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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 22, 1932 eee

BOARD OF EDITORS

Hues L. DrypEN ; CHARLES DRECHSLER Witmot H. BRADLEY

BUREAU OF STANDARDS - BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

H. T. WENSEL Haroutp MorRrIson

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

E. A. GOLDMAN W.W. RuBEY

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

AGNES CHASE J. R“SwaNnTON

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R. E. Grsson

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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ae 7

ERRATA

Vol. 22, 1932

Page 26, line 34: for ‘‘pubescenti” read ‘‘pubescentia.”’

Page 27, line 32: for ‘‘glabrescentes’’ read ‘‘glabrescentia.”’

Page 28, line 14: for ‘‘stellato-villosis’”’ read ‘‘stellato-villosa.’’

Page 28, line 31: for ‘‘spuberulo”’ read ‘‘puberulo.”’

Page 28, line 32: for ‘‘atro-purpuea”’ read ‘‘atro-purpurea.”’

Page 29, line 40: for ‘‘infunibuliformi” read ‘‘infundibuliformi.”’

Page 30, line 32: for ‘‘subcicinnatis” read ‘‘subcincinnatis.”’

Page 32, line 21: for ‘“‘tenuibius”’ read ‘‘tenuibus.”’

Page 33, line 45: for ‘‘virididis’’ read ‘‘viridis.’’

Page 34, line 7: for ‘‘tomentosinusculis’”’ read ‘‘tomentosiusculis.”’

Page 37, line 23: for ‘‘Miers,’’ read ‘‘Miers’. ”’

Page 175, line 20: delete period after ‘‘Sierra’’ and read ‘‘Sierra Tarahumara.”’

Page 243, line 1: for ‘‘Cyanodon”’ read ‘‘Cynodon.”’

Page 244, line 46: for ‘‘Cyanodon”’ read ‘‘Cynodon.”’

Page 245, line 40: for ‘‘Cyanodon’”’ read ‘‘Cynodon.’’

Page 379, line 25: for ‘‘three’”’ read ‘‘four.”’

Page 381, line 26: for ‘‘for’’ read ‘‘by.”’

Page 407, legend of fig. 2: for ‘‘fomations”’ read ‘‘formations.’’

Page 423, line 29: for ‘‘fluxuous”’ read ‘‘flexuous.”’

Page 444, line 36: for ‘‘Schlauche”’ read ‘‘Schliuche.”’

Page 464, equation (19): for Ny = =P,; e st) read N, = =Q,s e “st. and for

No = TQrs € (A,+5d.) read n = EPre e THA.)

Page 465, in the table of constants: for Pi; = 1706.5 read Pi; = —1706.5 and for Px

= +491.3 read Px» = +4931.83

No. 1

3 ee | : se : | Ses

“WASHINGTON ACAD

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

C. Wrtue Cooke CHARLES DRECHSLER Hua L. Drypen

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ASSOCIATE EDITORS

W. J. PETERS Haroup MorRISson

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

E. A. GotpMAaNn G. W. Stross

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY - GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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ni BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 22 JANUARY 4, 1932 No. 1

PALEONTOLOGY .—The larger Foraminifera of the Talara shale of

northwestern Peru.! WiLuARD BERRY, Ohio State University.

(Communicated by Epwarp W. BERRY.)

In 1928 I described the smaