis Cleland................... Se x

EVO DICIIONACULILONTS EOD a erence aceon rene cine oe

Achimoplenia TRombolneare LOMWen) tists 2 oracle eects ieee eae

AA NAU CITA ALAMO px wsayehie sos sehen ite eels vekess oe eeys x

A. singularis Pohl

Sita ia aha tha a)

ejinjave eb es © ©) 0) = e'\s! 6 (0) ¢)\e\,e] «10 e\lelele (sieks)\al siie)ie «iv e)ialehiene =

ee Gx ee

Wi olaned: CopGAOTH OAV soaoncoobodeobanoDobodUnEDonooode

MeidentotanPobenivists sh trio je ie os nel Sa sc c aes

lethomaytilaisysubenrecuisybo blest eer aceneels ees ieee ee

ODOM CRUOACUTC LULL MZ 0 D Leen eee ria ey eer ee

Conocardium ornatum Cleland

Aviculopecten bassleri Pohl

Ary stp CULUs iO blk cpoersn oiiihe steteiete/ sink dns: oes taste rere si eee rese

AL Gay piten StOEs POM yee Anaesth icysiinia eh ctegoucle a)aicia ee Recksh si cesos x

A. sp

KM:

Virsum pleceP oblige sasets state deities Sede Sn mae as korea

OTE ATES A P20) CUT a rae ees OH ating ny acta gee

SOOO ae

Modiomorpha saccula Pohl

M. elongata (Cleland)

IMcEnedufonmus Robles tac os walk fe sis Swe tea eee ee hte

esoblcquasCleland joes. Sac riesige Wek hes seen ee eee Dead Le oe

WMeniiilovdes mlwankeensis) bOI.) sels eee AE RIX

M. schucherti Cleland x

Paracyclas paradoxica Pohl

eX XK

SER

FEB. 4, 1929 POHL: DEVONIAN PELECYPODS OF WISCONSIN 57

B. Lake CuurcH FORMATION

?Pterinea paucicostata Cleland

Actinopteria convexa Pohl

Lophonychia trigonale (Cleland)

Conocardium truncatum Pohl

C. auritum Pohl

C. intersculptum Pohl

Schizodus acutangulus Pohl

Paracyclas obesa-umbonata Pohl

P. elliptica milwaukeensis Pohl (?)

Tlionia tenuistriata (Cleland)

C. OZAUKEE AND THIENSVILLE BEDS

Conocardium sp.

Schizodus sp.

Janeia ef. vetusta Meek

Sphenotus cf. contractus (Hall)

S. sp.

Leiopteria sp.

Leptodesma sp.

TABLE 2.—Taxonomic AFFILIATION OF THE PELECYPODS OF THE

MILWAUKEE FORMATION

Wisconsin New York

(Lower Hamilton)

. nodocostata Hall

. arcuata (Conrad)

. subarcuata Hall

Grammysia ulrichi Pohl

G. marginata Pohl

G. regularis Pohl

. recurva (Conrad)

. corrugata (Conrad)

. constricta (Conrad)

. emarginata (Conrad)

. fecunda Hall

. maxima (Conrad)

. rostellata (Conrad)

. cardiiformis Hall

conradi Hall

oviformis (Conrad)

. cuneus (Conrad)

boydi (Conrad)

. quadrula (Conrad)

. reversa Hall

Cimitaria obtusiloba (Cleland)

Palaeoneilo sp. ef. constricta (Conrad)

. dentata Pohl

. corrugata Pohl

. corrugata angulata Pohl

. pulchella Pohl

. devera Pohl

Nuculana gibbosa Pohl

Megambonia wisconsinensis (Cleland)

Leiopteria acutilaris Pohl

Plethomytilus suberectus Pohl

Conocardium ornatum Cleland

Lis} tye! el bre} ae

Actinopteria rhombolinearis Pohl

= SS

Vertumnia barretti Pohl

V. simplex Pohl

Modiomor pha saccula Pohl

M. elongata (Cleland)

M. pediformis Pohl

‘M. mytiloides milwaukeensis Pohl

SSSSNNPPAWEARASDDIDIDIDIDRRAAAAN

. avis Hall

. concentrica (Conrad)

. mytiloides Hall

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 3

ern Ohio is nothing more than the exact equivalent of the Bell shale at

the base of the Michigan Traverse. At Silica the Bell shale rests dis-

conformably on the Columbus limestone (of true Onondaga affinities).

Thus the lower boundary of the Traverse is definitely established.

Three oscillatory phases of the Traverse are developed on the two

sides of the state, in the northern part of the southern peninsula, to a

maximum thickness exceeding 500 feet. ‘The Thunder Bay phase, or

uppermost division in eastern Michigan, carries a peculiar and profuse

assemblage of species which are also to be found in the lowest exposed

beds across Lake Huron in Ontario. The top of the beds in Ontario,

the so-called Olentangy shale, is separated by overlap from the suc-

ceeding ‘‘Widder beds,”’ which in turn are directly correlatable with the

middle of the Hamilton section at East Bethany, in central New York.

Upper and lower limits are thus clearly defined for the Michigan Tra-

verse, no part of which is correlatable with the true Hamilton of

eastern New York. The Marcellus deposits may be in part a time-

equivalent of the Traverse, but stratigraphic evidence indicates a

minimum of 500 feet of interruped limestone deposition in the east-

central Basin between the Onondaga and the Hamilton. In view of

the stratigraphic position occupied by the Traverse, despite the fact

that it also is of northern invasion, it is not unexpected that we find no

relation of faunas nearer than generic similarity between the Milwaukee

and the Michigan beds.

The upper Devonian age of the Iowa formations has already been

noted, and by the process of elimination we are left with onlyinferential

faunal and stratigraphic evidence of the derivation of the Wisconsin

Devonian.

CONCLUSION

The northern complexion of the Milwaukee fauna, the complete

lack of stratigraphic equivalents in surrounding regions, the isolation

of the area, the singularity of specific types, and their close although

easily distinguishable relation to the north-Atlantic Hamilton, has

thus far been summarily reviewed. Alternative paths of seaway

encroachment now suggest themselves. Considering the possibility

of approach by way of the South Laurentian-St. Lawrence trough, no

indications of ingress by that route are afforded. Contrarily, the

possibility is denied by the present absence of Devonian beds and the

resulting necessity for complete removal of all Devonian beds from

this area subsequent to deposition. Thus we arrive at the assumption

FEB. 4, 1929 ULRICH: CLASSIFICATION OF TRILOBITES 59

that the invasion encroached from the north by means of connection

with James Bay around the north of the Laurentian positive area.

The unique assemblage in the limited area in eastern Wisconsin can

not be considered an indigenous fauna because of its close connection

with that confined to the Hamilton (Skaneateles) of eastern New

York. . The specific distinction is rather to be explained on the basis

of non-contemporaneity, since both faunas were derived from the same

mother oceanic association. Absence of several types or the presence of

new ones in either of the areas is incidental and due to the changing

character of the associations in the permanent basins and the ecologi-

cally varying conditions in the two regions. Stratigraphic and faunal

inferences necessitate an extremely late Erian time equivalency for

the Milwaukee formation, and it is probable that all of the Devonian

in the eastern part of Wisconsin is later in deposition than any portion

of the typical Hamilton.

PALEONTOLOGY .—The status of the classification of the trilobites.!

E. O. Utricu, U. 8. Geological Survey.

The classification of the trilobites in both modern and older text-

books suggests that they fall as readily into line as though made to

order. The genera and families seem sharply defined, and the de-

scriptions seldom indicate any doubt regarding the soundness of the

arrangement. However, the critical student who seeks to prove the ©

indicated relationships for himself soon notes discrepancies and in-

congruities that grow and multiply till his confidence is weakened and

finally almost destroyed. Such at least has been my experience during

the twenty years or so that I have devoted mainly to the study of one

after another of the genera and families of trilobites. The results of

these studies, usually at variance with the views of the authorities,

are only now being completed to the point where I might consider

myself warranted in publishing them. But they were extensively

employed and have always been available as paleontological criteria

in the stratigraphic investigations that primarily occasioned the study

of the fossils.

Prevailing conceptions regarding the systematic relations of the

Ordovician and older trilobites are too largely based on overworked

theories, weakly grounded deductions, and pure assumptions employed

indiscriminately as though they were established facts and immutable

+ Received January 3, 1929. Published by permission of the Director of the U.S.

Geological Survey. ;

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 3

laws. In other words, quoting from a recent reviewer,’ ‘The determina-

tion of the significance of structural conditions is based less on what

may be or has been observed than on biologic theories.”” Though

fully convinced that most of our theories of evolution are essentially

true and properly applicable in certain cases, it yet seems to me they

have been so burdened by unreserved and too often quite unwarranted

applications that the confidence really due them has been seriously

impaired. No laws of evolution have yet been discovered which, in

the present state of knowledge, may be applied without reservation and

severe limitation. Usually the actual genetic relations of extinct

organisms, on the one hand, and the general trend of their evolutional

modification, on the other, are only very obscurely indicated in the

tangled and interwoven skein of life-processes that nature has pre-

served in accessible fossiliferous rocks. And so the paleontologist

must do his part in working out the by no means simple methods

through which the present stages in the ever changing expression of

life history were achieved.

A moment’s thought suffices to convince the worker that the avail-

able fossil remains are but occasional small bits of ramifying threads

whose distal ends can only rarely be ascertained and whose proximal

ends or roots are most difficult to recogn’ze in the maze of heredity.

Characters that are generally developed in the early stages of a par-

ticular line and subsequently lost, may be temporarily revived and

without apparent warning in almost any of its later stages or off-shoots.

In other cases the general trend of the evolution of certain parts is

suddenly reversed. Such apparent anomalies not only result in mis-

taken conclusions regarding the age of the fossils, but they also inject

unwelcome doubt as to the verity of previously fixed conceptions which

seemed to work satisfactorily enough so long as the field of work was

limited and disturbing factors were few enough to be neglected.

Fossils were loosely identified, and the idea of local variations of species

covered a multitude of stratigraphic sins. Now, however, since other

ideas have crept into stratigraphy and our field of investigations has

been extended to Paleozoic basins wholly unknown or barely touched

before, the disturbing factors have become so numerous that ey can

no longer be ignored.

One of the striking collateral results of this expansion is the fact that

more new things are in hand and awaiting publication than at any

* RuDOLF RicHTER. Reviews in Neues Jahrb. Min. Geol. Pal., Jahrg. 1922, Bd. 2,

Heft 3, 1923.

FEB. 4, 1929 ULRICH: CLASSIFICATION OF TRILOBITES 61

preceding time since we began to study fossils. But it should not be

supposed that all or even most of these additions come from the

recently discovered basins. On the contrary, by far the greater

number have resulted from the more intensive and more securely

founded restudy of fossil faunas and old collections that had been

reported on long ago. As the sequence and field relations of geological

formations became better understood, and the fact of frequent and

varying oscillation of continental seas was established, the need of

more intensive study of their fossil contents and the closer discrimina-

tion of species and varieties that would or might be of exact value in

recognizing and correlating the particular stratigraphic horizons in

which they occur became correspondingly pressing. The biological

by-product of these more detailed studies is a steadily accumulating

mass of data that bears directly on evolution in general and the

genetic relations of fossil species and genera in particular. All of the

various theories of evolution that still have adherents among zo6logists

can find support in this mass of evidence. A master mind is needed to

weave the scattered threads into a Gorapechene ive scheme of organic

evolution.

However, when it comes to the genetic relations of fossil species and

genera the problems can be successfully attacked only by the specialists

in stratigraphic paleontology. They have the required detailed knowl-

edge of the concerned organic remains, and they alone have the ex-

ceedingly important stratigraphic information that enables them to

check their knowledge of the things themselves with the chronologic

aspects of each case. The latter factors, particularly as they concern

the stratigraphic and paleogeographic ranges of the several specific

and generic types, I deem absolutely essential before final conclusions

are warranted.

Four conditions are mainly responsible for the many present doubts

regarding the genetic and systematic relations of trilobites and other

fossil organisms; and all arise from ignorance of the facts in the several

cases.

First, and this applies especially to the trilobites, we know too little

of the complete animal and can not entirely overcome the resulting

doubt as to the original association of the dismembered parts that we

bring together in describing our species and genera. Such features as

the number and character of the thoracic segements, the free cheeks,

eyes, doublure, epistoma, hypostoma, legs and other features of the

ventral side, all of which are important factors in our inquiry, often

remain entirely unknown.

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 3

Second, the available links in the lines of descent usually are too far

apart.

Third, we often forget entirely or at least do not give adequate

consideration to the fact that the geological record is far from com-

plete, and thus we fail to appreciate the greatness of the break between

certain systems. ‘The effect of this lack of appreciation is particularly

great in estimating the probable and possible changes that occurred

during the exceedingly long time that separates the close of the Upper

Cambrian and the beginning of the Ordovician, as these periods are

now restricted and defined. An idea of its length is gained when we

consider that two great systems of deposits, each fully equal in duration

and possibly organic modification to either the Silurian or the Devonian

system, are being slowly worked out and faunally characterized. Only

a few years ago we knew practically nothing of the intervening Ozark-

ian and Canadian periods. And even now we are only begining to

realize what and how much happened during their terms in the way of

modifying—in almost haphazard fashion—the ever-changing stream

of life.

Fourth, since it has been established that the fossil marine faunas of

deposits in continental basins invaded the latter, when occasion offered,

from one or another of the oceanic realms in which their respective and

characteristically different biota lived and accomplished the specific

and generic changes observed in comparing the fossil faunas now

accessible, the need of determining the originating source of the fossil

remains has become no less essential in systematic investigations than

in the age correlation of the beds containing them. Obviously, these

determinations involve exceedingly complicated problems whose

solution requires abundant and good material and much time. Prog-

ress is slow and usually not fast enough to keep abreast of new

acquisitions.

To these four deterring conditions I might add another. This is

the difficulty of correcting previous faulty or definitely erroneous de-

terminations and plausible suggestions that have now become ingrained

in the fabric of our text-books and literature in general. Most of

these erroneous conceptions are occasioned by the usually laudable

but incautiously exercised desire of zodlogists to bring into orderly

arrangement the chaotic mass of inadequately studied fragmentary

material on which, if we are to make any progress at all, we are obliged

to found our descriptions of species and genera. In fact, though refer-

ring especially to the trilobites, we know so little about the subject in

FEB. 4, 1929 ULRICH: TRACHELOCRINUS 63

general and about the genetic relations of the generic groups in particu-

lar that all preceding and any present effort to classify them into

families and groups of higher rank can be nothing better than a pro-

visonal arrangement. The paramount need of the present is to work

out the facts.

PALEONTOLOGY .—Trachelocrinus, a new genus of Upper Cambrian

crinoids.1 E. O. Uuricn, U. 8. Geological Survey.

Cambrian crinoids at all well preserved are extremely rare and

desirable. They are particularly needed in these days when prevailing

classifications are in course of modification along lines in which the

genesis of the animals is being given greater consideration than

heretofore.

The specimen that is the subject of this communication was col-

lected by Dr. C. E. Resser and Mr. Robert Bassler from the upper part

of the Gallatin limestone just above Hayden Falls, Republic Creek, a

mile south of Cooke City, Montana. The particular bed in which the

specimen was found is correlated with the ‘‘crinoid zone” of the

Franconia formation in the upper Mississippi Valley where it lies

between the top of the Ironton sandstone member and, as in the

Montana section of the Gallatin, just under the widely distributed

Eoorthts zone.

Though an unquestionable crinoid, it is exceedingly difficult to find

a satisfactory resting place for this unique Cambrian fossil in any of

the several classifications now in common use. It can hardly be re-

ferred to the Eocrinoidea: the stem is too well developed and the arms

have a type of branching or pinnulation and a plate-covered ambu-

lacral furrow, neither of which conditions is known to occur in that

subclass. This crinoid is definitely of a higher order. Probably

Jaekel’s subclass Cladocrinoidea includes its nearest relatives, and it

may be viewed as an early stage in the evolution of those crinoids.

But none of the numerous cladocrinoid genera and families adopted or

instituted by Jaekel can justly include our new crinoid. It must

stand for the present as the type of both a new genus and a new

family which we may provisionally place in the Order Dicyclica.

This opinion is expressed despite the fact that considerable re-

semblance, at least in general aspect and structure, is notable on

comparison with a large but as yet unpublished group of cystids

that we have found in the Chazyan rocks of east Tennessee.

1 Received January 3, 1929. Published by permission of the Director of the U. S.

Geological Survey. ;

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, NO. 3

The arms are five in number, long and moderately stout, the brachi-

oles arranged in a double series, each somewhat longer than wide, the

fourth and eighth, and then each succeeding third or fourth on the

left side of the arm, bearing a short biserial armlet approximately half

as wide as the main arm. In the two arms that exhibit their bases

the first brachial on the right side gives off a short armlet like those on

Figure 1.—Outline drawing, X 1.7, of the left side of the nearly entire but crushed

specimen upon which the new genus and species T’rachelocrinus resseri are based. The

outline of the calyx, as it lies on the bedding plane of the slab of shaly limestone, is

approximately normal, but the form and arrangement of the plates, the ranges of which

are numbered 1 to 10 in the figure, was more or less disturbed under the weight of the

sediments that reduced the opposite dimensions of the bottle-shaped calyx to less than

one-fourth of its original diameter. Accordingly, most of the plates in the middle part

of the drawing were originally wider. A, cross-section of column. B, lower part of

arm showing its biserial character, the single pinnule or armlet on the right side, two

of the armlets that occur on each succeeding third or rarely fourth brachiole of the

left side, and a cross-section of the arm.

the left side of the arm. The ambulacral furrow on both the main

arm and its short branches is narrow and covered with two alternating

and relatively thick series of plates.

The column, of which about 2 inches is preserved, is round and in

the proximal inch consists of alternating very thin and thicker 5-

partite columnals, the sutures between them minutely crenulated on

the surface. Each of the larger set carries, presumably, 5 spines.

FEB. 4, 1929 ULRICH: TRACHELOCRINUS 65

The lumen is cylindrical and, excluding the outer spines, takes up

about half of the diameter of the column. In the distal third of the

Figure 2.—Trachelocrinus resseri Ulrich, n. gen. and sp., nat. size and X 2

2 inches of column preserved the two sets of columnals are nearly

equal in thickness.

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 3

Trachelocrinus resseri Ulrich, n. gen. and sp.

An apparently normally long-stemmed pentamerid crinoid, with subovate,

urn or bottle-shaped body contracted above to form a relatively narrow

neck-like support for the long arms. Neck trilobed in cross-section. Calyx,

with numerous plates, arranged in irregularly alternating transverse ranges,

most of those in the middle ranges hexagonal, the basal range five in number

and pentagonal; the second, six and mainly hexagonal; the third, fourth,

and fifth ranges more or less irregularly hexagonal and varying in number

from nine to eleven; the sixth range heptagonal and probably nine in number;

the seventh range—making base of neck—small, ten in number, five of them

pentagonal, five smaller and quadrangular; the eighth, ninth and tenth

ranges also ten each, small, much wider than high, and arranged in longi-

tudinal series with the plates of the seventh and sixth ranges; the tenth range

only five in number, as low as those under them but twice as wide and with

the sutures between them falling over the middle of each second plate of the

preceding four ranges. Finally, the arms are set directly over the sutures

of the terminal neck range.

The excess in number above five and the irregularities in shape of plates

in the third, fourth, and fifth ranges, which span the most inflated part of the

calyx, is due to the intercalation of similar plates that in such more normally

plated crinoids as the Cladocrinoidea would be called interradials. Indeed,

the right half of the side exposed in the specimen suggests a larger “‘inter-

radial’ area that would correspond to the anal interradius. That this sug-

gested orientation may well be correct is further indicated by the fact that

whereas four of the arm bases are close to each other the fifth, which should be

the anterior, lies farther from its neighbors and directly opposite the sup-

posed anal interradius.

Basals five, high, pentagonal; above them six alternating ranges of plates,

all but those of the last two ranges somewhat irregularly hexagonal. In the

sixth range, beginning with the basals, the plates are heptagonal, the middle

of the upper edge of each being truncated to support one of the series of small

quadrangular plates which separate the sides of the larger pentagonal plates

that make up the greater part of the seventh range. So far as can be seen,

each of the ten plates of the seventh range is succeeded by a series of three

short plates (at least twice as wide as long). These are succeeded by the

final range which consists apparently of but five plates that carry nodes and

are not longer but wider than the preceding ten-plate ranges. Finally the

biserial arms rest on the sutures of the five-plate range.

ARCHAEOLOGY .—On the recent finding of another flint arrow-head

in the Plerstocene deposit at Frederick, Oklahoma.! CHaruEs N.

GouLp, Director, Oklahoma Geological Survey. (Communicated

by O. P. Hay.)

The Frederick gravel bed in which, during the past two years, a

number of bones of prehistoric animals and several human artifacts

have been found, is located on a ridge a mile north of the town of

Frederick, county seat of Tillman County, southwestern Oklahoma.

1 Received January 3, 1929.

FEB. 4, 1929 GOULD: PLEISTOCENE ARROWHEAD 67

The greater part of the surface of Tillman County consists of red clays

and shales of Permian age. These shales have been eroded and

dissected by streams flowing south, but, in general, the relief of the

plains will not exceed 50 to 75 feet. The ridge upon which the gravel

bed is located stands 80 to 100 feet above the surrounding plain,

averages a half mile wide, and extends north of Frederick a distance

of eight to ten miles, where it merges with the level uplands.

The gravel bed which caps this ridge is composed of typical cross-

bedded stream gravel, such as occurs in many parts of Oklahoma and

adjacent states, being made up of rounded and sub-angular, water-

worn pebbles, varying in size from fine sand grains up to those four

and six inches in diameter. The great majority of the pebbles, how-

ever, are small, being less than one inch in diameter. The material is

largely igneous rock, such as granite, diorite, and the like, which make

up the great mass of the Wichita Mountains some twenty to thirty

miles to the north. Most geologists who have visted the region believe

that the greater part of the material came originally from the moun-

tains. The gravel varies in thickness in different parts of the ridge

from a few feet up to something like twenty feet. At the pit where the

bones and artifacts have been found, the upper 3 to 5 feet is composed

of soil, beneath which there is a gradation from soil to the undisturbed

gravel. The gravel itself is here ten to fifteen feet thick. Near the

bottom of the quarry, and just above the top of the red beds upon

which the gravel beds rest, there is a zone of indurated or hardened

material, probably caused by the water percolating through the loose

gravel until its flow has been checked by the impervious red clays

beneath.

Geologists who have studied the problem believe that the gravel

beds now on the top of the hill north of Frederick represent an old

river channel which, during Pleistocene times, found its way from the

Wichita Mountains southward toward the present site of Red River.

If this is true, the ridge which is now 100 feet above the surrounding

plains must have been a valiey. While there is no means of knowing

how high the hills stood on either side of this valley at the time when

the gravel beds were laid down, it is reasonable to suppose that the

general level of the region was at least 50 to 100 feet above the present

gravel beds. If this is true, the general region must have been

eroded as much as 150 feet.

According to Mr. A. H. Holloman, the owner of the gravel pit, the

bones, metates, and arrowheads have been found scattered here and

there throughout the lower half of the gravel. The first scientists to

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 3

examine this gravel pit were Messrs. J. D. Figgins and Harold Cook,

of the Denver Museum, who visited the quarry in January, 1927, and

took away with them the metates, arrowheads, and many of the bones.

These articles are now in the Denver Museum. Since that time a

number of scientific men have examined the deposits, including Dr.

Oliver P. Hay, of Washington, D. C.; Professor Albert Jenks of the

University of Minnesota; Professors C. E. Decker, Leslie Spier, A. O.

Weese, A. I. Ortenberger, and the writer from the University of Okla-

homa. So far as I am aware, all of the scientific men who have visited

the gravel bed are in accord as to the facts as stated above.

The point at issue seems to have been as to the actual finding of the

bones and artifacts in the undisturbed gravel, and the possibility that

these materials might have worked their way down through crevices

from the surface. ‘The bones and artifacts have all been found by the

owner of the pit, Mr. Holloman, during the course of his excavations

in the quarry, and no scientist, so far as I am aware, has seen these

objects in situ.

About September 19, 1928, Mr. Holloman found an arrowhead in

place in the undisturbed, cross-bedded gravel, 13 feet below the

surface, and Mr. A. H. Krause of Frederick, a long-time friend of the

writer, went immediately to the quarry and took several photographs

of this arrowhead before it had been removed from the matrix These

photographs were sent to Norman, and on October 5, Professors Spier,

Weese, Ortenberger, and myself, all from the State University of

Oklahoma, drove to Frederick and spent October 6 in the pit. We

took additional photographs of the place from which the arrowhead

had been secured. ‘There is no doubt in my mind that the gravel

where the arrowhead was found had been undisturbed since the time

of its deposition in Pleistocene times, and there appears to be no

possibility that the arrowhead could have found its way downward

along crevices from the surface.

I know of no criteria other than that of fossils which would give a

clue to the time which has elapsed since this river gravel was laid

down. Probably Mr. Harold Cook’s estimate of 365,000 years, as

recorded in Scientific American for August, 1927, is as nearly accurate

as any estimate that may be made.

FEB. 4, 1929 PENNELL: NEW MAURANDYA 69

BOTANY.—A new Maurandya from Arizona.! Francis W. PENNELL,

Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa. (Communicated

by T. H. Kearney.)

In the spring of 1928 Mr. Robert H. Peebles discovered an unfamil-

iar plant growing on rocky ledges in the canyon of Fish Creek, a

tributary of Salt River, at the eastern extremity of Maricopa County,

south-central Arizona. After a vain effort to identify it among the

specimens of Maurandya in the United States National Herbarium,

Dr. T. H. Kearney, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, who was

with Mr. Peebles when the plant was gathered in flower on April 1,

forwarded flowering and fruiting material to me with the suggestion

that I should describe the species, if it prove new to science.

Inspection of the two collections at hand has shown Dr. Kearney to

be fully justified in suspecting that this is an undescribed species of

Maurandya. It must look very different in the field from any other

species of this genus in the United States. Forming short thick tufts

with stems scarcely or not twining, with leaves that are widely cordate

and less cleft or jagged, and with yellow rather than purple corollas,

the plant is but distantly akin to these. Its only close relationship is

with the recently discribed M. flaviflora Johnston? of Lower California;

together they constitute a natural section of Maurandya, but the

following contrast shows that between them there are many

distinctions:

Stems slender; leaf-blades shallowly dentate, the teeth again serrate; fruiting

pedicels curving until contorted; corolla 25-28 mm. long, the posterior

lobes longer and arched; stamens exserted; seeds 2 mm. long. M. flaviflora

Stems stout, thick; leaf-blades palmately lobed, the lobes entire; fruiting

pedicels merely recurved; corolla 20-22 mm. long, the lobes all uniform

and spreading; stamens included; seeds 1-1.5 mm. long. M. acerifolia

Maurandya acerifolia Pennell, sp. nov.

Perennial, forming loose mat-like growths; glandular-villous throughout.

Stems becoming thick, much branched, white-villous below. Leaf-blades

mostly 1.5 em. long, 2.5 cm. wide, broadly cordate or reniform, obtuse, with

about 7 broadly triangular, sharp or rounded lobes; petioles slender, straight,

1.5-2 em. long. Pedicels slender, in anthesis 10-20 mm. long, in fruit be-

coming thicker and recurved. Sepals in anthesis 6 mm. long, triangular-

ovate, in fruit slightly accrescent. Corolla 20-22 mm. long, pale yellow,

cylindric, two-ridged within anteriorly but lacking a palate, externally

nearly glabrous, internally finely pubescent on all sides at base and over

bases of filaments, distally glabrous except for the two anterior ridges, these

' Received December 31, 1928.

? Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. IV. 12: 1162. 1924.

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 3

densely pubescent with flat yellow hairs; lobes uniformly spreading, all ovate-

orbicular, 4-5 mm. long. Stamens included, didynamous; filaments finely

pubescent near base, distally glabrous or with a few tack-shaped glands;

anthers 1—1.2 mm. wide, the cells circular. Style slender, glabrous. Capsule

globose, 8 mm. long, each cell opening loculicidally by distal ruptures, the

septum and adjacent capsule-walls persisting, the placentae evident as central

aggregations of short knobs. Seeds 1-1.5 mm. long, gray or blackish, with

corky longitudinal ridges.

Type in the United States National Herbarium, collected in rock crevices,

Fish Creek Canyon, eastern Maricopa County, Arizona, in flower, April 1,

1928, by R. H. Peebles, G. J. Harrison and T. H. Kearney (no. 5246). Also

gathered in fruit at the same locality, April 22, Peebles & Harrison 5286.

Dr. Kearney informs me that the locality is ‘in the canyon of Fish Creek

about one mile above the confluence of that stream with Salt River, and a

few miles below the Roosevelt Dam.”

The specific name acerzfolia has been chosen because the leaf-blades

suggest those of maple, the palmate lobes being prominent, although the

intervening sinuses rarely extend a third of the distance from the tips of the

lobes to the base of the blade.

BOTAN Y.—Plants of Lower Californian relationship incentral Arizona.

Tuomas H. Krarney, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In the preceding article, Doctor Pennell describes a new species of

the Scrophulariaceae (Maurandya acerifolia) from Fish Creek Canyon,

near the center of Arizona, and points out that its nearest relative is

M. flaviflora Johnston, a species known only from Las Animas Bay, on

the eastern coast of Lower California nearly half-way down the

peninsula. The fact is noteworthy in view of the occurrence in and

near Fish Creek Canyon of a shrub belonging to the Rhamnaceae,

Colubrina californica I. M. Johnston,? which is not known to occur

elsewhere than at Las Animas Bay and another locality near the

middle of Lower California.

The occurrence in this part of Arizona of two plants of widely differ-

ent botanical relationship, one apparently identical with and the

other closely related to a species inhabiting Lower California, con-

stitutes a puzzling problem in geographical distribution. Neither the

Maurandya nor the Colubrina have fruits and seeds that appear to

be adapted to dissemination by birds. One can only guess at an

explanation of the occurrence of this minute “‘islet’’ of plants of Lower

California affinity so many hundred miles to the northeast, in the

interior of Arizona. Assuming that the same forms, or nearly related

1 Received December 31, 1928.

? Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. IV. 12: 1085. 1924. Dr. Johnston has confirmed the identi-

fication of the Arizona specimens of this Colubrina and states that they differ from the

Lower Californian plant only in the size of the fruits.

FEB. 4, 1929 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 71

ones, are absent in the intervening territory, an explanation of this

anomalous distribution must be sought in the geologic history of the

region.

The climate and topography of the Arizona—Sonora—Lower

California region doubtless have changed considerably during or since

the Tertiary. It is believed that in Pliocene or Pleistocene time,

the Gulf of California extended considerably farther north, and

perhaps northeast, than at present. Ross* has suggested that the

ealeareous beds of the lower valley of the Gila River may ‘‘mark the

northern limit of this incursion of marine waters.”

Perhaps these species of Colubrina and Maurandya are relics of a

flora once continuously distributed around the shores of the ancient

gulf, the remains of which have become separated by increasing

aridity in northwestern Sonora and southwestern Arizona. The

recent discovery, in Yuma County, Arizona, of a palm of the genus

Washingtonia (W. arizonica Cook) nearly related to the fan palm of

the western side of the Colorado Desert (W. jfilifera Wendl.) may be

regarded as additional evidence of rather profound changes in the

climate and topography of this region.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

NatHan W. Bass has resigned as geologist with the U. 8. Geological

Survey to accept a position on the staff of the Pure Oil Company with head-

quarters at Tulsa, Oklahoma.

CHARLES E. ErpMANN has been transferred from the Geologie Branch of

the U. 8. Geogical Survey to the Conservation Branch and assigned to the

Denver office.

Dr. Witi1aM Bowtie, Chief of the Division of Geodesy of the U. 8. Coast

and Geodetic Survey, has recently been elected a corresponding member of

the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of France.

Mr. H. W. V. Wittems of Delft, Holland, has been spending some months

in the Chemical Laboratory of the Geological Survey studying methods of

analyzing rocks. After some time in the Geophysical Laboratory Mr.

Willems expects to spend five years in Java in connection with geological

and petrographic investigations in the Dutch East Indies.

The Department of Geology of the United States National Museum has

recently added to its collections a large platinum nugget, associated with

chromite and weighing over 17 troy ounces, from the Chocoya River, Colom-

bia. A large section of a pegmatite from Newry, Maine, showing large

“watermelon” tourmaline has also been acquired. An unusually fine cut

blue topaz from Maine has been added to the gem collection.

?Ciype P. Ross. The Lower Gila region, Arizona. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply

Paper 498: 31. 1923.

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, NO. 3

@Obituaryp

Dr. Jos—EPH GOLDBERGER, Director of Field Studies in Nutrition, U. S.

Public Health Service, and a member of the Acapremy, died January 17 in

Washington from an undetermined disease contracted during the course of

his work. Dr. Goldberger was born July 16, 1874, in Austria-Hungary,

received the degree of Doctor of Medicine from New York University in

1895, and entered the Public Health Service in 1899, becoming Director of

Field Studies in Nutrition in 1914. He contributed materially to the study

of several epidemic diseases, but was best known for his investigations into

the cause and treatment of pellagra.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 19 Fresruary 19, 1929 No. 4

GENERAL SCIENCE.—The lingering dryad.!| Pauu R. Heyn, U.S.

Bureau of.Standards.

There is an every day test which we all instinctively apply when we

are in doubt whether a certain thing is alive. We watch for it to move.

This is a test as old as humanity, though as we now apply it we intro-

duce a logical refinement which was lacking in other days. Absence of

motion, now as then, indicates absence of life, but the mere observation

of motion does not always suggest to modern thought the presence of

life. A sheet of paper may be rustled by an invisible breeze; stormy

waves may arise in the ocean; the ground beneath our feet may tremble

and split open; yet we of to-day see in such phenomena no reason for

assuming life as a cause.

Not so with the ancients. To them motion invariably suggested

life, directly or indirectly involved. The sheet of paper, of course, was

not alive, but the wind was the breath of Aeolus. The stormy sea was

the direct physical result of the wrathful strokes of Neptune’s trident,

and the heaving earth, by the same token, gave evidence of the dis-

pleasure of Poseidon, the earth-shaker.

While the mythology of the ancients contained much that we now

regard as childish and ridiculous, there is also to be found in it that

which we must still recognize as beautiful, such as the myth of the

dryad.

The dryad was a tree nymph. Every tree had its protecting spirit

who was born with the tree, lived in or near it in intimate association,

watching over its growth, and who died when the tree fell. The dryad

was thus a personification of the life of the tree, and the connection

1 Presidential Address before the Philosophical Society of Washington, January 5,

1929. Publication approved by the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U.S.

Department of Commerce. Received January 5, 1929. .

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 4

between nymph and tree was far more intimate than was the case with

the deities dominating sea or wind. Because of this peculiarly inti-

mate relation the tree possessed life which the sea did not, though

Neptune inhabited its depths, and which the wind did not, though set

in motion by Aeolus.

The men of old, it seems, drew very much the same distinction that

we do when we speak of living and non-living substances. Water, they

observed, never grew old or died, but a tree was obviously a living

thing, almost one of us, growing, reproducing its kind, and eventually

dying. And as the ancients had difficulty in forming an idea of life

without an animating personality there arose naturally the concept of

the inseparable tree nymph.

Human thinking from the first has been frankly anthropomorphic.

Only in modern times has there been any notable effort to cast out

anthropomorphism from our philosophy, and this struggle has not. yet

resulted in victory. Even we of to-day, with hereditary habits of

thought heavy upon us, find the concept of impersonal, physical causes

drab and unsatisfying, and we spell Nature with a capital N. The

dryad lingers.

In the chemistry of other days we find an interesting case of the

persistence of this mode of thought. The old alchemists knew that

wine by boiling lost its intoxicating power. Because they could see

nothing escaping they said that the ‘‘spirit of wine’ had found its

abode too hot for it, and had taken its departure. Cassio used no

figure of speech when he apostrophized the ‘‘invisible spirit of wine”

by which he had been so disastrously possessed of the devil, and the

name “‘spirit”’ as applied to alcohol is still in common use.

With the advance of knowledge it was found that many other

phenomena beside intoxication owed their causes, not to spirits or

devils, but to inanimate, prosaic chemical compounds. So strong,

however, is heredity that the dryad, instead of disappearing from

human thinking, merely changed her form and retreated under fire to

a position of advantage across a natural barrier, where she long

remained in safety.

It was many years before this barrier was crossed. The dividing line

between organic and inorganic substances was a sharp one in the

eighteenth century, and from her safe refuge in the domain of organic

chemistry the dryad long watched her baffled foes. The older chem-

ists divided the province of their science in two by a water-tight parti-

tion. All compounds with which they were acquainted could be

FEB. 19, 1929 HEYL: THE LINGERING DRYAD 75

analyzed or broken down into their elements, but not all of them could

be built up again by human skill. Water might be formed from its

constituents, but not sugar or starch; yet these latter substances were

daily synthesized in the laboratory of Nature, in the tissues of animal

or vegetable matter; and, because they were never known to occur in

mineral or inorganic matter, substances of this type were called from

their origin, organic compounds.

Years of experience had given rise to the belief that there existed

between these two classes of bodies a difference in kind rather than in

degree, and that there was some reason not understood why organic

compounds could not be synthesized artificially. This unknown

reason was given a name; it was called the “vital force.”’

It often happens that when the unknown is named it appears as if it

were more than half explained. The vital force once named soon came

to be a familiar concept. It was held to be resident in living matter,

whether animal or vegetable, much like the dryad in the tree. It was:

believed to differ in kind from the chemical and physical forces that

governed the formation of inorganic compounds. Under the influence

of this vital force it was believed that all the chemical reactions of

living matter took place, and it was even supposed to govern the

decompositions that occurred after death.

The belief in a vital force of this nature was universal among 18th

century chemists, even Berzelius being found among its adherents.

The vital force seems to have been regarded with something like the

awe inspired by the supernatural, and it was well into the 19th century

before its hold on men’s minds began to relax.

The past year 1928 marked the century of an epoch in human

thought, for it was just one hundred years since the doctrine of a vital

force received its logical death blow. In 1828 Wohler succeeded in

producing by laboratory methods the first organic compound. ‘This

was urea, which he prepared by simply heating an inorganic compound,

ammonium cyanate, containing the same elements as urea, namely

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, and in the same proportions.

This was a body blow at the dryad, but she died hard. Her devoted

adherents rallied to her support and explained away Wohler’s result in

various fashions. In this they were aided by the fact that for years

this synthesis stood alone, suggesting that there was something excep-

tional about it. Some said that this proved merely that a mistake

had been made; that urea was not really an organic substance, but

occupied a place half way between the organic and inorganic king-

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 4

doms. Others argued curiously that the carbon of the cyanate

retained some trace or memory of the vital force which had ruled it

when it had previously been a part of some organic compound. But

in time other syntheses were achieved in such numbers that the

accumulated evidence became overwhelming, and it was finally rec-

ognized that organic chemistry was only complicated inorganic chem-

istry, and that the difference between the two was one not of kind,

but of degree of complexity.

We have said that the dryad died hard. Asa matter of fact she did

not die at all—she emigrated. Dispossessed by the advancing frontier

of knowledge from the domain of organic chemistry which had so long

afforded her a refuge, she retreated under fire into a less understood

region beyond—into the biological sciences. Here the complexity of

phenomena was (and still is) so great that among the shadows the

dryad still finds a retreat.

Biologists of to-day are divided into two camps—vitalists and

mechanists. Between them a conflict rages, and the fate of the dryad

still hangs in the balance. The vitalists argue that whatever may have

been the case in the past we have now, by the progress of our knowl-

edge, reached a dividing line which really marks a difference in kind;

that there have been brought to light in the realm of biology phenomena

of such a nature that they are not explainable by ordinary chemical or

physical principles; that it is necessary to assume a principle peculiar to

living matter (in other words, a “vital force’) to explain them. Let

us select what is perhaps an extreme case in illustration.

Food taken into the stomach of man and other animals is digested by

means of the gastric juice. Some of this food is meat (all of it in the

case of certain animals), muscular tissue like that of the stomach itself.

The question naturally arises why the gastric juice does not digest also

the wall of the stomach. Is it not like trying to dissolve a piece of

zine in acid contained in a zinc vessel?

It is not easy to answer this question. It cannot be due in any way

to mastication, for if a piece of meat is swallowed without chewing the

stomach will eventually digest it. It cannot be argued that cooking

accounts for the difference, for this is an art practised by man alone,

and is a comparatively late acquisition on his part. And in the face

of the use of tripe as an article of food it cannot be that the stomach

contains a protective substance which other muscular tissue does not

possess.

There seems to be no difference between the stomach and the food

FEB. 19, 1929 HEYL: THE LINGERING DRYAD er

other than that the stomach is alive and the food dead, whatever this

may mean; and even this explanation is hard pushed by the fact that

the food of carnivorous animals under natural conditions usually

reaches the stomach of the captor in a very short time after the death

of the prey, an interval measurable almost in seconds.

By considerations such as these the controversy between the vitalist

and the mechanist is kept alive. The vitalist maintains that between

the phenomena of the living and the non-living there is a difference in

kind, not merely in degree. Just what this difference may be he is not

prepared to say, but he maintains its existence. The mechanist,

on the other hand, says that exactly the same arguments have been

advanced in the past in connection with problems that seemed just as

insoluble, and that these arguments have finally been disposed of by

the progress of our knowledge. Differences in kind, once regarded as

numerous in Nature, have slowly and steadily been resolved into

differences in degree. Sharp lines of demarcation have been wiped out

until the line between the living and the non-living is perhaps the only

one left. Such diverse phenomena as those of electricity and light

have been found to be closely akin; man himself has been shown to be

one with the rest of animated Nature; and if the past is any guide to

the future, it seems that even this last sharp line will some day dis-

appear also.

Perhaps the vitalist himself may not realize it, but to the student of

the philosophy of history this vague ‘‘difference in kind” suggests the

last lingering trace of what was once a dryad. As a cloudlet dwindles

and disappears in the beams of the sun, so the dryad has shrunk to a

mere wisp of vapor, which with a little more light seems destined to

disappear forever. .

But now that we have finished pointing out the mote that is in the

biologist’s eye, let us examine our own clarity of vision. Are we

physical scientists in any measure responsible for the lingering of the

dryad?

By the latter half of the nineteenth century physical theory had

become a well knit, sharply erystallized and self-sufficient body of

doctrine. While it was recognized fully and generally that much was

as yet unknown, it was felt quite as generally that what had been

established would, with perhaps a little amendment and modification,

stand forever. The physical theory of the last century was much

admired by its devotees, upon whom it reacted in turn to the extent of

making them at times a bit dogmatic. If there was a conflict between

physics and a sister science, physics must be right.

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 4

The classical instance of this attitude is the famous controversy

over the age of the earth, between the physicists on the one hand and

the geologists and biologists on the other. Perhaps nothing in the

annals of nineteenth century physics made such an impression upon

the sister sciences. This controversy lasted for 33 years with unabated

vigor, and was not finally settled until the discovery of radioactive

substances.

In 1862, upon the basis of the laws of the conduction of heat as laid

down by Fourier, Kelvin calculated that the time that had elapsed

since the earth had solidified from a molten state could not be less than

20 millions or more than 400 millions of years. He admitted that

rather wide limits were necessary, but was inclined to attach more

weight to the lower figure than to the higher. In this he was con-

firmed by a similar calculation made by Helmholtz of the age of the

sun.

At this estimate biologists and geologists stood aghast. The pros-

pect of having to pack into a paltry 400 million years the whole

progress of organic evolution from amoeba to man seemed to biologists

unreasonable. And with the geologists the situation was still worse.

It was generally recognized that a very long period of time must have

elapsed after solidification before life of the most primitive form made

its appearance, and this period, in addition to that required by evolu-

tion, must be made to fit Kelvin’s Procrustean bed. Moreover, it was

felt by geologists that such a view involved a return to eighteenth

century ideas, from which geology was just beginning to emerge.

Prior to the nineteenth century geological thought was of the

catastrophic school. It was held that natural forces were more active

and powerful in past geological ages than they now are; that great

convulsions of Nature had riven the crust asunder into valleys and

elevated other portions into mountains. By the middle of the nine-

teenth century the opposite, or uniformitarian school of thought had

achieved the ascendency, largely through the influence of the geologist

Lyell. On this view it was held that geological processes had never

differed seriously from those of the present day. As a consequence of

this doctrine an immense antiquity was required for the earliest

geological strata, and with this almost unlimited time at their disposal

biologists felt unhampered.

Then came Kelvin’s bomb shell. Protest and appeal were not lack-

ing, but Kelvin was inexorable. Physics, he said, could grant no

more, and physics held the power of the purse of time.

FEB. 19, 1929 HEYL: THE LINGERING DRYAD 79

The widespread and long continued interest in this controversy is:

evidenced by the many letters published on the subject in ‘‘Nature”’

from January to April, 1895. As proof of the fact that Kelvin did

not stand alone in this matter it is of interest to note that not a single

physicist failed to support him in theory, though there was a general

feeling that perhaps his limits might be widened somewhat. The

discussion was finally summed up by its initiator, Professor John

Perry, who expressed the opinion that the upper limit assigned by -

Kelvin might perhaps be multiplied by four. But this concession

brought about no rapprochement. 'The two sides were not near enough

to dicker.

A few years later the deadlock was finally resolved by the discovery

of radioactivity. This new and totally unexpected source of terrestrial

heat nullified Kelvin’s fundamental postulate, and allowed as much

time as the most extreme views could require.

Rightly or wrongly, this celebrated case had an unfortunate effect

upon inter-scientific relations. The biologists in particular felt that

the character of their problems and the evidence for their conclusions

were not appreciated by the physicists. The impression was gained

that physics was for some reason incompetent to treat of biological:

questions, and that the life sciences required for their complete discus-

sion and development something that was not and could not be found:

in physical theory. It may scarcely be doubted, I think, that this:

impression of the inadequacy of physics went far toward strengthening

and prolonging the life of the vitalistic hypothesis.

But, to be fair, we must recognize that the vitalism of to-day is not

that of a century ago. To use a term borrowed from mineralogy,

it is but a pseudomorph of its predecessor, cast in the mould of the

older form, and simulating its outward shape, but inwardly of a differ-

ent composition. ‘The neo-vitalist of to-day disclaims utterly anything

savoring of the occult or the supernatural; short of this, he is ready to

accept any adequate explanation of life. He maintains, however,

with equal firmness that even modern physical theory lacks something

necessary to explain vital phenomena; that no interplay of atoms,

however complicated, can account for the simplest manifestation of.

life. In brief, the vitalist looks outward for the explanation of life;

the mechanist looks inward.

The attitude of the mechanist is, for the present, largely one of faith

and hope rather than sight. He admits that modern physical theory

affords no explanation of life, and that there is no reason to believe we

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 4

are any nearer a solution now than we were a century ago. But,

encouraged by precedent, he holds steadily his faith that some new and

unexpected discovery may at any time clear our vision as radioactivity

clarified that of our predecessors. And he is confident that when the

solution of this mystery is reached it will be found to be internal rather

than external.

But while we are waiting for something of this kind to happen, may

we by any chance find some foreshadowing of a possible common

ground in existing physical theory?

Let us imagine, if we can, some one whose physical experience has

been limited to solids and who is ignorant of molecules and atoms.

The latter will not be so difficult when we remember that it has not

been so very long ago that we were all ignorant of any sub-atomic

structure. Matter, to our supposed observer, is continuous and

infinitely divisible without alteration in its properties; its structure is

perfectly uniform to the last conceivable degree. Suppose further

that he observes for the first time the melting of a solid. That which

would probably impress him most in this process would be its abrupt-

ness, its sharp initiation. By continual influx of heat the solid suffers

a steady rise of temperature, which seems as though it might continue

indefinitely as long as heat is supplied. But suddenly, without warning

or apparent cause, a critical pomt is reached. ‘Though the influx

of heat is not halted the temperature stops rising. A new effect is

seen, different in kind from any phenomenon known in solids. We

say that the body is undergoing a change of state and is becoming a

liquid. In this new state new laws govern its behavior; new properties

are evident, differing in kind, not in degree, from those of solids.

Our unsophisticated observer might well wonder at this curious

behavior; but should we, from our superior knowledge attempt to tell

him that this difference in appearance and behavior is not a matter of

composition or outside forces, but of internal structure, we might find

him rather incredulous.

“No,” he might say. ‘‘Something has happened to stop the rise of

temperature. ‘There has been an introduction of a new factor into the

situation. You speak of structural difference. I do not understand

you. The structure of a solid, as I am familiar with it, could not be

more simple than it is—continuous, infinitely divisible, uniform

throughout, with no shade of difference anywhere upon which to build

up an explanation. No; we must look outside for the cause of this

change. Liquid phenomena are not expressible in terms of the

properties of solids. He who maintains that they are is a mechanist.”’

FEB. 19, 1929 HEYL: THE LINGERING DRYAD 81

In this belief he might be confirmed if he pushed the heating of the

liquid far enough. At a second critical point, again unheralded and

without apparent reason, the liquid begins to boil, and the resulting gas

exhibits a new set of phenomena, differing in kind from anything to be

found in either solids or liquids. The new phenomena in this case

depart even more widely from those of the other states than was the

case at the first critical point.

To us, with our knowledge of molecules, the explanation of these

critical points and different states is comparatively simple and internal.

It is true that the phenomena of one state are not to be expressed in

terms of the properties of another; the behavior of gases cannot be

deduced from the laws of elastic solids or of incompressible liquids.

The solution does not lie in a line joining one state to another, but goes

back from each state to the common basis of molecular structure

underlying all states, something of which our observer is yet to become

aware. And until a similar common ground for the phenomena of

living and non-living matter is recognized there must be a difference:

of opinion between the vitalist and the mechanist.

What this common basis may be we cannot as yet surmise. It

remains for some new discovery to open our eyes. It must be some-

thing deeper and more fundamental than molecules or atoms. In so

far the vitalist is right; and in so far as he maintains that the mere

interplay of atoms contains the key to the mystery, the mechanist is

wrong. But such a common basis, underlying and forming part of

non-living as well as living matter, would be an internal factor, and

it is for such a factor that the mechanist is looking.

The parallel here suggested is worth pushing farther. The past

history of Nature has been one of change, of growth, of that develop-

ment which we call evolution. Her future, if hindsight is to be

trusted, will carry this evolution onward to a consummation of which

we can as yet form no conception. Nature, we may say, has been

steadily warming up to her work since the beginning of things. And

in this warming up process we may distinguish several critical stages,

strangely suggestive of the different states of matter.

The first of these critical points was reached millions of years ago,

when life first made its appearance, a totally new phenomenon super-

imposed upon inanimate Nature. For untold ages life was impossible

on the earth, but eventually, when conditions allowed, life appeared, no

one knows how. With its appearance a new order of things was

introduced, and phenomena not to be found in inorganic Nature began

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 4

to show themselves. With the advent of the organic, new motives of

action are recognizable, and new combinations are possible. The

vitalist explains this by bringing in a mysterious something from the

outside; the mechanist is persuaded that matter in acquiring life has

not ceased to be a conservative system; only in its behavior is it

transformed.

Moreover, this transformation has not been complete. Living and

non-living matter exist side by side and will probably continue to do so.

The physicist would call this the co-existence of two phases at one

temperature, like a mixture of ice and water at the freezing point,

each following its own laws and exhibiting its own characteristic

properties under the same environment.

We may, perhaps, by poetic license think of the first beginnings of

life as feeling strange and lonely in the midst of the non-living matter

surrounding them, so different in properties, in behavior. And

perhaps we may imagine that the works and ways of non-living matter

occasionally grated on the sensibilities of the living, and called forth

the protest: ‘‘Why are you so mechanical? Why not show a little

flexibility occasionally?” But this protest, we may imagine, was

wasted. “It is my ancient way,” replied non-living Nature, ‘‘the

way I did for millions of years before you new-comers appeared upon

the scene. I cannot mend my case. Why not do as I do and be

sociable?”’

But this is just what living matter will not do. Like white men in

the tropics, it maintains its standard of living among an overwhelming

majority of an inferior grade of civilization.

Millions of years have passed. Life is no longer a new-comer, a

feeble colony, but has waxed mighty, and has become the outstanding

feature of the earth’s surface. And now we have reached a

second critical point. Life has attained such a degree of complexity

that a new set of phenomena is beginning to make its appearance,

something different in kind from anything that has been before; as

different in its turn as was life itself compared to inanimate matter;

something superimposed upon life as life of old was superimposed

upon the non-living. And it is, appropriately enough, in man, the

highest type of life, the flower of creation, the peak of evolution,

‘the heir of all the ages in the foremost rank of time,’ that this new

thing first makes itself manifest—a moral sense, an ethical feeling,

which often finds itself as much a stranger in its environment as life

FEB. 19, 1929 HEYL: THE LINGERING DRYAD 83

must have felt among the crystals and colloids among which it began

its existence. If we must find a single word to express this new quality,

let us eall it Soul.

Within us is developing a new thing, as wonderful as life itself and

no less rich in possibilities. Life in its turn has brought forth some-

thing of a higher order, transcending itself, as it once transcended

non-living matter. And that this new thing has elected to make its

appearance in and through us, the highest of Nature’s children, what

is more reasonable? Do men gather figs of thistles?

But here the vitalist takes his last stand. “I know,” says he,

“that past history points your way; that one step after another, I

have been forced to give ground. I, who once held that no one but

God could make an organic compound, have lived to see it done by

high school students. You mechanists, on the other hand, have

pressed steadily forward. But beware lest, flushed with success and

intoxicated with power, you attempt too much and achieve your own

downfall. What you tell me now goes beyond all bounds of credence.

Am I to understand that all that makes a man, his ethics, his poetry,

his music, his aspirations, his ideals, are from within? Are these, too,

of the earth, earthy? Never! ‘These, at last, must come from without.

Can ideals rise higher than their source?”’

Of the earth, earthy! But why should there be anything mean or

unworthy about that which comes from within rather than from

without? Is the macrocosm essentially nobler than the microcosm?

True, tradition runs that way. Man at different times has set his

gods in the most inaccessible places, on the summit of Mount Olympus,

or across the rainbow bridge in Asgard; but the greatest idealist that

our race has produced broke with this tradition when he said: ‘“The

kingdom of God is within you.”

And perhaps it may be true that ideals can rise higher than their

apparent source. Just as every great genius had parents of less than

his own ability, who yet in some mysterious way endowed him with

more than they themselves possessed, so Nature has produced within

us something without precedent in the life history of the earth. And

as a parent watches with pride a child who gives early promise of

outdistancing his elders, so Mother Nature may be watching us.

What is this new thing which Nature has brought forth, and with

the development of which we have been entrusted? No man can say,

but it is a fair inference that it will go far. Life has gone far from a

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 4

tiny speck of protoplasm; who knows to what lengths this new thing,

this mind, this soul, if you will, may carry us? For it doth not yet

appear what we shall be.

PALEOBOTANY.—A walnut in the Pleistocene at Frederick, Oklahoma.!

Epwarp W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

The specimen which is the subject of the present note is of consider-

able interest since it was found in a consolidated Pleistocene gravel

associated with flint implements and the bones of extinct mammals.

Comments by Spier, Hay, and others on the first arrow point found

have appeared in Science, and the mammals will be described by

Dr. Hay, to whom I am indebted for the opportunity of studying the

walnut. The locality is about 1 mile north of Frederick in Tillman

County, Oklahoma.

The nut is somewhat water worn, approximately spherical in form,

being 1.9 centimeters high and 2.1 centimeters in diameter, and shows

the long surface ridges of the existing rwpestris group of forms. It is

in marked contrast in this feature with the californica forms of the

Pacific coastal region or with Juglans nigra of southeastern North

America. The last has sharp and broken ridges, in even minimum

sized nuts and is readily and certainly distinguishable from the fossil.

The typical rupestris, which still occurs in creek valleys around the

Wichita Mountains in the immediate vicinity of Frederick, has much

smaller nuts which are only about three-fourths the size of the fossil

and with relatively broader ridges and narrower grooves. ‘The more

southern and western Juglans rupestris major has much larger nuts

which are oblately depressed and laterally expanded. Its ridges tend

to be broader and its grooves narrower than in the fossil. Typical

specimens of rupestris, rupestris major, and the fossil with a portion

of the consolidated gravel matrix are shown in the accompanying

~ figures.

The present fossil form furnishes a good illustration of the difficulties

attending the precise evaluation of a single specimen when its existing

relatives integrade, and are not satisfactorily segregated by systematic

botanists. The well known black walnut, Juglans nigra, a tree of

deep rich and well watered soils, extends into eastern Oklahoma, where

it is found in the Ozark plateau country, and southward over eastern

1 Received January 4, 1929.

FEB. 19, 1929 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE WALNUT 85

Texas to the San Antonio River. So far as known it does not occur

naturally as far west as Tillman County.

The typical Juglans rwpestris is present in stream valleys in south-

western Oklahoma, usually in soils derived from limestone country-

rocks, and in similar situations in northern and western Texas. Jug-

lans rupestris major occurs disconnectedly from Tarrant County,

Texas, (Sudworth) westward across southern New Mexico and Arizona

and into northern Mexico. It is a more distinctly arborescent form

than rupestris and is confined to disconnected stations of richer moister

soils of canyon bottoms. Where the ranges of the two forms overlap

in Texas intermediate forms are said to occur, but the question has not

been critically studied. I have assumed? that major was the ancestral

Fig.1. Juglansrupestris Engelmann.

Fig.2. Juglans rupestris major Torrey.

Fig. 3. Juglans rupestris pleistocenica Berry.

form which at the present time is confined to relict environments, and

that rupestris is the derivative form evolved during the progressive

desiccation of the southwest.

The fossil, intermediate in size between the two, might be inter-

preted as standing midway between them in the assumed evolutionary

series mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Verification would

depend upon more specimens of the fruit as well as a knowledge of the

foliage and general habit of the tree, which we are not likely ever to

acquire. The fossil might also be considered as affording evidence of

a somewhat more mesophytic climate at the time it was living in

southwestern Oklahoma. Such a conclusion, however, would be

justified only by finding it abundantly distributed with appropriate

associated forms, since the well known habit of Juglans of retreating to

2 Epwarp W. Berry. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Novitates No. 221. 1926.

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 4

favorable stream side habitats in regions where the general climate is

unfavorable, notably shown by the existing California species and

also by the two existing southwestern species immediately concerned

in the present discussion, completely invalidates the attempt to draw

any far reaching conclusions from the fossil occurrence. ‘This is shown:

by the gravel matrix, apparently a stream deposit, indicating that the.

parent tree must have been a stream-side form, although we can not

tell whether it was confined to such situations.

Regarding the age of the deposit it may be pointed out that any

attempt to arrive at the relative age of the fossil is rendered impossible,

since estimates in the absence of age determinations based upon_

independent criteria rest on the distribution of the most closely

allied living forms and the probable rate of change of climatic and other

factors governing the change of range. These fail in the present case,

since rupestris is still found in the immediate vicinity, major a relatively

short distance to the south, and nigra a relatively short distance to the

east. Accordingly to Dr. Hay the associated mammals indicate an

early Pleistocene age.

In order to distinguish the fossil form from the two nearest living

forms, at least until such time as systematic botanists shall have

satisfactorily determined their status, I have given it the varietal

name pleistocenica, without, however, meaning to imply that it is

necessarily an extinct variety. This can not be determined satis-

factorily from the present evidence.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

977TH MEETING

The 977th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, October 13, 1928.

The program consisted of a symposium on the constants of nature.

P. R. Heyu: Gravitation. The constant of gravitation is one of the few

natural constants that cannot be expressed in terms of anything else. The

best value obtained for it at present (Bureau of Standards, 1927) is 6.664 x

10~° in ¢.g.s. units.

It is known that this constant is independent of the nature of the material

to a high degree of accuracy. Edétvés by the torsion pendulum has proved

that for ordinary materials this is true to 6 parts in 10°. For radioactive

substances, where the amounts available for experiment were smaller, the

precision reached was less. It is also known that this constant is independent

of the temperature to 1 part in 10,000.

Hinstein’s theory of gravitation makes possible the speculation that this

FEB. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 87

constant may be a function to a slight extent of the masses involved in the

eravitative action; also that the constant may vary slightly when relatively

small distances are considered. (Author’s abstract.)

W. D. Lampert: Geodetic data. (Published in full in this JourNat 18:

571. 1928.)

W. J. Perers: Terrestrial magnetism. The generalized magnetic field of

the earth may be ascribed to the combined effect of three agencies, one within

the earth possessing a potential and accounting for 94 per cent of the earth’s

total field, another around the earth outside also possessing a potential, and a

third having no potential.

The coefficients of the series of solid spherical harmonics expressing the

potentials are known as Gaussian constants. There are three of the first

order which have a simple physical meaning. The terms containing them

represent for the inner field the potential arising from the uniform magneti-

zation of a sphere, the earth, parallel to a fixed axis. The magnetic moment

corresponding is 8.04 x 10” ¢.g.s. which was decreasing during the last 80

years by 1/1500 part annually. For the outer field the moment is only 0.14

x 10” ¢.g.s. The point where the fixed axis pierces the earth’s surface in

the northern hemisphere is in latitude 78° 32’ north and longitude 69° 08’

west of Greenwich. For the outer field the fixed axis pierces the surface in

the northern hemisphere in latitude 75° 48’ north and longitude 121° 24’ west

of Greenwich. The other ends would pierce their antipodes. Neither axis

passes through the magnetic poles which are in latitude 70° 50’ north and

96° 00’ west longitude and in 71° 10’ south latitude and 150° 45’ east longi-

tude respectively. That is, the magnetic poles are not quite diametrically

opposite but each is about 2300 kilometers from the antipode of the other.

The axis of the inner field is moving slowly, the north end towards the

west and the equator.

Besides the constants of higher orders in the analyses of the two fields

having a potential there are others awaiting confirmation and physical

interpretations. Especially problematical is the field having no potential,

which at present can only be explained by the existence of vertical currents of

electricity passing through the earth’s surface of about 10~-!! amp/cm?, where-

as the observed currents of atmosphere are too small to be detected by the

methods of Terrestrial Magnetism.

In order to study magnetic disturbances, particularly those of long period,

it is necessary to devise some suitable measure of the disturbance or magnetic

activity of the earth. For this purpose 40 observatories have gotten out the

so-called character-numbers for each day (beginning Greenwich midnight)

graded according to the intensity of disturbance as it appears to the unaided

eye looking at the three curves usually registered, as 0, quiet; 1, moderately

disturbed; 2, greatly disturbed. They are not constants nor do they depend

on any constant.

The magnitude of the diurnal ranges in declination is apparently a function

of the magnetic dip and sunspot-numbers involving constants. Both the

form of the function and the magnitude of the constants are as yet but

approximately known.

The secular variation is another quantity the value of which is but approxi-

mately known. It appears to be a function of space as wellastime. Attempts

have been made to get expressions for it from Fourier series, but the results

have not been very satisfactory. (Author’s abstract.)

O. H. Gisu: Terrestrial electricity.

L. H. Apams: Geophysical data.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 4

978TH MEETING

The 978th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, October 27, 1928.

Program: Wiuu1AM Bowtie: The stability of the earth? s crust as tested by

triangulation. Practically all land areas of the earth have been below sea level

at some time in the distant past, hence their present exposure is due to a

change in elevation. This change has involved thousands of feet in many

instances. There are also evidences of great horizontal movement as is

indicated by buckled strata and overthrusting. The question is frequently

asked, by students of the earth, at what rate do the uplift and horizontal

movement take place. These are problems which can only be solved by

exact measurements on the ground. Changes in geographic positions over

wide areas can be determined by triangulation and differences in elevation

may be obtained by exact leveling.

At the request of the Chairman of the Committee on Seismology of the

Carnegie Institution of Washington, Dr. Arthur L. Day, the Coast and

Geodetic Survey began in 1922 a new triangulation of all the stations which

coincide with those which had been established prior to 1898 in California.

This triangulation extends from the Sierra Nevadas to the eastward of San

Francisco westward to the coast, then along the coast to the mountains just

to the eastward of San Diego. A short spur extends from the vicinity of

San Francisco northward to Point Arena.

The old and the new triangulation were executed according to the generally

accepted specifications for first order work. The angles in this class of

triangulation were observed with such accuracy that on the average the sum

of three angles of a triangle will equal 180° plus the spherical excess within

about 1”. The maximum closing error of a triangle seldom exceeds 3”.

Base measurements are made of sides of the triangles at intervals of about

100 miles or more depending upon the size of the figures to control the lengths

of the are of triangulation. Also Laplace stations, for which the astronomic

azimuths are corrected for the deflections of the vertical, are placed along the

are of triangulation in order to prevent any swerving in azimuth of the

triangle sides.

Triangulation was extended to the eastward of the two terminal points

mentioned above, one into Nevada and the other into Arizona, to check the

stability of the ground occupied by the terminal stations.

A readjustment of the triangulation net of the western half of the country,

made a few years ago, furnished the basis for the study of the changes in

geographic positions in California. These changed positions are due to two

factors: first, the unavoidable errors of triangulation; and second, earth

movements. Certain parts of the triangulation showed such small changes in

position that no earth movements are indicated. The agreement of the old

and the new angles for these apparently unmoved areas furnishes a means of

testing angles along those parts of the triangulation where movements are

indicated.

For instance, a comparison of the old and the new values for 254 angles in

the unaffected regions showed that only six had differences greater than 2”

and no one angle had old or new values differing as much as 3”.

At some of the stations, in the vicinity of Pt. Arena, there were changes in

angles as great as 263”, also at stations between Mt. Ross and the vicinity of

San Luis Obispo there were changes as great as 14”’ in the angles. These

changes were so large as to definitely indicate earth movements. It is

FEB. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 89

possible to use the results of the adjustment of the western half of the triangu-

lation of the United States, involving 13,000 miles of arc, to determine the

accuracy with which a distance is obtained from triangulation. The differ-

ences in the values for the lengths of sides of triangles, determined by the old

and the new triangulation, can be compared with the accuracy with which

distances can be obtained and, should the two differ greatly, earth movement

would be indicated.

The greatest change in geographic position for any one station was 10.4

feet at Pt. Reyes L. H. The next largest one is at station Lane, 7.4 feet.

That station is close to Pt. Arena. The third largest change is at station

Santa Ana which is 6.5 feet. In general, the changes are in a southeasterly

direction for the stations to the eastward of the San Andreas fault and the

few stations which have northerly or northwesterly changes are on the western

side of the fault. The general conclusion may be reached that no material

change in geographic positions due to earthquakes has occurred at points

used in the triangulation which are far removed from the San Andreas fault.

The limiting distance for such movements is probably from ten to twenty

miles. The exact distance is not known.

A study has been made of the old and of the new triangulation of Cali-

fornia and the results of that study have been prepared in manuscript form

for a special publication, No. 151, of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey,

which should soon be off the press. This publication may be obtained, by

anyone interested, from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington,

D.C. (Author’s abstract.)

E. C. CritTenpEen: A standard basis for heterochromatic photometry. This

paper reports two recent developments leading toward the acceptance of a

standard method for comparing the visual intensities of lights of different

colors. In attempting to establish such a standard method we facea dilemma;

on the one hand, measurements of “‘light’’ mean nothing unless they represent

effects on the eye and mind, while, on the other hand, the reaction of the

eye to light is extremely variable. No absolute quantitative value can be

assigned for any light. The best we can do is to assign relative values in

comparison with some standard.

When the quality of the lights compared is different, even the relative

values depend upon the observer and upon the methods of observation. In

many practical measurements this difficulty is met by using filters to equalize

the colors of the standard light and of the one to be measured, but in the

calibration of these filters one must meet the fundamental difficulty. Definite

values for the transmission of such filters can be given only by assuming

definite conditions of measurement, of which some must be arbitrarily chosen.

Measurements on colored filters might be made by many methods, but

only three are seriously considered. These are (1) the use of the standard

Lummer-Brodhun contrast photometer, (2) measurements by flicker

observations, (3) calculations by means of luminosity data involving spectral

energy distribution for the source of light used, spectral transmission factors

for the filter, and “visibility factors’ which represent the relative sensibility

of the eye to radiation of different wavelengths. This third method is far

more complicated than the others, but when it is used all the physiological

and psychological difficulties are hidden in the visibility factors. When these

are agreed upon, the measurements remaining to be made are purely physical.

Visibility factors proposed by Gibson and Tyndall of the Bureau of Stand-

ards were provisionally adopted by the International Commission on Ilumina-

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 4

tion in 1924, but there has remained some doubt as to the consistency of these

data with the results obtained by the more direct methods of measurement.

To settle this question and provide a uniform basis for measurements of

colored light in this country, measurements have been made on a series of

filters by different methods in several laboratories. These filters present a

large range of colors, and deviations of individual measurements on some of

them were large. Nevertheless, average results by all three methods men-

tioned above agreed very closely. This shows that the values adopted for

the spectral visibility factors are concordant with direct observations of

integral luminosity. Furthermore the several laboratories agreed more

closely by the spectral method than by the direct methods of observation.

While the measurements mentioned were made on highly colored filters,

the same difficulties have affected values for candlepower standards having

colors less conspicuously different. For example, it is known that there are

systematic discrepancies as large as 7 per cent between the candlepower

ratings of electric lamps in different countries. Small changes in the efficiency

of lamps have large effects on their life, and this 7 per cent difference in

measurement of the light output would represent 40 per cent change in the

length of service to be expected from the lamp at a given efficiency.

The satisfactory results of the spectral measurements made on filters by

different laboratories in this country gave a basis for proposing definite

recognition of this method by the International Commission on Illumination,

which met in September, 1928. The Commission in effect recommended

that the national laboratories follow this procedure in order to agree upon

common units of candlepower for use throughout the world. Measurements

are already in progress which it is hoped will bring about such agreement.

(Author’s abstract.)

979TH MEETING

The 979th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 38, 1928, as a

joint meeting with the Biological Society of Washington.

Program: Seria Hucut: The nature of the sensitivity of animals to light.

Most light-sensitive animals possess in common certain familiar properties:

the capacity for light adaptation; the capacity for dark adaptation; an inten-

sity threshold; a light and dark period in the duration of stimulus reception;

and the ability to discriminate differences in intensity. From these similari-

ties one may suppose that the organization of the photosensitive system

which determines photoreception is fundamentally similar. An hypothesis

has therefore been proposed in which a qualitative and quantitative represen-

tation is made of these and many other characteristics of photoreception.

This system is a coupled photochemical reaction, and consists of two parts:

first, a reversible photochemical reaction proper; and second, an ordinary

chemical reaction which is catalyzed by the photolytic products of the first

reaction. A definite amount of material is required to be formed in the

secondary reaction in order to discharge the sense cell and to start an impulse

in the attached nerve.

When intensity discrimination is studied in terms of this system it is found

that for an animal to distinguish between one intensity and the next percep-

tibly different one, there is necessary a constant increment in the amount of

photosensitive material decomposed in the sense cell. It is possible to

describe this as an increase in frequency of discharge to the attached nerve,

or as an increase in the number of sense cells functional in a given area.

FEB. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 91

The former makes it difficult to understand the discontinuity of intensity

discrimination, whereas the latter involves the existence of a statistical

distribution of thresholds among the sensory cells. Independent evidence

from the relation between visual acuity and illumination shows that there is

in reality such a statistical distribution of thresholds, the nature of which

corresponds to the demands of intensity discrimination. It is therefore

assumed that intensity perception is a function of the number of related

receptor elements which are functional in a given area. It is, however, true

that intensity discrimination, though discontinuous, possesses no critical

points. And moreover, frequency of discharge in a given cell is an experi-

mentally demonstrable function of intensity. It is therefore concluded that

to discriminate one intensity from the next perceptibly different one, there

must be produced in a group of related sense cells a constant increase in

frequency of discharge, which is the result of the addition of one more func-

tional element to those already functional. (Author’s abstract.)

9SOTH MEETING

The 980th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 10, 1928. ,

Program: FRANK NEUMANN: The velocity of seismic waves over the Pacific

regions. The data consisted of seismographic records of the Honolulu

magnetic observatory where two Milne-Shaw seismographs have been in

operation since 1921. Because of its central location with regard to earth-

quakes in the Pacific region, records were available for earthquakes occurring

at all points of the compass, and this fact is largely responsible for the most

important result obtained in a recent investigation; namely, that under

favorable circumstances the surface waves recorded at Honolulu can be

definitely broken up into two major types—Love waves and Rayleigh waves.

In twenty-seven cases, earthquakes recorded at or near cardinal points of the

compass showed the transverse or Love wave dominant on one component

only, and the Rayleigh wave on the other.

Love waves radiating from sources on the Pacific coast travel to Honolulu

with a speed 20 per cent greater than that of the dominant Love wave group

over the continent. Some records covering the region north of Honolulu

show sharp activities at velocities corresponding to those which Jeffreys

deduced for the two outer layers and the rock mantle of the earth’s crust.

The possibility that these activities were ‘‘beats’’ was discussed.

A slide was shown illustrating the method of studying all available records

for the purpose of determining whether subsidiary activities definitely indi-

cate the presence of surface layers over various paths of the Pacific basin.

The periods of Love waves increase with distance but may vary 50 per cent

from the average value. The periods of Rayleigh waves cluster in groups

which are multiples of ten seconds increasing to forty seconds at the greater

distances.

From studies of the Honolulu seismograms and also other records, it

appeared possible to determine something of the nature of the interior trans-

verse or second preliminary tremor. The azimuth of the initial impulse of the

so-called S wave at an observatory appears to be a function of the direction of

the initial impulse at the origin of the disturbance. The following rule

seems to apply: The azimuth of the impulse at the origin equals (1) The

azimuth from the station to epicenter, plus (2) the azimuth from epicenter to

station, minus (3) the azimuth of the S impulse at the station. All azimuths

are counted from north around by east through 360°. Several diagrams were

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 4

shown to illustrate how the application of this rule yielded a common direction

of impulse at earthquake origins. (Author’s abstract.)

L. H. Dawson, L. P. Granatu and E. O. Hutsurt: The transmission of

ultraviolet light through the lower atmosphere. Measurements have been made

of the attenuation of ultraviolet light in the spectrum region 4000 to 1860

angstroms by the atmosphere at sea level. The absorption coefficients were

derived from spectra of a 1 kilowatt quartz mercury light taken at distances

up to about 500 meters with a quartz spectrograph; suitable comparison

spectra were impressed on each plate, and measurements of the line intensities

were made with a recording densitometer. For wavelengths longer than

43000 no appreciable absorption could be observed at the distances used, and

it was assumed that the Rayleigh molecular scattering law held for this

spectral region. At shorter wavelengths pronounced absorption (above that

attributable to molecular scattering) set in at about \2800, and increased with

decrease in wavelength. The absorption was found to be the same for day

and night and to be unaffected by changes in the humidity. It varied, how-

ever, with the visibility, getting greater as the visibility became poorer.

The visibility was judged by the appearance of objects on a sky line seven

miles away. The conclusion in general was that there is a relatively perma-

nent absorption due to the atmospheric gases together with a changeable

absorption due perhaps to particles, such as dust, water droplets, ete. For

wavelengths below, say, A2100, oxygen seemed to be the most important

cause of the absorption, but for wavelengths between 2100 and 2800 the

exact origin of the absorption was uncertain. It may be due primarily to

oxygen, but other gases such as ammonia, water vapor, oxides of nitrogen, etc.,

may have an appreciable influence. Apparently there is not enough ozone

in the lower atmosphere to produce a noticeable absorption.

The absorption of the lower atmosphere was found to begin at about A2800,

which is the wavelength region where the opacity of the high atmosphere

commences (due to ozone at 50 km. or so). At 2800 the intensity of the

light would be reduced to 1/10 ina distance 5to10km. This is not sufficient

to account for the sharp cessation of the solar spectrum at about 2800, and

therefore the result is in keeping with the fact that the ultraviolet limit of the

solar spectrum is due to effects of the high atmosphere. (Authors’ abstract.)

H. E. Merwin, Recording Secretary.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 19 Marcu 4, 1929 No. 5

ARCHAEOLOGY .—On the recent discovery of a flint arrow-head in early

Pleistocene deposits at Frederick, Oklahoma. Outver P. Hay,

Washington, D. C.

A recent article by Dr. Charles N. Gould,? state geologist of Okla-

homa, records the discovery of a flint arrow-head in Pleistocene deposits

in a sand pit worked by Mr. A. H. Holloman, near Frederick, in south-

western Oklahoma. For those not familiar with the locality and the

circumstances I will briefly describe them.

Immediately north of Frederick is the south end of a ridge averaging

about one half mile in width, rising about one hundred feet above the

surrounding country. The ridge extends from eight to ten miles

north and gradually subsides in height. It is composed mostly of

sand, fine and coarse, and gravel, including some stones of diameters up

to five inches. The bottom consists of a few feet of gravel cemented

into a moderately hard rock. The sand and gravel are distinctly

cross-bedded and were evidently laid down by a stream that brought

them long ago from probably the Wichita Mountains, twenty miles

tothe north. The deposit rests on the Permian red clay which covers a

large portion of this part of the State. After a time the stream

became choked by its deposit and sought a channel elsewhere. Still

later the Permian on each side was eroded away at least one hundred

feet and the old forsaken river bed became a ridge.

For some years Mr. Holloman has been exploiting this tinoeld to

supply customers with sand, gravel and clay for buildings and roadbeds

and has removed two or three acres of the materials. In doing so he

has at various times discovered the bones and teeth of twenty-five or

1 Received February 2, 1929.

* This Journ. 19: 68. 1929.

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 5

more species of extinct animals. About two years ago he found, as he

affirms, embedded in the cemented gravel, at a depth of about twenty-

five feet, a flint arrow-head. Later, at a somewhat higher level, he

discovered what is probably a flint drill; also some grinding stones, or

metates. Accounts of these have been published, but doubts have

been entertained as to the antiquity of the objects.

About the middle of September, 1928, Mr. Holloman observed

another arrow-head in the cemented gravel at a depth of thirteen feet

and near the Permian floor. Work was stopped at once at that point

and Mr. A. N. Krause, a photographer, was called. He had long

been a friend of Dr. Gould and had been requested by him to photo-

graph in its original position any special object that should be found.

He took pictures of the arrow-head before removing it and these were

sent to Dr. Gould, at Norman. Within a few days he and Dr. Leslie

Spier and others of the University of Oklahoma went to Frederick.

The face of the pit where the arrow-head had been buried had mean-

while not been disturbed. The arrow-head was put in its former

position on the rock and other photographs were taken. Unfor-

tunately the photographs are nearly all very small and are not adapted

for reproduction. One taken of the arrow-head after removal shows

the object to be 56 mm. long and 38 mm. wide. It is said by Dr.

Spier to be a nicely chipped artifact.

Dr. Gould’s report on the case has been published, as cited. Dr.

Spier has written a statement for me and kindly permits me to quote it.

It follows:

There can be no doubt that the artifacts occur in the pit near the basal

portion, on the same level as the fossil remains. An examination of the

undisturbed face of the pit, immediately above the position of the finds,

showed unbroken, nearly horizontal strata above it. There is no evidence of

gullying at this point, whatever may have been the case with respect to the

other finds. As the case stands, it looks very much as though the artifacts

are of the same antiquity as the fossil animals. At the same time it would be

well to reserve final judgment until we are certain that the artifacts are not

secondary inclusions. It must be borne in mind that the artifacts are of a

distinctly modern type and their occurrence with an early Pleistocene fauna

is incongruous when considered in the light of Old World finds.

This new discovery, attested as it is by two scientific men, one a

geologist, the other an anthropologist, corroborates Mr. Holloman’s

statements regarding the finding of the objects about two years ago.

Invariably, when Pleistocene artifacts have been reported, the:

objection has been raised that no scientific man has been a witness to

MARCH 4, 1929 HAY: PLEISTOCENE ARROWHEAD 95

the occurrence. This objection can hardly be made in the present

case.

But Dr. Gould and Dr. Spier are not the only scientific men who

have participated in such discoveries. In 1874 another scientific

man reported? that he had two years before writing taken out of

the loess with his own hands, in a railroad cut, two and a half miles

southeast of Omaha, at a depth of twenty feet, a large flint arrow-head.

This was buried thirteen inches below and a little to one side of the

lumbar vertebra of an elephant. At another time, about 1869, he

had found a small arrow-head in the loess near Sioux City, Iowa.

This man was Professor Samuel Aughey, of the University of Nebraska,

geologist and zoologist.

Another man of science, Dr. W J McGee, geologist and anthro-

pologist, has given his testimony. Riding along Walker River,

Nevada, in 1882, he observed an obsidian arrow-head in a nearly

horizontal position with its point sticking out of the lake silt, twenty-

five feet below the surface. Sitting down he pondered half an hour

how the arrow-head had reached that position, but all his hypotheses

were dissipated when with his knife he cut away the silt in which it was

embedded. He was wholly unable to explain the case. From that

same deposit he had on that day collected remains of elephant, horse,

bison and camel.

About 1916 Dr. E. H. Sellards, then state geologist of Florida,

assured the public that he had found artifacts and remains of

skeletons of human beings associated with bones of extinct Pleistocene

mammals at Vero, Florida. The anthropologists and geologists who

at his invitation visited the locality marshaled an array of arguments

to show that he was mistaken. More recently Dr. Gidley, at New

Smyrna, and Dr. Loomis and Dr. Gidley at Melbourne explored de-

posits of the same age and in every way confirmed and extended Dr.

Sellards’ discoveries.

For several decades the public had been assured that the argillite

artifacts found in the yellow loam at Trenton, New Jersey, three or

four feet thick, had reached their places accidentally and were relics

of Indians of no great antiquity. Eminent geologists and anthro-

pologists affirmed that the loam was probably composed of wind-blown

sand and dust laid down after Delaware River had cut its deep channel

and that the stones in it had been carried there by the makers of the

artifacts; or that the deposit had been laid down during a marine sub-

U.S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr. Ann. Rept. 1874: 254. ill.

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 5

mergence; that, whatever its origin, it had been completely worked

over by burrowing mammals, insects and worms, by the penetration

of roots and by the overturning of trees. The artifacts were asserted

to have made their way down by means of burrows and rootholes. In

short, there was no certainty of anything, except the non-antiquity

of the artifacts.

Using a new method of research Dr. Leslie Spier demonstrated that

the artifacts and the pebbles had a definite and orderly arrangement

and had been deposited by the same agency and at the same time,

and that the argillite artifacts were not those of the modern Indians.

Dr. Spier’s investigations indicate clearly that the clay, sand, stones

and artifacts were brought there from a not distant point by water

escaping from the front of the Wisconsin glacier, and this conclusion

has been accepted by Dr. Clark Wissler.t With this exception, I

can not learn that any anthropologist or any geologist has ever men-

tioned in print Dr. Spier’s remarkable paper.

These are only a few of the contributions made by scientific men to

the history of early man in America. If now the honesty of such men

or their ability to discriminate is called into doubt they are in such

matters put on a level with men who are untrained.

Besides these geologists and anthropologists there have been many

men who have made no claim to scientific training, but who were

observant and, so far as we know, honest, and who reported what they

saw and handled. Some of these may have been mistaken, but their

concordant testimony can not easily be ignored.

Whenever evidences of Pleistocene man have been reported most

anthropologists have been ready to explain the occurrences as the

result of the action of natural agencies within recent times. I need

not to repeat a catalogue of these agencies. They are possible sources

of error, but rarely or never have those proposing such explanations

been able to show that the agency proposed really acted in that

particular case, and I know of no one who has done more to show the

futility of these theories than Dr. Leslie Spier.

It was therefore somewhat surprising, on reading Dr. Spier’s com-

munications in Science (February 10 and August 24, 1928), to find him

coming forward to propose the same explanations that he had so

completely discredited by his work at Trenton. Asa result of his

recent investigations at Frederick, he is now ready to withdraw or to

qualify most of these.

‘Sci. Month. 2: 234. 1916.

MARCH 4, 1929 HAY: PLEISTOCENE ARROWHEAD 97

What now are the results secured and what are the conclusions that

we must reach? I shall begin with the Trenton case, the one which

furnishes evidences of probably late Pleistocene man.

While the Wisconsin glacier lay across the Delaware at Belvidere a

tremendous frontage sent its flood down the river past Trenton.

When the ice had retired to about latitude 42° 30’ the frontage was

reduced to a very few miles. It was probably about this time that the

river had cut its deep channel and had finished laying down the bed of

loam. A little later all the glacial discharge of the region north of

Trenton was diverted into the Hudson and the Susquehanna rivers.

‘This may have occurred, we must believe, from twelve to twenty

thousand years ago, but this was long before the close of the Wisconsin

glacial stage. How are our anthropologists gomg to explain the

presence of the argillite people at Trenton at that time?

From the loess along Mississippi River artifacts have been reported

from four localities. (a) Near St. Louis, as reported by Dr. C. A.

Peterson, a stone ax was unearthed at the bottom of the loess. (b)

Near Alton, Illinois, an ax was found by John Ford, who presented it,

together with 15 species of loess shells and some bones of a wolf, to the

Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. (c) A stone ax was re-

ported by a Mr. McAdams as obtained from a well in Greene County,

Illinois. (d) At Muscatine, Iowa, flint arrow-heads and spalls were

stated by Professor F. M. Witter to have been collected by himself and

friends.

From the loess at four localities along Missouri River artifacts have

been asserted as discovered. (a) At St. Joseph, Missouri, an.ax was

stated by Luella Owen to have been found in the loess. (b) From

Council Bluffs, lowa, Dr. J. A. Udden reported an ax as discovered in

loess at a depth of thirty feet. (c) Professor Aughey’s find of an

arrow-head at Omaha has already been mentioned, and (d) also the

arrow-head found by him at Sioux City, Iowa. The deposition of the

loess preceded in all probability the Wisconsin glacial stage, possibly

long antedated it. ;

All of these discoveries in the loess, except that of John Ford, are

discussed in the author’s paper’ published in 1918. John Ford’s

report is to be found in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy,

1877, page 305.

If these eight finds are characterized as frauds or mistakes how does

it happen that no such reports come to us from the glacial drifts which

5 Am. Anthr. 20 (1).

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 5

occur in the same region? If the loess slumps, as it is said to do, so

also does the glacial drift.

Somewhat older than these evidences of Pleistocene man is the

human innominate bone reported by Dr. M. W. Dickeson as found in a

deposit underlying the loess at Natchez, Mississippi, associated with

bones of Mylodon and Megalonyx. Naturally the human bone was

explained as having fallen down from an Indian grave into the deep

gully. This explanation has been shown to be incorrect. Chemical

analyses made by Dr. F. W. Clarke proved that a bone of the mylodon

contained less than four per cent of silica; that of the man, over twenty-

two per cent.

Mention has been made of the fossils found by Dr. McGee along

Walker River. Within a very few years past a party sent out by the

U.S. Geological Survey discovered bones and teeth of a bison, of a

horse, and of a large camel in the same locality.

The artifacts and human bones found in Florida by Sellards, Loomis,

and Gidley were mingled with bones and teeth of many vertebrate

animals which lived, so far as is known, only during the first interglacial

stage. Because, however, this is a low-lying region the deposits have

been and are yet by some regarded as late Pleistocene. The animals

found there show this to be an erroneous conclusion.

At Frederick, Oklahoma, we find a different geological situation.

Here occur remains of about twenty-five species of fossil vertebrates

all of which, except man and a soft-shelled turtle, are extinct. Besides

this, there has been required time for a river to fill up its bed twenty-five

feet deep and to go elsewhere, and time for the whole region to become

eroded away one hundred feet, and perhaps considerably more. ‘The

paleontology and the geology point certainly to early Pleistocene.

Anthropologists may have difficulty in making the history of man

on this continent harmonize with that of the Old World, but it will

not be accomplished by attributing to human bones and artifacts in

regions where Pleistocene man might have lived greater likelihood of

getting down deep into the earth than they have where man could

not have lived.

Our anthropologists have still more difficulty in accepting the view

that early Pleistocene men were able to produce flint weapons as skill-

fully chipped as those found in late Pleistocene in Europe. They ought

to recognize the possibility that in eastern Asia there developed an

earlier and more advanced technique and that this made its way into

America far sooner than into Europe. ;

MARCH 4, 1929 BERRY: MIOCENE MELIOSMA 99

PALEOBOTANY.—A fossil Meliosma from the Miocene of Californias

Epwarp W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

The specimen upon which the present note is based was sent to me

some years ago and was collected from the lower Miocene, 23 miles

south of San Juan, California. Recently, in connection with the study

of a large series of fossil fruits from South America, I have had the

opportunity of comparing this California fruit with recent material,

with the result that it appears to represent the genus Meliosma

Blume of the family Sabiaceae.

This genus comprises about 50 existing species, mostly tropical and

subtropical, and largely developed in the southeastern Asiatic region,

but with a number of species in the New World in the region between

the Antilles, Mexico and northern Brazil. Certain shrubby species,

cultivated for their showy flowers, are hardy in southern England and

as far north as about the latitude of New York in this country, but the

majority are not.

The fossil, which may be called Meliosma californica n. sp.,

has the appearance of a nut from which the shell has been corroded,

and is not unlike a tiny hickory or walnut under similar conditions of

preservation, except that the cotyledonary lobes are full and smooth

and not corrugated in the parts that are visible. In the recent species

of Meliosma the fruit is a thin-fleshed drupe with a somewhat cor-

rugated crustaceous stone, and the fossil may be considered to rep-

resent the stone of a similar drupe.

As reduced in size by corrosion it is between 11 and 12 millimeters

high, 13 millimeters in maximum and 11 millimeters in minimum

diameter. It was presumably two celled, since there is a median

septum which appears to have been complete, as shown in Figure 1.

On either side of this septum four conical processes are seen, the two

central ones coming out from inside the outer ones. ‘The latter are

more pointed than the central ones, do not extend upward so far and

are more incurved and at right angles to them; they all merge below

in common tissue, the whole forming a sublunate bounding mass from

which the central processes appear to emerge.

The correct interpretation of the observed features is somewhat

obscured and the single specimen cannot be destroyed in seeking an

answer to the hidden relations of the processes seen. Obviously they

represent the curved lobes of the lobate cotyledons and the similarly

curved radicle of the embryo.. Whether the fossil should be considered

1 Received January 28, 1929.

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 5

to represent the embryos of two seeds, or the more lobate embryo of a

single seed I have not been able to decide.

In the recent species that I have seen, the stones range from one-half

to two or three times the size of the fossil. In the common Mexican

species, Meliosma dentata Urban, they are about three-fourths the

size of the fossil. In Meliosma herberti Rolfe of the Antilles they are

about the same size. The ovary of these is usually two celled, but

occasionally three celled, with two ovules in each cell, of which but one

usually matures; the seed coat is thin to membranous; the cotyledons

are lobed and curved, as is also the radicle; endosperm is normally

wanting or very thin; and usually but a single seed matures.

Figures 1 and 2. Meliosma californica Berry, n. sp. 1. End view, natural size.

2. Side view, slightly enlarged.

I regard the identification of the fossil as reasonably certain, and it

indicates a wider geographical range of the genus in the Western

Hemisphere than prevails at the present time, and a late Tertiary

restriction of range which may legitimately be attributed to climatic

changes. A similar conclusion is also indicated for the Eastern

Hemisphere by a Pliocene species described from Holland by the

Reids.?

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

98IsT MEETING

The 981st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 24, 1928.

Program: C. R. RANDALL: A method for detecting dissymmetry in the prongs

of a tuning fork. The frequency of a freely vibrating tuning fork varies in

general with the kind of mounting. In the present investigation a number of

low frequency (about 70 vibrations per second) forks were worked with.

2C. & E.M. Ret. The Pliocene floras of the Dutch-Prussian border, p. 113, pl. 11,

figs. 19-21. 1915.

MARCH 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 101

It was found:

(1) That any dissymmetry present in the two prongs of the fork may be

seen readily by the eye if the fork is clamped tightly in a horizontal position on

a heavy rectangular base (about fifty times the weight of the fork) and if the

base is placed on sponge rubber blocks so that it is free to move.

(2) For a dissymmetrical fork it may be found by the naked eye that there

is a particular position of the fork clamp on base where the two prongs will

each have a frequency of their own, perhaps differing from each other by as

much as 2 per cent for half-second intervals.

(3) This dissymmetry of the two prongs may be corrected to within 0.1

per cent, say, by direct observation by placing a proper load at the end of the

proper prong.

(4) If now the base is given a firm support the slight difference in frequency

will disappear and the common frequency of the two prongs will lie somewhere

between.

(5) It is probable that a fork once permanently corrected for dissymmetry

will have a free vibration frequency for } second intervals constant to within

0.03 per cent, provided: (a) the fork is given a reasonably rigid, firm, massive

mounting, and (b) the temperature and amplitude are practically constant.

(Author’s abstract.)

C. Moon: A precision method of rating a tuning fork.

L. B. Tuckerman: Making a high-grade reticule. The optical lever system

consisting of an autocollimator and a quadruple mirror system devised by me

several years ago is being increasingly used in strain gages for the measurement

of small deformations. Each instrument so far constructed has had its own

calibration constant, differing in some cases by as much as two to three per

cent from one.

Where thousands of readings are taken, the multiplication of each by some

factor as 0.973 is time-consuming and adds materially to the cost of the

measurements. For this reason it was decided to attempt to produce stand-

ard autocollimators and strain gages which should have a calibration factor of

1.000 within the tolerance of + 1/10 per cent. This required a standard

lever arm on the strain gage lozenge, autocollimator objectives of standard

focal length, and standard reticules, all accurate within + 1/10 per cent.

Stellite lozenges with a lever arm =0.2000 + 0.0001 in. have been made by

the Gage Section of the Bureau of Standards. Objective lenses specially

corrected for spherical aberration and coma and adjustable in focal length to

25 em. within 1/20 per cent have been designed by Dr. Gardner and con-

structed by the Optical Instrument Shop of this Bureau.

The construction of photographic reticules of the desired accuracy proved

difficult. After trying many methods, reticules were finally produced which

have no error greater than 1/10 per cent within the limits of their normal use.

These were produced in the following manner. The bed of a Geneva Society

ruling engine was mounted on a milling machine and with a specially ground

milling cutter properly spaced cuts were made in a copper engraving plate.

Prints from this plate were made on special map paper. Engraved lettering

and numbering was mounted in the proper places and the outline of the

reticule patterns carefully drawn in. A one-half size photographic reduction

of these diagrams was then made, the superfluous lines blocked out on the

negative and a zine etching made. Prints from these etchings (50 cm. in

diameter) were sent to Rheinberg and Company in England who produced

from them glass reticules 2 cm. in diameter by their method of “grainless

photography.” The accuracy of the reproduction was controlled at every

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 5

step of the process by measurements made by Dr. Judson of the Length

Section of the Bureau of Standards.

The zine etchings showed no errors greater than 1/20 per cent and the

errors of the finished reticules exceed 1/10 per cent only near the ends of the

scale.

The production of these reticules was only possible through the codperation

of many people. Especial credit is due to Mr. J. H. Larrabee and his assist-

ants of the Map Division of the Hydrographic Office of the Navy Department.

The precision photographing, etching and printing done by them was an

essential part of the making of the reticules. (Author’s abstract.)

982D MEETING

The 982d meeting, constituting the 58th annual meeting, was held at the

Cosmos Club December 8, 1928.

The officers elected for the ensuing year are as follows: President, L. H.

Apams; Vice Presidents, W. D. LAMBERT and F. E. Wricut; Treasurer, O. H.

GisH; Recording Secretary, O. S. ApamMs; Members-at-large of the General

Committee, E. OO. HuLBpurt and F. WENNER.

Program: H. N. Eaton: Model experiments applied to river regulation.

There is great interest at the present time in flood control on our rivers owing

to the recent disaster along the Mississippi and the resultant plans for the

construction of comprehensive regulation works designed to minimize damage

from the recurrence of high water. In Europe the use of model experiments

as a guide in planning river and harbor regulation has become almost univer-

sal, as is made evident in a recent book, “Hydraulic Laboratory Practice.”

This method has not been developed to any great extent in this country,

partly owing to a lack of appreciation of what has been accomplished abroad.

The first application of model experiments to a practical river problem was

made by Fargue in France when he studied by means of a model with a sand

bed the effect of the proposed regulation of the Garonne river. He found

that in this instance regulation works must supplement dredging in order

to produce effective results. He did not pay much attention to conditions

of similarity between his model and its prototype in nature, yet was able to

obtain valuable information from his tests.

Tests of this kind were first placed on a scientific basis by Osborne-Reynolds

in England in his work with models of the Mersey Estuary. Further work

was done by Vernon-Harcourt’ Professor Engels at Dresden commenced work

about the first of this century with river models, and this work has been

expanded continually until there are now about a score of river laboratories

in Europe working actively on this and related problems.

One of the most interesting and scientific investigations of this nature has

been made at the Versuchsanstalt fiir Wasserbau and Schiffbau in Berlin in

connection with the low water regulation of the Elbe river. ‘The report on

this investigation illustrates clearly the processes involved in computing

various transference scales connecting quantities in the model with those in

nature. This is difficult when there is movement of sediment in the model,

particularly as regards the scales of depth, slopes, time and quantity of sedi-

ment moved. The method of computing these scales is given in detail in their

report, together with a discussion of the results obtained by trying various

arrangements of regulating works in the model river.

One interesting feature was the discovery of waves of sand which moved

slowly down the river, as was determined by taking successive longitudinal]

MARCH 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 103

profiles of the river bed. Other interesting results were obtained from a

study of the prevention of scour around the ground sills. The customary

formation of a bar at the crossovers was prevented by a slight constriction of

the river banks. (Auwthor’s abstract.)

H. E. Merwin, Recording Secretary

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

723RD MEETING

The 723rd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 20, 1928, at

§:10 p. m., with Vice-President WETMORE in the chair and 70 persons present.

A resolution presented by Dr. L. O.. Howarp commending the services to

science of Dr. CarLos E. Porter of Santiago, Chile, was read by the Secretary

and discussed by Dr. W. L. Scumirr. On proper motion it was voted that the

resolution be approved by the Society and a copy transmitted to Dr. Porter.

The resolution follows:

Whereas, Dr. Cantos E. Porter founded, thirty-two years ago, the valuable scien-

tific periodical known as the Revista Chilena and has continued it through all the years

since, practically single-handed and unaided, with very great expenditure of valuable

time and very considerable personal financial loss;

And Whereas, he has, through this journal, made possible the prompt publication of

the results of the work of recognized South American scientific men and of those en-

deavoring to achieve recognition by the publication of the results of their studies in the

field of science;

And Whereas, he has built up an extremely valuable and noteworthy zoological

library, particularly in the fields of entomology, carcinology and economic zoology, the

_ best of its kind in his own country, and in doing so has rendered inestimable service to

science, not only in Chile but also in other countries in South America;

And Whereas, he has fostered science and encouraged other workers to the utmost of

his ability, not only personally but through his teachings and lectures;

Therefore Be It Resolved, That the Biological Society of Washington extends to

Cartos E. Porter its hearty commendation and recognition for the great service he has

rendered his native land and science in general in the furtherance and perpetuation of

scientific research and endeavor.

T. E. Snyper, one of the delegates from the Society to the Fourth Ento-

mological Congress held at Ithaca in 1928, made a report.

C. W. Strives exhibited drawings of a nematode (Gongylonema sp.) which

is only rarely found in man. The present infestation, which occurred in a

patient in Richmond, Virginia, is only the fifth American case reported since

1917. The infestation was evidently caused by eating a cockroach or beetle.

A species of Gongylonema is associated with cancer in rats but certainly not in

man.

Howarp Batt reported the observation of several Golden Plover, one of

which was taken, in the vicinity of Washington this autumn.

F. C. Linco reported the recent capture of three specimens of Forster

Tern in the vicinity of Washington, from a flock of perhaps twenty. He

also noted the taking of a nest and eggs of Prothonotary Warbler in the

vicinity of Washington last June, the first definite local record of breeding

for this species.

A. Wermorz reported the taking of two specimens of Boat-tailed Grackle

near Ocean City, Maryland, on October 6, 1928, out of a flock of about a

dozen.

rT)

104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 19, No. 5

Program: ArtHur H. Howey: Animal life in a North Carolina forest.—

The speaker outlined studies made in the Bent Creek area of the Pisgah Na-

tional Forest, N. C., during April and May, 1928, under cooperative arrange-

ment between the Forest Service and the Biological Survey.

Efforts were directed chiefly to ascertaining the mammal and bird popula-

tion on several two-acre tracts in typical portions of the forest. An average

of 50 small traps was operated on each area for periods of 14 days each; on

an oak-chestnut area on steep north slope, 12 rodents, 4 shrews, and 1 bat

were recorded; on an oak-pine area, 7 rodents and 1 shrew; on an area of the

cove-hardwood type, 24 rodents and 6 shrews. The rodents comprised 3

species of Peromyscus, Napaeozapus insignis, Sciurus carolinensis, Glaucomys

volans, and Sylvilagus floridanus; the shrews were Blarina brevicauda, Sorex

(2 species), and Mzcrosorex hoyi. The stomachs of all mammals caught were

saved for future examination of the food contents. Twenty-two species of

birds were recorded on the areas studied. (Author’s abstract.)

ALEXANDER WETMORE: Zoological exploration in Hispaniola.—The island

that Columbus named Hispaniola, divided politically between the Dominican

Republic and the Republic of Haiti, offers one of the most interesting areas for

zoological study in the West Indies, since it has the largest area of land above

3000 feet altitude to be found in the Greater Antilles. Early collectors in

Cuba, Jamaica, and Porto Rico found a coastal plain fauna, and an inland

fauna was encountered in the hills that did not change appreciably in char-

acter in the limited areas of higher altitudes. When these same two associa-

tions of animals were found in the island of Hispaniola, it was assumed that

the same conditions held in higher altitudes as in the other islands mentioned,

and it was not until 1916 that through exploration by Dr. W. L. Abbott, it

was found there were peculiar forms in the island above 4000 feet that did

not come to lower elevations.

The speaker outlined a collecting trip made for the Smithsonian Institution

under the Swales Fund from March 27 to June 3, 1927, during which he

covered a considerable part of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Work

began at Port-au-Prince, continued to Fonds-des-Négres, and included a

visit to the Massif de la Selle where collections were made at over 7000 feet

altitude. Following the central plain near Hinche and later the northern

plain at Poste Chabert were visited.

In the Dominican Republic investigations began with a traverse from the

border at Comendador to Santo Domingo City, and then to San Francisco de

Macoris and Sanchez. From the latter point as a base, journeys were made

to various sections of Sapana Bay. Continuing inland to La Vega a journey

was made to the high valley of Constanza, and then returning again to the

lowlands investigations were completed at Puerto Plata.

The work included was supplementary to some degree of the prolonged

investigations of the veteran traveler Dr. W. L. Abbott on whose collections a

series of reports are now in preparation. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by W. Scuaus, P. Bartscu, T. 8. Patmer, and L. STEINEGER.

724TH MEETING

The 724th meeting, a joint meeting with the Philosophical Society of

Washington and the Optical Society of America, was held at the Cosmos Club

November 3, 1928, at 8.15 p.m., with Vice-President WrTmore in the chair

and 170 persons present. New members elected: Mary E. Hayness, R. W.

Jongs, G. 8S. Myers, and A. 8. Rrppey.

MARCH 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 105

Program: Se.ic Hecut, Columbia University: The nature of the sensitivity

of animals to light—Most light sensitive animals possess in common certain

familiar properties. The capacity for light adaptation; the capacity for dark

adaptation; an intensity threshold; a light and dark period in the duration

of stimulus reception; and the ability to discriminate differences in intensity.

From these similarities one may suppose that the organization of the photo-

sensitive system which determines photoreception is fundamentally similar.

A hypothesis has therefore been proposed in which a qualitative and quantita-

tive representation is made of these and many other characteristics of photo-

reception. This system is a coupled photochemical reaction, and consists of

two parts: first, a reversible photochemical reaction proper; and second, an

ordinary chemical reaction which is catalyzed by the photolytic products

of the first reaction. A definite amount of material is required to be formed

in the secondary reaction in order to discharge the sense cell and to start an

impulse in the attached nerve.

When intensity discrimination is studied in terms of this system it is found

that for an animal to distinguish between one intensity and the next per-

ceptibly different one, there is necessary a constant increment in the amount

of photosensitive material decomposed in the sense cell. It is possible to

describe this as an increase in frequency of discharge to the attached nerve,

or as an increase in the number of sense cells functional in a given area. The

former makes it difficult to understand the discontinuity of intensity dis-

crimination, whereas the latter involves the existence of a statistical distribu-

tion of thresholds among the sensory cells. Independent evidence from the

relation between visual acuity and illumination shows that there is in reality

such a statistical distribution of thresholds, the nature of which corresponds

to the demands of intensity discrimination. It is therefore assumed that

intensity perception is a function of the number of related receptor elements

which are functional in a given area. It is, however, true that intensity dis-

crimination, though discontinuous, possesses no critical points. And more-

over, frequency of discharge in a given cell is an experimentally demonstrable

function of intensity. It is therefore concluded that to discriminate one

intensity from the next perceptibly different one, there must be produced in a

group of related sense cells a constant increase in frequency of discharge,

which is the result of the addition of one more functional element to those

already functional. (Author’s abstract.)

S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary.

725TH MEETING

The 725th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 17, 1928, at

8.10 p.m. with President GoLpDMAN in the chair and 175 persons present.

Program: M. W. Stirune: By airplane to Pigmy Land.—During the year

1926, Mr. Strrirve conducted a cooperative expedition into Netherlands New

Guinea under the combined auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the

Indian Committee for Scientific Research, of Batavia, Java. New Guinea,

the second largest island of the world, is today the least known of any section

of equal size on the habitable globe. Exploration is fraught with many

difficulties as a result of the rugged nature of the terrain which must be

traversed, hostile peoples who are encountered, and an unhealthy climate.

The objective of the expedition was the central portion of the Nassau

Mountains lying to the north of the Carstenz Top, where a large group of

Negritos was discovered and ethnological studies made of them. Several

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 5

tribes of Papuans encountered along the transport line on the Mamberamo

and Rouffaer Rivers were briefly studied en route.

The total personnel of the expedition was more than four hundred, con-

sisting of Dyaks, Malay convicts, and native Ambonese soldiers, in addition

to the Europeans and Americans. An interesting feature of the expedition

was the use of an airplane for reconnaissance purposes and for freighting

supplies. The large ethnological collection brought back to America is now

in the U. 8. National Museum. (Author’s abstract.)

W. B. Bet, Recording Secretary pro tem.

726TH MEETING

The 726th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 1, 1928, at 8.10

p.m., with Vice-President WrrTmor: in the chair and 80 persons present.

C. W. Stizzs discussed certain questions of nomenclature.

T. S. PALMER gave an account of the recent meeting of the American Orni-

thologists’ Union at Charleston, South Carolina.

Howarp Batu mentioned some of the interesting birds seen at Charleston.

FRANK THONE presented for examination several recent books on biology.

Program: E. R. Katmpacu: Notes on Washington starlings—After a brief

discussion of the introduction of the starling into the United States and its

subsequent spread throughout the East and neighboring Provinces of Canada,

the speaker presented his observations on the starling roosts of Washington.

Both tree roosts and building roosts were discussed and mannerisms of the

gathering birds described. Mention also was made of their winter food habits

and data presented on their seasonal migration gained from returns of banded

birds. The talk was illustrated with slides depicting outstanding features of

Washington starling roosts. (Author’s abstract.)

A. 8. Hirencock: Collecting grasses in Newfoundland and Labrador.—

During July and August, 1928, the speaker visited Newfoundland to study

and collect grasses. He made collections at Port-aux-Basques, St. Georges,

Corner Brook, Little Harbor, Grand Falls, and St. Johns. Newfoundland is,

in a general way, triangular, measuring nearly 400 miles on a side. The

coast is mostly rocky and precipitous with many bays and inlets. The

interior is fairly level or rolling, with many lakes and marshes. There are

low mountains rising to 1500 or 2000 feet but no distinct ranges except in the

narrow peninsula at the northwest. A narrow-gauge railroad runs from

Port-aux-Basques, at the southwest corner, north through St. Georges to

Corner Brook, then eastward through Grand Falls, and finally south and

southeast to St. Johns, the capital. There is a fine closed harbor at St.

Johns to which come many steamship lines. Most of the inhabitants are

living in the southeast corner of the island. Many small towns and fishing

villages are scattered along the entire coast. The interior except in the

vicinity of the railroad is practically uninhabited. The basic industry in

Newfoundland is its fisheries. There are a few mines of iron and copper, some

agriculture, and two large paper mills. The forests of Newfoundland are not

of prime importance for the production of lumber but they will furnish an

almost unlimited supply of logs for paper pulp.

The grass flora of the island is rather meager. Much of the island is

glaciated and because of its isolation many species failed to return following

the glacial period. The dominant species of grasses are Agrostis stolonifera,

A. maritima, A. capillaris, Calamagrostis canadensis, Deschampsia flexuosa,

Festuca rubra, and Poa palustris. Sandy shores are not common but where

MARCH 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 107

they occur one may find Ammophila breviligulata and Elymus mollis. In

marshes and wet places are Glyceria striata, G. canadensis, Desechampsia caespi-

tosa, and Calamagrostis inexpansa. On bare hills and cliffs are Festuca ovina,

Agrostis borealis, and A. hiemalis. A short trip was made to Labrador, with

five days’ stop at Cartwright, and a short stop at Battle Harbor. (Auwthor’s

abstract.)

Discussed by Davin FarrcuiLp.

727TH MEETING

The 727th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 15, 1928, at

8.10 p.m., with Vice-President Stites in the chair and 40 persons present.

New members elected: E. B. Bartram, J. E. BENEpIcT, JR., H. C. Cono-

ver, M. B. Driscot, G. A. ScHutzb, Mary S. SKINNER, and C. E. UNpDER-

DOWN.

E. A. GotpMAN was nominated as Vice-President of the Washington

Academy of Sciences to represent the Biological Society.

H. C. OBERHOLSER reported that there are more ducks on the Potomac

River this year than for many years past, and almost twice as many as last

year. About three-fourths are canvasbacks. The hunting blinds along the

river are not decreasing the number of ducks.

F. C. LincoLn gave an account of a robin which had been domesticated

by a lady in Cincinnati. It was brought her when very young, raised, and

finally turned loose. It insisted on flying into the house every evening and

remained throughout the winter and until the spring, when it disappeared.

Some time after, when she was standing in front of a cage of small birds in the

Cincinnati Zoo, this robin, which she recognized by its behavior and by a blue

band which she had placed on its foot, flew against the wire and gave every

symptom of recognizing her. She is now trying to get a permit to keep the

bird.

FRANK THONE exhibited the fifth volume of the new and complete edition

of Pasteur’s works. In reply to a question by Dr. Stiuzs, he stated that all

books of permanent value received by Science Service are preserved and

catalogued and are accessible to persons interested.

Program: C. E. Racurorp: Game administration in national forests.—

The speaker discussed the problems of wild life administration on the 159

national forests, which contain over 158,000,000 acres, the related uses of

timber, grazing, watershed protection, recreation, etc. In a description of

these areas it was pointed out that some of them are adaptable to game use;

others are now supporting a small remnant of once large herds of big game

animals; some are on the road to a fairly well stocked condition; while on

others the problem is that of too many animals for the feed available. In

approaching a solution of the problem he outlined three broad questions, as

follows: 1, How can we get more game on many areas? 2, How can we get

less game on some areas? 3, How can we maintain the right number of

game animals on any given area? Successful game administration depends

upon the correct answer to these problems. In answer to these questions he

pointed out the need for research on wild life subjects. (Awthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by T. S. Patmer and E. P. WALKER.

F. C. Bisnore: The warble fly and its fifty million dollar tune.—The cattle

grubs or warbles constitute a problem of great importance to many individ-

uals, the annual loss caused by them being estimated at fifty million dollars.

The dairymen, live stock producers, feeders, packers, hide dealers, tanners and

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 5

leather manufacturers, as well as the ultimate consumers of beef and leather

each sustain a portion of thisloss. The various ways in which the cattle grubs

produce these losses and the interrelations between various hosts and these

parasites was discussed. The intricate life cycle of the two species concerned

(Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatum), was explained and other interesting facts

in the biologies of the flies were discussed. Several methods of control were

outlined and their relative merit was commented upon. The flies do not

sting the cattle when the eggs are laid and there is no satisfactory explanation

of the fear among animals produced by them.There are also many interesting

facts regarding distribution and abundance which need elucidation. For

instance, no logical explanation has been presented of the complete absence

of this pest from the Red River Valley of the North. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by L. O. Howarp and C. W. STILEs.

S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

A series of meetings dealing with the general subject of the corrosion of

metals which promises to be of unusual interest has been arranged under the

joint auspices of the Washington Sections of the American Chemical Society,

the American Institute of Mining Engineers and the American Society for

Steel Treating, on Thursday and Friday, March 14 and 15. Three lectures

will be given by Untick R. Evans, of Cambridge University, England, an

outstanding British authority on the subject, who will speak on the following

subjects: The passivity of metals—the study of thin oxide films, The rusting of

tron, and The general principles of corrosion and protection of metals. The

first and third of the series will be given on the evenings of March 14 and 15

in the Auditorium of the Interior Department, and the second lecture on the

afternoon of March 15 at the Bureau of Standards. Following the afternoon

meeting will be a Speaker’s dinner at the Cosmos Club in which the three

societies will participate. The series will cover both the theoretical aspect

as well as the more practical side of the subject of corrosion, and each lec-

ture is complete in itself.

ay, "Mass 6, “The ae of Fiueera ‘

The Medical Society. 5g

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The Anthropological Society.

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io os

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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 19 Marcu 19, 1929 No. 6

GEOPHYSICS.—Deformation and temperature.i P. G. Nvttine,

U.S. Geological Survey.

A steel tape is cooled by stretching, rubber is warmed. In either

case the thermal effect is sensibly proportional to the elongation and is

many times as great as the external work causing it. We say that the

tape is cooled because intermolecular forces are weakened by the

stretching although the strain is far within the elastic limit and strictly

reversible. Similarly rubber is heated because the stretch pulls chains

of molecules into line thus increasing internal potential. But to per-

mit a balance of the energy equation, each of the above arguments must

be reversed. All the energy change is not taken into account.

When water vapor, saturated at 25°, is liquefied by compression,

the external work required is equivalent to 32.8 calories per gram of

water condensed. But the condensed water immediately does 17

times as much work on itself, releasing 549.5 calories per gram. The

large gain in internal kinetic energy which this represents of course

comes neither from the external work nor from released internal

potential but from the great increase in both pressure and concen-

tration incident to the change in state. |

These instances go to indicate the dominant part played by molec-

ular physics in the heat changes due to deformation. It is proposed

here to present and analyze some of the best data available, drawing

such deductions from thermodynamical reasoning as seem admissible

and pertinent to geological problems.

1 This material was prepared in connection with a discussion of the internal pressures

in adsorbed films, but since it is of geological rather than chemical interest, it is here

published separately.

Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. Received Febru-

ary 16, 1929. g

109

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

When a gas is compressed, the heat generated is precisely equal

to the work done in compression. If allowed to expand, doing work,

it is cooled, otherwise it is not. ‘ In any case, the heat lost is equal to

the work done in expansion. When water is stirred, the thermal

energy generated is exactly equal to the work of stirrmg (Rowland’s

experiment). Our established value of the mechanical equivalent of

heat (4.18 x 10’ ergs/calorie) was thus determined. In these in-

stances powerful intermolecular forces (internal pressures) were not

called into play—in gases they do not exist; in the stirred water they

ended as they began. Even in Rumford’s experiment of measuring

the heat developed by boring a cannon with a dull tool, he was in error

apparently only by the energy represented by the permanent strain in

the chips. But for this energy of internal strain, the thermoelastic

and thermoplastic problems would be very simple, heat developed

would equal work done and if either were known the other could be

easily computed. But the internal work in compressed liquids and in

compressed and deformed solids is usually many times as large as the

work done, is positive for some substances and strains, negative for

others, and varies with both temperature and pressure.

The general theory of heating by compression (applicable to liquids

and gases) was developed by W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) about 1850,

apparently as a result of a controversy with Clausius over the latter’s

use of Carnot’s function, and in collaboration with Joule on the deter-

mination of the mechanical equivalent of heat. His paper was read

March 17, 1851, before the Royal Society of Edinburgh.? In a briefer

but more general paper® he later gave general equations applicable to

any deformation. Haga in 1882 completely verified Kelvin’s equa-

tions for the special case of a stretched wire,‘ and later Wassmuth did

the same for torsional deformation® and for bending.§®

If an external pressure p exerted on a body decreases its volume v

by the amount dv then the work done dw = pdv. But the total ther-

mal energy generated in unit mass by this compression is

(1) Pdv = C,dT

where P is the (thermodynamic) internal pressure, dv is change in

2 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 20: 261-288.

3 Phil. Mag., January, 1878.

4Wied. Ann.15: 1. 1882.

5 Drude’s Ann. 11: 146. 1903.

6 Drude’s Ann. 13: 182. 1904.

MAR. 19, 1929 NUTTING: DEFORMATION AND TEMPERATURE 111

specific volume, C, is mean specific heat at constant pressure and dT’

is the temperature change. Hence

ENS i ge

dp;

This last is the celebrated Kelvin formula of 1851 for the change of

temperature with compression. Equation (1) is given as a simple

plausible approach, not a rigorously proven relation. In all strict

derivations of this formula, unknown functions are introduced in the

initial energy equations and these functions afterward determined by

rather laborious mathematical thermodynamics. Thermodynamic

iternal pressure P, like absolute temperature 7’, is to be regarded as

convenient semi-fiction, having a perfectly definite meaning but in-

capable of direct physical measurement. From simple physical

mechanics it is evident that internal cohesive pressure is but one of

four in equilibrium in any steady state. p + P =a +x«wherevisa

distending pressure due to molecular resistance to compression and «

is the kinetic pressure due to heat motion, as intensively developed by

T. W. Richards during the last 15 years. Perhaps thermodynamic

internal pressure P is identical with the physical reality as Richards

has assumed but the assumption appears unwarranted in the present

state of development of the subject.

Since dT’/dp = d7/dv xX dv/dp and dv/dp = vf, the change of

temperature produced by a change dp in external pressure is

dT hie Tav

dp Cy

The ratio of the heat generated to the external work done is

GHA Coal wads oP

(4) pa =

dw pdv pdv p

(2)

(3)

simply the ratio of the internal pressure to the external pressure

doing the work of compression.

In using any of these formulas, all energies must be expressed in

the same units, either ergs or calories. One calorie = 4.183 x 107

ergs. Pressures are in dynes/cm? and v and dv refer to specific volume

(volume of unit mass). C, refers to unit mass.

If the body deformed be a wire or tape stretched by a weight, the

thermal effect is a cooling since the internal cohesive pressure opposes

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, NO. 6 |

extension and thermal expansion is positive. A formula similar (in

form) to (3) may readily be developed

(5)

T is absolute temperature, dT the change in temperature caused by

the weight or tension df in dynes. a is the expansion per degree and /

the length per unit mass (em/gm). This formula has been completely

verified by every observer who has determined a and C, on the speci-

men actually used.

To illustrate the magnitude of the various factors involved, the

following table has been computed from data selected from a magnifi-

cent set obtained with a steel tape hung in the Washington Monu-

ment by C. E. Van Orstrand and his assistants in April, 1907, and

unfortunately still unpublished. I have selected the lengths observed

4 minutes after the load was applied. Readings, all taken near that

temperature, are corrected to 7.5°C. hence 7’ = 280.6 absolute. The

dimensions of the tape were 14685 x 0.640 x 0.0145 em. = 155.07 ce.

Section 0.01056 em?, density 7.70, mass 1194 grams, length/mass

12.30 cm/gm. The specific heat was taken as 0.115 cal/gm/deg

throughout. The coefficient of expansion was taken as .00001185 for

small loads and varied considerably with the strain as indicated.

TABLE 1.—THERMODYNAMIC DaTa ON STEEL TAPE

an ; Med be Les bi ¥ ( pape 9) Eras mt Erasjom / 10| Thermal Ezxpn. Tension

10 C00 .085 . 1670 31468 408600 | 11.85 x 107 129.8

20 Is eyi sli . 7685 31591 413400 11.99 130.9

30 23.09 .29 . 7697 31706 576800 | 16.73 181.9

40 30.85 44 tl2 31838 721000 | 20.91 226.5

50 38.63 .00 .7726 31969 576800 =| 16.73 180.4

60 46.45 .65 . 7742 32100 456700 | 13.24 142.3

70 54.31 =1(8) .1759 32240 413400 | 12.00 128.2

80 | 62.20 .82 lio 32371 408600 | 11.85 126.2

90 | 70.12 .90 1791 31519 408600 | 11.85 125.6

100 78.08 .99 . 7808 32658 408600 | 11.65 125.0

The yield per kg increases slightly but steadily with the load, 5

times as much as would be accounted for by the decreased cross sec-

tion, indicating a progressive weakening of the structure. The ther-

mal effect per kg on the other hand goes through a pronounced maxi-

mum ata 30kgload. The external work done by each kg increment

MAR. 19, 1929 NUTTING: DEFORMATION AND TEMPERATURE 113

in the load is given in the fifth column and the corresponding thermal

effect in the sixth. The latter is computed from the temperature

change, mass and specific heat. Mechanical and thermal energies are

reduced to the same unit, ergs per gram per 10 kg increment in load.

The thermal expansion for this tape under small loads was taken as

.00001185 per degree and this value in equation (5) gives a tempera-

ture drop of .085 degree for a 10 kg load as observed. Since this is the

chief variable in the expression (5) for d7’/dp, it has been computed in

the seventh column assuming 7’, / and C, as constant. The results

indicate 2 maximum expansion per degree (.0000209) at a load of 30

kg, hence a maximum yield to internal kinetic agitation is given by

but a moderate deformation (0.2 per cent). Steel treaters find a

(compressive) deformation of about 8 per cent best conducive to

crystal growth on annealing.

In the last column are given the internal tensions developed by

stretching computed by a formula precisely similar to (4). These

values are simply those of the sixth column divided by those of the

fifth and multiplied by 10 to give tension in kg. The maximum

tension developed (226.5 kg) is not far below the breaking strength

of the tape. At the higher loads there appears to be an interlocking

of the grains which relieves this tension somewhat.

It is of interest to compute the two remaining pressures of the four

which are in equilibrium within the tape at each load. The applied

tensions (loads) and the opposing cohesive tension P were given above.

The kinetic repulsive pressure x = T' a/f is readily computed from the

absolute temperature 7 and the coefficients of thermal expansion (a)

and the tensile yield (8). Contact pressure z is obtained by difference.

All are in kg.

TABLE 2.—TueE INTERNAL PRESSURES IN STEEL TAPE

p [ee T K a 106 B- 1012

10 129.8 56.1 63.7 11.85 53.29

20 130.9 57.4 63.5 11.99 53.40

30 181.9 82.4 89.5 16.73 53.49

40 226.5 107.1 109.4 20.91 53.59

50 180.4 81.2 89.2 16.73 53.69

60 142.3 61.9 70.4 13.24 53.80

70 128.2 54.5 63.7 12.00 53.92

80 126.2 53.4 62.8 11.85 54.03

90 125.6 53.0 62.6 11.85 54.14

100 2k B2a0, 62.4 11.85 54.26

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

From an engineering standpoint, the cohesive tension P is likely

to be of considerable interest. It gives information as to the nature of

the yield under stress not givenby Young’s Modulus, the elastic limit,

or Poisson’s ratio.

The formulas given above, (2), (3) and (4), are readily adapted

to geological problems involving heating by compression and rupture.

Those applicable to shear and friction will be developed below. Since

compressibilities are low and compressions small, even at rupture, vol- *

ume changes are small. Since no elastic or thermal properties are

very uniform throughout a mass, only rough values can be obtained.

If the volume change be given, the corresponding temperature change

is readily computed from (2). v is the volume of unit mass and dv

the change in specific volume. If the thermal expansion and com-

pressibility of the material in question are not available, we may take

for a rough (maximum) value of P the crushing strength, and for the

change in temperature d7’ = Pdv/C, even though the compression be

but a small fraction of the elastic limit. For example, a rock having a

crushing resistance of 10,000 lbs/in? (= 68.90 x 107 dynes/em2) and

a specific heat of 0.20 calories per gram (basalt, sandstone, granite,

limestone) would change in temperature by 0.82 degree for dv = 0.01

ec. For a rock of density 2.5 gm/ce the specific volume is 0.40,

hence for dv = 0.01 ce. the compression is 2.5 per cent. A compres-

sion of 1 per cent would mean a temperature elevation of 0.33°C.

If pressure instead of compression be known, either (3) or (4) may

be used to compute d7' and the calculation offers no difficulty.

For the work done and the heat generated in overcoming friction,

the relations are simple and the thermal quantities involved are small.

If F is the force required to move one surface over another and W the

force pressing the surfaces together, the coefficient of friction, k = F/W,

irrespective of the area in contact. The work FS = kWS is required

to push one surface a distance S over another. This is FS/A =

kWS/A = kW,S per unit area where A is the area and W, the weight

per unit area or pressure. In the absence of deformation away from

the contact plane and of grinding at the contact, this work per unit

area 1s equal to the heat developed per unit area H, (= H/A) =

kW,S. For example, take W, = 1000 lbs/in? (= 68.9 x 10° dynes/

cm?), a displacement of lem (S = 1) andk = 0.20. Then H, = 13.8

x 10° ergs = 0.33 calorie/em?. This is sufficient to heat a layer of

ordinary rock 1 cm thick 0.8°C. Other distances of slip and other

pressures would give thermal effects in direct proportion. If grinding

MAR. 19, 1929 BLANCHARD: GENETICS OF OENOTHERA 115

occurs, the thermal effect may readily be calculated roughly from (4)

taking for P the crushing strength.

The thermal energy developed by shear appears never to have been

observed or computed. A theoretical formula may readily be derived

from Kelvin’s original general equations’ for any deformation what-

ever by making five of the six coérdinates constant and taking the

variation of the remaining one (an angle) in its relation to energy

developed and the thermal effect. But this formula involves proper-

ties of a body not readily determinable and for practical purposes it is

better to treat shear as distributed friction.

If any plane slides a distance S over the next plane and the average

thickness involved is ¢, then S/t is the angle of shear. The work

done is H, = kW,S as above. The number of slip planes in unit

thickness is 1/f. Hence the work done in unit volume is kW,S/t or

simply kW,a where a is the angle of shear. Taking k = 0.7 and W,

= 10,000 lbs/im? (limestone or granite) and S/t = 0.01, the work

done = 0.5 X 107 ergs = 0.12 eal per cubic centimeter correspond-

ing to a temperature rise in average rock of 0.2°C. If the deforma-

tion is sudden to near the elastic limit the thermal effect might rise

to five or ten times this, if moderate and slow it would be very much

smaller.

GENETICS.—The genetical constitutions of Oenothera pratincola

and its revolute-leaved mutations! FrirpA CoBB BLANCHARD,

University of Michigan. (Communicated by H. H. Bartiert.)

THE EAarRLty OccURRENCE AND BEHAVIOR OF THE REVOLUTE-LEAVED

Mutations oF Oenothera pratincola

Several accounts of certain revolute-leaved mutations of Oenothera

pratincola have been written in the past twelve years (Bartlett, 1915;

Cobb and Bartlett, 1919; Cobb, 1921).2 A better understanding of

the genetical constitutions of these forms now calls for the present

paper. The data presented in the earlier papers are explained by the

constitutions then suggested; but further investigations with them and

with closely related forms have provided an explanation both simpler

and wider in application.

7 Phil. Mag., January, 1898, equations 6, 8, 12, 13.

1 Papers from the Department of Botany of the University of Michigan, No. 268.

Received February 1, 1929.

2 See list of references at end of paper.

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

The situation may be briefly summarized as follows: In 1912 seed

was collected by Professor H. H. Bartlett from eight plants of Oe.

pratincola growing wild near Lexington, Kentucky. The strains

descended from these eight plants are morphologically alike, but one

of them, designated as strain H, is genetically different from the other

seven (of which strain C is used as a typical example).

Strain C produces in every generation a small number of mutations

of several kinds. Mutations of some of these types occur also in

strain E; but much more conspicuous in strain E is the great number of

mutated individuals with a striking characteristic not occurring in the

other strains. These characteristic mutations of strain E are of at

least four distinct kinds, but all are alike in having narrow, strongly

revolute leaves, and in producing nothing but revolute-leaved plants

in their progenies.

As may be seen from Table 1, the cultures of the F, generation from

plant E contained only a small number of revolute plants (only two

in a progeny of 522), a number comparable to the mutations occurring

in strainC. Of the four plants chosen as the parents of the F, gen-

eration, three still gave only moderate numbers of revolute mutations

(approximately 8%, 6%, 11%); the fourth, which gave 51% revolute

plants, is the ““mass-mutating” line of strain E. We are still carrying

in culture mut. formosa from this source (now in its 14th generation

from the original plant E), but unfortunately the f. typica of the mass-

mutating line has been lost. Brief descriptions of the revolute forms

have already been published (Bartlett, 1915).

Mut. formosa is normally fertile and vigorous. As will be seen

from Table 2, it gave in the F,; progeny some plants of each of the other

three revolute types; but in more recent generations it has been breed-

ing practically true.

Mut. albicans, as it first appeared in the garden, was vigorous, but

produced few good seeds. As shown in Table 2, the original plants

of this form produced in the F, generation progenies consisting of

three of the four revolute types (muts. albicans, revoluta and setacea)

but not mut. formosa. After the season of 1915, the experiment garden

was moved from Maryland to Michigan, and since that time the very

few plants of mut. albicans which have been observed in the seed pans

have failed to mature. Consequently, any unusual revolute seedling

resembling this form has been recorded as mut. albicans, though it is

very possible that they may not all have been alike.

Mut. revoluta was practically sterile as it first appeared. Table II

mar. 19, 1929

BLANCHARD: GENETICS OF OENOTHERA IL

TABLE 1.—ANALyYsIsS OF THE PROGENIES OF THE ORIGINAL PLANT OF Oe. pratincola

Srrarn E; oF Four oF its OFFSPRING (ONE OF THEM SHOWING Mass-Motation);

AND OF THE F. PLANTS FROM TWO OF THE F; PLANTS. PLANTS NOT OTHERWISE

DESIGNATED ARE F. typica.

Nature of culture

F, progeny of

original plant

of strain E

F, generation

F; in mass-mu-

tating line

Total

F; in non-mass-

mutating line

Total

* This is the origin of the mass-mutating line.

Pedigree of parent

Unknown

E—5 f. typica*

E—19 f. typica

E—25 f. typica

E—43 f. typica

E—36 mut. latifolia®

E—5—229 f. typica

E—5—208 mut. angustifolia®

E—5—208 mut. angustifolia‘

art

E—5—229 f. typica

E—5— 229 f. typica

| E—5—208 mut. angustifolia®

E—5—229 f. typica

E—5—206 mut. formosa?

E—5—229 f.typica

E—5—182 mut. albicans?

E—43—89 f. typica

E—43—72 {. typica

E—43—7A4 f. typica

» See Bartlett, 1915, p. 443.

exactly as f. typica in breeding.

4 Crosses of this kind have repeatedly been demonstrated to give the same results as

self-pollinations of the egg parents.

Analysis of progeny

oes

=3|8

8 S33

= 3S

Bla ie | s S (88/83

SSPE NSH 8 es|23

SBI MeS Mell ec ak 88] 8.

S| Sys 8 cS 53/55

SVS SS & ay Daley

Olea ae iM 0.4) 0.2

ANN AMSy pe sy) Alay = 3 51 143

0} 0} 24) 54) Oo Seo

Oh al IGA eR 6 | 4

0} 2) 5) 63) 1 tit ie

0) 35229) 3-6

48 mut. |20 |16

lat.

10) 57] 54) 644 74. |62

14| 61) 84/1519) 15 85 |77

OO TO ue, 1 ol

OO e200) a0 Ono

A Ol ol aeolian Ali

1|. 0) 3) 4) 5 74 s3)\) G74

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

shows that the single F, progeny of this form consisted of muts.

revoluta, setacea, and albicans. Since this culture was grown, no

plant of mut. revoluta from self-pollinated plants of strain E has sur-

vived the seedling stage.

Mut. setacea differs from the other three forms in several respects—

in fact, as will be shown later, it is in a class by itself, though revolute,

and really differs more from mut. formosa, than the latter does from f.

typica. As it first occurred, mut. setacea was not only difficult to

TABLE 2.—Awn ANALYSIS OF THE PROGENIES OF THE FouR REVoOLUTE-LEAVED MutTa-

TIONS OF Oe. pratincola. PLANTS NOT OTHERWISE DESIGNATED ARE F. typica.

Analysis of progeny

Type of parent Pedigree of parent

mut. mut. mut. mut.

formosa albicans | revoluta setacea

mut. formosa E—5—199 mut. formosa 883 1 4 194

E—5—206 mut. formosa 130 2 0 14

E—5—199 mut. formosa X 218 0 0 91

E—5—217 f. typica*

E—5—206 mut. formosa X 151 0 3 23

H—5—229 f. typica*

Total 1382 3 i 322

mut. albicans E—19—67 mut. albicans 36 3 226

E—5—182 mut. albicans af 3 59

Total 43 6 285

mut. revoluta E—5—190 mut. revoluta 1 17 5

mut. setacea E—5—17 mut. setacea 140

E—5—20 mut. setacea 8

E—5—66 mut. setacea Bill

E—5—135 mut. setacea 14

Total 193

* Crosses of this kind have repeatedly been demonstrated to give the same results as

self-pollinations of the egg parents.

cultivate, but, like mut. albicans, gave very few good seeds. ‘Table 2,

however, gives satisfactory evidence that this form breeds true. It

differs from the other three revolute forms also in its extremely small

size and in its great numbers. It will be observed in Table 1 that the

difference between the mass-mutating and non-mass-mutating strains

lies in the prevalence of mut. setacea. The other three revolute-

leaved forms occur with about the same frequency in all lines of

strain E; but the number of individuals of mut. setacea, compara-

MAR. 19, 1929 BLANCHARD: GENETICS OF OENOTHERA 119

tively moderate in the other with three lines, is excessive in the fourth,

or ‘‘mass-mutating”’ line.

Upon their first appearance, experimenting was begun with all four

of these revolute-leaved mutations. Breeding data odtained from the

three more sterile forms however, were few. Mut. ti rmosa seemed

more promising as material. And when the garde. was moved to

Michigan, after the season in which the F, generation- of these forms

were grown, it proved impossible to carry on any of c! e revolute lines

except mut. formosa. Either the climate in Michigan is more unsuitable

for these forms, or, more likely, the forms themselves are not as

vigorous as at their first occurrence. ‘Thus all attention since that

time has been given to experiments involving mut. formosa. How-

ever, something has been learned of mut. setacea from its mere occur-

rence in progenies of self-pollinated plants of f. typica and mut.

formosa, from its representative in hybrid cultures, and from its

parallelism to a certain other form.

RESULTS OF CROSSES BETWEEN MUT. formosa AND F. typica OF

Strains E anp C

An extensive series of crosses has been made between mut. formosa

and f. typica of strains E and C. The results have already been pub-

lished (Cobb and Bartlett, 1919; Cobb, 1921) but may be summarized

as follows:

f. typica strain E X mut. formosa—f. typica (same progeny as self-pollinated f. typica)

mut. formosa X f. typica strain E—mut. formosa (same progeny as self-pollinated mut.

formosa)

f. typica strain C X mut. formosa—f. typica

mut. formosa X f. typica strain C—f. typica, which instead of breeding true, produces

in the F, generation a mixed progeny of the

following proportions: 1 f. typica, true breeding;

2 f. typica, segregating in the next generation;

1 mut. formosa.

Inheritance, then, seems to be matroclinic in the cases of the first

three crosses, and Mendelian in the fourth.

THe EARLIER EXPLANATION OF THE RESULTS OF THE CROSSES

The earlier explanation adopted (Cobb and Bartlett, 1919) assumed:

(1) that all the forms involved are heterogametic (i.e., formed by the

union of two unlike gametes, an a gamete—usually the egg—and a

8 gamete—usually the sperm) and that there is among the fourteen

chromosomes of each of the forms one (and the same) pair of freely

segregating chromosomes; (2) that mut. formosa arises from f. typica

120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

of strain E by a modification of a chromosome confined to the a group,

giving to mut. formosa a factor for revoluteness of leaves in place of one

for flatness in the other forms under consideration; (3) that, in the

freely segregating pair of chromosomes, strain C carries a pair of

dominant factors for flatness, which prevent the revolute character

from appearing, (even though the a group with which they are asso-

ciated has acquired the factor for revoluteness), and strain E and its

mutation formosa carry the recessive allelomorphs of these factors—

non-flattening factors, which do not prevent the revolute character

from appearing in plants carrying the a which is modified by the fac-

tor for revoluteness (a’); (4) that the 8 group of chromosomes is

identical in the three forms, the 8 gametes differing only in the factor

for flatness carried in the freely segregating chromosome. It was

assumed that the constitutions of the other revolute-leaved forms

were similar to that of mut. formosa, though breeding experiments

were insufficient to establish this. The constitutions of the three

forms and their hybrids were therefore written:

Strain C, aBFF, flat, and, with respect to this character, immutable‘

Strain E, a@ff, flat, mutable.

Mut. formosa, a’ Bff, revolute.

Strain E X formosa, afff, flat, mutable.

Formosa X strain E, a’ ff, revolute, breeding true with respect to this character.

Strain C X formosa, aGFf, segregating with respect to mutability.

( la@FF, flat, immutable, breeding true.

2a8Ff, flat, continuing the segregation of the F; generation.

| lagfi, flat, mutable, otherwise breeding true.

Formosa X strain C, a’'BFf, flat, segregating with respect to revoluteness.

' la’BFF, flat, non-segregating.

2a’BFf, flat, continuing the segregation of the F; generation

la’sff, revolute, breeding true.

(Strain C X formosa) Fs,

(Formosa X strain C) Fs, <

RESPECTS IN WHICH THE EARLIER EXPLANATION IS UNSATISFACTORY

There are three respects in which this hypothesis is somewhat un-

satisfactory. First, it assumes that the factor for revoluteness arises

anew in strain E every time a revolute-leaved plant is produced—

that each plant is, in truth, an original mutation. Second, it assumes

both a factor for flatness, with an opposed factor for revoluteness

(both confined to the a assemblage of chromosomes and therefore

matroclinically inherited), and a factor for flatness with an allelo-

morph merely non-flattening in its effect, (as opposed to one producing

revoluteness) in a freely segregating pair of chromosomes. Third,

the F, generation of one of the crosses recorded (Cobb, 1921, page 8)

failed to show the few revolute-leaved plants expected by this hypoth-

MAR. 19, 1929 BLANCHARD: GENETICS OF OENOTHERA 121

esis, though in all the other crosses made the hypothesis completely

satisfies the facts. Under the new hypothesis it is easy to explain

this ‘‘disecrepancy,”’ and this will presently be done.

A New Hyporuesis OFFERED

A new hypothesis, hereby presented, assumes that strains C and E

are alike in constitution, except that 6 of strain E carries a recessive

factor for revoluteness, and £@ of strain C its dominant allelomorph for

flatness. These 6 factors have no allelomorphs in a; the chromosomes

of a and of 6 are not mates. As far as known, the a groups of chro-

mosomes are identical in the two forms.

Also, because of a ‘“‘weakness’”’ (Blanchard, 1926, p. 148) of the a

eggs, for some unknown reason, the 6 gametes of strain E function more

frequently as eggs than is normal for the species. Strain C has oceca-

sional functional 6 eggs. ‘These, when fertilized by 6 sperms, as nor-

mally happens, give homogametic plants (88), and as seems often to be

the case when the two gametes are genetically alike, the plants are

poor dwarfs (“‘runts’’) which attain a height of only a few inches and

seldom even flower. Strain E produces a much larger proportion of

functioning 6 eggs. In this strain the homogametic plants thus pro-

duced are homozygous for the recessive factor for revoluteness and are

therefore revolute-leaved mut. setacea, the dwarf member of the

revolute-leaved series of mutations.

Mut. formosa, however, the revolute-leaved plant used most ex-

tensively in the experiments, is not, like mut. setacea, a homogametic

plant. The new hypothesis assumes that, in f. typica of strain H,

that particular chromosome of 6 which carries the factor for revolute-

ness has, on several rare occasions, been exchanged (by whole-

chromosome crossing over) with a chromosome of a. This results in

an a gamete carrying, in place of one of its seven chromosomes, the

8 chromosome which bears the revolute factor. Such a gamete,

fertilized, as it would be, by a normal 6 gamete, gives a heterogametic

(a8) plant homozygous for the factor for revolute leaves. This is

mut. formosa. In the most unstable line of strain E, this phe-

nomenon (the production of mut. formosa) has occurred approximately

once in a hundred plants produced. This hypothesis, then, requires

the functioning of a 6 egg, rather than an original mutative change,

3 Aside from making this form (mut. formosa) revolute-leaved, the only known

effect of this 6 chromosome in a is to increase in it slightly the general characteristics

of homogametic (88) plants (Blanchard, 1926).

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

for the production of each plant of mut. sefacea; and a breaking away

of one chromosome of a linkage group, rather than an original mutative

change within a chromosome, for the production of each new plant

of mut. formosa from f. typica.

Though the 6 chromosome bearing the revolute factor, or its allelo-

morph, has ordinarily (i.e., in f. typica) no mate in the @ group, it does

find a mate in the identical 6 chromosome acquired by the a gamete of

mut. formosa. Doubtless these two chromosomes segregate freely in

mut. formosa, but since they are identical there is no visible evidence

of the segregation.*

If, now, this a gamete of mut. formosa, bearing as it does a 6 chro-

mosome carrying the revolute factor, is fertilized by a 6 gamete carry-

ing the allelomorph for flatness (such a gamete as @ of strain C) there are

brought together two chromosomes differing only in a single factor.

Mendelian behavior follows.

Mut. setacea is not only homogametic but also completely homo-

zygous. Instead of fourteen different chromosomes, it has seven

chromosomes in duplication. Just as in mut. formosa the two identi-

cal chromosomes are presumably freed from a and 8 bondage and

become an independent pair, so in mut. setacea the assumption is that

all of the chromosomes pair.

The constitutions of the plants under discussion may now be writ-

ten in conformity with the new hypothesis. When a factor is confined

to the a or the 6 group, the symbol is so placed as to indicate the fact.

Symbols of factors in freely segregating chromosomes are separated

from the a and # signs. F represents the dominant factor for flatness:

f, the recessive factor for revoluteness.

f. typica strain C = aFBF

f. typica strain E = af sf

mut. formosa = afff

( 1aSFF (flat, breeding true)5

mut. formosa X f. typica strain C— agfF— { 2aBFf (flat, repeating the segregation)5

_ lagff (revolute )é®

4 Since this paper was written, Dr. C. G. Kulkarni has made a cytological examina-

tion of mut. formosa, and finds a ring of 14 chromosomes instead of a ring of 12 plus a _

pair, which is what one might expect. However, the breeding data accord so well with

the hypothesis herein developed, and the correlations of the cytological findings with

the genetical are still so little worked out, that one may look forward confidently to a

future harmonization of the results.

5 In all of these plants, the a eggs carry one chromosome which has a mate in any

pratincola 8 sperm. ;

MAR. 19, 1929 BLANCHARD: GENETICS OF OENOTHERA 123

CONSIDERATION OF THE SINGLE CASE IN WHICH THE ORIGINAL

Hyporuesis SEEMED AT VARIANCE WITH RESULTS OBTAINED

The true-breeding flat-leaved plants of the F. generation of the

eross shown above, those of constitution a@FF have been designated

“f. typica strain M (homozygous)”’ (Cobb, 1921). It was the cross

f. fypica strain E x f. typica strain M (homozygous) which gave a

result (previously referred to) not quite in accordance with the ex-

pectation of the old hypothesis (Cobb, 1921, page 8). This cross is

here written out, first with the constitutions originally suggested, and

then with the newly adopted constitutions.

A. OLD FORMULATION

{ lagFF (flat, true breed-

ing)

2oeBFf (flat, repeating

the segregation)

legff (flat, except for a

few plants revolute-

leaved by mutation

f. typica strain E (aff) X f. typica strain M (a’6FF)—of6Ff—{ (since it contains the

mutating a of strain E

and neither of the flat-

| tening factors), and

| producing revolute-

| leaved plants with the

| same frequency as does

| f. typica strain E)

The plants of the F, generation, which should have given prog-

enies containing some plants revolute-leaved by mutation, failed to

doso. ‘This was the only case in which the original hypothesis did not

seem fully to fit the facts, and further study seemed necessary (Cobb

1921, page 9).

B. New ForMULATION

Only flat-leaved, never

revolute-leaved plants,

. ‘ : . | since the factors for

f. typica strain E (aF6f) X f. typicastrain M (aBFF)—aF 6F roar GIUOE Mae RROD

tirely absent from the

plant.

As a matter of fact, the F. progenies from eight F, plants of this

cross, totalling over 6,000 plants (Cobb, 1921, table 20, page 35) con-

tamed, as would now be expected, not a single revolute-leaved plant.

According to the old hypothesis there might well have been, (by muta-

tion of a to a’) several hundred.

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, NO. 6

SUMMARY

In brief, the behavior of Oe. pratincola, in respect to its revolute-

leaved mutations, is now explained more simply and satisfactorily

than formerly. Instead of a condition of high mutability to revolute-

ness in a of strain E, and a pair of factors for flatness in a pair of freely

segregating chromosomes in strain C and their non-flattening allelo-

morphs in strain E, the new hypothesis requires only a single origin

of the factor for revoluteness as a mutation in 6 of strain E, and an

allelomorph for flatness in 6 of strain C. This explanation does not

require any free pairing of chromosomes in Oe. pratincola f. typica,

but does require one pair of independent—or at least homologous—

chromosomes in mut. formosa.

Mut. formosa is thought to originate by a whole-chromosome cross-

over, when (very rarely), at reduction division, and a egg of f. typica

strain E acquires that 8 chromosome which bears the factor for revo-

lute leaves. The fertilization of such an altered a egg by a normal 6

sperm results in a zygote with a pair of identical chromosomes, which

are thereafter free of a and 6 bondage.

Further, the constitution of the dwarf mut. setacea is concluded to be

88, and its occurrence in such numbers in the ‘‘mass-mutating’’ line

to be due not to ‘‘wholesale modification of female gametes’’ as at

first suggested, but to the unusual functioning of 6 eggs in this line.

As strain E was collected from the wild in 1912 it differed from the

other strains collected at the same time only, so far as known, in hav-

ing in @ the factor for revolute leaves. In the second garden generation,

the progeny of one (E-5) of the four F, plants used as parents showed

“mass-mutation’’—the production of a large proportion of 6¢ plants.

The 8 gamete which went into the constitution of E-5 was relatively

“strong”? as an egg, or (more probably) the a was unusually weak,

and approximately half of the functioning eggs were 6 gametes. The

other three progenies were normal, i1.e., they did not show mass-

mutation. In these three lines the revolute-leaved mutations occurred

with about the same frequency as do the flat-leaved mutations in

the other strains of Oe. pratincola. As far as Oe. pratincola is con-

cerned, therefore, the phenomenon called mass-mutation by Bartlett

has been satisfactorily explained. The other case of mass-mutation,

that of Oe. Reynoldsii, will doubtless have as simple an explanation.

In this conclusion Professor Bartlett concurs with the writer.

REFERENCES

BarTLETT, HarLtey Harris, 1915. Mass mutation in Oenothera pratincola.

Bot. Gaz. 60: 435-456.

MAR. 19, 1929 CUSHMAN: FOSSIL PEGIDIDAE 125

BLANCHARD, FRIEDA Coss, 1926. Heterogametic and homogametic hybrids

between two mutations of Oenothera pratincola. Papers of the Mich.

Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 6: 133-180.

Cops, Friepa, 1921. A case of Mendelian inheritance complicated by hetero-

gametism and mutation in Oenothera pratincola. Genetics 6: 1-42.

Cops, Friepa and H. H. Bartiert, 1919. On Mendelian inheritance in

crosses between mass-mutating and non-mass-mutating strains of Oenothera

pratineola. This JourRN. 9: 462-483.

PALEONTOLOGY.—A fossil member of the family Pegididae.!

JosEPH A. CUSHMAN, Sharon, Massachusetts.

Heron-Allen and Earland have recently described several species

belonging to four new genera, and all included in a new family which

they have called Pegididae.2 The species present some very unusual

forms and are from shallow tropical waters. These authors make the

following note. ““The wide distribution of the family in tropical seas

would appear to connote a prolonged ancestry. Geological records

at present give no evidence on this point so far as our own information

goes. It is possible that early stages of the family’s evolution may

yet be found in tropical deposits, but, on the other hand, it must be

recognized that coral sands and gravels such as the family now favours

do not readily lend themselves to fossilisation.’’

In view of this note, it is interesting to record a fossil species. One

of the best known later Tertiary faunas which has essentially a shallow-

water tropical character is that described from Kostej, Banat, Hun-

gary, by Karrer.t This fauna contains many Muiliolidae, including

Articulina and Hauerina, with Peneroplis and Spirolina together with

other forms of generally shallow-water tropical relationships. A con-

siderable amount of material from Kostej in the writers possession

was searched, with the result that a species of Pegidia was found, the

first fossil record for the family. It is here figured and described.

Pegidia karreriana Cushman, n. sp.

Figs. 1 a-c

Test free, unequally biconvex, dorsal side more convex than the ventral;

three chambers visible from the surface forming an irregular spire, earlier

1 Received February 7, 1929.

2 On the Pegididae, anew family of Foraminifera. Journ. Roy. Mier. Soc. 1898: 283-299.

pls. 1-3, 1 text fig.

3 Op. cit., p. 288.

4 Die miocene Foraminiferen-fauna von Kostej im Banat. Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien.

68(1): 111-193. pls. 1-5. 1868. 1

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

chambers concealed by these three later ones, slightly inflated, fairly distinct

from the ventral side, less so from the dorsal side except when wet; sutures

not well marked, on the ventral side fairly distinct, on the dorsal side the

suture between the last-formed chamber and the two preceding marked by a

raised ridge; wall thick, on the ventral side smooth, on the dorsal ornamented

by a series of irregular knobs; apertures consisting of a series of rounded

pores along the region of the sutural line on the ventral side of the test.

Diameter 0.40 mm.; height 0.32 mm.

Holotype (Cushman Coll. No. 10,244) from the Miocene, Kostej, Banat

region of Hungary.

At first glance, the surface resembles that of Sphaeridia papillata Heron-

Allen and Earland, but the structure places it in Pegidia. Of the species of

Pegidia, it is nearest to P. pulvillus Heron-Allen and Earland, but the surface

is more coarsely ornamented and the biconvex form of the fossil species more

Figure 1.—Pegidia karreriana Cushman, n. sp., X 90. a, dorsal view; b, peripheral

view; c, ventral view.

nearly symmetrical than in the recent one. P. pulvillus is described from

DISCOVERY Station 283, off Annobon Island, Gulf of Guinea, 18-30 meters,

from coral sand.

At first, it was thought that “Dzscorbina turris Karrer’’ described from

Kostej might be the early stage of this species, but “‘D. turris’”’ was found in

the material and seems to be quite different with its ornamented ventral side

and larger number of chambers.

This family contains some very queer forms and they appear to be

exceedingly rare. They seem to have been derived from such genera

as Eponides, Lamarckina or forms of D%scorbis by a greater involution

of the chambers. The development of a peculiar thickened plate

which is finally perforated to form the apertures recalls somewhat the

plate-like structure seen in Cancris and Baggina, the latter genus

also becoming strongly involute. The peculiar perforated area of

MAR. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 127

Cancris lateralis (Pulvinulina lateralis) may be noted in this connec-

tion. The Pegididae are very closely related to this particular branch

of the Rotalidae, but the relationship to the Globigerinidae men-

tioned by Heron-Allen and Earland seems much more remote. It is

true that Candeina has rows of pores along the sutures, but it is not

through a special plate as in these groups. The Pegididae have

evidently become specialized in another direction, and instead of be-

coming thin, large-apertured, with delicate spines and fitted for pela-

gic life, have adopted a very heavy, thick test, with a reduction of the

aperture to a minimum, adapting themselves thus to the rough treat-

ment received in rather swift currents and coarse bottom sediments.

The genus Physalidea with two species, each described from single

specimens, needs more material to show its exact relationship to the

other genera included in the Pegididae.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

On February 21, 1928, Mr. O. F. Cook, of the United States Department of

Agriculture, addressed the Society on the subject: Peru as a primitive center of

agriculture. ‘The ancient Peruvians may be said to have attained the highest

development of the art of agriculture, in their system of terracing and artificial

placement of the soil. The cost in labor was enormous, but the improvements

were permanent. The fertility of the soil was not lost by erosion, and may

even have increased with the lapse of time. The terraced lands of the valleys

of the eastern Andes undoubtedly have been cultivated continuously for many

centuries and still are highly productive. The very specialized forms of

agriculture and attendant arts in Peru indicate a very long period of develop-

ment, and the indigenous character of the development is shown by facts of

domestication.

The agriculture of the table-lands certainly was indigenous, since it was

based entirely on the domestication of endemic high-altitude plants and

animals, but there is nothing to indicate that the agriculture of the tropical

valleys was derived from other regions. Primitive people who took refuge in

these narrow, shut-in valleys of the eastern slopes of the Andes were under the

greatest pressure to adopt a settled existence and to make every possible use

of any local plants that could furnish food. The textile arts were carried to

high degrees of perfection with cotton and other plant fibers, and with the

wool of llamas, alpacas and vicufias. As the higher elevations were attained,

accurate knowledge of the motions of the sun became necessary, to determine

the season for planting crops. The series of plant and animal domestications

covered the entire range of habitable conditions, from the tropical lowlands,

through the temperate valleys to the arctic climate of the high plateaus, where

agriculture was carried above 14,000 feet.

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

The number of species of plants and animals that were domesticated and

used in Peru was much greater than in Mexico or other parts of America. A

list of 91 native Peruvian plant names was published in the Journal of Hered-

ity for March, 1925, including all of the more prominent cultivated species.

Most of the plants that were cultivated in other regions were also known in

Peru, and may have been domesticated originally in the eastern valleys of the

Andes. The ancient Peruvians had every plant that was of first-rank im-

portance in other parts of tropical America. Many degrees of agricultural

specialization are still represented in Peru among very primitive people, and

may afford the best surviving pictures of early stages of human progress.

Having recognized that Peru was a center of domestication, this fact may

enable us to follow and interpret the development of agriculture and civiliza-

tion in other parts of America.

On October 16, 1928, Dr. Jonn M. Coorsr, of the Catholic University,

addressed the Society on the subject: Freld Notes on the Ojibwa of northern

Ontario. He gave a short account of the results of visits made in September,

1928, to the Ojibwa bands living around Lake of the Woods and Rainy Lake in

Ontario. The purpose of the trip was to trace the western distribution of a

number of traits previously determined as existing in Quebec, James Bay,

and Albany River areas. He found that the culture traits characteristic of

the eastern Algonkian region extend to the Rainy River and Lake of the

Woods district. Following are some of the features of the Rainy River and

Lake of the Woods culture. The typical family hunting-ground complex

obtains. There were formerly no chiefs. Pagak, Memegwecio, and the

northern ‘‘fairies’’ are well known. Among the types of divination common

are scapulimancy, scrying, and the beaver haunch, and bear kneecap methods.

Among the common types of magic are the use of the bezoar, of the foetal

inclusion, and of singing and drumming, to bring luck in hunting; the use of

the buzzer, the bull roarer, the singed rabbit skin, and feather plucking, to

bring cold and wind; the use of caribou teeth, duck head feathers, bit of the

navel string, miniature nets, and the shoulder blade of the mudturtle, as

eradle charms.

At least six different types of medicine men are distinguished. The Mide-

wiwin is still in fairly full force as well as the cylindrical tent conjuring.

Disease is cured by the herbalists and by medicine men, the latter sucking out

the disease by the use of hollow goose bones.

At death the soul crosses a river on a pole to the village of the dead. In-

fants are carried over by aswan. Kijé Manitu appears to be very much more

clearly envisoned by the Rainy Lake and Lake of the Woods pagans than by

the Cree and Montagnais tribes farther north and east. He is supposed to

be good and benevolent, and to be, as one Indian expressed it, “boss of the

whole thing.”

On Tuesday, November 20, 1928, Dr. Matramw W. Sriruine, Chief of

the Bureau of American Ethnology, spoke to the Society on The Acoma Origin

and Migration Legend. This legend tells the story of two girls, children of the

Sun, who were nurtured in the darkness within the earth. They were given

by their father two baskets containing miniature images by means of which

they were to create all living things on earth. On their emergence into the

light they began this work, creating also the gods which were to be of use to

the people. One of the sisters gave birth to twins, sons of the Rainbow.

MAR. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 129

Eventually the two sisters quarreled and separated, one, Nautciti, going

away to become mother of the white people. The other, Iatiku, married

Tiamuni, one of the sons of her sister, and remained to become mother of the

Acoma people. Each of her daughters when born was given a clan name.

After helping her children for many years latiku finally left them to their own

devices, after having given them full instructions as to their proper religious

observances. They were told that they must travel southward until they

reached a place called Hako which was to be their permanent home. Seven

times they stopped and built their pueblo only to have catastrophe overtake

them, when they would move on. During these periods many of their

medicine altars, ceremonies and societies had their origin. Their mythologi-

cal heroes were born and had their adventures. Other gods were added to

their pantheon. Finally Hako was located and the present Acoma built on

the rock where it now stands.

At the meeting of the Society on January 15, 1929, Dr. Joun R. Swanton

discussed A Newly Discovered Southeastern Indian Dialect. Dr. Swanton

stated that in 1908 Mr. David I. Bushnell, Jr. had published in the American

Anthropologist, under the title “The Account of Lamhatty,” the story of a

Tawasa Indian who had been carried off captive by a foreign tribe in 1707

and had escaped to the frontier settlements of Virginia. As much of his

history as this refugee had been able to communicate, for none of the neighbor-

ing Indians understood his language, was taken down by the Virginia his-

torian, Robert Beverely, and it was this narrative, preserved among the

Ludwell Papers by the Virginia Historical Society, which Mr. Bushnell

placed in print for the first time. More interesting still was the copy of a

map by the same man found on the opposite side of the manuscript. Mr.

Bushnell also reproduced this and attempted an identification of the place

names entered upon it.

During the past summer Mr. Bushnell learned of a letter referring to

Lamhatty in the archives department of the Virginia State Library. It had

already been published but he also obtained a photostat copy of the original

from Dr. McIlwaine, custodian of the archives. While doing this work Dr.

Mellwaine discovered an English-Indian vocabulary of 60 words on the back

of the document with the heading “Sum words of his language explained,”

and he furnished a photostat copy of this along with the letter. Both letter

and vocabulary were by Col. James Walker, into whose hands Lamhatty had

first fallen. The letter covers much the same ground as Bevereley’s narrative;

it is the vocabulary which is of especial interest. This, along with the rest

of the material, was turned over to Dr. Swanton for examination. During

most of their later history the Tawasa formed a constituent portion of the

Alabama and it was naturally supposed that their language was close to if

not identical with Alabama, a supposition rather increased by a study of the

place names on Lamhatty’s map. Yet the vocabulary developed the sur-

prising fact that if it is representative of the speech of the Tawasa tribe, old

Tawasa was a Timuquanan dialect, related to the now extinct tongues of

central Florida. It was, however, intermediate between the tongues of the

Muskhogean group—Creek, Choctaw, Apalachee, etc.,—and the dialects of

Timuquanan hitherto known to us. Dr. Swanton illustrated these re-

semblances by means of slides. He believes that this material adds the final

argument to an already formidable amount of proof that the Timuquanan

and Muskhogean languages are genetically related and should be combined.

Joun M. Cooper, Secretary.

- 130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

405TH MEETING

The 405th meeting was held at 8:00 p.m., Thursday, November Ist, 1928,

in the National Museum. President 8. A. Ronwnr presided. There were

present 36 members and 20 visitors.

Mr. Hersert H. Ross, Assistant Entomologist, State Natural History,

Survey Division, Urbana, IIl., was elected to membership.

Mr. Rouwer, as Treasurer, stated that since the last meeting of the Society

some of the outstanding obligations in connection with the entertainment —

of the foreign delegates to the 4th International Congress had been paid, but

sufficient funds had not been collected yet to liquidate all of its indebtedness

for this entertainment. He requested that members who have not responded

to the request for funds give the matter their early consideration.

The president announced that a portion of the time immediately following

would be set aside for consideration by the Society of the life and services

of our recently departed Honorary President Dr. EUGENE AMANDUS SCHWARZ.

He then called upon Dr. Howarp, as Committee Chairman, to read a state-

ment ordered by previous resolution of the Society and prepared by a Com-

mittee composed of L. O. Howarp, H. S. Barger, and Aucust Buscx.

This is as follows:

Your committee recommends that the following statement be recorded in the minutes

of the meeting:

The Entomological Society of Washington appreciates to the fullest degree that in the

passing of Dr. Eugene Amandus Schwarz it has lost its most learned member, its most

loyal and generous supporter, and the kindliest and most helpful of friends. The

Society points with pride to the facts that Doctor Schwarz was one of its founders, that

he held in the course of the years every office in which he could serve, and that the title

Honorary President was created especially for him.

The Society feels that American entomologists should be grateful that this great

soul has lived among them for more than fifty years, constantly in his quiet way influ-

encing their trend of thought towards the very best methods and towards sound

scholarship.

Signed: L. O. Howard, Chairman.

H. S. Barber.

August Busck.

A letter from Dr. NatHan Banxs of Harvard University, Cambridge,

Mass., to Dr. Howard, containing reminiscences and appreciation of Dr.

Schwarz, was read by the Secretary and appropriate comments on it were

made by Dr. Howard.

Dr. Howard then read a paper on Dr. Schwarz prepared by the above

Committee, which will be published in full in a forthcoming memorial number

of the Proceedings of the Entomological Society. Discussion of the paper

and expressions of appreciation of the career of Dr. Schwarz were then given

by McInpoo, ALtpricH, HysLop, CLarK, Howarp, BisHopp, HALL, POPENOE,

Busck, Mariott, Mann, WEBB, SAsscER, and CAMPBELL.

The filling of the position of Honorary President, made vacant by the

death of Dr. Schwarz, was discussed by Mr. Buscx, who directed attention

to the fact that Dr. Howard was the logical member of our organization to

fill this position. By unanimous vote of the Society, Dr. Howarp was then

MAR. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 131

made Honorary President and was called upon to preside over the remainder

of the meeting. Upon taking the chair he addressed the Society briefly and

informally, expressing his happiness over the honor and dwelling upon his

life-long enthusiasm for the science of entomology and his loyalty to the

personnel of our membership.

Regular program: Dr. F. L. CAamMpBEetu: Some facts about chitin. The

chemical and physical properties of chitin and methods for its detection were

described and exhibited. The differences between chitin and cellulose were

stressed, because of erroneous statements in the entomological literature that

cellulose occurs in the entocuticula of insects. The source and spread of this

error was pointed out. Both the entocuticula and exocuticula of insects in

the selerites and in the intersegmental membrane contain chitin. Neither

layer has ever been shown to be free from chitin or to consist of pure chitin.

Consequently, no areas of the insect cuticula are non-chitinized, so far as we

now know. Chitin in the cuticula is always accompanied by more or less

carbohydrates and proteins, and often pigments (called collectively ‘‘incrus-

tations”). Since hard cuticula after alkali treatment becomes flexible, since

the natural flexible entocuticula contains much more chitin than the hard

exocuticula, and since hard structures (like the ootheca of the cockroach)

do not contain chitin, it was concluded that incrustations, and not chitin,

are the cause of the hardness of sclerites. It was shown also that depth of

pigmentation is not related to the percentage of chitin in a surface structure

and hence can not be used as an index of the extent of chitinization. Since

neither hardness nor pigmentation are related to chitinization, it was recom-

mended that the descriptive term “chitinized,’’ long used to characterize

hard, pigmented sclerites, be abandoned.

It was shown that chitin occurs in the egg shell of a cockroach and a grass-

hopper, when the shell consists of the blastoderm membrane and chorion.

Chitin occurs only in the former structure. The report of Wester that the

peritrophic membrane of the American cockroach is chitinous was con-

firmed and the significance of this fact pointed out.

The staining reactions of pure chitin were briefly discussed and it was

pointed out that chitin stains best with acid dyes, cellulose with basic dyes.

The presence of incrustations may alter staining reactions.

Facts from the literature on chitin were drawn upon for description of

its distribution in plants and animals, its sameness wherever it is found,

its decomposition in nature with special reference to its occurrence in fossil

insects and its indigestibility by mammalian digestive enzymes, and, finally,

its possible usefulness to man. (Author’s abstract.)

At the conclusion of the reading of this paper and after discussion by

Snoperass it was decided by the Society that, because of the lateness of the

hour, it would be better to defer further discussion of it until the beginning

of the next meeting.

The Society was especially happy to have with us for the evening a dis-

tinguished visitor, the widow of the late Dr. CHartes V. Rintey, former Chief

of the U. 8S. Bureau of Entomology, and, on suggestion of Dr. Howard, the

members by rising acknowledged her presence and the honor of her visit.

406TH MEETING

The 406th meeting was held at 8 p.m., Thursday, December 13, 1928, in

the National Museum. President 8. A. Rouwer presided. There were

present 26 members and 13 visitors.

132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

Mr. Rowwer stated that sixty dollars was yet needed to reimburse those

members who had advanced funds in connection with the entertainment

following the Ithaca meeting.

Mr Rouwer also reported that at a recent meeting of the Executive

Committee it was agreed to transfer the reserve supply of the Proceedings

from storage space in the National Museum now needed for other purposes

to free storage in the Lemon Building, 1729 New York Avenue, N. W., as

soon as possible after January 1, 1929. In view of the fact that the Museum

has furnished free storage since 1910, it was ordered that a letter of thanks

be sent to the Museum authorities in appreciation of the favor.

Regular program: Dr. Paut Barrscu, of the U. 8. National Museum:

Field experiences with Cuban insects. He presented in outline a general

survey of the principal localites covered by his trip, then related a number of

individual instances of collections made here and there and exhibited speci-

mens in alcohol of some of the material obtained. Emphasis was placed on

observations of the relation of insects to other zoological forms, notably

tarantulas, millipeds, and scorpions. Instances were related of capture of

tarantulas by hunting wasps (Pepsis obliquerugosa Lucas); of strife between

scorpions (Centruroides gracilis Latr.) and tarantulas; of excessive stinging

from colonies of wasps; and of butterflies (Heliconius charithonia L.) eaten

in large numbers in caves by bats. He reported also on experiences with

large millipeds (Julus sp.) that exuded a strong fluid with staining and burn-

ing properties quite similar to those of concentrated iodine.

These remarks were discussed by SNoparass, ScHaus, McInpoo, BisHoprp,

CAMPBELL, and EwIna.

The next item of business was the regular annual election of officers for 1929.

With BisHopp and Sasscer as tellers the following were duly elected: Honor-

ary President: L. O. Howarp; President: J. E. Grar; First Vice-President:

A. C. Baker; Second Vice-President: F. C. BisHopp; Recording Secretary:

J. 8. Wave; Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer: S. A. Ronwer; Editor: W.

R. Warton; Executive Committee: The officers and A. N. CaupEtu, C. T.

GREENB, T. E. Snyper; Representing the Society in the Washington Academy

of Sciences: A. G. BGvine.

During intervals between votes on the election of officers, the paper en-

titled Some facts about chitin, by Dr. F. L. CAMPBELL, presented but not

discussed at the last previous meeting due to lack of time, was brought up

and discussed by SNopGRAss, Ewinc, Rohwer, Hystop, and CAMPBELL.

J. G. Sanpers, of the Sun Oil Company of Philadelphia, gave reminiscences

of meetings of the Society some twenty years ago, at which time he had served

as Corresponding-Secretary-Treasurer and had charge of the reserve supply

of the Proceedings. He referred appreciatively to associations of those

years with some of the older men, notably ASHMEAD, CoQUILLETT, HEIDE-

MANN, KNAB, SCHWARZ, and PIPER.

J. N. TENHET, of Truck Crop Insect Investigations of the Bureau, located

at Chadburn, N. C., spoke briefly of his work in that State on tobacco insects,

notably Monocrepidius vespertinus Fab., and Horistinotus uhleri Horn. He

also took opportunity to express his appreciation of the courtesies shown him

by the Washington entomologists, notably Hystop and Morrison. His

observations on Elateridae were then discussed by Hys.op.

C. F. W. Mursrseck, of the Gypsy Moth Laboratory, Melrose High-

lands, Mass., described some of the recent work on parasites being conducted

at Budapest and at summer field stations in various parts of Europe. He

MAR. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 133

mentioned also some of the difficulties of the work, the matter of alternate

host factors, and the actual sending of the parasites. His observations on

these parasites were then discussed by ROHWER.

B. A. Porter, formerly of the Bureau’s field laboratory at Vincennes,

Indiana, and now of the Washington office, greeted the society and expressed

pleasure at being able in future to attend all our meetings.

Mr. Roxwer discussed briefly the situation regarding the pink bollworm,

the status of the $5,000,000 appropriation authorized last year, and certain

features in connection with the quarantine work. He stated that on Novem-

ber 22, 11 pink bollworm larvae had been found in a single field, 5 miles from

Odessa, Ector County, Texas, and that 10 of these larvae were found in one

single boll and of the 10, 7 were dead and 3 alive. Very intensive scouting

was being done in the seven counties where pink bollworm was found last

year. These are known as the Western Extension, being that part of Texas

which has only during a comparatively recent period been devoted to the

growing of cotton and which connects on the east with the main cotton belt

of the South.

J.S. Wave, Recording Secretary.

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 6

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

One result of the general prevalence of the “flu” during the last few months

is seen in the extensive advertising of so-called remedies and alleviatives.

The Food, Drug and Insecticide Administration of the U. S. Department of

Agriculture, has listed over 650 preparations of this type and has already

instituted action for misbranding under the Federal food and drugs act

against approximately 114. Many manufacturers have voluntarily corrected

their labelings to meet the requirements of the law. According to medical

authorities there is no known drug or combination of drugs which constitutes

a competent treatment for or preventive of influenza.

Frank L. Hess, Chief Engineer, Rare Metals and Non-Metals Division,

U. S. Bureau of Mines, expects to sail on the President Cleveland from San

Francisco on March 15, on a professional trip which will take bim to Shanghai,

Canton, and other Chinese points, the Malay Peninsula, Burma, India, and

probably Russia and other countries in Europe, returning to Washington

about the end of the year.

The annual dinner of the Botanical Society of Washingtcn was given

March 12. Former Secretary and Mrs. W. M. JarpINE and Dr. and Mrs.

BRANDES were honor guests at the reception; and Dr. Branpgs lectured on

Botanical Explorations in New Guinea, illustrated with motion pictures.

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CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS

_ Geophysics.—Deformation and temperature. P. G. NuTTine..........

Genetics.—The genetical constitutions of Oenothera pratincola and its Tevc

leaved mutations. Frrepa Copp BLANCHARD.......0...20000.ee ee eee scene

Paleontology.—A fossil member of the family Pegididae. Josep A. CusHMAN.

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: AurS HrpuréKa, U. S. National Museum.

Corresponding Secretary: L. B. Tuckerman, Bureau of Siandnnles

Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampnrt, Coast and Geodetic aie gl

Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

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present a brief record of current scientific workin Washington. To this en.

(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of th

* ghort notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Was!

(8) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated so ties 5

notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNAL is iss

semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summ

when it appears on thenineteenth only. Volumes paresis ond. to calendar years. Prot

publication is an essential feature; a manuscript reaching the editors on the fif

the twentieth of the month will ordinarily appear, on request from the abate i

issue of the Journat for the following fourth or nineteenth, respectively. |

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JOURNAL

OF THE

W ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 19 Aprit 4, 1929 No. 7

PALEONTOLOGY.—New Carboniferous inveriebrates—I.! GEORGE

H. Girty, U.S. Geological Survey.

This paper contains descriptions of two brachiopods, two pelecypod s

and one gastropod from Arkansas, and one brachiopod from Kansas.

Streptorhynchus affine. n. sp.

Figures 5-11

Shell small, a width of 25 millimeters being the maximum.

The brachial valve is subquadrate, strongly transverse, somewhat con-

tracted at the hinge, straight or emarginate along the anterior border. The

convexity is low with, for the genus, a remarkably strong sinus which is

narrow posteriorly but widens rapidly toward the front.

The pedicle valve is subconical and rather strongly elevated. It is

gently curved from side to side and nearly straight from apex to points in the

margin, but as the growth is more or less distorted, these statements are only

of general application. The angle made by the cardinal area with the plane of

the shell margins varies considerably; usually it is obtuse but it may be a right

angle. The height of the area is of course largely determined by the height

of the valve and in most specimens it is rather high. The area is often planate

but as the beak is apt to be bent to one side or the other, or even backward

(rarely forward), so the area is sometimes more or less curved. It is sharply

defined on each side by an angular shoulder which in many specimens is

emphasized by a depression or groove down the convex or anterior part of the

shell.

The surface is marked by rather stout rounded radii which diverge rapidly

so that the interspaces make room for frequent intercalations. The radii

are rounded and closely arranged; they are generally rather thick but thicker

in some specimens than in others. At points of intercalation they are sepa-

rated by intervals of about their own width; elsewhere they are wider than

the intervals. They appear in most specimens to be subequal, but in some

the arrangement is more conspicuously alternating and in a few every fourth

or fifth one is much stronger than those between. The radii are crossed by

sublamellose concentric, crowded, incremental lirae, and varices of growth

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. Received

March 1, 1929.

135

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 7

are rather numerous though not very strong. In some specimens the concen-

trie markings are sharply developed; in others they are obscure though this

effect can sometimes be ascribed to abrasion.

The interior of the pedicle valve is devoid of septal plates and the dental

plates are reduced to thick but low ridges. The apex of some pedicle valves

is more or less filled in by a ecallosity. The brachial valve has a short, broad,

bilobate, cardinal process and rather short, though stout socket plates which

are bent so that for much of their length they are parallel to the hinge line.

Horizon and locality: Stanton limestone; cut on the Frisco railroad, 1{ miles

southeast of Fredonia, Kansas.

Streptorhynchus suspectum, n. sp.

Figures 12-15

Shell rather large, ovate. A large pedicle valve measures 45 millimeters in

width, but most are smaller; some associated brachial valves on the other

hand are even larger.

The pedicle valve is high and conical. The outline rounds inward rather

strongly at the cardinal angles and the hinge is considerably shorter than

the width in front. The growth is very irregular and no two specimens have

the same shape. In some the apex is twisted to one side or the other or bent

backward over the area (never in the opposite direction) and most have

abrupt expansions and contractions, or flare in bell fashion at the margin.

The area is high but variable. It makes an obtuse angle with the plane of

the valves, though in some shells the angle is much wider thanin others. The

area is generally flat but may be arched, especially in the upper part. It

joins the lateral slopes in sharp angles. The pseudo-deltidium is gently

convex and very elongate, the height being several times the width of the

base, the ratio varying, however, with the height of the valve.

The brachial valve varies in configuration though it varies much less than

the other. In describing this valve I can but note the characters of the

dorsal shells that occur at the same locality as the ventrals, for in only one

instance have the two valves been found in conjunction. Many of the

brachial valves are highly convex, rising to a very prominent umbonal region

with a steep descent to the depressed beak which sometimes is almost bent

in under the parts above. On the other hand, some specimens, mostly small

ones, are rather flat and may even be concave in the umbonal region. Many

are also marked with constrictions or undulations due to irregular growth.

The surface is crossed by extremely fine sharp radial lirae. On some

specimens the interspaces are wider than the lirae; on others, because of

more frequent intercalation, they are of about the same size and on many the

lirae multiply rapidly over the marginal parts where they are especially fine

and crowded.

The internal structures are not well shown by my specimens and my

observations are somewhat contradictory. Where any evidence could be

gathered at all it seemed in most instances to show that a median septum was

absent in the pedicle valve; dental plates, in any strict sense, are also absent,

though the edges of the delthyrium are thickened so as to form distinct

dental pillars. On the other hand, in one specimen especially, the median

line appeared to be signalized by a low thin ridge which though inconsiderable

in height, was yet suggestive of a septum. Less pronounced manifestations

of a like development were observed on other specimens, but externally all of

the specimens present the same appearance and offer no grounds for discrimi-

APRIL 4, 1929 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 137

nation. A rather common peculiarity, though a feature more perhaps of

configuration than of structure, is that many specimens are flattened in the

rostral region as if compressed and bear a rather deep, rather narrow indenta-

tion; this is received by the internal mold which in turn appears as if the

shell there had been thickened into an elongated solid platform of irregular

shape.

The associated brachial valves have a low blunt median ridge or septum

and long and somewhat curved socket plates.

This species is rather clearly distinct ifrom S. ruginosum by reason of its

more elevated pedicle valve with its correspondingly narrower delthyrium,

and it also has finer and more crowded radiating lirae. Some uncommonly

low pedicle valves of this species may not differ appreciably from some

uncommonly high pedicle valves of that; so also may the surface striae of that

species be in some rare specimens almost as fine and crowded as the surface

striae of this, but the generality of specimens differs markedly. In configura-

tion S. suspectum is more like the species for which Hall and Clarke introduced

the name S. ulrichi. They did not, however, describe S. ulrichi and by way of

illustrating it gave but a single figure representing the interior of a pedicle

valve. It was later described and figured by Weller and the data thus made

available show that the surface striae of S. ulrichi are uncommonly coarse, in

marked contrast to the surface striae of S. swspectwm which are uncommonly

fine.

Horizon and locality: Pitkin limestone; Fayetteville quadrangle, 3 mi.

north of West Fork, Ark.; Eureka Springs quadrangle, eastern border of

sec. 21,T 16 N, R 27 W., Ark.

Tetracamera neogenes, n. sp.

Figures 1—4

Shell rather large, subovate. Width greater than the length, the width in

the largest specimens seen being 30 millimeters.

Pedicle valve ovate to pentagonal in shape, widest at about the mid-length.

The convexity is high longitudinally but transversely rather low. The sinus

is broad, subtending an angle considerably more than one-fourth but rather

less than one-half that of the whole valve. The posterior end of the valve is

nearly planate, but shortly the median part begins to be depressed, the

depression becoming somewhat rapidly deeper and broader, producing thus a

broad, flat sinus; the sides meanwhile remain nearly flat or are bent down

slightly, near the margin. The shell is rather sharply folded downward at

the sides of the rostral portion in almost planate areas which slope outward

more or less making with the main part of the valve a distinct angle of more

than 90°. In gibbous specimens the anterior part of the sinus is somewhat

abruptly bent downward to a direction almost perpendicular to the plane of

the lateral margins. The plications are broad, subangular, and moderately

strong. They become deep and angular toward the antero-lateral margins,

but in the posterior third of the shell they are rather obscure. Normally

three occur in the sinus and four on each of the lateral slopes, the final one

being the angle that defines the inflected areas on either side of the beak.

The brachial valve is highly convex, not much curved in an antero-lateral

direction but strongly arcuate from side to side. In gibbous specimens the

shell at the anterior margin is abruptly and strongly deflected to a direction

almost perpendicular to the part that preceeded it. The fold is broad and

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 7

flat, occupying about one-third of the valve, the lateral thirds falling away

strongly at the sides. The plications are broad, low and more or less rounded.

Near the front of the fold they become strong and angular but in the rostral

region they are more or less indistinct. Normally four occur on the fold and

three on each side. The fold and sinus are not well defined superficially

except near the margin, but the deflection which they produce in the line of

junction of the valves is abrupt and strong.

The internal structures have not been ascertained in detail, but in essentials

they agree with the genus established by Weller. The pedicle valve is

provided with two powerful dental plates which are connected with the sides

of the valve in the rostral region by buttress plates, one on each side. The

dental plates converge toward the median line but meet the bottom of the

valve before they meet each other. Consequently they are not supported on

a septum to form a spondylium, unless, as the test is very thick such a

structure is present but buried within the shelly mass; this is highly improb-

able. A slight ridge or septum passes down the median line, however,

rising from the bottom of the valve between the dental plates. The brachial

valve has a well developed median septum which apparently unites with the

hinge plate much as in Camarotoechia.

Somewhat paradoxically, 7’. neogenes is in its specific characters much more

nearly allied to 7. subtrigona, the oldest of the Tetracameras, than to the

species which are nearest in geologic age, though 7’. neogenes is considerably

younger than any of them. It is smaller than 7. subtrigona and has fewer

plications differently distributed.

Horizon and locality. Pitkin limestone; Yellville quadrangle, near St.

Joe, Arkansas. |

Nucula elegantula, n. sp.

Figures 19-21

Shell large, strongly transverse, irregularly ovate to subtriangular in out-

line. The type specimen is 11 millimeters wide, 8 millimeters high and 6

millimeters thick. The convexity is moderately strong. The upper surface

of the valves is gently arched but the dorsal margin is abruptly and strongly

inflected both before and behind the beak. . Shortly, however, these margins

bend outward again, so that grooves are formed that rather sharply definea

lunule and an escutcheon. These grooves also sharpen the angle made by

the inflected margins with the upper surface. The lines thus formed in the

side view, meet at the umbo in an angle slightly less than 90° though the

outline of the shell, because the lunule and escutcheon project slightly, is a

little greater than 90°. Owing to the conformation just described the beaks

are very prominent. They are fairly large and strongly incurved; although

owing to the obliquity of the axis of the shell the beaks are directed backward,

they do not curve in either direction. The outline of the shell as a whole is

comparable to a triangle, in which the ventral side is the longest, the anterior

side shorter than the ventral side and the posterior side much shorter than

either. The ventral outline is rather regularly and strongly convex. The

lines defining the umbo are slightly concave; that on the posterior side meets

the ventral margin almost in an angle, the anterior end being less abruptly

rounded. The anterior and posterior outlines have a duplex character owing

to the lunule and escutcheon which are partly visible in the side view and

partly obscured.

The surface is marked by fine, regular, concentric striae.

APRIL 4, 1929 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 139

N. elegantula is more similar to N. illinovsensis than to any Mississippian

species. Its distinguishing characters are its larger size, more transverse

shape, and more distinct lunule and escutcheon.

Horizon and locality: Fayetteville shale; Winslow quadrangle, 2 miles north

of Cold Spring, Ark.

Deltopecten bellistriatus, n. sp.

Figures 22, 23

Shell of medium size, rarely 30 millimeters long. Greatest width below

the middle, about equal to the length and about one and a half times the

hinge line. Axis with a rather strong backward trend.

The left valve is rather convex for the genus, somewhat gibbous in the

posterior part with short strong curvature to the beak and long gradual

curvature to the ventral margin. The wings are much depressed, the anterior

wing more abruptly than the posterior. In fact, the descent to the anterior

wing in some specimens undercuts the shell above, forming a deep groove.

The posterior wing, though not so abruptly depressed, is as usual, larger than

the other. Owing to the configuration just described the body of the shell

appears to be sharply defined from the wings and bounded by two nearly

straight lines that make between them an umbonal angle of somewhat less

than 90°. These lines extend downward beyond the wings, and meet more or

less abruptly the broadly curved ventral outline. This curve is not sym-

metrical for it meets the anterior line at a point above its junction with the

posterior line, and it sags appreciably on the posterior side. The projections

of the wings above and of the body of the shell below form two broad, deep

sinuses in the outline the anterior sinus relatively short and subangular, the

posterior sinus relatively broad and rounded.

The surface is marked by costae and by concentric lamellose lines. The

primary costae are coarse, and rise boldly from broad shallow interspaces.

The interspaces however, are occupied by secondary costae much smaller than

the primary ones; their number depends on their position, more being

developed over the median part of the shell than over the sides. As many as

4 may occur in one interspace and they vary much in size according to the

order of their appearance, those that came in first being almost as large as the

primary costae, but those that came in last being very slender. Thus the

costae conspicuously alternate in size over the median region but gradually

become smaller and more uniform laterally. Those on the wings are especially

fine, the transition being more or less abrupt. They are about nine in

number and are nearly uniform in size, with only a few intermediate ones.

On the body of the shell the intermediate costae are developed by intercalation

though some of the large primary costae are double, being incompletely

divided into two small ones by a shallow groove introduced on the crest.

The concentric lamellose lines are fine and regular, much finer than most of

the costae and somewhat more closely arranged. They are distinct on the

interspaces and somewhat stronger on the costae, making conspicuous crenu-

lations. Over the wings they are rather crowded though still regular, and

these concentric lines as well as the radial ones are distinctly finer on the

posterior than on the anterior wing.

The right valve is unknown.

This species is of the general type of D. monroensis but it is a larger shell,

has a more elongate shape and much coarser sculpture with more conspicu-

ously alternating costae. It resembles D. batesvillensis but differs consider-

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, NO. 7

Figures 1-23 —1-4, Tetracamera neogenes Girty, n. sp.; 5-11, Streptorhynchus affine

Girty, n. sp.; 12-15, S. suspectum Girty, n. sp.; 16-18, Worthenia tenuilineata Girty, n.

sp.; 19-21, Nucula elegantula Girty, n. sp.; 22-23, Deltopecten bellistriatus Girty, n. sp.

APRIL 4, 1929 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 141

ably in the character of the sculpture which is coarser, the costae being not

only larger but more widely spaced and hence less numerous.

Horizon and locality: Fayetteville shale; Marshall quadrangle, 4} mile

southeast of Marshall, Ark.

Worthenia tenuilineata, n. sp.

Figures 16-18

Shell rather large, consisting of 7 volutions. Spire somewhat low (about

2 of the height) and somewhat turreted. Final volution strongly carinate;

the carina, which forms the peripheral line and carries the slit band, is situated

at about the mid-height. The surface above the carina slopes with strong

obliquity from the suture. It is rather broad and is slightly sinuate in outline,

a trifle swollen at the suture and gently concave toward the carina. The

surface below the carina is directed obliquely downward and inward for a

space about equal to the upper surface, then, upward and inward. The

surface below the carina is much more highly arched than that above, concave

at first for a short distance, then gently convex around to the impressed zone,

without any abrupt change of direction. This configuration is confined to

the last two volutions more or less, the earlier whorls, 4 or 5 in number,

being more regularly rounded. The volutions embrace rather more than

half the infra-carinal surface, so that the lower part of the shell is strongly

turreted, but the upper part much less so. This difference is due to the

rounded shape of the early volutions together with the rapid increase, abso-

lutely if not relatively, in the surface left exposed below the carina by the

overlapping whorls.

The surface both above and below the carina is finely cancellated by revolv-

ing and transverse lirae, though the upper surface is somewhat more coarsely

marked than the lower. The revolving lirae of the upper surface, 13 or 14 in

number, are not entirely equal in size or regular in arrangement, but on the

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

Tetracamera neogenes, n. sp. (p. 140).

Figs. 1-4. One ofthe cotypes. Pitkin limestone near St. Joe, Arkansas.

Streptorhynchus affine, n. sp. (p. 140).

Figs. 5-11. Several of thecotypes. Figure 5 represents an uncommonly indented

and figure 6 an uncommonly flat brachial valve. Figures 7 and 8 represent

a contorted pedicle valve and figures 9-11 represent a more symmetrical

one. Stanton limestone near Fredonia, Kansas.

Streptorhynchus suspectum, n. sp. (p. 140).

Figs. 12-15. Two of the cotypes, one of them being a small pedicle valve, the other

a much exfoliated brachial valve. Pitkin limestone in the Fayetteville

quadrangle (figures 12-14) and in the Eureka Springs quadrangle (figure 15),

Arkansas.

Worthenia tenuilineata, n. sp. (p. 140).

Figs. 16-18. The type specimen, X 2. Fayetteville shale, Eureka Springs quad-

rangle, Arkansas.

Nucula elegantula, n. sp. (p. 140).

Figs. 19-21. The type specimen, XK 2. Fayetteville shale, near Cold Spring,

Arkansas.

Deltopecten bellistriatus, n. sp. (p. 140).

Figs. 22-23. Two views, one enlarged 2 diameters, of the type specimen, a’ left

valve. Fayetteville shale, near Marshall, Arkansas.

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, NO. 7

whole they are rather narrower than the interspaces. The transverse mark-

ings are more of the nature of lamellae than the revolving ones and are more

closely arranged. They trend slightly backward from the suture and take on

a more distinct retral curve as they near the carina. The points of inter-

section with the revolving lirae are marked by fine nodes. For a certain

distance below the carina the revolving lirae are rather crowded because of

small secondary lirae developed in the interspaces but toward the umbilicus

they become somewhat larger and more uniform in size as well as more loosely

arranged. The transverse lines are distinctly finer, fainter, and more closely

spaced than those above the carina. Their course is doubly sinuate. Swing-

ing strongly forward from the carina they shortly change direction so as to

make a broad low arch; this is followed by a broad shallow sinus which in

turn is replaced near the axis, by a backward curve.

The carina is formed by the slit band which is inclosed between two el

edges or lamellae that distinctly define it. The band itself, however, is

prominent, projecting beyond the bounding lamellae. It is conspicuously

marked by strong, regular lunettes and also by revolving lirae, two in number,

that are interrupted by the lunettes and appear only as two rows of small

nodes connected by more or less obscure raised lines.

W. tenuilineata appears to be more nearly related to the common Pennsyl-

vanian W. tabulata than to any Mississippian species that have been referred

under Worthenia. In W. tabulata, however, the spire is more strongly tur-

reted, the lateral surface is sharply defined by an angle from the lower, and

the sculpture, especially that on the lower part of the volutions, is much

coarser.

Horizon and locality: Fayetteville shale; Eureka Springs quadrangle,

S. E. i sec. 15, T 16 N, R 27W., Ark.

PALEONTOLOGY.—Two new species of “Orthophragmina” from

Calita Sal, Peru. WiLLARD BEerry Johns Hopkins University.

(Communicated by Jon B. REESIDE, JR.)

In 1928 I assigned a new species of “‘Orthophragmina”’ to a new

subgenus A slerodiscocylina.2. Since that time other material from the

same locality has yielded two more new species of ““Orthophragmina,”’

which are described in this paper. Many specimens of A sterodiscocylina

stewart W. Berry were also included; several specimens of Liothyina

peruviana of Olsson, who says that it is found in the Saman Con-

glomerate near Organo Grande and Quebrada Canoas, Department

of Piura, Peru; and “Orthophragmina”’ peruviana Cushman, which

is found in the Eocene at the horizon of the Saman Conglomerate.

Tobler lists ‘“Orthophragmina”’ asteriscus Guppy from a locality just

south of Calita Sal at Punta Sal. I have examined my material

1 Received March 1, 1929.

2 WILLARD Berry. Asterodiscocylina, a new subgenus of Orthophragmina. Eclogae

geol. Helvetiae 21 (2). 1928.

3A. Tosier. Neue Funde von obereocinen Grossforaminiferen in der nordperuischen

Kiistenregion. Eclogae geol. Helvetiae 20. 1927.

APRIL 4, 1929 BERRY: NEW SPECIES OF ORTHOPHRAGMINA 143

with a great deal of care and have failed to find any four-rayed species,

but have found some small portions of six-rayed forms broken so

as to resemble a badly preserved, possibly four-rayed form. On the

basis of the associated fossils the beds containing the material here

described are correlated with the Saman Conglomerate as described

by Olsson and Iddings,‘ and by Olsson.*

The two species may be described as follows:

“Orthophragmina”’ (Discocylina) salensis, W. Berry, n. sp.

Rigsses2

Test large, very thin, umbonate; diameter 5 to 9 mm., thickness 0.7 mm.,

ratio of diameter to thickness 13- to 1; small central boss 1 mm. in diameter,

flange about 4 mm. in diameter. Surface covered with small papillae about

78 microns in diameter at the surface. Surface diameter of the lateral

chambers 27.3 microns.

In equatorial section the nucleoconch composed of two chambers, the

initial chamber 136.5 microns in diameter and half surrounded by the second

chamber; diameter of the entire nucleoconch 292.5 microns, the walls of the

nucleoconch very thin, being only about 7.8 microns thick. At about 1mm.

from the center the equatorial chambers of typical rectangular “‘Orthophrag-

mina” shape, 35.1 microns in radial diameter, 19.5 microns in tangential

diameter, with walls 5.7 microns thick; at the periphery, 78 microns in radial

diameter, 15.6 microns in tangential diameter, with walls 7.8 microns

thick; these chambers arranged in circles. f ««

In vertical section the wall between the equatorial “chambers and the

lateral chambers 15.6 microns thick. Vertical diameter of the equatorial

chambers 20 microns at the center of the test and constant to the periphery.

Vertical diameter of the lateral chambers 82 microns near the central part of

the test; thickness of the horizontal walls 35 microns. There are 15 lateral

chambers on the sides of the equatorial layer near the center of the test.

Occurrence: In a grayish-brown, calcareous, gritty sandstone exposed near

Calita Sal, Department of Piura, Peru. Associated with ‘“Orthophragmina”’

(Asterodiscocylina) stewarti W. Berry, ‘“Orthophragmina”’ (Discocylina))

peruviana Cushman and “‘Orthophragmina”’ (Asteriacites) calita W. Berry.

This species looks very much like O. Clarki Cushman and O. prattz Michelin

but differs in having all the papillae the same size. It differs from O. peru-

viana in being very much thinner in proportion to the diameter. The paper-

thinness of the test and the small, raised boss permit it to be easily recognized.

‘‘Orthophragmina” (Asteriacites) calita W. Berry, n. sp.

Figs. 3, 4

Test medium, thin, stellate, typically six-rayed; rays connected evenly with

the central boss; diameter from 4 to 6 mm., thickness 0.4 to 0.7 mm., ratio of

diameter to thickness 8.6 to 1; central boss about 1.2 mm. in diameter, flange

44. A. Ousson and A. Ippines. Geology of northwest Peru. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petr.

Geol. 12. 1928.

5A. A. Ousson. Contributions to the Tertiary paleontology of northern Peru, Pt. I,

Eocene Mollusca and Brachiopoda. Bull. Am. Pal. 14 (52). 1928. A

Figs. 1, 2—Orthophragmina salensis W. Berry, n. sp.

equatorial section X20.

Figs. 3, 4.—Orthophragmina calita W. Berry, n. sp.

equatorial section X20.

144

1, surface of test X10; 2,

APRIL 4, 1929 BERRY: NEW LARGER RADIOLARIA 145

2.3 mm. in diameter; rays fairly wide (0.4 mm.) and evenly curved or U-

shaped; inter-ray areas level. Entire surface slightly reticulate; no evidence

of any pillars. Surface diameter of the lateral chambers 78 microns.

In equatorial section; the nucleoconch composed of the initial chamber

109.2 microns in diameter, surrounded for about two thirds of its cireum-

ference by the second chamber; diameter of whole nucleoconch 218.4 microns,

with walls 11 microns thick. Equatorial chambers normally rectangular,

but elongated radially at seven places, giving rise to seven ray like series of

chambers. Normal equatorial chambers at the center 31.2 microns in radial

diameter, 19.5 microns in tangential diameter, with walls 9 microns thick;

at the periphery, 46.8 microns in radial diameter, 19.5 microns in tangential

diameter, with walls very thin, only 3 microns thick. Equatorial chambers

of the “rays” at the center 46.8 microns in radial diameter, 19.5 microns in

tangential diameter, with walls 7.8 microns thick; at the periphery, nearly the

same size, 46.8 microns in radial diameter, 21 microns in tangential diameter,

with walls 5.6 microns thick.

In vertical section the wall between the equatorial chambers and the

lateral chambers 7.8 microns thick. Vertical diameter of the equatorial

chambers 19 microns at the center of the test, increasing evenly to 43 microns

in diameter at the periphery. Lateral chambers arranged in columns;

vertical diameter 19 microns near the surface at the center of the test, the

horizontal walls about 5 microns thick. There are a total of 18 lateral cham-

bers on the sides of the equatorial layer near the center of the test.

Occurrence: In a grayish-brown, calcareous, gritty sandstone exposed near

Calita Sal, Department of Piura, Peru. Associated with “Orthophragmina’”’

(Asterodiscocylina) stewarti W. Berry, ‘‘Orthophragmina”’ (Discocylina)

peruviana Cushman and “Orthophragmina”’ (Discocylina) salensis W. Berry.

This species cannot be compared with any that I know of. Most of the

described forms have the same number of interior and exterior “rays.”’ In

this species, however, there are constantly six surface ‘“‘rays’’ and seven

interior ‘‘rays.’’ I have no sections of the six-rayed forms that do not show

’

seven interior “rays.”

PALEONTOLOGY .—Two new larger Radiolaria from Peru.! Wi-

LARD Berry, Johns Hopkins University. (Communicated by

JOHN B. REESIDE, JR.)

The literature on fossil Radiolaria is relatively meager and pre-

dominantly relates to the smaller flask-shaped or conical forms of

Nassellaria (Monopylaria) and Phaeodaria (Tripylaria). The dis-

covery of two large related species belonging to the group which

Haeckel christened Order Phaeosphaerais therefore of especial interest,

not only because of their size but also because of their presence in

large numbers in a shallow water deposit. ‘The illustrations fall far

short of doing justice to the exquisite beauty of the fossils, a beauty

1 Received March 1, 1929.

ay ps 3

i Nas

146

CEN

Nang)

APRIL 4, 1929 BERRY: NEW LARGER RADIOLARIA 147

which may be visualized by comparison with the accompanying copy

of Haeckel’s drawing of Oroscena hualeyi, a very similar existing

species.

Members of the Phaeosphaera were first discovered by the Chal-

lenger Expedition and in his account of the Radiolaria Haeckel referred

to the order 27 species in 4 genera. They are remarkable for their

size, averaging from 1 to 3 millimeters in diameter. The tests are

relatively coarse, mostly subspherical, and without special apertures.

Haeckel speaks of them as rare and confined to great depths (1095 to

3125 fathoms), failing to recognize that the large size and spherical

form stamp them as pelagic, surficial types—an indication which

seems confirmed by the finding of the present species in abundance in

shallow-water sediments. Presumably the material studied by

Haeckel came from bottom samples of radiolarian ooze, but it seems

remarkable that they have not been taken in tow nets, if indeed they

have not, since they occur in all of the warmer oceans.

The present specimens came from a depth of 365 feet in a boring

southeast of Bayovar, department of Piura, Peru, where they were

associated with fragments of echinoid spines; tiny broken fishbones,

vertebrae, and teeth; and numerous smaller foraminifera, including

Cristellaria, Textularia, Miliolina, Uvigerina, Nonionella, and Buli-

mina.

The age is probably Pleistocene.

The new species may be described as follows:

Oroscena bayovarana W. Berry, n. sp.

Fig. 2

Subspherically polyhedral, averaging 1.5 millimeters in diameter exclusive

of the radial spines. Lattice coarse both as to the aerolation and the size of

the siliceous mesh. The coarser rods, 2 or 3 times the diameter of the finer

rods, form rafter-like, somewhat concave ridges bounding the larger polygonal

areas, which are pronouncedly concave. The lattice within the concave

areas formed by the larger rods is made up of delicate rods subtending 3to5

sided areolae; and many of these rods bear one to several fine spines in the

plane of the lattice, frequently extending half way across an areola. Where

the larger rafter-like rods join, usually in threes but sometimes in fours, they

curve outward like an A tent and form the base for a stout radial spine. In

the fossil material these spines are all broken off a short distance above their

bases, and it is impossible to determine whether they were simple or branched.

Fig. 1.—Oroscena huzleyi Haeckel, X50, tropical Atlantic

Fig. 2.—Oroscena bayovarana W. Berry, n. sp., X56, Peru

Fig. 3, 4—Oroscena perwiana W. Berry, n. sp., X30, Peru

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, NO. 7

This species is less abundant than Oroscena peruwviana. In its general form

it is closest to the existing Oroscena hucleyi, described from 2740 fathoms in

the Atlantic west of the Canary Islands, but differs in its somewhat smaller

size, larger meshes, and greater development of secondary spines.

Oroscena peruviana W. Berry, n. sp.

Figs. 3, 4

Nearly spherical, the average diameter near 1 millimeter. The rods of the

lattice show less differentiation, being more nearly uniform in diameter, lack-

ing concave areas bounded by larger rods. The angles of the mesh, and hence

the areolae, are rounded. The radial spines are more numerous than in Oro-

scena bayovarana and relatively stouter, but all are broken off so that their

distal character is unknown; they are smooth as far as preserved and the

framework at their base does not recurve tentlike as in the associated larger

species. An additional distinctive feature of P. peruviana is the smoothness

of the rods of the lattice, no traces of lateral spines having been observed.

This species is exceedingly common.

PALEONTOLOGY.—Coleoptera from the lower Eoeene (Wailcox)

clays.|. H. F. WickHam, Iowa City, Iowa. (Communicated by

Epwarp W. Berry.)

Some time ago I received from Professor Edward W. Berry of the

Johns Hopkins University, a small lot of coleopterous elytra from the

Wilcox clays of lower Eocene time. As no Coleoptera are described

from this horizon it has seemed worth while to characterize and

name the material, even though it is insufficient to give any definite

clues as to the climatic or other local conditions.?

Genus ELATER Linnzeus

Elater berryi Wickham, n. sp.

Fig. 3

Represented by an elytron, 8.50 millimeters long and 2.75 millimeters

wide, the extreme tip lacking. It is of narrow form, the sides sub-parallel for

the major part of the length, the tapered portion so much injured that its

proportionate size can not be measured. The surface is moderately finely

1 Received March 1, 1929.

* It has always beenasubject for comment that the remains of insects were so scarce in

the fine grained clays of the Wilcox group which contain such a wealth of delicate plant

material. In 1925 Dr. Collins described the wing of a termite (R. E. L. Contins. Am.

Journ. Sci. 9: 406-410. fig. 2, 1925) and in 1927 I described the cases of a caddis worm

(Epwarp W. Berry. Proc. U.S. Natl. Museum, 71, Art. 14. 1927) from these beds

Professor Wickham has now described the few beetle elytra resulting from very intensive

collecting during which over 500 species of plants have been obtained. We have a single

wing of some hymenopterous form and other caddis cases which have not yet been

described. EZ. W. B.

or a=

APRIL 4, 1929 WICKHAM: FOSSIL COLEOPTERA 149

and evenly 8-striate, the striae finely but distinctly and regularly punctate.

The interspaces are slightly convex and appear to have been minutely punc-

tulate, but this may be due to the texture of the matrix.

Holotype—Cat. No. 80474 U.S. Natl. Museum.

The specimen bears the collectors number 35, and was obtained 4 miles

north of Jackson, Madison County, Tennessee. I think that there can be no

doubt of its being an Elaterid. The generic name is used in the Linnean

sense.

Genus MELOLONTHITES Heer

Melolonthites collinsi Wickham, n. sp.

Fig. 4

Deseribed from an elytron, 14.65 millimeters long by 6.05 millimeters

wide, strongly declivous at the apex, with well defined outer marginal bead

and two obtuse discal costae, outlined by punctures, similar to those of many

recent species of Phyllophaga. The sutural margin is also beaded. Within

it are two obtuse approximate costae, more distinct on the posterior half of

length, where their limiting striae are finely punctured. The whole elytral

surface is finely and diffusely punctate.

Holotype and paratypes.—Cat. No. 80475, 80476 U.S. Natl. Museum.

The holotype is marked with the collectors number 34, and is from the

Holcomb Property, Henry County, Tennessee. The paratype shows both

obverse and reverse, and is from 4 miles north of Jackson, Madison County,

Tennessee. The specific name refers to the collector of the Henry County

specimen, Dr. R. E. L. Collins.

I have looked in vain for anything in recent Scarabezide which will exactly

match the costal arrangement and come back, after each search, to Phyllo-

phaga, which the elytra strongly suggest. Probably the best course is to put

it in Heer’s genus Melolonthites, since there is too little shown to support a

new generic name.

Genus OTIORHYNCHITES Heer

Otiorhynchites wilcoxianus Wickham, n. sp.

Figs. 1, 2 ;

Based upon an elytron, 4.25 millimeters long by 2.35 millimeters wide,

strongly convex, moderately arcuately narrowing to the tip. Surface regu-

larly and rather deeply striate. Striae evenly and coarsely punctate for

the entire length. Interspaces convex. The punctures of the external

striae appear to be larger than those near the suture and on the discal region.

However, the disk has been injured by abrasion so that the sculpture is

effaced over a considerable area.

Holotype and paratypes.—Cat. Nos. 80472, 80473, U.S. Natl. Museum.

The holotype carries the collectors number 33, and is from the pits of the

Texarkana Pipe Co., Miller County, Arkansas. A second specimen, desig-

nated as the paratype, is from the Bradley Pit, Henry County, Tennessee.

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 7

This appears to have been an Otiorhynchid weevil of the general form of

the recent Geoderces incomptus Horn, but may have been even stouter. It is

not possible to determine how much of the elytral width is due to flattening

out of the original convexity.

Figures 1, 2.—Otiorhynchites wilcoxianus Wickham, n. sp., X5

Figure 3.—Elater berryi Wickham, n. sp., X5

Figure 4.—Melolonthites collinsi Wickham, n. sp. X5

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

983D MEETING

The 983d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 5, 1929, President

ADAMS presiding.

Program: Address of the retiring president, Dr. Paun R. Heri: The

lingering dryad. (This Journ. 19: 73-84. 1929.)

984TH MEETING

The 984th meeting was held at the Naval Observatory by invitation of the

Superintendent, Capt. C. 8S. Freeman, on January 19, 1929. No formal

proceedings were followed, but the members and guests were divided into

four parties to inspect the various instruments and the exhibits’ illustrating

the methods of computation and reduction of observations. Through the

courteous attention of the guides and attendants, the work of this excellent

scientific institution was vividly pictured to those present. All were grateful

for such an opportunity on an ideal night.

APRIL 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 151

QS5TH MEETING

The 985th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, February 2, 1929, Presi-

dent Adams presiding.

Program: H. G. Dorsty: The fathometer and apparatus used in radio

acoustic ranging. In any method of measuring ocean depths by sound waves

it is necessary to have a sender, a receiver, an indicator, and usually a

power plant.

In the type 312 fathometer the sender is called an oscillator. It is secured

to the bottom of the ship when in dry dock and sends a compressional wave

into the water whenever it is actuated by 525 cycle alternating current

generated by a small power plant. The oscillator is about 13 inches in

diameter and 4 inches thick. The diaphragm has a natural frequency of

1050 cycles when in water and is vibrated by the pull of each half cycle of

the alternating current, doubling the frequency, since there is no polarizing

field. The sender produces a sound at the bottom of the ship which goes to

the bottom of the ocean and is reflected back as an echo.

The receiver, called a hydrophone, is similar to a telephone transmitter,

made waterproof, and is located in a tank filled with water, inside the ship, the

bottom of the tank being the ship’s hull itself so that only the thin steel plating

separates the water inside the tank from the water outside the ship. When

the echo makes the diaphragm of the hydrophone vibrate, the motion changes

the resistance of the carbon microphone and these resistance changes in an

electric circuit produce an alternating current which is amplified to such an

extent that it will produce a single instantaneous flash in a neon tube for each

echo.

The indicator has the neon tube mounted back of a radial slot on a dise so

that when the tube flashes a line of red light is seen through the slot. In

front of the dise is mounted a transparent scale, graduated to 100 divisions.

The dise is rotated at a constant speed of approximately four revolutions per

second. Thus as a time measuring device each division represents one

four-hundredth of a second, or 0.0025 second and the width of the divisions

and sharpness of the edge of the slot enable one to estimate to a tenth of a

division. The velocity of sound in sea water is roughly 4800 feet per second

or 800 fathoms. Since the sound has to go through the water twice to produce

an echo it goes through a depth of 400 fathoms in one second or one fathom in

the time interval represented by one division of the graduated scale. Thus

the indication is a direct reading in fathoms.

The shaft which rotates the disc also has a cam which closes, for a short

interval during each revolution, the electric circuit from the power plant to

the oscillator producing a short musical note in the water as the neon tube

passes the zero of the scale. While the sound is going down and coming back

the neon tube is rotating at a uniform rate and when the echo is received the

exact instant is marked by the red flash. Since the disc is dark all the time

except for the flash, depths are read as easily as telling time by a clock. If

the depth is more than 100 fathoms it is only necessary to add a hundred for

each revolution.

This method is used until depths are so great that the amplified echo can not

operate the neon tube and then a change of gears and of the method are made

so that a slowly rotating steady white line is watched and its position on a

scale is noted when the echo is heard in a telephone receiver. By this method

depths as great as 3000 fathoms have been measured.

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, NO. 7

Ten of the Coast and Geodetic Survey ships are now equipped with fathom-

eters which greatly increase the speed of measuring depths. Besides

measuring the depth, however, it is also necessary to know the ship’s position

if the depth measurement is to be of any value. This is usually determined by

taking sextant angles of three shore signals, but the following method is also

used. ,

The radio acoustic ranging method of locating a ship’s position consists in

firing a small bomb in the water by the ship and receiving the sound in

hydrophones by two shore stations. The time of the explosion is recorded

on a chronograph tape at the ship, on which are also recorded time intervals

of seconds from a chronometer. Then when the sound of the bomb is received

by the two hydrophones at widely separated shore stations a radio signal is

automatically sent back to the ship by each station and recorded on the tape

with the time and bomb records. The tape is moved at a uniform rate of

about 2 centimeters per second by a battery-operated motor and the time

intervals are readily measured to hundredths of a second.

The positions of the shore stations are accurately located by surveying and

may be from 20 to 40 miles apart. Knowing the velocity of sound in water

the three sides of the triangle become known and the triangle is soluble.

By this method the ship’s position may be determined even as far as 200

miles from shore and the great advantage is that the operation may be done in

foggy weather or at night time when the shore is entirely invisible either due

to lack of light or because of the earth’s curvature.

It might be mentioned that radio acoustic position finding was started as a

further development of World War work, aided by the United States Bureau

of Standards and the United States Coast Artillery, as described in Coast and

Geodetic Survey Special Publications No. 107 and 146.

The features of measuring the short time intervals involved in the fathom-

eter were first described in the Journal of the Optical Society of America

and Review of Scientific Instruments for September, 1924 and the instrument

was patented by the author April 24, 1928. (Author’s abstract.)

W. E. Parker: Echo-sounding and sound-ranging in hydrographic surveying

and navigation.

Oscar 8. Apams, Recording Secretary.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

407TH MEETING

The 407th regular meeting was held at 8 P.M. Thursday, January 3, 1929,

in the National Museum. President J. E.Grar presided. There were present

24 members and 16 visitors. The regular annual report of the Recording

Secretary was read and approved and that of the Corresponding-Secretary-

Treasurer was read and referred for audit.

Professor GEoRGE A. DEAN, Kansas State Agricultural College, Man-

hattan, Kansas, conveyed greetings to our organization from the Kansas

Entomological Society. He gave some data on the organization of the Society

and the present interest in and demand for its recently established Journal.

He also gave a résumé of the history of entomology at Kansas Agricultural

College, its beginning in 1867 under the leadership of the late Professor B. F.

Mudge and its continuance under Professor Riley, Professor Whitman,

Professor Popenoe, Dr. Headlee, and others. A review also was given of the

APRIL 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 153

entomological work at the State University from that of Dr. Snow in 1867

down to date. Some facts pertaining to the status of Kansas entomology

were presented: Exclusive of student helpers, there are 24 active entomologi-

cal workers in the various Kansas educational institutions and government

research laboratories, while fully 100 Kansas men in various parts of the

country are or have been actively identified with entomological work, includ-

ing Williston, Kellogg, Marlatt, Knaus, Gahan, Aldrich, and Parrott. The

U. S. Bureau now employs 16 Kansas State College men, 15 of whom were

formerly Professor Dean’s students. These remarks were commented on by

GraF and Howarp.

Dr. WALTER CarTER, of the Bureau of Entomology Laboratory at Twin

Falls, Idaho, also greeted the Society and gave a brief summary of work in the

Northwest on the sugar beet leaf hopper and associated insects. He re-

viewed some of the methods in use, and analyzed some of the more important

general factors bearing on the control of insects. These remarks were dis-

cussed by BAKER.

Dr. H. L. Dozier, Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark, Delaware,

gave a brief review of the history of entomological work in Delaware for some

years past, from the work of Prof. Sampson in 1902 and of Prof. Holton in

1905 down to the present time, describing present entomological work in the

State and his own laboratory and equipment. Comment on Dr. Dozier’s

remarks was made by Howarp.

Dr. C. H. BatcHEetpeEr, of the European Corn Borer Laboratory at Arling-

ton, Mass., gave some of his impressions, more or less humorous in character,

of the Society meeting and of the present entomological situation as a whole

in this country.

Mr. A. W. CressMan, of the Bureau of Entomology’s Tropical and Sub-

tropical Insect Laboratory at New Orleans, Louisiana, referred briefly to

some of the problems in connection with his work on Rodolia Beetle and the

camphor scale. The U. 8S. Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau’s Florida

Laboratory are cooperating in an extensive program of investigations dealing

with the physical characteristics of oils, emulsifications, etc.; and the per-

fecting of technique on the biological side of the problems, especially control

of camphor scale and other scale insects by use of oils and oil emulsions and by

fumigation. These remarks were discussed by Howarp and Morrison.

Dr. F. M. Wavtey, of the Insect Pest Survey of the Bureau of Ento-

mology, expressed his satisfaction at being able, because of his recent transfer

to Washington, to attend regularly the future meetings of our organization.

Mr. O. E. Gaum, of the Branch of Truck Crop Insect Investigations of the

Bureau, spoke briefly of his recent transfer to Washington and of his present

work at Arlington Farm on mushroom insects.

Mr. Evcene D. Eaton, of the Bureau of Entomology Laboratory at

Carlisle, Pennsylvania, referred feelingly to some of the perplexities ex-

perienced by the beginner or near-beginner in entomology. He enumerated

some of the difficulties encountered recently in connection with his work on

Hessian fly and its parasites, especially those pertaining to such factors as

climate and environment. Comments were made by Grar and Baker.

Regular program: Dr. N. E. McInpoo, of the Bureau of Entomology:

Tropisms and sense organs of Lepidoptera. This paper was divided into

two main divisions: Tropisms and Tropic Receptors. It was pointed out

that zoologists and entomologists should say phototaxis, chemotaxis, geotaxis,

etc., instead of saying phototropism, chemotropism, geotropism, etc. Under

154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No, 7

phototaxis the following headings were mentioned: (a) Definitions and prob-

lems in study of light reactions; (6) are light reactions adaptive?; (c) is orien-

tation accomplished by selection of trial movements?; (d) how do light rays

bring about orientation?; (e) do circus movements support Loeb’s theory?;

(f) what wave lengths stimulate insects most?; (g) light traps are not yet con-

sidered successful; and (h) phototactic experiments on codling-moth larvae.

Chemotaxis, geotaxis, and thigmotaxis were also briefly referred to. In-

stead of saying that an insect is positively phototactic, negatively geotactic,

positively chemotactic, and positively thigmotactic, it is better to say photo-

positive, geonegative, chemopositive, and thigmopositive.

The tropic receptors include photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, audirecep-

tors, thigmoreceptors, georeceptors, and other receptors. Most of these were

illustrated with lantern slides.

In Lepidoptera there are three types of so-called olfactory organs on the

antennae: end pegs, pegs, and pit-pegs. Since no one has ever found nerves

running to the end pegs, they should no longer be regarded as sense organs.

If the pegs and pit-pegs are the only olfactory receptors in Lepidoptera, then

12 of the 34 individuals examined cannot smell, because these particular sense —

organs are totally absent. The organs called olfactory pores by McIndoo

have been found on all adult and larval Lepidoptera yet examined.

The so-called taste organs are peculiarly shaped hairs situated on the distal

half of the proboscis. Minnich’s tarsal chemoreceptors in butterflies are also

regarded as taste organs. This writer has shown that these organs, when

properly stimulated, are 256 times as sensitive as are the taste organs in the

human mouth.

Under audireceptors the following so-called auditory organs were briefly

discussed: tympanic organs, chordotonal organs, Johnston organs, and audi-

tory hairs. This talk was concluded by a brief discussion of tactile organs,

balancing organs, and scent-producing organs. (Author’s abstract.)

Owing to lateness of the hour discussion of Dr. McIndoo’s paper was post-

poned until the next meeting of the Society.

J. S. Wane, Recording Secretary.

~) “ge

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Thursday, April 4. The Entomological Society.

Saturday, April 6. The Biological Society.

Tuesday, April 9. The Institute of Electrical Engineers,

Wednesday, April 10. The Geological Society.

The Medical Society.

Thursday, April1ll. |The Chemical Society.

Saturday, April 13 The Philosophical Society.

Tuesday, April 16. The Historical Society.

The Anthropological Society.

Wednesday, April 17. The Society of Engineers.

The Medical Society.

The programs of the meetings of the affilated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

Sons

“aK

ay ve

CONTENTS

‘ ORIGINAL PAPERS

‘

Paleontology.—New Carboniferous invertebrates—I. Gnores H. Girty....

Paleontology.—Two new species of “Orthophragmina” from Calita Sal, Pe r

WILLARD PemRAT i. bate tee vi dies edge mide hea aa aa Seay

Paleontology.—Two new larger Radiolaria from Peru. W1tLarp BERRY Cae

Paleontology. 2 ati sige from the lower Eocene (Wilcox) clays. H. F. Wr

PROCEEDINGS ee

The Philosophical Sociéty:. ..,+../ 2s de bavoseee seed bbs onecuses etmek baeeceeae

The Entomological cumneidied ay tinadoonee se cise uabironr yey

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: AueS Hrpuiéxa, U. S. National Museum.

Corresponding Secretary: L. B, TUCKERMAN, Bureau of Standards.

Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Survey. _

Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. ®

BOARD OF Fron

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ecord of eurrent scientific work in Washington,

inal | Papers, writ ten or communicated by. memk y

Vee 3) ee and programs OF Sacer of the Neademy and ‘at i

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 19 APRIL 19, 1929 No. 8

ZOOLOGY .—The genus Trimosina and its relationships to other genera

of the Foraminifera... JosepH A. CusHMAN, Sharon, Massachu- ~

setts.

In 1907 Schubert, in a paper entitled Bevttrdge zu einer natiirlicheren

Systematik der Foraminiferen,? dealt with the relationships of Chrysalz-

dina d’Orbigny and some supposedly related genera, some of which he

proposed at that time. In my recent work, Foraminifera, their classifi-

cation and economic use,* I followed in part the relationships proposed

by Schubert. In the last year or more it has been possible to study

abundant material of some of these rare genera and to gain a much

more adequate knowledge of them. Schubert’s work was based on

published figures and descriptions rather than on an actual study of

specimens. I have now been able to study all of these genera from

suites of specimens, and some changes in the relationships as given by

Schubert are inevitable.

The genus Chrysalidina d’Orbigny is monotypic, the Cretaceous

species UC’. gradata d’Orbigny being the only one known, as C. dimorpha

H. B. Brady was made the type of a new genus Chrysalidinella by

Schubert. At the Ecole des Mines in Paris, I was enabled through

the kindness of Dr. H. Douvillé to examine a series of Chrysalidina

gradata d’Orbigny. The wall of these specimens is arenaceous and the

genus should be placed in the Verneuilinidae as a derivative from

Verneuilina, the position indicated for it by Schubert. Chrysalidina

is to be distinguished from Verneuilina by the numerous rounded per-

forations of the apertural wall instead of the narrow single aperture of

1 Received March 1, 1929.

2 Neues Jahrb. Min. 1907: 232-260.

3 Spec. Publ. 1, Cushman Lab. Foram. Research, 1928.

155

156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 8

Verneuilina. So far as we now knoy, it is an end form, as are so many

of the genera which have developed sieve-like areas in the apertural —

face. It is possible that the peculiar form described by Brady as

Bigenerina robusta has developed from such a triserial ancestry and has

assumed a biserial and in some specimens a uniserial development in its

later stages, with a sieve-like apertural face. That this form is related

to the Palaeozoic Climacammina is very improbable.

In his grouping, Schubert derived his genera Chrysalidinella and

Chrysalogonium from Chrysalidina. ‘These are caleareous forms and

do not belong with the arenaceous Chrysalidina, which, as just noted,

belongs in the Vernewilinidae. The genus Chrysalidinella Schubert

is monotypic, based on Chrysalidina dimorpha H. B. Brady, a species

of the tropical seas, at the present time practically limited to the Indo-

- Pacific but in the Tertiary more widely distributed. This species,

the types of which I saw in the Brady collection in London and Cam-

bridge, is caleareous and the early stages are related to Reussia, as I

have shown. I now have abundant material from the Indo-Pacific

showing both the microspheric and megalospheric forms. Chrysali-

dinella is triserial like Reussia in its early stages, but becomes uniserial

later and has the terminal face with numerous perforations. It is

known from the Miocene to the Recent, whereas Reussia is known

from the Cretaceous and is still living in tropical regions. Reussia

developed from Bulimina, but is distinguished from typical forms of

that genus by its triangular shape. The bulimine aperture is, how-

ever, still retained.

From what we know of the development of the Foraminifera, a

form should occur in which the triserial condition is maintained, but

the terminal face should show a sieve-like aperture. Such forms are

now found to be abundant in the Indo-Pacific and two new species are

figured here from off Fiji. These may be referred to the genus T'rimo-

sina Cushman, the genoholotype of which is the form figured by

Millett as Mimosina spinulosa Millett, var. This specimen and-

others I was enabled to study in the Heron-Allen and Earland collec-

tion in the British Museum. In his genus Mimosina, Millett included

several forms which need much more study. The typical Mimosina

based on M. hystrix Millett I studied in London. The adult is biserial

while the young stages, difficult to make out, seem in the microspheric

form to be planispiral. Whether this genus is related to Hantkenina,

as I have placed it, or is a biserial form related to Trimosina and

Reussia, can only be determined by a study of much more material

APRIL 19, 1929 CUSHMAN: GENUS TRIMOSINA “157

than is now available. In Trimosina perforata, n. sp., figured here,

there is a long slit-like aperture with the apertural face having a

series of pores. This is different specifically from Trimosina milletti

Cushman in which the perforate plate is not well developed. That the

two are closely related however cannot be doubted when both are

studied. Another species from off Fiji, figured here, is more primitive

and shows the development from Reussia in even more marked fashion.

These species of Trimosina fill in very well the stages from Reussia to

Chrysalidinella.

The genus Chrysalogonium Schubert was based on WNodosaria

polystoma Schwager, from the Pliocene of Kar Nicobar. It is nodo-

sarian in form but the terminal face has a sieve-plate instead of the

typical radiate aperture. ‘This has been the only species known, but

in the last year I have had material which can be referred to this genus

from as far back as the Upper Cretaceous as well as from other ages,

and it can be definitely stated that the genus does not belong, as

indicated by Schubert, in the line with Chrysalidinella nor in this

family. That genus will be discussed in another paper.

- The relationships of these various genera therefore are as follows—

Chrysalidina d’Orbigny is arenaceous and belongs in the Verneuilinidae

derived directly from Vernewilina. Chrysalogonium Schubert is not

derived, as Schubert indicated, from Chrysalidinella. Reussia is

derived directly from Bulimina, and in turn gave rise to the triserial

Trimosina Cushman with a sieve-plate and to the uniserial Chrysali-

dinella Schubert.

A description of two new species follows.

Trimosina perforata Cushman, n. sp.

Bie a0

Test small, generally triangular in both side and end views, angles acute;

chambers triserial throughout, rapidly increasing in size as added, the angles

of the chambers usually protruding and early chambers sometimes twisted;

sutures distinct, not depressed, slightly limbate; wall calcareous, finely per-

forate with coarser perforations along the borders near the sutures connecting

with the interior by definite tubules, generally smooth, thin and nearly

transparent; apertural face convex, with numerous ridges and irregular projec-

tions, aperture consisting of a long narrow opening connecting with the basal

margin by a narrow slit at a sharp angle to the axis of the main opening,

bordered by a distinct thickened lip, the apertural face with numerous irregu-

larly rounded openings.

Length, 0.50 mm.; breadth, 0.35 mm.

Holotype (C ushman Coll. No. 103 3) from 40-50 fathoms off Fiji.

This species may be distinguished from the following by its very pigullns,

coarser chambers, and the greater size of the sieve-plates.

» ete ae

158. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 8

Trimosina simpiex Cushman, n. sp.

Big. 2 a, b

Test of medium size, triangular in both side and end views, angles acute;

chambers triserial throughout, uniformly increasing in size as added, angles

of the chambers slightly spinose, the outer angle thickened, almost carinate;

sutures distinct, not depressed, very slightly limbate, rather evenly curved;

Figs. 1 a, b.—Trimosina perforata Cushman, n. sp., a, front view; b, end view.

Figs. 2 a, b.—Trimosina simplex Cushman, n. sp., a, front view; b, end view.

Figs. 3 a, b—Chrysalidinella dimorpha (H. B. Brady), a, front view; 6, end view.

All figures X 75 ,

wall caleareous, coarsely perforate, especially along the borders, smooth,

fairly thick but translucent; apertural face slightly convex, fairly smooth,

the aperture elongate without a lip, and with a few supplementary openings

in the center of the terminal face.

Length, up to 1 mm.; breadth, 0.50 mm.

Holotype (Cushman Coll. No. 10365) from 40-50 fathoms off Fiji.

This species is a more primitive one than the preceding, and connects the

other with Reussia.

APRIL 19, 1929 COBB: CHROMATROPISM 159

In this same material from off Fiji at 40 to 50fathoms, Chrysalidinella

dimorpha (H. B. Brady) also occurs in the rather peculiar form shown

here (Fig. 3 a, 6). The sides are entire, the later chambers uniserial,

and the terminal face with the apertures peculiarly arranged. There

are probably several species of this genus which may be possible of

separation.

_ Although all three of the species figured here occur together, they are

distinguishable at a glance. The specimens of Chrysalidinella may

be at once identified by the entire outline even before the uniserial

chambers are noted. ‘The two species of Trimosina are also strikingly

different in general appearance. J’. simplex has evenly placed and

arranged chambers with small spinose projections extending backward

at a decided angle, whefeas 7. perforata is a smaller but coarser form,

the chambers relatively larger, the projections large and the whole

test often twisted.

ZOOLOGY.—The chromatropism of Mermis subnigrescens, a nemic

parasite of grasshoppers... N. A. Cops, U. 8. Department. of

Agriculture.

The adult female Mermis subnigrescens, when ripe for ovijection,

has a way of moving her head in more or less horizontal curves;—her

head, directed skyward, is waved in “‘circles,”’ now clockwise, now the

reverse. This seemingly purposeful behavior occurs when she emerges

from the soil and while she is ascending the herbage to deposit her eggs.

Inasmuch as the head of the egg-laying female,—unlike that of the

young female as well as that of the male (neither of which ever quits

the subterranean darkness),—contains reddish transparent pigment

rather definitely distributed with reference to certain cephalic nerves,

the question arose whether we do not have here a phototrope? and an

1 Received March 12, 1929.

2 It is suggested that the mechanisms through whose activation the responses of

organisms termed tropisms find expression be called ‘‘tropes;’’—‘‘tropism”’ to be taken

in almost any of its more or less well accepted meanings.

These meanings (interpretations of various investigators,—see Mast, 1915) vary all

the way from (1) ‘‘an inherent tendency to respond’’ (Standard Dictionary), to (2) an

“irresistible” or “‘predictable”’ orientation as definite and mechanical as that of a magnetic

needle; but whatever the accepted interpretation, the reaction-mechanism must always be

present, and be a system of intimately connected elements or organs, as is the digestive

system, for instance, or the excretory system. Since we have for this system of inti-

mately connected elements no inclusive single descriptive term, and since it is found

highly convenient, or even necessary, for purposes of thought and discussion mentally

to “isolate,” and separately to denominate, the digestive system or enteron, and other

systems, it is suggested that in behavior studies a like situation be met by a similar,

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 8

affirmative answer was forecast, for the obvious reason, among others,

that, as the pigment must absorb certain light frequencies and transmit

others, the absorption might well result in some such changes of energy

as characterize vision. Very suggestive also is the fact that the trans-

parent, colorless parts of the head immediately in front of, and along-

side, the suspected phototrope condense light rays upon it. (See

Fig. 1.)

Previous experiment showed the spectrum frequencies concerned in

bringing about ovijection in this nema probably to be some of those

in the light-blue and low violet region of the spectrum, together with

red (also infra-?).? It would therefore be natural to suspect, under

all the circumstances, that the cephalic pigment characteristic of the

adult female absorbs, and “‘makes use of,’’* the frequencies present

just previous to and during ovijection. Hence a wish, (1), to deter-

mine what frequencies are present during and just previous to natural

ovijection; and, (2) to determine what frequencies are absorbed by the

cephalic pigment.

In this field comparatively little seems to have been published,

though somewhat pertinent papers by Crozier, Mast, and others exist.

Investigators have been mainly occupied with the optics of the various

colorless, transparent, organic elements; the relative location and

probable function of certain pigments, usually dark or black (opaque) ;

and the “migration”? and other changes of pigment, such as visual

purple, due to the action of light; and, of course, with the associated

nervous and contractile elements. Little has been published with

regard to tropism definitely due to the absorption of rays of a particular

frequency solely by transparent, colored pigment (other than visual

but if possible better (to wit monosyllabic), terminology. The advantages of a mono-

syllable from which short, convenient adjectives, verbs, adverbs and other nouns can

readily be derived, are almost too obvious to need mention,—tropic, tropically, to trope,

troping, etc., etc. Most helpful, perhaps, will be its use as a component, e. g., in

‘‘chromatrope.”’

Primarily ‘‘trope’’ denotes action,—action that is in progress rather than completed.

By metonymy the word denoting an action (here, what is called a reaction) may be

applied to the (re)action-mechanism, 1.e., in the present case, to the responding system

of intimately connected organs.

Following this suggestion, we may speak of a reaction mechanism that aids or causes

an organism to face toward or away from light, as a phototrope; a reaction mechanism

used in orientation with reference to gravity, a geotrope, etc., etc., etc., etc.; thus the

statocystic mechanism of crustaceans is a species of geotrope.

Accordingly, certain cephalic apparatus of Mermis subnigrescens is here spoken of as a

phototrope; or, better, because more specific, as a chromatrope,—inasmuch as its reac-

tions apparently are to definite frequencies (colors) of the solar spectrum. Glawcotrope

yAavxoc = blue) may prove to be even more precise.

3 Species of Mermis. Journ. Parasitology, 8:66. 1926.

APRIL 19, 1929

COBB: CHROMATROPISM

161

purple) located definitely with reference to nerves, these nerves them-

selves so located as possibly to be sensory.

SPECTROSCOPIC TEST OF THE PRESUMPTIVE CEPHALIC CHROMATROPE OF

Mermis subnigrescens

One-third of a millimeter of the front end of an adult female Mermis

subnigrescens, including the head, was ligated and cut off, and then

mounted on a microscope

slide in water. The head

was examined under a 1.5

mm. apochromatic micro-

scope objective, having a

similar objective as a con-

denser, in such a way that

the image would fill as much

as possible of the micro-

scope field with the color of

the pigment. (See Fig. 1.)

The microscope was fitted

with a spectroscopic eye-

piece.

Sunlight was taken from

a planished aluminum re-

flector placed so that a

maximum of sunlight was

reflected through both in-

struments,—+1.e., the above

apochromatic-micro-spec -

troscope and a comparison

spectroscope. The pig-

mented tissue was brought

into focus, and then the iris

diaphragm: of the micro-

scope thrown open, so as

to admit a “‘flood”’ of light.

This produced a spectrum.

fairly readily seen in a

darkened room, notwith-

standing the very high

magnification.

Much of the violet end

of the spectrum (well into

ppl subm (4) os ppl 2

are amph

ar merscp. .. ro chrtrp

pgm lit...

chrmtrp. | | Ey

chrd at | | chrd md

SUL i ann nv

hrm... MSC

trphsm.__| ut

x 200 |. Oe

Figure 1. Head end of Mermis subnigrescens,

showing the chromatrope. os, mouth; ppl (2), the

two lateral so-called ‘‘papillae;’? amph, amphid;

nrv chrirp, nerves of the chromatrope; lum oesoph,

lumen of the oesophagus; pgmt rub, reddish pig-

ment of the chromatrope; chrd md, median chord;

ann nrv, nerve-ring; msc, body-wall muscles; cut,

cuticle; oe, oesophagus; ppl subm (4), the four

submedian papillae; nrv amph, nerve of the

amphid; ar merscp, shows the circular area of the

microscopic field that was tested spectroscopically;

pgmt lut, orange-colored pigment of the chroma-

trope; chrmtrp, chromatrope; chrd lat, lateral

chord; sub cut, the thick subcuticle; crbrm, the

cerebrum; trphsm, anterior end of the trophosome.

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 8

the blue) was absorbed to a very considerable degree by the living

cephalic pigment of the Mermzs subnigrescens. ‘The microscope field

was never completely and uniformly filled with the color of the

pigment. There were streaks at each margin of the field, and another

through the middle, that showed little color (see Fig. 1), so that

doubtless the absorption was not so pronounced as would be obtained

by dissolved pigment of equal density filling the entire field of the

microscope.

A satisfactory demonstration was made by placing the object under

the microscope so as to produce absorption, and after the spectra had

been arranged for comparison, suddenly removing the pigmented

tissue. The effect produced by this instantaneous change was very

pronounced. The blue and violet region of the spectrum, hitherto

obscured by absorption, of course instantly assumed the same colors

as in the comparison spectrum.

There seemed also to be some absorption in the outermost part of

the red of the visible spectrum, but, if so, it was very slight. No

absorption was noticed in the orange, yellow and green, and little if

any in the bluish green.

The experiment was particularly satisfactory in that the pigment

was in a living condition. ‘True, the head had been ligated and cut off

immediately before the spectroscopic examination, but from much

experience it is known that such a head continues to live and move

anywhere from a few hours to a day, or even more.

Phototropes of somewhat the character here described probably

occur in the cervical region of many other nemas, particularly free-

living ones,—the outer tissues of the neck serving as a cylindrical lens

for condensing light upon the pigmented tissues. Aquatic nemas so

situated as to utilize light rays penetrating water, not infrequently

present structures that may be suspected to be phototropes,—now

that we have a clue to the nature of such structures in this phylum.

These primitive phototropes may well have been the forerunners of

the more highly developed phototropes, ocellate systems, of certain

nemas (e.g. Hnchelidium).

A general review of the nature and relationships of localized trans-

parent pigments in organisms in the light of the foregoing experiment,

may, perhaps, suggest new ideas and experiments with regard to their

functions both in animals and plants.

APRIL 19, 1929 COBB: CHROMATROPISM 163

NATURAL CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH Mermis subnigrescens

DEPOSITS ITS EGGS

At Woods Hole, Mass., U.S. A., on July 28, 1928, from long before

daylight up to 10 o’clock A.M. the weather was warm and showery.

The showers were gentle but subcontinuous, with light-intervals

between; 7.e., during two or three brief intervals the sunlight actually

came through the fog and clouds rather clearly.

Two full-grown female specimens of M. subnigrescens, very much

alike, were found depositing eggs naturally on grass etc. in an experi-

ment field. As each nema still contained a good many eggs, both

were taken to the laboratory in cold tap-water, and both subjected to

radiant heat of low frequency, emanating from hot steel. The results

of three trials on one of the nemas and four on the other were quite

consistent. 4

An ordinary steel file about nine inches long and three-fourths of an

inch wide was heated until hot, though not red. As near as could be

judged the temperature of the file during the trials was from 400°-500°

C. The hot steel was held within an inch and a half to two inches of

the nemas. Held at this distance from one’s cheek, it caused an

agreeable warm sensation;—no disagreeable sensation of heat, how-

ever,—no suggestion of scorching.

When the nemas were brought into the laboratory, both were still

slowly depositing eggs; one, however, very slowly,—putting out only

one or two eggs semi-occasionally. When one of these ten-centimeter

nemas in this laboring condition was removed from water and stretched

out on a broad-leaf plantain, Plantago major, and the hot file brought

near, she immediately responded by increased rapidity of movement,

and in from ten to twenty seconds became coiled, sometimes rather

closely, so that the entire space occupied by her would not be over

fifteen to twenty millimeters across. Barely enough water was used

on the plantain leaf so that only at her points of contact with the leaf

was she in contact also with water. Doubtless the warmth may have

caused the water to evaporate a trifle more rapidly, notwithstanding

the saturated condition of the atmosphere, and one cannot say that

this change in rate of evaporation may not have had some effect on the

behavior, but the inevitable inference is that the “radiant heat”’ caused

the change in behavior, corroborating, in a reverse way, experiments of

previous years with direct sunlight and sunlight passed through

heat-diminishing screens (both green glass and living foliage).

164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 8

After the nemas had been rayed and returned to water in a watch-

glass, and after they had resumed their former less active somewhat

outstretched state, they were tested again and again with the infra-

red rays. ‘Two observers, noting the nemas before they were removed

from the watchglass of water and after they had been rayed, declared the

ovijection to be stimulated, and in one case the stimulation to be very

marked indeed. In this case, at the time when the nema was removed

from the glass, oviposition was diminishing to almost nil, only now and

then an egg being deposited,—at intervals of half a minute or there-

abouts; however, after she had been rayed and returned to the water

where her behavior could be observed more accurately, deposition

was going on vigorously,—batches of something like twenty eggs were

being ejected at intervals of five to ten seconds. It should be re-

membered that these two females already had their egg-laying capacity

partially exhausted and were therefore probably less favorable speci-

mens for experiment than if they had just issued from the ground.

The conclusions drawn from the experiments were that, without

doubt, the radiant heat from the hot steel met with instant response by the

nema aaa that the response was very definite and that the egg deposition

was very markedly stimulated by the rays.4

Apart from ultra-violet, apparently very little is known about the

relative amounts of various light frequencies that are passed through

different quantities of fog and watery vapor in the atmosphere. It is

known that fog and vapor are more or less impervious to ultra-vrolet,

but pervious to many other frequencies, among them blue and a cer-

tain amount of red and infra-red. However, nobody appears to have

devised a method or instrument by which the amount of any particular

one of these various other frequencies penetrating under various atmos-

pheric conditions ean be satisfactorily measured, although there is

reason to hope that such data can be established.

It is very evident, however, that during the morning under con-

sideration, which was showery with light rain much of the time, the

weather varying all the way from thick fog to almost sunny,—fog so

thick that the fog-horns were blowing, and yet at times the sky toward

the east such that the sunlight came through rather clearly,—it is

very evident that the amount of any given spectrum frequency reach-

ing the experiment field probably would vary during the morning

nearly through the entire daylight scale, or at least much of it.

4 But whatever stimulus, if any, the nema received from the sky was not sufficient

by itself to cause any marked oviposition.

APRIL 19, 1929 COBB: CHROMATROPISM 165

APPLICATION TO THE OVITECTION OF Mermis subnigrescens.

The observations to date seem to,shut out the possibility that ultra-

violet has much of anything to do with ovijection taking place natu-

rally in the open. The present observations seem again to make it

exceedingly probable that radiant heat must have much to do with it.

Recalling that the early morning light is relatively rich in red and

infra-red, and that as moisture (dew, rain) is essential, or at any rate

highly favorable, to the oviposition of WW. subnigrescens, then obviously

early morning and forenoon would be a favorable time of day for the

oviposition. It is certain, from spectroscopic tests made during the

morning in question, that all the time after sunrise a good deal of blue

light was being passed through the atmosphere; and it therefore might

have been a behavior stimulus, and no doubt was so.

All this harmonizes with previous experiments on the ovijection of

this species,—an account of which is already published,— and explains

the motive for the tests described above.

Thus we have a fairly complete theory of the above-ground egg-

laying activities of Mermis subnigrescens. When the nema is ripe for

labor, she moves from her pitch dark, subterranean ‘‘domicile”’ to the

surface of the ground. Her movements during this trip no doubt

exemplify apogeo-, hydro-, thermo-, rheo-, thigmo-, and finally, just

before she reaches the surface, photo-tropism.

Once her head is free of the surface of the ground, her chromatrope

comes into full play, “detecting” the direction and amount of light

from the sky, particularly, perhaps only, blue light. The structure of

the chromatrope is particularly adapted to the reception of lght

from above or from any side, for the light will be concentrated in the

chromatrope by the transparent front tissues of the head acting as a

hemispherical lens, and the side tissues acting as a cylindrical lens.

As she clambers higher and higher on the herbage, she responds to

such blue sky light as is not intercepted by the green blades of grass

and other foliage above and around her. Led by the blue light and

the urge to deposit, she will at last reach an elevation on the herbage

subject to a more direct action of the sun’s rays, when the ovijector

and uterine muscles will be affected by red rays and ovijection will

begin; and this place in many instances would be at the altitude of

grazing grasshoppers, the definitive hosts.

This would be a new and special parallel to the ordinary sequence of

events in ovijection and parturition. In other words the “voluntary”’

nervous system comes first into play, bringing the organism into con-

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 8

ditions favorable to the events about to follow. Thereafter the be-

havior is more or less “involuntary,” as has been shown in the present

instance by the fact that ovijection continues under the stimulus of

sunlight, even if the head, including the chromatrope and central

nervous system, be removed,—seared off.

CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE FOR THE CHROMATROPISM OF

Mermis subnigrescens

1. The commonly infested grasshoppers graze mostly within certain

limits above the ground; harmoniously, the eggs of the mermithid

parasite are found to occur preponderantly within these limits, sug-

gesting highly developed egg-laying instincts on the part of the nema

that might well presuppose tropism.

2. A definite mechanism, believably a phototrope [includes chroma-

trope, (includes glaucotrope)] embodying what are believably recep-

tors, transmitters, and effectors, 1s present;—a mechanism not other-

wise readily explicable. The only mermithid individuals known to

possess such a mechanism fully developed are those whose blackish

eggs are deposited in the way characteristic of Mermis subnigrescens.

3. The putatively-chromatropic pigment absorbs,—i.e., can be

sensitive to,—blue rays.

4. Only adult, chromatroped, egg-laying females clamber as de-

scribed. Males and young females having no power, or occasion,

to deposit eggs are not chromatroped.

5. The clambering of the nemas ripe for oviposition is skyward ;—

v.e., toward blue sky, rather than vertical (distinction from negative

geotropism). Beams of blue light from the sky, often oblique, and

coming from many widely different directions, are those most certain

promiscuously to penetrate the depths of the herbage, and thus reach

to near the ground. The nema’s lens-like tissues concentrating light

upon the chromatrope, accept it from above and from all sides; this

harmonizes with the distribution of blue sky light.

6. Oviposition is stopped, or very much slowed, by green screens

(ineluding living foliage) that absorb red and infra-red; indicating a

necessity for the nema to escape from exclusively green light before

Oviposition can take place. In the grasshopper habitats, blue light

(sky-light) is the most diffused and most likely to be useful in leading

to the known consummation, should chromatropism come into play

at all. In nature,.clambering skyward (‘“blue-ward’’) from out the

green, brings the nema soonest under the incidence of the longer wave

lengths so stimulative to the ovijectors.

APRIL 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 167

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

222D MEETING

The 222d meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on

the evening of Thursday, October 18, 1928.

Program. Prof. WaLtpEMAR G. Bocgoras-Tan delivered an illustrated

address on Cultural and Scientific Work among the Primitive Tribes of Siberia.

The so-called “‘lesser nationalities of the North” represent small groups of

people more or less primitive, each group with a membership scarcely more

than a couple of thousand or so, scattered over an immense area of tundra and

forest. The whole population of these twenty-odd tribes is between one hun-

dred and fifty and two hundred thousand. Among them are: the Chuckchee,

the Koryak, the Kamchadal, the Asiatic Eskimo, the Aleut, the Yukaghir, the

Chuvanzi, the Ghiliak, the Yenisseian, the Dolgan, the various branches of

the Tungus and the Lamut, the Gold and the Olcha, the Orocha, the Ude

of the Amur country, the Orok of the Saghalien, the Karagas and the Soyot

of the Sayan Mountains. These last are the most primitive tribes among

the Siberian Turki people. Here belong also the Sayomed, the Ostyak, the

Vogul, and the Lapp.

Our scientific work among these tribes represented the development of the

studies undertaken by the Jesup North Pacific Expedition among the Asiatic

part of Cireumberingian people. Thirty years ago we called these tribes

‘‘Americanoid tribes of Northeastern Siberia,’ but in latter years the circle

of this research widened and several other groups appeared as very similar

to the Northeastern Americanoids in most of the conditions of their life and

culture. We call these tribes at present Proto-Asiatic, which from the point

of view of an Americanist means to imply that at some stage of their early

history they presented a close resemblance to the Proto-American, who, much

later on, were connected with Asia in various branches of their life and culture.

When, after the War and the Revolution, we resumed our scientific work

among these tribes of northern and northeastern Siberia, we had first of all

to solve some very important practical problems referring to the well-being

and to the very life of these tribes which until then were only an object of our

scientific research. For several centuries before the War these tribes were

oppressed and threatened with extermination. The Revolution and the

civil disturbances brought them to utter destitution and even carried them

to the brink of starvation. In order to improve this nearly castastrophic

condition of things there was organized in 1924, partly on the suggestion of

Waldemar Bogoras, a special ‘Committee for Assisting the Lesser National-

ities of the North,” in abbreviation, the Northern Committee.

Among the measures introduced and carried through by the Committee

may be mentioned:

. The remission of all taxes and direct payments in the Polar districts.

. The complete abrogation of all military service by the natives.

. An increase of the necessary supplies and provisions imported into

the northern countries and an improvement of their quality.

4. The organization of self-government and of native jurisdiction; this

has led to increased self-confidence among the tribes.

5. Credits have been given to the reindeer breeders and insurance of the

herds is being introduced.

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 8

6. Measures for the protection of fur-bearing animals have been intro-

duced and are being carried through.

7. Land surveys are being undertaken to protect the territories of the

natives against colonists.

A peculiar type of the so-called ‘cultural bases’”” was introduced. These

bases represent special settlements arranged in the very middle of native

territory at a distance from Russian settlements and villages. Three of such

bases are already started. Each of them includes a hospital, a veterinary

institution, a school of higher type, a codperative store, a standard reindeer

herd, and some model workshops for operating with local material. A local

official center is: also established there. ‘‘For the native and through the

native” is the motto of the whole cultural work of the Northern Committee.

Since the northern natives bring to the State a good half of the most valu-

able peltries, such as sable, ermine, white and red fox, gray squirrel, etc., and

since reindeer breeding, which is most important in the community life of

northern Eurasia, was created and is carried on solely by northern natives,

it was but fair for the Russian State in its period of new organization to spend

some part of its income on improving the miserable conditions of those hard-

driven stepsons of civilization.

In the matter of education, fifty schools, with free board, were arranged,

having 800 pupils. (In 1926-27 there were only twenty-five schools.) <A

special college of higher type was established in Leningrad with 300 students,

and smaller colleges in Khabarovsk, Amur country, and Irkutsk, Siberia.

The Northern College of Leningrad is of special interest. It was started in

1924, with sixty students. In 1927, it had 192 students, among whom were

twenty girls. The yearly expenses were $150,000. This year the number of

students will be 300. The college forms at present an important section of

the great Leningrad Eastern Institute. The students represent twenty-four

tribes of those mentioned above. The Leningrad Eastern Institute is now

embodied in the Geographical Department of the University of Leningrad,

which has an ethnographical section of eight branches. About twenty-five

of the young scientists in the Department pursue cultural and scientific work

among the tribes of the north. Their work includes teaching and field activi-

ties among the natives. In the scientific investigations the Museum of

Anthropology and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences codperates with

the Ethnographic Section of the University. Several expeditions are organ-

ized every year for field work in Northern Siberia. The studies include

problems of material and social culture, of religion, folklore and linguistics.

Effective work is being done to raise the cultural level and the standards of

living of the tribes. (Author’s abstract.)

223D MEETING

The 223d meeting was under the joint auspices of the U.S. Navy Depart-

ment and the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and was held in the Audi-

torium of the Interior Department Building on the evening of Tuesday,

Dee. 4, 1928: After calling the meeting to order, Vice-President Hryni

turned the chair over to the Secretary of the Navy, Hon. Curtis D. WiLBur,

who presided during the rest of the evening.

Program. Dr. F. A. Ventna Metnesz, member of the Netherlands

Geodetic Commission, Professor of Geodesy at the University of Utrecht,

and honorary member of the Academy, delivered an illustrated address on

Gravity Measurements at Sea and their Significance.

APRIL 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 169

Gravity at sea may be found with the necessary accuracy of 1 part in

250,000. The same pendulum method is used as has already been used

satisfactorily on land; it is well known that the period of a pendulum is de-

pendent on the value of gravity, and therefore by determining this period

gravity may be deduced. Of course this method has to be adapted to meet

the difficulties due to disturbance by the motion of the ship. This may be

done by swinging two pendulums together in the same plane of oscillation.

The horizontal movements, which cause the greatest disturbance in the

pendulum motion, are thus the same for both pendulums and consequently

their effect may be eliminated. By combining the movements of the two

pendulums in the right way we can find a result that is free from the dis-

turbance. The apparatus makes this combination automatically, so that

the photographic records give quite regular curves, although each pendulum

by itself is much disturbed. A great many other smaller disturbances have

to be taken into account, but these do not present difficulties. The method

ean, however, only be applied if the ship’s movements do not exceed a certain

limit, and this makes it necessary to work in a submerged submarine; in this

way the ship may descend toa depth where the wave motions are small and a

sufficiently steady platform is obtained.

The purpose of gravity measurements is twofold. The first is the deter-

mination of the figure of the earth. The theory of the gravitational potential

shows that this figure may be computed if gravity be known over the entire

surface of the earth. It is clear that this implies the making of gravity

measurements at sea, but this is the only way to determine the complete

figure of the earth: the other geodetic method, that of are measurements,

can be applied only on the continents. This point is of especial importance

because the results of the recent investigations tend to show that the figure

of the earth is slightly irregular, deviating over extensive areas perhaps as

much as 500 feet from an ellipsoid of rotation. The continental measure-

ments alone are therefore insufficient to give the complete figure of the earth.

A few cruises over the oceans would contribute an important part of what is

needed. In this way gravity work at sea is of basic importance for geodetic

and hydrographic work and for all map and chart making.

The second purpose of gravity investigations is to obtain data for the

study of the earth’s crust. From these measurements we get indications

regarding the distribution of abnormal masses in the crust. ‘These may be

used for geological studies and for a study of the physical behavior of the

crust. In this way the values on the continents have led to the discovery

of isostasy, that is, the fact that the earth’s crust is in floating equilibrium

on the subcrustal layers, which though viscous have, nevertheless, enough

fluid properties to allow the crust to sink into them till equilibrium is reached.

The first problem of gravity observations at sea is to learn whether this

equilibrium is also present at sea. If a deviation is found, there are three

possibilities. First, the gravity anomaly may be caused merely by a wrong

assumption about the way in which the masses in the crust are distributed,

so that the departure from equilibrium may be only apparent and not real.

This can, however, never cause other than local anomalies. Secondly, it may

be that the cause that has brought about the deviation from equilibrium

is no longer active, and that the deviation is caused by the lag in the restora-

tion of equilibrium due to the viscosity of the subcrustal layers. Thirdly,

and most important, the departure of equilibrium may be caused by stresses

working in the crust or in the subcrustal layers. These data would in this

way give us a means of stating these stresses and of computing their intensity,

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 8

and thus of finding the causes of the deformations in the earth’s crust. The

following problems in connection with gravity work at sea may be indicated;

the list however is not meant to be exhaustive.

Gravity over the open oceans. The few observations now available seem to

show that, although roughly speaking isostasy is present, there are extensive

though not very considerable excesses of gravity in the Atlantic and the

Pacific Ocean. It would be important to investigate this further in order

to see whether these results are confirmed elsewhere and whether their dis-

tribution shows a general relation to the distribution of sea and land on the

earth’s surface, as now appears to be the case.

Gravity along the continental shelf. On this question the voyage of the

U.S. S. S-21 has given valuable data. The results obtained along the shelf

between the West Indies and Cape Hatteras show, as far as can be seen from

the provisional results, the same curious anomaly that has been found also

on the Pacific Coast of Central and North America: an excess along the foot

of the slope. An interpretation of this result must wait till the figures are

accurately known and can be studied.

The investigation of inland seas. Here also the expedition brings back an

increase of knowledge: a series of observations have been made over the

Mexican Gulf, which show a remarkable excess of gravity. The Mississippi

delta had been investigated by means of two profiles of stations running

up to the coast, but apparently there is no evidence that this delta is playing

any role in this ‘de parture from equilibrium.

The investigation of ocean deeps. These deeps are suspected to be recent

deformations of the earth’s crust where stresses are probably still present:

the earthquakes in these regions confirm this supposition. A great many

detailed data were gathered during the expedition regarding two of these

deeps: the Bartlett deep south of East Cuba and the Nares deep north of

Porto Rico. The results fully agree with the expectations. The latter deep

especially shows big departures from equilibrium, and a detailed study of the

final results will help to understand the deforming stresses which are acting

there. It may be added that gravity observations north of Haiti and north

of East Cuba show that these stresses continue much further westward

than the deep itself would indicate.

Much eredit is due the authorities of the U. 8. Navy and the Carnegie

Institution of Washington for undertaking this scientific investigation and

organizing this expedition, and to the commander of the U.S. 8. S-21, Lieut.

J. L. Fisher, who by ordering all the submergences necessary for the measure-

ments made it possible to get the numerous results which were brought back,

and to the helpful assistance given during the whole voyage by the officers,

Lts. Hall, Hamblin and Sodergren, and by the crew. The great number of

submergences, 49 in all, of which there were often several in one day, were an

additional strain on everybody. (Author’s abstract.)

Dr. F. E. Wricut of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institu-

tion delivered an illustrated address on The Trip of the U. S. S. S-21.

The recent 7000-mile cruise of the U. 8. 8. 8-21, Lt. J. L. Fisher command-

ing, over the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea for the purpose of meas- -

uring gravity at selected points was remarkably successful. At no time dur-

ing the voyage was there trouble with the operation of the submarine or with

the gravity-measuring apparatus. This bespeaks capable officers and an

efficient crew to maintain in good working order the mass of complex machin-

ery that is crowded into a submarine. During the cruise 46 gravity stations

at sea were occupied. Measurements were made over the Bartlett Deep,

APRIL 19, 1929 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 171

the Nares Deep, the Mississippi delta, the continental shelf and certain ex-

tended portions of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the Atlantic

Ocean. The isostatic gravity anomalies deduced from these measurements

through the active codperation of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey indi-

cate that the Nares Deep is an uncompensated geologic feature in which shear-

ing stresses of large magnitude are present in the earth’s crust; likewise the

eastern part of the Bartlett Deep and Virgin Island Deep. The Mississippi

delta is practically compensated in spite of the fact that each year a load

exceeding one twentieth of a cubic mile of sediment or nearly 12 billion tons

is being laid down. On the other hand large positive anomalies over the

deeper portions of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the Atlantic

Ocean indicate a condition for which a satisfactory explanation has not yet

been found. The same condition obtains over the Pacific Ocean in so far as

measurements have there been made.

Life aboard a submarine was described briefly; incidents of the voyage were

illustrated by lantern slides. Notwithstanding the discomforts that neces-

sarily exist in a submarine because of limited quarters the crew and officers

of the submarine at no time complained, but were always ready and eager

to aid the scientific work whenever possible and to dive at any time of day or

night. The efficiency of the Navy in undertaking a project of this nature

and carrying it through without a hitch formed a most impressive exhibit of

preparedness for any emergency. (Author’s abstract.)

After their addresses the speakers answered various questions by the pre-

siding officer and members of the audience.

Water D. Lampert, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

A comparison of the electrical conductivity of copper and aluminum is of

special interest at the present time when they happen to be selling at the

same price, 24 cents a pound. The same weight of aluminum, in this case

the same money’s worth, will offer twice the electrical conductivity for the

same length, or for wire of the same diameter the aluminum wire will be 3.3

times as long as the copper wire, although in this case its conductivity per

unit of length will be only 61 per cent of that of copper.

Victor C. Herxss, long engaged in work on mineral resources in Salt. Lake

City, has been placed in charge of the Mineral Statistics Division of the

San Francisco office of the Bureau of Mines, formerly under the direction of

JAMES M. HILu, now resigned.

E. P. Kiwi, Associate Curator, United States National Herbarium,

A. O. Suita, and W. J. Dennis left Washington March 25th for botanical

exploration of northern Peru and the upper Amazon. They expect to be

gone about 7 months.

The United States Geological Survey celebrated its 50th anniversary on

March 21, just half a century after the appointment of its first Director,

CLARENCE Kine. The President of the United States, who began his geo-

logic career thirty-five years ago asa field assistant on the Survey, received the

members of its staff at the White House, and then joined them for a group

picture on the lawn. Later Mrs. Hoover received the group in the East

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES .VOL. 19, No. 8

Room, and welcomed them as fellow geologists because of her own training in

that subject. In the afternoon addresses celebrating the occasion were given

at the National Museum auditorium by the Secretary of the Interior, Ray

Lyman Wisour, H. Fostser Barn, formerly Director of the Bureau of Mines

and now Secretary of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical

Engineers, ArtHuR E. Morean, President of Antioch College, Hmnry

FAIRFIELD OsBoRN, President of the American Museum.of Natural History,

Artuur L. Day, Director of the Geophysical Laboratory, and Joun C.

Merriam, President, Carnegie Institute of Washington. In the evening

nearly 600 members and friends of the Survey gathered at a banquet in the

Hotel Washington; the program included several brief speeches and playlets and

ended with a dance. Many of the former geologists and other scientific

men of the Survey were present, including H. F. Barn, Myron L. FuLusr,

E. W. Parker, WaLLAce W. Atwoop, GrorcE H. AsHiny, K. C. Hrap,

and M. O. LEIGHTON.

E. F. Burcuarp, Geologist, will be on leave from the Geological Survey

for two months to engage in commercial work in South America.

Frank Reeves and C. P. Ross, of the U. S. Geological Survey, have

returned from two months work on the Panama Canal Zone, where they

examined the proposed Alhajuela dam and reservoir sites for the Panama

Canal.

Ropert Rrpeway, curator of the division of birds in the U. 8S. National

Museum since 1876, died on March 25, in his seventy-ninth year.

The Emeritus Professors of the George Washington University were

entertained at a luncheon in their honor by the President of the University,

Dr. Cuoyp Heck Marvrn, on March 26, at the Cosmos Club. Included in

the company were the following distinguished men of science: JAMES HowarRD

GorE, mathematician’ and astronomer, who has represented the United

States at numerous scientific congresses abroad and who has been decorated

by eight foreign countries; Harry Crecy Yarrow, formerly curator of the

Division of Reptiles of the United States National Museum, for thirty years

Acting Assistant Surgeon of the United States Army; Danie, KERFOooT

SHUTE, ex-president of the Medical Society of the District and of the Society

of Opthalmologists and Otologists of Washington; Witt1am KENNEDY

BuTLer, physician; CHARLES Epwarp Munroe, inventor of smokeless

powder, Chief Explosives Chemist of the United States Bureau of Mines;

CHARLES WILLIAMSON RICHARDSON, ex-president of the Medical Society

of the District; GkorGE PERKINS MerRILL, Curator of the Department

of Geology of the United States National Museum; Strruinac RuFFIN,

physician.

The tenth annual meetings of the AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION and of

its sections will be held in the National Academy and Research Council Build-

ing, Washington, D. C., April 25 and 26, 1929. Following the business

meeting of the General Assembly of the Union on the afternoon of April 26,

the Union will hear the five following general-interest papers presented by

the Section of Oceanography; these all concern work in progress or recently

completed: The expedition of the submarine S-21 to the Caribbean Sea and

APRIL 19, 1929 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 173

Gulf of Mexico, by C. S. FREEMAN; Oceanography and the fisheries, by HENRY

B. BicEetow; The international ice patrol, with special reference to its economic

aspects, by Epwarp H. Smitru; The coéperative survey of the Great Lakes, by

CHARLES J. FisH; The work of the CARNEGIE to date, by W. J. PETERS.

The meetings of the six sections will be held on the mornings of April 25

and 26 and the afternoon of April 25. For each Section short business meet-

ings will be followed immediately by progress-reports and scientific papers.

The Section of Geodesy (morning April 25) will be devoted to progress-reports

and recent developments in gravity and geodetic work in Mexico, Canada,

and the United States as follows: Gravity-work in Mexico during the past year,

by Pepro C. SancHxEz; Gravity-comparisons in Europe and America, by A.

H. Miniter; The measurement of gravity at sea, by F. E. Wricut; Recent

developments in time-service methods, by C. B. Watts; Recent developments in

geodetic instruments, by D. L. Parkuurst; Geodetic work in Canada during

the past year, by Nort Oativig; Geodetic computations and investigations, by

H. G. Avers; Accomplishments in field geodesy during the year April, 1928, to

April, 1929, by W1tut1AM Bown. The Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and

Electricity (morning April 25) will hear a symposium on physical theories

of magnetic and electric phenomena including the following papers: The

corpuscular-ray theory of aurora, by N. H. Hecx; The ultraviolet-light theory

of aurora and magnetic storms, by E. O. HuntBurt; The atmospheric dynamo-

theory of variations in earth-currents and terrestrial magnetism—a review, by

O. H. Gisu; A tentative theory of the permanent magnetic field of the sun and

earth, by Ross Gunn; Echo-sounding of the Kennelly-Heaviside layer, by

M. A. Tove.

The Section of Oceanography (afternoon April 25) will hear the follow-

ing communications: Oceanography and meteorology, by CHARLES I’. BRooKs;

Oceanography and littoral geology, by Douatas W. Jounson; The significance

of plankton-investigations, by CHARLES J. Fisu; Oceanographic observations in

Monterey Bay, California, by HENRY B. BiceLow; Recent work on the dynamic

oceanography of the North Atlantic, by C. O. Iseuin; Echo-sounding, by W. E.

Parker. Additional oceanographic papers of general interest in this vast

field will be presented as indicated above at the General Assembly on the

afternoon of the following day. The Section of Volcanology (afternoon

April 25) will hear and discuss the following papers: Volcanic oceanic islands,

by H. S. Wasurncton; Volcanoes of Java and Bali, by E. G. Zins; The vol-

canic history of the San Juan Mountains, Colorado, by E. 8S. Larsun; Recent

eruptions of Kilauea, by T. A. JAGGAR.

The Sections of Meteorology and Seismology will hold meetings on the

morning of April 26. The first will be devoted to the Report of the meteoro-

logical division of the Committee on the Physics of the Earth, which will include

the following: Introduction, by H. H. Kimpau; The origin and composition

of the atmosphere, by W. J. Hompureys; Meteorological data and meteorological

changes, by C. F. Marvrx and A. J. Henry; Solar radiation and its réle, by

H. H. Kimpaty; Meteorology of the free atmosphere, by W. R. Grea; Dynamic

meteorology, by Epcar W. Wooxarp and Hurp C. Wiuuertr; Physical basis

of weather forecasting, by Caru-GusraF Rosspy and Ricuarp H. WEIGHTMAN.

The scientific program of the Section of Seismology will include: Surface-

waves, by J. B. Macetwaneu; Forces and movements at the earthquake-origin,

by H. F. Rem; The velocity of surface-waves, by ¥. Neumann; The seismicity

of the arctic as indicated by instrumental data, by E. A. Hopcson; Earth-vibra-

tions from dynamite blasts, by L. D. Lest.

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 8

The scientific sessions are open to persons interested in geophysics, whether

members of the Unicon or not, and all such are cordially invited to attend.

These annual meetings are increasingly interesting each year, not only be-

cause of the stimulus afforded the study of problems concerned with geo-

physics but also by reason of the coéperation of the corresponding geophysical

organizations of Canada and Mexico which is making for initiation and co-

ordination of geophysical researches depending upon international and na-

tional codperation.

JNo. A. FLEMING, General Secretary.

s x

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

(AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

_. Saturday, April 20 "The Biological Society

wr bad The Helminthological Society

Wednesday, April 24 The Geological Society

The Medical Society

Saturday, April27 The Philosophical Society

Wednesday, May 1 The Medical Society

Thursday, May 2 The Entomological Society

_ Saturday, May 4 The Biological Society

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent

_ to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

District or CotumBiA CuHaprer, Siama XI

uk o> A business meeting of the chapter will be held at 4:45 P.M. April 26th,

ee ; 1929, at the Motion Picture Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, 1363 :

wean Street, ‘Southwest.

The meeting will be short. Its purpose is first to Aorids whether he

elected: President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, and two additional

pe gra of Executive Committee.

3. e on Nominations and Reorganization Fanti inet year

has Rukieheg that it prefers not to make any recommendations. Some of the

present officers and a number of other members doubt the advisability of

continuing the Chapter. Members of Sigma Xi interested in maintaining

__ the local organization should therefore make a special effort to attend this

‘meeting and should be prepared to propose nominees who will accept the

F responsibilities of office in the Chapter.

ie E. C. Cavemen, President

chapter shall be continued in existence. If so, the following officers are to be

; CONTENTS

ot A ona Ortarnat ParErs

Zoology.—The genus Trimosina and its relationships to other genera He the

minifera. Joseph A. Cushman....s.ssereereesseeererensee rene ee en ees

hoppers. N, A. “RRMA MUIR I) oc

PROCEEDINGS

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: Aun’ HroutKa, U. §. National Museum. ae

Corresponding Secretary:.L. B. TucKERMAN, Bureau of Standatie

Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic bak

Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

| ASSOCIATE EDITORS |

) idl oe :, yt

‘PUBLISHED sikiee Moar LY,

AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTH y

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1917. "Authorized ond +B, 1918 }

p Journal of f

va ‘This ipcue the Oecav ee ie the Washingto 1

__ present a brief record of current scientific work in Washingto

a. short original papers, written or communicated by membe

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 19 May 4, 1929 No. 9

BOTANY.—Botanical notes on, and descriptions of, new and old

species of Venezuelan plants.1 H. Pirtrer, Caracas, Venezuela.

In the course of my systematic work on different groups of the

Venezuelan flora, I often have had the opportunity to come across

old species which had been incompletely described, or the identi-

fication of which by former botanists is subject to criticism. Also I

have met with new species which did not enter into the field of my

other publications. In the present article, I have brought together

some of these descriptions and notes.

Mimosa TOMENTOSA Humb. & Bonpl. in Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 1033. 1799.

Fruticulus inermis, erectus, ramulosus, ramis ramulisque teretibus, ad-

presse hirsutis; stipulis subulatis, villosis, persistentibus; foliis bipinnatis,

petiolatis, pinnis bijugis, jugis valde approximatis, petiolo communi rhachi-

dibusque longe subulato-mucronatis dense hirsutis; foliolis 8—15(—18)-jugis,

subsessilibus, trinerviis, subfalcatis, oblongis, basi inaequalibus dimidiato-

cordatis, apice rotundatis apiculatis mucronatisve, supra subtusque adpresse-

villosulis, marginibus ciliatis; capitulis ovatis ad apicem ramulorum axillari-

bus, solitariis, pedunculatis, pedunculis villoso-pubescentibus; floribus carneis,

sessilibus, densissimis, bracteolatis, bracteolis spathulatis, elliptico-lanceo-

latis, longe ciliatis, floribus brevioribus; calyce tubuloso, quadrifido, scarioso,

tubo glabro, laciniis longissime fimbriatis; corolla tubulosa, apice paulo

latiora, lobulis 4, oblongis, apice pubescentibus; staminibus 4, longe exsertis,

glabris, antheris ovoideis, dorsifixis; ovario 2—3-ovulato, brevissime stipitato,

oblongo-ovoideo, villoso; stylo filiformi, glabro; legumine oblongo, villoso,

vulgo dispermo, basi stipitato, apice breviter mucronato, inter seminibus

contracto, articulis 2 solubilibus.

Fruticulus 15-30 cm. altus. Stipulae 3-7 (6.4-6.8) mm. longae. Petioli

0.7-2 (1.3-1.8) em. longi; pinnae 2-3 (5.8-7.3 em.) em. longae; foliola 5-11

(8.5-11) mm. longa, 2—2.5 (3-3.8) mm. lata. Capitula circa 1 (1) cm. longa;

pedunculi 1.5-2.5 (1.7-2) em. longi. Bracteae 2 mm. longae. Calyx 1-1.5

mm. longus. Corolla 2.5-3 mm. longa. Pistillum 4-5 mm. longum. Legu-

men 2 cm. longum, 0.6 cm. latum.

1 Received March 22, 1929.

175

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 9

Banks of the Orinoco near Maypures, Atures y Carichana; flowers May |. ~

(Humboldt & Bonpland, type); Barcelona, Anzodtegui (Moritz); between

El Becerro and Orituco River, llanos of Gudrico, in small savannas of gallery-:

woods; flowers and fruits April 15, 1927 (Pitter 12359).

With the exception of slight differences, insignificant on the whole, this

description agrees with that of the Genera and Species,? the only serious

discrepancy being in the length of the pinnae. It is therefore likely that our

plant is identical with that partially described by Kunth, this so much the

more since the measurements of the pods, obtained by Bentham from the

specimens collected by Moritz, are almost exactly the same as the ones given

above. In our specimens I found in the indument of the terminal parts

numerous transparent granules, free and probably of the nature of a resin;

they are doubtlessly secreted by the plant itself.

Emelista mucronulosa Pittier, sp. nov.

Suffruticosa, caulis in aetate glabrescentibus ramulisque praeter angulosis

rufo-villosis; stipulis linearibus apiculatis, ciliato-villosis, persistentibus;

foliis 2-3-jugis petiolis brevibus villosis, foliolis brevissime petiolulatis,

ovalibus vel plerumque obovatis, basi subaequalibus rotundatis, apice late

rotundatis molliter mucronulatis, marginibus rufo-ciliatis, pilis adpressis,

supra praeter nervibus adpresse-villosis subtus parce villosulis, inferioribus

minoribus; glandulis tenuibus fusiformibus inter paria inferiora 1-2; peduncu-

lis communibus brevibus, 1-3 floribus pedicellisque dense rufo-villosis;

bracteis longis, setaceis, villosis, caducis; floribus parvis; sepalis 5, ovalibus,

inaequalibus, duobus exterioribus minoribus subacutis, alteris obtusis, in-

terior major, omnibus praeter basin rufo-villosis, marginibus plus minusve

ciliatis; petalis 5, glaberrimis, leviter inaequalibus, ovatis obovatisve, basi

in unguem brevem contractis; staminibus 7, 3 majoribus inter se inaequalibus,

4 minoribus, apice obtuso, breviter contracto; staminodiis 3, parvis, fila-

mentis crassis, antheris distincte evolutis; ovario sessili, dense villoso; ovulis

5-10; stylo glabro, valde arcuato, stigmate incrassato, truncato; legumine

tereto, recto, rufo-hirsuto, inter semina contracto, marginibus prominentibus;

seminibus 5-9, longitudinalibus, oblongo-obtusis.

Suffrutex 30-60 cm. altus. Stipulae 0.7-1 em. longae. Petioli communi

3.5-5 em. longi; petioluli 1-2 mm. longi; foliola 2.5-4 em. longa, 1.2-2.5 em.

lata; glandulae circiter 1.5 mm. longae. Pedunculi communi 0.5-0.8 cm.

longi; pedicelli brevissimi. Bracteae 1-1.5 cm. longae. Sepala 3.5-5 cm.

longa, 1.5-3 mm. lata. Petala 3.5-4.2 mm. longa, 1.9-2.5 mm. lata. Fila-

menta 0.5-1.4 mm. longa; antherae 1.7-2.7 mm. longae. Legumen 2-4 cm.

Ingum, 3-4 mm. latum; semina 4 mm. longa.

Lara: Vicinity of Barquisimeto; flowers and fruits July, 1925 (J. Saer

d’ Héguert 282, TyPr).

Belongs to the group of Emelista Tora (L.) Britt. & Rose, E. pilifera

Pittier (Cassia pilifera Vog.) and E. mucronifera Pittier (Cassia mucronifera

Mart.), being easily distinguished from them by the diminutive size of the

flowers and the shortness and structure of the pods. It differs, also, from the

first in the villous sepals, the shape of the staminodes and the indumentation

2H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 6: 253. 1823.

may 4, 1929 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 177

of the pod and leaves; from the second in the number of the leaflets, the

petaloid sepals hairy at the base, and in the length of the clawlets of the

petals, and from the third in the number of the leaflets, the general indumen-

tation and the length of the pedicels. The shape, dimensions and dehiscence

of the pods make it doubtful as to whether I am justified in placing this

species in genus Hmelista; possibly it should come somewhere in sect.

Chamaesenna of the complex genus Cassia.

Peiranisia mutisiana (Kunth) Pittier

Cassia mutisiana Kunth, Mimoses 142. pl. 43. 1819.

Fruticosa, ramulis sublignosis, 4-angulatis, angulis prominentibus molliter

setaceo-hispidissimis demum fulvo-pubescentibus; stipulis lineari-acuminatis,

hirtellis; foliis plus minusve arcuatis, paripinnatis, rhachi flavescenti-villoso;

foliolis 30-36-jugis, brevissime petiolulatis, crassis, oblongis, basi oblique

rotundatis, apice rotundatis, fere breviter molliterque mucronulatis, supra

glabris papillosisque, subtus nervo prominente parcissime villosula excepto

glabris, marginibus incrassatis, petiolulis glabris; glandulis inter omnia

paria, 1-3 inferioribus majoribus, crassioribus, subclavatis, erectis, reliquiis

fusiformibus, acutis, oblique insidentibus, parce hirtellis; racemis in apice

ramulorum axillaribus solitariis, 4-7-floribus; pedunculo anguloso pedicellis-

que flavescenti-hirtellis, bracteis nullis evanescentibusve, interdum glandula

crassa, clavata ad pedicellorum basin; sepalis 5, valde inaequalibus, petaloi-

deis, ovalibus, suborbiculatisve, 3 exterioribus minoribus, ciliatis, extus basi

villosulis, 2 interioribus majoribus glaberrimis; petalis 5, inaequalibus sepalis

duplo vel triplo longioribus, ovatis, obovatis suborbicularibusve, glaberrimis,

flavis; staminibus 7, subaequantibus, filamentis crassis, antheris 4-sulcatis,

4 superioribus breviter rostratis, 3 inferioribus obtusis, biporosis; staminodiis

3, filamentis staminum subaequantibus, applanatis, subclavatis, apice

bilobulatis; ovario stipitato, lineari, styloque arcuato, stipite adpresse

villosulo, reliquis glabris glabrescentibusve.

Folia 7-8 em. longa; foliola 6-10.5 mm. longa, 2-3 mm. lata. Stipulae

1-1.2 em. longae. Pedunculi ad 2.5 em., pedicelli ad 1.5 em. longi. Sepala

4-10 mm. longa, 3-9 mm. lata. Petala 12-18 mm. longa, 7.5-14 mm. lata.

Filamenta 1-2 mm. longa; antherae 4-5.5 mm. longae.

Ménripa: Quirord, 2000 m. (Dr. A. Jahn 692).

Notwithstanding small discrepancies, I think there should be no hesitation

in identifying Dr. Jahn’s plant with the one described by Kunth under the

name of Cassia mutisiana.

MyYrosSPERMUM FRUTESCENS Jacq. Enum. Pl. Carib. 20. 1760.

A tree well distributed in the hot dry belt along the Caribbean coast, between

the Colombian city of Cartagena and the island of Trinidad. In Venezuela,

where it is apparently more abundant and better known, it penetrates far

inland, accompanying the thorn forests which surround the Llanos. Though

fairly constant in its fundamental characters, it is very variable in the

secondary ones and Klotzsch’ thought it possible to subdivide it into at least

three species, one of which, besides the typical one, belonged to Venezuela.

? Bonplandia 5: 276.

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 9

My protracted acquaintance with this tree does not so far support the views

of the celebrated German systematist, views which, anyhow, have not been

generally accepted. With reference to the petioles, they should be glabrous

in M. frutescens, but according to my observations, they are so only in age,

and on the same branchlet some are very glabrous and others tomentose-

pubescent. In the size of the leaflets there is some variation, which is

perhaps constant for each individual tree, the smaller leaflets being found

mostly on the larger ones; the indumentum of the inflorescences is very

variable, often only puberulent on specimens which otherwise would be con-

sidered as M. frutescens and obviously pubescent in others of the M. secundum

type. The indumentum of the ovary is variable in the same way and no true

differential character can be drawn from the variable size of the pods. Further-

more all forms of the tree which came under observation were deciduous, and

the flowers always appeared before the leaves, with the exception of some

accidental late flowering. There does not seem to exist between the very

variable size of the tree and others characters any correlation such as Klotzsch

attempted to establish. The same will probably prove true of his M.

emarginatum. It is therefore reasonable that this and M. secundum should

have been relegated to synonymy under M. frutescens Jacq., the genus being

monotypic.

DipHysA SENNOIDES Benth. Nat. For. Kjébenh. Vidensk. Medd. 1853:

12. 1854.

The type of this species is from Vera Cruz, Mexico. It is described as

having from 11 to 25 oblong or oval-elliptic and mucronulate leaflets; the

floral racemes bear from 2 to 5 flowers, the pedicels of which are hardly longer

than the calyx; the stipe of the pod is said to be longer than the calyx; and

the vesicles are ribless. According to Standley, this shrub reaches 3 to 4

meters, the leaflets are about 13, the fruit is about 10 cm. long.

The Venezuelan specimens have from 11 to 25 leaflets, which agrees

with Bentham’s description; they are sparsely pubescent underneath and

measure from 4 to 10 mm. in length, with a width of from 2.5 to4mm. The

pedicels are much longer than the calyx, measuring from 12 to 15 mm., while

the latter does not exceed 8 to9mm. The fruits on our specimens, moreover,

are much shorter than indicated by Standley, their length varying from 2.5

to 5 cm.

The descriptions published thus far are very summary and it is to be

expected that, on more thorough investigation, the Mexican and Venezuelan

plants will be found to be specifically distinct.

Geranium meridense Pittier, sp. nov. (Sec. 28. Laricaulia R. Knuth.)

Planta probabiliter perennis, decumbens, rhizomate (?), caulibus ad nodos

inferiores radicantibus, elongatis, tenuibus, pilis minutis, retrorsis parcissime

puberulis; ramulis axillaribus, adscendentibus suberectisve, angulosis, hir-

tellis pilis retrorsis; stipulis lanceolatis, scariosis, ciliatis, persistentibus;

foliis basalibis (?) caulinis petiolatis, firmis, in sicco fragilibus; petiolis

angulosis, canaliculatis, hispidis; laminis subtus pallidioribus utrinque pilis

albis adpressis obsitis, ambitu 5-angulatis usque ad 3/4-2/3 regula-

riter palmato-5-partita, lobulis 3 interioribus 3-dentatis, dentibus acutis

dentibus lateralibus brevissimis, lobulis exterioribus saepe 2-dentatis;

pedunculis tenuibus plerumque bifloris, retrohispidis; pedicellis primum

deflexis tenuioribus, tomentoso-hispidis apicem versus copiose glandulosis;

may 4, 1929 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 179

bracteis minutis, lanceolato-acutis, basi longe ciliatis; sepalis ovalibus,

trinerviis, mucronatis, nervibus extus marginibusque dense glanduloso-

pilosis; petalis roseis, late ovatis (interdum suborbicularibus), breviter

unguiculatis, basi rotundatis, apice subemarginatis, sepalis brevioribus;

staminibus petalis brevioribus; staminibus petalis brevioribus, filamentis

ciliatis; fructus adpresse villosus, stigmatibus persistentibus glabratis.

Caules 20-35 em. longi, internodiis 3.5-6.5 em. Stipulae 2-5 mm. longae.

Petioli 0.5-2.5 em. longi; laminae 0.6—1.3 em. longae, 0.6-2 cm. latae. Pedun-

culi 3-6 mm. longi (fructiferi usque ad 2.5 em. longi); pedicelli 1-3 mm. longi

(fructiferi 1-2 em.). Bracteae 1-2 mm. longae. Sepala circa 5 mm. longa,

2-2.5 mm. lata (mucronum 0.3—-0.4 mm.); petala 3-3.4 mm. longa, 2-8 mm.

lata, unguiculo 0.2-0.3 mm. longo. Filamenta 1.8—2.5 mm. longa. Fructus

(vix maturus) cirea 1 em. longus.

Meéripa: Paramos de Sto. Domingo and Chachopo, 3100 m., flowers Sept. 14,

1922 (Dr. A. Jahn 1130a, Tyre).

A careful study of Dr. Jahn’s specimens led me to the conclusion that not

only are they distinct from G. diffuswm H. B. K., with which they had been

identified, but that they do not even belong to the same section. I would

place this species with the Lazicaulia, its closest affinities being with G.

elongatum R. Knuth. G. diffusum is known so far to extend from Peru to

Ecuador along the Pacific watershed and its presence in Venezuela is doubtful.

Geranium chamaense Pittier, sp. nov.

Perenne, rhizomate tenuo, caulibus erectis brevibus, pilis adpressis pubes-

centibus; stipulis lanceolatis, apiculatis, scariosis, fulvo-brunneis, pubes-

centibus; foliis parvis, basalibus quam caulinis longiore petiolatis; petiolis

tenuibus, minute retro-pubescentibus, laminis ambitu plus minusve reni-

formibus, supra minute adpresse-pubescentibus, subtus pallidioribus prae-

cipue ad nervos hirtello-pubescentibus, usque ad 3/4-4/5 longitudine sua

regulariter palmato-5-partita, lobulis 3 interioribus 3-dentatis, exterioribus

profunde 2-fidis, dentibus ovalibus, acutis, apice mucronulatis; pedunculis

axillaribus, solitariis, unifloribus, erectis, ebracteolatis, retro-pubescentibus

petiolis longioribus; bracteis stipulis simillimis, persistentibus; sepalis ovali-

bus, longe mucronatis, adpresse-pubescentibus basi marginibusque longe

pilosis; petalis roseis obovatis, basi breviter unguiculatis, apice rotundatis

emarginatisve, sepalis paullo superantibus; staminibus petalis duplo breviori-

bus, filamentis ad 2/3 longitudinis sui alatis, demum nudis, alis ciliatis

apice hastatis; ovario brevi, densiuscule cano-pubescente, stigmatibus

glaberrimis; fructo brevi, adpresse-pubescente.

Caules 10-15 cm. longis; internodiis circa 1.5 em. Stipulae 3-4 mm. longae.

Petioli 0.5-2.5 em. longi; laminae 1.4-1.8 em. diam., lobuli usque ad 1 cm.

longi. Pedunculi 1-2.5 em. longi (fructiferi longiores). Sepala 4.2-4.5

mm. longa, 1.6-2.3 mm. lata. Petala 4.5-4.8 mm. longa, 11-2 mm. lata

Filamenta 1.8-2.5 mm. longa. Fructus circa 1 cm. longus.

Ménripa: Péramo de los Apartaderos, upper Chama Valley, 3300 m.; flowers

and fruits September 4, 1921 (Dr. A. Jahn 549, Type).

This species, I believe, should be placed among those of Sect. 16, Rupicola

R. Knuth, near G. hirtum Willd., from which, however, it is distinguished by its

single stems with short internodes, very small leaves, short petals, and above

all by the peculiar appearance of the filaments.

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 9

GERANIUM MULTICEPS Turez. in Bull. Soc. Nat. Mose. 31. 1: 417. 1858.

(?) Geranium velutinum Turez. ibid.

Among the Gerania collected in the Andes by Dr. A. Jahn, several agree

with Turezaninow’s description of his Geranium velutinum. But that

description, as well as that of G. multiceps, also described by him, but com-

pleted to a certain degree by R. Knuth, is somewhat vague. A careful

examination of the specimens at hand has led me to the conclusion that they

are simply incompletely developed individuals of G. multiceps. Only a

comparison between the type specimens could show definitely whether my

contention is right. Following are some measurements taken in dissecting

flowers of G. multiceps and the alleged G. velutinum.

G. multiceps G. velutinum

Sepals 8.7-8.9 mm. long 7-7.5 mm. long

2-4-2 on loroad 2-218) ra ronal

Petals 2 ee feat Lone: 11379 long.

Soi 4) road Dots eo proad

Filamenta 3.5-5.1 “ long Dato: ome

In 1916, Mr. Paul C. Standley® attributed Jahn’s no. 5 to G. velutinum,

but in 1924, Dr. 8. F. Blake made it the type of his G. sebosum,* which differs

from G. multiceps in its glandular pedicels. A specimen collected at the

Pdramo de Mucuchies in December 1927, by the geologist Dr. A. Gutzwiller,

corresponds to Dr. Blake’s description of the new species.

GERANIUM COLOMBIANUM R. Knuth in Engler, Pfiznrch. 4°: 212. 1912.

The name of this species, to which I referred my no. 12969, is unfortunate

both because there is already a G. columbinum, almost homonymic, and

because the type locality, Paramo de Mucuchies, is not in Colombia, but in

the Venezuelan State of Mérida. It is doubtful whether Moritz, in his

Andean wanderings, ever reached the Colombian territory. The latter

remark applies to G. Kerberi, collected at Paramo de La Culata, Mérida, ina

locality not far distant from Paramo de Mucuchies.

TRICHILIA TRIFOLIA L. Syst. Nat. ed. 10. 2: 1020. 1759.

Arbor parva vel arbuscula, ramis brevibus, ramulis crassis vel interdum

eracilibus cortice cinereo-brunnescente plus minusve ruguloso tectis; foliis

petiolatis, 3-foliolatis, ad apicem ramulorum congestis; petiolo tenui, canali-

culato, glabrato vel interdum argute puberulo; foliolis glaberrimis, terminali

obovato, basi longe cuneato, modice petiolulato, apice obtuso vel rotundato,

lateralibus minoribus breviuscule petiolulatis sessilibusve, supra laete viridi-

bus, subtus pallidioribus, costa venisque prominulis; inflorescentiis petiolis

brevioribus, pedunculatis, 3-6-floribus, umbellulatis; pedunculo glabro;

floribus breviuscule pedicellatis, glaberrimis, pedicellis basi bractea oblonga

minute suffultis; calyee tubuloso-campanulato, apice irregulariter 5-crenato;

petalis 4-5, albis, oblongis, basin versus attenuatis, apice rotundatis; stamini-

4 Engler, Pflanzenreich 412°: 105. 1912.

§ Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 19: 111. 1916.

§ Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 20: 526. 1924.

may 4, 1929 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 181

bus petalis aequantibus vel leviter superantibus, filamentorum pars tertia

inferiora coalitis, pars superiora lata, apice bifida, intus villoso-tomentosa;

antheris 10, elliptico-ovoideis, luteis, inter filamentorum apiculis insertis;

disco subtubuloso, carnoso, basin tubo stamineo connato, apice crenulato;

ovario glabro in stylo breve attenuato, stigma capitellato; capsula pedicellata,

globosa, matura leviter 3-sulcata, parce minuteque pilosula, densissime albo-

punctulata, dehiscente, 3-valvata; seminibus plerumque 2-3, intus angulosis,

extus rotundatis.

Arbor 2-7-metralis, decidua. Folia 3-9 em. longa, petiolo 0.8-3 em. longo;

foliolum terminale 2.5-6 em. longum, 1.2-3.5 em. latum, petiolulo 0.6-6 mm.

longo suffultum; foliola lateralis 14 em. longa, 0.8-2.5 cm. lata, petiolulo

nulo vel vix 0.5—- mm. longo. Pedunculi 0.5-1.5 em. longi; pedicelli usque

ad 1 mm. longi. Calyx 2.9 mm. longus. Petala 4.5 mm. longa, 1.3-1.4

mm. lata. Stamina 3.54 mm. longa (tubo 1—-1.4 mm. longo). Discus 0.7-1

mm. altus. Pistillum 2 mm. longum. Capsula circiter 6 mm. longa;

semina 4 mm. longa.

CarABoso: Vicinity of Puerto Cabello, in bushes not far from the sea-

beach; flowers June 18, 1920 (Pittier 8903); El Carenero, Miranda, on_ hills

around the village; fruits March 6, 1923 (Pitter 11014); port of El Jabillal

near E] Carenero, in shady places; fruits March 6, 1923 (Pittver 11023).

Our plant is without any doubt identical with the one collected by Loefling,

as described by Linnaeus, and also by Jacquin’ from his own specimens, but

it is by no means certain that it is the species described by de Candolle.’

All the measurements given by the latter are very much under those obtained

by me from several flowers. Also I always found 10 stamens and a glabrous

ovary. My description agrees with that of Jacquin, especially in the details

of the capsule and of the seeds, and it does not differ much from that by

Humboldt, Bonpland & Kunth.’ It seems probable that the specimens

collected by Moritz, which were described by de-Candolle, belongs rather to

my Trichilia palmetorum, described elsewhere.!°

Abutilon cuspidatum Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex vel arbuscula e basi ramosissima, ramis lignosis, erectis, teretibus,

apice versus petiolis, pedunculisque stellato-tomentosis rufescentibus,

tomento pilis tenuissimis elongatis intermixto; foliis modice petiolatis, petiolo

tereto, laminis ovato-orbicularibus, 9 nerviis, basi profunde cordatis lobis

arcte se tegentibus, apice longe gradatimque cuspidatis, marginibus regulariter

sinuato-dentatis, denticulis grosse mucronatis; stipulis lineari-subulatis,

pilosis, caducissimis; pedunculis ad apicem ramulorum axillarium dispositis,

teretibus, 4-12 floribus; pedicellis villosis, tenuibus; floribus erectis plus

minusve umbellatim dispositis; calyce campanulato, extus subanguloso,

angulis carinatis pilis longioribus patentibus vestitis intus circum carpidiis

villoso, et caetera tomentello, infra medium in lobulos ovato-lanceolatis,

acuminatis, tomentellis, marginibus ciliatis diviso; petalis erectis, late cunea-

tis, aurantiacis, venis parallelis creberrimis saturatis percursis basi minute

7 Stirp. Amer. 129. pl. 82. 1788.

8 Monogr. Phan. 1: 709. 1878.

9 Nov. Gen. & Sp. 5: 217. 1821.

19 Arboles y arbust. nuevos Venezuela, decades 9,10. In press.

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 9

villosis, demum glabris; androceo calyce breviore, glabro; ovario globoso;

carpidiis circa 18, molliter villosis, 3-ovulatis, maturis dorso apiceque echi-

nulatis, villosis, lateribus laevibus; seminibus 2 evolutis, rariformibus vel

oblique pyriformibus, minutissime hirtellis.

Frutex 3-4 m. altus. Petioli 4-6.5 cm. longi; laminae 14-16 em. longae,

9-10.5 cm. latae. Pedunculi 7-11 em., pedicelli 0.8-1.6 cm. longi. Calyx

1.3-2 em. longus; tubo 0.5-0.7 em. longo, lobulis 0.8-1.3 em. longis, basi

0.40.6 latis. Petala 11 mm. longa, basi 4.5 mm., apice 9 mm. lata. Ova-

rium 4mm. diam. Carpidia matura 8 mm. longa, 3.5 mm. lata. Semina

circa 2 mm. longa, 1.5 mm. lata.

Méripa: Between La Vega and San Juan, 900 m. above sea-level, in the

Chama Valley, flowers Jan. 29, 1928 (Pittzer 12760, Typx).

On account of its 3-ovulate carpids, with two developed seeds at maturity,

its petals united cup-like, its terminal more or less umbellate or corymbose

inflorescences, and finally its leaves with the basal lobes covering each other,

this species might perhaps be placed beside Abutilon ibarrense H. B. K., a

plant widely distributed through South America. It differs however in

having 18 instead of 20 carpids and in the 9 instead of 11-13 nerved leaves.

The petioles are shorter, the calyx larger, and the petals much shorter, hardly

emarginate and not deeply bilobulate. The plant is known among the natives

under the name of pafuelito, i.e., “small handkerchief.

CARINIANA PYRIFORMIS Miers, Trans. Linn. Soc. 30: 290. pl. 63, f. 11.

1874.

Arbor excelsa, nobilis, trunco erecto, coma elongata, ramis ramulisque

cortice verruculoso, glabro, rufo-griseo, interdum in novellis purpurescente,

tectis; foliis parvis, distichis, exstipulatis, petiolatis, coriaceis, petiolo brevi

canaliculato, late marginato costaque subtus minutissime puberulo; laminis

plus minusve ovato-ellipticis, basi rotundatis subcuneatisve, apicem versus

sensim attenuatis, acumine acutato interdum valde elongato, supra obscure

viridibus, lucidis, glaberrimis, costa venisque 18-20 impressis, subtus pal-

lidioribus, dense albo-punctulatis, interdum subtiliter puberulis, costa promi-

nente, venis primariis prominulis, in axillis membranosociliatis, venulis vix

conspicuis, marginibus crenulatis; inflorescentia racemoso-composita, race-

mulis solitariis, binis, vel interdum 3-4-fasciatis, multifloribus, rhachide

hirtello-tomentoso, rufescente; floribus alternis, pedicellatis, pedicellis ovario-

que extus rufo-tomentosis, brevibus; sepalis ovato-lanceolatis, acutis, extus

adpresse rufo-pubescentibus; petalis albidis, ovalibus, apice obtusis, extus

minute pubescentibus, sepalis subduplo longioribus; androphoro parvo,

irregulariter lobulato, valde obliquo, marginibus plus minusve fimbriatis;

staminibus parvis, filamentis brevissimis, antheris bilocularis, loculis globosis;

disco inconspicuo vel nullo; ovario infero 3-loculari, ovulis plurimis, biseriatis;

pyxidio obconico, subpyriformi, apice truncato, applanato, 3-loculari;

columella 3-quetra, operculo brevi cylindrico adnata; semina pro loculo 5-7,

imbricata, obovato-elongata, alata.

Arbor usque ad 50 m. alta; 1.20 m. diam. Petioli 3-6 mm. longi; laminae

4-10 cm. longae, 2-3.5 cm. latae. Pedicelli cirea 2 mm. longi. Sepala 2.5-3

mm. longa; 1.3 mm. lata. Petala 4.5-5 mm. longa, 2.3-2.6 mm. lata.

Pyxidium 6.5-7.5 em. longum, 5 em. diam.; zona calycaris a basi 5.5-6 em.

May 4, 1929 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 183

distans; vitta interzonalis 1.6-2 em. lata; operculum 2.5-8 cm. diam., 0.8

to 1 em. crassum; columella 5-5.5 ecm. longa. Semina 13-15 mm. longa,

5-6 mm. lata.

Type from Betanci on the Rio Sint, State Bolivar, Colombia (Anthoine).

Zuoui1a: Forests along Lora River, Perijé and Colon Districts, flowers and

fruits December 13, 1928 (Pittier 10934); the above description made on this

collection.

In his extensive monograph of the Lecythidaceae,!! Miers described and

figured under the name of Cariniana pyriformis, fruits deposited in the

collections of the Linnean Society of London and in the Kew Museum, the

label of which, probably because of indistinct handwriting, was read as:

“Betania, rio Sint, Bolivia.” Hence the attribution of this species, in the

Kew Index, to the Republic of Bolivia, a country probably far beyond the

southern limits of the family area. Miers, however, had understood the

labels to read: ‘‘Betania riviere sinu Plato Bolivia, New Granada,” and so

had correctly attributed the species to the last country, though his inter-

pretation of the details was inaccurate. It is very likely that the label reads:

Betanci, riviére Sinu, Estado Bolivar, New Granada, thus referring the origin

of the fruits to the vicinity of the Betanci Lagoon, near the Sint River in the

State Bolivar of the actual Colombia. Miers’ monograph was published in

1874, but in 1898, Niedenzu in his treatment of the Lecythidaceae in the

Pflanzenfamilien® still attributes Cariniana pyriformis to Bolivia.

About 1910 or 1911, Sudworth and Mell, of the Forest Service of the -

United States Department of Agriculture, undertook the study of the wood

known on the market as “Colombian Mahogani”’ which was imported into

the United States from the port of Cartagena in Colombia. The identifica-

tion of the wood was obtained through the study of its structure on one side,

and by means of a branchlet with leaves and of a few pyxids that were turned

over to me for determination on the other. Two plates with pictures of the

leaves, fruits and seeds were published, both fairly good, except that the

serratures of the leaves are too sharp and the fruits too short, but the original

descriptions sent by me were so altered that they did not correspond any

longer to the facts; several typographic errors were also overlooked. The

branchlet in question, which, if I am not mistaken, is deposited in the U. S.

National Herbarium, seems to correspond to a shoot, taken perhaps from a

stump. The leaves are large as compared with those collected later and: the

branchlet itself is thin and flexible.

In 1922, it was my good fortune to find the tree itself in full bloom and

growing abundantly in the forests of the Lora River, in the Venezuelan State

Zulia, where it seemed well known under the vernacular name of bacwé. I

collected specimens with leaves and flowers and a good number of fruits with

their corresponding seeds. These materials are the base of the description

given above.

ll Trans. Linn Soc. 30: 1874.

12 Abt. 7: 40.

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 9

Of the genus Cariniana established by Casaretto in 1842, seven species have

been described, all more or less completely. The fruit of C. exigua Miers,

however, is unknown, and C. pyriformis, of the same author was heretofore

known botanically only by its characteristic pyxids. But for two species,

described by the founder of the genus, all the known ones have been described

by Miers and there has been no attempt at a systematic characterization of

them. Recently I received from Mr. A. Ducke, from the Jardim Botanico,

Rio de Janeiro, specimens of another species, related to C. pyriformis, but

evidently new. I hope that able botanist and explorer will soon find time to

publish it.

ANAECTOCALYX LATIFOLIA Cogn., in DC. Monogr. Phan. 7: 713. 1891.

This species has been found so far only in the mountains surrounding

Colonia Tovar, State of Aragua. It is a shrub, 1 to 3 m. high, growing in

clusters. The leaves are often sub-5-7-pli-nerved; the bracts which inclose

the flower buds are disposed in terminal heads, 5-7 together; they are sessile

and borne upon a common peduncle 0.5-1 em. long. According to Cogniaux,

the tube of the calyx is 1 em. long, but our measurements give less, 5 to 8

mm., while we have only 11 mm., instead of 12-15, for the length of the

lanceolate, caducous lobes. The white petals also seem to be shorter, 12 mm.

instead of 13 to 17, and they are 10 mm. broad, more or less. Finally, the

longest anthers reach 8 mm. The authors who have dealt so far with this

genus have not known the fruit. It is a leathery capsule, adnate with the

calyx tube and consequently silky-setose except at its free apex, which is

open at the place where the thick style stood, and crowned with 6 diminutive

teeth. The dimensions of the capsule are 7-9 mm. in length, with a diameter

of 8mm. The numerous seeds are straight, diminutive and inserted appar-

ently on ramified dissepiments radiating from the axis of the capsule, one in

each of the 6 cells.

The plant has been collected so far in the woods above Colonia Tovar,

between 1900 and 2200 m., by Fendler (no. 441), Karsten, Voronoff and myself.

I also found it at a short distance farther east, at the headwaters of the

Chichiriviche River, in the temperate rain-forest at about 1800 m. above sea

level, in flower Sept. 4th, 1918 (Pittier 8126).

The type species of this interesting endemic Venezuelan genus, Anaecto-

calyx bracteosa Triana, is from the Andes of Mérida and Trujillo, where it

grows, according to Funck and Schlim (no. 745), Linden (no. 353) and Engel,

at altitudes between 2000 and 4300 m. Moritz collected it in the neighbor-

hood of Tovar, State of Mérida, which should not be confused with Colonia

Tovar.

Cordia volubilis, Pittier sp. nov. (Sect. Physoclada)

Sublignosa, volubilis, caulibus elongatis, adscendentibus, rufo-hirsutissimis,

ad nodos florigeros sacco laterali ovato munitis; foliis oppositis ternatis

quaternisve, petiolatis, magnis; petiolis crassis, brevibus, dense rufo-villosis;

laminis ovalibus, basi rotundatis subcordatis apice abrupte cuspidatis, supra

costa nervibusque primariis leviter prominentibus villoso-setosis exceptis

glabris, subtus pallidioribus, costa venisque parce piloso-setosis, venulisque

valde prominentibus, demum glaberrimis; inflorescentiis cymosis, cymis ad

nodos congregatis, pedunculatis, rhachide densiuscule rufo-setoso; pedunculis

may 4, 1929 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 185

brevibus vel interdum elongatis; floribus subsessilibus; alabastro ovoideo,

utrinque acuto, parce hispido, apice setis plurimis longioribus producto;

ealyce membranaceo, bilabiato; corolla alba extus glabrescente intus usque

ad insertionem staminum pilosa; staminibus supra medium tubi affixis,

quam corollae lobis brevioribus; filamentis apice apiculatis; antheris ovatis

basi profunde bilobulatis apice emarginatis; ovario subgloboso in disco cu-

pulato totidem immerso, stylo basi crassiore adpresse hispido, medio bifido,

ramis supra iterum bifidis; stigmatibus clavatis.

Caulis basin versus usque ad 1.5 ecm. crassus; internodia 15 em. longa.

Petioli 4-10 mm. longi, laminae 10-32 em. longae, 5.5-21 cm. latae. Pedun-

culi 0.5-12 em. longi; pedunculi eymorum 0.4-1.5 em. Calyx 6.5 mm. longus.

Corolla 7.5 mm. longa (tubus 4.5 mm.; lobuli late ovati suborbiculatisve 3

mm. longi, 2.5-3 mm. lati). Discus (eum ovario immerso) 1 mm. altus;

stylus usque ad bifurcationem 3 mm., crures 2.3—2.5 mm., stipita stigmatorum

0.4-1 mm.; stigmata circa 1 mm. longa.

This interesting species of Sect. Physoclada is very closely related to C.

nodose Lam. It is not, however, a shrub with swollen nodes, but a decidedly

voluble vine. Instead of swollen nodes the leaf, of each floriferous node only,

is provided just underneath its insertion with a hollow pouch, used as a

shelter by a ferocious ant. The leaves are much larger and only the rib

and veins bear an almost setose, scarce indument. In the flowers, the stamens

are inserted, not at the throat itself, but lower down in the tube; the anthers

are ovate and obtuse, divided at the base in two lobésand distinctly emar-

ginate at the apex. Finally, in the style, the basal part is longer, and the

first and second divisions successively shorter. It is likely that a comparison

between the Brazilian plant and ours would show further discrepancies.

Anguria longeracemosa Pittier, sp. nov.

Glaberrima, caulibus validissimis alte scandentibus, grosse sulcatis; foliis

trifoliolatis, breviter petiolatis, petiolo crasso, anguloso, apice versus at-

tenuato; foliolis coriaceis, modice petiolulatis, intermedio late obovato, basi

cuneato apice versus grosse sinuato-dentato et abrupte breveque acuminato,

lateralibus assymetricis basi binerviis breviter auriculatis, margine exteriori

grosse sinuatis; nerviis validis supra impressis, subtus prominentibus; cirrhis

robustis, elongatis; floribus masculis ignotis, foemineis racemosis, pedicellatis,

3-5-glomeratis; pedunculo communi robusto, elongatissimo, pedunculo;

pedicellis crassis, suleatis; receptaculo cylindrico, laevi; sepalis triangularibus,

marginibus plus minusve revolutis, apice subacutis; petalis coccineis late

obovatis, apice rotundatis, mucronatis, utrinque papillosis, conspicuiter 5-

nervibus, nerviis secus marginem anastomosantibus; staminodiis 2, rudimenta-

riis, ciliatis; ovario glabro, elongato, fusiformi; stylo ima crasso; stigmatum

lobis oblongis, obtusis.

Caulis ad 8-12 m. longus, 2 cm. crassus, ad nodos incrassatus. Petioli

4.5-5 em., petioluli 1.5-2 em. longi; foliolum intermedium 21 cm. longum,

15-17 cm. latum, lateralia 18-20 cm. longa, 11-14 em. lata. Racemi ad 50 cm.

longi; pedicelli 1 cm. longi. Receptaculum 7-8 mm. longum. Sepala 2-2.5

mm. longa. Petala 5 mm. longa, 2.5-4.5 mm. lata. Ovarium 10-15 mm.

longum.

PanaMA: Yaviza, southern Darien, on margin of forest; flowers April 22,

1914 (Pittier 6582, Type).

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 9

In the absence of the male flowers, it is difficult to place this new species

exactly. It is likely, however, that its closer affinities are with Anguria

Warscewiczii Hook., a species of Central and northern South America, which

differs in the dimensions and shape of the leaves and in the solitary female

flowers.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

224TH MEETING ~

The 224th meeting, the 31st annual meeting, was held in the Administra-

tion Building of the Carnegie Institution of Washington on Tuesday, Jan.

8, 1929. The meeting was called to order at 8:18 P.M. by Vice-President

Heyu. The retiring President, RopmrT B. Sosman, delivered an address on

Polymorphism in the System: Fe-O. An abstract follows the report of the

business meeting.

At the conclusion of the address there was a brief intermission, after which

the President called the annual business meeting to order. The minutes of

the 30th annual meeting, held Jan. 10, 1928, were read by the Recording

Secretary and approved.

The report of the Corresponding Secretary, L. B. TUCKERMAN, was pre-

sented by him. He reported the election of 32 members during the year

1928 and the death of the following members: BRapsHAaw H. Swatss, Jan.

23, 1928; SamuEL Apams, Feb. 12, 1928; J. N. Rosz, May 4, 1928; W1~L1am

H. Brxsy, Sept. 29, 1928; Davip S. Cari, Nov. 5, 1928; J.S. Diuusr, Nov.

13, 1928; T. C. CHamMBERLIN, Noy. 15, 1928; ALEXANDER Ziwet, Nov. 18,

1928;S. J. Maucuty, Dec. 24, 1928; G. WyTHE Cooke, Dec. 26, 1928.

On Jan. 1, 1929, the membership consisted of 15 honorary members, 3

patrons, and 581 members, one of whom was a life member. The total

membership was 599, of whom 391 reside in or near the District of Columbia,

174 in other parts of the continental United States, and 34 in foreign

countries.

The Board of Managers held eight meetings, which were devoted mainly

to routine business and consideration of revising the By-Laws and Standing

Rules of the Academy. A revised draft of the By-Laws is nearly completed

and will be presented to the Academy during the coming year. The average

attendance was 13 members.

The report was ordered accepted.

The report of the Recording Secretary was presented by him. Six meet-

ings in addition to the annual meeting were held during 1928, two being joint

meetings. The subjects and names of the speakers were given. The report

was ordered accepted.

The report of the Treasurer, R. L. Farts, was presented by him. Among

other items of interest it showed the following: Total receipts during 1928,

$5,549.68; total disbursements, $6,496.15, including an investment of one

thousand dollars in a real estate note. Bank balance Dec. 31, 1928, $1,992.94.

Value of investments, $18,536.37. Estimated net worth, $20,110.30.

The report of the Auditing Committee, consisting of ALEXANDER WET-

MORE, Chairman, F. B. ScHeEetz and JoHn A. FLEMING, was presented by its

May 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 187

chairman. The Committee reported that it had examined the books and

report of the Treasurer and found them correct, and had verified the securities

listed. The reports of the Treasurer and Auditing Committee were ordered

accepted.

The report of the Board of Editors was presented by Mrs. AGNES CHASE.

The eighteenth volume of the Journal consisted of 600 pages printed at an

average cost of $5.92 per page, or with the cost of illustrations and certain

overhead charges included, $6.50 per page. The report indicated the num-

ber of articles and the number of pages devoted to articles in the various

branches of science. The report was ordered accepted.

The report of the Committee of Tellers, consisting of GEorar W. Morgy,

H. L. DrypEen and C. H. KunsMan, was presented by the Corresponding

Secretary. In accordance with the report the following were declared

elected: President, ALES HrpiicKa; Corresponding Secretary, L. B. TucKER-

MAN; Recording Secretary, W. D. LamBrrt; Treasurer, R. L. Faris; Non-

resident Vice-Presidents, H.S. GRavEs and Friptjor NANSEN; Member of the

Board of Managers, A. 8. Hitcucock. For the other member of the Board

of Managers, there was a tie vote between W. S. EICHELBERGER and WIL-

t1AM R. Maxon. It was moved, seconded and carried that the tellers be

instructed to determine the election in this case by lot and report the result

to the Corresponding Secretary. (The lots drawn in accordance with this

motion resulted in the election of W. S. EIcHELBERGER. )

The Corresponding Secretary reported that the following members of the

Academy had been nominated for Vice-Presidents by the affiliated societies:

Archaeological, Dr. WALTER Hoven, National Museum; Biological, Dr. H. A.

GoLpMAN, Biological Survey; Botanical, Dr. Ropert F. Grices, George

Washington University; Chemical, Dr. RautrrcH GiLcHRIsT, Bureau of

Standards; Engineers, Mr. Starr Truscott, National Advisory Committee

for Aeronautics; Electrical Engineers, Mr. C. A. Ropinson, Chesapeake and

Potomac Telephone Co.; Entomological, Dr. A. B6vina, National Museum;

Foresters, Mr. BARRINGTON Moors, 1520 K Street, N. W.; Geographic, Dr.

F. VY. Covrite, Bureau of Plant Industry; Geological, Dr. D. F. Hewsrt,

Geological Survey; Mechanical Engineers, Mr. H. L. WurrremMore, Bureau

of Standards; Military Engineers, Major Carry H. Brown, 1621 New Navy

Bldg., Philosophical, Dr. L. H. Apams, Geophysical Laboratory.

The members so nominated were unanimously elected Vice-Presidents.

No new business being presented, at 9:45 P.M. the meeting adjourned.

Address of the Retiring President of the AcapEMy, RoBrert B. Sosman,

Research laboratory, United States Steel Corporation, Kearny, New Jersey:

On polymorphism in the system: Fe-O. The atomic structures of iron and of

oxygen, under the modified Bohr theory, permit a rational explanation of

why iron and oxygen combine, and why they combine in more than one

proportion, but they do not yet permit a prediction of the temperatures

and pressures of equilibrium. The equilibria in the system involve the fol-

lowing distinctive features: (1) solid solution at high temperatures between

Fe,0; and Fe;O., perhaps over a limited range only, but with indications

from the form of the dissociation-pressure curves that the mutual solubilities

diminish with falling temperature; (2) the eutectic relation between Fe;O,

and FeO; (3) limited temperature-range of stability for FeO, with dissocia-

tion into Fe and Fe,0, below 500° or 600°; (4) liquid immiscibility between

FeO and Fe, with limited solid solution of Fe in FeO and of FeO in Fe.

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 9

Iron and the three oxides, FeO, Fe;0:, and Fe2O3, all show “high-low”

polymorphism of the type shown by quartz at 573°, and by many other

substances. Iron shows the unusual phenomenon of a modification stable at

low and at high temperatures (alpha-delta) but unstable and replaced by a

second form at intermediate temperatures (gamma). Superposed on this

system is the magnetic inversion (alpha-beta). The relations can be de-

scribed in terms of two zeta curves intersecting at two points, together with a

third zeta curve which has a different form and which can be displaced in-

dependently of the other two. Although insufficient for a complete interpre-

tation, the data on the three oxides can be similarly described and classified,

so far as they are available.

In addition to the stable forms: Fe.O; (hematite, paramagnetic), FeO,

(magnetite, ferromagnetic), and FeO (paramagnetic), there is a ferromag-

netic modification of Fe,O; which is apparently monotropic but which has

its own enantiotropic magnetic inversion point.

The system as a whole offers an excellent opportunity for the correlation of

atomic, structural, magnetic, and thermodynamic points of view of the

properties of crystalline substances. (Author’s abstract.)

Water D. LAMBERT, Recording Secretary.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

O86TH MEETING

The 986th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, February

16, 1929.

Program: KE. J. Brown: Precise longitude determinations of the U. S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey. A brief history of the developments in longitude

determination during the past 100 years was given. The importance of devis-

ing a satisfactory means of time comparison between longitude stations

was emphasized.

The use and development of wireless telegraphy as a means of signal

exchange was discussed and a description and demonstration given of the type

of short wave radio time signal receiver used for field work at the present time.

A method of using the carbon microphone button as a means of chrono-

graphically recording chronometer beats, in place of the regular break circuit

device, was shown. The same audio frequency amplifier used to amplify

the impulses from the microphone button served to amplify impulses from the

transit circuit as well as the radio time signals from the short wave receiver.

It was shown that in passing the impulses from the chronometer, transit,

and radio circuits through a common amplifier and relay the appreciable

time lags in these circuits were practically eliminated. (Author’s abstract.)

A. H. Miuuer of Ottawa, Canada: Gravity investigations in Canada. One

hundred and sixteen gravity stations have so far been established in Canada.

The greater part of these have been established in Western Canada and more

particular attention has been paid to the study of the results in this part of

the country. The base station is at Ottawa which has been connected di-

rectly by relative measurements with Washington, Greenwich and Potsdam.

The isostatic anomalies are on the whole rather small. This is particularly

true of the mountainous province of British Columbia and also of the moun-

may 4, 1929 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 189

tainous and elevated regions of Alberta. The survey has been extended to

the Arctic Ocean by the Mackenzie River and a series of stations has also been

placed along the Pacifie Coast on the western shores of Vancouver Island, the

Queen Charlotte Islands and the mainland.

In all of Western Canada there are only two regions of definite isostatic

anomalies and in both places the anomalies are positive. From measure-

ments of the local rock densities it is concluded that the anomalies on the

southern part of Vancouver Island are due to abnormally heavy rock beneath

the stations. The large negative anomaly at Seattle and the large positive

anomaly found in Canada at Victoria are illustrative of the fact that large

anomalies are usually quite local and do not extend over large areas.

From the consideration of the fact that the prairies are known to be a

quite stable region, one which has been subject to erosion for a long time, and

from a comparison of the Coast and Geodetic Survey results for the Black

Hills region, it has been concluded that the Saskatchewan anomalies probably

do not represent a lack of isostatic equilibrium. It is more likely that they

represent an extension or reappearance near the surface of the heavy pre-

Cambrian floor which is exposed in the Black Hills region. Further gravity

observations are required to determine in detail the extent of the structure.

A graphical determination from the results of 20 stations in the mountain

gives a depth of approximately 100 kilometers for the depth of compensation.

A brief reference was made to an investigation in Europe of geophysical

methods of prospecting for the Canadian government last season. Slides

were shown of the new types of pendulum apparatus that have been developed

by the Geodetic Institute at Potsdam and by Sir Gerald Lenox Conyngham

at Cambridge.

The gravity connection between Potsdam, Greenwich, Ottawa and Wash-

ington is now being completed by observations that will be taken at the U.S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey office by Mr. Miller. No result for Washington

is yet available and the computations for the other stations, awaiting final

clock rates, etc., are as yet in the preliminary stage. The preliminary value

for Ottawa, however, indicates a somewhat larger value than that previously

adopted. (Author’s abstract.)

Oscar 8. Apams, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Volumes 1 to 4 of the Smithsonian Scientific Series are being distributed

to subscribers to the de luxe edition of 875 copies. These volumes are entitled:

The Smithsonian Institution, by WEBSTER PRENTISS TRUE; The sun and the

welfare of man, by CHARLES GREELEY ABBot; The North American Indians,

by Rosse A. Parmer; Minerals from earth and sky, by Grorcr P. MERRILL

and Wixtu1aM F. Fosuac. The remaining eight volumes are well advanced

in preparation and will probably be published during the present year. The

Series is designed to give in an interesting way, richly illustrated accounts of

subjects pursued at the Smithsonian Institution.

The Masaryk (State) University of Brno (Briinn), Moravia, has conferred

the honorary degree of Doctor of Natural Sciences on Dr. ALnS HrpuicKa

on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday.

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 9

Mr. H. W. Hupparp, of Peking, China, recently visited the Division of

Birds at the National Museum to examine specimens from Chihli Province.

Mr. R. T. Wesper, of the Gypsy Moth Laboratory, Melrose Highlands,

Mass., spent some days in the Division of Entomology to study types and

other specimens pertaining to a group of parasitic flies which he is describing.

Puiuie S. Smitu, Chief of the Alaskan Branch of the Geological Survey, left

on April 3 to attend the Fourth Pan-Pacific Science Congress in Java. He

will go to Java by way of Europe and the Suez Canal, returning by one of

the Pacific routes.

Tue Mepicau Socrnty of the District of Columbia invited Dr. William

Allen White, superintendent of St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, to give the annual

lecture of the Kober Foundation, at Georgetown University on March 25.

His subject was “The Social Significance of Mental Disease.”

Obituary

Rosert Ripeway, ornithologist, Curator of Birds in the National Museum

since 1880, and a member of the AcapEmy, died at Olney, Illinois, March 25,

1929. He was born at Mount Carmel, Illinois, July 2, 1850. His scientific

career began with his work as zoologist with the King Survey of the 40th

Parallel and continued with vigor until his death, resulting in the publication

of many important volumes and shorter papers in ornithology, a standard

descriptive work on color, and papers in geographic botany. Mr. Ridgway’s

contributions to knowledge brought him many scientific honors, both at home

and abroad, and he is considered to be the foremost ornithologist America

has yet produced.

Ernest Lester JONES, geodesist, Director of the Coast and Geodetic

Survey, and a member of the AcapEmMy, died at his home in Washington,

April 9, 1926. He was born at East Orange, New Jersey, April 14, 1876,

and studied at Princeton University; receiving the degrees of Bachelor and

Master of Arts. He served as Deputy Commissioner of Fisheries from 1913

to 1915 and as Superintendent and Director of the Coast and Geodetic

Survey from 1915 until his death. During the World War he was commis-

sioned Colonel in the Division of Military Aeronautics of the Signal Corps,

seeing active service and suffering injuries from gas that eventually caused

his death.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

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sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

CONTENTS.

: ch yuases bala

iielay ey H. co ee ae

PROCEEDINGS

pth AOADMEY) Aye SO Loyalties cantik Se tuman rene Gina ae

‘The , Philosophical ‘Mapiotpa she. sdt seed demuntiiaeabns sete arseecaan ne

Screntiric NoTes AND ATES Foe) anh cer a ae ae

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY |

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Vou. 19 May 19, 1929 No. 10

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Vou. 19 May 19, 1929 No. 10

BOTANY.—New plants mainly from western South America—Il1.

EviswortuH P. Kinuip, U. 8. National Museum.

In the present paper eight new species of plants are described, five of

which belong to the genus Tropaeolum. Two excellent treatments of

this genus have been published, one a monograph of the entire genus

by Buchenav? and the other a revision of the group with serrate-ciliate

petals by D. K. Hughes.’

Urtica longispica Killip, sp. nov.

Urtica ballotaefolia macrostachya Wedd. in DC. Prodr. 16': 48. 1869;

not Urtica macrostachya Wall.

Described as a variety of Urtica ballotaefolia Wedd. this plant appears to

be sufficiently distinct to rank as.a species. The spikes are much longer than

in U. ballotaefolia and the achenes much smaller. The following specimens

have been examined:

CotomsBiA: Cundinamarca: San Antonio, Goudot (Paris, TypE). Caqueta:

Balsillas Mountains, Ariste Joseph B 104 (U. S. N. M.). Norte de San-

tander: Western slope of Pdramo del Hatfco, alt. 2800 meters, Kullip

& Smith 20727 (U. S. N. M.). Caldas: Salento, alt. 2800 meters, Pennell

9346 (U.S. N. M.). El Cauca: Rio Paez basin, alt. 2500-3000 meters,

Pittier 1379 (U. S. N. M.). Mount Puracé, alt. 3200 meters, Pennell

& Killip 6671 (U.S. N. M.).

Escallonia lepidota Killip, sp. nov.

Branchlets puberulent; petioles up to 5 mm. long; leaves oblanceolate or

oblong-spatulate, 3 to 6 em. long, 1.5 to 3 em. wide, rounded or acutish at

apex, cuneate at base, closely serrulate, dark green and pilosulous above, paler

and copiously covered with white scales beneath; flowers in a compact

terminal raceme, 5 to 7 mm. long, 2.5 to 3 cm. wide, the pedicels up to 5 mm.

long, lepidote; floral leaves none; calyx narrowly turbinate-campanulate,

about 4 mm. long, 3 mm. wide at throat, densely lepidote, the teeth linear-

: Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. For Part

I of this series see this JouRNAL 16: 565-573. 1926. Received March 25, 1929.

? Pflanzenreich 4, pt. 131: 1-36. 1902.

> The “‘serrato-ciliata”’ group of Tropaeolum. Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1922: 63-85.

1922 ;

191

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 10

subulate, 1 to 1.5 mm. long; petals linear-spatulate, 8 to 10 mm. long, 1 mm.

wide at base, 2 mm. wide at the rounded, at length reflexed, apex, apparently

white, with conspicuous dark veins; stamens and pistil 6 to 7 mm. long, the

stigma slightly bilobed.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,283,656, collected at San

Carlos, central Chile, February, 1926, by Brother Claude Joseph (no. 3867).

This is related to HL. arguta Pres] and E. leucantha Remy, but is at once

distinguished by the conspicuous white scales on the pedicels, calyx, and

under side of the leaves, and by the absence of floral leaves.

Escallonia patens (R. &. P.) Killip

Stereorylon patens R. &. P. Fl. Peruv. & Chil. 3: 18. pl. 234, fig. b. 1802.

This has been confused with EL. myrtilloides L. f. from the northern Andes,

but is certainly distinct. Specimens examined are:

Peru. Prov. Huanta: Tambo, 3200 meters, Weberbauer 5585 (Field Mus.).

Prov. Moquegua: Carumes, 3300 meters, Weberbauer 7267 (U.S. N. M.,

Field Mus.).

Tropaeolum flavipilum Killip, sp. nov.

Scandent herb; stem slender, short-villosulous throughout with yellowish

hairs; stipules none; petioles 3 to 6 cm. long, subcirrhose, villosulous like

the stem; leaves broadly lance-ovate in general outline, 4.5 to 5.5 em. long,

4.5 to 5 em. wide, 3-lobed (lobes rounded or obtuse, the lateral much reduced,

the middle lobe triangular-ovate, about 2 cm. wide at base), truncate or

slightly convex at base, 5-nerved, peltate (proportion above petiole to below

petiole 4 or 5: 1), densely appressed-pilose on both surfaces with yellowish ©

hairs, red-mottled beneath; peduncles about 6.5 em. long, cirrhose; flowers

5.5 em. long, finely pilosulous without; spur about 4.5 cm. long, 0.8 em. wide

at base, straight, gradually tapering to apex, pink; sepals broadly ovate, about

8 mm. wide, obtuse, green; petals 5 to 6 mm. long, unguiculate-spatulate,

truncate and ciliate-serrate at apex, deep purple; the upper petals about 4 mm.

wide, the lower about 3 mm. wide.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,351,868, collected near Las

Vegas, Department of Santander, Colombia, altitude 2800 meters, December

23, 1926, by E. P. Killip and Albert C. Smith (no. 16095).

This resembles somewhat the Ecuadorean species 7’. adpressum Hughes,

but the leaf lobes are rounded, the flowers larger, and the indument is denser

and is yellow rather than white.

Tropaeolum concavum Killip, sp. nov.

Scandent herb, glabrous throughout; stems slender; stipules none; petioles

very slender, 5 to 9 em. long, subcirrhose; leaves depressed-orbicular in general

outline, 4 to 4.5 em. long, 5 to 6 em. wide, angulately 5-lobed (lobes obtuse,

not mucronulate, the lower reduced), concave at base, peltate (proportion

above petiole to below petiole 7: 1), pale and minutely papillose beneath;

peduncles filiform, 3 to 3.5 em. long, cirrhose; flowers 2.5 cm. long; spur 1.5

em. long, 3 mm. wide at apex, very slightly curved, red; sepals oblong, 5 to 6

mm. long, 4 mm. wide, obtuse, red; petals yellow (?), cuneate-spatulate, 6

mm. long, 3.5 mm. wide, serrate-ciliate at the truncate apex, yellowish (?),

the upper gradually, the lower abruptly tapering to an unguiculate base.

Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected at

Angelopolis, near Medellin, Department of Antioquia, Colombia, January 22,

1928, by R. A. Toro (no. 890).

Related to T. fintelmanni Wagener, but with proportionately longer,

distinctly lobed leaves, which are deeply concave at base.

MAY 19, 1929 KILLIP: NEW SOUTH AMERICAN PLANTS 193

Tropaeolum septangulum Killip, sp. nov.

Seandent herb, glabrous throughout; stem slender, the internodes 3 to 6

em. long; stipules none; petioles 3 to 6 em. long, subcirrhose; leaves rounded-

ovate, 3.5 to 4.8 em. long, 3.5 to 5 em. wide, shallowly and broadly 7-lobed

(central lobes callous-thickened at apex), peltate (proportion above petiole to

below petiole 3 to 3.5:1), straight or very slightly convex at base, pale and

reddish-blotched beneath, epapillose; pedicels about 7 em. long, slender,

subcirrhose; flowers 3 to 3.5 em. long; spur 2 to 2.5 em. long, about 5 mm. in

diameter at base, abruptly tapering at middle to a very slender apex, straight

or slightly curved, yellow at base, green at apex; sepals erect, broadly ovate,

7 to 8 mm. long, 6 to 7 mm. wide, obtuse, red; upper petals ovate-oblong,

10 mm. long, 3 to 4 mm. wide, unguiculate, aristate-lobed, ciliate to base,

yellow proximately, red distally; lower petals oblong-spatulate, 7 to 8 mm.

long, 3 mm. wide, aristate-lobed above, red.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,355,568, collected along the

western side of the Culagd Valley, north of Labateca, Department of Norte

de Santander, Colombia, altitude 1,480 to 1,550 meters, March 12, 1927, by

E. P. Killip and Albert C. Smith (no. 20539).

In the shape of the leaves, with the callous-thickened lobes, this species

strongly resembles T. moritzianwm K1.; but in 7’. septangulum the petals are

distinctly aristate-lobed, not merely ciliate-serrate, resembling, in this

respect, the petals of species no. 30-38 in Buchenau’s monograph.”

Tropaeolum macrophyllum Killip, sp. nov.

Secandent herb; stem slender, rather sparsely (or at nodes densely) hirsute

with hyaline hairs; stipules none; petioles slender, 6 to 7 cm. long, subcirrhose,

hirsute like stem at base, otherwise glabrous; leaves orbicular-ovate, 7 to 8 cm.

long, 7 to 8.5 em. wide, 5-lobed (lobes broadly obtuse, the middle lobe broadly

ovate, pronounced, the lower lobes reduced), convex at base, peltate (propor-

tion above petiole to below petiole ‘about 3:1), thin-membranous, glabrous,

bright green on both surfaces, mottled with red and epapillose beneath;

peduncles very slender, pubescent like the petioles; flowers about 5.5 cm.

long, sparingly pubescent with crispate hyaline hairs; spur 4.5 cm. long, 7

mm. wide at base, straight, yellow-green at apex, pinkish red elsewhere;

sepals broadly ovate, about 7 mm. wide, obtuse, pinkish red; petals not

exserted, 5 to 7 mm. long, deep purple, dentate-ciliate above, the upper

cuneate-spatulate, the lower ovate, short-unguiculate at base; filaments deep

purple; anthers gray-pink.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,352,739, collected at California,

Department of Santander, Colombia, altitude 2200 meters, January 13, 1927,

by E. P. Killip and Albert C. Smith (no. 17093).

This is nearest T. coccineum Hughes, though because of the pubescent

flowers it would scarcely fit into that branch of Miss Hughes’ key.* The

differences between the two species may be shown thus:

Leaves less than 6.5 em. long and wide, 3-lobed, the central lobe acute;

flowers glabrous; upper petals spatulate-oblong.

T. COCCINEUM.

Leaves more than 6.5 em. long and wide, 5-lobed, the lobes broadly obtuse;

flowers pubescent; upper petals cuneate-spatulate.

T. MACROPHYLLUM.

Tropaeolum huigrense Killip, sp. nov.

Scandent herb; stem softly pilosulous with white crispate hairs, at length

glabrous; stipules none; petioles 3 to 5 em. long (the lower up to 25 em. long),

194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 10

pubescent like the stems, or glabrous; leaves suborbicular, 2.5 to 4.5 em.

long, 3 to 5.5 em. wide (lower leaves up to 12 cm. long, 13 em. wide), 7-lobed

(all but central lobe much reduced, the lobes broadly rounded, submucronu-

late), truncate or slightly undulate at base, peltate (proportion above petiole

to below petiole 11:5), softly pilosulous with crispate hairs on both surfaces,

paler beneath; flowers 1.5 to 2 em. long, finely and softly pilosulous with

crispate hairs; spur 1 to 1.2 cm. long, 1.5 mm. wide at base, slightly curved,

yellow, green at apex; sepals narrowly oblong, 8 to 10 mm. long, 2 mm. wide,

obtuse, greenish yellow; petals yellow, with orange veins, the 2 upper ovate-

spatulate ones 10 to 11 mm. long, 5 mm. wide, gradually tapering to an un-

guiculate base, the '3 lower, 9 to 10 cm. long, suborbicular in upper third,

crispate at apex, abruptly narrowed, the lower two-thirds narrowly linear,

long-ciliate at margin just below the dilated portion.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,022,061, collected in the

vicinity of Huigra, Province of Chimborazo, Ecuador, August 28, 1918, by

J. N. Rose and George Rose (no. 22408). Additional specimens, from the

same locality, are Hitchcock 20618 and Rowlee & Mixter 1182.

The general shape of the leaves of this species and especially the crispate

indument are strongly suggestive of 7’. peltophorum Benth. In Buchenau’s

key this species clearly would come next to 7’. peltophorum because of the fact

that the lower petals are entire at apex and strongly ciliate below the dilated

portion. Otherwise the flowers are quite different; in JT. huigrense the

flowers are yellow and the spur about 1 cm. long and only 1.5 mm. wide at

base; in 7’. peltophorum the flowers are scarlet, green at the tip of the spur, and.

the spur is 2 em. long, gradually enlarging to 3 mm. wide at base.

Tropaeolum hughesae Ikillip

Tropaeolum trilobum Hughes, Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1922: 85. fig. A (p. 84).

1922; not T. trilobum Turez. (1858). j

Type locality: Afradita, near Fusagasuga, Department Cundinamarca,

Colombia (André 1386).

Additional specimen examined: CoLtomsia: El Pejion, southwest of Sibaté,

Department Cundinamarca, altitude 2800-2900 meters, Pennell 2412.

Loasa vestita Killip, sp. nov.

Erect suffruticose herb, about 1 meter high, the stem 1 cm. thick at base,

densely white-pilose with subreflexed hairs and sparingly setose below, rufo-

pilose and densely setose above; leaves subsessile, lanceolate or oblong-

lanceolate, 3 to 14 cm. long, 1.5 to 4 em. wide, acute at apex, rounded or

acutish at base, pinnately lobed (or the upper merely dentate), thick, rugose,

hispid above, densely hirsute on the nerves beneath with appressed white or

yellowish brown hairs, sparingly setose; pedicels recurved or ascending, up to

2 cm. long, setose; calyx broadly obconie, 0.5 to 1 cm. long, 0.7 to 0.8 cm. in

diameter at throat, densely setose, the lobes ovate-lanceolate, 6 to 8 mm.'long,

acute; petals concave, 1.5 to 2 cm. long, abruptly narrowed below middle,

strongly setose on the nerves without, white; scales triangular-ovate, 6 to 7

mm. long, bisaccate toward base, callose-thickened above middle, deeply

bifid at apex (teeth about 2mm. long), white, transversely banded with blood-

red; staminodia 2 with each scale; stamens about 50, the filaments 1 cm. long,

anthers oval, 1 mm. long; capsule cylindric-obconic, up to 2.5 em. long.

Type in the Field Museum of Natural History, no. 562,511, collected on

grass steppe, near Huaillay, north of Huanta, Province of Huanta, Depart-

may 19, 1929 SWALLEN: NEW ARISTIDA 195

ment of Ayacucho, Peru, altitude 3500 to 3600 meters, March 13, 14, 1926,

by A. Weberbauer (no. 7591). Duplicate in the U.S. National Herbarium.

In Urban and Gilg’s monograph of Loasaceae this species would come be-

tween Loasa poissoniana Urb. & Gilg and L. schlimzana Pl. & Linden. From

both it is readily distinguished by the very dense, white or brown indument

on the under side of the leaves.

Tournefortia curvilimba Killip, sp. nov.

Branchlets sulcate, finely rufo-hirsutulous; petioles 3 to 4 em. long, canalic-

ulate above, glabrescent; leaves alternate, ovate-oblong, 12 to 15 cm. long,

6 to 7 cm. wide, attenuate-acuminate at apex, acute and subdecurrent at

base, undulate, penninerved (lateral nerves 10 to 12 pairs), reticulate-veined,

glabrous, finely and sparsely pilosulous with whitish hairs; inflorescence

terminal, dichotomous, the flower-bearing portion of the branches about 5

em. long, though apparently not fully developed; flowers short-stipitate;

calyx lobed nearly to base, the lobes linear-lanceolate, 4 to 5 mm. long, 1

mm. wide at base, glabrous or with a few fine whitish hairs; corolla 8 to 10 mm.

long, the tube about 2 mm. in diameter, the limb 6 to 7 mm. wide, strongly

recurved, the lobes obtuse; stamens borne near middle of tube; anthers

linear, about 2 mm. long; stigma subsessile.

Type in the herbarium of the Botanical Museum, Upsala, collected at

El Chaco, Province Sur Yungas, Department La Paz, Bolivia, altitude, 1900

meters, December 3, 1920, by E. Asplund (no. 1360).

Allied to T. undulata R. & P., which it rather closely resembles in foliage,

the proposed species is distinguished by larger flowers, the limbs of which are

strongly recurved, and by more elongate anthers and a subsessile stigma.

BOTANY.—A new species of Aristida from Florida... Jason R.

SWALLEN, Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by A. S.

HItTcHcock.)

In a collection of grasses recently received for identification at the

Grass Herbarium of the U.S. Department of Agriculture from Dr. Paul

Weatherwax, there was an unusual species of Aristida. The North

American species of this genus were revised in 1924 by Professor A. 8.

Hitcheock,? and Dr. J. Th. Henrard? has published a study of the types

of Aristida for the whole world, preliminary to a monograph of the

genus. Since the species sent by Dr. Weatherwax is not accounted

for in either of these works, it may be described as new. It differs

from most species of Aristida in the presence of rhizomes, which

character suggests the specific name.

! Received April 2, 1929.

? Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 22, pt.7. 1924.

* A critical revision of the genus Aristida. Med. Rijks Herb. Leiden 54: 1-220. 1926;

544: 221-464. 1927; 54B: 465-701. 1928.

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 10

Fig. 1.—Aristida rhizomophora, base of plant, } nat. size; spikelet, X 2 dia.; two views

of callus, X 10 dia.

Aristida rhizomophora sp. nov.

Plants perennial; culms tufted, simple, erect, 65 to 80 cm. tall, producing

well developed scaly rhizomes; leaves one or two, the lower internodes short;

sheaths persistent, becoming fibrous with age, smooth, with a tuft of hairs at

the mouth, especially on those of the innovations, nearly lacking on those of

the culm; ligule nearly obsolete; blades firm, flat or folded, somewhat scabrous

above, smooth beneath, 7 to 10 em. long, 1 to 2 mm. wide, those of the innova-

tions flexuous, as much as 30 em. long; panicle flexuous, 20 to 30 em. long, the

branches two at a node, distant, flexuous, somewhat spreading, few-flowered,

spikelet-bearing from near the base, the lower ones as much as 7 cm. long;

glumes acuminate and usually awned, the awn 1 to 6 mm. long, the first 1 to

3-nerved, 8 to 14 mm. long, the second 1-nerved, 12 to 17 mm. long including

the awn; lemma glabrous, 9 to 12 mm. long, the callus 1 mm. long, sharp-

pointed, short-bearded on the sides above, the awns scabrous, flexuous, curved

or loosely twisted at the base, spreading, the central often reflexed by a

semicircular bend, 18 to 24 mm. long, the lateral 15 to 20 mm. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,435,634, collected in the

prairie region north of Lake Okeechobee, near Fort Bassenger, Florida, June

30, 1928, by Dr. Paul Weatherwax (no. 1081).

May 19, 1929 MAXON: NEW HOLLYFERN 197

The other North American species of Arzstida which produce rhizomes are

A. stricta Michx., and A. patula Chapm. In the former they are exceptional

(Garber in 1877, Hitchcock 19767, Standley {13076, and Weatherwax 1088) and

such specimens can be distinguished from A. rhizomophora by the strict

panicle with more numerous, smaller spikelets, and the dense pubescence on

the upper surface of the blades near the base. In the latter they occur

frequently, but the species, which belongs to a different group, has large

panicles with stiffly spreading branches, as much as 20 cm. long, naked

below.

In the form of the panicle and spikelets, A. Janosa Muhl. resembles A.

rhizomophora, but the plants are stouter, usually solitary, with densely

lanate pubescent sheaths and flat blades, as much as 4 mm. wide, tapering to

a fine involute point.

BOTANY.—A diminutive new hollyfern from Ecuador... WILLIAM

R. Maxon, U.S. National Museum.

Among some plants collected in the Andes of Ecuador by H. E.

Anthony and G. H. H. Tate in 1923, and submitted to the U. S.

National Herbarium for identification, is the following hollyfern,

which seems never to have been described.

Polystichum pumilio Maxon, sp. nov.

Rhizome (incomplete) relatively stout, 2.6 em. long, about 3 cm. in

diameter, decumbent, conspicuously paleaceous; scales thin, lustrous, ferrugi-

nous in mass (discoloring with age), mostly oblong-ovate to broadly oblong-

attenuate, hair-pointed, the margins laxly and distantly long-fibrillose, some

of the underlying scales narrowly lance-attenuate, subdenticulate toward the

apex. Fronds several, closely cespitose, erect from a curved base, 10-17 cm.

long, the stipes short (2-5 cm. long), 1-1.5 mm. thick above the base, palea-

ceous, the scales broad, mostly erose-denticulate and freely fibrillose; blades

narrowly lance-attenuate, 8-12 cm. long, 1.5-2 cm. broad in the lower part,

bipinnate; rachis strongly paleaceous, the scales large, spreading, similar to

those of the stipe but soon fuscous; pinnae 25-30 pairs, contiguous, slightly

oblique, those of the lower half 9-12 mm. long, elongate-triangular from a

subequilateral base (here 6-7 mm. broad), pinnate, with 4 or 5 pairs of spread-

ing or reflexed, inequilateral, deeply concave, subdistant segments, the leaf

tissue dull green, subcoriaceous, bearing a few minute fibril-like scales;

segments spatulate to rounded-trapeziform, cuneate at base, unequal, the

distal basal one largest, bilobed (the minute rounded distal auricle rarely

free), the others simple; upper pinnae gradually simpler, with broad acutish

or rounded subentire tips, much reduced, those of the attenuate tip minute;

margins subentire or remotely dentate; sori small, apparently exindusiate,

solitary in the smaller segments, 4 or 5 in the larger ones.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,424,988, collected at Urbina,

Chimborazo, Ecuador, at an altitude of 3,475 meters, Oct. 22-28, 1923, by

H. E. Anthony and G. H. H. Tate (no. 394).

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

March 23, 1929.

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 10

Fic. 1.—Polystichum pumilio Maxon. Natural size

May 19, 1929 COBB: NEMAS IN BEACH SAND 199

Polystichum pumilio belongs to the Andean group of P. polyphyllum Presl

and is perhaps most closely related to that species itself. From P. poly-

phyllum, however, using that name even in its most inclusive conventional

sense, it differs widely in its wholly non-spinulose and really minute segments.

Although a dwarf in stature, it seems normal in every respect and gives no

indication of being a reduced form of some species which normally grows to

large size.

ZOOLOGY .—/nitial stratigraphic survey of nemas in the upper 20 mm.

of marine beach sand, near low tide mark. N. A. Coss, Bureau of

Plant Industry.

In 1916 studies at the laboratory of the Bureau of Fisheries, Woods

Hole, Massachusetts, showed that sandy beaches, far from being

utterly barren, carry a comparatively rich fauna of microscopic organ-

isms. What biological and economic role these organisms may play is

little known. Conceivably they may be more important than would

at first be suspected. Recall that many larger aquatic organisms,

at one period or another, may pass a certain amount of time on the

bottom. During this sojourn their relationship to the microscopic

inhabitants of the sand, mud, etc. constituting the bottom, is a matter

about which we know very little, but it is easy to imagine that some-

times the relationship may be important. Again, the sand- and mud-

inhabiting organisms themselves may be temporary stages (eggs,

larvae) in a varied life history.

Such thoughts led to a stratigraphic examination of marine beach

sand at Woods Hole, August, 1928. A small sheet-metal box, 10

centimeters square, carrying a series of thin metal slides was devised,

such that by its aid layers of sand 5 mm. thick, lying one above another

in series, could be collected (Figs. 1 and 2). In each of two collec-

tions four such successive horizontal layers were examined for their

nemas. The results are indicated in the following tables:

Collection I: Layer No. I topmost Ist 5 mm. 100 sq. cm. 905 nemas

“ce “ 1M: Ind “ce (74 74 1,355 “ce

“<< “ce III 3rd “ “ee “cc 1,009 ce

“ce “e LV Ath “ce ce (73 175 “

Collection II: Layer No.I topmost Ist 5 mm. 100 sq.cm. 1,512 nemas

“cc “ce II Ind “ec (74 “ce 1,403 ce

“e “ec IIL 3rd “es “ce (73 981 é

“se “ec LV 4th “é ce “e 226 (73

Only two collections were made, as the census is a very tedious one.

It will be seen that the two collections, taken a few yards apart, give

‘Received April 8, 1929

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 10

rather consistent stratigraphic numbers; so that we may say, as a result

of these two examinations, that probably the number of nemas in each

successive layer decreases, rather gradually at first, but rapidly below

the third 5 mm. layer; i.e., to a depth of about 15 mm. the sand is

thickly populated with nemas; below that level the number falls off

rapidly. The deeper layers contain fewer nemas, and fewer species.

Baie : z wh g te INSERTING LOOSE

INSERTING GATE WHILE BOX OTE BOTTOM, FULLY ENCLOSING

IN_ SAND Hy “SAMPLE OF SAND.

Fig. 1. See also Fig. 2. Apparatus for collecting layers of sand and mud on beaches,

mud flats, and at the bottom of ponds, lakes and seas. The unassembled apparatus is

shown at the left; its use in collecting is explained in the successive illustrations in Figs.

1 and 2, reading from left to right. All the operations except the last must be performed

at the time of collecting. The last operation may take place in the laboratory. The

rectangular collecting box, with two sides missing, is forced into the sand or mud. The

two missing sides (gate and loose bottom) are then inserted, as shown above. To insert

the loose bottom the adjacent sand is pawed away.

THIN

METAL

SLIDES

4 =

eo? Wed

| 2nd SLIDE

| MOVING HOME

Pa - THRU THE SAND

GUIDE FQK THE THREE

METAL SLIDES

Fig. 2. See also Fig. 1. After the sample of sand is removed from the bottom, it is

placed in a holder having three thin metal slides (1, 2, 3), that can be forced through the

sand parallel to each other, thus cutting it into four layers;—in this case each layer is

5mm. thick. After the slides are forced home, as shown at the right, the loose bottom of

the box is removed, disclosing the lowest layer of sand,—5 mm. thick. This is washed

into a beaker and treated as desired. The top of the box has fine perforations in order to

allow the supernatant water to escape without disturbing the top layer of sand or mud.

To prevent the possible escape of small organisms, this perforated top may be further

covered with the finest bolting silk, stretched on.

Averaging the figures from the two collections mentioned above,

it will be seen that, if they are typical collections, the beach sand

examined carried about 3,742,000,000 nemas per hectare in the top

20 mm., or about 1,500,000,000 per acre. In 1916, but earlier in the

summer, an examination of the same beach showed at least 1,040,000,-

000 per acre in the topmost inch of sand.

may 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 201

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

QS7TH MEETING

The 987th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 2, 1929.

Program: A. Q. Toou: On the relation between the refractivity and the annealing

of glass. By extending investigations which have been the subject of previous

reports it has been found that the refractivities of glasses are materially

influenced by the effective annealing temperature.! The influence of this

temperature on the refractivity is not confined to the higher annealing tem-

peratures alone but also extends throughout the whole of the practical

annealing range. In this range equal reductions in the effective annealing

temperature produce practically equal increments in the refractivity of a given

glass. In many cases this linear relation appears to extend well below the

lower limit of practical annealing but the time required for the glass to reach a

physico-chemical equilibrium at such temperatures makes a thorough investi-

gation difficult.

The increases in refractivity per degree Centigrade decrease in the effective

annealing temperatures have been determined for a number of glasses and

include the following: Medium Flint, 0.000024; Dense Flint, 0.000036;

Soda Lime Crown, 0.000032; Borosilicate Crown, 0.000048; Light Barium

Crown, 0.000047; Barium Flint, 0.000030.

These values are strictly applicable only to the melts for which they were

determined and may also be subject to some slight modification as the investi-

gation proceeds. They show, however, that the refractivity of a glass which

is annealed according to a schedule chosen for its speed and efficiency in the

case of small pieces may differ by at least one in the third decimal from that of

the same glass annealed according to a schedule which is efficient for very large

pieces.

Any refractivity increase caused by a reduction of the effective annealing

temperature can be obliterated by reannealing the glass according to a

schedule which will increase that temperature to its original value. In other

words these changes in the refractivity are reversible and as a consequence the

refractive index of a glass can always be readjusted, within narrow limits,

by reannealing. (Author’s abstract.)

I. C. Garpner: The optical depth gage. This instrument is analogous to

the self-contained coincidence-type military range finder except that the two

optical systems united by the coincidence prism are microscopes instead of

telescopes. The magnifying power is approximately 90 diameters and the

axes of the two systems are inclined to each other at an angle of 25°. A

range finder coincidence-prism provides a circular field divided by a diameter.

The images formed by the two microscopes are brought into the two halves of

the field respectively, and are so focused that the dividing line and images are

without parallax.

1 The effective annealing temperature resulting from any annealing schedule is that

temperature corresponding to the physico-chemical equilibrium condition which most

nearly resembles the particular condition produced in a glass by the annealing. These

equilibrium conditions, which vary with the temperature and are reversible, are never

actually reached by ordinary annealing procedures although at times they may be

closely approached.

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 10

When an object is at the intersection of the two optical axes the images

formed by the two microscope objectives are in coincidence at the center of

the dividing line. Suitable fine adjustments are provided for bringing the

two halves of the field into this relative position with precision. If the object

is displaced along the line of sight by as little as 3 or 4 microns, it is detected

by the lack of coincidence of the two fields. One therefore has an optical

depth gage with a working distance between objective and object of approxi-

mately 50 mm., and with the probable error of a single observation of a

displacement in the line of sight not greater than3 of 4microns. By having

the instrument suitably mounted with precision ways, such as are used with

the comparator or traveling microscope, displacements normal to the line of

sight can be measured in the usual manner. The present instrument has been

designed to be used for the measurement of internal screw threads and for this

purpose it is provided with a special nose piece carrying an objective prism

and an opaque illuminator of normal design. It can be used for any purpose

where accurate measurements in the direction of the line of sight, as well as

normal to it, are desired. As there is no physical contact between the instru-

ment and the surface to which the measurement is to be made, it is particularly

applicable to measurements where the pressure due to physical contact of the

more usual methods introduces deformation which prevents the attainment of

the desired precision. (Author’s abstract.)

988TH MEETING

The 988th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 16,

1929.

Program: Witu1AM J. Peters: Compass and dip circle deviations caused

by harmonic motion. Analyses of magnetic results in the vicinity of inter-

sections of the tracks of the Carnegie have confirmed the existence of syste-

matic errors, such as had been anticipated as a consequence of different

conditions of the motion of the vessel on the different tracks. Studies of the

effects of simple harmonic motion of the magnetic instrument upon its own

results have been made, but so far as investigated, no corrections based upon

theory alone can be considered adequate or reliable. It might be found,

eventually, that empirical methods will be more practical, but experiment and

theory will aid in developing these methods. Experiments have been made

in the Standardizing Observatory of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism

with compasses mounted in a wooden swing which is constrained to move like

a pendulum in vertical planes without twisting, and the following facts have

been noted: (a) When the vertical plane of the swing’s motion is N-S, that is,

when the axle of the swing is E-W, oscillations of the compass may be seen but,

generally speaking, they are small and the mean reading of the lubber-line

will not differ materially from the mean reading when at rest. (b) When the

axle is lying N-S, oscillations are usually seen, sometimes quite large, but the

mean reading again is nearly the same as at rest. (c) When the axle is lying

in any other direction and notably in an intercardinal direction, the mean

reading of the lubber-line when the swing is in motion will usually differ

from the readings taken when the swing is at rest and hence give rise to

deviations which seem to be fairly permanent so long as the amplitude of the

motion of the swing remains constant. (d) The deviations for axle NE-SW

will have an opposite sign to the deviation for axle SE-NW. (e) The sign of

the deviation and its magnitude are peculiar to each compass. (f) The

magnitude of the deviation and the amplitude of the card oscillations increase

with the amplitude of the swing and the radius.

may 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 203

In the early stages of these experiments before the wooden swing was

constructed it was assumed that the deviations could be explained entirely by

the ‘‘dynamic deviations,’ which had been investigated and so named by

Bidlingmaier. Applying Langrane’s equation of motion to the ship and the

instrument on board, he deduces a general expression for the deviation, 6, in

the form of five factors, 6 = N-S-I-P-L, which he designates as the numerical,

the ship, the instrument, the period and the direction factor. Computed

for compass Ritchie 39670, as in the wooden swing oscillating 11° either side,

6 = —0.05 which has the opposite algebraic sign and is less than 2 per cent of

the deviation observed. It might be noted also, that 6 changes sign only with

the period factor for any one heading, that is, it changes only as the compass

period is greater or smaller than the ship period whereas about half of the

experiment results have opposite signs while no compass has a period smaller

than that of the swing, 3} seconds.

It appears therefore that Bidlingmaier’s dynamic deviations, which are

based upon an eccentric center of mass in the magnet, are modified or masked

by conditions other than he considered.

Oscillations of the compass card at sea caused by the tilting of the card

under the influence of accelerations of the pivot point in the rolling motion of

the ship were investigated by Sir William Thomson who called them the

kinetic equilibrium error. He did not, however, consider the permanent or

quasi-permanent deviation that might result from these oscillations. Thom-

son’s kinetic equilibrium error is identical with the tilting error of compases in

a banking aeroplane which has ‘been investigated by Starling. Let ¢,

represent the heading counted eastward from north, y, the angle of tilt

positive down to starboard, a, the vertical angle between the plane of the

horizon and the intersection of the tilted plane of the card with the vertical

plane of the meridian and }, the angle between the tilted plane and the vertical

plane of the magnetic meridian. These four quantities are elements of a right

angled spherical triangle. Also let J, represent the magnetic inclination, and

F, the total intensity of the Earth’s magnetic field. Then the components of

F, one along the intersection of the tilted plane with the vertical plane of the

magnetic meridian and the other perpendicular to this intersection and in the

plane of the vertical meridian are F cos (J + a), F sin (J + a). The latter

may be resolved into the components F sin (J + a) sin b, F sin (J + a) cos b.

The three components F cos (J + a), F sin (J + a) sin b and F sin (I + a)

cos b may be represented by three mutually perpendicular edges of the paral-

lelepiped constructed on the vector F and having one face, the upper coin-

ciding with the plane of apparent level. The compass card is assumed to

move in and only in this plane and therefore would turn until the magnetic

axis coincided with the direction of the resultant of F sin (J + a) cos b and

F cos(I+ a). Adip needle would move freely only in the plane perpendicular

to the plane of apparent level and would therefore take the direction of the

resultant of the two components F cos (I + a) and F sin UI + a) sin b.

Accordingly if Iy be the observed magnetic inclination tan Jy = tan (J + a)

sin b. An example of the values of Iy and J shows that Ty — J is negative on

all headings except H and W where it is zero for this region of positive mag-

netic inclination.

In a similar manner the value of the component H of F in the plane of

apparent level is derived from the components thus Hy = F [cos? J + a) +

sin? (I + a) cos? b].?

The angle 6 in the plane of apparent level between this resultant and the

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 10

intersection with the vertical plane of the magnetic meridian is the devia-

tion in direction of the resolved field and is given by tan 6 = tan (J + a)

cos6 As illustration of the values of 6, let J = 71°, ¢ = 45° or 225° and ¥ =

+10° then 6 = +30°, and for ¥Y = —10°, 6 = —14°, the mean of which is

+8°, and this is the deviation that would occur in the mean result of an

even number of consecutive readings of compass card of negligible mass and no

damping.

The deviations indicated in all of the examples are very large. They are,

however, only the instantaneous deviations of the resolved elements in the

tilted plane from the normal values at the instant that the apparent level is

inclined +10° or —10° to the true gravitational level. They are not the

actual deviations of a compass card, for example, which has a period too

great and a damping too strong to permit of keeping pace with the oscillating

field.

This theory of tilting deviations does not explain the change of sign observed

in the experiments on the same heading for different compasses nor does it

explain the difference in magnitude for different compasses. It can only be

regarded for the present as combining in some way with dynamic deviations to

account only in part for the observed deviation. |

In comparing the experiment deviations with systematic errors at sea it

should be noted that for tilting deviations the angle of tilt will be about

3 or + of the angle of roll and also for both dynamic and tilting deviation the

average roll during a series of magnetic observations is generally somewhat

less than the roll noted by clinometer as installed on the Carnegie. (Author’s

abstract.)

H. B. Maris: The formation of spiral nebulae. Briefly summarized, the

universe as we know it ismade up of about 300,000 groups of stars or nebulae.

Adjacent groups are separated by a distance equal to roughly 100 times the

diameter of a single group. The average group is made up of about 40 billions

of stars which average a little larger and a little brighter than our sun. These

star groups are moving relative to us with velocities which average something

over 300 km. per second. There seems to be a certain uniformity of motion

for most of the groups as they are apparently moving away from a common

origin. Within each group there seems to be a certain uniformity of motion

outward away from the center of mass of the group. Finally, there is coming

to us, out of the vast reaches of space beyond the milky way, a peculiar

penetrating radiation. This radiation might be produced by temperatures of

from 1 to 100 billion degrees or it might be produced by atomic collision at

velocities greater than 3000 km./sec. such as would be produced by electrical

excitation voltages of 1 to 100 million volts. Perhaps the most astounding

thing about this radiation is its magnitude, for the total energy flux per cm.’ is

equal to or greater than the total energy flux of heat and light from stars.

The estimated density of pentrating radiation is 3-10-* ergs/cm.? or one

tenth that of star light on earth. However, we are situated near the center

of a star group and out beyond this group in inter-glactic space the total

energy of star light is probably less than that of the penetrating radiation.

In other words, the activity involved in producing this penetrating radiation

which comes to us apparently from nowhere is as great or greater than the

total activity of the stars in producing light and heat. The formation of

nebulae, the movement of stars along the spiral arms away from the center of

the nebulae and the possibility of emission of penetrating radiation from

the nebulae are discussed in the following paragraphs.

may 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 205

The velocity of escape from the average spiral nebulae is about 100 km.

per second. This is true whether the escaping mass is a star of mass 10%

grams ora single molecule. A nebula moving through space will then sweep

up scattered molecules of space and leave a decreased density in its wake. If

we assume the space density estimated by Eddington and that our galaxy

sweeps out a cylinder of space with a radius of 14 thousand light years at a

velocity of 400 km. per second its mass would be doubled by the pick-up in

100 million years. The walls of such a hole in space would spread away from

the center and in spreading would form clouds of low luminosity. If the

radius of the hole left behind by a nebula were 300 light years the action of

gravity would be so weak the hole would close by diffusion. Likewise if the

density of mass in space were 10~°° as assumed by Jeans, a hole of radius 14

thousand light years would be closed by diffusion.

The walls of a cylinder of radius 1.3-10-71 em. swept out of space of density

10-73 will acquire an outward velocity of 2 km./sec. in 10 years. The velocity

will be 70 km./see. when the radius of the expanding cylinder is doubled and

500 km./see. when the radius is equal to the radius of the galaxy. This is

apparently a sufficient explanation of both the high velocities observed among

nebulae and their apparent motion away from a common center.

A gaseous sphere with a radius of 9.10?* em. and with original density

10-*° gm./em.* (Jeans estimate) will expand by diffusion to a 50 per cent

increase in the radius before the velocities of gravity fall will start shrinkage.

This estimate can probably be considered a maximum for the radius and a

minimum for the density of a contracting gas sphere. A sphere of radius

107 cm. and original density 10-** (Eddington’s estimate) will likewise

expand by diffusion to a 50 per cent increase in radius before gravity shrinkage

will start. The estimate can probably be considered a minimum for the

radius and a maximum for the density of a contracting gas sphere which

would form a spiral nebula. The mass of such a sphere would be 4.10% gm. or

about 1/20000 the mass of our galaxy.

A sphere of density 10-2 and radius 4.4-1022 em. or 46 thousand light

years would have a mass of 10“, about equal to our galaxy. The outer limit

of such a sphere would attain a velocity of contraction of 12 km. in 10” years.

In 50 million years the radius would be reduced to 1022 cm., the velocity of

contraction of the outer rim would be 400 km./sec., and the total energy of

motion of the mass would be equal to that of the same mass at a temperature

of 9 million degrees K. The radius would be reduced from 1022 em. to 107

cm. in about 3 million years; the velocity of contraction would then be over

1000 km. per second and the total energy would be equal to a temperature

energy of 90 million degrees. The actual temperature of the mass, however,

would probably remain at about the 10,000° estimated by Eddington since

motion of the outer rim of the nebula 1000 light years away would have little

effect on the temperature of the center.

The next decrease of an order of magnitude in the radius of the nebulae

would be accomplished in 56 thousand years. The velocity of contraction at

this time would be about 4,000 km./sec. or great enough to give rise to pene-

trating radiation. The radius of the sphere at this time in its development

would be 10*° em. or about three thousand light years; the density would be

3-10°-'7. The remainder of the contraction would be accomplished in a little

over 10 thousand years so there would be very little time for cooling or diffu-

sion of energy.

If the contracting mass finally reached a density of 1 the radius would be

equal to the radius of Neptune’s orbit. The force of gravity would be 8-10°

206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 10

or 100,000 times gravity at the earth’s surface. Since the total mass would be

2-10" that of the sun the pressure at the center would be 10’ greater than the

pressure at the center of the sun. The temperature of adiabatic compression

would be 10“ degrees and the total energy of contraction would be equal to a

temperature energy of 10% degrees. Light pressure necessary to explode the

star with a force sufficient to give the component parts outward velocities of

200 to 300 km. observed in the arms of spiral nebulae would require a tem-

perature of 10" degrees. Consequently for a time at least the nebulae would

be in a condition to emit penetrating radiation. (Author’s abstract.)

RaupH E. Gipson. A simple volume—temperature relation for liquids.

If p; is the density of a liquid, p, the orthobaric density of its vapor, T;, the

critical temperature and K is a constant which is independent of the tempera-

ture but varies from liquid to liquid, the equation

= K — 0.3 log (1; — T)

is shown to hold accurately over large ranges of temperature for normal

liquids. The equation is of such general application that its slope (0.3) is

taken as a function of the normal thermal expansion which is constant for all

liquids and deviations are attributed to change in molecular association.

In the light of this hypothesis it appears that the alcohols and acetic acid

resemble water in that the polymer is less dense than the simple substance.

By applying the equation to water one may calculate the percentage of poly-

hydrol in water at any temperature, the heat of the reaction polyhydrol =

hydrol and the true latent heat of melting of ice. (Author’s Abstract.)

Oscar 8. Apams, Recording Secretary.

log

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Helium, 97 per cent pure, is now being produced by the Bureau of Mines

plant near Amarillo, Texas, at the rate of 30,000 cu. ft. per day, for the use of

the Army and the Navy. The helium is concentrated from natural gas of the

Cliffside structure, which contains about 13 per cent by volume. As there is

only one part of helium in 185,000 parts of the atmosphere, the origin of so

much helium in natural gas is a decided mystery.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Tuesday, May 21 The Historical Society

Wednesday, May 22 The Medical Society

Saturday, May 25 The Philosophical Society

Wednesday, May 29 The Medical Society

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent

to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

CONTENTS

he on a PAPERS

shanties Goan sand Doek sow Eee N. A. COBB. soe ee eee seeees

PROCEEDINGS

The Philosophical BOCES chia: os vd inag te NEOCRON CREE OF Loo, mente ;

Scruntrrtc Novus, Awp NEWSis..0.2.4sdcsderseh-sesusds co cewgeutaeeniye

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: ALES oni user U.S. National Museum.

Recording Secretary: Ww. D. ‘LAMBERT, Coast and Gecdetice Suvey

Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

FD2W23

Vou. 19 JUNE 4, 1929 No, 11

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Joun B, Rezsipez, JR. Epgar W. Wooiarp Epear T. WHERRY

NATIONAL MUSEUM GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY AND SOILS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

L, H. Apams 8, A. Rouwrr

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCIBTY

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CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 19 JuNE 4, 1929 No. 11

GENERAL SCIENCE.—Report of the committee on the 1929 revision

of the Academy’s list of one hundred popular books in science.

Pau R. Hryu, Chairman.

The following books, 17 in number, are now out of print, and have

consequently been removed from the list:

GENERAL WORKS.

Curtis, Winterton C. Science and human affairs.

ScIENCES oF MAN,

ANTHROPOLOGY

Mason, O. T. The origins of invention.

Hough, Walter The Hopi Indians.

ScIENCES OF LIFE.

GENERAL BIOLOGY

Thomson, J. Arthur The haunts of life.

ZOOLOGY

Stone, Witmer, and American animals.

Cram, W. E.

Mayer, Alfred G. Sea-shore life.

BOTANY

Darwin, Charles Insectivorous plants.

SCIENCES OF THE EARTH.

THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Bonney, T. G. The work of rains and rivers.

Bonney, T. G. . Volcanoes.

207

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

THE AIR AND THE OCEAN

Humphreys, W. J. Weather proverbs and paradoxes.

Talman, C. F. Our weather.

SCIENCES OF THE HEAVENS.

Ball, Robert 8. The story of the heavens.

Dyson, F. W. Astronomy.

Abbott, Charles G. The sun.

ScIENCES OF THINGS AND EVENTs.

PHYSICS

Boys, C. V. Soap bubbles.

Mach, Ernst Popular scientific lectures.

SCIENCES OF FoRM AND RELATIONS.

DeMorgan, Augustus On the study and the difficulties of

mathematics

The following books, 13 in number, have been recommended for

removal from the list by different members of the Committee, as

later books are now available giving a more up-to-date view of the

subjects:

ScIENCES OF MAN.

ANTHROPOLOGY

Wissler, Clark Man and culture.

Haddon, A. C. The races of man.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

Huntington, Ellsworth Civilization and climate.

ScIENCES OF LIFE.

ZOOLOGY

Beebe, C. W. Jungle peace.

Bouvier, E. L. The psychic life of insects.

Fabre, J: H. Social life in the insect world.

BOTANY

Hardy, M. E. The geography of plants.

ANCIENT LIFE

Lucas, F. A. Animals of the past.

JUNE 4, 1929 POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 209

ScIENCES OF THE EARTH.

Gregory, J. W. Geology of to-day.

Lull, R. S., and others. The evolution of the earth and its

inhabitants.

Cole, Grenville A. J. Rocks and their origins.

Merrill, George P. The first one hundred years of Ameri-

can geology.

Brigham, Albert T. Geographic influence in American

history.

To replace the foregoing, the following thirty books have been

recommended by members of the Committee:

A GENERAL VIEW.

Huxley, Julian. Hssays in popular science.

(Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1927.)

Bragg, Sir Wiliam. Creative knowledge.

(Harper & Brothers, New York, 1927. 258 pp.)

Simple explanations of fundamental principles of such

industries as those of the sailor, the potter, the miner, the

dyer, the weaver, and the smith, with illustrations of the

primitive development of these trades. What everybody

ought to know but what few do.

Newman, H. H., and others. The nature of the world and man.

(University of Chicago Press, 1926.)

A series of articles by members of the faculty of the

University of Chicago describing the modern view of Nature

in its different aspects.

ScIENCES oF MAN.

ANTHROPOLOGY

Wissler, Clark. The American Indian.

(Douglas C. MeMurtrie, New York, 1917. 435 pp., illus.)

Deals with the types, environments, habits, customs, and

other phases of Indian culture.

Hough, Walter. The story of fire.

(Doubleday, Doran & Co., New York, 1928. 198 pp.

and 30 illus.)

Hrdli¢ka, Ales. The old Americans.

(Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1925. 438 pp., illus.)

Studies the old American stock, its history, formation,

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

characteristics, changes in the New World, and discusses the

evolution of a new American type.

Kroeber, A. L. Anthropology.

(Harcourt, Brace & Co., New York, 1923. 523 pp.)

SCIENCES OF LIFE.

HEREDITY

Jennings, H. 8. Prometheus.

(EH. P. Dutton & Co., New York, 1925.)

A brief discussion of heredity in relation to man.

GENERAL BIOLOGY

Haldane, J. B. 8. Possible worlds.

(Harper & Brothers, New York, 1928. 305 pp.)

Deals with a number of biological problems in relation to

man.

Mason, Frances (Editor). Creation by evolution.

(The Macmillan Co., New York, 1928. 392 pp.)

A collection of chapters on evolution in non-technical

language by twenty-five leading biologists and zoologists of

England and the United States. Admirably adapted for

giving modern views of the various phases of the question.

ZOOLOGY

Beebe, Charles William. Beneath tropic seas.

(G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1928. 234 pp. and 60

illus.)

The author gives in a popular form the high lights of an

expedition to Haiti to study the Haitian fishes and the life

of a coral reef at close range by means of a diving helmet and

motion pictures taken in the water.

Wheeler, William Morton. The social insects.

(Harcourt, Brace & Co., New York, 1928. 378 pp. and

79 illus.)

Twelve lectures delivered at the University of Paris.

Deals with the scope and meaning of the social among

insects, with polymorphism and the evolution of wasps,

bees, ants, and termites, and the evolution of the guests and

parasites of social insects.

JUNE 4, 1929 POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 211

Forel, Auguste. The social world of the ants.

(G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1928. Vol. 1, 551 pp.

and 95 illus.; vol. 2, 445 pp. and 138 illus.)

Summing up a century of research on the anatomy,

physiology, and psychology of the ants, the author elucidates

a philosophy of the biological problems of man by the sensory

and instinctive behavior of the ants. Forel’s large work

may remain a classic in the same sense as Darwin’s “Origin

of species.”

BOTANY

Bower, O. F. Plants and man.

(The Macmillan Co., New York, 1925. 365 pp., illus.)

A popular or semi-popular book written by a recognized

authority. It is correct and sound botanically and also

readable and interesting.

Berry, Edward Wilber. Tree ancestors—a glimpse into the past.

(Wiliams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1923. 270 pp.

and 48 illus.)

Rolfe, R. T., and Rolfe, F. W. The romance of the fungus world.

(Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 1925.)

An account of fungus life in its numerous guises, both real

and legendary.

MICROSCOPIC LIFE

DeKruif, Paul. Microbe hunters.

(Harcourt, Brace & Co., New York, 1929.)

A history of the development of our knowledge of micro-

organisms in relation to disease; centers around the leading

figures in this field of biology.

ANCIENT LIFE

Knowlton, Frank H. Plants of the past.

(Princeton University Press, 1927. 275 pp. and 90 illus.)

A popular and scientific account of the appearance and

progress of plant life on the earth.

SCIENCES OF THE EARTH.

Cleland, H. F. Geology, physical and historical.

(American Book Co., New York, 1916. 718 pp., illus.)

A treatise on geologic science as a whole on a scale adequate

for the general reader.

212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

Lee, Willis T. Stories in stone.

(D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1926. 226 pp. and

52 illus.)

Chapters on various geologic topics, such as the Grand

Canyon, ancient landscapes, Triassic, Jurassic, and Creta-

ceous scenes, in non-technical language.

Brewster, Edwin T. This puzzling planet.

(Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, 1928. 328 pp., illus.)

Similar to “Stories in stone.”

Schuchert, Charles, and LeVene, Clara M. The earth and its

rhythms.

(Appleton & Co., New York, 1928. 385 pp.)

Similar to “Stories in stone’ in general plan but more

comprehensive.

Geikie, Sir Archibald. The founders of geology.

(The Macmillan Co., New York, 1905. 468 pp.)

A very interesting account of the growth of geologic

knowledge from antiquity to the present, with biographic

sketches of the men who have contributed most to the build-

ing of the science.

THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Bowman, Isaiah. Forest physiography.

(J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1911. 759 pp., illus.)

Treats of physiography and physiographic regions of the

United States, especially in their relations to forestry.

Henderson, Junius B. Geology in its relation to landscape.

(The Stratford Co., Boston, 1925. 152 pp., illus.)

Treats in popular style of the relations of landscape to the

character and structure of the underlying rock formations.

SCIENCES OF THE HEAVENS.

Abbot, C.G. The earth and the stars.

(D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1925.)

This book is for non-technical readers, and not for the

professional astronomer. It has been the aim of the author

to present the most salient of the facts in simple words, and

in such relations as will display our present views of why and

how the celestial host came to be as it is. |

JUNE 4, 1929 POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 213

ScIENCES OF THINGS AND EVENTS.

PHYSICS

Eddington, A. 8. The nature of the physical world.

(The Maemillan Co., New York, 1929. 353 pp.)

A comprehensive discussion of the new physical concep-

tions and their philosophical consequences as seen by the

chief British exponent of Einstein’s theory of relativity.

Gives in non-mathematical language the new views of gravi-

tation, the quantum theory, the non-EHuclidian geometry

and the wave theory of matter.

Bragg, Sir Wiliam. Concerning the nature of things.

(Harper & Brothers, New York, 1925. 249 pp.)

An explanation of the modern conceptions of the constitu-

tion of matter, especially the structure of crytals, to which

field the author has been a foremost contributor.

Heyl, Paul R. Fundamental concepts of physics.

(Willams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1926.)

A summary of the development of physical thought and

experiment from the eighteenth to the twentieth century.

ScIENCES OF FoRM AND RELATION.

Cajori, Florian. History of mathematics.

(The Macmillan Co., New York, 1919. 514 pp., illus.)

This book has for years been the standard work on the

subject in English. Well classified and readable.

The complete list, omitting descriptive paragraphs, is as follows:

A GENERAL VIEW.

1. Huxley, Thomas Selections from Huxley.

Henry

2. Huxley, Julian Essays in popular science.

3. Bragg, Sir William Creative knowledge.

4. Newman, H. H., and The nature of the world and man.

others

5. Slosson, Edwin E. Keeping up with science.

ScIENCES OF MAN.

PSYCHOLOGY

6. Thorndike, Edward L. The human nature club.

7. James, William Psychology.

8. Woodworth, Robert 8. Psychology; a study of mental. life.

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

ANTHROPOLOGY

9. Osborn, Henry Men of the old stone age.

Fairfield

10. Wissler, Clark The American Indian.

11. Hough, Walter The story of fire.

12. Hrdli¢ka, Ales The old Americans.

13. Kroeber, A. L. Anthropology.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

14. Sherman, H. C. Food products.

15. Eddy, Walter H. The vitamine manual.

16. Jordan, E. O. Food poisoning.

17. Keen, William Medical research and human welfare.

Williams

SCIENCES OF LIFE.

HEREDITY

18. Darwin, Charles -The origin of species.

19. East, E. M., and Inbreeding and outbreeding.

Jones, D. F.

20. Castle, W. E., Coulter, Heredity and eugenics.

J. M., Davenport,

C. B., East, E. M.,

and Tower, W. L.

21. Conklin, E. G. Heredity and environment.

22. Galton, Francis Hereditary genius.

23. Popenoe, Paul, and Applied eugenics.

Johnson, R. H.

24. Jennings, H. 8. Prometheus.

GENERAL BIOLOGY

25. Thomson, J. Arthur. The wonder of life.

26. Lucy, William A. Biology and its makers.

27. Haldane, J. B.S. Possible worlds.

28. Mason, Frances Creation by evolution.

(Editor)

ZOOLOGY

29. Buckley, A. B. The winners in life’s race.

30. Nelson, E. W. Wild animals of North America.

JUNE 4, 1929 POPULAR BOOKS IN SCIENCE 215

ol.

32.

33.

30.

36.

37,

38.

39.

40.

41.

Roosevelt, Theodore African game trails.

Chapman, Frank M. Camps and cruises of an ornithologist.

Maeterlinck, Maurice The life of the bee.

Jenkins, Oliver P. Interesting neighbors.

Blatchley, W. 8. Gleanings from nature.

Beebe, Charles Beneath tropic seas.

William

Wheeler, William The social insects.

Morton

Forel, Auguste The social world of the ants.

BOTANY

Ganong, W. F. The living plant.

Osterhout, W. J. V. Experiments with plants.

Sorauer, Paul A popular treatise on the physiology

of plants.

. Towsend, C. W. Sand dunes and salt marshes.

. Bower, F. O. Plants and man.

. Berry, Edward Wilber ‘Tree ancestors.

. Rolfe, R. T., and Rolfe, The romance of the fungus world.

BW.

MICROSCOPIC LIFE

46. Vallery-Radot, Réné Louis Pasteur, his life and labours.

47. DeKruif, Paul The microbe hunters. :

ANCIENT LIFE

48. Knowlton, F. H. Plants of the past.

49. Hutchinson, H. N. Extinct monsters and creatures of other

days.

ScreNcES OF THE EARTH.

50. Cleland, H. F. Geology, physical and historical.

51. Hawkesworth, Hallam The strange adventures of a pebble.

52. Lee, Willis T. Stories in stone.

53. Brewster, Edwin T. This puzzling planet.

54. Schuchert, Charles The earth and its rhythms.

and Levene, Clara M.

55. Geikie, Archibald The founders of geology.

56. Semple, Ellen Influences of geographical environment.

Churchill

216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

57. Spurr, J. H. (Editor) Political and commercial geography of

the world’s mineral resources.

THE EARTH’S SURFACE

58. Bowman, Isaiah Forest physiography.

59. Tyndall, John The forms of water in clouds and

rivers, ice and glaciers.

60. Henderson, Junius B. Geology and the landscape.

61. Russell, Israel C. Volcanoes of North America.

62. Davison, Charles The origin of earthquakes.

THE AIR AND THE OCEAN

63. Brooks, Charles F. Why the weather?

64. Ward, R. deC. Climate, considered especially in rela-

tion to man.

65. Murray, John The ocean.

SCIENCES OF THE HEAVENS. '

66. Abbot, Charles G. The earth and the stars.

67. Hale, George 5. The new heavens.

68. Lewis, Isabel M. Splendors of the sky.

69. Murphy, E. G. (Kel- A beginner’s star book.

vin McKready,

pseud. )

703, 2urner, Et Ee A voyage through space.

71. Berry, Arthur A short history of astronomy.

SCIENCES OF THINGS AND E\VENTs.

CHEMISTRY

72. Slosson, E. E. ; Creative chemistry.

73. Hendrick, Ellwood Everyman’s chemistry.

74, Fuller, Henry C. The story of drugs.

75. Fabre, Jean Henri The wonder book of chemistry.

76. Dunean, Robert

Kennedy The chemistry of commerce.

77. Martin, Geoffrey Modern chemistry and its wonders.

78. Soddy, Frederick The interpretation of radium.

79. Venable, F. P. A short history of chemistry.

80. Smith, Edgar Fahs Chemistry in America.

PHYSICS

81. Soddy, Frederick Matter and energy.

82. Mills, John Within the atom.

JUNE 4, 1929 CLARK: ZOOGENESIS 217

83. Einstein, Albert

84. Fleming, J. A.

85. Miller, Dayton C.

86. Bragg, Wiliam

87. Luckiesh, M.

88. Soddy, Frederick

89. Eddington, A. 8S.

90. Bragg, Sir William

91. Heyl, Paul R.

Relativity.

Waves and ripples in water, air and

aether.

The science of musical sounds.

The world of sound.

Color and its applications.

Science and life.

The nature of the physical world.

Concerning the nature of things.

Fundamental concepts of physics.

ScIENCES OF ForRM AND RELATION.

92. Ball, W. W. Rouse

93. Whitehead, A. N.

94. Conant, Levi Leonard

95. Young, John Wesley

96. Cajori, Florian

97. Smith, David Eugene

History OF SCIENCE.

98. Libby, Walter

99. Sedgwick, W. T., and

Tyler, H. W.

100. White, Andrew D.

EVOLUTION .—Zoogenesis.!

Museum.

Mathematical recreations and prob-

lems.

Introduction to mathematics. ,

The number concept, its origin and

development.

Lectures on the fundamental concepts

of algebra and geometry.

A history of mathematics.

Number stories of long ago.

An introduction to the history of

science.

A short history of science.

A history of the warfare of science with

theology in Christendom.

Austin H. CuarKk, U. S. National

It is a readily demonstrable fact that every living thing is the child

of some other living thing. It is utterly impossible for any living thing

to appear spontaneously. Since all living things are derived from

other living things, it naturally follows that the ancestral line of every

living thing in the world at the present time has been continuous and

unbroken, going back to the very earliest life upon the earth. No

biologist at the present day doubts the continuity of life from parent

1 Received April 5, 1929.

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

to child through all the ages that have passed since life’s first beginnings,

or the common origin of all forms of life.

Every living thing develops from a particle of living matter—a

single germ cell—in which no trace of the adult form of that living

thing is discernible. Since every animal, no matter what it is, origi-

nates as a single cell, we are safe in assuming that all types of animal life

must be explained in terms of a primitive single cell.

The course of development of animal forms from those whose body is

composed of a single cell to the multitudes of multicellular types which

we know today is explained by what is called the theory of evolution.

Evolution as commonly understood assumes the gradual development

step by step of all the widely varying forms of animal life from an

original form of simple structure. But the developmental course

which has been followed by animal life can not be reduced to any such

simpleformula. ‘There are three separate sets of facts to be considered,

and any acceptable theory of animal development must harmonize and

correlate all three.

In the first place, within each of the so-called phyla or major groups

of animals, as is well seen in the vertebrates, particularly in the mam-

mals and the reptiles, there are many well marked, obvious, and

undeniable evolutionary lines which, beginning with a relatively simple

form of creature, run by easy stages to a specialized and highly com-

plex form.

In the second place, very few of these evolutionary lines are per-

fectly continuous. Practically all of them are more or less frequently

interrupted by gaps of various widths, and these gaps are often very

broad. Especially is it true that these evolutionary lines tend to be

separated from each other for their entire course, running parallel

right down to their very earliest beginnings and not converging to a

common type of animal as we would expect. For instance, the cat

line and the dog line are always separate. No forms intermediate

between cats and their relatives and dogs and their relatives are known,

although both cats and dogs are collateral members of that great group

of mammals known as the Carnivora and therefore must have had a

common ancestor. Similarly, there are no intermediates between

turtles and snakes, or between turtles and lizards, all of which are rep-

tiles, or between squid and oysters, though both types are mollusks.

In the third place, no animals are known even from the very earliest

rocks which can not be at once assigned to their proper phylum or

major group on the basis of the definition of that group as drawn up

JUNE 4, 1929 CLARK: ZOOGENESIS 219

from a study of living animals alone. A backboned animal is always

unmistakably a backboned animal, a starfish is always a starfish, and

an insect is always an insect no matter whether we find it as a fossil

in the rocks or catch it alive at the present day. There can be only

one interpretation of this entire lack of any intermediates between the

major groups of animals, as for instance between the vertebrates, the

echinoderms, the mollusks and the arthropods. If we are willing to

accept the facts at their face value, which would seem to be the only

thing to do, we must believe that there never were such intermediates,

or in other words that these major groups from the very first bore the

same relation to each other that they do at the present day. Is this

creationism? Not at all. It simply means that life at its very first

beginnings from the single cell developed simultaneously and at once in

every possible direction. All of the phyla or major groups seem to be

of simultaneous development—at least we have no evidence that it was

otherwise. . From each one of these after its appearance a separate

evolutionary tree arose, growing upward through the ages.

The numerous developmental lines are explained by the process of

evolution as that term is commonly understood, and this descriptive

word should be restricted to these developmental lines.

The gaps within these lines, and between related lines which run

more or less parallel, are explained by an extension of the theory of

mutations.

The complete absence of any intermediate forms between the major

groups of animals, which is one of the most striking and most significant

phenomena brought out by the study of zoology, has hitherto been

overlooked, or at least ignored. This condition may readily be ex-

plained from an application of the facts gained through the study of em-

bryology by a theory which may be called the theory of primagenesis.

Restriction or expansion of the meaning of a well known word results

always in confusion. ‘The term evolution is commonly used to cover ~

the entire developmental history of animals. But evolution contem-

plates a gradual and continuous unfolding of animal life beginning

with creatures consisting of a single cell and ending with man. A

better understanding of the subject will result if we recognize the fact

that this process includes three distinct but interrelated phases, first,

evolution properly so called; second, mutations; and third, primagenesis.

If we regard the complete history of the development of animal

life in this ight, we must, in order to avoid confusion, use for it an en-

tirely new term. We may call it zoogenesis.

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

EVOLUTION

To illustrate evolution as here restricted, let us briefly review the

history of the mammals and the reptiles, bearing in mind that similar

histories are found in many other less familiar forms of life.

The reptiles first appeared in that very ancient time which is known

to geologists as the Carboniferous and gradually increased in diversity

and in maximum size. The largest land animals of which we have any

knowledge are the largest of the dinosaurs which flourished in those

periods known as the Jurassic and Cretaceous. At the end of the Cre-

taceous period most of the larger and more spectacular of the reptiles

suddenly disappeared, but many reptilian types, for instance the

turtles, lizards, snakes and crocodilians, continued right through to the

present day.

The mammals first appeared in the form of very small and insig-

nificant creatures at the time when the great reptiles were the domi-

nating giants of the land and sea. After the sudden disappearance

of the giant reptiles they increased greatly in diversity and somewhat

in size, though in the earlier portion of the epoch following (Eocene)

the largest mammal was not so large even as a sheep.

These mammals of the earlier portion of the “‘dawn period” (Kocene)

soon disappeared; but as they disappeared their place was taken by

other types which were more or less comparable to the sorts we know

today. Gradually as time went on these mammals became more

and more diversified. Various extraordinary types, some of huge

size, appeared and not long afterwards disappeared, while together

with these came others which we have no difficulty in recognizing

as the direct predecessors of the types we know at the present day.

In order to make the picture clearer let us narrow our perspective

and focus our attention on the horses. In the Eocene we find a curi-

ous little creature no bigger than a fox called the ‘‘dawn horse’’—

Eohippus. This had four toes on the front and three on the hind feet

and a relatively short head with the eyes about half way between the

ears and the tip of the nose instead of nearer the ears than the tip of

the nose as in the later horses.

Following the “dawn horse” we find a number of different kinds

of horses mostly about the size of a shepherd dog or a little larger, all of

which had three toes. Like the ‘“‘dawn horse”’ and its relatives, they

had low crowned teeth which were affixed to the jaw by means of

roots.

Still later there are horses which as colts had low crowned teeth, but

JUNE 4, 1929 CLARK: ZOOGENESIS 2711

when fully grown had teeth with fairly high crowns. With these lived

others in which the teeth had high crowns at all ages. These horses

had shorter muzzles and rather less deep jaws than the modern horse,

and while they had a single hoof there was a toe on either side of it.

These lateral toes varied from small ones which did not reach the

ground to larger on2s which reached the ground. Though these were

larger than their predecesso:s, they were not so large as the later horses.

In the Pleistocene or Ice Age we had in North America many differ-

ent kinds of horses which were all of the modern type with long high

crowned teeth and deep jaws. They ranged in size from little ones

no bigger than the smallest Shetland pony to some which were larger

than the largest draught horses. Before the discovery of America by

the Europeans all of these had disappeared, for what reason we do not

know.

There is an interesting and significant correlation between the inter-

relationships of animal types at the present day, their life history, and

their fossil record which, though of the greatest importance from the

point of view of animal evolution, seems never to have been pointed

out.

Among the vertebrates the least diversified of the included classes

is that which includes the birds while the most diversified is that which

includes the fishes.

All birds exhibit a similarity in the broader features of their structure

which, considering their numbers and the very great diversity in the

minor structural details, is surprising. In conformity with this,

birds in their embryonic stages and in their pre-adult existence exhibit

a uniformity which is without parallel among the vertebrates.

All birds lay eggs which are enclosed within a rigid and at the same

time brittle caleareous shell. There are among them no viviparous

forms such as occur among the mammals, reptiles, fishes and amphib-

ians. The eggs are always large, and are provided with abundant

food material. From the egg the chick emerges in a well developed—

sometimes in a very highly developed—stage.

In all birds except the megapodes the young are assiduously tended

by their parents, or by one parent, until nearly or quite the full size

is reached. In all birds the embryo develops within a rigid envelope

permitting but little deviation from the general type represented by

the parents. Furthermore, the young, dependent on the ministrations

of one or both the parents, must be of such a nature as to be able to

receive and to profit by parental care, and also to stimulate it. This

222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

still further restricts the possibility of wide deviation from a general

type.

So all the birds, both fossil and living, excepting for the ancient

toothed birds and the Archexopteryx, are very closely allied and in spite

of the vast range in size, from Princess Helen’s hummingbird to the

ostrich, the birds form a much more unified group than do the mam-

mals, reptiles, amphibians or fishes.

In the vertebrates the interrelationships and the evolutionary history

of the types in the several included classes are largely a reflection of the

possibilities for variation afforded in the early stages. In the inverte-

brates this is even more striking as is at once brought out if we compare

the insects with any one of the larger groups of marine invertebrates.

MUvuTATIONS

The variability in the continuity of the evolutionary lines leads

naturally to a consideration of mutations. While in many animal

types we are able to trace, as in the horses, a gradual evolution from a

form which is simple and generalized in structure to one or many forms

which are highly specialized, this is by no means always true. Indeed,

it is the exception rather than the rule.

Most lines are broken by curious gaps which may be small and insig-

nificant, or broad and striking. It is commonly assumed that these

various gaps are due to our lack of knowledge of the animals concerned,

and especially of their fossil record.

No doubt in very many cases this is true, but in most cases these

gaps probably are real and never were bridged by so-called “‘missing

links.”

In the light of our present knowledge we can not doubt that all

living things are the children of other living things, and that life has

been continuous from parent to child from its earliest beginnings.

How is it possible to harmonize this fact with the occurrence of broad

and unbridged gaps in the evolutionary lines?

The answer is that continuity of life does nor necessarily imply con-

tinuity of the bodily form in which that life is manifested. In other

words, children may be very different from their parents. As an

illustration of continuity of life coupled with abrupt and striking dis-

continuity of form and also in mental traits, let us consider the dogs.

According to the best authorities all of the nearly two hundred

different breeds of domesticated dogs are descended from a single type

of ancestor, which was a wolf closely resembling our native wolf but

JUNE 4, 1929 CLARK: ZOOGENESIS 223

with slightly different teeth. The domestic dogs may be grouped,

following Gibson, into wolf-dogs, greyhounds, spaniels, hounds, mas-

tiffs and terriers.

Some of the wolf-dogs, as the dogs of the Esquimaux and of the

Kamchadales, show a more or less close resemblance to wolves, while

others, as the collies, Newfoundlands and St. Bernards, are much less

wolf-like. But the wolf-dogs may be arranged in a fairly continuous

series from the most to the least wolf-like.

This series of dog forms is parallel to many of the evolutionary lines

which are seen in the geological history of the mammals, as for instance

in the horses and hyznas. It is a series of types which differ only

very slightly from each other running between two extremes which are

widely different.

Of the other breeds of dogs we may select the greyhounds, hounds,

bull-dogs and pugs—the last two from the mastiff stock—as representa-

tive types known to every one.

It is not necessary here to describe the diverse bodily forms of these

well known breeds of dogs. But their mental traits call for brief con-

sideration. The greyhounds, or as they are sometimes called the

“gaze-hounds,” have deficient powers of scent but unusually keen eyes

and ears. They hunt entirely by sight. There are many different

forms of greyhounds. The hounds, having poor sight, hunt by scent,

and they are also divided into many different forms. Bull-dogs

are deficient both in sight and scent and are stupid and ferocious, dis-

playing little affection. Pugs, which are much like bull-dogs and

are equally stupid, differ markedly from them in being timid and

affectionate.

There are no intergrading types between the greyhounds, the

hounds, the bull-dogs and the pugs, and there are no intergrades be-

tween any of these and wolves. If we did not know their ancestry

we would never suspect that these types of dogs had anything to do

with wolves. They furnish an excellent and obvious illustration of

unbroken continuity of descent coupled with abrupt and wide changes

in form and in mental attributes.

An understanding and appreciation of the conditions found among

the dogs enables us to approach the problem of the relationship of

man to the animal world.

Structurally and anatomically man is very close to the man-like or

anthropoid apes. ‘This is a readily demonstrable fact which is quite

beyond dispute. But it is also beyond dispute that there is a sharp,

clean-cut, and very marked difference between man and the apes.

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

Every bone in the body of a man is at once distinguishable from the

corresponding bone in the body of any of the apes.

Furthermore, man differs very widely from the apes in the possession

of articulate speech which enables him to accumulate knowledge in

successive generations. He also differs in his use of fire and in his use

of tools which, as is shown by the fossil record, have been human

attributes from the very first. Besides this, so far as history and the

study of modern races enables us to judge, he differs in his use of

clothing and of ornaments.

The most important difference, however, is correlated with the fact

that in man the ministrations of both parents are necessary in the

raising of afamily. A woman can not raise afamily unaided. Inter-

dependent with this we find in man a socially effective sentiment of

love which creates and makes a unit of the family.

That family life was from the first a fundamental human institution

would seem to be shown conclusively by the existence in all human

races of taboos and laws directed toward the maintenance of the family.

Taboos and laws are not, so far as we know, invented to mold society

into new and preconceived forms, but on the contrary to correct evils

recognized as possessing disruptive or destructive tendencies which

from time to time appear.

All monkeys, so far as we know, live together in promiscuous hordes

or troupes in which each female raises her own young unaided. Family

attachments are not necessary and do not occur.

While man obviously belongs to the same division of the mammals

as the apes, yet the differences between man and the apes seem to be

too great ever to have been bridged by intermediate types. Of all

the numerous fossils that have been found not a single one represents

indubitably a “‘missing link.”’

Man appeared suddenly as a collateral line from the same general

complex as the apes, but there is no evidence that he was ever one of

them. Between man and the apes there is a gap, structural and

psychological, of the same general nature as that, for instance, be-

tween the greyhounds and the bull-dogs. But while we know that the

greyhounds and the bull-dogs are both descended from a wolf, a creature

widely different physically and mentally from both types, we have no

definite clue to the immediate ancestry of man.

The general features of human structure and anatomy were in-

herited, in accordance with the unbroken continuity of descent from

parent to child, from some unknown ancestor common to all the

JUNE 4, 1929 CLARK: ZOOGENESIS 225

Primates, but so far as we have been able to discover not through an

ape as we understand that term. The details of man’s structure and

his mentality are his alone.

Unbroken continuity of descent coupled with abrupt discontinuities

or changes in bodily form is a common, striking, and well known

phenomenon in most types of animal life. We must accord it a

proper place in any theory dealing with zoogenesis.

PRIMAGENESIS

The problem presented by the interrelationships between the phyla

or major groups of animals has until recently seemed wholly incapable

of a logical solution. It has always been the chief stumbling block

in the path of all theories of evolution, for no theory of the develop-

ment of animal forms is tenable that does not definitely allocate the

phyla each in a definite relationship with all the others.

Smellie in 1790 expressed the evolutionary concept prevalent in his

day when he wrote:

In the chain of animals man is unquestionably the chief or capital link.

: From him all the other links descend by almost imperceptible

gradations from man to the minutest animalcule.

In 1811 Professor Meckel expressed his doubts regarding the truth

of this so far as concerns the lower animals. He said:

From these lowest Vertebrata to the highest, and to the highest forms

among these, the comparison between the embryonic condition of the higher

animals and the adult states of the lower can be more completely and thor-

oughly instituted than if the survey is extended to the Invertebrata, inasmuch

as the latter are in many respects constructed upon an altogether too dis-

similar type; indeed they often differ from one another far more than the

lowest vertebrate does from the highest mammal.

In the sixties of the last century when that great scholar, Charles

Darwin, was the commanding figure in biological thought his most

formidable opponent in this country, was the equally learned scholar

and brilliant and magnetic leader, Louis Agassiz.

Professor Agassiz’ reputation has suffered in no small degree because

of his outspoken opposition to Darwin’s ideas on the subject of evolu-

tion. Yet his opposition is easily understood. While Darwin had an

unusually extensive knowledge of the invertebrates, still his work in

so far as it concerned evolution was the outcome of an exceptionally

detailed knowledge of and intimate acquaintance with land inhabiting

vertebrates.

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

Agassiz, on the other hand, had devoted his attention especially to

invertebrates, including their larval stages, and to fishes. Among the

invertebrate groups Darwinian evolution can not be made to apply,

and it is scarcely more applicable to fishes. Agassiz realized this just

as had Meckel fifty years before, and it is greatly to his credit that he

was brave enough to uphold his convictions in the face of the strong

tide of popular sentiment. But unfortunately neither he nor Meckel

had any alternative hypothesis to offer.

The first clue to the true state of affairs was given through the dis-

covery by the late Dr. Charles D. Walcott in the Middle Cambrian

rocks of British Columbia of what are probably the most remarkable

fossils ever found.

Through these fossils the wholly unexpected and astounding fact

was brought out that so long ago as Middle Cambrian time the

interrelationships between the various animal phyla were just the

same as they are today. In the Middle Cambrian crustaceans were

crustaceans, echinoderms were echinoderms, chetognaths were chet-

ognaths, and annelids were annelids quite as unmistakably as they are

in the present seas.

Since there has been no change whatever in the interrelationships of -

the animal phyla or major groups over this long period of geological

history, why should we not assume that these interrelationships were

the same at the very first appearance of life?

Such an assumption is open to the criticism that, while the fossils in

the Cambrian rocks are the first that are adequately known, yet it is

undoubtedly true that the Cambrian is much nearer to the present

epoch than it was to the far distant time when life on earth began, so

that conditions in the Cambrian are not necessarily those at the time

of the origin of life.

The answer to this criticism is that since we know that the inter-

relationships between the phyla run back without any change whatever

to the Cambrian, it is more logical to assume a continuation of these

parallel interrelationships into the indefinite past than it is to assume,

somewhere in the unknown pre-Cambrian ages, a change in the inter-

relationships, for which last assumption we have not the slightest

evidence.

Since there is nothing to be learned bearing on the interrelationships

of the phyla or major groups from a study of the fossils, we must rely

on the data furnished by the study of embryology in order to solve this

problem.

JUNE 4, 1929 CLARK: ZOOGENESIS _ 227

All animals living at the present time develop from a single cell.

As this is true of every animal of which the development is known,

we have no hesitation in assuming that it has always been true of every

animal type. But this does not mean we must assume that the first

animals to appear were all composed of single cells.

A single cell may divide in such a way that the two derivative cells

are completely separated and drift or swim away independently of

each other. This type of cell division, resulting in the complete

separation of the derivative cells after each division, may continue

indefinitely.

In the single-celled animals or protozoans this is what actually

happens. A fully grown protozoan with a body consisting of a single

cell divides into two independent animals, each with a body which in

bulk is equal to half that of the parent. When these two reach full size

they each divide into two in the same way, and the process is continued

indefinitely.

But on the other hand a single cell may divide and after division the

two resultant cells may remain in contact. Subsequent division after

the same fashion will result in the formation of a mass of cells.

The question naturally arises, were the earliest animals composed

of single cells, or were they composed of masses of cells, or did unicellu-

lar and multicellular animal types live together side by side as they do

today?

It is commonly assumed that single-celled animals preceded the

multicellular types in appearance. But can anyone give any reason

for this assumption beyond the fact that in arithmetic—which is not

zoology—the number one precedes the other numbers?

There is no basis whatever for assuming that complete separation of

dividing cells is more primitive than adhesion of cells after division,

or that it preceded adhesion. In fact, the great rarity of complete

separation of cells after division in the animal world taken as a whole

almost suggests that adhesion, not separation, is the primitive condi-

tion. Therefore the statement commonly made that the single celled

animals or protozoans are the most primitive of the animals and pre-

ceded the multicellular types has nothing to support it. The only

logical assumption, based on known facts, is that the appearance of

unicellular and multicellular animal types was simultaneous—perhaps

even that the latter appeared first.

Cells which after division remain in contact may adhere irregularly,

resulting in the formation of a more or less unorganized mass. Sucha

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

condition is characteristic of the great group of sponges in which many

of the constituent cells are almost wholly independent of each other

and suggest masses of protozoans packed closely together.

Cells which after division remain in contact may adhere regularly,

resulting in the appearance of a series of geometrical forms. Regular

division of cells followed by regular adhesion leads to the formation of

a hollow ball of cells called a blastula. The blastula collapses, like a

rubber ball with one side pushed in, into a cup with an outer and an

inner layer of cells called a gastrula. The typical gastrula has an axis

passing through the center of the opening and of the opposite pole, and

the radii about this axis are everywhere the same—in other words the

typical gastrula is radially symmetrical about its only axis.

If the radially symmetrical gastrula should become adult, there would

result a radially symmetrical animal composed of two layers of cells of

quite the same nature as a hydra or a sea-anemone.

The whole group of the Coelenterata—hydras, corals, sea-anemones,

sea-pens, hydroids, aleyonarians, gorgonians, antipatharians, jelly-

fishes, and numerous other types—represent animals derived from a

single cell through regular geometrical division.

As there is no reason to assume that irregular adhesion of cells neces-

sarily preceded regular division and adhesion, there are no grounds for

supposing that the ecelenterates are not as old as the sponges or the

protozoans. ‘The appearance of the protozoans, the sponges and the

ccelenterates was presumably simultaneous. There is not the slight-

est evidence which would lead us to suppose that any one of these

preceded any of the others. Each is the logical end product of a

special type of cell division.

All other animals are always in some stage, and usually in the adult,

bilaterally symmetrical with a more or less well marked head end at

which are the main nervous centers, the chief sense organs, and the

mouth. No matter how different they may be, all of these animals in

the course of their development pass through a gastrula or com-

parable stage. This gastrula stage is the last stage common to them

all, and following this stage they diverge in various directions. But

since they all pass through a gastrula stage they are all reducible to the

developmental line which, followed to its logical end, leads to the

cecelenterates.

The key to the connection between the radially and the bilaterally

symmetrical animals is furnished by four curious groups having a

symmetry which is in part radial and in part bilateral. These four

JUNE 4, 1929 CLARK: ZOOGENESIS 229

groups consist of (1) types which by continuous budding produce a

linear colony; (2) types in which the budding takes place internally

within the original unit; (3) types which are solitary, each individual

representing a dissociated ccelenterate unit; and (4) types which are

colonial, though the individuals are independent of each other.

Between every two of these types there is another type which com-

bines the characters of the one on either side, but shows no trace of

radialsymmetry. ‘Thus between the types which by continuous bud-

ding produce a linear colony and the types in which the budding

takes place internally we find a type which is segmented externally

and also possesses internal budding (ccelomic budding); between the

types in which the budding takes placed internally within the original

unit and the types which are solitary, each individual representing a

dissociated coelenterate unit, we find a type which is solitary with

internal budding, but no segmentation, and so on. ~

On the basis of their fundamental characters all of the animal phyla

or major groups may be arranged in five successive series of four each,

the outermost four being the four partially radial types mentioned.

Such a figure shows each phylum as related more or less equally to

four others, and more distantly to all the rest. As we pass from the

outer to the inner series we find that the phyla become more and more

complex, and also progessively less and less widely differentiated from

each other.

The exact center of the figure is occupied by the vertebrates which

combine the characters of the four groups immediately surrounding

them (cephalochordates, balanoglossids, pterobranchiates and tuni-

cates) but are not more closely related to any one of these than to the

other three.

The details of this arrangment are very complicated and can not be

described except in technical terms. For these details the reader is

referred to the author’s paper on The origin of the vertebrates.?

According to this interpretation the various phyla of bilaterally

symmetrical animals are in effect recombinations of features which are

inherent in animals taken as a whole, or in other words recrystallizations

of the fundamental animal features which occur at every focal point |

where an animal type capable of existence may be reconstructed from

the elements available in the general animal complex.

No appreciable time element is necessarily involved in such a process

of recombination or recrystallization of fundamental animal features,

2 This JOURNAL 13: 129-138. 1923.

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

so that at the very first appearance of life the animal world, so far as

the phyla or major groups are concerned, probably was quite the same

as it is today.

The figure formed by this recombination of elemental structural

features into the various phyla represents the basic structure in

which all of the evolutionary trees are rooted and from which they

rise, one from each phylum, upward through succeding ages.

This interpretation of the origin of the various phyla as resulting

from recombinations of characters inherent in animals as a whole

supplies the key to the very sharp distinctions usually to be seen

between the different classes in each phylum. For the principle of

recombination seems to explain such sharp distinctions or very broad

mutations as those between the starfishes, brittle-stars, sea-urchins, sea-

cucumbers, and crinoids and their allies in the echinoderms; between

the gastropods, bivalves, scaphopods, cuttle-fish and other types in the

mollusks; and between the crustaceans, insects, spiders, and other

forms in the arthropods. Coming down to finer divisions, it serves to

- explain the curious isolation of the skippers (Hesperioidea) in the

Lepidoptera, and in the skippers the sharp difference between the

megathymids and the other types.

SUMMARY

The picture which we get of the development of the animal world—

of zoogenesis—from the preceding exposition and interpretation of the

facts is that at the very first all of the numerous phyla came into

being not successively but simultaneously by following different paths

of development from the single cell. The process leading to the origi-

nal appearance of the phyla—primagenesis—gives a result that at first

sight appears to be creationism, though in reality it is very different.

Each of the phyla represents a recombination of characters inherent

in animals as a whole in a form capable of meeting the requirements of

animal existence, both in internal balance and in external contacts.

Apparently the focal points at which a balanced condition capable

of survival and of meeting competition is attainable are rather few and

are well separated from each other, for each of the phyla is widely

different from all the rest.

The flat picture of animal life presented as the result of primagenesis

serves as the ground from which various evolutionary trees, one for

each phylum, rise upward through geologic time.

The larger phyla are divided into classes, and as a rule these classes

are quite distinct each from the other and do not intergrade. Thus

JUNE 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 231

in the mollusks we find pelecypods, scaphopods, solenogasters, gastro-

pods and cephalopods; in the echinoderms there are starfishes, brittle-

stars, sea-urchins, sea-cucumbers, crinoids, cystids and blastoids;

and in the arthropods there are crustaceans, arachnids, myriopods and

insects.

The distinctness of these classes each from the other probably is of

the same nature as the much broader distinctions between the various

phyla. That is, each class should be interpreted as a recombination

within the phylum in every economically possible form of characters

inherent in the phylum.

Within the classes the same phenomenon is again repeated in the

different orders, as 1s especially well seen in the insects, crustaceans,

mollusks and echinoderms. Abrupt discontinuities may be followed

further into sub-orders, families, genera and species, in the last being

evidenced by the so-called mutations.

It should perhaps be emphasized that discontinuities are much less

marked within the phylum Vertebrata than they are in the large inver-

tebrate phyla. But the entire structural range in all the vertebrates

taken together is scarcely greater than that in certain single species of

insects or crustaceans in different stages in their life history. The

vertebrates possess such a delicately balanced complexity of internal

structure, and as a result of their large size such a delicate adjustment

to their environment, that variations brought about by a continuous

series of slight changes and progressive minor readjustments are more

suited to them than the sudden wide and abrupt discontinuities so

frequent in invertebrate types.

Among the vertebrates well marked evolutionary lines are frequent

and wide discontinuities are relatively rare; but the reverse is true in all

the other phyla of comparable size.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

446TH MEETING

The 446th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club, January 9,

1929, President Capps presiding.

Program: W. H. Brapury: Varves and the duration of the Eocene epoch.

Anna I. Jonas: Structure of the metamorphic belt of the central Appala-

chians. 'The metamorphic folded belt of the Appalachians in the area from

eastern Pennsylvania to North Carolina consists of a southeastern or Martic

overthrust block lying west of the Coastal Plain sediments and, on the north-

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

west, the anticlinal uplifts and synclinal infolds of the Highland-Blue Ridge

anticlinorium, bounded on the west by the Great Valley.

Both divisions are made up of closely folded rocks of pre-Cambrian and

Paleozoic age that are broken by thrust faults, showing all gradations from

broken recumbent anticlines to clean cut thrusts developed from them and

low angle thrusts of the Scottish Highland type. The thrusts of the anti-

clinorium belong to the former, while the Martic thrust belongs to the latter

class. The Martic thrust fault bounds a block of the earth’s crust whose

- eastern part is covered by Coastal Plain sediments. Its linear extent has been

traced from the edge of these sediments in eastern Pennsylvania southwest

into North Carolina.

The great width of the Martic overthrust block in southern Virginia is in

part due to the southeast curve of Coastal Plain sediments and to the south-

west direction of normal Triassic faults that form its northwestern border

throughout most of Virginia, as well as the westward advance of the over-

thrust mass. The southwest direction of Triassic faults transverse to the

folds of the anticlinorium on the uplifted side of the normal faults have had

the effect of cutting them off from east to west and of decreasing the width of

this belt.

The Martic overthrust is of post-Ordovician age and may be as late as

post-Mississippian or post-Pennsylvanian, corresponding in age to the thrusts

in and west of the anticlinorium. It is cut by little-deformed granites that

are absent in Pennsylvania and occur in small areas in Maryland. They are

widespread only southwest of Central Virginia. They have true granitic

texture and lack the metamorphism of the pre-Cambrian granoblastic

igneous rocks. They cut only pre-Cambrian crystalline schists and intrusive —

relations give no positive evidence of their age. They may be epi-Ordovician

or post-Carboniferous in age. The absence of definite proof of the post-

Permian age of these granites and lack of their wide distribution in many parts

of the area throw doubt on the hypothesis that they produced the force for

Appalachian deformation. (Author’s Abstract.)

H. 8S. Wasuineton: Bearing of the rocks of the Island of St. Paul on the

structure of the Atlantic floor.

447TH MEETING

The 447th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 23, 1929, Presi-

dent Capps presiding.

Program: FRANK WENNER: Development of seismometry for recording

distant earthquakes.

A. L. Day: The activities of the Carnegie Institution in seismology.

L. H. Apams: The structure of the earth’s crust as revealed by seismologic

observations.

448TH MEETING

The 448th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club February 13, 1929,

President Capps presiding.

Program: A. C. SPENCER: Geology of Santa Rita, New Mexico.

W. B. Lana: Subnormal temperature gradients in the Permian basin of

Texas and New Mexico. The first deep well temperature test made in the

Permian Basin of Texas and New Mexico near the southeastern border indi-

cated a normal gradient. Later (1923) it was noted that oil-well tests being

JUNE 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 233

drilled in the Basin were running cool and that low gradients were to be

expected. The first instrumental proof of this fact was demonstrated in 1925,

and in 1926 a gradient in excess of one degree Fahrenheit for every 250 feet

of descent was obtained in Ward County, Texas. Other tests in West Texas

and southeastern New Mexico in the Basin continue to show low gradients,

and it is believed this condition extends westward beyond the saline boundary.

Also the Panhandle of Texas and western Oklahoma are known to run cool

and some temperatures in Iowa subnormal. In contradistinction, the Bend

Arch to the east of the Basin is warm and to the west of the Central Mineral

Region normal.

From an average of worldwide observations temperature gradients of 60

to 70 feet per degree Fahrenheit are considered normal. Lower gradients

may therefore be considered as subnormal and dependent on abnormal

influences. The present normal gradient is, to a degree, an arbitrary figure

and subject to the influence of additional investigations properly spaced in

accordance with the needs of the problem rather than of chance opportunity.

The Permian Basin is a region of sedimentary deposition in which halite and

anhydrite play a prominent part, also potash. Theories accounting for the

depression of the isogeotherms depend on sedimentation or structural

deformation; paleoclimatic conditions; radioactivity (8 ray of potassium) ;

chemical change—anhydrite-gypsum, secondary mineral changes, solution

reactions, etc.; radiation and heat conduction (halite); degrees of rock satura-

tion, etc., seem to be inadequate to a satisfactory explanation. There is

need for further reliable temperature measurements in order to outline the

subnormal area and to assign proper values to the factors that may have

causal relationship. Continued temperature measurements are in progress

with this end in view. (Author’s Abstract.)

JAMES GILLULY: A possible capture of one desert basin by another. The

geographic and hypsometric relations of Rush Valley and Tooele Valley,

Utah, together with the peculiar three stage dissection of Soldier Creek fan

while all the other fans of the valley show but two stages of dissection, are

interpreted as consistent with pre-Bonneville integration of the drainage of

Rush Valley with that of Tooele Valley. The peculiar channel form of

Rush Lake and its position between two of the largest fans in Rush Valley

are anomalies which are explicable on this hypothesis. Climatic fluctuations

or Bonneville wave erosion are shown to be impossible alternatives to this

hypothesis, and although earth movements could be conceived which would

explain the observed features, they are considered improbable.

It is concluded that drainage integration between separate basins may well

occur without access to the sea. (Author’s abstract.)

449TH MEETING

The 449th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club

February 27, 1929, President Capps presiding.

Program: Prof. Ricnarp M. FrE.p, of Princeton University: Observations

on the geological history of Yellowstone Park. Paper published in full in

Am. Journ. Sci. (17) 99. March, 1929.

C. 8. Ross: Origin of the magnetite and associated rocks of Cranberry, N. C.

The Cranberry iron mine lies in Avery County, in western North Carolina,

near the southwest border of the Cranberry folio and on the lower flank of a

spur of Roan Mountain. The inclosing rock is the Cranberry granite of

pre-Cambrian age.

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 11

The ore zone is made up of gneissoid rock composed of magnetite, horn-

blende, epidote, and other ferromagnesian minerals. This is cut by a pegma-

tite complex that branches and reunites in an intricate manner. The ores

appear to have been formed in two stages. The first produced lean magnetite

gneisses. Later these were intruded by pegmatite of normal composition,

i.e., microcline and quartz. This pegmatite was first invaded and partly

replaced by albite and quartz forming solutions and then by ferro-magnesian

solutions that introduced first epidotized feldspar, hornblende, hedenbergite

and finally magnetite. At the same time the lean magnetite gneisses were

further enriched by magnetite and the commercial ores produced. At a

later stage a very small amount of sulphides were introduced and calcite

formed.

A. A. Baker and J. B. Ressipe, Jr.: Some features of Permian sedimenta-

tion in northern Arizona and southern Utah. In San Juan Valley and a zone

north and south from it the Permian begins with a unit of interbedded marine

limestone and red beds, followed by several alternations of red beds and thick,

light-colored, cross-bedded sandstones. Various names have been applied.

Eastward these units pass into a similar basal unit and a thick series of

arkosic red beds, called Rico and Cutler formations, respectively. Westward

the units pass into the formations constituting the Grand Canyon section—

Supai red beds, Hermit red beds, Coconino sandstone, and Kaibab limestone.

Still farther westward few or no red rocks are present. The red beds seem to

have been derived chiefly from the east. The light-colored sandstones

seem to have come from both northwest and southeast. Kaibab limestone is

thickest in the west and fades into sandstone eastward. Over much of the

region the Permian is underlain conformably by Pennsylvanian limestone and

is overlain uncomformably by Lower Triassic beds. (Author’s abstract.)

A. A. BAKER and JAMES GILLULY, Secretaries.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Mr. Neit M. Jupp, Curator of American Archeology, U. 8. National Mu-

seum, left Washington in mid-May to join Doctor A. E. Douctuass, of the

University of Arizona, and Mr. Lynpon HarGRaAve, at Flagstaff, on an ar-

cheological reconnaissance of central Arizona in search of ruins from which

burned timbers might be recovered. The Museum of Northern Arizona, at

Flagstaff, Doctor Harold 8. Colton, Director, is codperating by loaning Mr.

Hargrave, who assisted Doctor Douglass in earlier beam studies at Hopi

villages and elsewhere in Arizona. The purpose of the present expedition,

under the auspices of the National Geographic Society, is to bridge the single

remaining gap in the tree ring chronology now being erected by Doctor

Douglass and by means of which most pre-Spanish ruins of the Southwest

can be absolutely dated. This season’s investigations are in continuation

of those conducted for the Society by Mr. Judd at Pueblo Bonito, New

Mexico, during the years 1920-1927.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Thursday, June 6. The Entomological Society

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent

to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

CONTENTS

Danae PAPERS:

OFFICERS OF "THE ACADEMY

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GRD i BR 3 eae

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Vou. 19 JUNE 19, 1929 No. 12

PALEONTOLOGY .—Shorter contributions to the paleontology of the

Eocene of northwestern Peru: I, Solitary corals. ITI, Brachwopods.

ITI, Foraminifer Gypsina.1. WiLLARD Brrry, Johns Hopkins

University. (Communicated by JoHn B. RexEsipz, JR.)

I, Souirary CORALS

It has been my good fortune to find two species of solitary corals

belonging to the genera Flabellum and Balanophyllia in a grayish-

brown gritty, caleareous sandstone near Calita Sal, Department of

Piura, Peru. Though these corals are not well enough preserved to

deserve a specific name they are worthy of record as an interesting

part of the fauna. I have correlated the sandstone with the Eocene

(probably upper Eocene) Saman conglomerate? because of the occur-

rence with the corals of the brachiopod Liothyrina perumana Olsson

and the foraminifera Orthophragmina (Discocylina) peruviana Cush-

man, O. (D.) salensis W. Berry, O. (Asteriacites) calita W. Berry, and

O. (Asterodiscocylina) stewarts W. Berry.

It is interesting to note in the Eocene of this area the occurrence of

solitary corals associated with the larger foraminifera and a brachiopod,

all forms usually considered indicative of fairly clear water. The

matrix is rather coarse, the grains attaining a maximum diameter of

1mm. There is, however, little evidence of sorting, for considerable

fine silt or mud is present in the sediments. Some of the cement is

calcareous and some of the specimens of Liothyrina perumana are

now geodes partly filled with calcite crystals.

1 Received April 13, 1929.

7A. Ippines and A. A. Otsson. Geology of northwestern Peru. Am. Assoc. Petr.

Geol. Bull. 12: 17. 1928.

A. A. Ousson. Contributions to the Tertiary paleontology of northern Peru, pt. 1,

Eocene Mollusca and Brachiopoda. Bull. Am. Paleont. 14 (52). 1928.

230

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

The two corals may be described as follows:

FLABELLUM sp. (Figs. 1, 2)

Corallum attached by a very short pedicle; shape cuneate, compressed;

no evidence of wing-like processes, nor of growth lines encircling the corallum.

Costae well developed but fine. Septa not clearly es as the entire central

portion of the corallum is obscured by matrix.

Greatest diameter, 14 mm.; least diameter, 8 mm. ; height of corallum,

12mm.

Figs. 1, 2.—Flabellum sp., X 3

Figs. 3, 4.—Balanophyllia sp., X 3

Locality: Near Calita Sal, Department of Piura, Peru.

Horizon: Saman conglomerate, Eocene.

I have not given this specimen a specific name because of the lack of

knowledge of the septa. In external appearance it may be compared with

F. cunetforme var. wailesi Conrad, of the Jackson and Vicksburg formations

in the Gulf Coastal Plain of the United States. However, the fossil presents

so few of the internal features that comparisons are of small value.

BALANOPHYLLIA SP. (Figs. 3, 4)

Corallum elongate, cornute, curved in the plane of the longer transverse

axis of the corallum. Costae fine, low, every second one more acute and larger

JUNE 19, 1929 BERRY: EOCENE FOSSILS FROM PERU 237

than the intervening one. Area of attachment small. Septa almost entirely

obscured by matrix.

Greatest diameter, 14 mm.; least diameter, 12 mm.; height of corallum,

16mm.

Locality: Near Calita Sal, Department of Piura, Peru.

Horizon: Saman conglomerate, Eocene.

I have not given this specimen a specific name because of lack of informa-

tion concerning the interior characters. It may be compared with B.

irrorata (Conrad) in the external features, but such a comparison has little

meaning.

II, BracHiopops

The gritty, brown sandstone near Calita Sal, Department of Piura,

Peru, has yielded four species of Brachiopoda, three of which appear

to be new. ‘The fourth is a species described originally by Olsson as

Liothyrina peruviana Olsson from the Saman conglomerate, probably

early upper Eocene.? With the Brachiopoda I found Nummulites

speciosa W. Berry, originally described from the Saman conglomerate

at Negritos, Peru, 50 miles south of Calita Sal, and several species of

Orthophragmina, also originally described from the Saman con-

glomerate.

Nowhere else in the extremely thick series of Tertiary sediments

found in northern Peru, so far as I know, are any brachiopods or

Orthophragmina found. In the overlying beds are found many

orbitoids, but these all belong to the large genus Lepidocyclina and

its subgenera.

The new Brachiopoda may be described as follows:

Terebratulina peruviana W. Berry, n. sp.

Figs. 1-4

Shell extremely minute, ovate, biconvex, rectimarginate; cardinal ex-

tremities slightly auriculate; test capillate, finely punctate. Beak suberect.

Foramen large, nearly circular, submesothyrid; deltidial plates disjunct;

pedicle collar short. Crura relatively long (poorly preserved), crural process

united by a fairly broad ribbon, making the loop into a ring. There is no

septum in the dorsal valve.

Length: 1 to 4 mm.; width: 1.25 to 3.5 mm.; thickness: 1 mm.

T. peruviana is somewhat like 7’. pectinoides v. Koenen, described from the

middle Oligocene of Germany,* but differs in the shape and size of the deltidial

plates and in the relative abundance of the ribs. It is here given specific

rank despite its small size, because if it were the young of a larger form there

should certainly be found some of the adult specimens. The only larger

brachiopod found in the formation belongs to another genus.

A.A. Ousson. Contributions to the Tertiary paleontology of northern Peru. Pt. 1.

Eocene Mollusca and Brachiopoda. Bull. Am. Paleont. 14 (52). 1928:

4 Abh. Geol. Specialkarte Preussen 10 (6). 1894.

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

Figs. 14.—Terebratulina peruviana W. Berry, n. sp. Dorsal aspect; 2, profile; 3, ventral aspect;

4, dorsal aspect of a very large specimen.

Figs. 5-9 —Argyrotheca peruviana W. Berry,n.sp. 5, Ventral aspect; 6, profile; 7, dorsal aspect;

8, view of cardinal area; 9, profile of Fig. 8.

Figs. 10-11.—Argyrotheca chica W. Berry, n.sp. 10, Dorsal aspect; 11, ventral aspect.

All figures X 124

JUNE 19, 1929 BERRY: EOCENE FOSSILS FROM PERU 239

Argyrotheca chica W. Berry, n. sp.

Figs. 10, 11

Shell minute, subrectangular to broadly oval; cardinal margin megathyrid;

valves biconvex, nearly smooth, the median line of both valves being occupied

by a sulcus on either side of which is one wide plication punctations rather

fine, very noticeable; growth lines show faintly. Rostrum short, subtruncate.

Foramen large, almost hypothyrid, incomplete; deltidial plates small,

trigonal; pedicle collar well developed and supported by a heavy median

septum which extends forward nearly to the middle of the valve. Crura

widely separated, loop long (very poorly preserved).

Length: 2-3 mm.; width: 3-4 mm.; thickness: 1.5-2 mm.

This species differs from the following in having fewer plicae, more variable

size of shell, and better development of the growth lines. I have concluded

that it is a distinct species because no larger specimens of the same genus are

found in the area.

Argyrotheca peruviana W. Berry, n. sp.

Figs. 5-9

Shell minute, subrectangular to transversely pentagonal; cardinal margin

megathyrid; valves biconvex, multiplicate, the median line of both valves

being occupied by a sulcus on either sides of which there are five rounded

plicae, those of the ventral side being better developed then those of the dorsal

side; punctations rather fine, very noticable. Rostrum short, subtruncate.

Foramen very large, submesothyrid, incomplete; deltidial plates small,

trigonal; pedicle collar well developed and supported by a median septum

which extends nearly to or even a little beyond, the middle of the valve.

Length: 2mm.; width: 3mm.; thickness: 1.5mm.

A. peruviana is somewhat like A. beecheri (Clark), described from beds at

Vincentown, New Jersey, long assigned to the Cretaceous but recently

placed in the Eocene. A. perwviana is smaller, has fewer plicae and much

finer punctations than A. beechert.

This is the first record of the genus in the Tertiary of South America and

it is interesting to note that it is found most abundantly in the European

Tertiary. There are about eleven species from North America and about

thirty from Europe.

III, ForRAMINIFER GYPSINA

During some years work on the Tertiary section of northern Peru I

found twelve specimens of a single species of Gypsina. The genus,

originally a part of Tinoporus (Monfort?) Carpenter and later

separated by Carter, contains about a dozen species rather widely

scattered geographically. It is found in the present-day seas, usually

in the shallow zones of both temperate and tropical areas and, accord-

ing to Brady, seldom below 400 fathoms. Cushman’ gives the range

J. A. Cusuman. Foraminifera, their classification and economic use, p. 330, 1928.

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

of Gypsina as Cretaceous to Recent. I have not been able, however,

to find any record which carries it beyond the Tertiary. The species

G. globulus (Reuss) has been described from the Miocene of Austria,

Hungary, Malta, and Jamaica; from the Pliocene of Costa Rica; and

the “Tertiary” of Palermo, Bordeaux, and San Domingo. The genus

has been considered a chiefly Miocene group and hence it is of interest

to describe a species from the Eocene. My material is from the gray-

brown, gritty sandstone at a local-

ity near Calita Sal, Department of

Piura, Peru, and is associated with

both large and small fossils typical

of the Saman conglomerate.

The new species may be de-

scribed as follows:

Gypsina peruviana W. Berry, n. sp.

(Figs. 1, 2)

Test small, spherical, apparently

free; exterior reticulate surface-cham-

bers opening directly to the outside;

walls caleareous. Chambers arranged

in radial columns, increasing in diam-

eter from the center to the periphery.

In the center the chambers are 19.5

microns in radial diameter and asmuch

in cross section, with walls 8 microns

thick; and they increase in size to 46

microns in radial diameter and 66

Figs. 1, 2.—Gypsina peruviana W. Microns in cross section, with walls

Berry, n.sp. 1, Cross section of large 15 microns thick, at the periphery

specimen, X 35. 2, Cross section of Of the averaged-size test. These

small specimen, X 35. radial columns of chambers each di-

vide into two at about 156 microns

from the center, at 234 microns, and again at 390 microns.

Diameter of test 0.9 to 1.67 mm.

G. peruviana may be compared to G. globulus (Reuss) in size and in general

character of the surface. The interior features, however, are distinctive,

particularly the bifurcation of the columns of chambers. In none of the

described forms is such afeature mentioned. The division produces a greater

number of chambers in a given circle than would be present if the columns

did not divide but continued to increase in size enough to maintain the

spherical form of the test.

JUNE 19, 1929 ROSCHEN: AMMONITE GENUS KARSTENIA 241 .

PALEONTOLOGY .—WNotes on the ammonite genus Karstenia Hyatt.!

Ernest C. H. Roscuen, Johns Hopkins University. (Com-

municated by Joun B. REESIDE, JR.)

The genus Karstenta was proposed by Hyatt? in 1908 (as Carstenia)

with Ammonites lindigit Karsten as genotype. Ina revision of the old

genus Pulchellia, Hyatt recognized two families, the Heinziidae, in-

cluding the genus Karstenia, and the Pulchelliidae. The Heinziridae

consisted of those forms in which the costae terminated at the venter

in a single or double row of tubercles, elongated in the direction of

coiling; and the Pulchelliidae included the highly compressed forms

with a very narrow, or closed umbilicus. At that time Hyatt stated.

that the new genus, Karstenia, is characterized in the early stages of

life by ‘‘coarse costae with double terminations becoming dichotomous

at the middle lateral line and having a line of nodes at their junctions.

These [nodes] are continued later on the single costae when these

appear.’ ‘The forms are stout, have a double row of outer tubercles

close together on the ventral line, and the ventral furrow is narrow in

young forms but later broadens and becomes similar to that of Pul-

chellia (= Gerhardtia Hyatt) galeatoides Karsten. In addition to the

genotype, Hyatt included in Karstenia the species Pulchellia caicedi

(Karsten), P. subcaicedi Sayn, P. galeata (D’Orbigny, not Von Buch),

and P. provincialis Gerhart (=Karstenia tuberculata Hyatt).

Douville? did not accept Hyatt’s division of the Pulchellirdae into

two families, nor did he consider Hyatt’s new genus Karstenia to be

of more than sub-generic importance. In a revision of the genus

Pulchellia in 1920 Gignoux! also did not accept the genus Karstenia

and placed Hyatt’s genotype, Pulchellia lindigt (Karsten), in a sub-

division of the Pulchellia, the group of Pulchellia s. s. (tuberculées

Gignoux), characterized by P. provincialis (D’Orbigny). In 1924

Collet® described a group of ammonites from the Barremian of Co-

lombia in which are strongly emphasized the characteristic differences

1 Received April 13, 1929.

2A. Hyatt. Pseudoceratites of the Cretaceous. U.S. Geol. Surv. Mon. 44: 133-134.

1903.

3H. Dovvitte. Evolution et classification des Pulchellidés. Bull. Soc. géol. France

11 (4): 285-320. 1911.

4W. Kiuiian, M. Gienoux, and others. Contributions a l’ étude des céphalopodes

paleocrétacés du Sud-Est de la France. Mém. Carte géol. France, pp. 135-166. Paris,

1920.

5L. W. Courter. Sur quelques ammonites du Barrémian de Colombie. Ecologae.

Geol. Helvetiae 18: 485-493. 1924.

. 242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

in the growth of Karstenia lindigt (Karsten) as compared with repre-

sentatives of true Pulchelha. He accepted Hyatt’s genus Karstenia

as valid.

This generic separation seems to be well founded, as the forms

belonging to the genus Karstenia have stout whorls throughout their

development and do not exhibit at any stage of growth the compressed

whorls characteristic of the ontogeny of Pulchellia. As remarked by

Collet, in the adult stages Karstenia lindigi (Karsten) converges to-

ward Pulchellia provincialis and P. galeatoides.

During the examination of a collection of ammonites from Ubaté,

Cundinamarca, Colombia, made by Dr. M. A. Rollot and presented by

him to the U. 8. National Museum, one well preserved specimen of

Karstenia lindigi (Karsten) was found in which the ontogeny of the

genus is admirably exhibited. The specimen presents an opportunity

for a more thorough description than Collet gave, and since the

validity of the genus has been doubted by most students of the

Pulchelliidae, it has seemed worth while to record in detail the features

exhibited by this specimen.

KKARSTENIA LINDIGI (Karsten)

1856. Ammonites lindigit Karsten. Uber die geognostischen Verhaltnisse

des westlichen Colombien, der heutigen Republiken Neu-Granada und

Eeuador. Amt. Ber. Naturf. Gesell. Wien, 32te Vers., 1856: 108.

(0) Nees Pn fe

1883. Pulchellia lindigi (Karsten). V. Uhlig. Die Cephalopoden der

Wernsdorfer Schichten. Denkschr. naturw. Classe. k. k. Akad. Wiss.

46: 125. pl. 20,f.6.

1886. Ammonites lindigii Karsten. H. Karsten. Géologie de l’ancienne

Colombie Bolivarienne, Vénézuela, Nouvelle-Grenade et Ecuador.

FEO). Oa Seria.

1903. Carstenia lindigi (Karsten). A. Hyatt. Pseudoceratities of the

Cretaceous. U.S. Geol. Surv. Mon. 44: 133-134.

1924. Carstenia lindigi (Karsten). L. W. Collet. Sur quelques ammonites

du Barrémien de Colombie. Eclogae Geol. Helvetiae 18: 488. ol.

15 p 1-6. 1924.

Shell attaining a size of about 80 mm.; moderately involute; whorls stout

and nephritic-subcircular in cross section; umbilicus wide and umbilical wall

moderately steep, umbilical angle decreasing slightly in each successive whor].

Costae heavy and beginning at the umbilical margin, alternating with costae

that arise on the sides slightly above the umbilical shoulder, the latter also

rarely starting near the umbilical margin; both separated by deep intercostal

furrows slightly narrower than the ribs; both possessing a double row of

nodes on each side of the venter; lateral nodes flattened ; ventral nodes promi-

nent and elongated in the direction of coiling accompanied by rapid widening

of the costae between the two rows of nodes; venter wide, ventral furrow

channeling the costae and rarely the intercostal furrows also.

JUNE 19, 1929 ROSCHEN: AMMONITE GENUS KARSTENIA 243

Figs. 1-4.—Karstenia lindigi (Karsten). U.S. N. M. cat. no. 73655

Figs. 5-6.—Pulchellia galeata (Von Buch). U.S. N.M. cat. no. 73656

“%

244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

At a diameter of 8 mm. the whorl height is about three-quarters of the

width; at 12 mm. it is slightly less than equal; at 19 mm. it is equal, and

thereafter gradually becomes slightly greater than the width. ‘The dimen-

sions are:

mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm.

Diameter: 8.0 12.0 19.0 29.0 44.0 76.0

Height of whorl: 3.7 6.3 9.0 13.5 20.0 31.5

Width of whorl: 4.5 6.5 9.0 13.0 18.0 28.5

At a diameter of 19 mm. the costae are seen beginning at the umbilical

margin, they bifureate on the sides slightly above the umbilical shoulder, the

junction being marked by a prominent node. Every third rib does not

bifurcate and does not possess a node near the umbilical shoulder. The ribs

are prominent and separated by intercostal furrows of slightly greater width

than the ribs themselves. The two rows of nodes at the venter are highly

protuberant. Ata diameter of 41 mm. the front branch of the dichotomous

costae has become independent of the rear branch; one rib, generally derived

from the front branch, beginning on the sides slightly above the umbilical

shoulder and alternating with the other rib, starting at the umbilical margin.

The ribs do not alternate on the two sides of the venter. The node at their

junction has disappeared and is represented by an elongated prominence on

the longer rib, this prominence gradually disappearing on the next whorl;

the inner row of nodes at the ventor-lateral margin is still protuberant, the

outer row has flattened appreciably, and the costae have become slightly

wider than the intercostal furrows. At a diameter of 79 mm. the vestigal

prominences at the point of bifurcation of the costae have disappeared

entirely, the nodes of the outer ventral row have become highly flattened

and the inner row is much less prominent. At this stage of growth the con-

vergence of Karstenia lindigi toward Pulchellia provincialis and P. galeatoides

is rather pronounced.

At a diameter of 43 mm. the suture is characterized by the presence of one

siphonal lobe and two lateral lobes. The siphonal lobe is approximately three

times as long as it is wide and is indented one-quarter of its length by a

U-shaped siphonal saddle. The first lateral saddle is twice as broad as deep.

It is divided by a prominent adventitious lobe into unequal halves, of which

the inner is slightly larger and broader than the outer. Each half is further

divided by one prominent small indentation, and several feebly developed

indentations. The first lateral lobe is three times as long as wide, and the

sides converge slightly from the base of the lobe to the blunt apex. The

second lateral saddle is shallow, a little deeper than broad. The second

lateral lobe is very small, about twice as long as wide and trifurcated. In

addition there are three small auxiliary lobes and saddles with slightly in-

dented outlines. The suture line, in general, is not deeply dissected.

Locality and horizon.—Barremian at Ubaté, Cundinamarca, Colombia.

(U. S. N. M. Mesozoic locality no. 10537, M. A. Rollot collection.)

The form and ornamentation of the specimen described are very similar to

those of the figured specimens of Karsten (pl. 3, fig. 3) and Collet (pl. 15,

figs. 1-6). In Karsten’s illustration the nodes at the point of bifurcation of

the costae occur further out from the umbilical shoulder, at approximately

JUNE 19, 1929 MAXON: DRYOPTERIS 245

the middle lateral line. Karsten’s illustration of Ammonites caicedi (pl. 3,

fig. 2) would indicate that this species is closely related to Karstenia lindigi.

It has a higher degree of involution than Karstenza lindigz, the ventral channel

is wider, the outer row of ventral nodes is less pronounced in specimens of the

same size, the nodes at the point of bifurcation of the costae are closer to the

umbilicus, the costae are heavier and broader, and the whorl section is more

compressed near the venter.

As previously remarked, the adult forms of Karsenia lindigi have the

general appearance of Pulchellia provincialis and P. galeatoides. However, in

these two species of the Pulchellia the ontogeny is characterized by the de-

velopment at some stage of compressed whorls that become gradually stouter,

whereas Karstenia lindigi is characterized by stout whorls that become

slightly compressed in the mature individuals.

The morphological features of the specimes of Karstenia lindigt examined

by the writer, as well as other specimens referred to the genus Karstenia by

other writers, do not justify the alienation of Hyatt’s family Heinziidae from

the family of the Pulchelliidae.

BOTANY.—A singular new Dryopteris from Colombia.1 WiLLIaAmM

R. Maxon, U. 8S. National Museum.

_ In the course of recent work upon South American ferns, the curious

_ Colombian plant (André 3497) here discussed was met with in material

from the herbaria of the Field Museum of Natural History, the New

York Botanical Garden, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. It

had been distributed as Aspidiwm munitum Kaulf. [Polystichum

munitum (Kaulf.) Presl, a Pacific coast species of temperate North

America], an identification suggested presumably by the polystichoid

form of the pinnae; but it belongs to the genus Dryopteris and is nearly

related only to a Colombian species, D. longicaulis (Baker) C. Chr.,

previously described and figured. It may be known as

Dryopteris cornuta Maxon, sp. nov.

Rhizome epigeous, slender and greatly elongate (15 cm. long in incomplete

material at hand), rampant or rigidly ascending, woody, 6-8 mm. thick,

deeply sulcate, light brown, lustrous beneath a dense covering of short

spreading griseous hairs, obliquely paleaceous, the scales loosely imbricate,

5-6 mm. long, subulate from a subcucullate thickened lance-triangular base ©

(here 1 mm. broad), broadly attached, bright brown, firm, rigidly griseous-

puberulous on the surfaces, similarly ciliate. Fronds few, alternate, rigidly

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived April 10, 1929.

246 JOURNAL

OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, NO.

Fig. 1—Dryopteris cornuta Maxon. Two-fifths natural size

JUNE 19, 1929 MACBRIDE: INTERNATIONAL BOTANICAL RULES 247

ascending, 60-65 cm. long; stipes 10-15 cm. long, 1.5-2 mm. thick, brown,

lustrous, very obliquely attached, appearing long-decurrent upon the rhizome,

griseous-puberulous, bearing a few scatteringscales ; blades nearly linear, 50-55

em. long, abruptly acuminate-caudate at apex, simply pinnate, 6-7 cm.

broad in the basal third, slightly narrowed at the rounded or abruptly acutish

base, only the basal pair of pinnae reduced (1.5-2 em. long), occasionally

subhastate; vestigial pinnae wanting; rachis similar to stipe, stoutish; pinnae

very numerous (about 52 pairs below the inciso-lobate apex), those of the

basal fourth opposite or subopposite, the others alternate, all distant, spread-

ing, upwardly faleate, linear, obtuse or acutish at tip, strongly inequilateral

at base, narrowly convex-cuneate below, deltoid-auriculate above, entire,

sessile, provided with a prominent dark indurate mammiform aerophore;

largest pinnae 3.5 cm. long, 6.5 mm. broad at middle; midribs stout, elevated

above, slightly so beneath, griseous-strigillose, as also the whole upper leaf

surface, the under side sparingly so; veins about 25 pairs in the largest pinnae,

very oblique, for the most part closely once-forked, each branch fertile about

midway to the margin, the sori thus appearing paired; vein of basal auricle

with 3-6 pairs of pinnately arranged branches, these similarly fertile; sori

small; indusia minute, brown, setulose, shriveling but persistent; sporangia

few, glabrous. Leaf tissue firm-herbaceous, dull brown, eglandulose.

Type in the herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, collected near

Altaquer, Colombia, May 23, 1876, by E. André (no. 3497). This is the best

of the three specimens above mentioned, and is the only one showing the

rhizome.

Allied closely to Dryopteris longicaulis (Baker) C. Chr., the original collec-

tion of which (Kalbreyer 1454) is known to me from Baker’s illustration?

and from fragments of the type kindly forwarded from Kew. Kalbreyer’s

specimen, from Antioquia, is the only one cited by Christensen in his Mono-

graph; but there is now at hand a second specimen, this collected at ‘‘La

Gallera,”’ Micay Valley, Department of El Cauca, Colombia, at 2,000—2,200

_ meters, July 1, 1922, by E. P. Killip (no. 7950), which matches the type per-

fectly. The species is evidently very rare.

Dryopteris longicaulis differs materially from D. cornuta in its several pairs

of remote, greatly reduced basal pinnae, its fewer and regularly lobed major

pinnae, its nearly glabrous under surface, its numerous veinlets, and its

subglabrous indusia, as well as in other less obvious characters.

BOTANY.—Shall the International Botanical Rules have the import of

law?! J. Francis Macsripe, Field Museum of Natural History.

(Communicated by Paun C. STANDLEY.)

In the recent appearance of three scholarly papers dealing with the

taxonomy of entirely unrelated plants, a contrast in interpretation of

2 Hook. Icon. P1.17: pl. 1658. 1886.

1 Received April 15, 1929.

248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

and respect for the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature is

presented that seems worth commenting upon, especially since it

emanates from four well-known botanists whose attitude toward these

Rules, which they ‘purport to follow, is of particular interest in view of

the impending International Congress.

One paper considers the case of Ophiopogon and aie another

Schmidel’s publication of Thelypteris,? and the third describes a new

species of Muhlenbeckiat and gives “‘the correct combination for an

old species.”’

The case of Ophiopogon is met decisively: the name Mondo is

shown to antedate Ophiopogon and to have been validly published;

accordingly the author concludes, since ‘‘the generic name is not re-

jected by the International Rules * * * its restoration is inescapable.”’

The fact that the plants are of increasing importance in horticulture,

though the author himself is a great horticulturist, has not influenced

his decision. His paper, in every sense, is an example of legal

publication.

Similar in intent is the article concerning the publication of Thely-

pteris, which the authors regard as properly published ‘‘by the state-

ments of the International Rules.’ Accordingly they use the name in

preference to Dryopteris but admit that “to have to resuscitate it, with

the ultimate necessity of scores or hundreds of new combinations, is

undoubtedly a misfortune; but is no greater misfortune than was the

exhumation of the equally disused Dryopteris, from the ‘dust of

synonyms,’ with the resultant 500 new combinations of the Index

Filicum alone.’’ ‘This seems to be specious reasoning—to show that

this case is not similar to that of Ophiopogon it will be argued briefly—

inasmuch as the 500 new combinations have already been made and

therefore the continued use of Dryopteris, if it can be done legally,

would avoid the addition of them to synonomy and the coining of 500

more names, all (at least theoretically) potential synonyms! In

this instance it would seem that the authors, working under what has

been aptly termed ‘‘the spirit of the International Rules,” might have

been content with their statement of the respective merits of the case

for and against Vhelypteris (according to their interpretation of the

Rules), deferring new publication, since disagreement of authorities as

to its validity is well known. Incidentally it may be remarked that its

2 Gentes Herbarum 2: 1-37. 1929.

3 Rhodora 31: 21-27. 1929.

* Contrib. Gray Herb. 81: 67-86. 1928.

JUNE 19, 1929 MACBRIDE: INTERNATIONAL BOTANICAL RULES 249

acceptance by Drs. Nieuwland and Slosson, who work under another

code, is surprisingly cited as a determining factor in the authors’ own

acceptance! At any rate, the case of Thelypteris and Dryopteris isan

outstanding example of a nomenclatorial problem not clearly to be

settled without resort to conservation. Many names have been con-

served with less reason or in less ‘‘justice.”’

How different is the situation in regard to Mondo (Ophiopogon).

Mondo is shown indubitably to have been published validly, and so the

author ‘‘takes it up,’”’ no doubt expecting that other workers under the

International Rules will adopt it as he has, legally and in good faith,

unless it can be shown that through error or misinterpretation his

action actually does not conform to the rules followed. Possibly,

or at least practically, it may have been his privilege to postpone

publication under the legal name Mondo until a Congress could con-

serve Ophiopogon, but evidently, as a matter of course, he reached his

own decision, based on the definite pronouncements of previous

Congresses. A few botanists® think that it should definitely be made

legal to leave such matters, at the discretion of the individual, to the

action of a succeeding Congress. A special ruling on this, however,

scarcely appears to be necessary, since the legality of names such as

Layia versus Blepharipappus and Thelyptertis versus Dryopteris,

which can be settled only by special law anyway, will automatically be

decided eventually, and those working in the spirit of the International

Rules will naturally defer publication involving questionable name-

changes until a Congress acts. Others will not do so in any event;

but unless their case is clearly within the law it will have no permanent

standing. ‘The ruling proposed, applicable to the status of a validly

published name like Mondo, would, therefore, only weaken the Rules

and serve as an entering wedge of disapproval for individuals with some

persona] dislike for accepting a given name, even though taken up

legally.

But the third author—to return to the consideration of the legal

status of the three matters referred to at the beginning of this paper—

has lapsed in his long-evident desire, as shown by his other (and

meritorious) publications, to follow the International Rules. He

publishes a new species under the name Muhlenbeckia and makes a new

combination (with this name) which he even calls ‘‘correct,’’ although

cognizant of the recent restoration of an earlier and valid generic

name. Can such disregard for the International Rules be justified?

’ Candollea 2: 515-519. 1926.

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

It violates Articles 15 and 50. It substitutes individual preference

forlaw. Itiseven contrary to the spirit of the International Rules, for

no explanation is vouchsafed of the modification to suit personal fancy.

The author thus cloaks his violation with the apparent excuse of ig-

norance. ‘The consequences of such independent action by individuals

purporting to work under the International Rules may become serious.

As one botanist recently inquires pertinently, ‘‘and supposing that

the desired alterations in the Rules are eventually made, dothey expect

their fellow botanists to accept them, when they themselves have set

the example of departing from the present Rules?” The botanical

congress at which the Rules were drawn up with wisdom added

finally Article 58.

The case of Ophiopogon and the case of Muhlenbeckia are exactly

parallel examples involving nomenclatorial changes in accord with

law. The author who considers the first also deals with the second,

and necessarily rejects Muhlenbeckia as he rejects Ophiopogon. Is

his work invalidated because someone has (or may have) suggested

that one or both names be conserved? At what particular date from

Congress to Congress do such suggestions have the force of law? Is

a legal name-change illegal because it happens to be made two or

three years before a Congress meets, or just what zs the term of the

blank period for the functioning of International Botanical law?

Perhaps the nomina conservanda likewise are no longer conserved

during this time, and verily one should publish warily. (The situation

could become even more complex.) And finally, do the International

Rules cease to operate when the plants considered are cultivated, and,

if so, grown to what extent? In the case of Muhlenbeckia at least, any

anxiety felt for one species often cultivated has been dispelled by the

creation, with good reason, of a separate genus for it—so it has to be

known by another name, after all. Or perhaps one should not let

scientific considerations change the name of any cultivated plant—a

‘distressing’ necessity to some, apparently, to be thwarted at all odds.

But the merit of taking up the earlier and valid names for Ophiopogon

and Muhlenbeckia is, after all, of incidental interest; the important

fact remains that, as these names have been restored legally, other

botanists, even if they feel the restoration ill-advised, may be expected

to support it. If compliance with the law, where the working of the

law is perfectly clear as in these cases, cannot be taken for granted, one

may well ask if the Rules are more than a scrap of paper. ‘What

useful purpose is served by departure from the Rules,?” the botanist

JUNE 19, 1929 MACBRIDE: INTERNATIONAL BOTANICAL RULES 251

quoted above has inquired. ‘If the intention is to bring about their

amendment, would not a detailed statement of the case be equally

effective?’’®

The rather amazing theory has been advanced by some in recent

years that botanical law is not to be modified or extended. Rather it

it is of paramount importance that it shall not be changed by the

individual as a law unto himself. And if the Rules are to be regarded

with increasing respect, any alteration ought to be made only by a

representative group of taxonomists chosen for the purpose and not by

a heterogeneous crowd of ‘‘botanists’’ many of whom, as members of

distantly related and highly restricted fields, naturally enough can have

no proper understanding of the taxonomic problems involved, perhaps

quite unaware that permanent stability in nomenclature can never

result from ill-considered arbitrary action. This, perhaps, is an un-

reasonable hope if one is to judge from the names signed to a recently

distributed protocol proposing emendation of the Rules. One may

well wonder how much experience and knowledge was back of the

majority voting there recorded! ‘There are many “border-line cases”’

subject to different interpretations, and the responsibility for their

settlement necessarily rests upon such a Congress or its committee.

To mention only a few names besides Thelypteris and Dryopteris, there

are Gerardia and Stenandrium, Allocarya and Maccoya, Parosela and

Dalea, and perhaps, in the minds of some, Nymphozanthus and Nuphar.

None of these cases is exactly similar to another. Parosela has

technical standing and the necessary name-changes have been made,

but to some its standing is not clear. Allocarya has no legal standing,

but no transfers to Maccoya have been made, so the acceptance of the

latter by any botanist, this being legal, would make it a case equivalent

to those of Ophiopogon and Muhlenbeckia, and to conserve it arbitrarily

after the transfers have been made would serve no useful purpose and

be analogous to locking the door after the horse has been stolen.

Nymphozanthus, apparently, is valid and it is highly to the credit of

the author who restored it, according to law, that he had the courage

of his convictions. He did not evade the law and thereby create dis-

respect for it. This case is an excellent example of an unfortunate

name restored by the working of established law. It is very question-

§ Certain provisions, probably transitory and mostly minor, that in the name of good

taste or judgment are regularly ignored or violated, even as in civic law, will scarcely

be cited by any but a narrow mind in trying to refute the correctness of my general

premise.

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

able, however, if any subsequent Congress should interfere in this or

any other case in which the law has been clearly observed, certainly:

rarely. Even if modern botanical law is in the process of formulation,

surely we cannot at will strike out the very fundamentals of it, when a

name or an action in which it results displeases us, and still have any

firm foundation upon which to build. Otherwise we may well ask

ourselves if it is our intent to stifle or to stimulate individual effort.

We shall accomplish only the former if a few, powerful by connection

and connection’s tradition, can violate adopted law and have their

action accepted. Simply because there are troublesome and ‘un-

fortunate” cases, often involving large genera, is disrespect for the

International Rules to be encouraged by unnecessary conservation,

thus condoning disobedience to the law when the law has clearly

sanctioned, if not demanded, generic and specific changes? Shall, for

example, Celmisia be conserved for Hlcismia because known in cul-

tivation or for any other reason, though dozens of new names have

already been made in good faith legally? ‘‘The name has not been

mentioned in the lists of nomina conservanda or nomina rejicienda so it

(Celmisia) must take its course under the rules of priority,’’ wrote this

sincere and careful follower of the Rules in 1913. So, likewise, shall

Berlinia be permitted to supplant the earlier Westia, the restoration

having been made, or Bassta—Madhuca; Ophiopogon—Mondo; or

Muhlenbeckia—Calacinum? (Many examples could be found that

would be associated with most of the active taxonomists of the

world).

Of course, the answer most emphatically for every seeker of stability

in nomenclature and for every sincere supporter of the International

Rules is “No!” Let the coming Congress, then, concern itself rather

with the many moot questions that truly require congressional con-

sideration, and take extra-legal action in settling them only after most

cautious and careful analysis of all contributing factors, so that respect

for already established law may not be further endangered.

PALEOBOTANY.—A palm nut of Attalea from the upper Eocene of

Florida.1. Epwarp W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

The specimen to be described comes from the Ocala limestone, which

is a soft, white to yellowish, porous limestone underlying considerable

areas in western and peninsular Florida. It was long thought to be of

1 Received April 13, 1929.

JUNE 19, 1929 BERRY: EOCENE ATTALEA FROM FLORIDA 253

Oligocene age but Cooke? showed in 1915 that it was beneath the

Vicksburg in western Florida, and that it was represented beneath the

Vicksburg in Alabama and Mississippi by the upper part of the

Jackson of those two states. The history of the term Ocala and its

interpretation is given in some detail in the paper cited.

The Ocala is a typical shallow, clear-water, marine deposit, carrying

a large fauna which includes Basilosaurus (Zeuglodon) and numerous

orbitoid foraminifera. So far as I know no fossil plants have been

recorded in the Ocala, as might be expected from its character, al-

though it doubtless contains some drift wood to which no one has paid

any attention. Recently Mr. Herman Gunter, State Geologist of

Florida, sent me the calcified palm nut which forms the subject of the

the present note. This nut was picked up on the eroded surface of

the Ocala limestone, and both its identity and the character of its

preservation indicates that it undoubtedly was weathered from that

formation. The exact locality is 23 miles northeast of Williston,

Levy County, on the property of the Florida Shell Rock Company.

The specimen proves to be a new species of an existing tropical

American genus of palms, hitherto unknown as a fossil, and of con-

siderable interest for a variety of reasons. Since only the type speci-

men is known this has not been sacrificed in an endeavor to ascertain

what, if any, of the internal structure has been preserved. It may be

incompletely described from its external features as follows:

Attalea gunteri Berry, n. sp.

Figs. 1, 2

Nut sub-sperhical or slightly turbinate, broadly rounded above with a

faint apical pole, narrowing slightly below the middle to the truncated base.

Sub-symmetrical in form. Nearly circular in transverse profile and evi-

dently borne with others in a loose cluster in life. Peduncle scar large and

central. Substance consisting of longitudinal fibres, of which some are larger

and more higly sclerotized than the ground mass. Length 3.2 centimeters.

Diameter about 2.5 centimeters.

It would, of course, be highly desirable to confirm the external re-

semblance of the fossil to the modern fruits of Attaleaby some informa-

tion as to the number of contained seeds, but this is impossible without

sacrificing the specimen. The only genus which I regard as possibly

liable to confusion with Attalea is the genus Elaeis of Jacquin, a small

genus ranging in the modern flora from Costa Rica to the Amazon

2C.W.Cooxe. The age of the Ocala limestone. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 95:

107-117. 1915.

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

and equatorial west Africa. In Elaeis the largest fruits are consider-

ably smaller than the fossil.

The existing species of Attalea number between 25 and 30, and range

from Central America and the Antilles to the Amazon Basin, and along

the eastern Andes to Bolivia. Its fruits are readily transported for

short distances by ocean currents, although it is not especially a

coastal type, and it might readily have been introduced into south-

eastern North America during the upper Eocene by that means. That

the genus was actually a member of the upper Eocene flora of Florida,

and that the fossil does not represent a stray drift-fruit from elsewhere

which was stranded on the Florida coast I regard as highly probable.

Figs. 1, 2.—Side and proximal views of Attalea gunteri Berry, n.sp., natural size,

from the Ocala limestone of Florida.

This is indicated by the perfect condition of the fossil, which shows no

signs of abrasion, maceration, incrustation or attacks of marine

organisms, and also by the fact that the upper Eocene floras of south-

eastern North America? are the most tropical that are known from this

area,

One feature of interest in connection with the finding of a fruit of

Attalea in the marine Ocala is the abundance of palm remains in the

more littoral deposits of Jackson age in Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky,

Louisiana and Texas. The genera Phoenicites, Thrinax, Sabalites,

Nipadites, Palmocarpon, and Palmoxylon have been recognized in

beds of this age in the states mentioned. The last mentioned genus,

Palmoxylon, is a form genus based on petrified palm wood. Two

species of Palmoxylon have been described from the Jackson and more

are probably represented, silicified palm wood being so abundant in

3 See the account of the Jackson flora in Epwarp W. Berry, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.

Paper 92. 1924.

JUNE 19, 1929 COBB: FEATURES OF DRACONEMA CEPHALATUM 255

the upper Jackson of Louisiana that the Indians used it as a source of

material for their stone implements.

Although no fossil species of Attalea have hitherto been recorded,

the genus was in existence at this time, as is attested by quantities

of fruits of a species of Attalea which I have from the late middle Eocene

of northwestern Peru. ‘The native genera of palms in the modern flora

of Florida are Thrinax, Coccothrinax, Sabal, Serenoa, Roystonea, and

Pseudophoenix, all of which have small drupaceous or berry-like fruits,

entirely unlike the fossil form.

The present species should be readily recognized if encountered by

future collectors, a contingency much to be hoped for, since it will

enable sections to be cut, and thus verify or disprove the present

identification based upon the external features.

ZOOLOGY .—The ambulatory tubes and other features of the nema

Draconema cephalatum.t N. A. Coss, U. 8S. Department of

Agriculture.

There is no adequate published description of the locomotion of

Draconema and its numerous marine relatives; very few persons have

ever witnessed one of these nemas perambulating its natural sub-

stratum.

Draconema moves much after the manner of the ordinary inchworm,

or measuring worm. ‘The caterpillar called the “inchworm”’ has two

bunches of feet, a bunch near each extremity. Standing on the bunch

of hind feet, it stretches forward and takes hold with the front bunch.

Then, releasing the hind bunch, it draws the body forward into a loop

so that the posterior bunch may attach itself near the front one.

Loosening the front bunch, the caterpillar again stretches forward,

etc.

It is convenient to speak of the two attachment organs of the adult

Draconema as “soles.” The method of attachment of these soles to

the substratum in Draconema is very different from that of the inch-

worm. ‘The sole of Draconema is armed with projecting hollow setae

connected with internal glands supplying a sticky and, presumably,

non-water-soluble secretion, and it is by the aid of this secretion

emerging from ends of the hollow setae that the sole is attached.

*Epwarp W. Berry. Pan-Amer. Geol., 45: 273-276. 1926.

1 Received May 2, 1929.

256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

~ X* 200 Sel [rt

int

HUD REO fitch mcg | N&R Ug

Fig. 1.—Male Dra-

Vi conema cephalatum, ‘

Ve ae showing the two soles AME

SUM ed armed with ambula- a

ye tory setae. One of “7m? \

the setae is shown W pint

+ below more highly — UN

~~... gmt magnified, set amb. -

The labial sole is very

much the smaller.

Mille i

; Arn aN

sir vere amph wel uh(6) “sel amb

ms... te cae min A glance at Fig. 1 will enable the reader

ae at once to understand the posterior ‘‘sole”’

of Draconema cephalatum. It is of con-

yme siderable extent, occupying most of the

posterior fifth of the ventral surface of the

body, and is characterized by very obvious,

longitudinal groups of curved ventrad

setae.

The much smaller anterior sole is very

near the front of the head on the dorsal

“sf side, and is characterized by setae, smaller

than, but similar to, those of the other

al ms’ tm tst

CUE SUD. cevenvre cient ERE

sole.

set amb % , 5

/, The main sole-—Favorably stained speci-

| 7.3 340.7

a, mens exhibit the structure of the am-

(I «4 um) Dulatory adhesion tubes, as well as of the

| associated multicellular ventral glands ar-

ranged in a long ventral group opposite to

gistand a little in front of the major sole.

Each adhesion tube connects, at its base,

a with a duct that leads to a separate gland.

y ~”$ The anterior pair may be taken as typical

of any group-member of this compact

7 Composite series of glands (see Figs. 1 and

2). This anterior pair is sometimes more

‘distinctly separated from the general mass

?” of the glands than are any of the subsequent

JUNE 19, 1929 COBB: FEATURES OF DRACONEMA CEPHALATUM 257

pairs or groups; and each of these two glands proves to have three nuclei.

(See Fig. 2.) The cells of each gland, as well as their spheroidal

nuclei, increase in size from front to back, the anterior, i.e., distal,

cell having less than one-eighth the volume of the posterior; the

nucleus in the small anterior cell is also less conspicuous. ‘This group

(pair) of glands is more or less clavate in form and is nearly as long as

the corresponding body diameter. Posteriorly, each gland diminishes

suddenly in diameter to form a duct about half as wide as one of the

adjacent annules of the cuticle. Near the gland the wall of the duct

contains somewhat elongated nuclei of considerably smaller size than

the nuclei of the glands. The duct also lacks the

granular character of the glandular cells themselves.

The two ducts, at first ventral, diverge backward

to the two foremost adhesion tubes, and are one to

two times as long as the glands. Near where a duct

enters the somewhat swollen base of an adhesion

tube, there is a small duplex enlargement or ampulla.

In the specimens under examination, only in the very

basal portion of the adhesion tube is there any

indication of the staining action of the acid carmine.

The numerous glands composing this ventral

series are so closely packed together that, as a rule,

it is difficult to distinguish the exact number of

groups, but it is evident that throughout the series

the glands are arranged in groups side by side,

apparently mostly in pairs or quartets, the number

of glands being commensurate with the number of

adhesion tubes. On occasions when the entire

group of glands is slightly separated from the body

wall, and therefore from the bases of the adhesion

tubes, the ducts leading to the tubes are distinctly

visible, and have the appearance, when viewed

laterally, of a rather complicated plexus.

The minor, or cephalic, sole—The dozen or so

adhesion tubes and glands of the cephalic sole have

the same general plan as the sublateral and sub-

ventral ones of the posterior sole just described.

The glands connected with the cephalic tubes

Lem gl. dl gli)

a yf) gh)

det xt.

amp

t.. ff... mur som

N\ os ann aut

mur int.

murexte. ......ff ast

cpstrm. ...€0 x80

Fig. 2.—Anterior

ambulatory seta of

D.cephalatum with

its 3-celled gland,

its 3-celled mate

concealed, though

part of its duct

shows,—dct_ snst.;

som, body wall; cl

msc, somatic mus-

cle; an cut, cuticu-

lar annules; mur

ext and mur tint,

outer and inner

walls of ambula-

tory tube; os tb,

secretory pore.

(gl. plnt) are located mainly dorsad in the anterior two-fifths of the

neck between the oesophagus and the body-wall; there are two dorsally

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

sublateral groups of glandular cells and four subdorsal groups, cor-

responding to a similar grouping of the six pairs of adhesion tubes.

The glands of the cephalic sole are sometimes rather more strongly

stained than those of the posterior sole in the same specimen, but

present the same general anatomical and histological structure.

Referring to the dorsally sublateral cervical glands as examples (see

Fig. 1), these are distinctly granular in structure and apparently

duplex, that is, have a well marked constriction near the middle, on

opposite sides of which, fore and aft, is a considerable volume of

nuclear (?) matter; the remaining portion of the cells is rather coarsely

granular, the granules measuring nearly lu in diameter. This duplex

glandular mass is half as long as the neck and anteriorly tapers to a

tubular portion not much wider than one of the cervical annules.

This narrow portion of the gland in turn tapers to a very narrow duct

about 2u in diameter, which swells to form a fusiform duplex ampulla

as wide as one of the coarser cervical annules. The ampulla empties

forward through a short narrow duct, 1 to 2 » wide, directly into the

base of the corresponding adhesion tube, where a little stained matter

may usually be seen. The adhesion tubes reach exactly to the lips,

so that their outpour is practically terminal. All these details are —

shown on a small scale in Fig. 1.

The distal extremity of the ambulatory tube is somewhat bell-

shaped, and the lumen of the tube is prolonged into the cavity of the

bell through a short conoid extension. The significance of this bell-

shaped structure remains more or less problematical. No elements

have been seen in the tube, or in the bell, that could be regarded as

contractile, and one therefore seems obliged to assume that whatever

changes of form are exhibited by this bell-shaped structure are due to

such factors as its own elasticity, the pressure of the internal secretion

and counter pressure of the external water. It would seem advan-

tageous to the nema if the secretion which flows out through the bell-

shaped organ could be ‘‘eut off” at will, and it is conceivable that this

bell-shaped affair in some way accomplishes that end. Again, it is

conceivable that the bell may mechanically give to the end of the tube

a greater adhesiveness, conceivably through suction,—a suction that

might be made to vary with the relationship of the distal end of the

tube to the substratum, as in the familiar elastic concave rubber

suction disc.

The facts that the setae of the inner rows are always the shorter,

and that all the setae are incurved, suggest that a suitable substratum

may be a microscopic filament, or a thin edge of something. This

JUNE 19, 1929 COBB: FEATURES OF DRACONEMA CEPHALATUM 259

thought arises from the fact that the main sole appears ‘“‘bow-legged,”’

as it were. Such apparently suitable thin and narrow forms of sub-

stratum occur on certain marine algae and, as a matter of fact, at

least two observers—Cobb and Chambers—have seen Draconema per-

ambulating the surface of algae.

In balsam specimens from Hudson Bay the body-wall tissues sur-

rounding the mouth-opening have a golden yellow color and take on the

form of a six-parted, but twelve-pointed, star.

Probably the excretory pore is at the lips. I formerly referred to a

cell just behind the cardia as possibly representing the renette; this

suggestion may not be well founded. In this region I observe two of

these cells lying side by side in subventral position (see Fig. 1), sepa-

rated by a small space. In the same latitude, just behind the minute

cardiac cavity, on each side of the intestine, there is a rather compact

group of granular cells containing about a dozen nuclei. These groups

are as long as the corresponding body diameter, and about half as wide

as long. Between the two groups, on the dorsal side, there is a pair of

subdorsal granular cells rather closely resembling the subventral ones

just described. As to the function of these lateral groups of cells, it

seems not impossible,—as they are free at their posterior ends and seem

connected with the intestine anteriorly,—that they may be special

glands associated with digestion. There is a similar pair of lateral

groups of cells in front of the cardia, emptying (?) backward. I do

not think the possibility is excluded that some of these cells are nerve

cells.

The intestine is composed of cells of such a size that about six are re-

quired to complete a circumference. The thin refractive lining is hardly

1 » thick. The cardia, as usual, presents a distinct group of closely

packed nuclei, indicating that it is composed of cells of rather small

size, of which the number is probably about fifteen to twenty. Notable

is the presence of scattered cells in the wall of the intestine which stain

differently from their neighbors. These, no doubt, discharge some

special function. Thus far they have been observed only in the an-

terior portion of the intestine.

The portion of the neck opposite, and adjacent to, the oesophageal

constriction, except such portion as is occupied by the glands of the

minor sole, is rather closely packed with nerve cells.

The lateral fields are one-third as wide as the body and contain

a considerable number of nuclei rather irregularly arranged.

The cuticle in the posterior region of the tail is traversed by ra-

dial elements that give rise to a finely punctate appearance on

the surface (see Fig. 1).

260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

An interesting observation is the apparent connection of the tandem

group of three caudal glands with the dorsal field by means of a narrow

strand running forward, possibly of a nervous character, as is sug-

gested: 1, by its form and position; 2, by its size and structure.

The internal extremity of the gubernaculum lies near the body axis

and is connected fore and aft with the ventral body-wall by slender

strands of muscular tissue. ‘The testis is now believed to be reflexed,

not outstretched as formerly figured.

The broad, rapidly tapering ovaries,—the anterior lying to the right,

the posterior to the left,—are reflexed to nearly opposite the vulva and

contain comparatively few ova, arranged in single file in the wider

part, elsewhere irregularly. Hundreds of subspherical sperm cells

may occur in the uterus. Usually there is one egg at a time in the

uterus, thin shelled and smooth, and deposited before segmentation

begins. The eggs are three-fourths as wide as long and about two-

thirds as long as the corresponding body diameter.

Some of the results of the present investigation have been more or

less definitely forecast by various observers on several occasions,

notably by Steiner and Irwin-Smith, both of whom from inadequate

material, have, with admirable insight, suggested the probable con-

nection of the adhesion tubes with internal structures and also the

possibility of the glandular nature of these latter.

While no doubt now remains that both the major and minor soles

are glandular and are organs of locomotion, it still seems to me quite

doubtful whether we fully understand the bodily structure of Dra-

conema. ‘The form of the head and neck and other parts do not seem

to be explained merely on the basis of the use of these two ‘‘sticky”’

soles in locomotion. There probably are other unknown factors play-

ing a part in the activities of Draconema that will further explain its

highly peculiar and interesting structure.?

* Nomenclature. The proposal of the genus Draconema in 1913 appears reasonable

in view of the fact that at that time the published descriptions of the species belonging

to its family, though in no case as complete as desirable, indicated the existence of two

(or more) genera, the type species of one of which should be that originally named by

Claparéde Chaetosoma ophiocephalum 1863 (not Chaetosoma Westwood, 1851, Cole-

optera). Draconema cephalatum, was then, and continues to be, thought generically

different from Claparéde’s ophiocephalum. The name Chaetosoma, being preémpted,

should be replaced by its synonym Notochaetosoma Irwin-Smith 1917. Should the opin-

ion prevail that all the described forms of the family belong to one genus, then the

oldest synonym for Chaetosoma would be Draconema, and should be substituted. In

that event, the family name would naturally become Draconematidae; in any case, it

seems likely that Draconema is a better representative of the group than the only other

genus so far proposed, Notochaetosoma.

Draconema cephalatum is cosmopolitan, and seems to have been described by several

different authors under as many different specific names, e.g., annulatum Ditlev.,

haswelli Irwin-Smith, hibernicum Southern.

JUNE 19, 1929 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 261

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. Witu1AM Bowls, Chief of the Division of Geodesy of the U.S. Coast and

Geodetic Survey, and Comdr. N. H. Heck, Chief of the Division of Terrestrial

Magnetism ahd Seismology of the same bureau, have been elected alumni

members of the Sigma Xi Chapter at Lehigh University.

Dr. F. 8. Brackett has joined the Smithsonian Institution to undertake

studies in the correlation between wavelengths and intensities of radiation

and the growth of plants, and also fundamental investigations of the chemical

relations of radiation such as may throw light upon the problem of so-called

photosynthesis. Dr. O. R. Wutr, of the Fixed Nitrogen Research Labora-

tory, isalso associated with the Institution in the study of methods of meas-

urement of ultra-violet rays useful for the prevention and cure of rickets

in human beings and animals.

Dr. C. U. Cuark, formerly assistant professor at Yale University, will

undertake for the Smithsonian Institution, beginning in September, research

in the archives of Spain with reference to documents and artifacts relating to

the aborigines of the Americas and more particularly the Mayas and Toltecs

of Central America.

The U.S. National Museum has received the large and valuable collection

of Lepidoptera of the Brooklyn Museum as a permanent deposit. This

deposit has been made because of a change of policy on the part of the Brook-

lyn Museum, which will devote its facilities entirely to exhibit collections.

There are included in the collection some 66,000 specimens, of which 650

are types.

Dr. J. M. Atpricu, Associate Curator of the Division of Insects of the

National Museum is in Europe for the purpose of examining muscoid types

at several museums and of making collections in northern Norway and

Sweden, particularly of Diptera, for comparison with similar forms occurring

in the northern part of North America.

Mr. Cart Heryrica, of the Bureau of Entomology, is in Guatemala in-

vestigating a reported occurrence of the corn-borer.

The National Museum has recently acquired, through the Roebling Fund,

a large cone-shaped iron meteorite weighing 1060 pounds from the Zuni

Mountains, 40 miles south of Grants, New Mexico.

Dr. J. W. Gipey, of the Division of Vertebrate Paleontology of the National

Museum, has recently returned from Melbourne, Florida, where he continued

excavations in connection with his study of the Pleistocene fauna and evidence

of early man. Mr. C. W. Gitmore, Curator of the same Division of the

Museum, is in charge of a party collecting Upper Cretaceous vertebrates in

the San Juan Basin, northwest New Mexico.

Dr. R. Enpo, of the Educational College, South Manchuria Railroad,

Moukden, has recently arrived at the National Museum with collections of

Lower Paleozoic fossils that he plans to study during the next two years.

262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 12

Dr. F. H. H. Roperts, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, will make

during the summer a reconnaissance in the Zuni area of New Mexico and will

excavate a series of early Pueblo ruins 60 miles west of the modern pueblo

of Zuni. Dr. J. N. B. Hewirt, of the same Bureau, is in Canada for the

purpose of completing his ethnologic and linguistic studies relating to the

League of the Iroquois and to complete translations of certain Chippewa texts.

Dr. Luciano J. Moraus of the Geological Survey of Brazil, has spent

some weeks in Washington in a study of the organization of geologic work

in the federal bureaus, museums, and other institutions.

Dr. GrorcEe P. Merrit, Head Curator of Geology at the U. 8. National

Museum, was the honor guest at a dinner given by his friends and associ-

ates on the occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, May 31, 1929. C. G.

AxBport, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution presided and brief ad-

dresses were made by Drs. Marcus A. BEeNsAmIN, L. O. Howarp, H. 8.

Wasuineton, and H. W. Winey. Miss Marcaret Moopey presented to

Dr. Merrill a volume containing letters of congratulation from some 160

friends. Dr. Merrill has been connected with the National Museum since

1881.

FRANK REEVES, of the U.S. Geological Survey, is on leave for the period

May 15 to December 15, 1929, to engage in private work for an oil company

in Canada.

Obituary

Carry V. Hopason, geodesist of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and a

member of the AcADEMy, was drowned May 20, 1929, during a storm on

Chesapeake Bay. He was born at Wilmington, Ohio, July 11, 1880, attended

Wilmington College and Haverford College, Ohio, and shortly after his

graduation in 1904 joined the Coast and Geodetic Survey. He became

assistant chief of the division of Geodesy in 1920 and served in that capacity

since. During the war he was a major in the Corps of Engineers and saw

service overseas. His chief interest was in geodetic astronomy and surveying.

vue ee ee

Paleontology.—Notes on the ammonite genus Karstenia Hyatt. Hot oe

sey A ciueilax ig Depiplonic bak Clown, Ais en

ees —A palm nut of 4 Attalea from the upper Easene of Florida. Bowanp ‘i

fp eb Oy er Pe ates Og oe Guid ae Pie get

ins, NEA. COBB Sikhs sadist 6 Shs MERE ie ON ee OE OSS Loa oat aeany eRe a

Berit ric NOres AND NEWS. i oie. 0s ok he dp dayne een ey odin Rani SCS

Onrmwany: Carey ¥, Hodgson tin 2... <0, 5h ees uss chee lies an nie coh meen Sane

This JovrNat is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals to be found in public libraries.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY,

President: AteS HrouiéKa, U. 8. National Museum.

Corresponding Secretary: La. B. TucKERMAN, Bureau of Sistelasda:

Recording Secretary: W. D. LamBert, Coast and Geodetic Suen 4

Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Vor. 19 Juuy 19, 1929 No. 13

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 19 Juuty 19, 1929 No. 13

GEOLOGY.—The Chesapeake Miocene basin of sedimentation as

expressed in the new geologic map of Virginia. W. C. MANSFIELD,

U.S. Geological Survey. (Communicated by L. W. STEPHENSON. )

INTRODUCTION

The revision of the Chesapeake group of the Coastal Plain of

Virginia shown on the new geologic map of Virginia is the result of

field and office work carried on at different times since the year 1918.

The inner margin of the group as shown is taken in part from previous

maps, but some additional work on this boundary in Virginia was

done by R. P. Meacham, of the Virginia Geological Survey, and by me.

In Maryland the Miocene stratigraphy has been admirably worked

out. The results were published in 1904 as the Miocene volume of

the Maryland Geological Survey, and form a working basis for inter-

preting the stratigraphic sequence of the deposits to the south.

The abundant molluscan faunas preserved in most of the deposits

afford reliable data for determining the horizons and the age relation-

ships. Each bed carrying a distinctive fauna has been traced inland

as far as possible up the major valleys.

On the map, Figure 2, which is later discussed, I have extended my

observations, for completeness, into North Carolina, although I have

not so thoroughly studied the faunas there as in Virginia.

CHESAPEAKE GROUP

DIVISIONS AND THICKNESS

The Chesapeake group of Virginia is divisible into four formations,

which in ascending order are: Calvert, Choptank, St. Marys, and

Yorktown. The Yorktown has not been recognized in Maryland.

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Read

before the Geological Society of America December 26, 1928. Received April 22, 1929.

263

264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

The thickness of the Chesapeake group of Virginia, as observed from

the exposures, is estimated to be 575 feet. This estimate corresponds

closely to that part (about 550 ft.) assigned by Darton? to the Chesa-

peake group in a well boring at Fort Monroe in southeastern Virginia.’

The total thickness of the Chesapeake group, as reported by Woolman?

in the wells at Crisfield, on the eastern shore of Maryland, is 719 feet.

These wells are southeast of the outcrops of the Chesapeake group

TABLE 1.—TasLEe SHowine Cuimatic ConpDITIONS INDICATED BY THE MOLLUSCAN

FAUNAS OF THE CHESAPEAKE GROUP

Formations Suggested climatic conditions Fads oman) ae

Upper part (fragmen-| Approaching warm] A little farther south

tary beds and beds} temperature

at Suffolk)

Yorktown Lower part (below) Cool temperate About the same or

fragmental _ series farthert north

and lower bed at

Grove Wharf)

(Later beds in Vir-| Moderately cool tem-| About the same, sug-

ginia) perate gesting farther south

St. Marys |S Se

(Upper beds in Mary-| Approaching warm| Farther south

land) | temperate

| Cool temperate About the same or

Choptank perhaps a little far-

ther south

- |

4 | Approaching warm| Farther south

Calvert

temperate

along the Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland, and the greater thickness

indicates that the beds thicken down the dip.

Sanford‘ states that well records indicate that the bottom of the

Chesapeake group lies 600 feet below tide-water at Fleet Point, North-

umberland County, Va. These wells are nearly north of Fort Monroe,

where the thickness of the Chesapeake group was reported to be about

550 feet. This would indicate that the thickness of that part of the

Chesapeake group below the Yorktown formation is greater in the

northern part of the State than in the southern part.

*N.H. Darton. U.S. Geol. Surv. Geol. Atlas, Norfolk folio, no. 80, p.3. 1902.

8’ Lewis WooLtMaNn. New Jersey Geol. Surv. Ann. Rept. 1894: 184. 1895.

*SaMUEL SaNForRD. Va. Geol. Surv. Bull. 5: 249. 1913.

JuLY 19, 1929 MANSFIELD: CHESAPEAKE MIOCENE BASIN 265

DISTRIBUTION

The inner or western limits of the Miocene formations in Maryland,

Virginia, and the Carolinas are shown on the accompanying map (Fig.

2), the data for Maryland being taken from the Maryland Geological

Survey’s Miocene volume, 1904.

The line marking the inner limit of the Calvert, the basal formation,

crosses Maryland and extends into Virginia nearly to, if not to, Peters-

VIRGINIA SECTION

YORKTOWN Clay. gray to bulk

FORMATION song, Tragmenta/

5 she// mareria/

145

MARYLAND SECTION

ALONG CHESAPEAKE Bay

Dora trom Mary/ond

meee Ga0/ogico/ Survey

a aa Miocene Volume

~ > >~-—FAUNAL ZONES OMITTED

ST. MARYS 5

FORMATION

180° Bluish fo drab ST. MARYS

sond and clay FORMATION

74H’

I nmi ear Sh) TO

acer yellowish sand

ond clay, 29S

CHOPTANK Induroted sondg-

FORMATION sfone layers

50°

CHOPTANK

FORMATION

80°

Green/sh to

yellowish sqnd (457°

ond clay

tear CALVERT

ARON FORMATION

200°

Mainly Hatorn- 62’

aceous earth

EOC

OeENE EOCENE

Figure 1.—Columnar sections of the Miocene of Maryland and Virginia.

burg, on the Appomattox River; that of the Choptank formation

crosses Maryland but extends only about as far as Rappahannock

River in Virginia; that of the St. Marys formation nearly parallels

the Choptank boundary in Maryland and extends to the Nottoway

River in southern Virginia and perhaps farther south; and that of the

Yorktown begins near the Rappahannock River, Va., and extends

much farther south in Virginia and North Carolina than the other

formations.

266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

The distribution of the formations of the group in Virginia shows that

the St. Marys formation overlaps the Choptank and Calvert forma-

tions to the south and that the Yorktown formation transgresses

westward over all other formations of the Coastal Plain and laps over

a few miles on the crystalline rocks which underlie the eastern portion

of the Piedmont Plateau.

Figure 2.—Inner limits of the formations of the Chesapeake group and Duplin marl.

a = area occupied by Eocene and Cretaceous deposits in Virginia and Maryland. b=

westernmost patches of Duplin marl in North Carolina. ec — ¢ = line separating late

Miocene beds with ‘‘colder-water fauna’’ from those with ‘‘warmer-water fauna.’”’

Numbered line indicates location of section shown in Figure 3.

The credit for the first recognition of the great western transgression

of the Yorktown sea, as now interpreted by me, belongs to Dr. A. A.

Olsson,®> whose ‘“‘Murfreesboro stage,’ recognized on the Meherrin

River at and near Murfreesboro, N. C., and at Petersburg and along

James River, Va., and elsewhere, belongs in reality to the lower part

5 A.A. Oxtsson. Bull. Am. Paleont. Soc. 5: 155-163. 1917.

JuLY 19, 1929 MANSFIELD: CHESAPEAKE MIOCENE BASIN 267

of the Yorktown formation. The name ‘“Mur-

freesboro”’’ is preoccupied for a Paleozoic for-

mation in Tennessee.

CRISFIELD, MD. C1)

EOCENE

SECTION FROM CRISFIELD, MD., TO

WILMINGTON, N. C.

A section (Fig. 3) drawn from Crisfield, Md.,

to Wilmington, N. C. (see trace of section on

map, Fig. 2) somewhat hypothetical but checked

by well records and geologic reports, shows

that the down-warping which initiated the de-

position of the Chesapeake group began at the

north and progressed southward to the Caro-

linas. The absence of the Yorktown formation

in Maryland indicates that there was sufficient

uplift there following the deposition of the St.

Marys formation to prevent further sedimen-

tation while deposition continued in Virginia

and North Carolina. The section becomes

thinner toward the south by the pinching out of

formations older than the Yorktown.

FORMATION

fe Saar ite Eel FEET

ST. MARYS FORMATION

‘ ~ CHOPTANK

PLEISTOCENE OR YOUNG:

OLD POINT COMFORT, VA.(2)

;

ML —

EOCENE p=

ST. MARYS FORMATION

CALVERT FORMATION

YORKTOWN FORMATION

— ~—_?

CHOPTANK FORMATION ?(UPPER PART)

SOMILES

NN. 2?

CRETACEOUS ?

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS INDICATED BY THE

FAUNAS ¢

The mollusean faunas of the different zones of

the Chesapeake group afford indications of tem-

perature conditions in the sea and, by infer-

ence, of adjacent atmospheric and climatic

conditions. The table shows the successive

temperature conditions in the Chesapeake

Miocene basin during each epoch, as at pres-

ent interpreted.

WINDSOR, N.C44) COLERAIN, N.C.(3)

7 MILES E.OF

{

—

CRETACEOUS?

~— GROUP

> \ cHesaPeax

NEUSE RIVER(6) WASHINGTON, N.C.(5)

CRETACEOUS ?

Dupitin Maru

The Duplin marl, a richly fossiliferous for-

mation which occurs in small patches in south- |

ern North Carolina and elsewhere farther south, !

appears to be of nearly the same age as the upper :

= LOWER MIOCENE (TRENT MARL)=?= EOCENE?

JACKSONVILLE,NC. (7)

Section from Crisfield, Md., to Wilmington, N. C., showing the thinning out of the Chesapeake group southward.

part of the Yorktown formation as developed

around Suffolk, Va. This opinion of simul-

taneously existing faunas was also suggested

by Dall.é

°W.H. Datu. The relations of the Miocene of Maryland to that of other régions and to

the Recent fauna. Md. Geol. Surv., Miocene, p. exliv. 1904

CRETACEOUS OVERLAIN BYTHIN

TERTIARY DEPOSITS

Figure 3.

WILMINGTON,N.C. (8)

268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

The dashed line on Figure 2 indicates the western limit of the Duplin

marl at the south and of beds of the upper Yorktown of approximately

the same age as the Duplin at the north. On the same figure (Fig. 2),

two of the most westerly patches of the Duplin mar! are indicated by

letter 6 and the approximate separation of the late Miocene beds

carrying a ‘“‘colder water fauna” at the north and a “warmer water

fauna”’ at the south by the line c-c.

CONCLUSIONS

The distribution of the formations in Virginia seems to show that the

St. Marys formation at the south overlaps the Choptank and Calvert

formations, and that the Yorktown formation transgresses westward

over all older formations of the Coastal Plain and laps over a few miles

on the erystalline rocks which underlie the eastern border of, the

Piedmond Plateau.

The somewhat hypothetical section drawn from Crisfield, Md., to

Wilmington, N. C., indicates that the down-warping which initiated

the deposition of the Chesapeake group began at the north and pro-

gressed southward to the Carolinas. As the section becomes thinner

at the south by the pinching out of formations older than the York-

town, it indicates that the more northern area constituted a basin for

the deposition of the sediments of the Chesapeake group, and that

during the early and middle Miocene time and during the upper

Miocene time prior to the deposition of the beds of the Yorktown

formation as developed around Suffolk, Va., the area now occupied by

the Duplin mar! in the Cape Fear region practically as far out as the

coast was a land area undergoing erosion.

The new map of the Chesapeake group of Virginia, as compared with

the former map of the State based on the work of Clark and Miller on

the Coastal Plain province of Virginia, published as Bulletin 4, Virginia

Geological Survey, 1912, shows, in general: Less areal distribution of

the Calvert formation; the presence of the Choptank formation; less

extensive areal distribution of the St. Marys formation south of James

River; more extensive areal distribution of Yorktown formation.

BOTANY.—wNew Asteraceae from the United States, Mexico, and

Honduras.' §. F. Buaxe, Bureau of Plant Industry.

This paper contains descriptions of eight new species and several

varieties as well as reallocations of several species already described.

SoLipaAGO wrRiIGHTIT A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 16: 80. 1880.

Solidago bigelovii A. Gray, (Proc. Amer. Acad. 16: 80. 1880, nomen nudum;)

Proc. Amer. Acad. 17: 190. 1882.

1 Received April 16, 1929.

JULY 19, 1929 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 269

Solidago bigelovii var. wrightii A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 17: 190. 1882.

The name Solidago bigelovitz, in use for many years for a southwestern

goldenrod, must give place to S. wright. Both names first appeared in

1880, S. bigelovzt having precedence on the page but not being provided with

description, while S. wrightii was fully described. The treatment of S.

bigeloviz at this place is as follows: ‘“‘S. BraeLovit is a New Mexican species

founded on S. petiolaris, var., Gray in Bot. Mex. Bound. 79, collected by

Bigelow, Wright, and Parry, and placed next to S. Lindheimeriana of Scheele,

which was in Pl. Lindh. referred to S. speciosa, var. rigidiuscula.”’ On p.

79 of the Botany of the Mexican Boundary there is no word of description;

hence the species dates from its first publication with description in 1882.

Solidago wrightit was properly published in 1880, with description and

reference to two synonyms,” as well as citation of range and collectors (‘“W.

Texas to Arizona, Wright, Bigelow, Rothrock’’). From the name given and

the first cited reference and collector it is evident that Wright 281, the plant

on which the mention in “‘Plantae Wrightianae”’ was based, is properly to

be taken as type of the species. The specimen of this number in the U. 8.

National Herbarium (collected on ‘‘mountains between the Limpia and the

Rio Grande,” Texas) is rather slender, about 35 cm. high, simple below the

inflorescence, with elliptic middle leaves about 3.5 em. long and 1 em. wide,

and heads in small cymes of 2 to 4 at tips of the erectish branches, the whole

forming a 12-headed cymose panicle about 7 cm. wide. Solidago ‘‘bigelovit”’

is variable in inflorescence, the heads being sometimes very few and clustered,

sometimes numerous and thyrsoid on the stem and branches, but the differ-

ences appear to be purely individual and of no taxonomic or geographic

significance, and I find no grounds for distinguishing S. wrightii from S.

bigeloviz, either varietally, as by Gray, or specifically, as by Wooton and Stand-

ley in their ‘‘Flora of New Mexico.”

The only specimen examined from Texas is Wright 281, the type. Solidago

bigelovit was included by the writer in Tidestrom’s “Flora of Utah and

Nevada,’’® on the basis of a specimen in the U. S. National Herbarium origi-

nally labelled “Solidago remoralis, Ait. var. Nevada. Wheeler Exp.

1872.” As all the Arizona specimens examined are from the southeastern

part of the State, it seems probable that the species does not range so far

north, and that this specimen is mislabeled as to locality.

A remarkable form with many or most of the hairs gland-tipped occurs

in Arizona and New Mexico; although very distinct in its extreme, too closely

connected by intermediate specimens to rank as more than a variety,

Solidago wrightii var. adenophora Blake, var. nov.

(?) Solidago subviscosa Greene, Pittonia 3: 348. .1898.

Habit, foliage, and inflorescence as in the typical form, and similarly

variable; involucre, sometimes also the pedicels, leaves, and stem, glandular-

puberulous.

ARIZONA: Between Bar-foot fire station and Paradise, Chiricahua National

Forest, Cochise County, alt. 2200-2400 m., 22-23 Sept. 1914, Kggleston

10833, 10867 in part. Rincon Mountains, 1891, Neally 205. Mt. Graham,

alt. 2745 m., Sept. 1874, Rothrock 730. Mt. Lemmon, alt. 2285 m., 4 Sept.

1926, G. J. Harrison 3016 (type no. 1,285,413, U. S. Nat. Herb.) NEw

2S. petiolaris var., A. Gray, Pl. Wright. 1: 94. 1852; S. californica var., Rothrock

in Wheeler, Rep. U.S. Surv. 100th Merid. 6: 145. 157s.

Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 26: 539. 1925.

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

Mexico: Near Gray, Lincoln County, alt. 1830 m., July 1898, Skehan 70.

In pine belt, El Capitan Mountains, alt. 2135 m., 28 July 1900, Harle 489.

Copper Canyon, Magdalena Mountains, alt. 2805 m., 3 Sept. 1909, Goldman

1673. Tularosa Creek, Sacramento Mountains, Otero County, 18 Aug. 1899,

Wooton. Pecos River, alt. 2135 m., 23 Aug. 1908, Barley 550.

When practically all the hairs are gland-tipped, as they are in the type,

the difference between this plant and typical S. wrightii with its grayish

puberulence of spreading (rarely incurved) hairs seems too great to be merely

varietal. In most of the specimens cited, however, the glandularity is

confined to the involuere, and it is evident that no specific line can be drawn.

In the genus as a whole the presence of glandular hairs is of rare occurrence.

The description of Solidago subviscosa Greene is strongly suggestive of this

plant, but in the absence of the type specimen (Chiricahua Mountains, 15

Sept. 1896, Toumey) its identity is uncertain. It was said by Greene to

combine some of the characteristics of S. bzgeloviz and S. parryi, and the

description applies about as well as some specimens of S. parryt.

Acamptopappus sphaerocephalus var. hirtellus Blake, var. nov.

Stems and leaves more or less densely hirtellous; leaves often relatively

shorter and wider than in the typical form.

Ca LirorNnIA: Near Lone Pine, Inyo Co., alt. 1150 m., 7 June 1891, F. V.

Coville & F. Funston 890 (type no. 1,203,074, U. S. Nat. Herb.); Rands-

burg to Rand, K. Brandegee; Mojave, Eastwood 3184; Willow Springs, F.

Grinnell 427,443; Antelope Valley, Grinnell; Lancaster, Elmer 3621, Hall &

Chandler 7388 (non-typical); Palmdale, Abrams & McGregor 513; Kramer,

K. Brandegee; Barstow, Jepson 5835; desert near Hesperia, alt. 975 m.,

Blake 9885; Mohave Desert, Parish 139, Pringle (24 May 1882), Purpus

5443; without definite locality, 1876, Palmer 219.

Acamptopappus sphaerocephalus (Harv. & Gray) A. Gray can be divided

readily into two varieties with definite characters and definite geographical

range. The plant growing in southern Utah, western Arizona, extreme south-

western Nevada (Goodding 1423, from Bunkerville, which is in Nevada, not

Utah as printed on the label), and the Colorado Desert region has glabrous

stems and branches, and the leaves are glabrous or hispidulous-ciliolate.

This is the typical form, originally described, under the name Aplopappus

sphaerocephalus Harv. & Gray, as “fruticosa ? glabra.’”’ The type was col-

lected by Thomas Coulter in “California.’”’ The other form (var. hirtellus)

with hirtellous stem, branches, and leaves, ranges from Antelope Valley, in

the western part of the Mohave Desert, east to Kramer and north to Lone

Pine, Inyo County.

Acamptopappus microcephalus Jones, the description of which suggests

the variety here described, is shown by the type collection to be Aplopappus

cooper? (A. Gray) Hall.

Erigeron inornatus forma subradiatus Blake, forma nov.

Heads with about 7-11 pale yellow imperfectly developed rays 6.5-7 mm.

long (tube 1.5-1.8 mm., throat 2-3.2 mm., lamina elliptic, concave, spreading,

JULY 19, 1929 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 271

usually 3-denticulate, 2.2-3.3 mm. long), pistillate and bearing 3-5 abortive

and separated stamens.

CaurrorniaA: Along path in dry woods, Tahoe Tavern, Eldorado County,

alt. 1900 m., 15 Aug. 1927, S. F. Blake 10302 (type no. 1,436,302, U.S. Nat.

Herb.).

Erigeron inornatus A. Gray is one of several western species of Hrigeron

which have hitherto been supposed to have always discoid heads. The

present plant, a colony of which I found growing in company with discoid

plants (no. 10301) near the shore of Lake Tahoe, is consequently of consider-

able interest. Both the subradiate and discoid plants found here represent

the var. viscidulus A. Gray rather than the typical glabrous form of HL. inorna-

tus, having the stem (short-hirsute below) and leaves hirsutulous and the

involucre evidently glandular.

Lessingia leptoclada var. arachnoidea (Greene) Blake.

Lessingia arachnoidea Greene, Leaflets 2: 29. 1910.

This variety, characterized by its very short pappus (only 1-1.5 mm. long,

that of the typical form being 3.5-6 mm. long), is known only from the

vicinity of Crystal Springs Lake, San Mateo County, California, where it

occurs to the exclusion of typical L. leptoclada A. Gray.

Archibaccharis standleyi Blake, sp. nov.

Erect, suffrutescent; stem subsimple, somewhat zigzag, leafy, densely and

finely puberulous with several-celled, conical, spreading or incurved, brownish

hairs; leaves ovate, acuminate, rounded at base, short-petioled, chartaceous,

mucronulate-serrulate, finely hispidulous, scabrid above, gland-dotted

beneath; staminate heads 4-5 mm. high, slender-pediceled, in small panicles

at tip of stem and the few branches, 9—20-flowered.

Stem 35 cm-l m. high, 1-3 mm. thick, subterete or somewhat round-

angled; internodes 8-15 mm. long; leaves alternate; petioles naked, 1.5-3 mm.

long; blades ovate or lance-ovate, 2-5.5 em. long, 1-2.5 em. wide (smaller

toward base of stem), acuminate, somewhat falcate, apiculate (apiculus

0.8-1.5 mm. long), at base rounded or subcordate, near middle mucronulate-

serrulate or shallowly crenate-serrate (teeth about 6 pairs, very depressed,

2-6 mm. apart, the curved callous mucros about 0.5 mm. long), firmly charta-

ceous, above rather densely antrorse-hispidulous, beneath slightly lighter

green, similarly but less densely and more softly hispidulous and rather

densely gland-dotted, feather-veined and prominulous-reticulate on both

sides, the chief lateral veins 4-5 pairs, sometimes impressed above, prominent

beneath; heads about 6-10, in convex panicles 2-4 cm. wide, the filiform

straightish pedicels 5-10 mm. long, puberulous like the stem, the bracts of

inflorescence minute, linear-subulate, mostly 2 mm. long or less; involucre

campanulate, 46-seriate, 3 mm. high, the phyllaries lanceolate to lance-

linear, acuminate, with greenish center and narrow scarious margin, often

purplish-tipped, erect, rather densely antrorse-puberulous and gland-dotted;

pistillate flowers 2-5, their corollas whitish, sparsely pubescent with somewhat

clavate hairs, 4mm. long (tube 3-3.3 mm. long, ligule erect, concave, minutely

2-3-denticulate, 0.7-1 mm. long), much shorter than style, the achenes

(immature) hispidulous, 1 mm. long, the pappus whitish, 4 mm. long, the

bristles finely hispidulous-denticulate, not clavate; hermaphrodite flowers

7-15, their corollas whitish, puberulous, 5.2 mm. long (tube 2.2 mm., throat

essentially absent, teeth linear, acute 3 mm. long), the achenes hispidulous,

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

1mm. long, the pappus whitish, 4.5 mm. long, the bristles denticulate-hispidu-

lous, slightly clavellate at apex; style branches oblong, acute, finely hispidu-

lous, erect, 0.8 mm. long.

Honpuras: Open rocky or brushy banks, vicinity of Siguatepeque, Dept.

Comayagua, alt. 1080-1400 m., 14-27 Feb. 1928, P. C. Standley 56193 (type

no. 1,308,936, U. 8. Nat. Herb.), 56356.

This species, of which only the staminate plant is known, is nearest Archi-

baccharis hirtella (DC.) Heering, differing from that species in its erect (not

scandent) habit, the very fine and dense puberulence of the stem, the much

firmer leaves, and the slightly larger heads. In its combination of erect

habit with definitely zigzag stem and small panicles it to some extent breaks

down the distinctive characters of the two principal groups into which the

small-headed species of the genus are divided.

Trigonospermum hispidulum Blake, sp. nov.

Herb, apparently unbranched, the stem rather densely hispidulous with

several-celled, spreading, conical, acute hairs; leaf blades rhombic-ovate,

unequally callous-dentate and -denticulate, somewhat hastately so near the

basal angle, lepidote-tuberculate-hispidulous above, hispidulous with antrorse

hairs beneath, cuneate-decurrent on upper part of petiole; heads small,

numerous, in a somewhat rounded panicle; lamina of rays 44.5 mm. long.

Stem more than 60 em. high, purplish brown, below subterete, striatulate,

and 4 mm. thick, above suleate; internodes about 9-11 em. long; leaves oppo-

site; petioles incurved-pubescent and with longer spreading several-celled —

hairs, the unmargined part 1.5-2 cm. long, broadened at base and shallowly

connate; blades 8.5-11 em. long (including margined portion of petiole, this

1.54 em. long) 4.5-6.5 em. wide, acute, often short-pointed, at base broadly

cuneate-rounded and abruptly cuneate-decurrent on petiole, rather thin,

dark dull green and in age lepidote-tuberculate above, scarcely paler and

eland-dotted beneath, triplinerved from base of proper blade, prominulous-

reticulate especially beneath; panicle 11 em. wide, the ascending lower

branches about 8 em. long, densely spreading-hispidulous and with sparser

stipitate yellowish glands, the pedicels 4 mm. long or less; involucre 2-seriate,

subequal, 3 mm. high, the outer phyllaries 5, subherbaceous, oblong or

ovate-oblong, obtusely callous-tipped, 3-nerved, the inner broader and

thinner, ovate, acute or acuminate, all yellowish green, finely and rather

densely hispidulous and ciliolate; rays 7, golden, fertile, hispidulous and

stipitate-glandular on tube and back, the tube 0.7 mm. long, the lamina

quadrate-cuneate, 3-lobed nearly to middle, 44.5 mm. long and wide, 9-11-

nerved; disk flowers about 26, their corollas 5-toothed, golden, pilose with

several-celled hairs and somewhat glandular, 3 mm. long (tube 0.8mm.,

throat funnelform-campanulate, 1.7 mm. long, teeth ovate, 0.5 mm. long,

papillate especially near margin within); pales lanceolate to linear, acute,

ciliate, about 1.5 mm. long; immature ray achenes obovoid, obcompressed,

glabrous, 1.3 mm. long; ovaries of disk glabrous; style of disk short-hispid,

barely bifid.

Mexico: On streambank, Hacienda de Ototal, Arroyo de Ototal, west

of San Sebastian, Sierra Madre Occidental, Jalisco, alt. 1500 m., 9 March

1927, Ynez Mexia 1852 (type no. 1,318,113, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Allied to Trigonospermum floribundum Greenm., in which the stem is

more or less densely pilosulous and usually provided with rather dense,

JULY 19, 1929 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 273

dark, stipitate glands, the leaves rather evenly dentate or denticulate without

tendency to hastation, and rays 6-9 mm. long. Only’a single plant found.

Echinacea laevigata (Boynton & Beadle) Blake.

Brauneria laevigata Boynton & Beadle in Small, Fl. 8. E. U. 8. 1261, 1340.

1903

This species is apparently still known only from the original specimens in

the United States National Herbarium collected near Seneca, western South

Carolina, in June 1888, by Gerald McCarthy.

Echinacea angustifolia var. tennesseensis (Beadle) Blake.

Brauneria tennesseensis Beadle, Bot. Gaz. 25: 359. 1898.

In the original description this plant was compared only with Brauneria

pallida (Nutt.) Britton (= Echinacea pallida Nutt.). It is much nearer

Echinacea angustifolia DC., differing in its generally smaller size, narrower

only 1-3-nerved leaves, and spreading-hispid stems and leaves (especially

the margins and petioles), but as it intergrades in all these characters it is

best considered a variety of that species.

Verbesina microcarpa Blake, sp. nov.

Shrub; stem pubescent; leaves alternate, ovate, acuminate at each end,

serrate, rough above with tuberculate-based hairs, beneath griseous-subto-

mentose, the naked portion of petiole 6-12 mm. long; heads rather small, in

an irregular concave cymose panicle, on pedicels mostly twice their length;

involucre about 3 mm. high, the oblong-ovate pilosulous phyllaries with

reflexed tips; pales spreading-cuspidate; lamina of rays about.7 mm. long.

“Bushy shrub, 2.5 m. high;’’ branches simple, terete, striatulate, brownish,

densely pilose with several-celled, curved, spreading-ascending hairs, these

in age mostly deciduous except for the subtuberculate bases; internodes

2.5-4.5 em. long, wingless; peticles exauriculate, pubescent like the stem;

blades 8-11.5 em. long, 3-4 em. wide, acuminate, slightly falecate, rounded

toward base and then cuneately decurrent on the petiole for 1.5—2 cm., serrate

above the entire base with 15-18 pairs of depressed bluntly callous-apiculate

teeth, papery, above green, evenly but not densely hirsutulous with antrorse-

curved hairs with small tuberculate bases, beneath when young canescently °

silky-pilose, at maturity uniformly and densely subtomentose-pilose with

antrorse-curved hairs, feather-veined (lateral veins 7-9 pairs, prominulous

on both sides, the secondaries obsolete); heads about 2 cm. wide, in cymes

of about 3 at tips of stem and subterminal branches, forming a convex panicle

of about 20 heads, about 11 em. wide, the pedicels of the terminal heads short,

about 5 mm. long, of the lateral 1-2 em. long, pubescent like the stem, the

bracts linear or lance-linear, 1.5 em. long or less; disk subglobose, 1 em. thick

in mature flower; involucre 2-seriate, 3-4 mm. high, subequal, the outer

phyllaries about 5, ovate-oblong, 2 mm. wide, greenish-stramineous, with

more herbaceous tips, apiculate, the inner similar to the pales, with reflexed

cusps; receptacle small, convex; rays about 10, ‘‘lemon-yellow,”’ fertile,

the tube pilosulous, 1.5 mm. long, the lamina elliptic, 7 mm. long, 3-3.8 mm.

wide, 3-denticulate, 6-8-nerved; disk corollas numerous, ‘“Jemon-yellow,”

pilosulous on tube and base of throat, about 3.4 mm. long (tube 0.6-0.8 mm.

long, throat funnelform-campanulate, 1.6-1.8 mm. long, teeth ovate, 1 mm.

long, ciliolate on inner margin with long papillae); pales boat-shaped, firm,

whitish, hirsutulous above, 4 mm. long, terminated by spreading cusps

274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

about 0.8 mm. long; disk achenes 2.2. mm. long, 1.5-1.8 mm. wide (including

wings), the body blackish, tuberculate-hispidulous above, 1.8-2 mm. long,

1-1.2 mm. wide, the wings ciliolate, adnate to base of awns, 0.3-0.5 mm.

wide; awns 2, subequal, 1.4mm. long.

Mexico: Open oak and pine forest, trail from El Batel to Pico del Aguila,

Sierra Madre, Sinaloa, alt. 1220 m., 14 Nov. 1925, Ynez Mexia 459 (type no.

141815, herb. Calif. Acad. Sci. ; photogr. and fragm., U.S. Nat. Herb.).

A species of the section Saubinetia, without striking characters, yet clearly

distinct from related species. Of these, V. seemannii Sch. Bip. has much

narrower leaves (blade about 14 em. long and 2.5 em. wide or less), these

merely hirsutulous on costa and chief veins beneath, and the shorter involucre

is nearly glabrous; V. liebmanni Sch. Bip., which vacillates between the

sections Verbesinaria and Saubinetia, has leaves very much less pubescent

beneath; V. cinerascens Robins. & Greenm. has much narrower leaves with

much finer pubescence beneath; and V. olivacea Klatt, while similar in pu-

bescence of lower leaf surface, has considerably larger heads and larger

involucre.

Zexmenia melastomacea Blake, sp. nov.

Suffrutescent; stem spreading-hispid or -hirsute; leaves ovate, acute,

rounded at base, serrulate, short-petioled, harsh-pubescent above, more

densely pubescent beneath, 3-5-plinerved,.impressed-veined and more or less

bullate above, prominulous-reticulate beneath; heads radiate, golden yellow,

medium-sized, 1-4 at tips of stem and branches, on peduncles usually 1.5

em. long or less, occasionally to 3.5 em.; involucre about 3-seriate, 7-9 mm.

high, the phyllaries mostly oblong, densely strigose, with squarrose deltoid

herbaceous tips; achenes neither winged nor definitely margined, their pappus

of 2 or 3 awns, and 2-7 squamellae about 1 mm. long.

Erect, about 0.5-1 m. high, with erectish or divergent branches; stem

gray-barked below and 4 mm. thick, subangulate, densely or sometimes

rather sparsely spreading-hispid or hirsute, particularly at the nodes, with

several-celled whitish hairs up to 2.56 mm. long; internodes 3.5-12 cm. long;

leaves opposite; petioles naked, sulcate above, hispid or hirsute and hispidu-

lous, 3-7 mm. long; blades ovate or broadly ovate, or the smaller ones sub-

orbicular, 3-6.5 em. long, 1.5-3.8 em. wide, mucronulate-serrulate except

toward base and apex with 5-8 pairs of small teeth, above hispid and hispidu-

lous with tuberculate-based hairs, beneath paler green or griseous, densely

strigose, strigose-hispid, or rather softly hispid-hirsute (the hairs longer along

the veins); peduncles stoutish, strigose or antrorse-hirsute, usually shorter

than the subtending leaves; involucre campanulate, the phyllaries oblong -

or oblong-ovate, 2-3.5 mm. wide, the body indurated-subherbaceous, the

deltoid acutish tips (2-3 mm. long) squarrose except in the inmost phyllaries,

these with subscarious ciliolate but otherwise glabrous purplish margin below;

rays about 8, pistillate, the tube glabrous, 2.6 mm. long, the lamina oval,

about 12 mm. long, 7 mm. wide, 2-denticulate, about 18-nerved, hirsute and

hirsutulous on back; disk flowers rather numerous, their corollas glabrous

except for the appressed-hirsutulous, papillose-margined teeth, 7.3 mm. long

(tube 2 mm., throat cylindric-funnelform, 3.5 mm., teeth ovate, 1.8 mm.);

pales firm, acute, purplish above, finely ciliolate, on back above stigillose

and sparsely hispid, about 10 mm. long; ray achenes trigonous, not winged,

JULY 19, 1929 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 275

hispidulous, 5 mm. long, their pappus of 3 lanceolate trigonous ciliolate awns

2-3.8 mm. long and about 4-7 basally united, oblong or triangular, ciliolate

squamellae 1-1.5 mm. long; disk achenes cuneate-oblong, 4-angled, 4.3 mm.

long, 1.3 mm. wide, tuberculate-hispidulous, their pappus of 2 unequal hispi-

dulous-ciliolate awns 2.5-4.2 mm. long, and 2 broad ciliolate squamellae

1 mm. long; style branches linear, somewhat enlarged toward the tip of the

stigmatic region and there dorsally hirsute, the linear appendages 1 mm. long,

hispidulous above.

Honpuras: In pine forests, vicinity of Siguatepeque, Dept. Comayagua,

alt. 1080-1400 m., 14-27 Feb. 1928, P. C. Standley 56389 (type no. 1,308,960,

U.S. Nat. Herb.), 55826.

Nearest Zexmenia michoacana Blake, but quite distinct in involucral and

other characters. The two collections referred here differ in density or at

least in degree of persistence of stem pubescence and in density and character

of leaf pubescence, but undoubtedly represent a single species.

Coreopsis congregata Blake sp. nov.

Low, slender, erect, nearly simple, sparsely pubescent annual; leaves oppo-

site, nearly uniform, shorter than internodes, short-petioled, once or twice

pinnatifid, with mostly oblong or ovate lobes; heads small, few, yellow; phyl-

laries pilose; rays neutral, inner disk flowers apparently infertile; outer disk

achenes small, obovoid-meniscoid, with narrow, thick, incurved, lobed,

crustaceous margin; pappus none.

Stem 13-32 em. high, whitish, sulcate-striate, sparsely pilose especially

above with chiefly ascending hairs; internodes 2-5 em. long; leaves about 5

pairs, the lower (shrivelled) about 3 em. long (including petiole, this about

0.7 cm. long), pilose especially on petiole (the hairs there longer and flatter),

apparently bipinnatifid; the middle and upper short-petioled or subsessile,

triangular in outline, 1.8-3.5 em. long, 1.2—2 em. wide, acute, cuneate-rounded

at base, deeply pinnatifid with 2-4 pairs of lobes, these oblong to ovate or

lance-ovate, acute or obtuse, callous-mucronulate, the lowest pair nearly

separate from the others and entire or similarly pinnatifid, all thin, green

and pilose on both sides; heads 1-7 per stem, solitary or in 2’s or 3’s from the

axils of reduced leaves at tip of stem and the few erect branches, 2 em. wide

or less; peduncles very slender, naked or with 1-2 very small bracts, 2-5 em.

long, pubescent like the stem; disk about 5 mm. high and thick; involucre

double, reflexed in age, the outer phyllaries 8, thin, herbaceous, narrowly

spatulate to linear, obtusely callous-tipped, 2.5-3.5 mm. long, about 0.7 mm.

wide, 3-nerved (the middle nerve stronger and darkened), pilose and ciliate

with several-celled hairs; inner phyllaries membranous, elliptic-oblong, 4.5-

4.8mm. long, about 1.8 mm. wide, obtusely pointed, golden-yellow, sparsely

pilose on back, ciliolate at apex, 5~7-nerved; receptacle small, flattish; rays

8, golden yellow, neutral, the tube about 0.7 mm. long, stipitate-glandular,

the lamina elliptic-oblong, subentire, 5-nerved, 5.5-6.5 mm. long, 2.5-2.8

mm. wide; disk flowers 15 or more, their corollas golden yellow, stipitate-

glandular on tube, papillate on inner margin of teeth, 2.5-2.8 mm. long

(tube 0.7-1 mm.. throat campanulate, 1.5 mm., teeth deltoid, 0.8-0.5 mm.);

pales linear, acutish or obtuse, glabrous, yellow, about 4-vittate, about 3.5

mm. long; outer disk achenes slightly depressed at apex, 2-2.3 mm. long,

1.3-1.5 mm. wide, glabrous, dark brownish or mottled, on outer face smooth

or slightly blunt-muricate above, on inner face calloused at base, 1-ridged

276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

and crustaceous-mamillate, the thickened brownish margin (about 0.3 mm.

wide) longitudinally rugulose, sinuate below, above divided into a few rounded

lobes; inner disk achenes slender, about 2.2 mm. long, with small imperfectly

developed embryo; style branches broadened and dorsally hispid above,

passing into a papillate cusp 0.2 mm. long.

Mexico: Common, growing in masses, in damp places in openings in

oak and pine forests, trail from El Batel to Pica del Aguila, Sierra Madre,

Sinaloa, alt. 1220 m., 14 Nov. 1925, Ynez Mexia 445 (type in Gray Herb.;

photogr. and fragm., U. 8. Nat. Herb.).

A species belonging to the section Leachia, without any very close ally.

Plummera ambigens Blake, sp. nov.

Ray achenes villous with straight hairs, and with a pappus of about 6 un-

equal, oblong, obtuse, lacerate, ribless, hyaline squamellae about 1 mm. long;

disk achenes usually trigonous, thicker than in P. floribunda, with evident

but imperfect ovule, villous with straight hairs and with a pappus of about 4

or 5 unequal, oblong or lanceolate, obtuse to acuminate, lacerate, ribless

hyaline squamellae 0.5-1.3 mm. long; style branches of disk with stigmatic

lines; otherwise asin P. floribunda A. Gray.

AriIzoNA: Fairly common on lower slopes of Mt. Graham, about 1370 m.

alt., 22 July 1927, R. H. Peebles, T. H. Kearney, & G. J. Harrison 4395

(type no. 1,436,073, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Plummera floribunda A. Gray, the only member of the genus hitherto

known, is one of the rarest of United States Asteraceae in herbaria. Init both

the ray and disk achenes are completely without pappus and are loosely

villous with flexuous hairs, the disk achenes are stipitiform and without trace

of embryo, and the style branches of the disk lack any trace of stigmatic lines.

Aside from the achenes, pappus, and style branches P. ambzgens is so precisely

similar to P. floribunda that I have been unable to find any distinctive

characters. The pedicels and young tips are more hairy—essentially cinere-

ous-tomentose—than in the two collections of P. floribunda available for

comparison, and the inner phyllaries more strongly ciliate and more abruptly

cuspidate, but these slight differences are not likely to prove constant when

more material is examined. The differences between the somewhat more

obovoid ray achene of P. floribunda, with its rather definite stipitiform base

or carpopod, and that of P. ambigens are probably due to the greater maturity

of the former. The presence of a well developed pappus in P. ambigens and

and the tendency toward fertility of the disk flowers, however, not only

sharply differentiate the new plant from P. floribunda but tend to break down

the gap between the section of Actinea often separated as a distinct genus

Hymenoxys and the hitherto well distinguished genus Pluwmmera.

Plummera was placed by Gray‘ in the Helianthoideae-Millerieae, although

he recognized® that “the natural affinity of this plant may rather be with

Actinella [= Actinea] in the Helenioideae.”’ O. Hoffmann® put it in the

ASymehle 12: :59,.237. 1884.

5 Proc. Amer. Acad. 17: 215. 1882.

6 In Engler & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 45: 263. 1890.

207

JuLY 19, 1929 BLAKE: NEW. ASTERACEAE

SE RSS

WSS reas NNeres

TSE

(a-1): a, plant X4;b, head, X5;¢, ray flower, X5;d, disk flower, X5;e, ray achene, X5;

f, disk achene, X5; g, inner phyllary, <5; h, style branches, <7; i, stamens, X5;

Plummera floribunda: j, ray flower, X5; k, disk flower, X5; 1, ray achene, X 5; m,

stamens, 5; n, style branches, <7.

278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

Helenieae-Heleninae between Gazllardia and Blennosperma and in the neigh-

borhood of Actinella, and more recently Rydberg’ has. placed it in what is

unquestionably its proper position next to Hymenozys, in the group he calls

Helenieae-Tetraneuranae. From Hymenoxys, which I regard as a group to

be included under Actznea, the genus Plummera as represented by its type,

P. floribunda, differs chiefly in its few-flowered heads, sterile disk, absence of

pappus, and obovoid (not obpyramidal), somewhat obcompressed, many-

ribbed ray achenes. The first of these characters is here of no more than

specific value, the second is weakened by the new species, and the third now

disappears. For the present it seems advisable to retain Plummera as a genus

distinguished by its nearly or quite sterile disk and different ray achenes and

to regard P. ambigens as specifically distinct from P. floribunda, while recog- ~

nizing that further collections are likely to show that it is no more than a

pappiferous variety of the latter.

The ray achenes of Plummera floribunda are described by Gray as turgid

and nearly nerveless, and by Rydberg as ‘‘cuneate-obovoid, villous.”” Mature

achenes on Lemmon’s plant (no. 352) are obovoid, elliptical in cross-section,

and definitely about 15-ribbed with low blunt ribs. Those of P. ambigens

are also about 15-ribbed.

Eriophyllum wallacei var. calvescens Blake, var. nov.

Pappus in both ray and disk reduced to a mere border, 0.1 mm. high or

less, about 5-lobed or parted; otherwise as in the typical form.

CALIFORNIA: Lone Pine, 16 April 1891, 7. S. Brandege; north of and

near Victorville, Mohave Desert, 11 May 1926, WZ. HE. Jones (type no.

1,436,074, U. S. National Herb.); desert near Hesperia, 14 June 1927, S. F.

Blake 9881A; mesas, San Bernardino Valley, May 1882, S. B. & W. F.

Parish 348 in part.

The pappus in Hriophyllum wallace: A. Gray normally consists of about 6

to 10 blunt opaque white squamellae or paleae 0.5-1.2 mm. long. In the form

here described, which sometimes, apparently, occurs by itself and at others

with the typical form and intergrading with it, the pappus is so reduced as to

be evident only on close examination. It has already been mentioned by

Dr. H. M. Hall’ from the Santa Ana River bottoms near Redlands (F. M.

Reed 784 and Greata 572 in part).

Actinea subintegra (Cockerell) Blake.

Hymenoxys -subintegra Cockerell, Bull. Torrey Club 31: 480. pl. 22, f. 1.

1904.

This apparently well-marked species, which, according to Rydberg’s

treatment, has been known only from the type locality, Nagle’s ranch,

Arizona, was collected in the upper drainage of North Canyon, Kaibab

National Forest, Coconino County, Arizona, altitude 2440 meters, 30 July

1926, by Leon W. Hornkohl (no. 35; specimen in Forest Service Herbarium).

7™N. Amer. Fl. 34: 118. 1915.

8 Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 3: 182. 1907.

9N. Amer. Fl. 34: 116. 1915.

JULY 19, 1929 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 279

It has also been collected near Jacobs Lake, Kaibab National Forest, 14

August 1926 (specimens received through Dr. C. D. Marsh). Prof. M. E. Jones

informs me that Nagle’s Ranch, the type locality, is about 60 miles south of

Kanab, Utah, on the west slope of the Buckskin Mountains (i.e., the Kaibab

plateau), and was the first watering place on the old wagon road to the Grand

Canyon from Kanab. The old Valley Tan ranch was about 15 miles further

up on the plateau, and was the first ranch reached on the way to the Canyon

after ascending the plateau. The present wagon road now ascends the plateau

many miles farther north. The term Buckskin Mountains, as applied to

the Kaibab Plateau, is now obsolete. Recent maps of the state show another

range of the same name just south of Williams River (Bill Williams Fork).

Cacalia eriocarpa Blake, sp. nov.

Scapose, about 85 em. high; leaves orbicular, peltate, about 14 cm. wide,

hirsute-pilose, shallowly about 6-lobed, the lobes broader than long, repandly

about 3-angled; scape spreading-pilose with many-celled hairs and stipitate-

glandular; heads about 12-flowered, apparently erect, in a narrow panicle,

on pedicels about 3 times as long; involucre 8-9 mm. high, sparsely pilosulous,

essentially without bractlets; achenes densely silky-pilose.

Rootstock short and stout, bearing tufts of rusty wool, and clustered slender

roots; well developed basal leaves 2, with an abortive one; petioles stout,

3-6 cm. long, very densely spreading-pilose with loose many-celled hairs;

blades firm, peltate below middle, prominulous-reticulate especially beneath,

above deep green, pilose with many-celled hairs with somewhat swollen

bases, beneath lighter green, somewhat lucid, pilose on venation with loose

many-celled hairs; scape subterete, striatulate, 4 mm. thick below, densely

pilose toward base, sparsely so above, bearing 2 bracteiform leaves 1.5 em.

long or less, their blades tiny or none; panicle about 35 cm. long, about 28-

headed, the slender erectish branches 11 em. long or less, about 3-headed,

subtended by linear bracts 9 mm. long or less; pedicels slender, mostly 2-3 em.

long, thickened toward head, bearing mostly above middle 3-6 minute erectish

linear-subulate bracts 2 mm. long or less; involucre naked at base or occa-

sionally with 1 approximate bract like those of the pedicel, the phyllaries 8,

linear or lance-linear, 1.5-2 mm. wide, narrowed to an obtuse ciliolate apex,

about 5~7-nerved, green or purplish on their exposed parts and there short-

pilose with several-celled hairs especially toward apex, and sparsely stipitate-

glandular, the inner with rather broad whitish subscarious margins; corollas

white, glabrous, 9.2 mm. long (tube 4.2 mm., throat campanulate, 0.8 mm.,

teeth nearly linear, acutish, recurved, 3-nerved, 4.2 mm. long); achenes 3.8

mm. long; pappus copious, white, 8 mm. long, the minutely barbellate bristles

united at extreme base, a few of the outer about 1.8 mm. long; style branches

elongate, linear, recurved, hispidulous on back especially toward the rounded

unappendaged apex.

Mexico: Steep slopes in open pine and oak woods, Arroyo de Santa

Gertrudis, San Sebastian, Jalisco, alt. 1500 m., 21 Jan. 1927, Ynez Mexia

1539 (type no. 1,406,195, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

A species of the group which Rydberg! recognizes as a distinct genus,

Psacalium Cass. Cacalia eriocarpa is rather closely allied to C. holwayana

Robinson (Psacalium holwayanum Rydb.), of which P. langlasset Rydb. is a

19 Bull. Torrey Club 51: 370-376. 1924.

280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

synonym, as shown beyond. Cacalra holwayana is similar in habit, foliage,

and pubescence to C. ertocarpa, but its heads are much larger (involucre

10-13 mm. long), normally strongly nodding, clustered or racemosely arranged

toward tips of branches on much shorter pedicels, and the bractlets of the

involucre or thickened tip of pedicel are conspicuous, linear-subulate, 4-9 mm.

long.

Langlassé 576 is cited by Dr. Rydberg under both the first (P. holwayanum)

and the last (P. langlassei Rydb., described asa new species) of his 14 species

of Psacalium. Both come in his key in the group with strongly pubescent

involucre, and are separated to this distance by the use of a character drawn

from the “deeply cleft’ or ‘‘sinuately lobed” leaves. Through the kindness

of Dr. B. L. Robinson, it has been possible for me to compare the specimen

in the National Herbarium (no. 386047) which is the type of P. langlassei

with the specimen of the same number in the Gray Herbarium, which is

apparently the one referred by Dr. Rydberg to P. holwayanum. The speci-

men in the National Herbarium differs from the one in the Gray Herbarium

in its apparently erect heads and somewhat more shallowly lobed leaves

(with sinuses 1-2 cm. deep; in the Gray Herbarium specimen 1.8-3.5 cm.

deep), but their entire agreement in all other characters, including the very

definite ones of involucre and achene, makes it certain that they represent

the same species. The achenes of P. holwayanum are described by Dr.

Rydberg as tomentulose, but are really densely short-hirsute with erectish

or subappressed hairs.

Cacalia trigonophylla Blake, sp. nov.

Stem slender, from a tuberous root, few-leaved near middle, glabrous

and glaucous throughout; lower leaves pentagonal, cordate, sharply 5-lobed,

remotely callous-denticulate, the middle ones similar but trigonous, hastate-

cordate, green above, strongly glaucous beneath, glabrous, all long-petioled,

4.5-6.5 em. wide; heads 3-4, subracemose, discoid, about 29-flowered; in-

volucre 8-9 mm. high, glabrous; bractlets about 1 mm. long.

Root about 1.5 em. long, 0.9 em. thick; stems apparently solitary, somewhat

flexuous, 43-58 em. high, about 6-leaved, whitish, more or less purplish-

tinged and -lined; petioles unmargined, glabrous, 4-7.5 cm. long; leaf blades

chartaceous, prominulous-reticulate above, less closely so beneath, repand

between the lobes, 3.2-4.5 em. long; the uppermost one or two much smaller,

3-lobed, 2.5 em. wide or less; inflorescence about 9 em. long, the slender

peduncles l-headed, 3-3.5 em. long, minutely few-bracted, subtended by

filiform bracts 5 mm. long or less; involucre thick-cylindric, subtended by

about 10 linear acute fleshy bractlets 1.3 mm. long or less, the phyllaries 13,

linear or lance-linear, 1-1.8 mm. wide, obtuse, ciliolate at apex, otherwise

glabrous, thickened at base and along midline, greenish and glaucescent, with

narrow subscarious whitish margins; corollas white, at maturity 10 mm. long,

the tube 3.5 mm. long, the slender funnel-form throat 4 mm. long, the recoiled

lance-linear acute teeth (1-nerved in middle) 2.5 mm. long; achenes oblong-

prismatic, 10-ribbed, glabrous, 2.6 mm. long, about 1 mm. thick; pappus soft,

white, about 7 mm. long, the bristles slightly thickened at apex, rather easily

deciduous except for the extreme bases which form a minutely denticulate

JuLY 19,1929 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: NEW ANTELOPE SQUIRREL 281

collar at apex of achene; style branches truncate-rounded, of medium length,

hispidulous on back, without obviously penicillate tip.

Mexico: In dense growth beside stream on steep hillside, San Sebastian,

trail to La Sabala Mine, Sierra Madre Occidental, Jalisco, alt. 1500 m., 10

Feb. 1927, Ynez Mexia 1656 (type no. 1,318,107, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

This species is a member of the group of the old genus Cacalia for which

Dr. Rydberg has adopted the name Pericalia Cass. Its only close relative

is Cacalia michoacana Robinson, a species of very similar habit but with the

stem pilose from base to middle with many-celled, crisped hairs, the petioles

and veins of the leaves similarly pubescent, the leaves all 5 (-7)-lobed and

not glaucous beneath, and the bractlets of the involucre 3-6 mm. long.

ZOOLOGY.—A new antelope squirrel from Lower California.: E.

W. Netson and E. A. GoupMan, U.S. Biological Survey.

Recent field work in Lower California and the publication of the

description of Ammospermophilus leucurus canfieldae by Laurence

M. Huey,? Curator of Birds and Mammals, San Diego Society of

Natural History, have contributed materially to knowledge of the

antelope squirrels of the central part of the peninsula. Further study

of these ground squirrels, which range the entire length of Lower

California, has led to the segregation of a more southern subspecies

described as follows:

Ammospermophilus leucurus extimus, subsp. nov.

Southern Peninsular Antelope Squirrel

Type.—From Saccaton, 15 miles north of Cape San Lucas, Lower Cali-

fornia, Mexico. No. 146587, 2 adult, U. S. National Museum (Biological

Survey collection), collected by E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman, December

29, 1905. Original number, 18805.

Distribution.—Ranging from sea level to about 1,000 feet altitude on the

slopes of the mountains from about latitude 28°; south to Cape Pain Lucas,

except in Vizcaino Desert region.

General characters—Most closely allied to Ammospermophilus leucurus

canfieldae, but larger; color darker, usually with a near mikado brown (Ridg-

way, 1912) instead of vinaceous cinnamon suffusion; winter pelage shorter,

thinner, more hispid; skull larger, but in detail essentially asin canfieldae.

Similar to A. 1. peninsulae in color but upper parts with a mikado brownish

instead of a more or less distinctly orange cinnamon suffusion, and cranial

characters distinctive. Differing from A. I. lewcurus in darker color, longer

tail and cranial details.

Color—Type: Upper parts in general light mikado brown moderately

mixed with black, except on outer sides of limbs and shoulders where the

mikado brownish element is nearly pure, interrupted by the usual white

1 Received May 27, 1929.

2 Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 5(15): 243. Feb. 27, 1929.

282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

stripes along upper part of sides; sides of face and neck grayish; back of neck

and area between shoulders with a grayish admixture producing a distinctly

grizzled effect; under parts and inner sides of limbs dull whitish, this color

extending well up but ending abruptly along sides of body; hind feet vinaceous

cinnamon along outer sides to toes, the inner sides and toes whitish; tail above

mixed black and white, with a mikado brownish suffusion near base, below

dull white along middle, the hairs along sides with a broad subterminal black

zone, and white tips. Some specimens are paler and grayer in general color,

the outer sides of hind limbs varying to near vinaceous cinnamon.

Skull—Closely resembling that of A. 1. canfieldae, but larger; auditory bul-

lae small and interpterygoid fossa wide about asin canfieldae. Similar to that

of A. l. peninsulae in size, but auditory bullae usually much smaller. Differ-

ing from typical lewcwrus in larger size, broader interpterygoid fossa, smaller

auditory bullae and heavier dentition.

Measurements— Type: Total length, 228 mm.; tail vertebrae, 80; hind

foot, 37. Two adult topotypes, respectively, 222, 228; 80, 83;37, 38. Skull

(type): Greatest length, 40; condylobasal length, 37.1; zygomatic breadth,

23.1; breadth of braincase (at notch behind zygomata), 18.5; interorbital

breadth, 10.4; least postorbital breadth, 14.6; length of nasals, 12.1; maxillary

toothrow, 7.2.

Remarks.—Ammospermophilus l. canfieldae occupies the extremely arid

central section of the peninsula of Lower California, including the Vizcaino

Desert, intergrading to the north with A. l. lewcurus and A. l. peninsulae. It

is somewhat intermediate in color and differs from both of the more northern

forms in cranial details, as pointed out by its describer.

To the east, and southward of the Vizcaino Desert region to Cape San

Lucas, much of the land surface of the peninsula consists of rugged lava beds

and mountains of moderate elevation, with broad level plains only in the

vicinity of Magdalena Bay, and extending across to the Gulf side at La Paz.

This generally broken southern section is inhabited by the new form, A. l.

extimus, here described. It more nearly resembles peninsulae than the

nearer geographic neighbor canfieldae in color, but differs in tone as pointed

out. Some specimens from the desert plain near La Paz are paler than usual

in the subspecies, but others agree closely with topotypes. Specimens from

the type locality and elsewhere indicate that extimus, the most southern form

of the genus, wears a short, rather bristly coat throughout the year instead of

acquiring the long, full, cont and especially on the underparts, somewhat

silky winter pelage common to the more northern subspecies.

Specimens examined.—Total number, 56, from Lower California, as follows:

Aguaje de San Esteban, 1; Cape San Lucas, 9; Comondu, 9; El Potrero (near

Mulege), 2; Guajademi, 1; La Paz, 4; Matancita, 1; Sacecaton (type locality

15 miles north of Cape San HUES) 4; San Bruno, 1; San Ignacio, 6; San Jose

(30 miles north of La fe aes 2; San Jose del Cobo, 5; San Juanico Bay ;

San Pablo, 6; Santana, 3

JuLy 19, 1929 COBB: NEMAS 283

ZOOLOGY .—Observations on the morphology and physiology of nemas;

including notes on new species.' N. A. Coss, United States

Department of Agriculture.

1. A NEW SUBGENUS OF RHABDITIS

There is a group of slender-tailed amphigonic rhabdites having

lips and pharynx as shown in Fig. 1, the males of which have weakly

developed bursas. Such rhabdites have been described from time

to time but no author seems to have had adequate material for a

completely satisfactory description. Having examined living speci-

mens of both sexes of a new species of this group I took the occa-

sion to prepare a fuller description of it, and propose it as the type

of Rhabditella, a new subgenus of the genus Rhabditis Dujardin

1845.

Rhabditis (Rhabditella) leptura n. sp. Re. BQ aves Eye 0.82mm

Thin layers of the transparent, colorless, naked cuticle are traversed by

excessively fine, plain, transverse striae, resolvable only with the highest

powers. Longitudinal striations, due to the attachment of the musculature,

are visible in most regions of the body. No deirids have been observed.

The neck is very slightly conoid. The cross section of the pharynx is

roundish-triangular; yet the almost imperceptibly sigmoid pharynx is nearly

equidiametral throughout, though anteriorly the walls are a trifle more

strongly refractive. The glottis is a trifle oblique, but otherwise fairly typical.

The oesophagus presents a median, fairly prominent, ellip-

soidal swelling, or bulb, two-thirds as wide as the middle of the-

neck, and a somewhat ellipsoidal, or obscurely pyriform pos-

terior bulb two-thirds as wide as the base of the neck,—both

swellings of approximately the same diameter. The median

swelling presents an elongated, obscure but rather large,

valvular apparatus, while the cardiac bulb presents a rather

strongly refractive, somewhat three-fold, striated valvular ap-

paratus, located a little in front of the middle of the bulb. At

the nerve-ring the oesophagus is one-third, and in front of the

cardiac bulb about one-fourth as wide as the corresponding

portion of the neck. There is a distinct cardiac collum con-

stituting a rather broad constriction, so that the anterior

portion of the intestine through a distance nearly equal to one paseat

body-width enlarges from about one-third to five-sixths as ,,, ; Tien, Sed

wide as the body. This appearance, however, is somewhat ciel wee a AEE

variable. The nerve-ring surrounds the oesophagus obliquely. peat ot Tee eee

The intestine, the lining of which is somewhat refractive, is ning ofthe cesopha-

made up of cells of such size that probably only about two lower illustration.

are presented in each cross section; these cells contain granules

of variable size, which are not strongly birefringent. With crossed nicols

there is no suggestion of a St. Andrew’s cross;—not at all like the strong

birefringence of &. monohystera. ‘The posterior lip of the anus is very slightly

raised. The rectum, whose lining is only slightly refractive, is one and one-

y \

284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

third times as long as the anal body diameter. The vulva is slightly de-

pressed, though its lips are slightly elevated. The ovaries extend two-thirds

the distance back to the vulva, and are only about one-

sixth as wide as the body of the female. The smooth, thin-

shelled, ellipsoidal eggs, about as long as the body is wide and

two-thirds as wide as long, have been seen in the uteri one at a

time. Their yolk is made up of closely packed, faintly refrac-

tive, spherical granules, scattered among which are a few

exceedingly small granules less than one micron in diameter.

to bring the slightly developed obscure bursa into profile view.

The foremost papilla, or bursal rib, is somewhat variable in

position and is sometimes found nearly as far forward as the

proximal ends of the spicula. Fig. 2.

The testis is reflexed at its free end for a distance equal to

about two body diameters. This portion of the testis is only

about one-fourth as wide as the body, though it is very slightly

swollen at its extremity. Behind the flexure for some little

distance the testis still remains narrow,—only a little wider

than the reflexed portion lying alongside. Then, however,

it rather suddenly enlarges and soon becomes half as wide as

the body and so continues, enlarging slightly, however, for

three or four body widths. In this portion of the testis the

spermatocytes, pass through their growth period; they appear

as if in two rows and in pairs side by side, and one gets the ||;

impression that these pairs are twin cells. Their nuclei are ||;

large, becoming at last half as wide as the elongated sperma- ||

tocytes themselves, i.e. one-fifth as wide as the nema About

halfway from the blind end of the testis to the anus the full

grown spermatocytes, here half as wide as the body and

about as long as wide, apparently break successively into

quartets, the resulting subspherical cells being a little more

than one-fourth as wide as the body. For a distance equal

to about two body diameters forward from the spicula the

sexual organ is narrower,—about one-third as wide as the

body. Whether the cells of the quartet divide further remains

unknown.

Examination of one of the members of a quartet indicated

the probable presence of about seven chromosomes.

Habitat: Decaying fruit of Iuffa acutangula from Tela,

Honduras, October, 1926. Sent by Horace 8. Dean.

Diagnosis: Rhabditella subg. nov. Rhabdites having lips

and pharynx as shown in Fig. 1, the males of which have a

weakly developed costate bursa and long slender tails.

Diagnosis: Rhabditis (Rhabditella) leptura n. sp. Rhab-

ditellas dimensioned as shown in the formulae; male with oe.

two separate spicula, a simple inconspicuous gubernacu- x 750

lum, and with nine bursal ribs arranged as shown in Fig. Mee Lear ei male

2; phasmids present. Dep

| cit rs)

lis

phsm

JULY 19, 1929 COBB: NEMAS 285

2. MYOLABIA ON A NEMIC PARASITE OF MILLIPEDS

The front view of the lip region of Thelastoma attenuatum Leidy, a nema

from the intestine of the milliped Sporobolus marginatus, gives the impression

at first that there is a circlet of 10 “lobes” surrounding the usual three

lips. Careful scrutiny shows that two of these ten

~ lobes, the lateral ones, are the external amphids.

This leaves 8 other lobes arranged in 4 submedian

pairs.

A similar condition exists on another, and new,

species of Thelastoma occurring in the same host, ex-

cept that in this new nema the amphidial lobes do not

so closely resemble the other 8. Fig. 3. In the new

species the first slice behind the lip

region discloses the anterior parts of 8

muscular fields that extend throughout

the body, as may be shown by cross -

sectioning. Fig. 3. Furthermore, it is

quite evident that the 8 labial “lobes” | A... sb rl

are the external cephalic expression of {| Aan int

these 8 longitudinal muscular fields. A .wesplh

It is therefore very interesting to find POX

that in a second new species of Thelas- =

toma, belonging to a new subgenus and ce ihbird

infesting a different host (namely the ao le

milliped Fontaria marginata Say, as © Bee

found) im Vircinia~ Uo. 0A. mean they 1 —see polio

District of Columbia) the 8 organs which Fis., 4. Profile of

= head and neck of

pseu 05 ~ BI in Thelastoma attenuatum are vather in- Thelastoma (Thelas-

: tomell labla-

conspicuous lobes surrounding the true (7mm muolabia

lips, have entirely displaced the

ordinary lips, forming a lip region ©

prominently set off by constric-

tion, and consisting of 8 ene i

z pe subequal contiguous parts folded |;

it ae ae completely together over the phar- \\v

Fie. 3. Measurements, front YOX and constituting lips of a new

view)oi the lip region and near- sort. Figs. 4 & 5. This Fontaria

OO ee ete On a parasite presents, in cross-section,

L8 pairs of muscular fields. Fig. 5.

These lips may be called pseudolabia;—or, because of _.

their connection with the longitudinal muscular fields of ™

the nema, myolabia. No cephalic papillae have as yet

been seen on these myolabia. ; ;

Diagnosis. Thelastoma (Thelastoma) spicatum n. sp. @s7

Much like 7. attenuatum Leidy, but smaller and with

shorter spicate tail and more completely differentiated,

though still rather vague, myolabia. Dimensioned as

shown in the formula. Fig. 3. Attenuatum and aati es

spicotum may occur together in the intestine of the mil- es ite

liped, Sporobolus marginatus. a9 sy is 76 a

Diagnosis. Thelastomellum subg. nov. Thelastomas 18.°... cervical cross-sec-

with 8 well-developed myolabia as in Fig. 5. Type tionof Thelastoma (Thelas-

: 5 tomellum) subg. nov. L.

species T. myolabiatum n. sp. myolablatumne.

286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

Diagnosis.

Thelastoma (Thelastomellum) myolabiatum n. sp. Dimen-

sioned as shown in the formula, and with lips and amphids as in Fig. 5.

3. SYNGONY IN A NEW NEMA FOUND IN MILLIPEDS

Hitherto undescribed nemic parasites found in the intestine of the milliped

Fontaria marginata Say and belonging to the genus Thelastoma Leidy,

ome ae

‘ral

ode

A x sithe aly 4 :

limor. . Az

KAQMmaN: C2-> OTH

Fig. 6. Slightly diagram-

matic drawings of the fe-

male gonads of Thelastoma

(left) and Thelastomellum

(right). sp. the. sperma-

theca.

» S } 4 PI

Word <j ag

¥, S/

x 2000 fey

Fig. 7. Scoop shaped syn-

gonic sperms of T’helastomel-

lum.

prove syngonic. Thelastoma would be assigned by

most authors to the group Oxyuridae.

The discovery of syngony in this group opens up an

interesting field for speculation and research. It has

long been felt that the “Oxyuridae” present many

resemblances to the rhabdites. The gonism of the

rhabdites has been found very varied, particularly

through the researches of Maupas. Query: To what

extent, now, will the variations exhibited by the

rhabdites be found to occur in the ‘“Oxyuridae?”’

Male “oxyurids” usually are less common than the

corresponding females, quite frequently are rare, and

in some cases are unknown. The striking nature of

the recorded sex ratios has been explained by saying

that the males, being very much smaller, are easily

overlooked, and that possibly they die soon after

copulation; and that these two factors,—their smali-

ness and (assumed) relatively early death,—account

for their supposed rarity.

In the rhabdites the evidence fully warrants the

view that syngony has evolved from amphigony with

a gradual diminution or disappearance of males;—

for many stages between the two extremes still exist

as evidence of the possibility of such a change. There-

fore the discovery of syngony in the “oxyurids”’ at

once suggests a new explanation of the scarcity of

“oxyurid”’ males, namely, the one now usually accepted

in many cases for the rarity of male rhabdites. If

this be true of the ‘‘oxyurids,” it may have a con-

siderable bearing on veterinary and medical questions

connected with ‘‘oxyurid’”’ parasites in man and

domesticated animals, and in other hosts.

Species that have been assigned to the ‘‘Oxyuridae”’ are common parasites

of insects and some other annulata.

JULY £9; 19297 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 287

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

450TH MEETING

The 450th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club March 13, 1929, President

Capps presiding.

Program: J. EpwarD HorFFMEISTER and Harry S8. Lapp: Thickness of

elevated coral reefs. The question of the thickness of coral reefs is discussed

and new evidence is presented which indicates that many elevated reefs in

Tonga and Fiji are not nearly as thick as previously supposed.

A coral reef is defined as a wave resisting structure composed of calcium

carbonate secreted by corals and nullipores living in close association. Ele-

vated structures of this type in Tonga and Vitilevu, Fiji do not seem to

exceed two hundred feet in thickness. Since reef-building corals can flourish

to a depth of two hundred feet such thin reefs can be explained by normal

growth without subsidence.

Detailed studies were made of Kua and Vavau in Tonga (the only high

limestone islands in the group) and of Vitilevu in Fiji. The main mass of the

limestone in these islands is composed of foraminifera. (Author’s abstract.)

W. C. MAnsFIELD: Some deep wells near the Atlantic Coast in Virginia and

the Carolinas. /Study of cuttings from deep wells along the Atlantic Seaboard

corroborates the fact, inferred a number of years ago from the surface distribu-

tion of the geologic formations, that the region of the Cape Fear River in

North Carolina is upwarped. Depths to crystalline bedrock in five wells are

as follows: Fort Monroe, Va., 2246 feet; near Havelock, N. C., 2318 feet;

Wilmington, N. C., 1109 feet; Fort Caswell, N. C., 1540 feet; Summerville,

S. C., 2450 feet. At Havelock and at Summerville the Upper Cretaceous-

Eocene contact lies at a depth of about 700 feet below the surface, but at

Wilmington it is a few feet above sea level. (A uthor’s abstract.)

W. T. Scuauier and E. P. Henprerson: Mineralogy of potash cores from

New Mexico and Texas. ‘This study was based upon a series of core tests

drilled by private companies and also the Government. The cores are 23” in

diameter. Only the economic material is shipped to Washington, thus the

study of the mineral associations and relationships is based upon selected

horizons.

About 20 minerals have been definitely determined and if the most common

are arranged according to their decreasing order of abundance they appear as

follows: Halite, anhydrite, clays and shales, polyhalite, sylvite, carnallite.

Polyhalite is far the most widespread and abundant potash mineral so far

noted.

The saline minerals show many replacements. Polyhalite is found replac-

ing both anhydrite and to a lesser degree halite. Other minerals such as

glauberite and leonite are replaced to form polyhalite. Much of the sylvinite

shows enrichment by later sylvite.

The striking mineralogical features are (1) rather conetne red color of the

potash minerals; color caused by hematite; (2) the presence of thin bands of

magnesite in the anhydrite rock, clays and also polyhalite; (3) the reoccur-

rence of mineral cycles; the anhydrite grading into polyhalite, polyhalite into

halite, and the halite into sylvinite; (4) many of the minerals show a sequence

of formation. (Author’s abstract.) ’

288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

451sST MEETING

The 451st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club March 27, 1929, President

Capps presiding.

Program: W. 8. BurBAanxk: A collapsed dome in the Bonanza mining

district, Colorado. ‘The Bonanza district lies at the northeastern edge of the

volcanic region of the San Juan Mountains of Colorado. The rocks of the

district consist of a series of lava flows, probably of Oligocene age, which are

invaded by bodies of closely related intrusive rocks. At least 4,000 feet of

essentially horizontal lava flows and some local voleanic piles, ranging from

augite andesites to rhyolites, accumulated before the invasion of the larger

intrusive bodies. ‘These reached to within the shallow portions of the crust,

and domed and weakened it until lava escaped to the surface or the intrusive

forces became too weak to support the weight of the overlying rock. The

arched rocks collapsed over an area of about 100 square miles and subsided

upon the underlying magma.

During the subsidence the lavas broke into a complex series of fault blocks,

which were at places steeply tilted. It is believed that the tilting and fault-

ing of the lavas occurred simultaneously. The nature of the faults indicate

that forces of both compression and tension were involved in the collapse of

the structure. The resulting structure was compared to that of the Bullfrog

district, Nevada. Following the subsidence of the region hydrothermal

alteration of the rocks occurred and base metal veins were formed in many of

the fault fissures. Post-mineral deformation was very slight compared to the

pre-mineral deformation. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. LouGcuutn, Stosn, G. R. MANSFIELD and GILLULY. ©

J. B. Merrie, Jr.: The Pre-Cambrian sequence of Alaska and Yukon

Territory with particular reference to the Pelly Gneiss. The earliest work on the

pre-Cambrian of Yukon Territory, Canada, was done by Dawson and

McConnell, in 1887 and 1888. These pre-Cambrian studies were continued

in Yukon Territory by McConnell, up to 1905, and in Alaska by Hayes,

Spurr, and Brooks from 1891 to 1902. McConnell, in 1905, submitted a pre-

Cambrian section of the Klondike district, which constitutes the basis of

present sub-division and nomenclature. This work was continued in interior

Alaska and Yukon Territory, from 1902 to 1912, by Prindle, Capps and

Cairnes, and in Seward Peninsula, by Collier, Smith, Brooks and others.

More recently, pre-Cambrian studies have been pursued in Yukon Territory by

Cockfield and in Alaska by Mertie. The present sub-division of the pre-

Cambrian section is as follows:

Alaska Yukon Territory

Yukon group:

Pelly Gneiss Pelly Gneiss

Undifferentiated schists of igneous Amphibolites

origin Sericites and chlorite schist (Klon-

dike Series)

Birch Creek Schist, of sedimentary Nasina series, of sedimentary origin

origin

The Pelly Gneiss is typically developed in Yukon Territory, and in the

valleys of Ladue River and Dennison Fork of Fortymile River in Alaska.

It consists mainly of genissoid granitic rocks, ranging in composition from

granite to quartz diorite, and passing by differential metamorphism into

guLy 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 289

feldspathic schists. Augen gneiss is particularly well developed, the augen

consisting mainly of orthoclase, in places considerably albitized. Albite is

an important constituent among many of the gneisses, occurring in three

types as follows: First, original magmatic albite; second, albite and oligoclase-

albite, produced by albitization of both orthoclase and plagioclase feldspars;

and third, crystalloblastic albite, more often developed in the feldspathic

schists.

A somewhat similar formation of altered rhyolitic rocks, known as the

Totatlanika Schist occurs south of Tanana River, and the possible correlation

of this schist with the surficial phases of the Pelly Gneiss is suggested. The

possibility that both these formations may be Paleozoic rather than pre-

Cambrian is a contingency not to be overlooked. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. MENDENHALL, P. 8. SMITH, SCHALLER and PRINDLE.

TaIstA STADNICHENKO: Microthermal studies of some ‘‘mother rocks” of

petroleum from Alaska. Discussed by Messrs. P.S. SmitH, SPENCER, MERTIE,

MENDENHALL, WHITE.

452D MEETING

The 452d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 10, 1929, President

Capps presiding.

Informal communications: ROBERT OHRENSCHALL: Striated river pebbles

from Alaska. Striated pebbles are found in terraces of rivers south of the

known limits of Pleistocene glaciation. Similarly scratched pebbles are

found in the present channel of the Yukon River, Alaska. It is believed that

the striae are caused by the action of rocks held in river ice scouring the

channel during the spring “break up.’”’ (Author’s abstract.)

CuarLes Mitton: Moissanite (natural carborundum) in sediments. Mr.

Milton described an investigation mm progress by R. D. Ohrenschall and

himself on the widespread though sparing occurrence of moissanite (silicon

carbide) in sedimentary rocks, suggesting a cosmic course. Dr. M. I. Gold-

man in comment cited a French occurrence of diamonds as possibly having a

similar extra-terrestrial origin.

W. T. ScHatiter: A new use for minerals. The colors of minerals are

reproduced in neckties; thus we have patterns in lapis lazuli, sapphire, opal,

garnet, malachite, amethyst, etc. Also used as a basis for painting auto-

mobiles.

Program: Luoyp W. Fisuer: Origin of chromite deposits. Chromite as

an abundant accessory mineral or as a deposit of commercial importance is

restricted to ultrabasic rocks or their derivatives. A comparative study of

altered and unaltered chromiferous rocks from all prominent localities shows

that chromite may belong to at least three different periods of formation—

early or late magmatic, and hydrothermal.

In fresh rocks chromite of early magmatic origin is unfractured and occurs

as euhedral or subhedral forms. Crystallization of magmatic chromite and

silicates proceeds together after an initial crystallization of the ore minerals.

Much of this chromite is resorbed and deposited as late magmatic or hydro-

thermal chromite.

Chromite of the late magmatic period is often confined to zones of crushed

olivine or transects the boundaries of the silicates. It also occurs as elongate

forms interstitially between the groundmass minerals. It is usually un-

fractured and may be subhedral or euhedral in form. This late magmatic

chromite, which is of far greater importance than that formed at any other

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

period, replaces, either partially or completely, the groundmass silicates, and

surrounds, embays or cuts these minerals, or penetrates the cleavable minerals.

The chromite of hydrothermally altered rocks may or may not be fractured

but the forms are predominantly anhedral. Such chromite is definitely

associated with hydrothermal minerals of two distinct periods of crystalliza-

zation: early—anthophyllite, actinolite, and tremolite; and late—chlorite,

talc, serpentine (bastite, antigorite and chrysotile) and magnesite. Chromite

of hydrothermal origin occurs interstitially between plates of chlorite and in

cleavages of magmatic or early hydrothermal minerals, and in the fibrous

zones of bastite and chrysotile. It is difficult, however, to determine quan-

titatively the amount of chromite deposited along cleavages or interstitially

between plates of deuteric minerals by hydrothermal solutions. Such

chromite might have been formed during the late magmatic period.

The degree of fracturing of the grains compared with the amount of altera-

tion the rock has undergone, the occurrence of chromite transecting silicate

outlines or moulded on their periphery, and the association with hydrothermal

minerals as outlined above are criteria for recognition of late chromite.

The type of emplacement of the ore body is suggestive, in part, of chromite

being introduced into the country rock. The type of occurrence of the ore

body is reflected on a small scale in thin section.

It is indicated that the role of hydrothermal solutions as solvents of

chromite of early magmatic stage and as transporting agents of late magmatic

and hydrothermal chromite is important. (Author’s abstract.)

Epwarp H. Watson: Origin of Maryland pegmatites. The pegmatites

of Maryland are limited to dike swarms within the eastern holocrystalline

area of the Piedmont Province, and are associated with plutonic intrusions

of gabbro, granite, and ultra-basic rocks. The pegmatites are the final acid

differentiates of this series. There is considerable evidence to show that all

these rocks were intruded during one magmatic cycle, and were accompanied

by extensive regional metamorphism.

Differentiation in the pegmatites can be traced through the following

sequence: granite, pegmatitic granite, microcline pegmatite, plagioclase

pegmatite, quartz veins. Explosive release, due to a concentration of volatile

constituents, is probably one cause of dike formation.

The majority of Maryland pegmatites are high-pressure injections of

magma. They show little contact action, even in dolomite; they have the

structure of dikes, and have deformed their wall rocks. The hydrothermal

facies of these pegmatites include: feldspathization, tourmalinization, pyritiza-

tion, and epidotization. The Setters formation (pre-Cambrian) around

Baltimore has been impregnated with tourmaline for a distance of 20 miles.

Tourmaline-pegmatite and tourmaline-quartz veins are probably responsible

forthis. A few pegmatites are probably entirely of hydrothermal origin.

The replacement of minerals of early formation in pegmatities by others of

later formation is abundant in Maryland. The relations are generally simple

and the sequence is: microcline, muscovite, plagioclase, quartz, sulphides.

The greatest amount of replacement has been of microcline by plagioclase and

quartz. This replacement is thought to be a continuous and uninterrupted

process, brought about by reactions within the pegmatite, the conditions

changing from those typical for a magma to those typically hydrothermal.

In many case it is thought that all the minerals now present in the dikes were

introduced at the time of the original injection. Thus, at Ilchester, there isa

large mass composed of nearly equal amounts of albite, microcline, and quartz

JuLY 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 291

which formed simultaneously. Further differentiation during the injection

of the pegmatite produced bodies enriched in plagioclase and quartz. (A uthor’s

abstract.)

Discussed by Mr. ScHALLER.

JosEpH T. SINGEWALD, JR., and CHARLES MILTON: Grezsen and associated

mineralization at Silver Mine, Missourz. Silver mine lies nine miles west of

Fredericktown, Missouri, on the west side of the St. Francis River. At the

river level is the old Einstein silver mine opened on argentiferous sulphide ore

a half century ago. A quarter mile back from the river is the Apex mine

which was reopened during the World War as a producer of tungsten ore.

A mile and a quarter from the river the Ozark Tungsten Company was

developing a tungsten ore body in 1927.

Granite country rock has been changed to a topaz greisen along the walls

of the ore body. The greisen consists of varying proportions of quartz,

sericite, and topaz. Subsequent to griesenization fluorite, wolframite, and

the common sulphides were introduced into the wallrock by replacement.

These minerals occur disseminated in minute spots, streaks, and veinlets.

At the Apex and Einstein mines the wallrock is locally altered to lithium-

bearing mica and damourite.

The wolframite in the ore at the Ozark mine ranges in composition from

the high manganese to high iron end of the series, frequently with regular

crystallographic intergrowths of opaque black mineral and translucent red

mineral. It occurs asthe matrix of a greisen breccia. It has been extensively

altered to a gossan of limonite and goethite containing minute aggregates of

ferritungstite and stolzite.

At the Einstein mine sulphides occurred in greater abundance and the oreis

argentiferous. A sulphide concentrate consisting mainly of sphalerite and

pyrite and containing 22 per cent galena assayed 15 ounces of silver, but no

silver minerals were recognized on polished surfaces of the ore. The sphalerite

is characterized by an abundance of chalcopyrite inclusions which probably

represent unmixing of a solid solution for the most part. The lithium-

bearing mica has the optical properties of zinnwaldite but an analysis showed

only 0.58 per cent lithium. Cassiterite was found for the first time at this

locality and is closely associated with fluorite and zinnwaldite.

The mineralization is related to the typical tin vein type. Tourmaline is

the only common member of that type which has not yet been found. The

paragenetic sequence begins with a transformation of the minerals of the

granite into quartz, sericite and topaz. ‘Then followed arsenopyrite and

pyrite, cassiterite, and zinnwaldite. Fluorite began to form while cassiterite

was still being deposited and extended into the period of deposition of wolf-

ramite, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite which were almost contemporaneous.

Galena was the last of the ore minerals deposited. Damourite was a late

hydrothermal mineral. Supergene minerals are limonite, goethite, ferri-

tungstite, and stolzite. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. C. 8. Ross and FrErcuson.

453D MEETING

The 453d meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 24, 1929, President

Capps presiding.

Program: Dr. J. J. SepERHOLM, Director of the Geological Survey of Fin-

land: The Origin of granite injected rocks (Migmatites).

Discussed by Messrs. Kr1tH and LansEn.

292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 13

454TH MEETING

The 454th meeting, was held at the Cosmos Club May 8, 1929, President

Capps presiding.

Informal communications: L. W. STEPHENSON called attention to the

preservation of color markings in specimens of Hxogyra from the Austin

chalk of Texas. A new species of Ostrea was also found in a restricted zone

one foot thick about ten feet above the Hxogyra zone. Discussed by Mr.

GOLDMAN.

Program: G. R. MAnsFrevp: Structure of the Blackfoot Moutains, Idaho.

The Blackfoot Mountains which lie a few miles southeast of Idaho Falls,

Idaho, extend southeastward about 30 miles and occupy an area 6 miles to

15 miles wide. They are broader toward the northwest and Mt. Taylor

(Blackfoot Peak), 7,414 feet in altitude, is the highest summit. Most of these

mountains are included in the Ammon and Paradise Valley quadrangles.

The older strata, which range in age from Upper Mississippian to Lower

Cretaceous, are overlapped in considerable measure by Tertiary sediments

and lavas. The mountains are traversed by many folds, large and small,

which are broken by thrust and normal faults. The Snowdrift anticline, one

of the principal folds, continues 50 miles or more to the southeast. In the

southern part of the Blackfoot Mountains (Paradise Valley quadrangle)

this fold bears on its west flank a window in the Bannock overthrust, which

lies nearly 10 miles back from the front edge of the fault block, as exposed in

the Cranes Flat quadrangle to the northeast. Another window in the

overthrust occurs in the Chesterfield Range to the southwest (Portneuf

quadrangle) and lies 20 miles back from the front. Northwestward in the .

Ammon quadrangle the Bannock overthrust deploys into three major and

many minor branches. In structure sections the folded and faulted rocks are

represented as piled up in slices, which rest on a principal fault plane or

“sole’’ in a manner similar to that obtained in Cadell’s experiments illustrative

of structure in the Scottish Highlands. Horst and graben structures are

superimposed on these earlier folds and faults. There are also transverse

faults and it is thought that one of these in the Paradise Valley quadrangle

may be a tear fault or flow. Possible extensions of the Bannock overthrust

and the relations of this fault to overthrusting in the northern Rocky Moun-

tains were briefly discussed Older objections to the contraction hypothesis

no longer hold in the light of newer conceptions of the age of the earth and of

the behavior of radio-active materials in the earth’s crust. Reduction in the

earth’s volume by gravity and other causes is therefore regarded as the most

probable source of the great horizontal stresses which have produced the over-

thrusts. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs Butts, BAKER, BRADLEY.

L. W. SrerpHEeNson: Unconformities in the Upper Cretaceous of Tezas.

Discussed by Mr. GoLpMAN.

C. P. Ross: History of mining in Idaho. The mining history of Idaho

may be reviewed by means of three charts which summarize the statistics in

graphicalform. ‘These show that there was considerable placer mining in the

sixties, a depression in all mining in the seventies and that lode mining

started in the eighties and that the mining of lead-silver ore soon became the

dominant factor in the industry. Improvement in metallurgy has recently

caused some increase in the production of zinc. The production of copper,

never large, reached its peak in 1907 and has since been declining.

Shoshone County has been the outstanding producer almost since the first

JULY 19, 1929 NOTES AND NEWS 293

discovery in it of the deposits of the Cour d’Alene district and in 1926 pro-

duced nearly 94 per cent of the total for the State. Boise and Idaho counties

were the dominant producers in the early placer days but have since been

relatively unimportant. Blaine, Custer and Lemhi counties had large pro-

ductions in the eighties and each has had a revival since 1900. Custer

County, the least important of the three in the early days, has had the most

encouraging revival, while the formerly famous Blaine County had the

smallest and most delayed revival of the three. Owyhee County had an early

placer boom, followed by active production from lodes in 1867 to 1876

and again in 1889 to 1914, the longest period of mining prosperity anywhere

in Idaho outside of Shoshone County.

Production in each of the counties, except Shoshone County, has been

governed primarily by discovery of ore and only secondarily by economic

factors, and in most the quantity found in any one period was small. Al-

though ores of numerous metals exist, production of lead-silver ore is the only

branch of the industry of importance now or likely to become so in the near

future. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs FERGusoN and HEWETT.

A. A. Baker, JAMES GILLULY, Secretaries

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. Pact Bartscu, Curator of Molluses in the U. 8. National Museum, is

spending the summer in the lesser Antilles in connection with his second

year’s work under the grant of the Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholar-

ship.

Dr. J. W. Grpxey, of the U. 8. National Museum, is visiting localities

in Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington to investigate reported finds of

fossil vertebrates. He will later visit western museums to examine paleonto-

logic collections.

Dr. C. E. Ressir, of the U. 8. National Museum, is continuing his studies

of the Cambrian stratigraphy of the Rocky Mountain region, devoting this

summer particularly to formations in Idaho and Montana.

Dr. H. 8. Lapp, of the University of Virginia, is spending several weeks

at the National Museum, completing a report on the geology and paleontology

of Vitilevu Island, one of the Fiji group. Dr. J. E. Horrmetster, of the Uni-

versity of Rochester, is engaged in a study of corals collected last summer in

the Tonga Islands. It is expected that they will aid in determining the geo-

logic history of the islands. Dr. A. F. Forrstr, of Dayton, Ohio, is con-

tinuing his studies of Paleozoic cephalopods, particularly those of Canadian

and Ozarkian age, which he and Dr. E. O. Utricu are describing in monograph

form. Messrs. R. W. Harris and C. T. MarrHews have spent some weeks

at the National Museum examining recent and fossil Bryozoa and Ostracoda.

Dr. ALeS HrpuicKa, with Dr. Many, of Prague, as assistant, is in Alaska

in connection with his studies of the American Indian.

Dr. Remincton KeExoaa, of the U.S. National Museum, is visiting various

museums and private collections, particularly in California, to study the his-

tory of the fossil whales. The project is a cooperative undertaking of The

Carnegie Institution and the National Museum.

294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, NO. 13

The zoological collection of the late Colonel Wirt Robinson, containing

500 specimens of large and small mammals from the eastern United States, an

assemblage of large birds, and a collection of insects has been received by

the National Museum. Colonel Robinson had presented a large part of his

collection of birds to the Museum before his death. The Museum has also re-

ceived a splendid collection of land, fresh-water and marine shells made by

Mr. John K. Townsend in the early part of the last century.

-The following men have been recently appointed in the U. S. Geological

Survey: Rotanp W. Brown, paleobotanist to succeed F. H. Knowlton, de-

ceased. ARMAND J. EarpLEy, Davip A. ANDREWs, WILLIAM G. PIERCE,

Atonzo W. QuINN, THoMAs A. HENDRICKS, HAROLD E.. THomMas, and FRANK

S. PARKER, Junior geologists in the Section of Geology of Fuels; Maruanp P.

BILLINGs, assistant geologist in the same section. Howarp A. Powgrs, junior

geologist in the Section of Volcanology. EUGENE CALLAGHAN and Jan

CAMPBELL, Junior geologists in the Section of Metalliferous Deposits, and

QUENTIN D. SINGEWALD, assistant geologist in the same section.

Dr. A. 8. Hircucockx, U.S. Department of Agriculture, left New York,

June 8, for London on his way to South Africa. He will attend, by invitation,

the South African Association for the Advancement of Science at Cape Town

and Pretoria and will give a paper on the Relation of grasses to man. The

British Association for the Advancement of Science meets this year in South

Africa jointly with the South African Association. Dr. Hitchcock will visit

Victoria Falls and then, by way of Beira, Portuguese East Africa, will go to

Tanganyika and Kenya where he will spend about a month collecting grasses -

on the table land about Nairobi. He hopes to obtain temperate and alpine

species on Mt. Kilimanjaro. The return to London will be through the Red

Sea with brief stops in Egypt and Palestine.

Lokaabn at Pe eh

BAA

Cettony: —The Chesapeake Miocene basin of sedimentation as xprened in

geologic ies of Virginia. bee Cc. MANSFIELD . PRR ves: Si ae

Paka WN EN RR OL tie eS EON FS SO ee.

Zoology.—A new antelope squirrel from Lower Caltiora\n. a W. Sto

GOLDMAN 6 eee eee eee eee,

N.A. Hike foto ante nen

notes on new species.

PRCGCEEDINGS |

The Gedlopical Society eo ef 07 gy .au1 |. Vik ie or ae a

Scranermrc Notes AND NBWB 2b ciate haa gtk ae ee Maataens

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

‘President: ae ee U. 5. National Museum.

Vor. 19 Aucust 19, 1929 No. 14

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Vou. 19 Avucust 19, 1928 No. 14

PHYSICS.—Internal pressures in adsorbed films.! P. G. NutTtIne,

U.S. Geological Survey.

When a vapor or gas is dissolved or adsorbed, there is a perfectly

definite relation between concentration or thickness of adsorbed film

and external pressure and temperature. Such weight-pressure and

weight-temperature curves are readily obtained experimentally, but

little progress has been made in their analysis and interpretation.

The general problem is of wide interest and importance, for a variety

of problems in molecular physics and physical chemistry are but special

cases of the general problem, and its solution means the solution of a

host of lesser problems. The writer has determined a great number of

weight-humidity and weight-temperature curves for the hydrous

oxides and silicates and his interest lies in obtaining from these data

energies of association and relations between internal and external

pressures.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

When the temperature is uniform throughout any system, the free

energy per mole (or per molecule) must also be constant throughout

the system, otherwise there would be a net flow of heat from one point

to another and this would require a temperature difference. In

technical language the thermodynamic potential is everywhere the

same. Energy per unit mass times concentration is energy density

or energy per unit volume.

When mechanical equilibrium exists throughout any system, the

sum of all the pressures normal to any plane is zero. Otherwise there

1 Received May 14, 1929. Published by permission of the Director of the U.S, Geo-

logical Survey,

295

296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

would be a net drift of material in one direction. In a gas or vapor

there are two equal and opposite pressures, the confining pressure p

inward and the kinetic pressure x outward. In a liquid or solid there

are in addition two other pressures, usually very much greater than the

two just mentioned, the cohesion pressure P and the contact pressure

7, intensively investigated in recent years by the late T. W. Richards.”

At equilibrium p + P = 7 + « at every point and in every direction.

Besides these four principal pressures others come into play in certain

special cases such as solutions. Richards deduced cohesive pressures

from compressibilities (8) and thermal expansions (a) using the rela-

tion P = Ta/g. I wish to point out some more general and more

generally useful methods of arriving at these various pressures.

Since the kinetic pressure is equal to the free (thermal and mechani-

eal) energy density times concentration c, the free energy per mole

(RT) is everywhere the same and therefore « = CJRT/M in

dynes/em2. In other words the kinetic pressure is simply the external

or confining pressure corrected for concentration, « = cp/c, when

c, is the concentration of the vapor phase.

The cohesive pressure is equal to the concentration times the free

energy per gram necessary to bring the material to the state or phase in

question (latent heat, work of compression, condensation, ete.)

from a state (vapor) where it is zero. Therefore, in a liquid,

(1) eigen _ @ log C;

ce Sane oe

a very useful relation since kinetic pressure is so readily determined.

If the work done by the cohesive pressure were all done against the

kinetic pressure, dP would be equal to C « dv = — «dlog C and there-

fore P/x = log c/c; = g/RT, would be a simple relation between

change of concentration (from saturated vapor C, to liquid C) and

latent heat (q calories per mole) but the value so computed for water

at 26° is only about 0.6 the actual value indicating that 0.4 of the work

is done against the distending pressure 7.

Equation (1) applies to any liquid in its natural state. If however,

heavy external pressures or internal adsorption pressures be applied,

the work of compression, the integral of p8dp must be added to the

latent heat in finding cohesive pressure. In the more general case of

> Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 48; 3063-80. 1926. Chem. Rev. 2: 315. 1925, And pre-

vious papers,

aua. 19, 1929 NUTTING: PRESSURES IN FILMS 297

added pressures capable of doing work, (1) takes the more general

form

P g e) SdlosG: oes

Ce Res Re mick. a):

(1a) dp

d log p

where cis the concentration of the liquid affected by the extra pressure

p. Similar reasoning applies to solids and the change from liquid to

solid. If latent heats (Z) are given, the most convenient formula is

Py = Coby. + Cyl, the subscript 2 referring to the solid and 1 to the

liquid state.

These very simple relations between concentration, temperature and

the internal kinetic and cohesive pressures cover all ordinary problems

in change of phase, obviating the use of an equation of state which

after all represents but an illogical attempt to relate the properties of a

substance to the external confining pressure. At a free liquid-vapor

surface, the surface tension must just equal the kinetic pressure

per molecular layer (dynes per cm.). Surface tension may be

readily calculated from vapor pressure in this way. Surface energy,

« — Tdc/dT, is easily derived from surface tension o when its tem-

perature coefficient is known. Osmotic pressure is the increase in

cohesive pressure due to dissolved salt hence is « log C,/C since it

causes a lowering of vapor concentration from saturation C, to C.

At the critical state P and 7 become zero, « = p and the surface ten-

sion drops to zero since the concentration is uniform. Many other

simple applications might be cited.

Some numerical data will serve for illustration. For water at 26°C.

p = 33590 dynes/cm?, v = 40950 cc/gram. The kinetic pressure

« = 1379 megadynes/cem? (from, RT), 1375 md/cm? (from p/c) and

1376 (from the external latent heat), The cohesive pressure P =

24340 md/cm? (from the latent heat) or 24860 md/cm? from P =

d log C./d log T. By difference, the contact pressure (outward), x

= 22970 md/em?. ‘The vapor pressure is quite negligible in com-

parison with the internal pressures but when large external pressures

are applied to a liquid or solid they must be reckoned with the co-

hesive pressure in computing work done.’

Taking for the kinetic pressure of liquid water (C = 1), 1380

megadynes/em? and multiplying by the molecular diameter 5.2 xX

10-* cm gives for the surface tension 72 dynes/em. A sulphuric acid-

2 Cf.““Deformation and Temperature,” this Journat, March 19, 1929.

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

water solution 56.1 per cent water (by weight) has a vapor pressure

half that of free water hence the cohesive pressure of the water is

increased by the H.SO, by log 2 = 0.69 of the kinetic pressure «, or by

1050 md/em?2 which is about 4 per cent of the cohesive pressure of

pure water. The osmotic pressure (1050 md/cm:?) divided by the con-

centration of H,SO, (gm/cc) gives the energy of the dissolved acid in

ergs/gram, the fundamental variable. In the case just mentioned the

acid in solution has about four times as much energy per gram as has

the straight acid. In this case, as well as in adsorption, the cohesive

pressure represented by « log C’/C, is an external negative pressure so

far as the vapor is concerned hence it operates (on one or more walls)

to diminish the confining pressure p.

ADSORPTION AND HUMIDITY

An adsorbed film on a solid is in equilibrium with vapor of concen-

tration C less than saturation C,. Then RT log (C,/C) is the addi-

tional external work (in calories/mole) of condensation due to the

presence of the solid. This work is due to an increase in cohesive

pressure within the film of AP =x log (C,/C) where « = CJURT/M, C

being the concentration of liquid at the outer surface of the film. As

the adsorbed film increases in depth, the cohesive pressure decreases

rapidly at first then more gradually to that in the pure liquid.

In the case of silica and water the inner layers of adsorbed water are

so compressed that the concentration is about 1.3 which corresponds

with an additional cohesive pressure of about 17000 atmospheres (1.3

x 1380 megadynes/em?). This is the equivalent of the “‘heat of

wetting”’ for an immersed solid‘ and corresponds to a humidity below

that given by P.O;. Solids which retain water at extremely low hu-

midities may exhibit very high cohesive pressures and at the limit

(single layer of molecules), exert chemical forces of actual combination.

At the other extreme are salts such as KCl which adsorbs no water

until the humidity is above 80 per cent but then adsorbs freely. In

this case the maximum cohesive force between salt and water is less

than one-fifth (log 1/.80) that normal to pure water. Such a salt will

not cake as long as the humidity is held below 80 per cent.

The theory of adsorption of gases does not differ from that given

above for vapors but the constants for liquified gases are less well

known. However it is more logical, near and above the critical tem-

4 Nourrine, Jour. Phys. Chem., 31: 531-4. 1927.

AuG. 19, 1929 NUTTING: PRESSURES IN FILMS 299

perature, to integrate the work done against kinetic pressure. This

integration gives for the cohesive pressure due to adsorption A P =

x log (x /p) where p is the gas pressure and x = C/RT/M is the kinetic

pressure in the adsorbed film of concentration c gms/cc. Freundlich’s

equation (quantity adsorbed proportional to a power of the pressure

of adsorbed gas or vapor) is consistent with the theory here given as

are many other such possible relations, but the falling off of cohesive

pressure with depth is only roughly approximated by a logarithmic

function. This curve has a rather sharp bend in it and can not be

accurately represented by any simple function.

The energy of adsorption in an adsorbed film is readily obtained

from experimental data (on weight-humidity). It is the integral of

A P/C, cohesive pressure due to adsorption over concentration, or

(2) i peed ra if ' log (C,/C)aZ

from the solid surface out to a depth Z, in calories/mole/cm.?

ADSORPTION AND TEMPERATURE

The effect of a rise in temperature on adsorption is due to several

contributing factors; a (slight) decrease in concentration of adsorbed

material and a slight decrease in adsorptive forces but chiefly on the

first order increase in kinetic pressure and on the large increase of

saturation pressure with temperature. Since the cohesive pressure

due to adsorption is P, = x, log («/p), the change dP./dT = dP./dx

<dx/dT (external vapor pressure p not varying) = dP,/dZ x dZ/dT

where Z is the film thickness. Carrying out the operations indicated,

dZ/d log T = dZ/d log P, or the depth varies with temperature ac-

cording to the same law as it does with cohesive pressure due to

adsorption.

The cohesive pressure at the freezing point and the kinetic pressure

at the critical temperature are evidently natural constants of consider-

able importance for each substance but their discussion is hardly

relevant to the subject of this paper.

SUMMARY

Simple thermodynamic definitions of kinetic and cohesive pressures

are given, applicable to any homogeneous system in equilibrium.

The simple relations between internal pressures and concentration

are pointed out in contrast to equations of state.

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

The principles developed were applied to the calculation of surface

tension directly from vapor pressure.

Cohesive pressures in adsorbed films are shown to be derivable from

vapor pressure and from temperature data.

The essential relation between excess cohesive pressure and osmotic

pressure was pointed out.

In a later paper the principles here developed will be applied to some

weight-temperature and weight-humidity data.

PALEONTOLOGY .—A fossil ant from the Lower Eocene (Wilcox) of

Tennessee. F. M. CarpENtTEeR. (Communicated by E. W.

BERRY.)

Professor E. W. Berry, of the Johns Hopkins University, recently

sent me for identification a large ant wing from the Wilcox clays of

Tennessee.2 Since venation is of little value in the taxonomy of the

Formicidae, it is quite impossible to determine the exact affinities

of this new species. The presence of a discoidal and two cubital cells

eliminates it from the Formicidae, to which one might at first be.

tempted to assign such a large species, and there are, moreover, several

structural characteristics so strongly suggestive of the Ponerines that

I do not hesitate to place it within this subfamily. The generic

affinities, of course, are more obscure. ‘The position of the transverse

vein (Tr) at the base of the discoidal cell is similar to that in some genera

of Ponerines, mostly within the tribe Ponerini. The first and second

cubital cells are much smaller than in any other known ant wing, and

the apical side of the first cubital cell is unusually remote from

the corresponding side of the second cubital, of which it is generally

a continuation. The nearest approach to these conditions is found

in the Neotropical Dinoponera, and I am inclined to believe that this

wing belonged to a species more or less closely related to Dinoponera.?

Such a relationship seems even more probable when we consider that

a similar Ponerine genus, closely allied to Dinoponera and the South

African Streblognathus, existed in the Miocene of Florissant, Colorado.‘

1 Received May 31, 1929.

2 Only a few insects, Coleoptra, Trichoptera, and Isoptera, have been described

from this formation.

3 Professor W. M. Wheeler has kindly permitted me to compare this fossil with the

ants in his collection, and he also assisted me in making these comparisons.

4 This Florissant genus is described in my monograph of the fossil ants of North

America, now in press (Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zool.).

auG. 19, 1929 CARPENTER: EOCENE FOSSIL ANT 301

Eoponera, new genus

Very large ants allied to Dinoponera. Fore wing with a small first cubital

cell, the apical side joined to the basal part of the stigma; second cubital

cell also very short; transverse vein leading to the anal from the base of the

discoidal cell.

Genotype: Hoponera berryi, new species,

Eoponera berryi, new species

Fig. 1

Represented by the obverse and reverse of a fore wing, 26 mm. long, and

7 mm. wide. The stigma is long and narrow; the discoidal cell is triangular.

The apex of the wing is missing, but from the rest of the fossil one would

assume that the shape of the complete wing would be much like that of

Myrmecia.

Holotype: Cat. no. 80825, U. S. N. M. Collected at Puryear, Henry

County, Tennessee.

Fig. 1.—Forewing of Hoponera berryi, n.sp., from the lower Eocene clays of Tennessee.

1 Cu and 2 Cu, first and second cubital cells; Ds, discoidal cell; 7’r, transverse vein.

Although the generic affinities of this species are obscure, it is one of the most

interesting fossil ants that has been found. Its great size shows that the

complete insect must have had an expanse of at least two and a quarter inches,

or 57 mm.! The only known recent ant of such dimensions is Camponotus

(Dinomyrmez) gigas (Latr.), of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. Dino-

ponera grandis (Guérin) is the largest Ponerine, and although no winged

female of this ant seems to exist at present, it is very probable that its queen

would be about the same size as that of HE. berryi. A still more interesting

aspect of this new ant is its geological position. Until now the oldest record

of the ants has been in the Green River Shale of Utah, Wyoming and Col-

orado, which is of Middle Eocene age (Auversian). Professor Berry’s com-

prehensive study on the flora of the Wilcox formation has shown that these

beds are of Lower Eocene age (Sparnacian-Ypresian), so that this new fossil

is the earliest ant that has beenfound. Strangely enough, the Green River

ant-fauna, although not well known seems to be about as highly developed

as that existing to-day, and we can only hope that further specimens from the

Wilcox beds will be complete enough to throw some light on the origin of the

Formicidae.

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

BOTANY.—A plea for the conservation of Muhlenbeckia.! J. FRANCIS

Macsripb, Field Museum of Natural History. (Communicated

by Pau C. STANDLEY. )

In a recent issue of this journal? I suggested that obedience to the

fundamental provisions of the International Botanical Rules is

necessary, if in fact they constitute a document of importance, to be

taken seriously. Of course it may be expected that one with any sense

of humor or imagination will condone an interpretation of a minor

rule to suit the exigency of a given case as the author may feel reason

or expediency demands. But surely the Rules, if they have the im-

port of law, must be adhered to literally, in basic principle. For this

reason, as already pointed out, the name Calacunum Raf. must

supplant Muhlenbeckia Meissn. unless, by a duly constituted Congress

or its Committee, the latter is conserved.

Now it happens that there are two species of Muhlenbeckia not yet

treated under the name Calacinum which in the course of my work I

am called upon to dispose of. To list them under the former when

well-aware of the validity of the latter would be a tyrannical action,

certain to be regarded as disrespectiful to fellow-workers under the

Rules. But surely to refrain from publication under either name

until a Congress can decide whether to let the law take its course would

be honorable and not illegal. Naturally the latter alternative is

chosen, since it is now my personal conviction that Muhlenbeckia

should be conserved. (Though, as a matter of legal routine, I, myself,

once restored Calacinum.)

It is conceivable that under some circumstances postponement of

publication would be inconvenient or impractical, but this can scarcely

be the case when a Congress is meeting within a year or two. Asamat-

ter of course, if deferment is impossible Calacinum would be used by

the law-abiding student, even if ultimate conservation of Muhlenbeckia

should be sought. (I assume that no personal interest in ‘‘authorities”’

would enter into a matter so purely scientific.)

The argument for the conservation of Muhlenbeckia can be summed

up in a very few words. As no possible interpretation of the Rules

can give it legal standing let it be conserved frankly for reasons of senti-

ment and practicability: because it is well-known in horticulture and

because it commemorates the work of a botanist to whom the honor

1 Received June 10, 1929.

2 Turis JOURNAL 19: 247. June 19, 1929.

AuG. 19, 1929 HITCHCOCK: NEW SUDAN GRASSES 303

is due. Indiscriminate conservation on such grounds as these is

generally to be deplored but surely it would be a desirable and reason-

able action in the ease of this small genus.

BOTANY .—Three new grasses from French Sudan.! A.S. Hircucock,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

Ina collection of grasses from French Sudan submitted for identifica-

tion by the collector, Dr. O. Hagerup, of the Copenhagen Botanical

Museum, the following species appear to be undescribed.

Brachiaria hagerupii Hitchc., sp. nov.

Laminis planis, pubescentibus, 8-15 cm. longis, 8-10 mm. latis; paniculis,

angustis, 10-15 cm. longis; ramis appressis, rachi pubescente et hispido;

spiculis ellipticis, glabris, 3.5 mm. longis; gluma prima 2 mm. longa.

Sheaths glabrous; blades flat, finely pubescent, 8 to 15 cm. long, 8 to 10

mm. wide; panicles narrow, 10 to 15 cm. long, the axis angled, pubescent,

the racemes appressed, somewhat overlapping, 2 to 3 cm. long, the rachis

pubescent like the axis, also with scattered stiff white hairs; spikelets mostly

in pairs, unequally short-pediceled, glabrous, elliptic, scarcely turgid, nar-

rowed at base, somewhat acuminate, the nerves anastomosing toward the

tip; fertile lemma slightly apiculate, rather sharply cross-wrinkled, the pedi-

cels with stiff hairs; first glume about half as long as the spikelet,.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1385813, collected at Timbuktu,

French Sudan, Africa, August 17, 1927, by O. Hagerup (no. 271).

The specimen shows only the upper part of two culms.

Eragrostis pallescens Hitchc., sp. nov.

Perennis; culmis 60 cm. altis, glabris; vaginis glabris, ore dense piloso;

laminis angustis, involutis, glabris, 7-15 cm. longis, longe acuminatis; pani-

culis pallescentibus, angustis, 15-20 cm. longis, rachi ramisque etiam in

axillis glabris; ramis circ. 4 em. longis; spiculis 5-13 mm. longis, 0.5 mm.

latis, 10-30-fl., floribus imbricatis; lemmatibus 1.5 mm. longis, glabris;

paleis persistentibus.

Perennial; culms erect from a spreading base, glabrous, about 60 cm. tall;

sheaths glabrous, densely pilose at the mouth; blades narrow, involute,

glabrous, 7 to 15 cm. long, gradually acuminate to a fine point; panicle narrow,

pale, 15 to 20 cm. long, the axis and axils glabrous; branches ascending,

about 4 cm. long, the rachis glabrous; spikelets somewhat compressed,

closely set, appressed, 5 to 13 mm. long, 0.5 mm. wide, 10 to 30-flowered;

lemmas 1.5 mm. long, scaberulous on the keel, imbricate; palea persistent.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1385811, collected at Timbuktu,

French Sudan, June 6, 1927, by O. Hagerup (no. 105).

1 Received June 14, 1929.

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

Eragrostis albida Hitchc., sp. nov.

Annua; culmis patulis, gracilibus, 15-20 cm. altis; vaginis glabris, ore

piloso; laminis angustis,. involutis, 1-3 cm. longis; paniculis albescentibus,

patulis, oblongis, in axillis glabris, 5-7 cm. longis; ramis 1-3 ecm. longis;

spiculis appressis, 49 mm. longis, 6—-15-fl.; lmmatibus 1.5 mm. longis, acutis;

paleis persistentibus.

Annual; culms slender, spreading at base, 15 to 20 cm. tall; sheaths glab-

rous, pilose at the mouth; blades spreading, very narrow, involute, 1 to 3

em. long; panicle oblong, open, 5 to 7 cm. long, whitish, glabrous in the axils,

the branches spreading or ascending, slender, naked below, 1 to 3 cm. long;

spikelets appressed and imbricate, 4 to 9 mm. long, somewhat compressed,

6 to 15-flowered; lemmas 1.5 mm. long, narrowed above and acute; palea

persistent.

Type specimen in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1385812, collected at

Timbuktu, French Sudan, June 22, 1927, by O. Hagerup (no. 107).

ETHNOLOGY.—A point of resemblance between the ball game of the

Southeastern Indians and the ball games of Mexico and Central

America.!. JoHN R. Swanton, Bureau of American Ethnology.

My studies of the ball game of our Southeastern Indians have

brought out a peculiar feature which seems to have had its counterpart

in the ball games of the Nahuatl and Maya farther south. There are

considerable differences between the game (or games) as played in

these two areas, since among the Mexicans and Central Americans

ball-courts of stone were especially constructed for it, very few players

participated, and no rackets were used, the ball being propelled by

striking it with various parts of the body, usually the hips. Indeed,

speaking of the Nahuatl game, Zorita says players were compelled to

use the hips and if any other part of the body touched the ball the

opponents scored a point. The southern game also differed in pro-

viding an opportunity to win by a single shot through a hole in a stone

midway of the wall. One of these stones was, of course, placed on each

side. But this shot was such a difficult one that, although he who made

it won, it was unlucky, since it was not attributed to his skill but to

some evil or uncanny quality attaching to him. Zorita says that he

was regarded as a thief or an adulterer, or one destined to an early

death. Therefore, it is evident that games ordinarily turned upon

points obtained in the other ways mentioned.

When I came to study the Creek ball game, it struck me as a curious

fact that, while the goals were much like our own in lacrosse, to

1 Received May 15, 1929.

aua. 19, 1929 SWANTON: INDIAN BALL GAMES 305

strike one of posts counted as a goal equally with a drive between

them. For some unexplained reason the old Choctaw goals were like

those of the modern Creeks, whereas the ancient Creek goals and the

modern Choctaw goals differ. The latter consist of two planks, four

to six inches wide, placed side by side and with no space between. A

goal is made by striking the post but the ball must also come to the

ground inside of a foul line running through the goal post. The two

planks may be the side posts of the goal now brought close together.

Before crossbars were used, the Choctaw goal seems to have been

formed of two poles set in the ground some distance apart but brought

together at the top. The old Creek goal is described as just the

reverse of this, made of two poles or withes which diverged at the

upper ends, points being scored either by striking the poles or driving

the ball over them.

Finally, Du Pratz tells us that the goal of the Natchez game,

played annually at the time of the harvest—or rather the new corn—

ceremony, were the cabins of the Great Sun and the Head War Chief,

and that the game was ended when the ball struck one or the other.

Mention should also be made of the method of scoring in the single

pole game, played quite generally throughout the Gulf area. Among

the Creeks, men and women usually opposed each other in this game,

women driving the ball with their hands while the the men were

permitted to use only their sticks. Points were made by striking the

pole above a certain mark, and at the very top was a cow skull, a

horse skull, or some object made of wood, to hit which scored more than

if the pole itself were touched.

On examining methods of making goals among North American

tribes having either the single stick game or the two stick game, we

find that there are three: (1) hitting a post, reported by three inform-

ants out of four from the Chippewa, by one from the Missisauga, one

from the Miami, one from the Creeks (Bartram), which is also the pres-

ent usage of the Choctaw; (2) carrying the ball past a line marked by one

post or a line of posts, reported from the Cherokee by one early inform-

ant, from the Caughnawaga (probably erroneously), once from the

Huron, once from the Dakota, from the Chinook, Pomo, and Miwok;

and (3) driving or carrying the ball through a gate, recorded among

the Chippewa, among the Thompson Indians, the Dakota, the Iowa,

once among the Huron, and among the Mohawk, Seneca, Creeks, and

modern Cherokee, and among the Choctaw of an earlier period.

The two last methods appear to be associated more often than is

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

either with the first. There is a slight suggestion that the first may

have had properly a distribution down the Mississippi and this again

may have had something to do with the custom spread throughout that

area of “striking the post’? when announcing successes in war. At any

rate two ideas appear to be involved, one scoring by driving the ball

past some mark or marks or through some opening, the other scoring

by hitting a post or wall, and it is probably significant that, while the

goals of the Iroquois, the old time Choctaw, and the modern Creeks

were of the two-post type, striking the posts did not count among

the Iroquois unless the ball went completely through but it did count

with the two Muskhogean tribes. This fact, taken in conjunction

with the Natchez usage, leads me to suppose that the goal posts were

conceived of in the Southeast as outlining a solid surface. It is in

this fact that the resemblance to Mexican systems of scoring appears.

The old Creek usage of counting a drive over the posts may be

compared with the Mexican usage of counting a drive over the wall.

One difficulty in comparing the ball games of the two areas is pre-

sented by the fact that rackets appear to have been unknown to

the Mexicans and Middle Americans. However, Bernard Romans

informs us that, besides the game with rackets, the Choctaw had a

similar game played with a larger ball in which only the hands were

employed, and Bushnell shows that this lasted until quite recent

times among the Choctaw of Bayou Lacombe, Louisiana, where it was

not given up until after the game with ball sticks had been abandoned.

The Natchez game also seems to have been played without rackets,

and it is possible that they represent an invention of some tribe farther

north and east.

Conclusions.—It is believed by most ethnologists who have had

occasion to compare the culture of our southeastern Indians with the

cultures of the tribes of Mexico and Middle and South America

that certain similarities which they present may best be explained

by borrowing. Among these may be mentioned head deformation,

the use of the blowgun, blackening of the teeth, and probably mounds

as the foundation of sacred edifices. There seems to me to be little

doubt that the method of scoring points in the ball game, so different

from that in vogue among the Iroquoian peoples and among ourselves,

is another example of the same thing.

AUTHORITIES

A. P. Maupstay. Biologia Centrali-Americana. Archaeology. Vol. 3, pp. 26-27

(London, 1895-1902).

AuG. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 307

H. H. Bancrorr. Native races of the Pacific States. Vol. 2, Civilized Nations, pp.

297-299.

M. Bossu. Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales, 2 vols. Paris, 1768. Vol. 2,

pp. 100-103.

BERNARD Romans. Natural History of East and West Florida, p. 79.

GrorGE Catiin. North American Indians, 2 vols., Phila., 1918. Vol. 2, pp. 140-

144.

H. B. CusumMan. History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Natchez Indians, pp. 184-

190. :

CiaIBoRNE. History of Mississippi. Vol. 1, pp. 485-486.

H. S. Hatsert, (Ms.).

Stewart CULIN in Twenty-fourth Ann. Rep., Bur. Am. Ethn., pp. 562-616.

D. I. Busuneui, Jr. The Choctaw of Bayou Lacombe. Bull. 48, Bur. Am. Ethn.,

p. 20.

J. R. Swanton. Bull. 48, Bur. Am. Ethn., p. 117; Forty-second Ann. Rep., Bur.

Am. Ethn., pp. 456-468; Forty-fourth Ann. Rep., Bur. Am. Ethn., pp. 256-258.

ALONSO DE ZoritTa. Historia de la Nueva Espana (Coleccién de libros y documentos

referentes 4 la historia de America, Tomo 9). Tomo 1, pp. 307-310.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

989TH MEETING

The 989th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, March 30,

Program: WARREN W. Nicuo.uas, Structure of the electron.—It is recalled

that the well-known electromagnetic ‘‘pulse” theory of X-rays (Stokes, 1897)

is in many ways immensely satisfactory when applied to phenomena observed

with X-ray continuous spectra. This pulse theory fails, however, to account

for the observed spectral energy distribution, the most apparent difficulty

being that of accounting for the high frequency limit of the continuous

spectrum. Simple experiments are performed with a pendulum (illustrating

an oscillator within an atom) which show the manner in which the pulse must

affect some atomic oscillators of extremely high frequency; this proves that

the pulse would not have a definite high frequency limit, and therefore that

the simple pulse theory must be discarded.

It is then shown how this difficulty could be avoided (still retaining all the

satisfactory features of the pulse theory) by assuming a more complicated

form of pulse; this pulse would be produced by an electron consisting of both

positive and negative charge, this charge being distributed over an infinite

sin * This would

provide for a net negative charge of e as generally accepted, and this electron

would account for all the very complicated phenomena so far observed with

X-ray continuous spectra.

An extension of the ideas is obtained by supposing that the electron is not

of infinite, but of finite, length, of the order of 10-7 cm. This finite electron

would then not only account for X-ray continuous spectra, but would pro-

vide a source for the penetrating cosmic radiation.

- length along its line of motion according to the formula

308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

It is pointed out that, while the main physical ideas about this electron’

may be very clear, it is possible that the quantitative relationships may not

be expressible in terms of simple mathematical formulae. (Author’s Abstract.)

W. F. Mecemrs and R. M. Lancer. Light scattering in liquids.—In

February, 1928, Professor Raman of Calcutta announced the discovery that

when monochromatic light is scattered in a transparent pure liquid, the diffused

radiation ceases to be monochromatic, in addition to the incident radiation

scattered with unmodified wavelength, fainter lines or bands with modified

wavelengths appear in the spectrum of the diffused radiation. This new type

of radiation immediately attracted much attention and efforts to confirm

and extend the observations have been made in a great many laboratories

all over the world. The usual experimental arrangement is that first de-

scribed by Raman and Krishman; it consists of a spherical bulb, filled with

liquid, at the center of which the light from a mercury arc is focussed with a

condensing lens. The scattered radiation is photographed with small scale

prismatic spectrographs with exposures of 25 to 100 or more hours. By

using a more efficient arrangement we have been able to reduce the exposures

from hours to minutes and even to seconds. The liquid is contained in a

cylindrical tube placed parallel and very close to a brilliant quartz-Hg arc.

Both are surrounded by cylindrical metal mirrors and the entire system is

immersed in running water for temperature control. Scattered radiation

passes from the end of the tube directly into the spectrographs. This arrange-

ment, together with the Hilger E2 spectrograph gives the stronger of the

modified lines characteristic of different liquids with exposures of a few

minutes, and satisfactory results with a 21-foot concave grating spectrograph

have been obtained with exposures of 1 to 2 hours. Spectrograms have been

made of Hg light scattered in CsH,, CCl, CHCl, H2O, H2SO1, HNO3s, KNOs,

NaNOs, KNOz,, SiO, and CaCQs.

The wavelengths of modified radiations have usually been given only two to

four figures but it is found that some lines are surprisingly sharp and can be

measured to about one part in 300,000. This precision corresponds to about

0.1 em.~! in wave number, which in turn corresponds to 10-4 at 3y or 10784

at 30u.

The first explanation for the modified lines in the spectrum of scattered

light was that a molecule may subtract from or add to an incident quantum

one of its characteristic energy quanta and scatter the resultant sum or differ-

ence in a single quantum. Although only qualitative data were heretofore

available, certain difficulties and discrepancies in the correlation of modified

lines with infrared absorption bands were apparent. More precise measure-

ments indicate that the frequency shifts may be interpreted not only as ab-

sorption frequencies but also as differences between these. If this revised

interpretation is correct the significance and power of the experiments with

scattered light in unravelling infrared spectra are very much increased.

(Author’s Abstract.)

990TH MEETING

The 990th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 13,

1929.

Program: H. A. Marmer, The Gulf Stream and its problems——The pre-

vailing conceptions in regard to the Gulf Stream date back to the conclusions

derived about forty years ago, at which time the last of an extensive series of

observations was made. Since then, however, our knowledge of many of the

AauG. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 309

factors involved have undergone considerable modification, and hence the

prevailing notions regarding the Gulf Stream must be modified accordingly.

The paper discussed the various factors and problems involved. It is to

appear in an early issue of the Geographical Review. (Author’s Abstract.)

F. C. BRECKENRIDGE, Visibility tests with flashes from neon and in-

candescent Lamps.—The visibility of light derived from an incandescent

lamp with a red filter has been tested in comparison with that of light from a

neon lamp and also with that of a similar incandescent lamp without the

filter. Especial attention was given to producing beams having similar

eandlepower distributions. The tests include a variety of clear, hazy, rainy

and foggy weathers and ranges up to 7.0 km.

The results of the test indicate no difference between the visibility of light

from a neon lamp and light of the same color and horizontal intensity dis-

tribution from incandescent lamp with a filter. The use of the red filter on

an incanaescent beacon did not increase its visibility under any of the weather

conditions encountered, but there was some evidence that it did not reduce

the range as much in certain types of foggy or hazy conditions as it did in

clear weather.

The neon lamp will produce red light more efficiently than the combination

of incandescent lamp and filter. The relatively low brightness and conven-

tional form of the neon lamp, however, are drawbacks for use with lenses

and reflectors. The red filter makes the flash more conspicuous and that

in many locations more than offsets the loss in range. (Author’s Abstract.)

F. C. Kracek, The polymorphism of sodium sulphate—Anhydrous sodium

sulphate exhibits complex polymorphism. The behavior of individual

samples depends upon their previous thermal history as well as upon

their mode of preparation. Heating and cooling curves show radically

different individual characteristics. The first heating curve on material

crystallized from aqueous solution has six heat absorptions between 195°

and 250°. These fall into two major groups; the upper group only is partially

reversible on reheating after cooling. The cooling curves always have at

least two heat evolutions in close proximity, one of which is the well known

arrest at 234°. The thermal evidence combined with microscopic examina-

tion leads to the conclusion that this salt is pentamorphic. The three lower

forms exhibit pseudomonotropism. None of the inversions are rapid in the

dry state, and all show appreciable hysteresis. (Author’s Abstract.)

991ST MEETING

The 991st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 27,

1929. Program: James B. MacEeLwANgs, 8. J., Professor of Geophysics and

Dean of the Graduate School of St. Louis University, by invitation: Work

of the Jesuit Seismological Association.—It is now just twenty years since the

Reverend Frederick L. Odenbach, 8. J., of John Carroll University, Cleve-

land, Ohio, began the movement which has resulted in the present association.

February 2, 1909, he addressed a circular letter to the presidents of the Jesuit

colleges and universities in the United States and Canada on the possibilities

of seismological research. He stressed the advantages of a cooperative

program with similar instruments, and told them of the extremely low prices

at which the small Wiechert seismographs could be purchased. The result

was that in less than two years fifteen institutions purchased horizontal com-

ponent seismographs. These were Brooklyn College (Brooklyn, N. Y.),

Canisius College (Buffalo, N. Y.), Fordham University (New York City),

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

Georgetown University (Washington, D.C.). Gonzaga University (Spokane,

Wash.), Holy Cross College (Worcester, Mass.), John Carroll University

(Cleveland, O.), Loyola University (Chicago, IIl.), Loyola University (New

Orleans, La.), Marquette University (Milwaukee, Wis.), Regis College

(Denver, Colo.), Saint Boniface College (Saint Boniface, Man., Canada),

Saint Louis University (Saint Louis, Mo.), Saint Mary’s College (Saint Mary’s,

Kan.), Spring Hill College (Mobile, Ala.), and the University of Santa Clara

(Santa Clara, Calif.). Three of these, Georgetown, New Orleans and Santa

Clara also purchased vertical component seismographs of the Wiechert type.

The first organization with headquarters in Cleveland under Father

Odenbach was called the Jesuit Seismological Service. It worked very well

for two years until an unfortunate difference of opinion brought it to a prema-

ture end. Left to their own initiative one after another of the stations

stopped publishing results or ceased operation altogether. Only Georgetown,

Denver, Spring Hill and Saint Louis were still publishing data in 1925.

There was danger that the chain of stations as such would prove a wasted

effort.

Largely through the initiative of Doctor Arthur L. Day and Mr. Harry

O. Wood of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, an exchange of views

between the directors, the Jesuit superiors and the speaker was begun in the

spring of 1925, which resulted in the formation of the present Jesuit Seismo-

logical Association as a voluntary organization of stations, not of men, with a

central station at Saint Louis University. The cooperation of Science Service

and of the United States Coast and Geodetie Survey, and the proposal made

by them to unite with the new association in a plan for the immediate deter-

mination of epicenters, helped much in bringing about the reorganization.

Of the twelve stations now in operation, Cincinnati is entirely new and

Georgetown, Fordham, Santa Clara and Saint Louis have new, first class

equipment. The results so far obtained are highly encouraging, and it is

hoped that the presence and activities of these stations in the colleges and

universities will lead promising students to take up the study au seismology.

(Author’s Abstract.)

992D MEETING

The 992nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 11,

1929.

Program: Howarp 8. RappteyE: The mathematical and graphical fea-

tures of genealogical research.—This paper represents an informal discussion

of certain mathematical and graphical features in connection with the tracing

out of family trees and their representation on diagrams of workable size.

The mathematical feature of the paper consists almost entirely of a brief

discussion of the rate at which the number of ancestors for any given in-

dividual increases as one goes backward generation to generation. For the

given individual the number of ancestors involved in going back two or three

centuries is not beyond the practical limits set by the ability of any one

individual to cover the ground, but from that point on the amount of labor

involved in looking up double the number of ancestors in each succeeding

generation piles up so rapidly as to be entirely out of the question for any

individual research.

The portion of the paper dealing with the graphical representation of

family trees is illustrated by means of a number of large poster diagrams on

which portions of family trees are shown. These illustrate the various types

Aua. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY dll

of diagrams from the simplest or “‘pedigree diagram’’ to the more complicated

types which attempt to show all of the descendants of some common ancestor.

The pedigree type of diagram is useful in tracing the descent of the modern

individual to some illustrious ancestor.

The type of diagram on which most emphasis is laid represents at its point

a modern individual and attempts to represent all of his ancestors back to the

limit of the diagram.

A suggested form of individual record card is also presented with some

suggestions as to a convenient numbering system for individual records in

the case where the research is covering or attempting to cover the complete

ancestry of some present-day individual. (Author’s: Abstract.)

D. B. Jupp: Recent developments in color theory.—lt is said (Allen) that

between 60 and 70 theories of color vision appear in the literature. Of these,

the author is somewhat familiar with ten. These theories differ notably with

respect to the seat which is chosen for the mechanism that is taken to explain

the principal facts of color vision. These facts, for the sake of simplicity in

discussion, may be grouped into two heads: (1) the laws of mixture of color

stimuli which indicate a system having three degrees of freedom, and (2)

the subjectively discovered fact that two pairs of chromatic primaries exist,

red and green, yellow and blue. Thus the original Young-Helmholtz theory

(still held in different modifications by Tscherning and Allen) spoke of three

types of nerve endings in the retina whose various responses (red, green, and

violet) were fused in the visual cortex into colors as we experience them. The

later Helmholtz view places all three types of response together with their

fusions within a single cone-shaped receptor cell of the retina, as does also the

Ladd-Franklin view. The theory of Adams assumes three types of receptor

cells whose responses are fused by means of synapses within the nerve-tissue

layer of the retina itself. The Hering theory which assumes the existence,

somewhere in the chain of retinal and post-retinal events, of three reversible

processes, red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white, has been rather generally

confined by his immediate successors (Tschermak, Miiller) to the cortex;

but W. T. M. Forbes has recently supplied a possible retinal mechanism

based on interference which also yields closely the Hering formulation.

Moreover, V. Kries, followed by Schrédinger (of wave-mechanics fame), is

inclined to carry on a Young-Helmholtz theory for the retina and a Hering

theory for the cortex. All of these various formulations account for the

principal facts of color vision; some rather more naturally emphasize the

three degrees of freedom of the visual system, others more easily suggest the

two pairs of chromatic primaries. The accessory phenomena (after-images,

contrast, fatigue, color-blindness, etc.) are judged to be well or ill explained

es all Lata theories depending in large measure on the pre-conceived ideas of

the judge.

Recently Selig Hecht has demonstrated that binocular fusion of colors is

easy for the normal observer to experience. He indicates that, since this

kind of fusion undoubtedly occurs in the cortex, he is inclined to refer all

color-fusion to that region. Thus, we may perhaps expect him to return

to the original Young-Helmholtz formulation, though, to be sure, of those

mentioned only the later Helmholtz, the Ladd-Franklin, and the Adams

views refer color-fusion specifically to the retina. Ladd-Franklin has since

opposed Hecht’s argument by pointing out that his experimental conditions

were responsible for the success of his observers with binocular fusion of

colors. Rivalry and dominance, rather than fusion, are to be expected for

other experimental conditions.

312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

The Ladd-Franklin theory has also been newly attacked by G. E. Miiller,

who incidentally describes a sort of color deficiency (blue-yellow), lately

discovered, which he names Tetartanopia as distinguished from the better

known blue-yellow deficiency, Tritanopia. Miller has elaborated the Hering

theory by carrying on one Hering formulation for the retina and another

(with slightly different primaries) for the cortex. According to this view,

Tritanopia is due to the failure of the retinal, blue-yellow process, while

Tetartanopia is due to failure of the cortical, blue-yellow process. Miller’s

views are particularly interesting because experiments at the Bureau of

Standards along different lines have independently suggested the need for

similar views. (Author’s Abstract.)

Oscar S. Apams, Recording Secretary.

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

728TH MEETING

The 728th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

January 12, 1929, at 8.10 p.m., with President GoLpMaN in the chair and 70

persons present.

Paut Barrscu reported the appearance of the same mocking bird at his

feeding shelf for the ninth or tenth year.

Howarp Bauu reported the observation of the following birds: Forster

tern near Hunting Creek on 28 December; phoebe, chewink, and catbird on

5 January near Washington; a duck hawk on the post office tower.

Program: P.S. Gautsorr: Private life of the American oyster (illustrated).—

An understanding of the factors controlling the life of any organism in the sea

requires a thorough knowledge of its physiology and of the seasonal changes

that take place in its environment. Such an attempt was made by the author

in a study of the life history of the American oyster which because of its wide

distribution and abundance plays an important part in the life of our inshore

waters.

Quantitative experimental studies on feeding, spawning and sensitivity of

the oyster carried out during the last three years at Woods Hole, Mass.,

enabled the author to describe these activities in the oyster as they occur in

nature. It has been found that feeding which consists in filtering of water

through the gills and swallowing the microorganisms suspended in water, is

controlled by the temperature and ceases entirely at 5°C. The maximum

activity of the gills occurs around 25° when the oyster can take in water at the

rate of about 4 liters per hour. On a crowded reef millions of gallons of

water are filtered daily by the oysters and it happens often that in shallow

bays with small range of tides there is not sufficient water available for the

oysters which have to live on a reduced diet and starve.

Spawning of the oyster is controlled by the temperature and by the presence

of eggs and sperm in the water. The female oyster is unable to spawn at the

temperature of 20° or below. Above this temperature limit its spawning

can be caused by adding a small amount of sperm to the surrounding water.

Spawning reaction is characterized by a long latent period, rythmical con-

tractions of the adductor muscle and discharge of eggs. The reaction is

followed by a period of rest which lasts from 2 to 4 days. During this time

the oyster is unsusceptible to the sperm. Male oysters can be induced to

spawn by adding small amounts of eggs. The reaction takes place almost

immediately and consists in the discharge of sperm; it is not accompanied

by the contraction of the muscle and is not followed by the period of rest.

aua. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 313

Oysters were found to be very sensitive toward slight changes in the chem-

ical composition of sea water, especially to the increase in concentration of

potassium salts.

Intimate knowledge of the activities of the organism is essential for under-

standing the factors that control its life in the ocean. (Author’s abstract.)

H. F. Prytaercn: Forecasting the time of setting of oysters (illustrated).—

The oyster industry is our most valuable fishery and represents the highest

development in the field of agriculture. The oyster lends itself readily to

cultivation and the oyster farmer in taking advantage of this has not only

made productive thousands of acres of barren bottom in our coastal waters

but has increased the production on depleted natural oyster beds from 10 to

100 times. In the waters of Long Island Sound which border the shores of

Connecticut we find oyster farming developed to a greater extent than

anywhere else in the world. In the past, Connecticut has been famous as a

seed oyster producing region and was able to supply the surrounding states

and even Europe with this commodity. However, in recent years seed

oyster production has decreased to such an extent that the oyster growers

have failed to obtain enough seed for the planting of their own grounds and

as a result the bottom acreage leased for cultivation has decreased since 1910

from 75,000 acres to 50,000 acres in 1928. The Bureau of Fisheries, in

response to requests from the oyster growers, established a field station at

Milford, Conn., and proceeded to study (1) the fluctuations in the yield of

seed oysters from year to year; (2) the relation between the hydrographic

conditions over the oyster beds and these fluctuations; (3) the time of oyster

spawning; (4) the occurrence, distribution and behavior of the oyster larvae;

and (5) the time of setting or attachment of the oyster larvae to the collecting

material that is planted by the oysterman.

I will only have time to discuss briefly the factors that were found to be of

greatest importance, as a result of which we have been able to supply the

oysterman with advance information as to: (1) Whether there will be a crop

of seed oysters and how heavy it will be; (2) when the oysters will spawn;

and (3) when setting will occur or in other words, the time by which shell

planting should be completed. To arrive at these conclusions over a month

in advance, the chief factors that are analyzed are: (1) the quantity of adult

oysters and their location; (2) the amount of spawn developed by the oysters;

(5) the temperature of the water; and (4) the range of tide.

From a correlation of these factors with the time of spawning and the

yield of seed oysters during previous years we have been successful in making

predictions for the summers of 1926, 1927 and 1928. The past summer was a

rather severe test for forecasting as will be seen from the graphs but fortu-

nately turned out correct and gave additional evidence in support of the

method that was employed. The predictions are turned over to the state

shellfish commission which issues copies to all the oyster growing concerns

which engage in shell planting. (Author’s abstract.)

G. C. Rouncere.: Alaska herring investigations. (No abstract received.)

S. F. Buake, Recording Secretary.

729TH MEETING

The 729th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club January 26, 1929, at 8.10 p.m., with President GoLpMAN in the chair

and 55 persons present. New member elected: M. G. Nerina.

FRANK THONE described briefly some new scientific publications.

314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

Mrs. T. M. KNAppEN reported the recent observation of a towhee in

Washington on Tilden Street.

EK. P. Waker: Some graphic methods of showing problems in wild life

administration.—Due to the failure of the masses of the American public to

grasp the problem involved in wild life administration, efforts have been made

to present some of them graphically. Four problems were thus presented in

diagrams or graphs. The graph of the first subject was based on the premise

that a given area of land or water or land and water will support a certain

animal population. Increase of the population exhausts the food supply and

if the area is not fully stocked there is an economic loss.

The second problem, the fur cycle, illustrated graphically the changes in

the value of the skin of a number of land fur-bearing animals, depending

upon the dates the animals were killed. This illustrated the growth and

priming of the fur until it was at its maximum value for a very short period,

and its wearing, fading, and shedding.

The third problem, a basis for adjusting fur seasons, was illustrated with

graphs showing relative numbers of animals taken during the first, second,

and third months of an open season.

The fourth problem, studies of Alaska fur production, used the three

preceding ones for a basis and showed that with the proper adjustment of

the seasons for the taking of certain animals a greater cash return can be

obtained from a smaller number of animals taken over a short season than

from a larger number of animals taken over a longer season; thereby showing

the importance of properly adjusting the seasons for taking fur-bearing

animals and that such seasons and takes, when properly adjusted and limited,

will result in much greater profit than when the seasons are not properly

adjusted and the takes thereby limited. (Auwthor’s abstract.)

O. J. Muriz: The Alaska caribou (illustrated) —The caribou occupy the

rounded open hills of interior Alaska, although they occur at times in more

limited numbers in the high rugged mountains inhabited by the mountain

sheep. In summer they feed largely on grasses and herbaceous plants.

They are fond of willow in the fall. When snow covers the ground the

caribou promptly shift to new feed grounds, seeking the areas where lichens

are available. Although lichens are the favorite food in winter, great quan-

tities of grass are also eaten. It is necessary at this time for the animals to

paw through the snow with their front feet.

The Indians formerly snared the caribou. <A fence several miles long was

often built and at frequent intervals a gap was left in which was placed a

snare. The caribou, traveling along the fence which they find in their path,

encounter an opening and in attempting to pass through, become ensnared.

Caribou have been snared in recent years, but the Indians no longer depend -

on this method of securing game. (Author’s abstract.)

Professor James G. Needham of Cornell University, spoke of the lack of

knowledge of local biology in China. Most of the instruction in the schools

and universities seems to refer to animals and plants of the United States or

Europe.

730TH MEETING

The 730th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

February 9, 1929, at 8.05 p.m., with President GoLpMAN in the chair and 63

persons present.

Howarp Batt reported the recent observation of the Holboell and horned

grebes in the Tidal Basin.

AauG. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 315

T.S. Patmer: Some early collectors and recent changes in wild life conditions

in the District of Columbia—(No abstract received.) Discussed by C. W.

STILES.

W. P. Taytor: Important wild life problems in Arizona.—(No abstract

received.) Discussed by T. S. PatMer and C. W. STILEs.

The chairman introduced Dr. T. GiuBERT PEARSON who announced the

passage by both houses of the Game Refuge Bill.

731ST MEETING

The 731st meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

February 23, 1929, at 8.10 p.m. with President GoLpMAN in the chair and 113

persons present.

The deaths of Dr. FrEepEriIcK A. Lucas and Dr. JonaTtHAN DwiGuHtT were

announced.

The regular program was as follows:

J. C. Merriam: Opportunities for inspirational education at the Grand

Canyon (illustrated) —(No abstract received.)

VERNON Battey: Present conditions of animal life of the Grand Canyon

(illustrated) —The speaker exhibited lantern slides showing life zones of the

general region from the Lower Sonoran Zone in the bottom of the Canyon,

the Upper Sonoran Zone of the side slopes and the Painted Desert, the

Transition Zone of the plateau top on both sides of the Canyon and around

the base of San Francisco Mountain, the Canadian Zone top of the Kaibab

Plateau and middle belt of San Francisco Mountain, the Hudsonian Zone at

timberline and the Arctic Alpine peaks of the mountains above timberline.

The point brought out was that here in a fifty mile section of about 10,000

foot rise in altitude were climatic conditions corresponding to those of a

north and south section from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Barren

Grounds.

With this wide range of climate a correspondingly great variety of animal

and plant life is found and some of the conspicuous species of mammals and

reptiles were shown and their zonal ranges discussed. The Grand Canyon

as a barrier to distribution was shown by the different species of mammals

occurring in the Transition Zone on the two sides at the top separated by the

hotter zones below while most of the species of mammals and reptiles of the

Lower Sonoran Zone at the bottom of the Canyon occur on both sides of the

river. This clearly demonstrates that it is climate and not the river acting as

a barrier to keep apart such distinct species as the Abert and Kaibab squirrels,

the fulvous and Colorado pocket gophers, and many other mammals on the

north and south rims of the Canyon.

Among other animals the mule deer of the Kaibab Plateau were mentioned

as of great interest to the thousands of visitors during the summer and lantern

slides were shown of some magnificent old bucks with full grown branching

antlers. The native mountain sheep and antelope are less numerous but

some day it is hoped they will increase to such numbers that they may be seen

by all visiting tourists. At present the animal life including at least the

mammals, birds, and reptiles, forms a great attraction at the Grand Canyon

National Park and these are being protected and encouraged in a way to

promise great interest and educational value for future generations. (Author’s

abstract.)

The papers were discussed by C. H. Merriam and C. D. Marsa.

A. A. Doouirrin, lecording Secretary -pro tem.

316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

732D MEETING

The 732d meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

March 9, 1929, at 8.20 p.m., with President GoLpDMAN in the chair and 46

persons present. New member elected: C. E. Burt.

.Mrs. T. M. KwnaprEen reported the recent observation of thousands of

White Ibis in the vicinity of St. Johns River, Florida. Large flocks passed

over continuously for about 20 minutes. She also observed a flock of about

200 in Georgia.

A. A. DoouittLEe reported the observation of a Black-crowned Night

Heron in the zoological park during the last week in January.

A. WnTmorE reported that the new bird cage at the zoo is practically

completed, and that an appropriation of $220,000 is available to build a house

for invertebrates and reptiles.

Howarp Batu gave an account of birds recently observed at Brigantine

Beach.

P. B. Jounson stated that he had recently seen a muskox at the zoo charg-

ing in heavy snow.

The regular program was as follows:

F. C. Lrncoun: Some causes of bird mortality (illustrated)—The causes of

bird mortality are of interest to every ornithological student. It is axiomatic

that there is a large death rate from natural causes and the entrance of man

into the picture adds additional hazards to the lives of birds while at the same

time removing or controlling others.

Since the bird- banding work was taken over by the Bureau of Biological

Survey more than 431,000 birds have been banded, to which may be added

22,500 marked with bands of the old American Bird- Banding Association,

giving a grand total of more than 453,600. Of these, return records are avail-

able to the number of more than 24. 00. Of these returns, 3,156 represent

dead birds of the smaller land bird groups and the paper dealt entirely with

these, thus eliminating consideration of all birds that are shot as game and

others that because of their size are usually victims to gunners.

The number of small banded birds that have been shot was 561, and

because of the fact that in most parts of the country blackbirds, starlings,

and blue jays are considered as legitimate targets it would seem worth while

to subtract the total of such birds from this list, and also the robin, which is

still occasionally hunted in southern States. This leaves the insignificant

remainder of 57 small song birds that have been shot. The number of small

banded birds that have been reported as being killed by cats is 245, which

with the exception of shooting is a larger figure than almost all other causes

together. This is by far the most serious item on the list, so far overshadow-

ing all other known causes of small bird mortality as to force them entirely

into the background.

Banded birds killed by flying into windows, wires, and so forth numbered

67; killed by storms 70; killed by boys with airguns, slingshots, and other

juvenile weapons 60; by automobiles and trains, 55; in traps set for other

animals 52; by starvation 26; by drowning 19; by being entangled in strings

and nesting material 11; by freezing 9; by poison 8; and by collection of

scientific specimens 7. The last figure is of peculiar significance when it is

recalled that collectors of scientific specimens are frequently accused of destroy-

aug. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 317

ing a very large number of small birds. Evidence here presented is, however,

seven out of more than 300,000.

Under some miscellaneous causes of death to small birds it is inter esting to

note that domestic poultry is tied for first place with bronzed and purple

erackles. Snakes, bluejays, lawnmowers, seines, golf balls, and various other

unusual factors have entered into the death of some of these small banded

birds.

It should be borne in mind that a banded bird is literally a marked bird,

particularly when in the vicinity of a trapping station, as the neighbors of

such a station will consistently codperate in assisting the operator to keep in

contact with birds wearing bands. For this reason a dead bird which when

found on the lawn or in the yard of the average home is merely a bit of rubbish

to be disposed of as promptly as possible becomes an object to demand atten-

tion and if banded to be reported to the station operator or to the Survey.

(Author’s abstract.)

In discussion, A. WETMORE stated that according to his observations the

mortality from automobiles was increasing rather than decreasing, apparently

due to the general increase in speed. The mortality in early summer appears

to be due in part to the large number of young birds and possibly also to the

frequency with which birds feed in the road on insects killed at night. C. W.

SriLes stated that practically all the deaths considered in Mr. Lincoun’s

paper were violent deaths and asked what became of the birds that died from

the numerous avian diseases, such as cestode intestinal tuberculosis, avian

tuberculosis, avian malaria. Dr. WETMORE replied that the bodies of birds

dying either natural or violent deaths were quickly disposed of by other

animals.

W. B. Beuu: Present needs in biological research.—The speaker outlined

briefly the general biological field and reviewed some of the outstanding

developments in the history of biological sciences which led up to conditions

existing at the present time. Hestated that the purpose of the discussion was

to bring out from people representing divers interests in biological sciences an

expression of their views regarding the features which should receive con-

sideration by an organization such as the Biological Society, which represents

all lines of biological inquiry and development.

In view of the remarkable expansion in support of biological research

during recent years the speaker emphasized the need for planning and organi-

zation of research work in such a way that the important fields would be

adequately covered, the work so codrdinated that accumulated results would

represent a well-rounded biological structure and at the same time maintain

conditions in research which stimulate individual initiative.

In presenting features in which the speaker was primarily interested

emphasis was placed on the importance of thorough study of the natural

history and ecological relationships of the vertebrate groups. These should

include collection and identification and study of the relationship which the

animals sustain under natural conditions to one another and to plant condi-

tions such as forestry, forage, and cultivated crops. A number of pressing

problems, including diseases, were mentioned to illustrate the need for

thorough study employing the best known technical methods and mechanical

equipment in assembling and checking up data which might prove helpful

in meeting the present need for constructive action in placing wild life

administration on a sound footing. (Author’s abstract.)

318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 14

Discussed by C. W. Stites, who summarized the different meanings that

had been attributed to the word biology; by VERNON BaILEy, who empha-

sized our ignorance of the life history of even our most common mammals;

and by A. Wermore, who stressed the need for systematic study in most of

the lower groups of animal life.

S. F. Buake, Recording Secretary.

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if sent

to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL Papers

Physics.—Internal pressures in adsorbed films. P. G. NurTinG........

Paleontology.—A fossil ant from the Lower Eocene (Wilcox) of Tenness

CARPENTER.......

Botany.—A plea for the ed etind of AL identities

Botany.—Three new grasses from French Sudan. A.S. Haecdoode

The Philosophical Society...

The Biological Society...

This Journat is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals to be found in public libra

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Vou. 19 SEPTEMBER 19, 1929 No. 15

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Vou. 19 SEPTEMBER 19, 1929 No. 15

CHEMISTRY.—The determination of small quantittes of selenvum in

ores... EK. THEODORE Erickson, U. 8. Geological Survey. (Com-

municated by R. C. WELLS.)

For a number of years a mixture of three or four parts by weight of

zine oxide and one part of sodium carbonate has been used in smelter

laboratories to effect the decomposition of ores and concentrates,

through sintering, in the determination of sulfur and arsenic. This

method, which resembles the well known Eschka method for sulfur in

coal, was devised by Clarence B. Sprague,? who also developed at the

Midvale (Utah) plant of the U. S. Smelting and Refining Co. the

scheme of neutralization by zinc oxide to permit the bag house filtra-

tion of smelter fumes.

While working at Midvale a number of years ago the writer per-

formed some experiments to test the applicability of the Sprague

method of sintering to the determination of other elements than sulfur

and arsenic that might form water-soluble compounds, during the

course of which the adaptability of the method to selenium was

indicated. The selenium extracted as sodium selenate was subse-

quently precipitated as barium selenate, or as selenium with sulfur

dioxide in the presence of concentrated hydrochloric acid after partial

evaporation of the solution. Further tests made recently show that

the method is both accurate and sensitive. It is now being used to

determine small percentages of selenium, ranging from 1 or 2 thou-

sandths to 0.002 per cent, in zine sulfide ores, in connection with a

study being made by C. E. Siebenthal, of the U. S. Geological Survey.

1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. Received July

3, 1929.

2 W. C. Esaucu and C. B.Spracur. The use of sodium carbonate and zinc oxide in

sulfur and arsenic determinations. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 29: 1475. 1907.

319

320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE

Twenty-five grams of the zine ore sample are ground in a mortar

with 80 grams of the sintering mixture composed of three parts of zine

oxide and one part of sodium carbonate. A further quantity of 80

grams of the sintering mixture is added by rolling with the ground

portion on an oilcloth. The use of a total of 160 grams of the sintering

mixture with 25 grams of zine sulfide ores has been found to provide

sufficient excess of sodium carbonate for the formation of sodium

sulfate and other reactions that occur during the sintering treatment.

The mixed materials are placed in a porcelain dish and heated slowly

in a muffle to about 700°C. During the following hour the mixture is

stirred two or three times with a spatula while the temperature is

raised to about 750°. A glow caused by the oxidation of the sulfide

becomes visible at about 700° and slowly spreads through the contents

of the dish. The temperature is then finally raised to 800° for about

half an hour.

The mixture is cooled in the muffle to prevent the breakage of the

dish, and then repeatedly extracted with hot water which is passed

through a filter until about 900 ce. of filtrate is obtained. The filtrate

is made slightly acid with hydrochloric acid and evaporated until

there remains a mixture of salts and about 20 ce. of solution. This

mixed residue is transferred to a mortar with the aid of 25 ec. of concen-

trated hydrochloric acid, thoroughly ground and filtered into a 250

ec. beaker. The insoluble salts are again ground with 20 ec. of

concentrated hydrochloric acid, transferred to the filter and allowed to

drain.

The next step is to precipitate the selenium with sulfur dioxide.

The solution is first saturated with the gas, then allowed to stand over

night, when it is briefly warmed and again saturated with the gas.

For the most delicate indications of Golor this treatment is repeated two

or three times during the course of about ten days.

OBSERVATIONS

During this treatment it was noticed that when very large samples

were used the selenium tended to collect in any silica that might

be present and its visibility was apparently thus increased. Some

samples yielded sufficient silica for this purpose. However, if any

did not, a little silica gel was added,—just enough to cover the bottom

of the beaker. A few samples yielded rather too much silica. Another

portion of such a sample was sintered again for a longer time over the

sEPT. 19, 1929 WELLS: HELIUM-RICH NATURAL GAS o21

low-temperature range, with frequent stirring, which appeared to

reduce the soluble silica considerably.

Occasional samples which were shown to contain tungsten yielded

a bright yellow color with the silica gel before sulfur dioxide was added,

probably caused by yellow tungstic oxide. This suggests the possible

use of silica gel in collecting such compounds for colorimetric or other

estimation.

The smaller quantities of selenium were estimated by comparison

with two series of blank tests with known quantities: one using 25

grams of a zinc ore practically free from selenium and the other using

the sintering mixture alone. One-fourth of a milligram of SeO, to

25 grams of ore (0.001 per cent SeO,) imparted a distinct red to the

silica gel. Half this quantity gave a slight perceptible color, and less

than .0002 per cent gave an uncertain indication, reported as doubtful

trace. Many ores showed no selenium whatever by this method.

FUNCTION OF THE ZINC OXIDE

The zine oxide component of the sintering mixture, like magnesium

oxide in the Eschka mixture, because of its infusibility, maintains a

porosity during the sintering treatment and so assists in oxidation by

atmospheric oxygen. Some have supposed that it also assists through

catalytic action, and the writer is inclined to this view. Its use as a

catalyst in some reactions is well known.’ Scintillation of the zine

sulfide mixtures occurs at the surface when they are heated somewhat

below 700°, and around this temperature a glow begins. The catalytic

action of zinc oxide may be related to a tendency to form a peroxide.

Its change from white to yellow on heating is well known, and this

change may have some bearing on its catalytic action.

CHEMISTRY.—Origin of helium-rich natural gas... R. C. WELLS,

U.S. Geological Survey.

The presence of helium in natural gas, mine gas, and gases from

springs, earth vents, and most other natural sources has puzzled many

investigators. As helium is formed in radioactive changes its occur-

rence in natural gas suggests the reasonably near presence of radio-

3R. L. Brown and A. N. Gauttoway. Methanol from hydrogen and carbon monoxide,

Ind. Eng. Chem. 20: 960. 1928.

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received July

8, 1929.

322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

active substances, but all who have studied the subject have realized

that some special or unusual conditions must be assumed to explain

the higher concentrations found in a relatively few localities. The

object of the present note is to discuss the part that diffusion may play

in concentrating helium under special conditions.

Mourev? early pointed out that the helium content of fire damp and

the gases of mineral springs bears no quantitative relation to known

radioactive elements in the associated coals or mineral waters. Such

helium, he.concludes, must represent part of the earth’s store of old

“fossil” helium. MRogers,* considering especially the Petrolia field in

Texas, held that the helium can most reasonably be accounted for by a

local deposit of pitchblende, or its equivalent, and estimates that about

120 million tons would suffice—that is, a seam 10 miles long, 10 miles

wide, and 2 inches thick, or its equivalent. Lind‘ is inclined to follow

the earlier theory of Cady and McFarland in holding that normally

disseminated radio-elements can account for the helium, and that they

very likely account for some of the associated nitrogen, set free by the

bombarding action of alpha particles.

A question arises at this point relating to ‘‘normally disseminated

radio-elements.”” What is actually measured is radon, the radium

emanation, a gas of the helium family continuously generated from

radium, but for geologic discussion such measurements show the very

wide distribution of uranium. Yet particles of uranium minerals in

ordinary rocks can seldom be recognized with the microscope, even

when the test for radioactivity is positive. Hence their volume is

insignificant. Bearing the last statement in mind, the reader may

recall that Chamberlin’ found all rocks to contain measurable quan-

tities of gas, of the order of a half to several times the volume of the

rock, over and above any present in the pores. It is true that a large

part of the gas was set free, as shown by his experiments, only at

temperatures above 500°C., but if we allow for the sake of argument

that gas to the amount of one-tenth the volume of the rock would be

available during geologic periods for “sweeping out’”’ the helium, simple

calculation shows that the proportion of helium so obtained would be

small, probably much smaller than that in the helium-rich gases.

The “sweeping” action of the helium itself would be negligible.

2 The rare gases of natural gas. Journ. Chem. Soc. 123: 1905. 1923.

3G. S. Rogers. Helium-bearing natural gas. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 121.

1921.

* Proc. Nat. Acad. Sei.11: 772. 1925.

5 Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 106.

SEPT. 19, 1929 WELLS: HELIUM-RICH NATURAL GAS 323

From these considerations it seems more reasonable to postulate

deposits of uranium and thorium ores as the source of the helium, if

no new feature is added to the theory, but the existence of such

deposits is pure assumption. On the other hand, a theory that will

explain the concentration of helium in gases containing very small

quantities of it leaves little to be desired.

The incentive to regard diffusion as an important factor in such

concentration came from the work of Williams and Ferguson® and

others who have shown that silica and glass become remarkably

permeable to helium at moderately high temperatures. Strange to

say, helium diffuses through silica and glass even faster than hydrogen,

the molecular weight of which is half that of helium.

According to Williams and Ferguson the permeability of silica

glass to helium becomes appreciable at 180°C., and that to hydrogen

at 300°. At 500° the permeability to helium is over 20 times that to

hydrogen.

We may suppose, then, that when deeply buried rocks become

heated, as they evidently have been during certain geologic epochs in

some localities, helium would have a particular and special tendency to

escape at one stage of the heating, say 200°, and if then collected and

trapped by overlying impermeable barriers in a cooler environment

would constitute a helium-rich gas.

A considerable rise of temperature would set free most of the helium

of uraniferous minerals but might also produce igneous activity and

possibly result in a nearly complete loss of the gas in steam and lava,

whereas a moderate rise would merely make the minerals and rocks

permeable to the helium. Hence the largest concentrations of helium

need not be expected in areas of marked igneous activity, and Rogers

has pointed out that the Petrolia field seemed to agree with this view.

According to recent information, on the other hand, the Amarillo

fold, in which the helium content is higher than that at Petrolia, lies

immediately over an old buried granite ridge.’

The rate of diffusion of helium through silica glass at 500°C. found

by Williams and Ferguson is 0.0056 cc. per hour per square centimeter

per millimeter of thickness, from atmospheric pressure to a vacuum.

The corresponding rate for hydrogen is 0.0002 cc. Nitrogen and

oxygen have much smaller rates.

This suggested possible application of diffusion through silica leads

6 Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 44: 2160. 1922.

7 RUEDEMANN and OLEs. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. 13: 799. 1929.

324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

to what is obviously of even more probable applicability—diffusion in

the pores of rocks. It is well known that gases pass through small

openings at rates inversely proportional to the square root of their

density (Graham). What does not seem to be generally recalled,

however, is that little or no separation of mixtures is obtained in this

process unless the openings are below a certain size. Thus, in experi-

ments to separate hydrogen and carbon dioxide the writer obtained no

success with a diaphragm of plaster of Paris, but measurable separation

was obtained with ball clay.

| :

cy)e Pump 3 a

= |A C

ow /0 oh

Figure lL.

The apparatus is shown in Figure 1. A is a gas pipette containing a

known mixture of gases. P is a cylindrical plug of ball clay or other

material cut to just rest between two large glass tubes. This plug is

joined to the tubes by, and itself coated with, sealing wax. Over the

sealing wax were painted a few coats of celluloid dissolved in acetone,

which makes an air-tight covering. C is another gas pipette to receive

part of the products of diffusion for analysis. B,and B, indicate baro-

metric columns, the rate of diffusion being measured by the fall of

mercury in B, observed with a stop watch.

SEPT. 19, 1929 WELLS: HELIUM-RICH NATURAL GAS 325

The plug of ball clay was 3.1 em. long and had a cross section of 8.6

sq. em. After the whole apparatus except A was evacuated to a

pressure of 3 mm. with all stopeocks except 2 and 10 open, the volume

to the right of the plug, including C, was noted. Stopeocks 38, 5, and

8 were now closed. When stopcock 2 was opened some of the gas soon

began to diffuse through the plug, and the mercury in column B,

began to fall. The experiment was ended when desired by closing

stopeock 9, thus retaining a fraction of the diffused gas in C for

analysis.

TABLE 1.—Dirrusion OF A MIxTURE CONTAINING 33 PER CENT OF HYDROGEN AND 66

PreR CENT OF CARBON DIOXIDE aT 28°C. (EXPERIMENT 25)

At left of plug At right of plug

| 3 aap SRW ae |

Garntes) | Volume Pressure, pi ies ig ee (atmospheres) ae (pi SS

(cc.) (mm.) Pressure, p2 (cc.)

| (mm.)

0 _ = 3 0 = =

1 192 1028 14 5.1 = —

3 182 1018 55 Doll 1.30 1.4

4 177 1013 73 oft) 1.25 P4074

5 172 1008 91 8.4 1.22 2.5

6 169 1002 109 8.4 1.19 2.5

7 165 997 125 7.9 1.16 2.3

8 161 993 142 7.9 1.13 235

TABLE 2.—RatTeE or DIFFUSION OF SINGLE Gases THROUGH A 1-CENTIMETER CUBE OF

Bau Cray at 27°C., in Cupic CENTIMETERS PER MINUTE

Gas iObsersed) Mle N/, a x 1.60

EE ALOE a sc acto arate Cyn EIN oe rade oven bv Agee (e2 We

EVEL FCT hee tek ATE; es = Rn PA IMD, SRS 5.0 5.3

PEDEOD EC 74st. UID EE elds SN). be OL 2.03 2.00

PPO Ors ts octct yet nthe See AA ae ego Rie ohana del oye 1.87 1.87

CALDOTMATORIA GS: st Ba ee RR aie ie eters Ue 1.60 —

Table 1 gives the results of a preliminary experiment.

In the equation for k (Table 1), L stands for length of the plug, A its

cross section, and T the time, so that k is the volume of gas in cubic

centimeters at a pressure of 76 cm. that will diffuse through a 1-centi-

meter cube of clay in 1 minute when the pressure gradient is 1 atmos-

phere per centimeter.

In this experiment, which was stopped after 8 minutes, when 33 per

326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

cent of the mixture had diffused, the resulting gas was found to be 53

per cent hydrogen, whereas the original mixture before diffusion was

33 per cent hydrogen. Corresponding figures found for & for several

single gases at 27°C. are shown in Table 2, and also the theoretical

rates calculated from that found for carbon dioxide, taking the rate as

inversely proportional to the square root of the molecular weight, M.

The results with different mixtures of hydrogen and carbon dioxide

are shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3.—CuHANGES IN CONCENTRATION IN MIxtTURES OF HYDROGEN AND CARBON

DioxiDE EFFECTED BY DIFFUSION THROUGH BALL CLAY

Initial mixture Final mixture

Experiment | Temperature! __ ees

No. (SGS) Volume , Volume

at 760 mm. | “pydrogen | nun? | at 780mm. | “pt iogen

36 30.6 212 2.6 5 26 6 1.74

34 32.8 198 6.3 3 14.5 15 1.74

13 26 200 9.6 16 85 17 1.95

14 27 200 10 12 69 22 1.74

32 Dla 200 10.2 4 23 31 1.97

31 31.7 200 IDL sis 4 25 36 2.11

15 27 200 12 13 75 25 1.81

16 27 200 16 11 73 30 1.95

17 27 200 20 11 78 39 2.1

33 31.8 199 28.8 3 25 67 2.6

25 27.8 200 33.2 8 66 53 2.4

18 27 200 42 8 74° 63 2

35 30.6 195 48.8 2 22 84 3.4

19 27 200 65 6 80 81 3.8

28 31.1 200 81 3 53 89 5.1

37 29.4 199 90.2 2 46 94 6.8

These results are conclusive and striking. In every mixture of

hydrogen and carbon dioxide tried the first fraction that: diffused

through the ball clay was richer in hydrogen than the original mixture.

Also, the rate of diffusion increases with the proportion of hydrogen, in

a way that gives a fairly regular curve when plotted. By collecting

enough gas at each stage one could apparently pass, in only seven

stages, from 2.6 per cent to over 90 per cent of hydrogen.

Mixtures of helium and nitrogen have not yet been studied, on

account of an insufficient supply of helium and analytical complica-

tions, but it seems reasonable to expect that helium will behave like

hydrogen and that the process of diffusion is therefore worthy of

consideration as a natural means of concentrating helium. It is

SEPT. 19, 1929 TRELEASE: NEW PIPERACEAE 327

obvious that if the mixtures on the two sides of the plug were left a long

time they would eventually come to the same composition. Therefore

in applying the principle of separation by diffusion to natural condi-

tions it is necessary to assume an irreversible flow of gas, such as one

that might be caused by some sudden relief of pressure, and that during

the course of such a flow the pores gradually become sealed up again so

that re-mixing of the gases thus separated is impossible. The localiza-

tion of gas and oil pools in lenticular sands shows that remarkable

differences in pressure and composition are thus preserved for long

periods.

The results given above have suggested several further subjects for

study which will be taken up as fast as possible. Among these are

(1) The behavior of other fine-pored materials, such as shale, slate,

and sandstone; (2) the effect of the thickness of the plug; (3) measure-

ments of other gases, including helium and certain light hydrocarbons;

(4) adaptation to commercial separations; (5) possible application in

the separation of isotopes.

Several papers have been published on the theory of separating gases

by diffusion,® but the question whether the composition of the porous

material modifies the process by adsorption or otherwise seems to have

been studied in only one experiment, in which a copper ferrocyanide

membrane was used, as described by Lorenz and Magnus.

Summary.—Measurements of the separation of hydrogen from

carbon dioxide obtained by fractional diffusion through ball clay were

made to illustrate a process by means of which natural gas may become

enriched in helium in the earth. The bearing of this theory on other

theories of the origin of such gas is discussed. The rate of diffusion of

several other gases through ball clay was also measured and several

problems are mentioned for further study.

BOTANY.—New Piperaceae from Central America and Mexico.

Witu1AM TRELEASE, University of Illinois. (Communicated by

Pau C. STANDLEY.)

On the following pages there are described new species and varieties

of the genera Piper and Peperomia, recognized in collections sub-

mitted for study by the Field Museum of Natural History. Most of

the plants named as new were obtained on the north coast and in the

®§ MuLLIKEN and Harkins. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 44: 37. 1922. Lorenz and

Maenus. Zeit. anorg. allgem. Chem. 136: 97. 1924.

1 Received July 26, 1929.

328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

interior of Honduras by Paul C. Standley during the winter of 1927-28.

The large number of new forms found in the collection need not occa-

sion surprise if it be remembered that almost no botanical exploration

had been conducted previously in Honduras. —

Peperomia granulosa Trelease, sp. nov.

A repent-pendulous, glabrous, moderately large, arboricolous herb; leaves

alternate, lanceolate, acuminate, acute-based, 2.5 < 6 or the lower 3.5 X 8

cm., pinnately veined, opaque, granular especially beneath; petiole 7-10 or

15 mm. long; spikes terminal, as yet 1 X 35 mm., the stalk 3 em. long, bibrac-

teate in the middle; bracts round-peltate.

Honpvuras: Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atlantida, altitude about

100 m., January 11, 1928, Paul C. Standley 54360 (Herb. Field Mus. No.

583, 593, type). Also No. 56566 from the same locality.

Leaves pale green, fleshy; spikes green or pale green.

Peperomia staminea Trelease, sp. nov.

A somewhat cespitose, moderate-sized herb, glabrous except for the puberu-

lent petioles, peduncles, and nodes; stem rather slender (2 mm. thick),

drying sulcate-angular; leaves 2-4 at a node, elliptic, obtusely somewhat

contracted, acute-based, 1-1.5 2-2.5 cm., drying green-papery, 3-nerved

beneath; petiole 2-3 mm. long; spikes terminal, 2 x 30 mm., closely flowered;

peduncle long (3.5 em.); bracts round-peltate; stamens oblong.

Honpuras: On tree in wet forest, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept.

Atlantida, altitude about 100 m., January 16, 1928, Paul C. Standley 54614

(Herb. Field Mus. No. 583,590, type).

Leaves very thick; spikes bright green; stems reddish.

Piper achoteanum Trelease, sp. nov.

A nodose shrub 2-3 m. tall; flowering internodes short and stout, crisp-

pubescent or hirsute, closely pale-granular when denuded; leaves broadly

lanceolate, acute, somewhat unequally cordulate, 4.5-5 & 11 em., pinnately

nerved from below the middle, the nerves about 5 + 6, transiently short-

pubescent above, becoming granular and lepidote-roughened, hispid beneath

with subappressed-hirsute nerves; petiole about 5 mm. long, glabrescent;

spikes opposite the leaves, 3-4 & 55 mm., pointed; peduncle 8 mm. long,

ascending-hirtellous; bracts round-subpeltate, rusty, ciliolate; flowers sessile,

perfect.

Honpuras: In wet thicket in pine forest, El Achote near Siguatepeque,

Dept. Comayagua, alt. 1,500 m., February 18, 1928, Paul C. Standley 56125

(Herb. Field Mus. No. 581,879, type).

Piper aeruginosibaccum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2 m. tall, nodose; flowering internodes rather thick and short,

crisp-hirsute-subvillous with white hairs but glabrescent except below the

petioles; leaves elliptic, short-acuminate, slightly inequilaterally more or less

cordulate, rather large (6-7 X 14-16 cm.), submultiple-nerved from below the

upper third, the nerves about 5 X 2 with the lowest approximate, glossy

green, paler and glandular-granular beneath with the prominent pale nerves

SEPT. 19, 1929 TRELEASE: NEW PIPERACEAE 329

and cross-veins spreading-hirsute; petiole 5 + 2 mm. long, hirsute; spikes

opposite the leaves, 4 X 70 mm., mucronate, rusty; peduncle 5 mm. long,

glabrous; bracts subtriangular-subpeltate; flowers sessile, perfect; berries

rather large, subglobose with sunken apex, rusty-puberulent; stigmas 2-3,

sessile.

Honvuras: Moist thicket, near La Ceiba, Dept. Atlantida, at sea level,

March 11, 1928, Paul C. Standley 56735 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 581,616,

type).

Spikes pale green; leaves lustrous on the upper surface.

Piper alveolatifolium Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 3 m. tall; upper internodes rather slender but short, pale-hispid;

leaves broadly lanceolate, gradually and obtusely attenuate, subequilaterally

shallow-cordate or cordulate, 7.5-8.5 X 20-22 cm., pinnately nerved from the

lower half, the nerves 4-5 X 2, somewhat bullulate, granular-scabrous above,

paler green beneath with the very prominent nerves and veins spreading-soft-

hairy; petiole 10-15 mm. long, hispid, winged nearly to the blade; inflorescence

unknown.

Honpuras: In thicket along stream, near Siguatepeque, Dept. Comay-

agua, alt. 1,080-1,400 m., February, 1928, Paul C. Standley 56344 (Herb.

Field Mus. No. 581,751, type).

PIPER ANGUSTIAE Trelease, var quiotepecanum, var. nov.

A much-branched shrub, at most barely puberulent on the young parts;

flowering internodes slender and short; leaves round-ovate or ovate, acute to

somewhat acuminate, the broad base slightly cordulate, 2.5 X 3.5 0r3.54 X 6.

em., drying dull dark green and firm, 5-nerved; petiole 5-10 mm. long; spikes

opposite the leaves, 2 * 40 mm., closely flowered; peduncle slender, 5-7 mm.

long; bracts concave-subpeltate, dorsally ciliate; berries oblong-ovoid, con-

tracted at apex, glabrous; stigmas 3, large, brown, and sessile.

Mexico: Pueblo de Quiotepec, Cuicatlin, Oaxaca, alt. 500 m., H. and

C. Conzatti and T. C. Gomez 2383 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 246,911, type).

Piper aspericaule Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2.5 m. tall, nodose; flowering internodes drying yellowish, persist-

ently hispid and rough; leaves lance- or ovate-subelliptic, sharp-acuminate,

obliquely and often very inequilaterally rounded at the base, 5.5-7 & 12-14

em., pinnately nerved from the lower half, the nerves about 4 + 5, cadu-

cously hairy and later granular-roughened above with hispid nerves, the

nerves beneath ascending-hirsute; petiole about 10 mm. long, hispid-hirsute,

not winged; spikes opposite the leaves, some 3 X 80 mm., cream-colored;

petunele 5 mm. long, scabrid; bracts inconspicuous, rounded-subpeltate,

ciliolate.

Honpuras: In wooded swamp near Tela, Dept. Atldntida, at sea level,

January 27, 1928, Paul C. Standley 55125 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 583,270,

type).

“Cordoncillo.” Spikes cream-colored.

Piper atlantidanum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2 m. tall; flowering internodes moderate, soft-hairy; leaves

obliquely subquadrate-ovate, slightly short-acuminate, cordulate with one

330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

side distinctly shorter, 9 X 15-11 X 20 or 18 X 25 cm., pinnately nerved from

the lower half, the nerves about 5 + 6, somewhat rugulose, softly crisp-

pubescent on both sides but slightly granular above, paler beneath; petiole

some 15 + 5 mm. long, soft-hairy, winged toward the base; spikes opposite

the leaves, 3 X 70 mm., blunt; peduncle 5 mm. long, crisp-hirtellous; bracts

triangular-subpeltate, ciliate; berries trigonous, truncate, brown, glabrous;

stigmas 3, minute, sessile.

Honpuras: In moist thicket, near La Ceiba, Dept. Atlantida, at sea level,

March 11, 1928, Paul C. Standley 56739 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 581,620,

type). Tela, Atlantida, at sea level, Standley 56600. Lancetilla Valley,

near Tela, in wet thicket, Standley 54938. La Fragua, Atlantida, alt. 20

m., Standley 55736.

Spikes green or pale green.

PIPER ATLANTIDANUM Trelease, var. yoroense, var. nov.

Leaves becoming relatively narrower (10 22 em.) and then not cordulate.

Honnpuras: Wet thicket near Progreso, Dept. Yoro, alt. 30 m., January

24, 1928, Paul C. Standley 55073 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 583,981, type).

A shrub 2 m. high; spikes pale green.

Piper atrichopus Trelease, sp. nov.

A bushy, nodose, quite glabrous shrub 2-3 m. tall; flowering internodes

slender and short; leaves lanceolate, subfalcately long-attenuate, subequi-

laterally acute-based, 3-3.5 12-14 cm., pinnately nerved nearly throughout,

the nerves some 10 2, but with 2 or 4 from very near the base, long-ascend-

ing, green, chartaceous, narrowly revolute; petiole 5 mm. long, not winged;

spikes opposite the leaves, 2 X 40 mm.; peduncle 5 mm. long; bracts small,

rounded-subpeltate; berries globose; stigmas 3, minute, sessile.

Honpuras: Wet forest, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atlantida,

altitude 150 m., January 16, 1928, Paul C. Standley 54594 (Herb. Field Mus.

No. 583,633, type). Also Nos. 52616, 52871, 53290, 56757, from the same

region.

“Cordoncillo.”’ Leaves often lustrous; spikes green or pale green.

Piper caliendriferum Trelease, sp. nov.

A somewhat nodose shrub; flowering internodes moderately slender and

short, sparsely crisp-pubescent, darkening; leaves lance-ovate, acuminate,

inequilaterally rounded at base or slightly cordulate, 4 X 9-5 & 10-13 cm.,

pinnately nerved from the lower half, the nerves 5 X 2, sparsely hirtellous

toward the base above and more abundantly on the nerves beneath; petiole

15 + 2mm. long, hirtellous, sheathing to the middle; spikes 5 X 60-80 mm.,

mucronate; peduncle 15 mm. long, from sparingly hirtellous to glabrescent;

bracts subtriangular, subpeltate, large, long-ciliate; berries subglobose,

glabrous; stigmas 3, linear, connate into a very short style.

Mexico: Cerro de la Raya, Cuyamecalco, Oaxaca, alt. 2,800 m., H. and

C. Conzatti and T. C. Gomez 2384 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 246,912, type).

Piper chichankanabanum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub (?), glabrous, nodose; leaves lance-oblong, acuminate, the little

narrowed, acute base slightly inequilaterally unguiculate, 3.5 x 114.5 x 14

SEPT. 19, 1929 TRELEASE: NEW PIPERACEAE dol

em., 5- or 7-nerved, thin but becoming slightly bullate in age; petiole scarcely

5 mm. long; inflorescence unknown.

Mextco: Chichankanab, Yucatan, G. F. Gawmer 23699 (Herb. Field Mus.

No. 466,121, type).

PIPER COBANENSE Trelease, var. sarculatum, var. nov.

A suffrutescent weed 1-1.5 m. tall; flowering internodes slender and

elongate, crisp-pubescent; leaves broadly ovate or round-ovate, acuminate,

rounded at base or openly cordate, 12 <X 15-16 cm., 9-nerved, the nerves

hirtellous above and crisp-hirtellous beneath; petiole slender, variable (2-4

em.) in length, crisp-pubescent, not winged; inflorescence unknown.

Honpuras: In banana plantation, Quebrada Seca, Dept. Yoro, alt. 30

m., December, 1927, Paul C. Standley 53912 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 584,248,

type).

Piper cordoncillo Trelease, sp. nov.

Flowering internodes rather slender and short, sparingly crisp-pubescent;

leaves ovate, sometimes with nearly straight sides, blunt-acuminate, some-

times mucronulate, rounded or subtruncate at the base or abruptly deltoidly

contracted into the petiole, moderately small (5-7 or 9 X 11-14 em.), pal-

mately 5-nerved, pubescent beneath and sparingly on the nerves above;

petiole short (5-10 or 15 mm.), not winged, villous; spikes opposite the leaves,

slender and moderately long (8-4 X 90 mm.); peduncle slender, short (about

5 mm.), hairy; rachis foveolate, glabrate; bracts subpeltate, rusty-ciliate;

flowers sessile, perfect; stigmas 3-4, sessile, large; berries small, conical-ovoid,

puberulent.

Mexico: Mayito, Tabasco, in 1889, J. Rovirosa 423 (U. S. Nat. Herb.

No. 798,394, type).

PIPER CORDONCILLO Trelease, var. apazoteanum, var nov.

Leaves more regularly ovate, the larger subpalmately nerved; leaves and

stem much more densely pubescent.

Mexico: Apazote, Campeche, H. A. Goldman 475 (U. S. Nat. Herb.

No. 396,837, type).

Piper dedititium Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2.5 m. tall; flowering internodes short and moderately stout, at

most evanescently puberulent, becoming somewhat granular; leaves lance-

or elliptic-oblong, acuminate, inequilaterally subacute at base, 5-6 X 12-14

cm., pinnately nerved from below the upper third, the nerves 4 X 2, rather

glossy with the nerves velvety-puberulent beneath; petiole glabrous, about

10 + 3 mm. long, not winged; spikes opposite the leaves, 3-4 x 80-100

mm.; peduncle scarcely 10 mm. long, glabrous; bracts transversely subpeltate,

ciliolate; flowers sessile, perfect; berries glabrous, brown, oblong, terete or

enely elongate with the rachis, concavely subtruncate; stigmas 3, small,

sessile.

Honvuras: Wet thicket, Quebrada Seca, Dept. Yoro, alt. 30 m., December,

1927, Paul C. Standley 53937 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 583,916, type).

Leaves dark green; spikes pale green.

332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

Piper fallens Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2.5 m. tall, dark-villous throughout; flowering internodes rather

slender and short; leaves elliptic or lance-elliptic, sharp-acuminate, inequi-

laterally cordulate, 7-8 < 17-18 cm., pinnately nerved from below the middle,

the nerves some 3 + 4; petiole about 3 + 2 mm. long; spikes opposite the

leaves, 3 X 50 mm.; peduncle 10-15 mm. long; bracts triangular-subpeltate,

the back white-fimbriate; berries rather large, papillate, truncate; stigmas 2,

slender, on a short style.

Honpuras: Wet forest, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atlantida,

alt. 500 m., December 31, 1927, Paul C. Standley 53968 (Herb. Field Mus.

No. 583,884, type). Also No. 56820, from the same region.

Piper fraguanum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2.5 m. tall; flowering internodes moderate, scabro-hispid becoming

concolorously finely granular; leaves broadly elliptic, rather abruptly acumi-

nate, nearly equilaterally rounded at base, 9-10 xX 18-20 em., pinnately

nerved from the lower half, the nerves about 5 X 2, granular and lepidote

above, scabrid beneath with upcurved-white-hispid nerves; petiole about 15

mm. long, hispid; spikes opposite the leaves, as yet young and small.

Honpuras: Wet flat forest, La Fragua, Dept. Atlantida, alt. 20 m., Febru-

ary 7, 1928, Paul C. Standley 55730 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 581,536, type).

Piper Gaumeri Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 5 m. high, glabrous; flowering internodes moderately slender and

short; leaves broadly elliptic, abruptly blunt-acuminate, mucronulate,

abruptly subacute at the base, palmately 5-nerved or obscurely 7-nerved,

small (5 & 8 em.); petiole short (5 mm.); spikes opposite the leaves, slender

but moderately long (3 or in fruit 4 by as much as 70 mm.); peduncle slender,

short (10 mm.) but surpassing the petiole; bracts concave; flowers sessile,

perfect; stigmas 3, sessile; berries distinct, small, oblong-ovoid.

Mexico: Buena Vista Xbac, Yucatan, G. F. Gaumer 783 (U. S. Nat.

Herb. No. 571,779, type).

Piper hispidiseptum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2-3 m. tall; flowering internodes moderate, scabro-hispid; leaves

elliptic or subobovate-elliptic, more or less falcately acuminate, cordulate

with one side shorter, 8 X 17-11 X 23 em., pinnately nerved from the lower

half, the nerves about 6 X 2, white-granular-scabrid and with hispid midrib

above, the lower surface rather softly pubescent with stiffly hairy nerves;

petiole some 15 + 5 mm. long, hispid; spikes opposite the leaves, 4 x 80

mm.; peduncle 15 mm. long, hispid; bracts roundish-subpeltate, ciliolate.

Honpuras: Wet thicket, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atlintida,

alt. 100 m., December 8, 1927, Paul C. Standley 52715 (Herb. Field Mus,

No. 582,300, type). Also No. 55660 from the same locality.

“Cordoncillo.”’ Spikes pale green.

Piper imperspicuibracteum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2-3 m. tall; flowering internodes rather slender and short, crisp-

hirsute; leaves lanceolate, very gradually sharp-acuminate, inequilateral at

base with the longer side rather rounded, 4-5 10-13 cm., pinnately nerved

sEPT. 19, 1929 TRELEASE: NEW PIPERACEAE 300

from the lower half, the nerves about 4 + 5, granular-scabrous above, dark-

punctulate beneath, with the nerves subappressed-hispid; petiole about 15 + 2

mm. long, upeurved-hirsute like the base of the midrib; spikes some 3 X 90-

100 mm., straight; peduncle 5 mm. long, somewhat hirtellous; bracts rounded-

subpeltate, rather dingy-margined.

Honpuras: Wet thicket, near Tela, Dept. Atlantida, at sea level, January

19, 1928, Paul C. Standley 54770 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 583,364, type). Also

No. 56602, from the same locality.

Leaves dark green; spikes pale green.

Piper indignum Trelease, sp. nov.

A compact nodose rusty-pubescent shrub 2 m. tall; flowering internodes

rather stout and short, matted-hirsute; leaves ovate or lance-ovate, acute

rather than acuminate, slightly inequilaterally obtuse at base, 4.5 x 9-5.5

< 10.5 or 7 X 13 cm., pinnately nerved from below the middle, the nerves

5 or 6 X 2, becoming rugulose, softly appressed-pubescent above and densely

crisp-pubescent beneath; petiole 10-15 mm. long, soft-hairy; spikes opposite

the leaves, as yet young and very small.

Honpuras: Moist thicket, near Siguatepeque, Dept. Comayagua, alt.

1,100 m., February, 1928, Paul C. Standley 55990 (Herb. Field Mus. No.

582,044, type).

Piper lancetillanum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2-3 m. tall; flowering internodes moderately slender and elongate,

hirsute; leaves subelliptic, acuminate, unequally somewhat cordulate, 7 x 16—

10 X 22 cm., pinnately nerved from the lower half, the nerves about 6 X 2,

sparsely short-hairy above, later granular and lepidote, appressed-hirsuyte

beneath, especially on the nerves; petiole 10 or 15 + 2 or 3 mm. long, hispid-

hirsute; spikes opposite the leaves, some 3 X 60 mm.; peduncle 5 mm. long,

hispid; bracts rounded-subpeltate, ciliolate.

Honvuras: Moist thicket, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atlantida,

alt. 100 m., March 5, 1928, Paul C. Standley 56552 (Herb. Field Mus. No.

581,978, type). Also No. 53231, from the same locality.

“Cordoncillo.”” Spikes pale green.

Piper laterifissum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2+4.5 m. tall; flowering internodes rather stout and elongate, crisp-

pubescent; leaves elliptic-subovate, subobtuse, cordate with lateral sinus, the

rounded longer lobe much surpassing the petiole, 25 « 50 cm., subpinnately

nerved below the upper fourth, the nerves 5 or 6 X 2, crisp-hairy beneath;

petiole 4 cm. long, somewhat fleshy-warty or corky and crisp-pubescent,

winged to the end; inflorescence unknown.

Honpvuras: Wet forest, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atlantida, alt.

300 m., December 31, 1927, Paul C. Standley 53943 (Herb. Field Mus. No.

584,143, type). Also, from the same locality, Nos. 55408, 54151, 53136.

Piper levilimbum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2-4 m. tall; flowering internodes rather slender and elongate, at

most locally and evanescently slightly soft-hairy, somewhat pale-granular;

leaves ovate, acuminate, equilaterally rounded or subtruncate at base or with

334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

the base deltoid-acute or broadly cuneate, 7 X 14-14 X 17 or 12 X 20 cm.,

multiple-veined from the lower third or half, the nerves 3 (or obscurely 4) X 2,

papery, submarginally ciliate beneath; petiole 2-5 cm. long, transiently pilose,

winged at the base or on the more truncate-based leaves nearly to the blade;

spikes opposite the leaves, 4 X 105 mm.; peduncle 10 mm. long, quickly

glabrate; bracts rounded-subpeltate, ciliolate; flowers perfect, sessile; berries

subtriquetrously obovoid, truncate; stigmas 3, minute, sessile.

Honpuras: Wet forest, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atlantida, alt.

100 m., December 22, 1927, Paul C. Standley 53483 (Herb. Field Mus. No.

583,185, type). Also No. 55263, from the same locality. Triunfo, near

Tela, in wet thicket, Standley 53839.

“Cordoncillo.”” Leaves dark-green; spikes green.

Piper micoense Trelease, sp, nov.

A shrub (?), nodose; flowering internodes moderately stout and short,

crisply fine-hirsute, granular when subglabrescent; leaves lanceolate or sub-

elliptic-lanceolate, sharply attenuate, inequilaterally cordulate, 3 < 9-5 x 12

em., pinnately nerved from the lower half, the nerves some 5 + 6, rugose,

silky-hirsute on both sides but becoming scabrous above from the bases of the

fallen hairs; petiole some 5 + 3mm. long, hirsute; spikes opposite the leaves,

3 X 80 mm.; peduncle slender, 5-8 mm. long, hirsute; bracts rounded-sub-

peltate, ciliate; flowers sessile, perfect; berries small, subcylindric, papillate;

stigmas 3, sessile.

GUATEMALA: Sierra del Mico, between Los Amates and Izabal, W. A.

Kellerman 6715 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 221,055, type).

Piper nonconformans Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2 m. tall, nodose, of the aspect of P. lanceaefolium; flowering

internodes short and relatively thick, densely yellow-hirsute; leaves lance-

oblong, gradually sharp-acuminate, obtuse at base or semicordulate, 4-5

14-16 cm., pinnately nerved from below the middle, the nerves about 5 X 2,

subrugose, finely pubescent above but quickly glabrescent and very rough-

granular, lepidote, silky beneath and granular between the salient nerves and

cross-veins; petiole about 5 mm. long, subhirsute, not winged; spikes opposite

the leaves, somewhat curved, pale, as yet 2 X 50 mm.; pedunclescarcely

10 mm. long, subhirsute; bracts roundish-subpeltate, downy-ciliate; flowers

sessile.

Honopuras: In pine forest near Siguatepeque, Dept. Comayagua, alt.

1,100 m., February 1928, Paul C. Standley 55906 (Herb. Field Mus. No.

581,168, type).

Piper obsessum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2 m. high; flowering internodes slender and elongate, hispid-

hirsute; leaves inequilaterally subovate, acuminate, the narrowed base

rounded on the longer side, 6.5-7.5 13-16 cm., pinnately nerved from the

lower half, the nerves about 6 xX 5, thin, rather glossy, transiently short-

pubescent becoming granular-roughened, somewhat subcrisp-pubescent

beneath with upcurved-hirsute nerves; petiole 13 + 2 mm. long, upcurved-

hirsute; spikes opposite the leaves, 3 X 50 mm.; peduncle 8 mm. long, scabro-

hispid; bracts rounded-subpeltate, ciliolate.

SEPT. 19, 1929 TRELEASE: NEW PIPERACEAE 335

Honpuras: Wet thicket, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atlantida,

alt. 100 m., January 22, 1928, Paul C. Standley 54925 (Herb. Field Mus. No.

584,233, type).

Spikes dull pale green.

Piper onerosum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2-3 m. tall, scarcely nodose; flowering internodes rather slender

and moderately short, pale green, crisp-hirsute, finely papillate when glabres-

cent; leaves lance-elliptic, sharp-acuminate, inequilaterally cordulate, 7-10 <

16-18 cm., pinnately nerved from the lower half, the nerves 4 or 5 X 2,

glossy dark green above, paler and crisp-pubeseent beneath with hirsute

nerves, the lower surface finally scabrid; petiole some 5 + 2 mm. long, hirsute,

winged at base; spikes opposite the leaves, 3-4 X 55 mm., mucronate;

peduncle 5-7 mm. long, hirtellous; bracts lunulate-subpeltate, ciliate; flowers

sessile, perfect; berries globose, rusty-puberulent; stigmas 3, small, sessile in a

depression.

Honpuras: Edge of wooded swamp near Tela, Dept. Atlintida, at sea

level, December 27, 1927 Paul C. Standley 53696 (Herb. Field Mus. No.

582,949, type). Also No. 56621, from the same locality. Near Progreso,

Dept. Yoro, in wet thicket, alt. 30 m., Standley 55022. Lancetilla Valley

near Tela, alt. 100 m., in wet thicket, Standley 52682.

“Cordoncillo.”’ Stems pale green; leaves dark green; young spikes cream-

colored, the older ones pale green.

Piper perspicuibracteum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2 m. tall; flowering internodes slender and moderately elongate,

crisp-hirsute, granular-roughened; leaves lanceolate, gradually sharp- acumin-

ate, inequilaterally rounded at base, 6 X 15 cm., pinnately nerved from the

lower half with oblique cross-veins, the nerves about 4 + 5, granular-scabrous

above and somewhat lepidote, dark-punctulate beneath with the nerves

subappressed-hispid; petiole about 15 + 2 mm. long, upcurved-hirsute like

the base of the midrib; spikes 3 X 120 mm., at first curved; peduncle 10 mm.

long, granular; bracts round-subpeltate, with rather large, pale margin.

Honpuras: Wet thicket, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atlantida,

alt. 100 m., January 21, 1928, Paul C. Standley 54872 (Herb. Field Mus.

No. 584, 074, type).

“Cordoncillo.” Spikes pale green.

Piper praeterlatum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2-3 m. tall, with the general characters of P. aeruginosibaccum,

but the leaves lanceolate, falcately rather long-acuminate, somewhat crisp-

pubescent beneath, and 6 X 15-8 & 20 cm.

Honpuras: Wet forest, Lancetilla Valley, near Tela, Dept. Atlantida,

alt. 100 m., January 11, 1928, Paul C. Standley 54337 (Herb. Field Mus. No.

583,571, type).

“Cordoncillo.”” Spikes pale green.

Piper prodigum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2 m. tall, rather nodose; flowering internodes moderate, somewhat

hispid, finely granular when denuded; leaves lance-elliptic or becoming

336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

broadly oblanceolate, sharp-acuminate, inequilaterally cordulate, 7-8 x 20

cm., pinnately nerved from the lower half, the nerves about 5 + 6, white-

granular becoming lepidote above, the nerves upcurved-hispid-hirsute

beneath; petiole about 10+2 mm. long, hispid; spikes opposite the leaves,

3 X 80 mm.; peduncle 10 mm. long, short-hispid; bracts rounded-subpeltate,

ciliolate.

Honvuras: Wet thicket, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atldntida,

alt. 100 m., January 22, 1928, Paul C. Standley 54916 (Herb. Field Mus.

No. 583,750, type).

“Cordoncillo.”” Spikes pale green.

Piper scabriseptum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2-3 m. tall, somewhat zigzag; flowering internodes moderately

short and slender, matted-scabro-hispid, obscurely granular; leaves broadly

elliptic or subovate, acuminate, inequilaterally slightly cordulate, 8-9 15-17

cm., pinnately nerved from the lower half, the nerves about 5 + 6, granular

and lepidote with granular-roughened midrib above, the nerves beneath

spreading hispid-hirsute; petiole 5 + 3 mm. long, hispid; spikes opposite the

leaves, 3 X 60 mm.; peduncle 6 mm. long, short-hispid; bracts inconspicuous,

rounded-subpeltate, ciliolate.

Honpuras: Wet thicket, Lancetilla Valley near Tela, Dept. Atlantida,

alt. 100 m., December 8, 1927, Paul C. Standley 52681 (Herb. Field Mus.

No. 582,776, type).

“Cordoncillo.”” Spikes greenish white.

Piper speratum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2.5 m. tall; flowering internodes rather short and slender, drying

angular, retrosely scabro-hispid; leaves obliquely elliptic, sharp-acuminate,

rounded at base on the fuller side, 9-10 ' 17-19 em., pinnately nerved from

the lower half, the nerves about 5 X 2, short-pubescent above becoming

granular-roughened, scabrid beneath with upcurved-hispid nerves; petiole

about 10 + 2 mm. long, hispid; spikes opposite the leaves, 3 X 90 mm.;

peduncle 5 mm. long, scabro-hispid; bracts rounded-subpeltate, white-

ciliolate.

Honpuras: Wooded swamp, Tela, Dept. Atlantida, at sea level, January

27, 1928, Paul C. Standley 55184 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 583,272, type).

Spikes dull green or cream-colored.

Piper vexans Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2.5 m. tall, slightly nodose; flowering internodes rather slender and

short, hirsute, becoming glabrate and finely granular; leaves lanceolate,

faleately sharp-acuminate, inequilaterally more or less cordulate, 5-6 14-16

em., pinnately nerved from about the lower half, the nerves 4 or 5 X 2, glossy

dark green above, crisp-pubescent and finally scabrid beneath; petiole some

5 + 2 mm. long, staring-hirsute, winged at base; spikes opposite the leaves,

as yet 2 X 20 mm., scarcely mucronate, on short hirtellous peduncles; bracts

subpeltate; flowers sessile, perfect.

Honpuras: Wet thicket near Tela, Dept. Atlantida, at sea level, January

18, 1928, Paul C. Standley 54742 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 583,715, type).

SEPT. 19, 1929 CUSHMAN: SAGRINA (?) TESSELATA 337

Piper yoroanum Trelease, sp. nov.

A shrub 2 m. tall; flowering internodes moderate, crisp-subhirsute, pale-

granular when denuded; leaves elliptic-subobovate, sharp-acuminate, the

narrowed base inequilaterally rounded, 7-9 X 15-18 cm., pinnately nerved

from the lower half, the nerves 5 or 6 X 2, minutely scabrid becoming granular

and lepidote above with hispid nerves, the nerves beneath appressed-hirsute

and the surface scabrid; petiole 5 + 5 to 15 + 5 mm. long, hispid; spikes

opposite the leaves, as yet 3 X 50 mm.; peduncle 5 mm. long, hispid; bracts

rounded-subpeltate, ciliolate.

Honovuras: In wet thicket, Quebrada Seca, Dept. Yoro, alt. 30 m., Decem-

ber, 1927, Paul C. Standley 53889 (Herb. Field Mus. No. 583,866, type).

Spikes pale green.

ZOOLOGY .—The development and generic position of Sagrina (?) tessel-

lata H. B. Brady JosrpH A. CuSHMAN, Sharon, Massachusetts.

Brady described Sagrina (?) tessellata in the Challenger Report

(Zoology 9: 585. pl. 76, f. 17-19. 1884), from two or three specimens

from Nares Harbor, Admirality Islands, 17 fathoms, and from Raine

Island, Torres Strait, 155 fathoms. His original description reads as

follows:

Test cylindrical, arcuate, slightly tapering; composed of a few (four or five)

elongate, oval or subcylindrical segments, each a good deal larger than its

predecessor, joined end to end. Surface areolated; the areae, which are of

elongate, hexagonal form, disposed in regular, alternating, transverse lines.

Aperture a central rounded orifice, with or without a sessile lip. Length

1/45th inch (0.57 mm.).

Other records for this species are given by Howchin from the

Tertiary of Australia (Trans. Roy. Soc. So. Australia 12: 11. pl. 1, f. 7.

1889), by Millett from the Malay Archipelago (Journ. Roy. Micr.

Soc. 1903: 273. pl. 5, f. 16), by Schubert from the Pliocene of the

Bismarck Archipelago, a single 4-chambered specimen (Abhandl. k. k.

geol. Reichs. 20 (4): 89. 1911), and by Heron-Allen and Earland

from the Kerimba Archipelago off southeastern Africa (Trans. Zool.

Soc. London 20: 677. pl. 51, f. 9. 1915). These authors note that

they “have records of it from many shallow gatherings in the Malay

and Eastern Seas.”’

With this species is another, evidently closely related, named by

Brady Sagrina limbata and studied farther by Millett, who found

that the chambers are divided into chamberlets. He notes: ‘The

division of the chambers by transverse septa is not a character of the

genus Sagrina, and further researches will probably render it necessary

1 Received July 11, 1929.

338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

to constitute a new genus embracing the species tessellata, limbata, and

probably annulata.”

In his paper in 1911, Schubert applied the name Millettia to Brady’s

species. This name having already been used, A. Silvestri (Riv.

Ital. Pal. 1911: 67, footnote) proposed the name Schubertia to take its

place.

Figures 1-5.—Schubertia tessellata (H. B. Brady). 1, 2, Possibly microspheric

specimens. 3, Megalospheric specimen (after Brady). 4, Aperturalend. 5, Peculiarly

tessellated surface. Magnifications: Fig. 1, X 120; 2, x 160; la, X 240; 2a, X 350;

3, X 75; 4, X 160; 5, X 160.

Two years ago, I examined the types in the Brady Collections in

Cambridge and London, but the specimens were apparently megalo-

spheric, and gave no clue to the early development. Lately I have

found a series of specimens in Philippine material from Tacloban Bay

among which are some, possibly microspheric, which give a clue to the

early development. Two of these early series of chambers are figured

SEPT. 19,1929 GATES: EARTHWORMS OF NORTH AMERICA 339

here (Figures 1, 2). They are apparently a generally biserial arrange-

ment with indications of being slightly twisted. Such a development

would place it in close relationship with Stphogenerina (Sagrina of

numerous authors). In the megalospheric form figured by Brady,

Challenger, pl. 76, fig. 17 (our figure 3), the early chambers are already

apparently divided into chamberlets. In our specimens which show

the early biserial stage, there are several chambers in a uniserial

group which do not seem to be divided, and this character is only taken

on after several simple ones are formed. As far as can be made out,

the divisions of the chambers in fessellata are incomplete, but in some

specimens they may be complete.

Our specimens show the apertural characters very well, and two of

them are shown here. There is a definite neck with a spreading lip, as

is characteristic of most species of Siphogenerina.

From a study of this series of specimens, it would seem that Silvestri’s

genus Schubertia may be used for S. tessellata (H. B. Brady) and S.

limbata (H. B. Brady), but the structure of Brady’s Sagrina (?)

annulata is still in doubt. Schubertia is probably derived from

Siphogenerina although it may be related to Rectobolivina bifrons

which had numerous characters similar to those of Schubertia limbata

particularly. The genus has existed in the Indo-Pacific region at least

since the Early Tertiary, and today is widely distributed in that area

from the coast of Africa to the Philippines and southward to Australia.

ZOOLOGY .—Earthworms of North America. G. E, Gatus, Judson

College, Rangoon, Burma. (Communicated by Mary J.

RaATHBUN.)

Earthworms have received very little attention from our zoological

investigators. Only one American, Frank Smith, has devoted any

considerable amount of time to these animals, and his studies have

been largely restricted to the species which occur in Illinois and con-

tiguous states. It is to be expected that slimy creeping things which

lack the beautiful colors of the moths and butterflies or the bizarre

and curious forms of beetles and molluscs will not appeal to the

instincts of the amateur collector, but an explanation for the neglect of

such an important class of animals by professional zoologists is more

difficult to find.

Several foreign zoologists have worked on American material,

although, as a rule, they have been able to secure only small and quite

1 Received July 22, 1929.

340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

random collections. As a result of this situation any curious indi-

vidual seeking information on the worms of this continent will find it

necessary, in the absence of any comprehensive treatment of the

subject, to wade through some ninety odd papers published in five

languages in the scientific journals of eight different countries. In

this mass of literature are records of occurrence in North America of

217 species of earthworms. Some few of the reports are mistaken, and

a larger number of the generic and specific names are synonyms, but

when these are eliminated enough remain to demonstrate that beneath

the slimy, “repulsive,” exterior is concealed a considerable variety of

structure.

Structural variations, although of some interest, per se, become

more significant when it is possible to distinguish primary from second-

ary characteristics and to arrange the various species thereby into a

phylogenetic or evolutionary sequence. ‘This has been done with some

degree of success for earthworms, including many of the most charac-

teristic genera of our own region.

Furthermore, although the number of species recorded from the

area under consideration may seem at first thought to be rather large,

it is probably but a fraction of the number of interesting forms that

yet remain to be discovered. The records of distribution indicate how

fragmentary our present knowledge is and at the same time suggest

many opportunities for further investigation.

In the ensuing discussion earthworm is used to refer to any mega-

drilous oligochaete irrespective of terrestrial or aquatic habitat and

North America is regarded as comprising not only all of the land mass

north of the Panama Canal but also the islands of the West Indies.

THE ACANTHODRILINAE

The ancestral type from which it is customary to trace many of the

various lines of earthworm descent is known as the ‘‘Acanthodrilin

Urform.”’ This has the following characteristics :—

1. Paired testes and deferent duct funnels naked in segments ten and

eleven.

2. The male ducts (vasa deferentia) on each side unite behind the second

pair of funnels, pass backwards, and open to the exterior by a male pore

on each side of segment eighteen.

Glands of unknown function called prostates, paired, tubular, and with

an unbranched central canal open to the exterior on segments seventeen

and nineteen.

4. Setae (solid, needle-shaped, chitinous bars embedded in epidermal sacs)

four pairs per segment.

sEPT. 19,1929 GATES: EARTHWORMS OF NORTH AMERICA 341

5. Nephridia (coiled tubular excretory structures) large, one pair in each

segment. Loosely called meganephridia.

6. A single oesophageal gizzard located anteriorly in segments five, six, or

seven.

Earthworms with the characteristics just enumerated are included in

Acanthodrilus, a genus represented in our region by nine indigenous

species. Six occur in Guatemala, one in Mexico, one in Cuba. One

the distribution of which is either greater than the others or perhaps

merely better known extends from Mexico to Guatemala. Elsewhere

the genus is indigenous in South America, South Africa, Australia,

New Zealand, and some of the Antarctic islands.

Microscolex was derived from Acanthodrilus by the disappearance of

the posterior pair of prostates and the dislocation forward of the male

pores to open to the exterior, together with the ducts of the anterior

pair of prostates, on segment seventeen. This development of the

male organs is known as the microscolecine reduction from the genus in

which it was first observed, but it has appeared in other families as well

asin the Acanthodrilinae. Twospecies of Microscolex have been found

in various places on this continent but both are peregrine, 1.e., widely

distributed either by their own or by human effort and hence not of

any zoogeographical significance. One of these species is the remark-

able luminescent form M. phosphoreus.

In another genus of the family the anterior instead of the posterior

prostates disappeared and the posterior pair of prostatic pores moved

forward to open on segment eighteen near the apertures of the vasa

deferentia. This genus, Diplotrema, is found today only in Queens-

land and New Caledonia, but from it was derived a large and important

family, the Megascolecinae.

THE MEGASCOLECINAE

The first genus of this family, Plutellus, arose from the Acantho-

drilin Diplotrema by the fusion of the male pores with the prostatic

pores on segment eighteen. This condition of the male apparatus

remains characteristic throughout the whole family. The genus

Plutellus was founded by Perrier in 1873 for a worm said to have been

collected in Pennsylvania, but the species, P. heteroporus, has never

again been found, in spite of the plea of Benham for the collection of

further specimens. Six other American species have since been found,

four in California, one in Guatemala, and one in Canada. This last,

P. perriert, from Queen Charlotte Island, has been collected but once,

and is the only species of earthworm known to be endemic in Canadian

territory.

342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

Megascolides, the next genus in the Megascolecin line of descent,

was derived from Plutellus by a “breaking up” of the nephridia, i.e.,

instead of one pair of ‘‘meganephridia”’ in each segment there may be

three or four ‘“‘micronephridia”’ on each side, all of the same size, or

one on each side larger than the others. The single American species

of this genus was found at Pullman, Washington, and described by

Smith in a preliminary note in 1897. Although the worm is fairly

large, 180-190 millimeters long with a diameter of six to seven milli-

meters, and in spite of the fact that the species was said to be very

abundant in the region in which it was found, no further information

has yet been made available. This may possibly be due to the fact

that the burrows of this worm extend to a depth of over fifteen feet.

Smith’s specimens were obtained from a road cutting. Species

of Megascolides are found elsewhere only in India, Australia, and

Tasmania. ;

The next step in the evolution of the family was the branching of

the central canal of the prostate. Worms with this development

belong to the genus Notoscolex and occur in India, Australia, and New

Zealand. From Notoscolex was derived Megascolex by an increase in

the number of setae, at first to six or eight pairs, and then to a much

larger number arranged in a more or less closed ring running completely

around each segment. Megascolex is also limited to India, Australia,

and New Zealand. Megascolecin evolution reached its culmination in

the very large genus Pheretima, derived from Megascolex by a still

greater increase in the number of setae per segment and the inclosure

of the testes and male funnels within testis sacs. The genus is

represented in North America by more than half a dozen species all of

which are world wanderers. ‘The peregrine forms of the genus are

known to have been imported in dirt around the roots of plants into

places far from their original habitat. This doubtless explains the

finding of P. hawayana in the greenhouses in Evanston, Ill., and P.

heterochaeta in greenhouses in Urbana, Ill. The occurrence of the

latter species in fields of several Gulf States apparently indicates that

accidental importation may result in permanent colonization.

THe DIPLOCARDIINAE

A family much more characteristically American arose from the

“Original Acanthodrilin’”’ through the doubling of the gizzard, the

initial genus, Diplocardia, having the Acanthodrilin arrangement of the

male reproductive organs, lumbricin setae (four pairs per segment),

sEPT. 19, 1929 GATES: EARTHWORMS OF NORTH AMERICA 343

meganephridia, and two gizzards. This genus is remarkable for the

variation in position of the male pores, these external male orifices

being present typically on segment eighteen in only one species, D. koe-

belez from Morelos, Mexico. The male pores are on segment nineteen

in D. floridana (Monticello, Fla.), D. mississtppiensis (McNeill, Miss.),

‘D. michaelsent and D. udei (Raleigh, N. C.), D. longa (Pulaski County,

Ga.), D. riparia (Ill. and Ind.), D. communis (Ill.), D. singularis

(ill., Ind., and Raleigh), and D. evsenz (Fla., and Savannah, Ga.);

on segment twenty in D. verrucosa (Ill., and Omaha, Neb.); and on

segment twenty-one in D. keyes? (lower California and Chillicothe,

Texas). As is evident from the preceding list which gives complete

records of known distribution except for those species which have been

found in two or more localities in a single state, much remains to be

done in the way of working out the distribution of these typically

American forms.

Zapotecia was derived from Diplocardia by an increase in the number

of gizzards to three. Two species have been described, one from

Mexico, the other from Haiti.

Trigaster was also derived from Dziplocardia but by an increase in the

number of nephridia per segment. ‘Two species are known, one in

Mexico, and one with three varieties in the little island of St. Thomas.

The culmination of the Diplocardin line of descent, so far as North

America is concerned is Dichogaster, derived from Trigaster by the

development of three pairs of calciferous glands in segments fifteen,

sixteen, and seventeen. Three of the twenty-five species found in our

region are either peregrine or of uncertain habitat, the other twenty-

two have been obtained from Mexico (6), Costa Rica (6), Guatemala

(2), Jamaica (4), Haiti (3), and St. Thomas (1). A portion of tropical

Africa is characterized by the presence of a large number of species of

endemic Dichogasters.

THE OCNERODRILINAE

Another line of descent from the Acanthodrilinae was initiated by

the development of paired oesophageal sacs in segment nine. Kerrva,

the most primitive genus of the family is represented in our fauna by

three species, two in Lower California, and one in the island of St.

Thomas. Numerous other species are found in South America.

Ocnerodrilus was derived from Kerria by the microscolecin reduction

of the posterior male organs. Occasionally there are two pairs of

prostates but when the second pair is present the prostatic glands

344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

always open to the exterior on segment eighteen. O. occidentalis

is the only representative of the genus in the United States but is

peregrine and circummundane in the tropics. Sixteen endemic

species are scattered through the southern portion of North America

as follows: Mexico (7), Guatemala (7), Costa Rica (11), Cuba and

St. Thomas (1).

Two other genera of the family come into our region with a single

species each, Gordiodrilus with G. dominicensis in Dominica, and

Nematogenia with N. josephinae in Costa Rica. Endemic species of

both genera are found in Africa. The Oecnerodrilinae gave rise,

apparently in Africa to another family, the Eudrilinae. A single

species, Hudrilus eugeniae, has escaped from that continent and become

widely distributed in the tropics, occurring in our continent in Panama

and the West Indies.

OTHER FAMILIES

According to Michaelsen the Acanthodrilinae evolved from the

Phreoryctinae, a group of small freshwater worms (Microdrili-—

Limicolae). Another line of descent from the Phreoryctinae resulted

in the development of the other families which occur in our continent.

The initial group in this second line of descent from the freshwater

worms was the Glossoscolecinae which are characteristically South

American but which come into our region with two endemic species of

Andiodrilus in Costa Rica and two species of Pontoscolex. Other

species of Andiodrilus are endemic in South America. Only two

species of Pontoscolex are known; one, P. corethrurus which has been

collected in Mexico and several Central American countries as well as

in various islands of the West Indies, is pretty well scattered around the

world in the tropics. A second species appears to be endemic in

Guatemala. From some portion of the Glossoscolecinae there arose

the Microchaetinae. This group of earthworms characterizes Africa

except for a single genus in South America, Drilocrius, which intrudes

into Costa Rica with one species. Another development from the

Glossoscolecinae is the family Sparganophilinae of which only two

species are known. One of these, S. ezsenz, is widely distributed in the

area from Guatemala to Michigan, but the other, S. tamesis, has been

found only in the Thames River near Oxford, England, to which place

it was presumably carried by man. The family is considered to be

purely North American.

From the Microchaetinae by way of a very small, purely European

sEPT. 19, 1929 GATES: EARTHWORMS OF NORTH AMERICA 345

family, the Criodrilinae, Michaelsen derives the Lumbricinae, with

endemic species in both Europe and the United States. From North

America there have been collected 26 species of which eighteen are

peregrine, presumably immigrants from Europe. Among this number

are such well known forms as the nightwalker, Lumbricus terrestris,

the dungworm, Eisenia foetida, and the very common Helodrilus -

caliginosus. All of the peregrine species have been collected more or

less widely on this continent. Much less well known are the endemie

forms. These include Eisenia lénnbergi described by Michaelsen who

had specimens from Raleigh and Savannah, LE. carolinensis founded

by the same author for a single worm obtained from the dirt around

the roots of a plant imported in the Botanical Gardens of Hamburg,

Germany, from Fayetteville, N. C., and several species of Bimastus.

There are no further records of the occurrence of Hisenia but the

distribution of some of the Bimastus forms has been worked out more

thoroughly. B. palustris has been collected in Pennsylvania, New

Jersey, and in Raleigh, N. C.; B. gieslert in Savannah, Ga., Florida,

Ohio, Illinois, Kansas, and Texas; B. zeteki in the Susquehanna River,

N. Y., and in Douglas Lake, Mich., B. twmidus has been collected only

in Mt. Lebanon, N. Y., B. longicinctus has been found only in Urbana,

Ill. B. welchi was erected for a single specimen obtained in Manhattan,

Kansas.

ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIPS

The occurrence of endemic species of the same genus in areas as

widely separated as North America, Africa, India, Australia and

New Zealand has of course attracted much attention from students of .

the earthworms. Interest in these problems has been increased by

the demonstration that many of the purely terrestrial forms are

limited in their movements by numerous natural barriers such as

deserts, mountain-ranges and bodies of salt water. In the past it has

been customary to regard the occurrence of these generically similar

endemic species in widely separated areas as evidence for some sort of

geographical connection between the areas concerned, in geological

time more or less remote. Michaelsen even went so far as to maintain

that in the Oligochaeta we have a group ‘“‘which is capable of yielding

results for paleogeography second to those of no other group in impor-

tance and certainty.” The geographical relationships and their

explanations so far as our own continent is concerned may be briefly

summarized as follows.

346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

Acanthodrilus is common to South America, South Africa, Australia

and New Zealand. ‘This distribution is taken as evidence for a former

connection of the areas concerned either by a continuous Antarctic

continent or by means of bridges represented today only by islands,

the vestigial mountain tops of ranges that have sunk with the rest of

the bridge beneath the sea. In a northward direction Acanthodrilus

has penetrated into Central America presumably passing over the

contemporary bridge connecting the two Americas, the Isthmus of

Panama.

Plutellus and Megascolides originated in Australia or somewhere in

the Australasian region and are supposed to have migrated into

North America from Asia over a Behring bridge across the north

Pacific.

In contrast to the Megascolecin forms, Diplocardia is thought to

have originated in Mexico where it gave rise to forms that migrated

northwards into the United States. Stephenson has described a

species of Diplocardia from central India which, he assumes, reached

that locality by migrating from North America over the Behring

bridge in an opposite direction to that taken by the Megascolecin

forms. Derivative genera such as Dichogaster are presumed to have

wandered southwards and westwards to what later became the islands

of the West Indies. The occurrence of numerous indigenous Diplo-

eardin forms in Africa is regarded as evidence for a transatlantic

bridge connecting Africa and Central America through the region of

the West Indies. The Ocnerodrilinae furnish additional evidence for

this Atlantic bridge.

Finally, the occurrence of endemic species of the Lumbricinae in

South Europe and the United States is considered to be evidence for

another bridge, probably in the North Atlantic region, connecting

Europe and North America. The absence of endemic species of the

family in the northern portions of both continents at the present time

is explained to be the result of their extinction by glacial sheets of ice

which covered these regions after the migration had taken place.

Bridges as explanations of earthworm distribution raise many

difficulties, sometimes more than they obviate. Michaelsen has

lately tried to avoid some of these difficulties by adopting Wegener’s

hypothesis of separation and eventual wide-apart displacement of

continents from a single gigantic land mass. A diagram in Michael-

sen’s paper shows the southern portion of South America (Acantho-

drilus region) in contact with the southern portion of Africa, the

SEPT. 19,1929 GATES: EARTHWORMS OF NORTH AMERICA 347

Diplocardia region of Central America continuous with a central

African Dichogaster belt, and the endemic E?senza region of the United

States in contact with a corresponding area in southern Europe.

According to this theory, the worms concerned migrated from one

region to another while the land masses were still in contact, then later

on a separation and pulling apart of the continents brought about the

formation of the deep ocean basins between.

More recently still Stephenson has pointed out certain indications

tending to show that the earthworms are a relatively recent group,

much more recent in fact than the gigantic land mass of Wegener or

many of the bridges invoked to explain the facts of their distribution.

In place of bridges Stephenson offers as his contributions to a solution

of the problem transportation of cocoons in mud on the feet of birds,

transference of adult forms in natural rafts, and polyphyletic origin of

some of the genera concerned, 1.e., the origin of a genus independently

from different species of the same ancestral genus or even from two or

more different genera.

The cocoons of earthworms, however, are usually deposited, by the

purely terrestrial forms at a depth where there is very little likelihood of

their becoming entangled in mud on the feet of birds, and furthermore,

being rather slippery may be expected to offer considerable difficulties

in the way of long distance transportation by birds. Raft transference

of adult worms does not seem to be of much value in explaining the

passage of worms between continents widely separated by permanently

deep ocean basins. Finally it does not seem too much to expect at the

present, that further study will enable the separation of mixed groups

into genera of purely monophyletic origin, for the vast majority of our

present species are based upon characteristics visible in dissection

without adequate knowledge of the microscopical anatomy. Little or

nothing at all is known of the oligochaete fauna of many large and very

important areas and the thorough exploration of these regions together

with detailed microscopic studies may be expected to assist materially

earthworms.

348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

733D MEETING

The 733d meeting of the Biological Society was held in the new assembly

hall of the Cosmos Club March 23, 1929, at 8.10 p.m., with President GoLDMAN

in the chair and 120 persons present. The minutes of the preceding meeting

were read and approved.

The chairman announced that the new list of birds of the District of Colum-

bia, by Miss M. T. Cookg, is just off the press.

VERNON BaILey stated that the deer situation in Pennsylvania is not yet

cleared up. In one county 231 dead fawns of the previous year were counted

which had died from starvation due to overstocking and consequent exhaus-

tion of the food within the reach of young animals.

EK. P. WALKER exhibited a new binder for pamphlets, consisting of a stout

cover with flexible steel rods permitting the ready insertion or removal of the

contents.

The regular programme was as follow :

Pau B. Jonnson: The pupil of the eye (illustrated) —A summary based

on published accounts and on the author’s observations. Amphibia: verti-

cal (= V), horizontal (= H), triangular and rhomboid—Gadow, Cambridge

Nat. Hist. Reptiles: V and R (= round)—loe. cit. Fishes: (few personal

observations). H oval pyriform pointed foward, V, R; divided pupil in

Anableps—Boulenger, Camb. N. Hist. Birds: observed in National Zoolo-

gical Park; generally R; black skimmer contracted to V (A. Wetmore); so

some parrots, a macaw. Mammals: National Zoological Park; also cita-

tions from G. L. Johnson, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soe. v. 194 B (= GLJ). Round:

echidna; marsupials (kangaroos H?—PBJ); edentates; chiroptera; insectivo-

res; rodents except V and H below; tapir (H—PBJ), rhinoceros, elephant;

Ursidae; Procyonidae except coati (H); Mustelidae; wolves, jackals, coyotes;

large cats (see V below); Lemurinae (see V below); Simiae. Vertical lenti-

form: viscacha (H—GLJ); foxes (see below); Hyaenidae; Viverrinae; small

cats, but including lynxes, clouded leopard, ocelot, serval (last two R—GLJ) ;

seals and sea lions (GLJ; at times, PBJ; see below); galago, potto. Vertzcal

pyriform: pointed below; icticyon (cf. lyeaon below). Slightly V oval (GLJ):

spotted cavy (R—PBJ), capybara, coypu; foxes; lycaon, raccon-like dog;

lemurs, galagos; (occasionally in African leopard—PBJ). Horizontal: vis-

cacha (V—PBJ), marmots, a few Sciuridae (GLJ); dipodomys;most ungu-

lates: large or small oval, or long margins straight or concave; only upper

margin concave, contracted to slit, convex down, musk ox; margins with

sooty granules or fringes, some equids and ruminants; interlocking processes,

camel, llama (GLJ): protrusile appendage, hyrax (GLJ); Herpestinae, ob-

long oval; coati, pyriform pointed laterally; Cetacea and Sirenia, oval (GLJ

et al.). Seals and sealions: large R, night, contracted to V oval, lentiform,

small central R, minute V and H slits; cruciform closure? (See J. Murie,

Trans. Zool. Soc., v. 7). All mammals at night: dilatation varies; many V

and H preserve type (small flashlight used). Study under controlled con-

ditions urged. (Author’s abstract.)

sEPT. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 349

E. W. Branpss: Sugar plant hunting by aeroplane in New Guinea (illus-

trated) —The speaker showed a seven reel motion picture taken in the

territories of Papua and New Guinea and Dutch New Guinea. This picture

was taken by himself and R. K. Peck, airplane pilot, during an expedition to

the Island of New Guinea, sponsored by the United States Department of

Agriculture, for the purpose of collecting varieties of sugar cane resistant to

mosaic and other diseases of the cane plant. The expedition left this country

in April, 1928, and returned in October bringing 176 varieties of sugar cane

collected in all three of the political divisions of the Island of New Guinea,

from the coastal plains to the high mountains of the interior. The collection

of varieties is now growing in quarantine at Arlington Farm and will be sent

to the commercial cane areas of the south some time this fall for testing for

adaptability in this country. The motion picture consisted of a pictograph

record of travels and experiences in New Guinea where the party encountered

tribes of head-hunting savages, cannibals and pigmies. Much of the terri-

tory covered was unmapped and the party added considerably to the knowl-

edge of the geography of the region, discovering many unknown lakes and

rivers in the lake plain of western Papua. ‘Transportation of the scientific

party in New Guinea was almost exclusively by seaplane working out from

base camps established on the Fly, Strickland and Sepik rivers. About

10,000 miles was covered by this means and contacts made with tribes of

natives not heretofore seen by white men. The large collection of ethnologi-

eal and natural history specimens obtained has been turned over to the

Smithsonian Institution. (Author’s abstract.)

734TH MEETING

The 734th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

April 6, 1929, at 8.10 p.m., with President GoLpMAN in the chair and 75 per-

sons present. New member elected: C. F. W. MuESEBECK.

R. M. Lipsy announced the arrival of purple martins on March 23.

C. W. Striuzs: The zoo-parasitic diseases of non-human primates in refer-

ence to diseases of man (illustrated) —A considerable number:of parasites of

non-human primates are congeneric with parasites of man, and ina number of

instances the non-human primate infection is conspecific with that of man.

For instance, Endamoeba histolytica (of amoebic dysentery), Necator amer-

canus (the American hookworm), and a number of other parasites are re-

ported for both monkeys and for human beings; the higher apes have malarial

parasites which are very similar to those of man, but their specific identity

is not at present generally accepted; several different monkeys are known to

be favorable hosts for yellow fever and for various species of Trypanosoma

and Spirochaetacea which are reported for man. The question of the poten-

tiality of menageries and museums in the spread of disease from primates to

man represents a comparatively new subject and the administrative side of

the question will depend entirely upon the amount of good which might be

accomplished with a given amount of money which might be spent. Some

phases of the subject are undoubtedly more academic than practical, but other

phases certainly border on the practical. (Awuthor’s abstract.)

C. F. Swinewe: Botanical exploration in Madagascar (illustrated) —The

speaker, in company with Dr. Henri Humsert, Professor of Botany in the

University of Algiers, left Marseilles June 7, 1928, for Madagascar, on a plant

exploration expedition sponsored by the University of Algiers, the Arnold

350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 15

Arboretum of Harvard University, and the United States Department of

Agriculture. This was Dr. HumBErt’s third trip to Madagascar, but it was

the first time an American botanist had ever visited France’s “Great African

Island.” The party covered a large part of Madagascar but most time

was spent in the relatively inaccessible and little known southwest, a region

characterized by an extensive and very peculiar native flora, in spite of the

arid nature of the country. In particular, tree Euphorbias, some 30 or 40

feet high, serve to make this region unique.

The expedition traveled partly by auto, partly by boat, but in the southwest

the filanzana, a special type of sedan chair, was employed.

The speaker reached Washington in November with the living plant

material, while Dr. HUMBERT remained in Madagascar until February, then

going into Tanganyika and Kenya to compare the flora there with that of

Madagascar. ;

The party collected some 3000 herbarium numbers, and a considerable

quantity of living plant material. The real prize consisted of living specimens

of Euphorbia intisy, a plant known to yield a rubber of very high quality, but

one practically exterminated because of the ruthless collecting methods em-

ployed by the natives.

A more complete account of the trip is to appear shortly in the National

Geographic Magazine. [appeared August 1st 1929] (Author’s abstract.)

735TH MEETING

The 735th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

April 20, 1928, at 8.10 p.m., with President GoLDMAN in the chair and 90

persons present. New members elected: G. G. Brckrer, Raupa ELLIs,

Jr. (life member), and E. H. Taynor.

J. M. Houtzwortu: The brown and grizzly bears of Alaska (illustrated).—

The speaker exhibited several reels of motion pictures of bears of two or more

species, many of which were taken at very closerange. They illustrated the

fishing and other habits of the bears and their attitude towards man. In

general they are inoffensive-—Discussed by C. H. Merriam, who commented

on the abundance and remarkable tameness of the bears, and contrasted these

conditions with those found by SHELDON in his work about Mt. McKinley

where bears were very scarce and shy.

SPECIAL MEETING

A special meeting of the Biological Society was held May 11, 1929, at 8

p.m., in the auditorium of the National Museum, with President GoLDMAN

in the chair and 140 persons present. The program was as follows:

R. G. Canti, Cambridge, England: Living tissue cells grown in vitro (il-

lustrated)—A three reel moving picture was exhibited and explained by

Professor F. A. VARRELMAN, which showed cells of cancer and the heart of a

chicken in their life processes of growth, division, and locomotion, and ex-

hibited the amoeboid and ciliate tendencies of cells when grown hy themselves

in culture media.

S. F. Buaks, Recording Secretary.

wa oF

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Tuesday, Oct. 1. The Botanical Society.

Wednesday, Oct. 2. The Medical Society.

Thursday, Oct. 3. The Entomological Society.

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

: Chcditstey: —The determination of small quinine. ar Beas

ihareie ets paerimiiere one Cee ee

Botany. Sy Piperaceze from Central Ace cen yeas

bendy Dim RPE cme et

STE a PS of North America. G. E. Giga TuMiet Baral a ‘<

PROCEEDINGS ape i

he: Biological) Baciety hys'..'./. 321... ghee hy comateea a ah be hee ae eee

This Jourwax is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals to be found in public

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

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Corresponding Secretary: L. B. TucKERMAN, Bureau of Shandaee

Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic Sur

Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Vor. 19 OcToBER 4, 1929 No. 16

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Vou. 19 OcToOBER 4, 1929 No. 16

BOTANY .—Botanical notes on, and descriptions of, new and old species

of Venezuelan plants.—I1. Old and new species of Euphorbiaceae.

H. Pirrrer, Caracas, Venezuela.

Fragariopsis Paxii Pittier, sp. nov.

Scandens, caulibus teretibus, gracilibus, parce pilosulis; foliis membrana-

ceis, palmatinerviis, petiolatis, petiolis mediocribus, pubescentibus, apice

bistipellatis; laminis ovato-lanceolatis, basi subtruncatis abrupte cuneatis

conspicue biglandulosis, apice tenuiter cuspidatis, marginibus dentato-

sinuatis, costa venisque primariis supra subtusque plus minusve pubescenti-

bus; floribus monoicis, inflorescentiis bisexualibus basi florem foeminaei

unicum gerentibus, caeterum maribus; pedunculis rhachidibusque cano-

pubescentibus; bracteolis lanceolato-acutis pubescentibus; floribus maribus

numerosis, racemulosis, pedicellatis; pedicellis modice-longis, medio articula-

tis et minutissime bracteolatis, parce puberulis; alabastris minutissime

puberulis pubescentibusve; calyce 4-lobulato, lobulis ovato-lanceolatis,

acutis, glabris; staminibus 8-16, purpureis; filamentis nullis; antheris bilobu-

latis, lobulis discretis, rimosis; floribus foemineis maribus majoribus, longe

pedicellatis pedicello medio articulato et bracteolato; sepalis 4, triangulari-

acuminatis apice puberulis; ovario 4-loculari, depresso-globoso, extus pubes-

cente; columna stylari elongata, crassa, purpurea, basi plus minusve puberula,

apice stigmatibus 4, magnis, flavis coronata. Capsula deest.

Petioli 3 cm. longi; laminae 8.5-10 cm. longae, 3.5-4.5 cm. latae. Pedun-

culi 0.5-1.5 em. longi; pedicellum floris maris 1—-1.5 mm., foeminei 2-3 mm.

longum. Sepala masc. 1.5 mm., foem. circa 2 mm. longa. Columna stylaris

5-6 mm. longa.

FEDERAL District: Loma de En Medio, valley of Puerto La Cruz, 1000

m., in forest; flowers September 4, 1918 (Pzttier 8109, type).

This is a very interesting addition to the flora of Venezuela, since the plant

belongs without any possible doubt to a genus hitherto considered as mono-

typic and known only from South Brazil. The species is named in honor

of Dr. F. Pax, the well known monographer of the Euphorbiaceae.

1 The first contribution under this title appeared in Tu1s JoURNAL, 19: 175-186. 1929.

Received August 16, 1929.

351

352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 16

Manihot remotiloba Pittier, sp. nov.

Arborescens, glaberrima, ramis brevibus, crassis; stipulis parvis, triangulari-

acutis; foliis longissime petiolatis, ambitu reniformi, petiolo basi crasso

apicem versus sensim attenuato, laminis amplis, supra viridis subtus glauces-

centibus, fere usque ad basin 5-lobulatis, lobis remotis, angustis, lanceolatis,

acuminatis, penninerviis, costa nervisque subtus prominulis; marginibus

integris sinuatisve; inflorescentiis terminalibus, modice pedunculatis foliis

multo brevioribus; floribus viridi-flavescentibus, masculis brevissime pedicel-

latis, bracteatis, bracteis oblongis obtusiusculis apice plus minusve denticu-

latis; alabastris globosis; calyce subcampanulato, lobulis ovatis, obtusis,

extus glabris, intus pubescentibus; petalis nullis, disci glandulis liberis;

staminibus 8, liberis, filamentis exterioribus antheris aequantibus, interioribus

brevissimis, floribus foemineis masculis duplo longioribus; disci glandulis

coalitis; ovario globoso, glabro; stigmatibus subsessilibus, purpureis; capsula

magna, lignosa, globosa, tantum depressa; seminibus laevibus, griseis,

ovoideis, depressis, ecarunculatis.

Arbor 3-4 m. alta. Petioli 10-22, plerumque circa 20 cm. longi; lam-

inae 10 cm. longae, 16-18 cm. latae, lobulis 7.5-10 cm. longis, 3-4.5 em.

latis, externis brevioribus. Flores foeminei 10.5 mm. longi, pedicellis circa

7 mm.; flores masculi duplo breviori; filamenta staminum exteriorum circa

4 mm. longa. Capsula 1.3 cm. longa, 2 em. lata; semina 9-10 mm. longa,

—3.5 mm. lata, 4-5 mm. crassa.

Yaracuy: In thorn bushes between Yaritagua and Urachiche, flowers

and fruits April 10, 1925 (Pitter 11761, type).

Belongs to Sect. Parvibracteatae, Subsect. Graciles and takes place between

Manihot Catingae Ule and M. Johannis Pax.

| Manihot meridensis Pittier, sp. nov.

Frutex glaberrima, stipulis minimis caducis, foliis petiolatis, petiolo modice

longo, laminis subreniformibus, basi aperte cordatis, fere usque ad basin

3-lobulatis, lobulis ovato-lanceolatis, acuminatis, medio integro, lateralibus

plus minusve sinuatis basi extus saepissime semi auriculatis, auricula oblonga,

sinuata; inflorescentiis axillaribus, subspicatis; bracteis minutissimis, caducis;

floribus longe pedicellatis, basalibus 2 foemineis demum masculis; calyce

floris maris globoso, extus glabro, intus pubescente, lobulis oblongis, obtusis;

staminibus 10 utrinque hirtellis; filamentis 4 exterioribus brevibus, interiori-

bus subaequantibus; sepalis floris foeminei fere liberis, maris triplo longioribus,

ovato-lanceolatis; disci glandulis adhaerentibus, apice plus minusve reflexis;

ovario globoso; stylis cohaerentibus; stigmatibus purpureis.

Petioli 2.5-4 em. longi; laminae 4-5 ecm. longae, 5.5-10 em. latae; lobuli

3.04.5 em. longi, 1.5-2.2 em. lati, exteriori breviores. Inflorescentiae

7-9 cm. longae; pedunculi 3-4.5 cm. longi, pedicelli 0.5-1 em. longi, maris

foemineis dimidio breviores. Flores masculi 6-7 mm., foeminei 11-13 mm.

longa; filamenta 2-4.5 mm. longa; antherae 4 mm. longae.

Meriva: Lagunillas, 700 m., flowers March 13, 1922 (A. Jahn 1000, type).

This low shrub belongs to section Heterophyllae and is remarkable for its

large female flowers and its 3—-lobate leaves, with the exterior lobes almost

always auriculate on the outer side. It probably should be placed in the

group of the Varzifoliae, not represented heretofore in northern South America.

oct. 4, 1929 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS Byi}s)

Mabea microcarpa Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbor parva, coma expansa, rotundata, ramulis gracilibus, virgatis,

cortice glaberrimo obscure brunneo tectis; foliis coriaceis, in sicco nigrescenti-

bus, petiolatis, petiolis brevibus, canaliculatis, glabris, laminis ovalibus, basi

rotundatis, apice abrupte cuspidato-acuminatis, minutissime mucronulatis,

marginibus serrulatis, supra sublucidis, obscure venosis, subtus pallidioribus

costa venisque secundariis cirea 12 prominentibus, venulis prominulis;

inflorescentiis terminalibus, anguste paniculatis, pedunculatis, pedunculis

bifidis ramulosisve, ramulisque copiose bracteosis; bracteis lineari-acuminatis,

glabris vel leviter puberulis; ramulis masculis laxis, elongatis, umbellulatim

1-3-floris, prope basin biglanduliferis, rhachi pedicellisque minutissime rufo-

puberulis, oblongis; glandulis floris maris validis, oblongis, juxtapositis

nigrescentibus; pedicellis gracillimis; bracteola ovato-acuta, puberula,

integra vel minutissime remoto-denticulata, eglandulosa, sepalis triangulari-

bus, acutis, puberulis; staminibus 22—24; bracteis floris foeminei 3, linearibus,

puberulis, lateralibus brevioribus; pedicello puberulo, basi glandulis 2, parvis,

rotundatis suffultis; calyce puberulo, sepalis exterioribus 38 interioribus

minoribus, ovato-lanceolatis, acutissimis; ovario subgloboso, columna

stylari elongata et stylorum parte libera columna breviora omnino rufo-

tomentellis; capsula parva, globosa, basi apiceque plus minusve truncata,

profunde sulcata, parce ochraceo-tomentella, calyce persistente suffulta;

semina obovoidea, leviter compressa, apice subretusa, vix carunculata,

laevia, badia.

Arbor 3-4 metralis. Petioli 4-5 mm. longi; laminae 5.5-8.5 cm. longae,

2.5-3.5 em. latae. Paniculae 10-14 cm. longae. Ramuli florum marium

3-3.5 mm. longi; bracteolae 2 mm. longae; pedicelli basi articulati 4-5 mm.

longi; florum diam. 2.5-3 mm. Flores foeminei: bracteae 3.5-6 mm. longae;

pedicelli 4.5 mm. longi; sepala 1.5-2.5 mm. longa; columna stylari 7.5 mm.

longa. Capsula 9-10 mm. longa lataque;semina 4.5 mm. longa, 4.5 mm. lata.

Zuu1a: Along Rio Lora, in primeval forest, flowers and fruits December

13, 1922 (Pitter 10931, type).

Determined at first as M. occidentalis Benth., but not properly referable to

that group because it apparently has more than 24 stamens; its place is

rather near M. lucida Pax & Hoffm., from which it differs mainly in the size

of the capsule, the shape and size of the leaves, and in the glandular bracts of

the female flowers.

Mabea longepedicellata Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbor mediocris, lactescente, coma elongata, ramis ramulisque virgatis

dense hirtellis, foliis chartaceis, petiolatis, interdum oppositis; petiolis

gracilibus, parce hirtellis, canaliculatis; laminis oblongis oblongo-lanceola-

tisve, basi rotundatis apice subtiliter apiculato-acuminatis, marginibus

obtuse serrulatis revolutisque, supra sublucidis in sicco virescentibus, subtus

glaucescentibus secundum marginem punctis glanduligeris ornatis, costa

prominente basin versus saepe puberula, venis primariis 11—14 vix prominulis,

venulis inconspicuis, acumine saepe tomentello; paniculis terminalibus

multifloris rhachi tenuiter rufo-hirtella; ramulis maribus 2-3-floribus supra

basin validissime biglandulosis, glandulis oblongis; bractea ovato-acuta dense

puberula; pedicellis longissimis densiuscule griseo-tomentellis, medio articu-

354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 16

latis; calyce cupulato, 5-6-dentato, extus griseo-tomentello; staminibus

12-20, antheris puberulis; floribus foemineis basin inflorescentiae paucis,

longissime pedicellatis, pedicellis basi bracteatis, calyceque griseo-tomentellis;

bracteis lanceolato-linearis, longe acuminatis, basi biglandulosis; calyce

cupulato mari majore, 6-lobulato, lobis exterioribus minoribus; ovario

subgloboso, columna stylari e basi suleata stylorum parte libera multo

breviora. Capsula immatura griseo-tomentella, majora, ovoidea vel sub-

globosa.

Arbor 8-10 metralis. Petioli 9-11 mm. longi; laminae 6-10 cm. longae,

2-3.5 em. latae. Paniculae 10-12 cm. longae. Ramuli florum marium circa

3 mm. longi; glandulae 2 mm. longae. Bractea plus minusve 1 mm. longa.

Pedicelli 6.5-14 mm. longi. Calyx circiter 1.8 mm. diam. Flores foeminei:

Bractea 10-11 mm. longa. Pedicelli 16-18 mm. longi. Calyx 2 mm. longus

(5 mm. diam.). Ovarium 2.5 mm. longum. Columna stylaris circa 6 mm.

longa; stylorum pars libera 8-10 mm. longa. Capsula immatura 14 mm.

longa.

PortuGuEsA: Between Aparicién and Ospino, in forest, flowers December

26, 1925 (Pittier 12013, type).

Very closely related to M. lucida Pax & Hoffm., but differs in the indumen-

tum of the branchlets and leaves, the dimensions of the inflorescences, the

length of the pedicels, ete.

SAPIUM AUCUPARIUM Jacq., Enum. Pl. Carib. 31. 1760

Sapium albomarginatum Pax &-K. Hoffm., Pflanzenreich 4, 14717: 203. 1924

The materials of the species of Sapzwm most common in the tierra caliente

of the central parts of Venezuela were all referred in Washington to S. Hippo-

mane Meyer. Paxand K. Hoffmann, on the other hand, described as belonging

to a new species the specimens collected in the streets of Valencia. After a care-

ful study of both dry and living materials, I have come to the conclusion that

they all belong to S. aucuparium Jacq. In the first place, the spikes are

never “‘subaggregatae’’ as indicated in Meyer’s diagnosis, but always solitary.

Neither are the leaves ‘‘obsolete serrulatis,” but as a rule very neatly serrulate,

though Pax and Hoffmann altered the ‘‘glanduloso-serrulatis” of Meyer, and

“Sserrata’’ of Jacquin into ‘‘obscure serrulata.’”’ As to the shape of the leaves,

it is found to vary greatly on the same tree and the marginal glands are no

specific character in the present case. The sterile branchlets have larger

leaves and in these the apex is seldom cucullate, though it invariably ends in a

large gland. The margin is always more or less distinctly bordered with a

cartilaginous nerve, of more or less light color, and, in the Valencia specimens,

the female flowers have a 3-partite perianth, a globose ovary with the styles

shortly connate, and the seeds measure about 5 mm. in length and width.

It should also be mentioned that Vargas specimens, from Caracas, in the De

Candolle Herbarium, were determined as S. aucuparium. According to my

experience, the only Sapiwm found in the valley of Caracas is identical with the

one common at Valencia’and elsewhere in the lowlands. The close examina-

oct. 4, 1929 PITTIER: VENEZUELAN PLANTS 350

tion of the Venezuelan materials also have confirmed the opinion expressed

elsewhere,” that S. moritzianum Wiotzsch is, if not identical, at most a mere

variety of S. aucuparium Jacq.

Sapium guaricense Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbor mediocris glabra, decidua, trunco erecto, ramis ramulisque cortice

griseo subpapyraceo tectis; stipulis parvis, acutis, integris, scariosis, caducis;

foliis mediocris, membranaceis, petiolis brevibus, canaliculatis, apice glandu-

lis 2, erassis, retrocurvatis ornatus; laminis ovalibus, basi rotundatis late

cuneatisve, apice planis abrupte brevissimeque acuminatis, acumine diminuto,

minute fimbriato-glanduloso; marginibus elegantiter glanduloso-serrulatis,

serraturis hic inde hydathodibus late perforatis intermixtis, supra laete

viridis, subtus pallidioribus costa prominente, venisque primariis circa 12

parum obliquis arcuatis venulisque bene conspicuis; spicis in ramulis defoliatis

lateralibus terminalibusque omnino masculis; glandulis mediocribus, ovatis,

approximatis; bracteis parvis, late ovatis, subacutatis obtusisve, 7—11-flori-

bus; floribus brevissime pedicellatis; calyce globoso, lobulis 2 imbricatis;

staminibus 2 bene exsertis; et caeteris ignotis.

Arbor 8-10 metralis. Petioli 6-8 mm. longi; laminae 6-10 cm. longae,

2-3.5 em. latae. Stipulae circa 2mm. longae. Spicae 5-10 cm. longae.

GuArico: Llanos de la Rubiera, in deciduous forests, male flowers only,

April 12, 1927 (Pittier 12331, type).

Notwithstanding the young condition of the specimens and the absence of

female flowers and capsules, this tree is sufficiently characterized as a new

species of the Planzfolia, but it is not possible, at present, to define its nearest

affinities.

Sapium naiguatense Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbor mediocris, glabra, ramulis teretibus, cortice brunneo laevi tectis;

foliis subcoriaceis, longe petiolatis, petiolo canaliculato, apice glandulis 2,

validis, manifeste retroflexis, ornato, laminis late ovatis obovatisve basi

cuneatis apice late rotundatis abrupte minute apiculatis acumine cucullato,

Supra saturate viridis subtus pallidioribus costa valida prominentissima,

venis primariis 16-19 prominentibus, basi costa fere perpendicularibus,

demum arcuatis, venulis prominulis, marginibus remote serrulatis, valde

revolutis; floribus desunt; capsula breve stipitata, glabra, depresso-globosa,

nigrescente ; seminibus parvis, tuberculatis, orbicularibus.

Arbor 10 m. alta, basi 30 cm. crassa. Petioli 1-1.7 cm. longi; laminae

5-12 em. longae, 3-5.5 cm. latae. Capsula cum stipite 1.1-1.2 cm. longa,

1.5 em. lata; semina 5-5.5 mm. longa lataque.

Freperau District: Naiguatd at 50 meters above sea-level, in cultivated

places, fruits July 14, 1924 (Pittier 11832, type).

A remarkable species with stipitate capsules and inflexed glands. Belongs

to Subsection Cucullata.

2 Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 20: 129. 1918.

356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 16

Sapium paucistamineum Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbor mediocris, glabra, ramulis nodulosis, griseo-brunneis; foliis parvis,

membranaceis; petiolis gracilibus, late canaliculatis, apice glandulis 2, parvis,

brevibus, ornatis; laminis oblongis obovatisve, basi cuneatis interdum

rotundatis, apice late obtusis acuminulatis acumine cucullato, supra-viridis

subtus vix pallidioribus, costa prominente, venis primariis obliquis, vix

arcuatis vix conspicuis; marginibus remote glanduloso-serrulatis, revolutis;

spicis brevibus, terminalibus; basi 4-6 floribus foemineis sessilibus apice

floribus masculis paucis gerentibus; glandulis florum foeminarum minimis

orbicularibus; bractea minima, margine fimbriata; calyce bilobulato;

ovario globoso, stylis basi longe connatis; glandulis florum masculorum

magnis, ovatis, cohaerentibus; bractea parva, margine subintegra, floribus

1-2, pedicellatis; calyce bilobulato; staminibus 2, exsertis. Capsula deest.

Arbor 10-12 m. alta. Petioli 4-6 mm. longi; laminae 3-6 cm. longae,

1.6-2.6 cm. latae. Spicae 5-7 cm. longae.

TrusgiLtLo: Valera, 550 m., in bushes along Escuque River, flowers Novem-

ber 20, 1922 (Pittier 10750, type).

Very peculiar type of Subsection Cucullata, characterized mainly by its

depauperate male spikelets, numerous female flowers and small leaves.

Euphorbia guanarensis Pittier sp. nov.

Fruticulosa, perennis, caulibus crassis, ramis ramulisque dichotomis,

brevibus, crispulo-pubescentibus; foliis parvis, subcoriaceis, petiolatis,

utrinque hirtellis; petiolis brevibus, laminis ovalibus, ovato-oblongis oblon-

gisve, basi rotundatis cuneatisve, trinerviis, apice obtusis, marginibus integris

vel obsolete dentatis, valde revolutis; stipulis lineari-setaceis, petiolis subae-

quantibus; cimis terminalibus, plurifloribus, bracteolis lanceolatis acutis

pubescentibus, hirtulis, suffultis; involucris pedicellatis, campanulatis,

minute puberulis, rubescentibus, lobulis orbiculari-ovatis, candidis; glandulis

4, fimbriatis; ovario crispulo-tomentello, globoso, stylis 3, brevibus, clavatis

bilobulatisve coronato; capsula densiuscule cano-pubescente; seminibus

laevibus, ecarunculatis, basi minutissime puberulis.

Plantula tota 5-6 em. alta. Petioli circa 1 mm. longi; laminae 5-9 mm.

longae, 2.5-5 mm. latae. Pedicelli 2-3 mm. longi. Involucra circa 3 mm.

longa, lobulis 0.7-0.8 mm. longis latisque. Capsula 1.5-2 mm. longa, 2 mm.

diam.

PortuGuEsA: Hato de Mata Verde near Guanare, in recently burnt

savannas, flowers and fruits December 30, 1925 (Pitter 12072, type).

The place of this species seems to be among the Chamaesyceae with smooth

seeds, differing at first sight from #. amannioides and E. serpens in the general

hairiness.

Euphorbia meridensis Pittier, sp. nov.

Perennis, utrinque glabra, caulibus lignosis, crassis, brevibus, ramulosis,

ramulis tenuibus, quadrangulis, ad nodulos incrassatis; foliis oppositis,

petiolatis, coriaceis, saepe rubescentibus, petiolis brevibus, laminis obovatis

ovatisve, basi subcordatis rotundatisve, apice rotundatis, mucronulatis,

integris; stipulis albescentibus, geminis, triangulari-lanceolatis, minimis,

denticulatis, apiculatis; involucris incarnatis, in axillis supremis solitariis,

pedicellatis, infundibuliformibus, lobulis suborbicularibus, apice subtruncatis,

oct. 4, 1929 HOFFMEISTER: CORALS FROM TAHITI 307

obsolete sinuato-denticulatis; glandulis 4-ovatis, purpureis, exappendiculatis;

stylis 3, brevibus, capitellatis; capsula laevia, coccis carinatis; seminibus

oblongis, laevibus, ecarunculatis.

Fruticulus 5-15 em. alta. Petioli circa 1 mm. longi; laminae 3-6 mm.

longae, 2-3.5 mm. latae. Stipulae 1 mm. longae vel minores. Capsula

circa 2 mm. longa.

Meripa: Paramos de los Apartaderos, 3300 m., flowers and fruits January

22, 1922 (Jahn 976, type).

This dwarf shrub probably belongs to Subsection Chamaesyceae Boiss.

The diminutive involucres are solitary, the glands large and without append-

ages. We have no means at hand to ascertain its closest affinities. In the

Prodromus there is no description, among those of American species, which

would fit our specimens.

ZOOLOGY.—Some reef corals from Tahiti. J. Epwarp Horr-

MEISTER, University of Rochester. (Communicated by JoHN

B. REESIDE, JR.)

The corals listed here were obtained by Dr. William A. Setchell and

Mr. Harold E. Parks of the University of California from the barrier

and fringing reefs around Papeete, Tahiti. There are 24 species

recorded. All are typical shallow water, reef corals and most of them

are common to Oceania and the surrounding areas. Some were taken

from exposed parts of the barrier and fringing reefs and others from

more protected areas of the reefs. One new species is recorded.

POcCILLOPORA DAMICORNIS var. CESPITOSA Dana

1925. Pocillopora damicornis Hoffmeister, Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 343,

p. 15, plate 1, fig. 1. (With synonymy).

I have discussed Pocillopora damicornis Linnaeus and its varieties in the

above mentioned publication.

Station No. 6046. Loose (dead) on Arue Reef.

No. 6084. On outer edge of exposed fringing reef, Arue.

PocILLOPORA EYDOUXI Milne Edwards and Haime

1918. Pocillopora eydouxi Vaughan, Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 213, p. 79,

plate 24, figs.1,2,2a. (Withsynonymy).

The calices of this species possess well developed septa and a large styliform

columella. There are 12 septa, all of nearly the same size. Coenenchymal

granulations consist of erect spinules. P. plicata Dana, P. elongata Dana,

P. coronata Gardiner and P. modumanensis Vaughan are closely related

species. |

Station No. 6051. On outer (exposed) rim of barrier reef off Papeete,

Tahiti.

1 Received July 25, 1929.

PuateE 1

Fig. 1. Pocillopora setchelli Hoffmeister, n. sp. Dana’s specimen No. 3979. In U.S.

National Museum. Seven-eighths natural size.

Fig.2. Pocillopora setchelli Hoffmeister,n.sp. Typr. Seven-eighths natural size.

oct. 4, 1929 HOFFMEISTER: CORALS FROM TAHITI 359

PocILLOPoRA DANAE Verrill. Plate 2, fig. 2

1918. Pocillopora danae Vaughan, Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 213, p. te

plate 22, figs. 1, 1a, 2. (With synonymy).

One specimen agrees in most respects with the type. The bottoms of most

of the ealices are granulate, with no definite columella. In a few places,

however, there is a distinct spine-like columella. The septal characters are

typical of P. danae. The verrucae are not so large and tumid as those of the

Murray Island specimens described by Vaughan, and thus are closer to the

type.

Station No. 6085. On outer exposed edge of fringing reef at Arue.

PocILLOPORA MEANDRINA var. NOBILIS Verrill

1846. Pocillopora verrucosa (part) Dana, Zooph. Wilkes Expl. Exped., p. 529,

pl. L, figs. 3, 3a. (Not Ellis and Solander).

1864. Pocillopora nobilis Verrill, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 1, p. 59.

1907. Pocillopora meandrina var. nobilis Vaughan, Bull. 59, U. 8S. Nat.

Mus., p. 98, pl. XIV, figs. 3, 4; pl. XXII, figs. 1, la, 2, 2a; pl. XXIII.

Vaughan has discussed this species in detail in his above mentioned paper.

Verrill’s P. nobilis is certainly to be placed with P. meandrina Dana. The

nobilis variety can be distinguished by the somewhat larger and less crowded

septa, and slightly larger calices. In the Tahiti specimen a few of the calices,

even in the basal parts of the corallum, have septa which are fairly well

developed. This is rare however; in most places they are obsolete or very

poorly developed.

Station No. 6072. An important rosette coral on outer (exposed) edge of

barrier reef off Papeete, Tahiti.

Pocillopora setchelli Hoffmeister, new species. Plate 1, figs. 1, 2; plate 2,

fig. 1

One specimen agrees very well with one of Dana’s specimens, No. 3979

U.S. Nat. Mus. The locality of Dana’s specimen is unknown and no specific

name isapplied. The following is a description of the Tahiti specimen:

Corallum rising from a relatively small base, sending fronds upward at

every angle and forming a low, eventopped, cespitose structure. The fronds

are about 4 em. high, are tightly packed together, and appear squeezed

and flattened out by the encroachment of neighboring fronds. The distance

from the verrucae near the summit of one frond to those of the adjoining one

is about 30or4mm. Thus the space between the fronds is very narrow. The

fronds are rather broad and thin. They average 3 cm. in breadth by 9 mm.

in thickness including the verrucae. At times, however, they are more

clump-like, thicker and shorter.

Verrucae cover the sides and tops of the fronds. They are not so numerous

near the base as higher up. In most places they are 2 mm. high; diameter 2

by 2.5 mm. and 2 by 3 mm. Characteristically run in parallel rows up the

side of the fronds; rows 1.5 mm. apart. The lateral verrucae are inclined

towards ends of branches.

360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 16

PLATE 2

Fig. 1. Pocillopora setchelli Hoffmeister, n. sp. From barrier reef off Papeete Harbor,

Tahiti. Collected by Albatross Expedition (1899-1900). Five-sixths natural size.

Fig. 2. Pocillopora danae Verrill. Five-sixths natural size.

oct. 4, 1929 HOFFMEISTER: CORALS FROM TAHITI 361

Calices variable in diameter, 0.6 mm. to 1 mm. Between the verrucae

on the tips of the fronds they are in places a little less than 0.5 mm. in diameter.

The intervening walls are thin at and near summits of fronds; thicker in

older portions, in places 1mm. About 24 erect granules top walls surrounding

thin-walled calices. Coenenchyma compact; surface granulate. No septa

visible; no columella; bottom of calices rather smooth.

This species appears to be related to P. brevicornis Lamarck. The compact

and compressed arrangement of the fronds and the even-topped corallum are

distinctive characteristics.

Two specimens of this species in the U. 8. National Museum were collected

by the Albatross Expedition (1899-1901) from the barrier reef off Papeete

Harbor, Tahiti. They show a few calices with septa very slightly developed.

Plate 1, fig. 2 shows one of these specimens. Plate 1, fig. 1 shows Dana’s

specimen No. 3979, U. 8S. Nat. Mus.

Type: U. S. National Museum.

Station No. 6073. Inner (protected) slope of barrier reef off Papeete,

Tahiti.

LEPTASTREA PURPUREA (Dana)

1846. Astraea purpurea Dana, U. S. Expl. Exped., Zooph., p. 239, plate 12,

figs. 10, 10a-10c.

1925. Leptastrea purpurea Hoffmeister, Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 348, p.

20. (With synonymy).

One specimen of this well known and widely distributed species was col-

lected at Tahiti. To my knowledge this is the first specimen recorded from

there.

Station No. 6048. Loose, dead, on fringing reef at Arue.

FUNGIA CONCINNA Verrill

1902. Fungia concinna Déderlein, Korallengat. Fungia, p. 118, pl. 12,

figs. 1—2; pl. 13, fig. 4.

1918. Fungia concinna Vaughan, Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 213, p. 127.

(With synonymy).

1921. Fungia concinna van der Horst, Madrepor. of Siboga Exped., part 2,

p.11. (With synonymy).

There are two typical specimens in the collection and one which is distorted.

One of the former has flat, relatively thin corallum. Measures 117 mm. by

113 mm. and is nearly 15 mm. thick. The spines on the septa number from

5to9. The spines on the under surface are rather large;about 10 of the larger

ones occupy 1 cm.

A good suite of this species was collected by the Albatross expedition of

1899-1901 and is in the U. 8. National Museum.

Station No. 6060. On inner (protected) slope of barrier reef off Papeete,

Tahiti.

362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 16

PAVONIA PRAETORTA Dana

1846. Pavonia praetorta Dana, U.S. Expl. Exped., Zooph. p. 325, plate 22,

figs. 5, 5a.

The species forms rounded, even, hemispherical clumps. The crispate

fronds are narrow, thin and very twisted and have curled summits. The

ambulaera are practically flat. The septa alternate in size although in nearly

all places the smaller are almost as large as the others. The columella in the

Tahiti specimens is indistinct in many calices.

Station No. 6068. On (protected) inner part of combination reef at Atiue.

No. 6053. On inner (protected) slope of barrier reef off Papeete,

Tahiti.

No. 6086. On protected fringing reef at Auae, near Papeete,

Tahiti.

PSAMMOCORA SAMOENSIS Hoffmeister

1925. Psammocora samoensis Hoffmeister, Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 348,

p. 46, plate 5, figs. 3a, 3b, 3c.

This belongs to the massive species of Psammocora and somewhat resem-

bles P. nierstraszi van der Horst (Siboga Exped., part 2, 1921, p. 34, pl. 2,

figs. 3, 4). The Tahiti specimen is close to No. 2 from Samoa described in

Pub. 343 Carnegie Inst. Wash., p. 46. It is a small, irregularly shaped mass

covered with twisted ridges. :

Station No. 6047. Loose, rolling about, but living; surface of fringing reef

at Arue.

MONTIPORA GRACILIS Klunzinger

1879. Montipora gracilis Klunzinger, Korallenthiere des Rothen Meeres,

ovo, pl. Vie tiga viesol: Vio fie 1 = plex tien O)

Station No. 6070. Protected surface of combination reef at Atiue.

MONTIPORA AUSTRALIENSIS Bernard

1897. Montipora australiensis Bernard, Brit. Mus. Cat. Madrepor., vol. 3,

p: 95; pl. 17, fig. 3; pl. 33, fig. 8.

In the U. 8. Nationa! Museum there are several specimens of this species

from Tahiti. Most of them are larger than the one obtained by Setchell and

Parks. Bernard’s description and plates give a good picture of the species.

This species and the preceding one belong to the papillate group.

Station No. 6057. Lurid purple, encrusting coral. very common on

protected portions of both fringing and barrier reefs off Papeete, Tahiti.

oct. 4, 1929 HOFFMEISTER: CORALS FROM TAHITI 363

ACROPORA FORMOSA (Dana)

1846. Madrepora formosa Dana, U.S. Expl. Exped., Zooph., p. 473.

1846. Madrepora brachiata Dana, U.S. Expl. Exped., Zooph., p. 474.

1846. Madrepora gracilis Dana, U.S. Expl. Exped., Zooph. p. 482.

1893. Madrepora formosa Brook, Cat. Genus Madrepora, p. 43.

1925. Acropora formosa Hoffmeister, Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 343, p.

55, pl. 8, figs. 1, 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b.

I have discussed this species in my Samoan report and have combined A.

brachiata (Dana) and A. gracilis (Dana) with it as varieties. The gracilis

variety has thinner stems than the brachiata variety and the two grade into

each other. I am referring the two branches from Tahiti to A. formosa var.

gracilis (Dana).

Station No. 6067. Low, scattering, on shallows of protected fringing reef

off Fareute Point, Papeete, Tahiti.

ACROPORA CORYMBOSA (Lamarck)

1893. Madrepora corymbosa Brook, Cat. Genus Madrepora, p. 97.

1918. Acropora corymbosa Vaughan, Carn. Inst. Wash., Pub. 213, p. 171, pl.

67, fig.1. (Withsynonymy).

Four specimens of various sizes were collected. One (No. 6052) has a small,

cespitose corallum which has not as yet taken on the corymbose form. The

other three are more mature. Besides these there are quite a few other

specimens in the U. 8. National Museum belonging to this species. One was

collected by the Albatross Expedition of 1899-1901, from Papeete Harbor,

Tahiti; one was sent by Dr. Fred Baker from Fanning Island, one by Dr.

F. Wood Jones from Cocos-Keeling, and Dr. Alfred Mayor collected several

from Pago Pago Harbor, Tutuila, Samoa.

Station No. 6074. Inner (protected) slope of barrier reef off Papeete.

ee Nos. 6062, 6063. Exposed edge of fringing reef along the pass at

Atiue.

No. 6052. On outer edge (exposed) of barrier reef off Papeete.

ACROPORA LEPTOCYATHUS (Brook).

1893. Madrepora leptocyathus Brook, Cat. Genus Mad., p. 159, pl. 16, fig. C.

1925. Acropora leptocyathus Hoffmeister, Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 348,

p. 67, plate 17, figs. la to 1d.

I am placing with this species two specimens which differ somewhat from

typical A. leptocyathus. They are close enough to be regarded a variety. I

have examined a large suite of specimens of the species from Samoa and am

familiar with the variation within it. The Tahiti specimens possess axial

corallites which are slightly larger in diameter than is customary. They

measure in places as much as 3 mm. to 3.5 mm. across. Some of the Samoan

specimens have axial corallites of 3 mm. diameter also, although this is not

typical.

Stations No. 6069, 6065. Outer (exposed) margin of fringing reef of pass at

tiue. ;

364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 16

ACROPORA NASUTA (Dana)

1846. Madrepora nasuta Dana, U.S. Expl. Exped., Zooph. p. 453, plate 34,

figs. 2, 2a, 2b.

Dana’s types of this species from Tahiti are in the U. S. National Museum.

Station No. 6064. Outer margin (exposed) of fringing reef of pass at

Atiue.

Tahiti.

No. 6075. Inner slope (protected) of barrier reef off Papeete,

ACROPORA PAXILLIGERA (Dana)

1893. aed paxilligera Brook, Cat. Mad. Corals in Brit. Mus. (Nat.

EHist.), vol. i ;

Besides ane “he species has been reported from Fiji and the Mergui

Archipelago.

Station No. 6077. Inner (protected) slope of barrier reef off Papeete,

Tahiti.

ACROPORA PLANTAGINEA (Lamarck)

1893. Madrepora plantaginea Brook, Cat. Mad. Corals in Brit. Mus. (Nat.

Hist.), p. 156. (With synonymy).

The species is quite similar to Dana’s A. retusa. It has been reported from

Samoa, Singapore and Ceylon besides Tahiti.

Station No. 6076. Inner (protected) slope of barrier reef off Papeete.

ACROPORA PECTINATA (Brook)

1918. Acropora pectinata Vaughan, Carnegie push. Wash., Pub: 213, p. 172;

plate 71, figs. 1, 1a, 1b, 1c, 2.

Station No. 6050. Scattered along the outer (exposed) edge of the fringing

reef at Arue.

ACROPORA CYTHEREA (Dana)

1846. Madrepora cytherea Dana, U.S. Expl. Exped., Zooph., p. 441, pl.-32,

fig. 3.

1893. Madrepora cytherea Brook, Cat. Genus Madrepora, p. 99.

This is one of the most characteristic species of Tahiti. There are a number

of immense specimens from that locality in the Dana collection in the U. S.

National Museum including the type. The species seems to pass through the

same growth stages as are characteristic of A. hyacinthus Dana, which is

described in my Samoan report.

Station No. 6045. Outer (exposed) rim of reef at Arue.

No. 6058. Scattered platform corals on inner slope (protected)

of barrier reef off Papeete. The solid vasiform bases of old specimens are so

very large as to form ‘‘negro heads’’ when tossed about on the reef. They |

ring like metal when struck with the hammer.

oct. 4, 1929 HOFFMEISTER: CORALS FROM TAHITI 365

PORITES LATISTELLATA Quelch

1886. Porites latistellata Quelch, Chall. Exped., XVI: 185; pl. XI, figs. 6, 6a.

1886. Napopora irregularis Quelch, Chall. Exped., XVI: 186; pl. VIII, figs.

6, 6a.

1905. Porites ‘Society Islands ¢) (2),’’ Bernard, The Genus Porites, p. 29,

pl. X, fig. 4.

Station No. 6080. In shallows, surface of protected fringing reef at

Auae, near Papeete, Tahiti.

PoRITES (SYNARAEA) CONVEXA (Verrill)

1864. Synaraea convexa Verrill, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., i, p. 48.

1905. Porites “‘Society Islands (3) 8,’’ Bernard, The Genus Porites, p. 30, pl.

I, figs. 3; 4, 5; pl. X, fig. 5.

Stations Nos. 6078, 6079. Protected fringing reef at Auae, near Papeete.

Nos. 6055, 6056. Growing in clumps on outer edge of protected

fringing reef off Fareute Point, Papeete.

PoriTEs (SYNARAEA) UNDULATA (Klunzinger)

1879. Synaraea undulata Klunzinger, p. 48, pl. 6, fig. 12; pl. 5, fig. 30.

1906. Porites undulata von Marenzeller, Denkschr. k. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien,

80: 66; pl. 22, fig. 75. (With synonymy).

Station No. 6083. On protected fringing reef at Auae, near Papeete,

Tahiti.

MILLEPORA TRUNCATA Dana

1846. Millepora platyphylla, 8 truncata Dana, U. S. Expl. Exped., Zooph.,

p. 548, pl. 53, fig. 2.

1918. Mullepora truncata Vaughan, Carnegie Inst. Wash., Pub. 213, p. 207,

pl. 93, figs. 3, 3a, 3b.

Station No. 6049. In large and deeply indented, sulphur-yellow masses,

along sides of small tideway, (exposed) fringing reef at Arue.

DISTICHOPORA VIOLACEA (Lamarck)

1846. Distichopora violacea Dana, U. S. Expl. Exped., Zooph., pl. 60, figs.

Banh

Station No. 6071. Deep blue. scattered colonies, in crevices and under-

neath overhanging corals, abundant on the inner (sheltered) slope of barrier

reef off Papeete.

366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 16

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

736TH MEETING

50TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 736th regular and 50th annual meeting of the Biological Society was

held in the New Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club May 18, 1929, at 8.10

p.m., with President GoLDMAN in the chair and 23 persons present. New

members elected: F. W. Apprt, J. I. HAmMBuLETON, J. M. Houzwortu.

The reports of the Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, Treas-

urer, and Publication Committee were read and ordered accepted and

placed on file. The report of the Auditing Committee was presented. Dr.

OBERHOLSER gave an informal report for the Board of Trustees.

The election then took place, resulting as follows:

President, ALEXANDER WerrmMore; Vice-Presidents, C. E. CHAMBLISS,

H. H. T. Jacxson, C. W. Stiuzs, T. E. Snyprer; Recording Secretary, S. F.

BuaKE; Corresponding Secretary, W. H. Wuitse; Treasurer, F. C. Linco;

Members of Council, H. C. Futter, W. R. Maxon, A. A. Doourttte, I. Horr-

MAN, and E. P. WALKER.

The following amendments to the Constitution and By-Laws were then

adopted:

1. For Constitution, Art. III, substitute:

The members of the Society shall be persons who are interested in

biological science. There shall be two classes of members, active and

emeritus.

2. In By-Laws, Art. I, delete paragraph 1.

3. For By-Laws, Art. I, paragraph 2, substitute:

Active members in government service who are retired for age or

disability, and members not in government service upon reaching the

age of 70, may be transferred by the Council to the class of emeritus

members. Emeritus members shall have all rights and privileges of

active members, including that of receipt of such notices and publica-

tions of the Society as they were receiving at time of such transfer,

without payment of any further dues. These provisions shall apply

only to those who have been members for at least fifteen years.

4. In By-Laws, Art. III, paragraph 1, omit the words ‘and corre-

sponding.”

5. In By-Laws, Art. III, paragraph 2, omit ‘‘of either class.”

The business meeting adjourned at 9.05 p.m., and a special meeting,

with President Wrrmore in the chair, was held in celebration of the 50th

annual meeting of the Society. Drs. L. O. Howarp, C. W. Sriuus, and W. P.

Hay presented interesting recollections of the early days of the Society and

of some of its prominent members.

S. F. Buaxe, Recording Secretary.

oct. 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 367

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

The 169th to 177th regular meetings of the Botanical Society were held

from October, 1923, to May, 1924; the 178th to the 185th from October, 1924,

to April, 1925; the 186th to the 193d from October to May, 1926; the 194th to

the 202d from September, 1926 to May, 1927; the 203d to the 210th from Oc-

tober, 1927, to May, 1928. The proceedings were not published during this

period, the last, that for the 168th meeting, being printed in this JouRNaL

in February, 1924. The 200th meeting, held March 1, 1927, was devoted to

the history of the society. The addresses were mimeographed and distrib-

uted to the members. :

211TH MEETING

The 211th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club October 2, 1928.

Program. Address of the retiring President, Ropert F. Gricas: A new

key to the families of flowering plants.

212TH MEETING

The 212th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club November 6, 1928. The

program consisted of several papers on seed germination. KE. H. Tooue:

Dormancy. Miss A. M. Anprrson: Histology (illustrated). W. L. Goss:

Current tests. EDGAR Brown: Interpretation (illustrated).

213TH MEETING

The 213th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club December 4, 1928.

Biographical sketches were given of members who had died during the

year, F. G. O’DoNNELL by N. Rex Hunt, and J. N. Rose by Watter H.

EVANS.

Program. FREDERICK VY. CovILLE: Recent experiments with blueberries

(illustrated).

S. F. BuaKxe: Recent studies on the genus Bidens.

O. M. Freeman: The propagation of the flowering dogwood, Cornus florida

L. (illustrated).

214TH MEETING

The 214th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 11, 1929.

Program. H. H. McKinney: Studies on viruses and mosaic diseases

(illustrated).

M. B. McKay: Status of curly top in the west (illustrated).

C. H. Goprrey: Pineapple culture in Hawaii (illustrated).

215TH MEETING

The 215th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club February 5, 1929, with

President GRIFFITHS in the chair.

Program. Epcaar T. Wuerry: Studies on eastern Phloxes (illustrated).—

In the course of studies on soil reaction as related to plant distribution it was

found that the species of Phlox in the eastern United States had never been

satisfactorily characterized, so work on them has been started. The Sec-

tion Subulatae, comprising creeping types with narrow persistent leaves,

proves to include three species, Phlox nivalis Lodd. of the southeastern,

P. subulata L. of the northeastern, and P. bifida Beck of the north-central

states. A series of lantern slides was shown, including for each species his-

368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 16

torical records, habitat views, and close-ups bringing out their significant

features. (Author’s abstract.)

Mrs. A. M. Hurp-Karrer. Temperature effects on leaf acidity and moist-

ure in relation to vigor of the wheat plant (illustrated.)—The concentration of

hydrogen ions in leaf juice of both spring and winter wheats grown at tem-

peratures of 12-18, 20-25, and 25-30° C., respectively, was lowest at the low

temperature and highest at the high temperature. Plants growing at the

medium temperature had the lowest “‘titratable acidity,’ however. The mag-

nitudes of the titratable acid values were closely correlated with the specific

gravity measurements and with the percentages of dry matter in the leaves,

which were also lowest at the medium temperature and highest at the high

temperature. The increase in hydrogen-ion concentration induced by the

higher temperatures was found to depend on the adaptability of the variety

to the particular temperature, the winter wheats being the least adapted to

the higher temperatures. Those plants which grew the most vigorously

had pH values near 6.0 throughout their vegetative development, and up to

the final stage in the maturation period when the acidity values increased

normally. Those plants which were so injured that they failed to develop

beyond the shooting stage had much higher hydrogen-ion concentrations

at each stage of development, extreme injury being accompanied by values ~

near 5.6 while the plants were still in a vegetative stage. (Author’s abstract.)

FREEMAN Weiss and W. A. WHITNEY. Evaporation effects on stock fun-

gous cultures in mechanical and ice-cooled refrigerators (illustrated).—Based

on the theory of action of mechanical refrigerators, on the claims of manu-

facturers of these appliances, and on the very limited data showing actual

performance records in mechanical and ice-cooled refrigerators, it is a com-

monly accepted notion that the atmosphere of a mechanical refrigerator is

relatively dry, that of an ice-cooled refrigerator relatively humid. The cause

of the relatively drier atmosphere in mechanical refrigerators is, of course,

the condensation of moisture as ice on the evaporator coil, which is usually

maintained below 0°C., as contrasted with the giving off of moisture from

melting ice in the other type of refrigerator. The opinion that mechanical

refrigerators are drier than ice-cooled ones overlooks the fact that the tem-

peratures ordinarily maintained in the two types of refrigerators also differ,

and that the circulation of air within the chamber and the rate of air exchange

with the surrounding also have an important effect on the evaporating power

of the internal atmosphere. Stock fungous cultures are stored in refrigera-

tors principally in order to reduce evaporation and for this purpose mechani-

cal refrigerators have sometimes been considered undesirable. A comparison

of the evaporation rate as measured by porous-cup atmometers in two refrig-

erators of generally similar construction and maintained at approximately

the same temperature (48-49°F.) one cooled by ice, the other by a standard

refrigerating mechanism, showed that the rate was higher in the ice-cooled

chamber, the comparative measures being 0.241 and 0.534 ce. per hour during

a test period of 4,008 hours. Uninoculated tubes of an agar culture medium

also showed greater drying out in the ice-cooled chamber, the water loss being

0.487 gr. per tube as compared with 0.446 gr. per tube in those stored in a

mechanical refrigerator. In this instance, the lower evaporation rate in the

mechanical refrigerator is attributed to its more equable temperature and a

generally higher humidity. No freezing out of moisture occurred when the

mechanical refrigerator was maintained at this temperature. A brief account

of the physical factors influencing evaporation was given. (Author’s abstract.)

oct. 4, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 069

216TH MEETING

The annual dinner of the Botanical Society was held at Meridian Man-

sions Hotel, the evening of March 12, 1929. Secretary and Mrs. WiLLIAmM

JARDINE and Doctor and Mrs. E. W. Branpss were the guests of honor. The

dinner was preceded by a reception by Secretary JARDINE. After the dinner,

with Dr. Davin GrirriTHs presiding, addresses were made by Secretary

JARDINE, Dr. W. A. Taytor, and Dr. Karu F. Ke_uerMan, followed by the

regular program.

E. W. Branves: Botanical explorations in New Guinea (illustrated with

motion pictures).

217TH MEETING

The 217th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 2, 1928.

Program. CHARLES F. SwINGLE: Botanical exploration in Madagascar

(illustrated with lantern slides, motion pictures, and ethnological specimens).

—Dr. Henri Humbert, Professor of Botany, University of Algiers, and the

speaker left Marseilles June 7, 1928, for Madagascar, on a plant exploration

expedition sponsored by the University of Algiers, the Arnold Arboretum of

Harvard University and the United States Department of Agriculture.

This was Dr. Humbert’s third trip to Madagascar, but it was the first time

an American botanist had ever visited France’s “Great African Island.”’

The party entered Madagascar from the north but most of the time was

* spent in the little known southwest, an arid region characterized by an exten-

sive and very peculiar native flora, including tree Euphorbias, some 30 or 40

feet high. The expedition traveled partly by automobile, partly by boat,

but in the southwest the filanzana, a kind of sedan chair, was employed.

The speaker returned to Washington in November with the living plant ma-

terial, while Dr. Humbert remained in Madagascar until February, then

going into Tanganyika and Kenya to compare the flora there with that of

Madagascar. The party collected some 3000 herbarium numbers, and a

considerable quantity of living plants. The real prize of the expedition con-

sisted of living specimens of Euphorbia intisy, a plant known to yield a rubber

of very high quality, but one practically exterminated because of the ruthless

collecting methods employed by the natives. (Author’s abstract).

218TH MEETING

The 218th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club May 7, 1929.

Program. Ernst ArtscHwaGeR: Anatomical studies of the epidermis

of the sugar cane plant in relation to its taxonomy and genetics (illustrated).

CHARLES DrecusLer: A review of the genus Pythium and some related

fungi (illustrated).

Victor F. Tapxe: The réle of humidity in the occurrence of smut in wheat,

oats, and barley (illustrated).

Lewis H. Furnt, Recording Secretary.

370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 16

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

INTERNATIONAL LIGHTHOUSE CONFERENCE

The first International Lighthouse Conference that has ever been held, met

in London in July on the invitation of Trinity House, the English Lighthouse

Authority. Trinity House is an organization with a long record of high

achievement in the Lighthouse work of the world. It holds a charter granted

in 1514, and it has carried out some of the most important lighthouse engineer-

ing works, such as the building of the lighthouses on Eddystone Rock and

Bishop Rock. It has included among its engineers Smeaton and Douglas,

and on the governing board, known as the Elder Brethren of Trinity House,

have been many of the noted men of England.

The Conference included representatives of the Lighthouse authorities of

24 countries, and also of a number of local lighthouse organizations and

interested industries. The Conference was entirely informal, and its purpose

was the exchange of information, and the discussion of problems affecting

lighthouse systems; it did not undertake to pass final judgment on any matter.

The Conference was opened under the presidency of the Master of Trinity

House, the DukE or ConNaAuGHT, and the Chairman of its meetings was

Admiral MANSELL, the Deputy Master. Sessions were held from July 8 to

July 12, and during the following week inspection trips were made to various

works. The principal topics of discussion were lighthouse illuminants,

unattended lighting systems, aerial lights, floating aids to navigation, includ-

ing lightships and buoys, lighthouse structures, fog signals, radiobeacons, and

other related matters. Much interesting information was presented, both

in formal papers submitted in advance, and in discussion at the Conference.

The proceedings will be published by Trinity House. The representatives of

the United States were: Georecr R. Putnam, Commissioner of Lighthouses,

Washington, J. T. Yarrs, Superintendent of the Third Lighthouse District,

New York, and H. W. Ruopes, Superintendent of the Highteenth Light-

house District, San Francisco, all of the Department of Commerce.

Obituary

Harry C. FRANKENFIELD, in charge of the River and Flood Division of the

U. 8S. Weather Bureau, and a member of the AcapEmy, died July 29, 1929,

as a result of injuries received when struck by an automobile the evening of

July 22. He was born at Easton, Pennsylvania, November 24, 1862, and

entered the meteorological service, then under the Signal Corps of the Army,

in 1882. After completing the prescribed course at the Signal Service School

at Fort Whipple, Virginia, (now Fort Myer) he was assigned to the Central

Office in Washington. In 1887 he was put in charge of the Chicago station;

from 1894 to 1898 he served at the St. Louis office, and from 1898 to 1920 was

one of the official forecasters at the Central Office. He was in charge of the

River and Flood Service 1898-1912, and from 1920 to the time of his death.

He received the degrees of A.B. (1881) and A.M. (1884) from Lafayette

College, and M.D. (1886) from Howard University (which at that time was

attended by many white students), and was the author of numerous papers

and bulletins, chiefly on topics connected with floods. His outstanding

scientific contribution was the development of methods of numerical computa-

tion by means of which flood stages at various places can be closely foretold,

days to weeks in advance, from the conditions existing upstream.

irk tty

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Saturday, October 5, 1929

Tuesday, October 8, 1929

Wednesday, October 9, 1929

Thursday October 10, 1929

Saturday, October 12, 1929

Tuesday, October 15, 1929

Wednesday, October 16, 1929

Saturday, October 19, 1929

The Biological Society.

The Institute of Electrical Engineers

The Geological Society

The Medical Society

The Chemical Society

The Philosophical Society

The Anthropological Society

The Society of Engineers

The Medical Society

The Biological Society

The Helminthological Society

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

CONTENTS

OrtGINnaL Papers M3 BP

i sean plants. H. ei AL) Le a ee

Zoology.—Some reef corals from Tahiti. J. E, Homundevan | a %

he PROCEEDINGS

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 19 OcToBER 19, 1929 No. 17

CHEMISTRY.—A reaction between soils and metallic tron. H. D.

Ho.ter, Bureau of Standards. (Communicated by R.C. WELLS.)

INTRODUCTION

In connection with the Bureau of Standards Soil-Corrosion Studies,

which have been in progress for several years, the problem of determin-

ing the causes of corrosion of iron or steel in different soils is of scientific

as well as of practical interest. A solution of this problem would

enable one to distinguish soils, which are corrosive to ferrous materials,

from less corrosive soils, and therefore would be of practical assistance

to one charged with the responsibility of protecting pipe lines from

corrosion. It was hoped that a procedure might be developed whereby

the relative corrosiveness of soils could be determined in the laboratory

within a few days—a determination which now requires a period of

years. While this hope has not been completely realized, some infor-

mation regarding a reaction between soils and metallic iron has been

obtained, which may be of interest to those who are more concerned

with the properties of soils than with the corrosion problem. ‘The

scope of this paper is therefore limited to a presentation of some data

on this reaction.

In order to obtain a test by which results could be obtained within

a short period of time, it was necessary either to devise a very sensitive

method of measuring the rate of corroding action or to choose conditions

which would perceptibly increase this rate. To a certain extent, both

of these objects were accomplished by measuring the volume of

hydrogen gas evolved from a wet mixture of soil and pulverized metal-

lie iron.

‘ Publication approved by the Director of the U. S. Bureau of Standards, Depart-

ment of Commerce. Received August 5, 1929.

371

372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

SO/L + [RON

Millititers of Hyarogen

ASS SASSSSS

SPECIMEN

TUBE

deat Ht

Fig. 1.—Arrangement of apparatus

for collecting hydrogen gas evolved from Fig. 2.—Comparative rates of hydrogen .

a mixture of soil and pulverized iron. evolution obtained with 10 different soils.

EVoLuTION oF HYDROGEN

Shipley? observed the evolution of hydrogen from the reaction of

clay on cast iron, and pointed out the importance of the buffer effect

of clay in maintaining the reaction over a period of time. He also

suggested the probable effect of fine soil particles in reducing the

overvoltage of hydrogen on the metal surface, thereby facilitating gas

evolution. The writer found that the volumes of hydrogen gas evolved

from different mixtures of a soil and pulverized iron or steel, under the

same set of conditions, depend upon the soil and agree so closely in

successive trials that the reaction may be considered as an individual

characteristic of that soil.

The effects of different factors, such as fineness of metal, tempera-

ture, etc., were studied only in a qualitative way. The ferrous ma-

terials were limited to very fine steel turnings and to pulverized cast

iron, both of which reacted equally well. The latter was preferred

because of the ease of preparing it. This was accomplished by grind-

2 Ind. Eng. Chem. 17: 381. 1925,

oct. 19, 1929 HOLLER: REACTION OF SOILS AND IRON 373

ing borings in an iron mortar and sieving out the size desired. The

size used in the present tests passed through a ‘“‘60-mesh”’ sieve. The

method used for collecting and measuring the gas is illustrated in

Figure 1. As convenient amounts of materials, 7.5 grams each of soil

and pulverized cast iron were thoroughly mixed and poured into

distilled water contained in a specimen tube. The latter was then

placed in a short bottle standing in a tall beaker full of water. The.

graduated test tube, full of water, was then inverted over the sample.

By this procedure, the mixture quickly became uniformly wet, and

no perceptible amount of air was trapped. In this series of tests the

time of the experiments was limited by the size (about 100 ml.) of the

collecting tube.

Most of the soils listed in Table 1 were tested. In Figure 2, curves

are given for ten of these soils, which represent practically the full

range in activity observed. Some irregularities in the readings were

obtained when bubbles of gas were trapped in the wet soil, but these

were insignificant. The rate of evolution for each soil was sufficiently

steady throughout the course of the test so that a comparison of rates

could be made at the end of any convenient period of time. For

be taken as a comparative measure of the ability of the soil to liberate

hydrogen gas.

No attempt was made to elaborate upon the method of measuring

the gas for the purpose of obtaining more accurate data. Attention

was directed to the more important purpose of finding some other

property of the soils which might be related to, and possibly be the

cause of, their activity on iron.

The results of the tests showed that the amount of hydrogen evolved

by a soil is not dependent upon its pH value alone. A low pH value

does not necessarily indicate that the soil will give a high rate of evolu-

tion. If, however, the soil has a low pH value, together with enough

material capable of buffering the solution at this pH value, a high

rate may be expected. Thus, clays and silt loams are usually more

active than sands. These observations indicate that the hydrogen

evolved is dependent not only upon the concentration of hydrogen

ions but also upon the available supply of hydrogen ions. Since this

supply resides principally in the colloidal portion of the soil, it may be

roughly estimated by determining the pH value and also the percen-

tage content of colloidal matter.

374 _ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No.

TABLE 1. SOILS AND LOCATIONS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS Sort-CorRrosIon INVESTIGATION

Soil Name

Allis silt loam

Bell clay

Cecil clay loam

Chester loam

Dublin clay adobe

Everett gravelly sandy loam

Fairmount silt loam

Fargo clay loam

Genesee silt loam

Gloucester sandy loam

Hagerstown loam

Hanford fine sandy loam

Hanford very fine sandy loam

Hempstead silt loam

Houston black clay

Kalmia fine sandy loam

Keyport loam

Knox silt loam

Lindley silt loam

Mahoning silt loam

Marshall silt loam

Memphis silt loam

Merced silt loam

Merrimac gravelly sandy loam

Miami clay loam

Miami silt loam

Miller clay

Montezuma clay adobe

Muck

Muscatine silt loam

Norfolk sand

Ontario loam

Peat

Penn silt loam

Ramona loam

Ruston sandy loam

St. Johns fine sand

Sassafras gravelly sandy loam

Sassafras silt loam

Sharkey clay —

Summit silt loam

Susquehanna clay

Tidal marsh

Wabash silt loam

Unidentified alkali soil

Unidentified sandy loam

Unidentified silt loam

Locations

Cleveland, Ohio

Dallas, Texas

Atlanta, Ga.

Jenkintown, Pa.

Oakland, Calif.

Seattle, Wash.

Cincinnati, O.

Fargo, N. D.

Sidney, O.

Middleboro, Mass.

Baltimore, Md.

Los Angeles, Calif.

Bakersfield, Calif. -

St. Paul, Minn.

San Antonio, Texas.

Mobile, Ala.

Alexandria, Va.

Omaha, Nebr.

Des Moines, Ia.

Cleveland, Ohio.

Kansas City, Mo.

Memphis, Tenn.

Buttonwillow, Calif.

Norwood, Mass.

Milwaukee, Wis.

Springfield, O.

Bunkie, La.

San Diego, Calif.

New Orleans, La.

Davenport, Ia.

Jacksonville, Fla.

Rochester, N. Y.

Milwaukee, Wis.

Norristown, Pa.

Los Angeles, Calif.

Meridian, Miss.

Jacksonville, Fla.

Camden, N. J.

Wilmington, Del.

New Orleans, La.

Kansas City, Mo.

Meridian, Miss.

Elizabeth, N. J.

Omaha, Nebr.

Casper, Wyo.

Denver, Colo.

Salt Lake City, Utah

ANG,

oct. 19, 1929 HOLLER: REACTION OF SOILS AND IRON BY Ai)

ESTIMATION OF ACIDITY

A more direct determination of the total supply of hydrogen ions,

that is, ‘‘total acidity” of the soil seemed desirable for the purpose of

a direct comparison with the amount of hydrogen evolved. A titra-

tion of the acidity of soils encounters difficulties, such as the detection

of the end-point, time-lag of the neutralization, and the probability

of constituents, other than acid, combining with part of the titrating

solution. The possibility of titration with a hydrogen electrode for

ascertaining the end-point seemed to be worth consideration. Accord-

ingly, a thinly platinized platinum wire electrode supplied with

hydrogen from a tank was tried. It was measured against a tenth-

normal calomel electrode. The 20-gram samples of soils were stirred

vigorously in 200 ml. of 5 per cent potassium chloride solution with a

motor-driven propeller and titrated with a normal solution of potas-

sium hydroxide. The stirring was started immediately after each

addition of alkali but was stopped for making the readings.

Consistent readings were obtained only in the presence of the potas-

sium chloride. This was no doubt partly due to the increased con-

ductivity, but other reasons were probably more important. ‘Thus,

the use of this salt involves a consideration of the ‘‘base exchange”’

effect, according to which the hydrogen ions attached to the soil

particles are exchanged for potassium ions. This would result in the

presence of hydrochloric acid with which the alkali would react more

readily than with the soil material. If the base exchange process

simply involves a transfer of the hydrogen ions from the soil particles

to the solution, and if this transfer is complete, then the hydrochloric

acid ought to be equivalent to the original acidity of the soil. Then

also, titration of the soil in a potassium chloride solution should be a

measure of the total acidity of the soil. Whether this is true cannot be

answered here.

In order to show the consistency of the readings, several titration

curves for a single soil are presented in Figure 3, for which all of the

readings were plotted. In Figure 4, titration curves for several typical

soils are given. The curves for soils Nos. 42, 48 and x are of the strong-

acid type, such as might be expected with hydrochloric acid. Those

for Nos. 33 and 37 indicate buffer material associated with the high

content of organic matter in these soils. The remaining soils repre-

sented in Figure 4 require different amounts of alkali to increase their

pH values by a given amount, but their curves are not of the shape

usually obtained in neutralization processes.

376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

it i

HN}

Ses

HE =

Milliliters of normal potosswrm hydroxide

lig3 Titration curves tor Susquehanna clay

In connection with the reaction of these soils on iron, the question

arises, ‘“What pH value should be taken as the end-point in the above-

mentioned titrations?’ ‘This question may be answered if considera-

tion is given to the change in pH which occurs when iron reacts with

wet soil. Shipley and McHaffie* have experimentally shown that, in

the absence of oxygen, iron corrodes until the pH value of the surround-

ing solution rises to about 9.4, corresponding to the solubility product

of ferrous hydroxide. The writer has also observed that wet mixtures

of soil and pulverized iron, with air excluded, practically cease to

evolve gas after the pH has reached a value of 9.4 to 9.6.

3 Can. Chem. Met. 8: 121. 1924.

oct. 19, 1929 HOLLER: REACTION OF SOILS AND IRON 377

BELTS of acid per gratis of Soll OLE sample}

30 . 45.

SOL IDENTIFICATION

we Serres Location

/ Allis silt loan §~=— Cleveland O.

2 Gell chy Dallas, Texas

/4 Hempstead silt loam St. Favl, Minn.

22 Memphis silt loam Memplis, Tera

32 Onterio loam Aochester, VY.

II. Feat Milwavhkee , Wis.

37 St. Johns fine sand Jacksonville, Fla.

IB Sassafras gravely sandy loam Carden, N.S

42 Susquehanna clay Meridiar, Miss.

43 Tidal marsh Liizabeth, MS

x Sonle Lorbara Calit ;

a 6 7 2

VNiilliliters of rortmal potossturr bydroride

Footrote — Dovble upper and lower scales for sor! *43

/ig.4 Titration curves for ditterent soils

For our present purpose, therefore, it seems reasonable to consider

a pH value of 9.4 as the end-point in these titrations. If then the

total acidity of the soil, as measured by the above titration, is related

to the ability of the soil to liberate hydrogen, such a relation should be

demonstrated by plotting the volumes of gas evolved in a given time by

different soils against the total acidity of these soils. This has been

done in Figure 5, where the points are denoted by the soil numbers,

which refer to the soils listed in Table 1.

378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

ZO iO. AO DO, 100) W/O COms 3 SO,

Siliiiters of hycroger gas evolved itp ZO days trom 1S grits

cath of tron and soll

°@)

fig 5 A comparison of the property of Soils of berating hydvoger, when reacting

with wron with ther property of cormyring with polossiumm hydroxide

CONCLUSIONS

The data in Figure 5 seem to justify the conclusion that a relation

exists between the activity of a soil on iron, as measured by the amount

of hydrogen evolved, and the acidity of the soil as measured by titra-

tion; moreover, that the acidity is probably the direct cause of its

activity. The outstanding exceptions among the soils tested were few,

namely Nos. 27, 33, 37 and 43, all of which were high in organic

matter. These exceptions are apparently due to an abnormally high

titration value or to an inhibitive effect, either of which may be asso-

ciated with the organic material. It is hoped that additional studies

of the reaction may throw further light upon the mechanism of corro-

sion and the properties of soils.

oct. 19, 1929 WHERRY: ACIDITY AND SARRACENIAS 379

PLANT ECOLOGY.—Aecidity relations of the Sarracenias.1 EDGAR

T. WueErry, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

So far as now known, the genus Sarracenia comprizes eight species,

and a number of hybrids, growing mostly in acid bogs and other moist

places in eastern North America. In the course of studies of soil

reaction, many observations have been made upon members of this

genus, which seem worth placing on record here. Some of my data on

the reactions of the liquid in the hollow leaves or “‘pitchers’’ were sent

to Dr. Joseph 8. Hepburn for inclusion in the monograph on the bio-

chemistry of these plants by himself and associates,? but considerable

additional material is now published for the first time. Recent dis-

coveries have made it possible to describe the ranges of the individual

species more fully than heretofore, although much more collecting

needs to be done to delimit them accurately.

The technical nomenclature used is essentially that of Macfarlane,’

although one new species is described, one new hybrid announced, and

one new combination proposed. The distinctions between the species

are brought out in the accompanying key, in which they are arranged

in the order of increasing stature.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF SARRACENIA

Leaves decumbent.

Orifice lateral, small; petals dark red................2.004, S. psittacina

Orifice terminal, large.

HIS CUE Ka RCO e res ey ca olat ofe rcs Stes Paces SP avtce a 3 tie Geers S. purpurea

Petals yellow: 20s 2728. £2924, 1828 MEY S. purpurea heterophylla

Leaves erect or essentially so.

Orifice closely covered by the arched hood; petals yellow........ S. minor

Orifice not closely covered by the hood.

Hood small, its sides not reflexed; petals dark red..........:. S. rubra.

Hood large, its sides more or less reflexed.

Reflexing of hood-sides not conspicuous.

Cheese CLEA =COLOTE CE ai eto bts), Vo eiak «sy decilar 4 Sta aa beia tate S. sledget.

LMU Jide (275 THE Did to bags, Mella salar Relea lie leaetee mm ama nett te: Sa S. jonesit.

Reflexing of hood-sides conspicuous.

Hood yellow-green, more or less marked with red; petals yellow

S. flava.

Hood mottled green and white, and strongly red veined; petals

LOC ee Me FATE OEE SOT CE AAO S. drummondii.

1 Received September 10, 1929.

2 J.S. Hepburn, E.Q. St. John, and F.M. Jones. The Biochemistry of the American

Pitcher-Plants. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. 11: 1-95. 1927.

°J.M. Macfarlane. Sarraceniaceae, in Engler’s Pflanzenreich, 4-110. 1908.

380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

Reactions will be stated in the active acidity and alkalinity terms

already explained elsewhere,‘ their significance being as follows:

Act. acidity pH Act. alk. pH

SIperacids sens 8000-1000 Sel 4 Onl Neutralee eee Zero 7.0

Mediacidi)).. 25... 800- 100 4.1-5.0 || Minimalkaline..... 0.5- 8 | 7.1-7.9

Subacids 225 sce ase 80- 10 5.1-6.0 || Subalkaline........ 10 -80 | 8.08.9

Minimacid......... 8 0.5 | 6.1-6.9

S. psirracinaA Michaux. Parrot PITCHERPLANT

This pitcherplant occurs practically throughout southern Georgia

and northern Florida, but has not been observed south of latitude 30°;

westward it reaches southeastern Louisiana. Its leaves are usually

partly buried in peat, and tests of the soil reaction at some ten localities

have shown active acidity 200 to 500, optimum 300, so that the species

is to be classed as mediacid in preference.

The pitchers of this species are usually essentially free from liquor,

but by introducing a little distilled water, a solution was obtained

which showed an active acidity of 300, at all five different localities

where this was tried.

S. PURPUREA L. SIDESADDLE PITCHERPLANT

This most widespread species of pitcherplant ranges from north-

western Florida to southern Mississippi, north to Newfoundland and

to Manitoba, Canada, growing both in sphagnum bogs and in moist

mineral soil. Several hundred soil tests have been made upon it, at -

about fifty localities, and in the majority of cases the reaction has

proved to be mediacid, an active acidity of 300 being especially fre-

quent. At a few places on the coast of Maine superacidity was

observed, the reaction reaching as high as active acidity 3,000. In

the vicinity of the Great Lakes, however, very different reaction-

relations are shown, as discussed in subsequent paragraphs.

A short distance northeast of Junius, Seneca County, New York,

there is a series of ponds and bogs, in some of which the water is

strongly alkaline, and deposits a precipitate of calcium carbonate,

known as marl, on the bottom, while in others the water is acid enough

to permit the growth of sphagnum moss, which produces mediacid

reactions. As usual, the latter habitat supports numerous thriving

plants of Sarracenia purpurea, but quite unexpectedly the marl areas

44 new method of stating hydrogen-ion (hydrion) concentration. Bull. Wagner Free

Inst. Sci., 2: 59. 1927; and Am. J. Pharm. 99: 342. 1927.

oct. 19, 1929 WHERRY: ACIDITY AND SARRACENIAS o8l

proved to be occupied by the same species. It grows in part on hum-

mocks of decaying vegetable matter, which, extending above the

water, attain a certain degree of acidity; but many individuals are

rooted directly in the marl. On testing, the humus-rich marl scraped

from the plant’s roots showed active alkalinity 2 to zero, the reaction

being thus minimalkaline to neutral. Essentially the same results

have been obtained at three different seasons, late April, before plant

growth had actively started; mid-June, when the pitcherplants were in

full bloom; and mid-August, when they had gone to seed.

A visit during mid-June to a point on the east shore of Lake Huron,

known as Sauble Beach, in Ontario at about latitude 44° 30’, resulted

in the finding of another occurrence of this plant under non-acid

conditions. The lake water is subalkaline, and damp hollows between

small sand dunes are essentially neutral; Sarracenia purpurea is

abundant in these hollows.

A third locality of non-acid reaction is a bog lying north of Mineral

Spring Station, Porter County, Indiana, below the southern end of

Lake Michigan. The open water is distinctly alkaline, showing

active alkalinity 20 when tested in midwinter, and 10 in early June.

Here the Sarracenia grows, it is true, in hummocks of decaying vegeta-

tion, but these are thoroughly impregnated with the water and thereby

prevented from becoming particularly acid, tests of the soil at the

plant roots showing active alkalinity 3 to active acidity 3, or closely

circumneutral reactions.

The most reasonable interpretation of these facts is as follows:

Pitcherplants, having developed a means of obtaining nitrogen,

phosphorus, and other essential elements through digestion of insects

which drown in the pitcher liquor, are able to grow in soils in which the

content of these elements, in available form, islow. Nitrogen determi-

nations on the soils of acid and circumneutral bogs near Junius, New

York, showed between 2 and 3 per cent in both types, but in neither

could any nitrates or ammonia be detected, indicating this element to

be relatively unavailable to plants growing there. In the presence

of large amounts of available nutrients, on the other hand, these physio-

logically peculiar plants are unable to thrive.

It is to be inferred, then, that Sarracenia purpurea grows commonly

in acid bogs not because it requires highly acid soil, but because in

such habitats the nutrient elements are available in amounts too small

to affect it unfavorably. Whenever its seeds reach circumneutral

bogs where these elements ure unavailable, colonies can also develop.

The reason why this species is so rarely found in the latter type of

382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

habitat is not that the neutral reaction is unfavorable, but because in

circumneutral soils nutrient elements are usually available in such .

quantities that injury occurs.

In the course of these studies a watch was kept for the yellow-

flowered and green-leaved plant listed in current botanical manuals

as S. purpurea variety heterophylla, and a typical clump of it was found

on a hummock at the margin of a marl pond near Junius, New York.

The reaction here was subacid, active acidity 30, but the color had no

connection with this, for normal red-flowered and mottled-leaved plants

were abundant on adjacent hummocks of like acidity. It seems

evident, from the occurrence of the yellow flowers and green leaves on

rare isolated individuals in the midst of numerous normal plants, that

those individuals represent not really a variety, but a mutant lacking

a factor for red coloration, affecting both petals and foliage. This

situation should be recognized in the nomenclature, and a new combi-

nation is accordingly proposed here:

Sarracenia purpurea mut. heterophylla (Eaton) Wherry, comb. nov.

S. heterophylla Eaton. YELLOW SIDESADDLE PITCHERPLANT.

Purple pigment lacking from petals and foliage, the former correspondingly

yellow, the latter green without mottling.

Several hundred reaction tests have also been made of the liquor

in the pitchers of this species, and this proves to vary as much as do

the soils, although no correlation can be recognized between them.

The liquor-reaction has been found to range from low superacid,

active acidity 1,000, to low subalkaline, active alkalinity 10. As the

liquor in this species represents largely rain water, which is normally

weakly acid owing to the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide and

traces of salts, the possible sources of the higher acidities and of

the alkalinities require consideration. In some cases, especially when

the pitchers are buried nearly to the orifice in peat, splashing in of

bog-water may be responsible, but even in deeply set pitchers reaction-

values widely different from those of the surrounding waters have

been observed. The dripping in of rain water which has trickled over

the foliage of overhanging trees and shrubs may account for special

values occasionally, although equally wide variations in the liquor-

reaction have been noted in plants growing in the open. The alka-

linity in some pitchers gave indication of being due to the decay of

insects which had entered in greater abundance than usual, a distinct

ammoniacal odor being perceptible; on the other hand, high acidity

seemed in some instances to be connected with the presence of numer-

oct. 19, 1929 WHERRY: ACIDITY AND SARRACENIAS 383

ous formic acid-secreting ants. That the plants themselves have no

means of keeping the liquor-reaction constant is suggested by the

fact that the several pitchers on a single individual often vary widely

in this respect. The most extreme case observed was in a plant

growing along a stream in New Mill Meadow, Mount Desert Island,

Maine, where the liquor in an old leaf (containing many dead ants)

had active acidity 300, while the next-adjoining younger one (with

few insects of any kind) showed active alkalinity 10. The variability

of reaction of pitcher-liquor in this and other species would make an

interesting subject for further investigation.

SARRACENIA MINOR Walter. HoopEp PITCHERPLANT

This species, sometimes known by the name S. variolaris Michaux,

has the southermost range of all the pitcherplants, having been ob-

served to grow as far down as Osceola County, Florida, at about

latitude 28°, and to extend from there to southeasternmost North

Carolina and to southern Mississippi. Its favored habitats appear to

be damp meadows and low places in pine lands, where it is usually rooted

in mineral soil containing more or less admixture of peat. About 25

measurements of its soil reaction have been made at five different

localities, and the least acidity found was low subacid, active acidity

30, the greatest high mediacid, active acidity 500, and the usual value

around active acidity 300. It is thus to be classed as a mediacid-soil

plant. The reaction of the liquor in the pitchers proved to range

from active acidity 100 to 1000, although 300 is the most frequent.

In the monograph cited, Macfarlane recorded the existence of hy-

brids of this species with S. flava, S. psittacina, and S. purpurea. The

recognition of a new one, with S. rubra, may here be announced.

S. minor X rubra Wherry, hybr. nov. CANDLER PITCHERPLANT

Hybrid nature inferred from the following features: Leaves intermediate

in size between those of the two presumable parents; degree of arching of

hood also intermediate; translucent patches in back of hood distinct, though

much less so than in S. minor; flowers between those of the parent species in

respect to color and fragrance: petals 3 cm. long, dull red (near Ridgway’s

Pompeian red, 3’i) grading into yellow around the margin; odor sweet but

faint. Liquor reaction found to be active acidity 300, like the two parent

species.

This was discovered in a damp hollow a short distance west of Lott’s

Creek, about 12 kilometers (73 miles) northeast of Metter, Candler

County, Georgia, in June, 1923, and may accordingly be termed the

384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

Candler Pitcherplant. The soil reaction there is mediacid, active

acidity 300, and besides the two parents, S. flava, S. psittacina, and

one or two previously known hybrids occur. The single plant found

has been grown ever since by Dr. Frederick V. Coville in the U. 8.

Department of Agriculture greenhouses.

SARRACENIA RUBRA Walter. SwEET PITcHERPLANT

The common name of this species refers to one of its most distinctive

features, the delicious grape-blossom scent of its rather small maroon-

red petalled flowers. It is apparently unknown in Florida, but is

common in the Coastal Plain (and occasional in adjacent Piedmont)

from southern Georgia nearly to Alabama and to Cumberland County,

North Carolina; reports elsewhere seem to refer to the plant here

separated as a distinct species under the name Sarracenia jonesit.

About 25 measurements of the soil reaction of this pitcherplant

have been made throughout the range described, and it has been found

to be invariably strongly acid, from active acidity 100 to 600, most

frequently 300, indicating a mediacid preference. The pitchers rarely

contain enough liquor for reaction determination, but upon adding

distilled water, material dissolves and shows an active acidity of 300

in all cases tested.

SARRACENIA SLEDGEI Macfarlane. PALE PITcHERPLANT

The two species keyed out on the basis of having large hoods with

but inconspicuously reflexed sides have been much misunderstood in

the past. For many years the present one was mistaken for S. flava,

and its distinctness was not recognized until pointed out by Professor

Macfarlane in 1908. Besides the difference in hood-shape the two

are dissimilar in various other respects; S. sledgei is notably smaller in

stature and has sweet-scented flowers with creamy white petals, in

contrast to the ill-scented yellow flowers of its relative. ‘There are

also technical distinctions in the capsules and seeds. Pale pitcherplant

ranges from the Alabama River in southwestern Alabama to Smith

County, Texas, longitude 953°, and northward nearly to latitude 33°.

Its favored habitat is a damp hollow in pine woods, where the soil is

a blackish peaty sand. The soil reaction has been measured at five

localities, and found to be mostly high mediacid, active acidity 400,

but one locality in westernmost Alabama showed it to be superacid,

active acidity 1250. It is to be classed as preferring high mediacid

soils.

ocr. 19, 1929 WHERRY: ACIDITY AND SARRACENIAS 385

Hepburn and Jones® found the reaction of the pitcher-liquor of this

species at Biloxi, Mississippi, to range from active alkalinity 3 to

active acidity 10, a composite sample from 40 open pitchers being

neutral. My tests at various localities gave similar results; the liquor

in two unopened leaves was neutral and low minimacid (active acidity

2), respectively, while in a number of mature ones the highest acidity

noted was 10 and the most frequent about 5. Quite unlike the related

S. flava, then, this pitcherplant secretes essentially neutral material

into its pitchers.

Sarracenia jonesii Wherry, sp. nov. Mountain PITCHERPLANT

In the course of field work in the Blue Ridge of North Carolina, in

the summer of 1920, pitcherplants with leaves resembling those of S.

sledget were observed to be present in occasional boggy meadows,

but were passed over as probably representing an upland form of S.

flava. In late May, 1927, however, Harry W. Trudell and the writer

visited one of their localities, a boggy stream-valley south of Flat Rock

Station, in Henderson County, and found this plant in bloom. Much

to our surprise the petals proved to be not yellow nor cream-colored

at all, but dark red. It could not be S. rubra, however, for its leaves

were taller, more expanded upward, and provided with larger hoods

having more distinctly reflexed margins; the scapes did not markedly

exceed the leaves; and the petals and capsules were twice as large as in

that species.

On mentioning this to Frank M. Jones, the entomologist of Wilming-

ton, Delaware, who has made such interesting studies of the relations of

insects to pitcherplants, and who collaborated with Dr. Hepburn in

the monograph on the biochemistry of these plants already referred to,

he told me of having observed the same puzzling species in Western

Florida. His specimens proved to have the characters of the North

Carolina mountain plant; and on looking through the Sarracenias

in the U. S. National Herbarium it was found that the same thing

had been collected at a number of places. When only leaves were

represented it had been labelled or annotated S. catesbaei or S. flava,

and when well preserved flowers were included, S. rubra (sometimes

marked as an anomalous form). Being distinct, however, from S.

rubra in similar respects to those which led Professor Macfarlane to

segregate S. sledge: from S. flava, it may well be assigned independent

status, and I take pleasure in dedicating it to Mr. Jones, with the

following characterization:

* Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. 11: 71. 1927.

386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

Principal leaves erect, distinctly expanded upward, reaching a height of 75

cm. or possibly more, green with rather inconspicuous red veinings; hood

ovate, curving high over the orifice, its sides distinctly but not strongly re-

flexed. Scapes up to 50 ecm. tall; flowers delicately sweet-scented; petals

dark red (Ridgway’s ox-blood red, 1k, to almost maroon, 3m), up to 3 cm.

wide and to 5 em. long; capsule about 15 mm. in diameter.

Type locality, moist meadow 1.5 mile (2.5 km.) south of Flat Rock Station,

Henderson County, North Carolina; type specimen collected by E. T. Wherry,

May 13, 1929, deposited in the U. 8. National Herbarium, No. 1,438,266.

Other collections regarded as representing the same species are:

NortH Carouina: Hendersonville, June, 1881, Canby; Muddy Creek,

Henderson County, Aug. 21, 1881, J. Donnell Smith; Biltmore Estate, 1895,

Boynton; Baltimore, May 24, 1897, Biltmore Herbarium 3374a.

Fioripa: Walton Co., Curtiss 107; De Funiak Springs, April 30, 1898,

Curtiss 6387.

ALABAMA: Mobile, April 14, 1892, Mohr; Fowl River, April 23, 1893, Mohr.

Jasmine, April 28, 1921, Harper 172.

MississipP1: Waynesboro, August 8, 1896, Pollard 1231.

ees

West 95 (rom 90 Greenwich 85° 76"

Fig. 1.—Distribution of Sarracenia jonesii and related species

The range of this species, then, so far as known, is from Walton Co.,

Florida to easternmost Mississippi and to Buncombe Co., North

Carolina. In the latter region it reaches an altitude of at least 2150

feet (650 meters), high enough for winter temperatures far below

freezing, and is thus the hardiest species next to S. purpurea. In

Figure 1 this range is shown in comparison with those of related

oct. 19, 1929 WHERRY: ACIDITY AND SARRACENIAS 387

388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

species, all boundaries being approximations, subject to correction as

future collecting brings new localities to light. S. jonesit is here

termed Mountain Pitcherplant because of being the only one of this

group of species which pushes far up into the mountains.

The soils at the type locality vary rather widely in reaction, from

active acidity 5 to 500, but this plant appears to thrive best at about

50, so it is to be classed as of subacid soil preference. The small

amount of liquid in eight pitchers, part of them unopened, showed an

active acidity of 30 to 100.

On page 387 are shown two views of Sarracenia jones, the upper

having been taken at the type locality May 13, 1929, the lower in the

greenhouse of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, where it is being

cultivated in acid soils, along with the other members of the genus,

by Dr. Frederick V. Coville. The characters which serve to differ-

entiate it from S. rubra, marked expansion of leaves upwards, relatively

large hood with somewhat reflexed margins, and large flowers on

scapes not markedly exceeding the leaves at blooming time, are well

brought out.

S. FLAVA L. TRUMPET PITCHERPLANT

The range of the Trumpet Pitcherplant, a species so well character-

ized by its large yellow-petalled flowers with a pungent feline odor, is

from the Suwanee River in Florida to the Alabama River, and thence

northward to Jackson, the northeasternmost county in Alabama, and

to Prince George County, Virginia. It has been also cultivated out-

doors for years on Long Island, New York, so is to be classed as

approaching S. jonesit in hardiness. Its favored habitats are damp

meadows and low places in open pine woods, in sandy or clayey soil.

Tests of its soils have shown rather uniformly high acidity, from

active acidity 50 to 1000, with 300 the most frequent, making it a

mediacid soil plant.

The pitcher-liquor in this species is consistently strongly acid.

Hepburn and Jones found active acidity 100 to 3000 in 5 mature

pitchers, and I have observed 30 to 500, but most frequently 300, in more

than 30 tests at some ten different localities. Three unopened leaves

from plants growing near Quincy, Florida, showed active acidity 500,

600, and 800 respectively. In this respect it contrasts sharply with

its relative, S. sledgei.

oct. 19, 1929 WHERRY: ACIDITY AND SARRACENIAS 389

The Catesby Pitcherplant, a hybrid of S. flava with S. purpurea

(S. catesbaei Ell.) was studied in a swamp west of Quincy, the soil

proving to be low mediacid, active acidity 200, and the liquor in two

mature pitchers high minimacid, acidity 5 and 6. In these respects

the hybrid resembled the second named parent more than the first.

S. DRUMMONDII Croom. DRUMMOND PITCHERPLANT

This largest and showiest of the Sarracenias is well distinguished

from all others by the mottling and veining of the upper parts of the

leaves with white, green, and red. There has been-some misunder-

standing about its range, for in Miss Lounsberry’s book on southern

plants,® it is stated to be especially common between Aiken, South

Carolina, and Richmond County, North Carolina. Actually, only

S. rubra and flava are common there, and the easternmost authenti-

cated record of S. drummondii is in Sumter County, Georgia, longitude

84°. In Florida it occurs only toward the western end, although like

several other species it extends into southern Mississippi. Reaction

measurements have been made on this species at two localities, in the

general vicinity of Milton, Santa Rosa County, Florida. The soil

proved to have active acidity 150 to 400, averaging 250, so that lke

the next preceding it is a mediacid soil plant.

Hepburn and Jones recorded measurements on the liquor in 5 open

pitchers of this species near Freeport, in the same part of Florida,

three of them showing active acidity 3, the other two active alkalinity

3. My tests in a swamp east of Milton showed the liquid in two un-

opened pitchers to be alkaline, active alkalinity 10 and 30, respectively,

the latter being the highest alkalinity as yet observed in any of the

species. A number of open pitchers ranged from neutral to active

acidity 30, although the majority were but minimacid. In spite of

its growth in acid soils, then, this plant evidently secretes alkaline

substances into its leaves, which prevent the acidity rising as high

as in most of the others. It is interesting to note that S. sledgev,

which overlaps S. drummondii in range from the west, is also charac-

terized by circumneutral pitcher-liquor.

In conclusion, the reactions of the soils and pitcher-liquors in the

eight species of pitcher-plants may be tabulated to bring out their

relations graphically. A light-face letter X indicates that a given

reaction has been observed, a bold-face X that the designated reaction

appears to be most frequent.

§ Alice Lounsberry. Southern Wild Flowers and Trees. 206. 1901.

390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

TABLE 1. Sor REACTIONS OF THE SARRACENIAS

Species superacid | mediacid | subacid minims neutral minim: subalk.

DSU PAC TINA Nery erin mel — ».4 — — — — —

(DWP OURO. scblobesdue se x ».4 x xX x x =

IMTNMOR eee rire. er ucath ae — D4 x — — — —

TUT AG Le eee te eee eh ce — 4 — — — — —

sled cera ieet.n ete eee xX ».4 — — — — —

ODES enol cael teen fi — x x xX — oss =

TOLER Ti clas pa eee x ».4 x — — = =

drummondiis..-22..2.-: — xX = = == —_ ==

TABLE 2. PITCHER-LIQUOR REACTIONS OF THE SARRACENIAS

Species superacid | mediacid | subacid mE neutral res subalk.

IDMVOUN an a ascuenb oe — x — —— — —

PULPURC A. ble ceyene che x x x x xX x xe

aa\t (oes AA RURIe es Be winks ee Stene xX ».4 — — — — —

VU OS hth ne ees ie POE -- x — - — — —

pledgerts fo.) eae — — x xX x xX —

TOMESIU: Se hvael sere wee — xX ».« — — — —

1 SUSE: Ree te 2 CAE EES or xX ».4 xX — — — —

anummondiitenssa ee — — x x ».4 x De

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

408TH MEETING

The 408th regular meeting of the Entomological Society of Washington was

held at 8 p.m., Thursday, February 7, 1929, in Room 43 of the New Building

of the U.S. National Museum. Mr. J. E. Grar, President, presided. There

were present 30 members and 21 visitors. Doctor Howarp expressed his

regret at the small attendance reported for the previous meeting and urged

that there be no repetition of such lapses at future important meetings in

which special tribute would be rendered to visitors.

The Executive Committee recommended for membership the following new

candidate who was duly elected on vote of the Society: Mrs. J. B. Rersrpz,

Jr., of Hyattsville, Maryland.

Doctor Howarp referred to the recent death of Dr. H. G. Dyar and read

the following resolutions which by vote of the Society were spread upon its

minutes:

The Entomological Society of Washington records with deep regret the

death of Dr. Harrison G. Dyar on January 21, 1929. Doctor Dyar had

worked in the U. S. National Museum for thirty-one years. He had been

Custodian of the Lepidoptera, and at one time Assistant Curator of the

Division of Insects; also for a time editor of the Proceedings of this Society.

ocr. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 391

Among his many papers, he published a classification of Lepidopterous larvae

(1894), a great list (or catalog) of the North American Lepidoptera (1902)

and very many other papers concerning Lepidoptera. Becoming interested

in the Culicidae in 1903, he was coauthor of the four-volume Monograph of

the Mosquitoes of North and Central America and the West Indies (1917-18),

and shortly before his death completed and published a large volume entitled

“The Mosquitoes of the Americas.”’ He also founded and edited the monthly

journal known as /nsecutor Inscitiae Menstruus, of which fourteen volumes

were published. Hewasa tireless worker, and his name will always be promi-

nent in the annals of American entomology.

The first paper on the regular program was the Annual Address of the

retiring president, Mr.S. A. Ronwer, and was entitled “‘Economic Aspects of

Taxonomic Entomology.’’ This paper will be published in full in an early

number of the Proceedings of the Society. Comment on this paper was

made by Grar, Howarp, Baker, ALtpRricH, GAHAN, Cory, Briss, and

CUSHMAN.

The next paper on the program was presented by Mr. W. H. Wuirts, and

was entitled ‘““The A. B. C. of truck crop entomology.”’ The principal object

in presenting this paper was to bring to the attention of the Society something

of the nature of the work which is being carried on with the Office of Visual

Education of the Extension Service of the Department. A considerable

number of lantern slides, showing the various manners in which insects

attack vegetables together with insecticide appliance, were shown and ex-

plained. Comment on this paper was made by BAKER and WEBB.

Brief remarks were made on invitation by Dr. C. I. Buiss, of the Bureau of

Entomology, regarding the recently established U. S. Entomological Labora-

tory in Mexico City in coédperation with the Mexican Government for the

study of the Mexican fruit fly. Emphasis is being placed on investigation of

the various climatic factors, including atmospheric pressure at varying

altitudes. Data also is being secured on soil conditions, host plants, and

other like subdivisions of the investigation, in the hope that the information

obtained in Mexico may be useful in predicting the possibilities of survival of

the fly should it appear in citrus regions of the United States and for control

work in that contingency.

Comment on the remarks of Doctor Biiss were made by Baknr, Howarp,

and GRAF.

409TH MEETING

The 409th regular meeting was held at 8 p.m., Thursday, March 7, in

Room 43 of the New Building of the U. S. National Museum. Mr. J. E.

Grar, President, presided. There were present 27 members and 24 visitors.

The Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer, Mr. Rouwenr, reported briefly on

a meeting of the Executive Committee of the Society on February 27th at

which consideration was given to a suggested policy of participation in formu-

lation of programs with the Washington Academy of Sciences, and in which

favorable action was taken in connection with exchanges of our Proceedings

with various foreign organizations, and in which certain other minor matters

were given attention.

The Executive Committee recommended for membership the following

new candidate who was duly elected on vote of the Society: Miss MaBEeL

Coutcorp, Librarian of the U. 8. Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C.

The first paper on the regular program was by Doctor WiLLIAM ScHAUs

and was entitled “Collecting Butterflies in the American Tropics.”’

392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

In his talk to the members of the Society, Doctor ScHaus took them in spirit

from Vera Cruz, Mexico, to Jalapa, then to the table-lands by way of Perote

and around the Volcano of Orizaba down to the temperate zone at Cordoba

and across country by the way of Huatusco back to Jalapa; subsequently by

Las Vigas in a northeasterly direction to Tuxpan, returning by Misantla

to his headquarters, relating many experiences and giving descriptions of the

country. Subsequently trips were made to the Volcano Popocatepetl and

on the west coast to Cuernavaca and Uruapan, also to the Isthmus of Tehuan-

tepec. In Guatemala, headquarters were made at Cayuga and repeated

excursions were made along the railway, also to the city, and on the Pacific

slope from Escuintla to Mazatenango and Retalhuleu with side trips to. the

slopes of the Voleano of Santa Maria, also on the eastern side of the country

to numerous points in Verapaz. In Costa Rica the country was well covered

by repeated trips on both the Caribbean and Pacific sides, and this at all

seasons of the year and during a period of three years. Some time was spent

on the Voleanos of Poas and Turrialba, this at different seasons of the year,

the collecting depending upon the amount of rainfalland sunshine. For night

work nothing was quite equal to an electric are light. (Author’s abstract.)

This paper was discussed by Grar, Ewinc, CLuark, and BAKER.

One of our visitors, Doctor D. M. DeLone, Ohio State University, Colum-

bus, Ohio, on invitation, addressed the Society briefly on some experimental

work performed by him the past summer on the possible uses of Bordeaux

mixture as an insecticide, with special reference to leafhopper control. Some

details were presented on the different combinations and variations, and on

the equipment employed, and a brief summary was given of general results

obtained.

Mr. G. G. Becker, Plant Quarantine and Control Administration, on invi-

tation also greeted the Society and expressed pleasure at being with us.

Mr. Rouwenr presented a brief note on the birch leaf-miner, described by

MacGillivary in 1909 as Phlebatrophia mathesoni. ‘This note will be published

in full in an early number of the Proceedings of our Society.

Mr. BrsHopp reported that an appropriation of $12,000 in the recently

approved Deficiency Bill had been secured for investigation of certain species

of buzz gnats in the genus H7zppelates in portions of southern California.

He discussed injury by this pest and cited instances of its serious character.

These remarks were discussed by BAKER.

410TH MEETING

The 410th regular meeting was held at 8 P.M. Thursday, April 4, in Room

43 of the new building of the U. 8. National Museum. Mr. J. E. Grar,

President, presided. There were present 24 members and 8 visitors.

The Executive Committee recommended for membership the following new

candidates who were duly elected on vote of the Society: CHartes H. Martin,

H.S. Perrrs, F. M. Wan ey, G. G. Becker, O. E. Gaum, J. E. Water.

The Corresponding Secretary-Treasurer, Mr. Rouwer, reported that Dr.

T. E. Snyper, due to prolonged absence from the city, had resigned from the

Program Committee, and that Dr. HArotp Morrison had been appointed to

take his place, the other members of the Committee now being Dr. C. A.

WeIGcue, and Dr. N. E. McInpoo.

The first paper on the regular program was presented by Dr. F. M. Wap.ey,

a was entitled ‘On the nature of injury of Toroptera graminum to its host

plants.”

oct. 19, 1929 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 3938

“Toxoptera graminum is more injurious in proportion to its numbers than

other common grain aphids. Its feeding causes pale spots with red centers

on the leaves of its food plants. Injury invariably followed feeding and was

proportional to the amount of feeding. Paleness was apparently caused by

destruction of chlorophyll, while the red spots were due to reddening of the

leaf cell nuclei. A water extract of Toxoptera slowly decolorized a solution

of refined chlorophyll. On heating, the extract lost this power. It seems

likely that an enzyme is the cause of the destruction of chlorophyll.”’

(Author’s abstract.)

This paper was discussed by WauTon, BAKER, GAHAN, Morrison, Cory,

SnopGrass, Woop, and Grar.

The second paper on the program was entitled “Host Relationships of the

North American Chigger, Trombicula crritans (Riley),” by Dr. H. E. Hwina

of the Bureau of Entomology.

“Recent surveys made in some of the Middle Atlantic States of the possible

hosts of Trombicula irritens (Riley) showed that it parasitized certain species

of four classes of Vertebrata: Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia.

Among the resistant vertebrates (non hosts) were pit-vipers, some turtles,

insectivors and most rodents. Susceptible hosts are of two kinds: Those

that are susceptible at all active stages of their life history and those that are

susceptible only at certain stages, as is the case of Fowler’s toad. This toad

(Bufo fowler?) is infested only when the individuals are very young, yet

tailless. Many vertebrates occurring in chigger-infested areas, during the

chigger season, are not attacked because their habits keep them in situations

not reached by the active larvae. Water snakes, tree-frequenting birds and

mammals living in overflow land are in this category.”” (Author’s abstract.)

Dr. Ew1na’s paper was discussed by WauToy, Baker, GAHAN, Morrison,

Cory, SNopGrass, Woop, and GrarF.

Dr. P. W. CLAAssEn, of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.,on invitation made

a few remarks more or less humorous in character relative to the subject

matter of the previous speakers, and discussing some of his recent work in

the vicinity of Ithaca on immature stages of Plecoptera. These observations

were discussed briefly by RoHweEr.

411TH MEETING

The 411th regular meeting was held at 8 P. M., Thursday, May 2nd, in

Room 43 of the new building of the U.S. National Museum. Mr. J. E.Grar,

president, presided. ‘There were present 46 members and 45 visitors.

There were no preliminary business matters for discussion, so attention

was given at once to the main feature of the evening,—this consisting of an

informal address by Dr. C. L. Martatron the Mediterranean fruit fly situation

in Florida. In this address, Doctor MARLATT reviewed very briefly the status

of the insect as a pest in other countries and the various official measures .

taken to intercept and keep it out of this country. He then discussed the

recent finding of the pest in Florida and the events immediately following this,

including his own recent trip to the Orlando and Gainesville territory and

his personal observations on the injury and spread of the pest. A summary

also was given of the organization of the cooperative exterminative work

now being performed by Federal and State authorities, and a review was

given of the events connected with the appropriation of Federal funds and

assignment of State and other funds for the work. Maps of the area of

394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 17

infestation and a number of slides were shown, the latter dealing with the

injury, life history, and control of the pest.

Dr. MaruatTtT’s paper was discussed by Cuark, McInpoo, Back, Brecknr,

PERRINE, and Poos.

Mr. Rouwenr referred to the recent recurrence of the Mexican fruit worm

in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas, stating that it had been found in

a few fruits at three different places within the Valley. Because of the delay

in the ripening of grapefruit due to the unfavorable rainy season of the

autumn, the shipping season had been extended one month and the fruit

allowed to remain on the trees until the 30th of March. This extension

of the shipping season left fruit susceptible of infestation by the fly on the

trees a longer period, and may have been in part responsible for the recurrence

of the insect. This emphasizes the continuing danger of a reinfestation and

may even indicate that the insect has not been completely eradicated from

the Valley. In any event, it emphasizes the need of continual vigilance in

the enforcement of the quarantine regulations as originally planned.

J.S. Wave, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. Ray S. Bassuer, of the U. 8. National Museum, has returned from

Prague, Czechoslovakia, where he has spent some time making casts of types

of species of fossils described in Barrande’s Systéme Silurien du Centre de la

Bohéme.

Dr. Lyman F. KeBuer has resigned from the Office of Collaborative In-

vestigations of the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration, U. 8. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, to become Medical Director of the Doctors’ Essential

Food Company and the Bowman Hotels Corporation, with offices in Wash-

ington, D. C.

Obituary

Prrer A. Yoprer, Associate Technologist in Sugar-cane Investigations,

Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and a member of

the AcapEemy, died on July 20 in Washington, D. C. He was born in Ship-

shewana, Indiana, August 21, 1867, and studied at Indiana University, re-

ceiving the degrees of A.B. in 1894 and A.M. in 1896. He took post-graduate

work at the University of Chicago for a year, and then went to Gottingen,

Germany, where he received the degree of Ph.D. in 1901. He taught in

various high schools and colleges for several years, was Director of the Utah

Experiment Station from 1905 to 1907, and research chemist at the Louisiana

Sugar Experiment Station, 1908 to 1910. He entered the Bureau of Chemis-

try of the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1910, and three years later was

transferred to the position in the Bureau of Plant Industry which he held up

to the time of his death. He was the author of a number of papers on various

phases of organic chemistry, agronomy, and sugar technology, and in recent

years was stationed at Cairo, Georgia, in charge of the Department of Agri-

culture’s Sugar Plant Field Station, where he was engaged in investigating the

production of cane sirup.

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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES |

Vou. 19 NOVEMBER 4, 1929 No. 18

MATHEMATICS.—On Fermat's Last Theorem, II.1 Vau. Mar.

SpunasR, Chicago, Ill. (Communicated by Epaar W. Woo.arD.)

In a previous communication? it has been shown that if 2, y, 2,

be a solution in relatively prime integers, all different from zero, of

De iT Rey tees Ne at a oie ee (2)

z<y <2, an odd prime > 3, and xyz = 0(mod d), then we have

nN r

r=aé Fs ee = aed Lie a lg se (3)

z2-y

Nesey

y=Bn ahah man i oh Oo a (4)

Xr r

x +41

2=yf yeurty f= 2 EN eae (5)

WG ap W)

in which a, 8, = £, n, ¢, d, are all relatively prime integers; and

Bik SG) EN es ie MN GRR RO eee MMi Es (19)

' Received February 19, 1929.

2Tuis JouRNAL 18: 389. 1928. The following typographical errors should be

noted: Page 390, equation (4;), for y read z; last line, for ‘“‘relative primes,’’ read

“relatively prime.’’ Page 391, last term of (9 bis), for z read ¢. ‘ Page 392, eq. (19),

forA read M. Page 394, fort << ¢, readt >> ¢(; for H = n/é, read H = n/E.

On page 395, eq. (25) should be numbered (35), and (26) should be (36); the first equation

on page 395 should be (34), and the last (37); the next to the last equation on page 394

should be numbered (33); and on page 395, line seven, for “‘by (24) and (25)”’ read “‘by

(24) and (35).”

395

396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

1.e., y ~ a + B, where 6 is some positive integer > 0. The following

inequalities were also proved:

2 <0 <a SB Sy ee (39)3

Ey, PC. a (40)

Nae 20). Se. ee (5)

a+5<2a(") fatpBt+o=y (33)

EON A a (30)

ea iN ap SUE a ee a (34)

From (30) and (34)

Also

the proof that n* > d2x*" being similar to that of (30).

Furthermore, putting

we have d < x, since y — zis negative, and hence

(Es A) he eR RN (38)

Also, by pairing successive terms in the expansion of (43), « < y,

odd, we see that

BIO apd i (43)

Now, writing (19) in the form

loa aaa =e eee

8 Abel’s Theorem that x* + y* = z* has no solution in integers if z, y, or 2 be prime

was proved by E. Lucas; but Markoff, L’interméd. de math. 2: 23. 1895, and 8: 305. 1901,

pointed out that Lucas’ proof is incomplete, as the case z = y+ 1,ie,a=1,4% =,

is not included. Markoff asked if it is possible for (y + 1) = 2* + y*; eq. (39) shows

that this is impossible, fora # 1if 2? < a.

Nov. 4, 1929 SPUNAR: FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM 397

and substituting for y from (5,), we have by (38,) and (4,)

Ciae ig 5 Ryo ee 6)

whence

ard 2) he Geant) 10 = Ona)

then, by (40), » < 7, and the ambiguous sign in (44) is negative;

but if this sign be negative, then at least one of the other terms must

be positive and therefore either » < é < yas before, or else

n<y7y <é. Similarly, if

then either 7 < 7 < é, in which case the sign remains ambiguous,

orelse y- < < £when the sign must be positive; and if the sign be

positive, we may have either y < » < Eorn < YY < & Alto-

gether, there exist the following possibilities:

Mee yee ah ee Cy SEO! OES a0 ee (A)

I Eo EEG OD UY aa el aTe ec ar Vic en hoi (B)

WSS eta Go SMG) reat) 1 Neg Aaa ta (C)

OF Ee Ci I an Gale Pt oa As At em ge (D)

The inequality (45) is a sufficient condition that the ambiguous sign

in (44) be negative, and hence that y = a + 6 — 6, while (46) is a

necessary condition that it be positive and y = a+ 6 + 6.

From (41) and (46), y““” < 2’, whence y* < z \/d or, since

yy =a+y=2+d,2+d <z Vy, and therefore ify" < é,

eA ISG AD aiataen aha (47)

Subtracting a from both members of (35), we get by (82) and (9 bis)

Cs NY) Get ee (7) sn ga ees en A (48)

Adding (X — 1)d to both members of (48) gives

Nucid Tipe WO NORA Wl lA LA TL RA IED Si (49)

398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

Hence, by (47) and (49),

in which

Calculation shows that for every } > 5, g > 2 (d odd).

therefore, if y\' < é,

DTM ONS Sone er eee

whence by (4:2)

TANG RL eso eeeneen ee

from which by (88)

GU GRIY BELT a8 Yea

or by (9 bis)

Tae Ag ss A Me, ee HL

Now, ifa + 6 + 6 = y, we have by (33)

whence by (41)

<4 (5) (>

a+ 6

which shows that if y°' < ¢,and y = a + 6 + 6, then

Obviously,

St oe (52)

Nov. 4, 1929 SPUNAR: FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM 399

and it would then be impossible to have } > 3. The relations (C)

and (D) are therefore ruled out; and

Wiese OUP aP te ORR sh sna is eee cleo (25 bis)

By raising both members of (50) to the \th power and subtracting

x‘, we see that if y“" < &

Adding the positive quantity (7° — 1)y*, we get

(q* Li 1) 2 a g y

; 1

Ze PA) ee

g—l1

and writing the absolutely convergent binomial series for the root in

the form

C+ gon) tal) Ga) D+ Gal+

ee la eo os Ge

we see, y < 2, > 3, that when y < é,

ae Poem

The extreme right member approaches the value unity so rapidly with

increasing \, however,‘ as to make the supposition 7* < £ apparently

untenable; this rules out relation (B).

4 Dickson, Quar. Jour. Math. 40: 27-45, 1908, proved Fermat’s Theorem for n < 7000;

and Beeger, Mess. Math. (2), 55: 17-26, 1925, showed that x* + y* + z\ = 0 has no solu-

tion in integers prime to \ for \ < 14000. For A = 7001 (the next prime above 7000),

q> 769, and1 < z/y <1-+ 10-7999; forr = 14009, gq > 1428, andl < 2/y < Il ar Omeetss

Again, from (30), (46), and (5,), we have <r2-1 < rE 1 or=e << Ds ; while by

(432) and (342), O < ry"! < Bore AV AN < £; combining these two results, )> = <

f E

Me, Ol <n Sa NOV /x) Where for =14009, d (\A—1) = 196, 238, 072.

400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

It may be noted that, by (60),

a NG LR ye (61)

Ii 22 < z, then by (40), 2a < 7 @ < y, 1e., 2a < y;it also foliows

from (46) that y* < yt whence « + y < « + (y — a) ~ or

(ae =)e<y SE ly — o) or 2a < y. Ii 2a > y, then) multiply

by Vj, we get from (3,), (5:), and the result ¢v/ < &, that zW/ <2z or

EF > Wr> 1, whence y < 2a only if 2x > z, which in turn is possible,

by (52), only if (45) is satisfied.

From (9 bis),

ee oh ar

ms d |

peal a SOROS BIE ES (62)

ge aed

C= ala

ne a aS = d

Substituting (9 bs.) for B’ in (41,), we get dy (; — ‘) SE OT,

Ay < B+ x n; whence, if & < x“ n, then y < 2d, while if

Mine:

bie 8 n\ then A7* < 2. In the same way, we find from (43.)

@ y- Oe

that either ~ <= 7° and 2° < 7, or else ° > 3B n. and 2d < y.

Prom(30); 2 =. pes Cee 2) or, by (88), & < 64/2

we suppose

Nov. 4, 1929 SPUNAR: FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM 401

then from the last, and the second part of the first, of these equations,

we get 7 < 4¢ ; but from (2) and (38), 2° < 2y*or ¢* < “yas Conse-

quently, 7 < 8s’, and thus by (32) and (42), 77 < y <4, or 2x < 2,

and our supposition is not tenable if z <.2%. If, however, we suppose

BK Bee yn

ee tp Dean) | dacoaco oodp oo 6 O05 (64)

B ?

oid Ne |

then, if ¢ < y* and z < 2z, we'see that if y < 2d = y\ — 6 —a

then 6. <danda + gp <a\<y <z. By (39), 6 < a;and in the

first paper it has been shown that 6 contains the factors 6 and 22;

whence 6\2 < a, and

eG) elo eee eee laa eee (65)

From the last, and the second part of the second, of these three equa-

tions, we get € < 7 ~/d. By (4,), (5,), and (23), if y = a + B —64,

GES Spee hay BulHn8)oGe sean es -) v6)

ESE CE TO at en eats (67)

where, since ¢ < £, 6¢ < B(¢ — 8),

Bir TE SUC: tN aa I (68)

Collecting our results,

GIS TAUB Oe NRA NOU IE lah Ty eet HiGn(G 9)

Hence we have in general

ere SE EEG) FSO Sine hig ae (70)

6 a positive integer.

In a later paper, the decomposition of a, 8, y, 6, into factors will be

considered.

402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

PHYSICS.—The stratified settling of fine sediments! P. G. NuTTING,

U.S. Geological Survey.

Muddy water settles either clear to a false bottom or cloudy to an

indefinite bottom. Clear settling indicates impure water, either salts

in solution or a second colloid in proper proportion, while cloudy

settling is generally proof of very pure water. The water of a lake

having a false bottom is certainly contaminated to some extent,

however clear, but the water of a lake or river that remains turbid

after days of settling is free from salts in solution, bacteria and organic

colloids since these, if ever present, have all been fixed by excess clay

colloids. Extremes of concentration, valency, ionization, adsorption,

particle fineness, dissolved air and many other factors may vary the

picture somewhat but the rough sketch is sufficient introduction to

the subject of this paper. !

The chemical literature bearing on the precipitation of colloids is

very extensive and has been ably summarized in the well known works

of Bancroft, Alexander, Svedberg, Freundlich, Weiser and others.

Physicists however have done very little with their side of the problems

involved in the precipitation of fine particles though few phenomena in

physics are more fascinating or instructive than the play of these ex-

tremely gentle forces, very delicately balanced, with the minute but

violent Brownian movement ever present.

Carl Barus, of this laboratory,? made many observations on strati-

fied settling but considered only gravity, particle size and viscosity of

fluid among the physical factors involved, ignoring upward diffusion

under the Brownian movement. Einstein* developed a statistical

theory of the Brownian movement which gave the equilibrium dis-

tribution of one size of particles suspended in a liquid but his equations

are too cumbersome to deal with a wide range of sizes. Perrin‘

verified Einstein’s theory of stable distribution by actual counting and

measurement. Mendenhall and Mason‘ reached the conclusion that

stratified settling is due to minute temperature differences causing

weak convection currents—a conclusion not acceptable to many

thoroughly familiar with the behavior of fine suspensions. This paper

is to present a theory much simpler and more general than Einstein’s,

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received Sept.

28, 1929.

2 Barus. U.S.G.S. Bull. 36. 1886.

$’ErnsTeEIn. Ann. Physik 17: 549. 1905.

4 PERRIN. Comptes rend. 146: 968. 1908.

’ MENDENHALL and Mason. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 9: 199, 202. 1923.

Noy. 4, 1929 NUTTING: STRATIFIED SETTLING 403

which gives Perrin’s law of distribution as a special case and even covers

stratified settling quite adequately. It is incidental to a study of

the physico-chemical relations between the three hydrous oxides,

silica (acid), alumina (amphoteric), and ferric hydroxide (basic) and

the bentonites and other clays.

Stratified suspensions are readily prepared with almost any kind of

fine particles shaken up with distilled water. Should they settle

clear at first, repeated washing and settling will eventually bring about

a condition where finer material will be left behind in suspension.

After an hour or two this begins to settle away from the surface leav-

ing a still finer suspension above it. Eventually five or more sharply

distinct layers may be in the process of settling at the same time.

Barus (l.c. 1886) made precise measurements of the rates of fall of

many of these layers. Hydrated alumina and ferric oxide, chemically

prepared, both flocculate and settle clear after repeated washings but

eventually yield and come down in cloudy layers. Sodium silicate, if

very highly diluted, appears to hydrolyze and precipitate white par-

ticles of silica. Dialyzed iron, diluted with pure water, shows no

tendency to settle even after years of standing, yet a very small amount

of purified bentonite will bring it down in a thick floc.

In a mass of particles at the absolute temperature 7’, the thermal or

kinetic (distending) pressure p outward due to molecular or Brownian

movement is®

(1) p = CJRT/M dynes/cem?

when C is the concentration in grams/ec, JR = 8.30 X 107 and M is

molecular weight. For example, in a suspension containing 1 gram

per liter of particles each consisting of 10,000 molecules each of molecu-

lar weight 100, the pressure at 300° absolute is 24.9 dynes/em?—a

very gentle pressure in comparison with the kinetic pressure in water,

1380 x 10° dynes/cm?, on account of the size of the particles and the

sluggishness of their movements.

The pull downward by gravity on such an aggregate of particles is

(2) w = Ckg dynes/ce

where k = 1 —p;/p,g = 980 dynes/gram and p, and p, are the den-

sities of liquid and of suspended grains.

The pressure gradient, dp/dz, depends on the ratio CT/M. If

this is constant, the kinetic pressure is uniform and the gradient zero.

§ Nutting. This Journau19: 296. 1929.

404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

In a true solution C and M are both constant. Even in a suspension

of fine particles, CT’/M may be constant if the concentration be pro-

portional to size of particle, i.e.,if the number of particles per cc is

constant from top to bottom or throughout any given layer. In

general an aggregate of particles will be in equilibrium distribution if

the pressure gradient upward just equals the weight of suspended

material in unit volume,

(3) dp/dz = dw

or, by substitution from (1) and (2)

(4) d log (CT/M) _ Mkg

dz RE

which is the most general equilibrium condition. In the special case

of uniform mass of particle M@ and uniform temperature 7’, (4) r-e

duces to d log C/dz = Mkg/JRT which may be integrated giving

Perrin’s equation which may be written

(5) log (C/Cy) = Mkgz/JRT

where z is the depth measured downward from the surface and Cy

is the concentration at the surface.

In the numerical example cited above, 1 mg of suspended material

per ce accounted for a kinetic pressure of 24.9 dynes/cm2, the weight

of that material, Ckg = 0.56 dynes/em?/em (taking k = 0.4) hence

for a steady state, the kinetic pressure must increase downward about

2 per cent per cm of depth. Hence C7’/M must so increase and since

a 2 per cent increase in 7’ or decrease in M is very unlikely, the burden

lies chiefly on the concentration C.

If the pressure gradient in a suspension is greater than its immersed

weight then it will diffuse upward to the surface, if less than that

weight it will settle according to the generalized Stokes’ Law with the

velocity

(6) te 2 r? Py (cig a? Sree l x)

The expression bracketed is the resultant force acting on all the par-

ticles in unit volume. When the concentration gradient dc/dz = 0,

(6) reduces to the ordinary form of Stokes’ Law. It may be put in

different forms by using the substitutions C = mN,m = Vp = M X

mass of hydrogen atom 1.66 x 10-™ gram.

nov. 4, 1929 NUTTING: STRATIFIED SETTLING 405

From the form of (6) it is easily seen that the velocity of fall is very

sensitive to size of particle. It may readily be zero or even negative

(upward) for the smaller particles. As each size of particles falls,

smaller particles are not only left behind but tend to diffuse upward.

But there is a limit to this tendency to separate because it must cease

when the concentration gradient dc/dz reaches a certain minimum or

the particles fail to make contact. This appears to be the explanation

of the sharp upper boundary of particles exceeding a certain size.

In pure water the ionization is too slight and the adsorbed ions too

weak to interfere greatly with the diffusion and settling. In salt

solutions the reverse is the case, adhesion between particles is pro-

moted by strong adsorbed ions, and coagulation and settling are rapid.

However such phenomena have been much discussed by chemists.

Dialyzed iron, diluted with pure water in a clean glass vessel, stays

up indefinitely. At the top it can not escape while on the walls and

bottom the kinetic pressure is reflected in full force by the clean glass.

But if the bottom say is made of clean jelly (such as prepared ben-

tonite), particles are adsorbed instead of reflected when they hit and

the suspended iron is gradually taken up.

The effect of what appears to be direct light pressure I have fre-

quently observed when a suspension of extremely fine particles is left

for several days in a tube exposed to a strong horizontal light. A

large proportion of the finer particles are driven along the light path

and are found adhering to the wall where it intersects the light beam

and not elsewhere.

The thermal effect to which Mendenhall and Mason (l.c. ante)

attribute stratified settling appears to be but one of its minor causes.

They found that stratification did not occur in a constant temperature

‘room and that strata already formed in a lighted room disappeared

when removed to a constant temperature room. I have been unable

to confirm their conclusions in a single instance. I find that a properly

prepared suspension stratifies as readily in a dark, constant tempera-

ture room as in the open. In Barus’ original experiments, described

in 1886 (l.c. ante) he was particularly careful to guard against convec-

tion currents. From the theoretical equation (4) it is seen that the

same percentage change in C, T, or M is equally effective against

gravity. But a variation (with depth) of say 1 per cent in either C

or M is far more likely than in 7’, where it would amount to 3°C.

406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

SUMMARY

A gradient in kinetic pressure opposes gravity in the settling of fine

sediments.

A simple general law is derived for the equilibrium distribution of

fine particles in suspension of which Perrin’s equation is a special

case.

Stokes’ Law is given a more general form to include the upward

gradient of kinetic pressure as well as gravity as affecting the fall of

particles.

The upward diffusion of a given size of particles is limited by the

supply, hence the various sizes show a sharp upper limit.

A non-reflecting. wall tends to take up a suspension.

Mendenhall and Mason’s explanation of stratified settling could not

be confirmed experimentally and is shown to be a minor cause in theory.

PALEONTOLOGY .—New Carboniferous invertebrates—II.1 GEORGE

H. Girty, U. 8. Geological Survey.

This paper contains descriptions of seven brachiopods from western

Texas. 7

Schizophoria hueconiana, n. sp.

Figures 29-36

Shell small, transverse, subelliptical in outline.

Pedicle valve strongly transverse, broadly and almost regularly rounded

at the sides and more or less straight aeross the cardinal and anterior margins,

The anterior outline, however, is slightly emarginate and the cardinal outline,

though essentially straight, is interrupted by the umbonal parts of both valves

which project beyond it though not very far. The convexity is rather low

and chiefly developed in the posterior half, the anterior half over much of its

width being depressed into a broad, fairly deep sinus. Umbonal region rather -

gibbous. Beak small, pointed, neither strongly incurved nor produced much

beyond the hinge. The cardinal line is equal to or nearly equal to one-half the

greatest width; scarcely distinguishable in the generally rounded outline.

Cardinal area rather low, much wider than high, strongly arched and having

a general backward direction of about 145° to the plane of the margin though,

because of its curvature, more nearly perpendicular to it in the lower part.

Brachial valve strongly convex, more or less inflated in the umbonal region,

and more or less compressed at the sides. Beak small and strongly incurved.

The tip of the beak does not project so far beyond the hinge as the parts just

in front which are about on a level with the beak of the pedicle valve.

The shell arches strongly from side to side, flaring somewhat near the

lateral margins but the curvature is not differentiated into an appreciable

1 For the previous paper in this series see this JoURNAL 19: 135-142. Published by

permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received September 30,

1929.

Nov. 4, 1929 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 407

fold to match the sinus of the other valve. This tends to produce a broad, |

gentle emargination across the front.

The surface is marked by very fine, sharp, radial lirae, some of which (in

- the usual manner) gradually rise to a greater prominence than the rest and

terminate abruptly in a hollow ‘“‘spine,”’ represented by a small opening in

the shell. These tubular lirae are very small and so little differentiated from

the rest that they are apt rather to escape attention than to attract it. Three

or four lirae occur in 1 mm. toward the front.

This species might in a sense be regarded as S. reswpznoides in miniature.

It is obviously distinct from that well known Pennsylvanian shell, which

nevertheless is the one most comparable to it in our American faunas. It is

of course much smaller than S. reswpznozdes and the median sinus in the pedi-

cle valve is much broader. S. reswpinoides, when of the same size as S.

hueconiana, has no sinus at all.

The foregoing description is drawn up from the type specimen. My

collections contain a number of other specimens but they show little that is

additional. Most of them are small and apparently immature and most of

them, too, are compressed out of their natural shape. One is as large as 27

mm. in width which is about one-fourth larger than the type. Another is of

about the same size as the type and the rest are smaller in varying degrees.

About the only part of the foregoing description that needs to be qualified

in the light of this other material concerns the sculpture which is better

preserved on some of those specimens than on the typical one. The special-

ized elevated tubular lirae are more conspicuous than they are on the type,

but even so the sculpture is developed on so small a scale that the differentia-

tion is only conspicuous under a good lens. These lirae, enlarged and ele-

vated beyond the rest, are in the pedicle valve especially noticeable over the

median part, and in the brachial value over the lateral parts, and under a

lens they are indeed rather conspicuous. In the immature specimen figured

to show this feature, it will be noted that in neither valve is the beak as

much incurved as are the beaks of the type specimen. This difference is

probably to be attributed to its immature condition as the beaks are com-

monly more erect in young brachiopods than in old ones, although it may in

some degree be an original but individual character and in some degree acci-

dental, due to the compression which the specimen has manifestly suffered.

Horizon and locality: Upper part of the Hueco limestone; Marble canyon,

Diablo plateau, Van Horn quadrangle, Texas.

Chonetes quadratus, n. sp.

Figures 4-7

Shell small, highly arched, strongly flexed into median fold and sinus, quad-

rate in outline, smooth as to surface.

The pedicle valve is transversely subquadrate, scarcely wider at the hinge

than in front of it. The sides which are nearly straight and nearly parallel,

converge very slightly forward and may be slightly emarginate below the

cardinal angles which otherwise vary but little from 90°. The anterior out-

408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

line is broadly and gently concave with abrupt turns where it joins the lateral

outlines. The convexity is usually high but it is offset by the unusually

broad, deep sinus which is sub-angular at the bottom and, beginning at the

beak, deepens and widens rapidly so as to occupy practically the entire an-

terior margin. The auricles are much depressed and explanate. This com-

bination of characters causes the valve, in other terms, to consist of two high

and abruptly rounded ridges that diverge to the two anterio-lateral angles,

are separated by the deep broad sinus and descend steeply at the sides to the

small explanate auricles. The bases of two small spines are shown on the

outer parts of the cardinal area and doubtless several other spines of which

there is now no evidence were developed nearer the beak. The surface

appears to be quite smooth; it does not even show the smail pores or hollow

spines which are commonly found in these shells and which must be believed

to have been originally present.

Brachial valve unknown.

C. quadratus is more nearly comparable to C. subliratus than to any other

American Chonetes at present known. It is, however, a decidedly smaller

shell, is much less extended at the hinge, has a deeper, broader and more angu-

lar sinus and is smooth instead of obscurely striated. I have in all five speci-

mens of this species. They vary but little in size and this fact together with

their remarkably strong convexity indicates that we are dealing with a species

in its mature stage, although the largest is only 11 mm. wide at the hinge.

All the specimens are in essential agreement with the decription above

formulated. The sides diverge above more in some than in others but C.

quadratus is not to be compared with C. subliratus in this respect any more

than it is in size. In the depth and angular shape of the sinus and in the

prominent, abruptly rounded ridges between which it lies, S. quadratus again

is scarcely to be compared with the typical specimen of C. subliratus, for in

these characters it is as much more, as in the others it is less, pronounced,

One of the other figured specimens of C. subliratus leans rather more towards

C. quadratus than the typical one in these last characters, but there is never-

theless a wide difference. If compared with young specimens of C. sublzratus

of equal size, these differences are very marked inasmuch as the convexity is

lower and the sinus shallower in young specimens thaninoldones. Iam not,

in this instance, stressing the difference in the surface markings because to

some extent the surface markings are the sport of preservation; nevertheless

this shell is apparently quite devoid of radial striae whereas C.. subliratus has

fine though somewhat obscure radii. The radial markings may be the prod-

uct of slight exfoliation but this explanation at present seems scarcely

probable.

C. quadratus also recalls the form that Meek described as C. verneuilianus

var. utahensis which seems, however, to be less nearly allied to the present

species than to C. subliratus. C. quadratus consequently differs from it in

nearly the same way that it differs from C. subliratus—in the less extended

hinge, in the deeper, broader, more angular sinus and in the smooth instead of

Nov. 4, 1929 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 409

striated surface. Some doubt may be admitted as to the original markings of

C. subliratus but v. utahensis apparently has the sharply marked lirae of C.

verneuilianus.

Horizon and locality: Delaware Mountain formation; Victoria peak,

Diablo plateau, Van Horn quadrangle, Texas.

Chonetes consanguineus n. sp.

Figures 8-9

Shell of medium size, strongly transverse, semicircular in outline, moder-

ately arched but deflected medially into a fairly strong, narrow fold and sinus,

and as to surface essentially smooth or without trace of radial sculpture.

The pedicle valve is semi-circular in outline, much wider than long and

widest at the hinge. The outline around the sides and front is an irregular

curve, almost straight at the sides above and only gently arched across the

front. The sides diverge strongly toward the hinge with which they form

acute angles; the cardinal angles may even be slightly extended with the out-

line below slightly emarginate. The convexity is moderate and is somewhat

greater at or in front of the middle than behind it. The umbonal swelling is

broad and low passing by degrees into the large, undefined auricles. The

sinus is a conspicuous feature being rather deep and rather narrow, though

rounded. The cardinal spines are small and numerous; 5 or 6 are indicated

on each side of the beak near which there were undoubtedly others that have

been destroyed without leaving a trace.

The surface is entirely without radial sculpture and is smooth save for two

minor features. Lamellose striae marking stages of growth are fairly numer-

ous but of unequal strength and irregular distribution, while some specimens

show the openings left by minute hollow spines or arched scales. These are

very numerous and very small; they do not ordinarily interrupt the smooth

appearance of the surface but in certain conditions of preservation they give

rise to excavations somewhat larger than the pores themselves as if micro-

scopic pieces had been gouged out of the shell.

The brachial valve agrees with the pedicle valve in the usual manner.

It is, of course, concave where the other is convex and much less strongly

arched. The fold is narrow and rather high but does not make its appearance

for some distance in front of the hinge and the beak is scarcely distinguishable

except as a point of symmetry.

This species finds its nearest ally apparently in C. hillanus and at first

might be thought to be identical with it. My collection contains a number of’

specimens, however, which are uniform in character and which differ from

C. hillanus in being arched less strongly and in such a manner that in the

pedicle valve the highest parts are toward the front instead of toward the

back while the umbonal swell is lower and the beak less prominent. The

sinus is narrower and perhaps deeper, though narrowness conveys the impres-

sion of depth.

C. consanguineus is obviously of the group of C. geinitzianus but, I believe,

is a distinct species. Geinitz’s figures suggest that the original specimen

may have been somewhat crushed and that the broad sinus, angular at the

bottom, may have had that shape through accident. If those characters are

410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

original, C. consanguineus differs markedly from C. geinztzcanus, and if they

are accidental, detailed comparisons can not be made. Besides there does

in fact seem to be a species that agrees quite closely with Geinitz’s illustra-

tions, so that the illustrations are probably faithful and the original specimens

not impaired by accident.

Horizon and locality: Delaware Mountain formation; Victoria Peak,

Diablo plateau, Van Horn quadrangle, Texas.

Chonetes victorianus n. sp.

Figures 1-3

Shell rather small, somewhat pentagonal in outline, very convex with a

deep narrow fold and sinus, marked by rather coarse and sharply defined

radial lirae.

The pedicle valve is distinctly transverse and widest at the hinge which,

however, is not much extended. Below the hinge the outlines at the sides

are at first nearly straight with a very general convergence forward. They

curve increasingly as they pass downward and rather sharply round the

antero-lateral angles while the anterior outline again is almost straight or

slightly indented at the middle. Owing to the umbonal parts, which project

strongly, the outline as a whole approaches the pentagonal. The convexity

is extremely high and dome-like. It is interrupted down the middle by a

relatively deep, narrow sinus, so that the vault is divided into two rather

strongly rounded ridges having a long steep descent on the outward side to

the small, oblique, ill-defined auricles. In conformity with these characters

the beak is strongly incurved and the umbonal parts project unusually far

beyond the hinge line. The cardinal spines are large, numerous and closely

arranged, as many as 7 pores, where spines have been broken off can be

counted on one specimen on each side of the beak.

The radial lirae are actually fine but for the genus and for the size of the -

shell they are relatively coarse. They bifurcate several times in sequence so

as to form more or less conspicuous fascicles and the sculpture has the appear-

ance of beginning in the umbonal region with a few plications which subdivide

and spread out forward. The “hollow spines” or pore-like openings on the

lirae are rather large and rather numerous.

C. victorianus, of course, recalls the eastern shell described as C. verneuslia-

nus by Norwood and Pratten. That name has been used many times in

paleontologic literature and not always, perhaps, for the same species. The

species from Missouri that I cited from so many localities as C. verneuilianus

is not as highly arched or flexed into so deep a fold and sinus as C. verneutlia-

nus appears to be either from the figures given by Norwood and Pratten or

the later ones given by Meek. Compared with specimens from Missouri,

C. victorianus is much more inflated, it has a much deeper fold and sinus, and

is marked by much sharper and coarser radial lirae. Thus it appears less to

resemble these specimens of C. verneuilianus than C. verneuilianus as figured.

I seem not to have available specimens that can be identified with assurance

as C. verneuilianus but if such a comparison were possible it would, in view of

the wide difference in space, time and faunal association, almost certainly

show that C. victorianus differed also in its specific characters.

Novy. 4, 1929 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 411

Horizon and locality: Delaware Mountain formation; Victoria Peak, Diablo

plateau, Vin Horn quadrangle, Texas.

Camarophoria inaequalis n. sp.

Figures 10-13

Shell rather small, strongly transverse, widest below the middle, sub-

triangular in outline, rather gibbous.

Pedicle valve moderately convex with a rather broad and fairly deep sinus.

The sinus is almost flat across the bottom with rather steeply ascending sides.

Longitudinally the sinus makes a rather strong curve but a line down the

lateral parts of the valve would be nearly straight. These gradually rise

above the sinus (or the sinus is gradually depressed) so that they are most

elevated where they terminate and from the two points overlooking at the

sinus they arch obliquely to the lateral margins. The lateral parts of the

shell are much shorter than the part comprising the sinus which projects

beyond them ina linguiform manner. At their termination the sinus occupies

rather more than one-third of the entire width. The beak, though missing

in my specimens, is presumably pointed, sub-erect and rather prominent.

The costae in the sinus are slender and sharply rounded; those on the lateral

slopes are larger and more lax. In the type specimen the sinus contains 7

plications and the lateral slopes 4 each with a fifth suggested, the fourth also

being short and rather indistinct. The slender plications in the sinus can be

distinguished at points farther back than the larger ones of the lateral slopes

but all of them fail to reach the umbonal portion.

The brachial valve is gibbous, strongly arched from back to front and like-

wise strongly arched from side to side. The longitudinal curvature is more

pronounced down the lateral parts than down the middle so that the lateral

slopes fall away from the fold leaving it a feature though well defined, not

very strongly elevated. It is distinctly less elevated than the sinus is de-

pressed; it occupies somewhat less than one-third the width, (only the upper

surface being considered) and it is shorter than the lateral slopes which extend

appreciably beyond it.

The plications, like those of the pedicle valve, are narrow and sharp on the

fold but much larger and somewhat weaker on the lateral slopes. Hight

plications occur on the fold, the first apparently branching off from the second

and the 8th from the 7th. On the lateral slopes the plications number three

with two others of scarcely appreciable strength. As in most shells of this

genus, the plications here are irregular in their development, some branching

from others as just mentioned and some, on the other hand, attaining normal

strength only to disappear farther on.

The foregoing description is based on the type specimen. A second speci-

men from the same locality agrees with the typical one in its essentials very

closely. The fold has only seven plications instead of eight but the first

and seventh are branches of the second and sixth in a manner precisely simi-

lar. The lateral slopes have three plications of much larger size than those

on the median part with one or two others scarcely distinguishable toward

the sides. A third specimen shows more noteworthy differences; the fold

has seven plications of which the first branches from the second but not the

seventh from the sixth. In this specimen the lateral slopes bear almost as

numerous, almost as slender and almost as strong plications as the fold.

412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

There are probably seven of these on each side, although the sixth is short and

small and the seventh is only obscurely suggested.

Horizon and locality: Delaware Mountain formation, North Apache canyon,

Diablo plateau, Texas.

Camarophoria hueconiana n. sp.

Figures 14-21

Shell small, sub-triangular, with the length decidedly less than the greatest

width which occurs well forward.

Pedicle valve rather convex and over the median part very strongly arched

from back to front. Beak strongly incurved. Umbonal region somewhat

inflated. Beginning about one-third the shell length from the beak the me-

dian part of the valve becomes depressed into a broad sinus which toward the

front occupies about one-half of the entire width if the bounding slopes are

included in the sinus. The lateral areas on either side of the sinus are rela-

tively narrow and strongly rounded. The sinus bears 4 rather slender but

fairly strong costae which make their appearance well back toward the umbo,

before the sinus is an appreciable feature. The lateral slopes are marked by

4 costae of about the same character as those in the sinus though they cannot

be traced as far backward and the final costae on each side are very short.

The brachial valve is rather strongly convex, strongly arched from back

to front and more strongly arched from side to side. The fold, including its

sloping sides, occupies about one-half of the entire valve toward the front

but is not strongly elevated except close to the anterior margin. In the front

view the fold and sinus are rather high, sharply defined and save for their

sloping sides rather flat. The fold bears 5 costae and the lateral slopes 4

each, the costae on the lateral slopes being somewhat conspicuously different

from those on the fold for the latter are fairly stout and equal in size to the

grooves between them whereas the costae on the lateral slopes are slender and

distinctly narrower than the grooves. They appear narrow and also weak,

the final one on each side being quite‘ faint.

The foregoing description is drawn up from the typical specimen. Other

specimens show certain variations from the characters just noted. The fold

may have only 4 plications instead of 5, though this seems to be rare, or it

may have 6 which is more common than 4, but decidedly less common than 5.

Where 6 occur, the supernumerary costa as a rule is an offshoot from the nor-

mal ones; in fact in one specimen on which 5 costae are found only 3 so to —

speak, are original, the two lateral ones being offshoots from the primary cos-

tae to which they are adjacent. Again the contrast between the costae of the

lateral slopes and those of the fold is rarely as conspicuous as it is in the type

specimen.

The only American species of Camarophoria that can be regarded as be-

longing to the same group with C. hueconiana is C.. venusta but the differences

between the two are so obvious as scarcely to need discussion.

Horizon and locality: Upper part of the Hueco limestone; spur south of

Cerro Alto, Cerro Alto quadrangle, Texas.

Nov. 4, 1929 GIRTY: CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 413

Pugnoides mesicostalis n. sp.

Figures 22-28

Shell rather large, strongly transverse, subelliptical to subpentagonal in

outline. '

Pedicle valve rather shallow by reason of the large, deeply depressed sinus.

The part constituting the sinus extends forward considerably beyond the

lateral parts but where they terminate it occupies about half the total width

of the valve, if its sloping sides are included in this measurement. The

lateral parts are almost flat and almost complanate, and as the sinus is ob-

lique to this level, besides being increasingly arched, they become much

elevated above it and terminate in sharp points on either side. The plications

are strong and subangular, 4 on the sinus and 5 on each of the lateral slopes,

the fifth, however, being short and weak.

The brachial valve is rather strongly convex in a transverse direction but

much less convex longitudinally. Along the fold the curvature is very gentle;

along the lateral slopes it is stronger and as the sides are oblique, as well as

more highly arched, the fold is elevated well above the more remote parts of

the lateral slopes. The plications are strong and angular. As is common in

this group of shells, those on the fold are more acutely angular than those in

the sinus, but on the other hand, the plications of the lateral slopes on the

pedicle valve are more acutely angular than those on the lateral slopes of

the brachial valve. Five plications occur on the fold, of which the median

one is conspicuously smaller than the two on each side of it and also con-

spicuously depressed below them. The lateral slopes bear five plications,

the last one on each side being short and rather indistinct. On the other hand,

the median plication can be traced farther back on the umbo, and the two on

each side, when traced backward, appear to merge as if they resulted from the

bifurcation of a single large one.

The foregoing description is drawn up from the type specimen. A second

specimen shows the same general characters with certain modifications in

detail. It is somewhat more transverse and somewhat more gibbous. The

plications on the fold are like those of the typical specimen both in number

and in character (five, with the middle one small and depressed); the lateral

plications, however, are larger and fewer. I recognize but three on each

lateral slope with a fourth indicated more by a denticle on the margin than

a plication on the surface.

Pugnoides mesicostalis recalls P. elegans in the aborted development of the

median rib of the fold but this species has five plications on the fold and that

but three, besides which are other differences too obvious to need designation.

Horizon and locality: Delaware Mountain formation; North Apache can-

yon, Diablo plateau, Texas.

414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

Nov. 4, 1929 DEWEY: NEW VARIETY OF HENEQUEN 415

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

Chonetes victorianus, n. sp. (p. 410).

Figs. 1-3 . The type specimen, a pedicle valve, natural size and enlarged X 2.

Delaware Mountain formation, Victoria Peak, Van Horn quad-

rangle, Texas.

Chonetes quadratus, n. sp. (p. 407).

Figs. 4-7 . Two cotypes, both pedicle valves, natural size and enlarged, X 2.

Delaware Mountain formation, Victoria Peak, Van Horn quad-

rangle, Texas.

Choneies consanguineus, n. sp. (p. 409).

Figs. 8-9 . Two cotypes, both pedicle valves. Delaware Mountain formation,

Victoria Peak, Van Horn quadrangle, Texas.

Camarophoria inaequalis, n. sp. (p. 411).

Figs. 10-13. Four views of the typical specimen. Delaware Mountain formation,

North Apache Canyon, Diablo Plateau, Texas.

Camarophoria hueconiana, n. sp. (p. 412).

Figs. 14-21. Different views of two specimens, the cotypes. Hueco limestone

(upper part), spur south of Cerro Alto, Cerro Alto quadrangle,

Texas.

Pugnoides mesicostalis, n. sp. (p. 418).

Figs. 22-25. Four views of the type specimen.

Figs. 26-28. Three views of a somewhat different specimen. Delaware Mountain

formation, North Apache Canyon, Diablo Plateau, Texas.

Schizophoria hueconiana, n. sp. (p. 406).

Figs. 29-23. Tive views of the type specimen.

Figs. 34-36. Three views of another specimen (figs. 34 and 35), enlarged X 2.

Hueco limestone, Marble Canyon, Van Horn quadrangle, Texas.

BOTAN Y.—A new variety of henequen without prickles... LysTer H.

Dewey, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Henequen, Agave fourcroydes Lemaire, was introduced into Cuba

from Yucatan about 1840. Plants descending from that early intro-

duction, propagated chiefly by bulbils and suckers—rarely from seeds

—have been used since 1900 in developing large plantations equipped

with modern fiber-cleaning machines. These plants, like those of

Yucatan, have prickles 1 to 4 mm. long and 10 to 20 mm. apart on the

margins of the leaves. The prickles are hooked either upwardly or

downwardly and often in both directions on the same leaf.

In 1926, Mr. George H. Simons, President of Compafiia Hispano-

Americana de Henequen, S. A., found among the plants cultivated by

that company at Nuevitas, Cuba, a plant without prickels on the

margins of the leaves. The numerous suckers of this plant also had

leaves free or nearly free from marginal prickles. This form, originat-

ing as a mutation in one plant and continued in its progeny is regarded

as worthy of varietal distinction.

1 Received September 17, 1929.

416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

Agave fourcroydes espiculata Dewey, var. nov.

Mature plant at flowering time with trunk up to 1 m. below the leaves;

leaves gray-green, slightly darker on face, 120 to 150 cm. long, 12 to 14 em.

wide, nearly cylindrical and about 3.5 cm. in diameter at base, terminal

spine dark chestnut, shiny on upper half, duller and finely pitted under a

lens on lower half, 20 to 30 mm. long and 6 mm. in diameter, slightly decur-

rent on back and margins, with shallow or indistinct groove on lower half of

face; margins of leaf straight and smooth, without even rudimentary prickles,

or rarely 2 to 6 small prickles on some of the leaves; flower stalk about 5 m.

high, bearing dense clusters of erect flowers on very short pedicels on the

forked ends of nearly horizontal branches; flowers with green ovary about 20

mm. long, constricted at top, and light yellow perianth about 30 mm. long,

the lobes slightly longer than the tube; stamens with curved anthers exserted

about the length of the lobes beyond the perianth and style with 3-lobed

stigma extending beyond the stamens.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,411,770, collected at Nuevi-

tas, Cuba, January 14, 1929, by George H. Simons.

This variety differs from the typical form of the species in the absence of

prickles on the margins of the leaves and in the narrower and more nearly

cylindrical base of the leaves. The flowers are like those of the species ex-

cept slightly smaller.

The mother plant is exceptionally vigorous, having produced about 350

leaves as compared with about 250 for average henequen plants, and 120

suckers which are also exceptionally vigorous. ‘The mother plant was about

15 or 16 years old at the time of flowering in May, 1929. The variety is of

economic interest because the smooth-margined leaves may be handled more

easily than those with prickles.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

At the recent meeting of the American Chemical Society at Minneapolis

it was stated that the membership of the Society is now well over 17,000.

Papers were presented before seventeen different divisions, and a number of

other group meetings were held.

Miss J. L. V. McCorp, long connected with the Geological Survey and

Librarian for the past 21 years, has retired. Mr. Guy E. MitrcHe.u suc-

ceeds Miss MeCord as Librarian.

A. NELSON Sayre has been appointed assistant geologist in the Water

Resources Branch of the Geological Survey.

C. H. Brrpseye has resigned as Chief Topographic Engineer of the Geo-

logical Survey and J. G. Staack has been appointed to this position.

GLENN S. Situ has resiged as division engineer of the Atlantic Division

of the Topographic Branch and ALBERT PIKE has been appointed to this

position. Mr. Smith will continue part time service in the Survey.

Nov. 4, 1929 OBITUARY 417

Doctor HERBERT FRIEDMANN has been appointed Curator of Birds in the

National Museum. Doctor Friedmann held a National Research Council

fellowship from 1923 to 1926, during which time he investigated the habits of

parasitic birds. He is especially interested in the birds of Africa.

Professor A. S. Hircucock, Agrostologist of the Department of Agricul-

ture, who has been studying the grasslands of Kenya Colony, left Mombasa

toward the end of September, and expects to reach Washington about the

middle of November.

Montross W. Hayss, recently in charge of the St. Louis station of the

Weather Bureau, has been selected as chief of the river and flood division of

the Bureau and reported for duty in Washington early in October.

On September 23rd, Mr. Nez M. Jupp, Curator of American Archeology

in the National Museum, returned to Washington after four months’ field

work in Arizona under the auspices of the National Geographic Society. Mr.

Judd’s investigations this summer were chiefly concerned with the collection

of beams from prehistoric pueblo ruins. There is but a single remaining gap

in the “‘tree ring” chronology being erected by Doctor A. E. Douauass, of the

University of Arizona, and it is hoped with this summer’s beam collection to

bridge this gap and thus make possible the dating of Pueblo Bonito and other

pre-Spanish ruins of the Southwest. Although under the general direction

of Mr. Judd, the National Geographic Society’s 1929 excavations were di-

rectly supervised by Mr. L. L. Hararave, of the Museum of Northern Ari-

zona, Flagstaff, and Mr. E. W. Haury, of the University of Arizona, Tucson.

A review of the material resulting from the expeditions is now being made by

Doctor Douglass and a report is anticipated in the near future.

Obituary

Dr. GeorGEe Perkins Merritt, Head Curator of the Department of Ge-

ology, U. 8. National Museum, and a member of the Acaprmy, died suddenly

from heart disease on August 16th, 1929, in a railroad station at Auburn,

Maine. He was born in Auburn May 31, 1854, and attended the University

of Maine, where he received the degrees of B.S. in 1879, M.S. in 1883, and

Ph.D. in 1889. He also took work at Wesleyan and Johns Hopkins Univer-

sities, and in 1917 was awarded the honorary degree of Sc.D. by George

Washington University. After teaching for brief periods at various institu-

tions, he was appointed an assistant in the Department of Geology of the

Museum in 1881, gradually advancing until he became Head Curator of the

Department in 1897. In 1890-91 he was a lecturer in geology at the Univer-

sity of Maryland, and from 1893 to 1915 Professor of Geology and Mineralogy

at George Washington University. He belonged to a number of scientific

societies; was a fellow of the Geological Society of America (Vice President,

1920), a member of the Geological Society of Washington (President, 1906),

and was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1922. He

also received from this organization the J. Lawrence Smith gold medal in rec-

ognition of his work on meteorites.

Doctor Merrill’s scientific work covered many branches of geology and

related sciences, his special fields of interest being the non-metallic minerals,

meteorites, and the history of geology, especially in America. In the first of

418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 19, No. 18

these fields, he wrote several books, including: Stones for Building and

Decoration; Rocks, Rock Weathering and Soils; and The Non-metallic

Minerals, Their Occurrence and Uses. He made detailed studies of the

chemistry and mineralogy of meteorites, published in numerous briefer papers,

and one comprehensive work, Handbook and Descriptive Catalogue of the

Meteorite Collections in the U. 8S. National Museum (1916). One mineral of

frequent occurrence in stony meteorites, which had been misinterpreted in

various ways by other workers, was shown by his microchemical tests to be a

phosphate unknown in terrestrial rocks, and it was appropriately named in

his honor, merrillite. In the course of his historical studies, he assembled a

remarkably comprehensive collection of autographs and portraits of workers

in geology and related sciences. From these studies there resulted his

History of American Geology, History of American State Geological and

Natural History Surveys. and The First One Hundred Years of American

Geology. Shortly before his death he completed The Story of Meteorites,

Part 1 of Minerals from Earth and Sky, Volume 3 of the Smithsonian Scientific

Series.

Dr. CHartes WILLIAMSON RicHarpson, Emeritus Professor of Laryngo-

ology and Otology in George Washington University and a member of the

AcaprMy, died August 25, 1929. He was born in Washington, D. C., Aug-

ust 22, 1861, studied at the University of Pennsylvania and at George Wash-

ington University, taking the degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1884. He was

given the honorary degree of Doctor of Science by George Washington in

1921. Dr. Richardson wrote numerous papers dealing with problems in

otorhinology and laryngology, in which fields he was an eminent specialist.

Dr. Frank HuriBurtT CHITTENDEN, Senior Entomologist, Bureau of

Entomology, Department of Agriculture, died September 15, 1929. He

was born in Cleveland, Ohio, November 3, 1858, graduated from Cornell

University in 1881, and received the honorary degree of doctor of science

from the University of Pittsburgh in 1904. He was an authority on truck-

crop insects, and on the taxonomy of certain groups of Coleoptera, and had

contributed extensively to entomological literature.

S wal @ . Ns . '

Dr. Epwin Emery Stosson, Director of Science Service and a member of

the AcApremMy, died October 15, 1929. He was born in Sabetha, Kansas,

June 7, 1865, and attended the University of that state, receiving the

degrees of B.S. in 1890 and M.S. in 1892. He also took advanced work at

the University of Chicago, leading to the receipt of a Ph.D. in 1903; and in

1923 the same University awarded him the degree of LL.D. He was Pro-

fessor of Chemistry at the University of Wyoming and Chemist at the State

Experiment Station from 1891 to 1904, resigning to take up literary work.

In 1921 he was appointed to the position which he held up to the time of

his death. Combining, to an unusual degree, literary skill with a broad

knowledge of sciences, his numerous essays and books have been highly

successful in bringing to the layman an appreciation of scientific ideas and

of the significance of modern advances in science.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Tuesday, November 5, 1929

Wednesday, November 6, 1929

Thursday, November 7, 1929

Friday, November 8, 1929

Saturday, November 9, 1929

Tuesday, November 12, 1926

Wednesday, November 13, 1929

Thursday, November 14, 1929

Friday, November 15, 1929

Saturday, November 16, 1929

Tuesday, November 19, 1929

The Botanical Society

The Society of Engineers

The Medical Society

The Entomological Society

The Geographic Society

The Philosophical Society

The Institute of Electrical Engineers

The Geological Society

The Medical Society

The Chemical Society

The Geographic Society

The Biological Society

The Helminthological Society

The Anthropological Society

The Historical Society

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month,

CONTENTS

OrtcInaL Parers

Mathematics.—On Fermat's Last Theorem, II. V. M. Spunar. i= i me

Physics.—The stratified settling of fine sediments. P. G. Nurrine.......

Paleontology.—New Carboniferous invertebrates. G. H. Girty...........

Osrrvary: Gzoran P. Merrit, Cuartns W. Ricuarpson, Fran«x H. Car

pEN, Epwin E. Se

This Journar is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals to be found in Baits librari

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY ts

President: ALES Hrpuiétxa, U. S. National Museum. Mae 32

Corresponding Secretary: L, B. TucKERMAN, Bureau of Standards

Vou. 19 NOVEMBER 19, 1929 No. 19

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Joun B. Rezsipe, Jr. Epaar W. Woonarp Ep@ar T. WHERRY

NATIONAL MUSEUM GEORGD WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY BUREAU OF CHHMISTRY AND SOILS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

L. H. ADAMS S. A. Ronwzer

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

E. A, GoupMAN G. W. Strosz

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOTIETY

AGNES CHASE J. R. SwANTON

BOTANICAL SOCIBTY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCINTY

Roger C. WeLxs

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY

EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY

BY THD

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Mr, Roryat & GuitrorpD Avss.

Battimore, MaryLanp

ae on Second Class Matter, January je 1923, at the post-office, at Baltimore, Md., under the

of August 24,1912. Acceptance mailing at a special rate of postage provided. for

in section 1103, Act of rigs 8, 1917, Authorized on July 3, 1918

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

This Jourwat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to

present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this end it publishes:

(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)

short notes of current scientific literature published in or emanating from Washington;

(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (4)

notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JourNatis issued

semi-monthly, on the fourth and nineteenth of each month, except during the summer

when it appears on the nineteenth only. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Prompt —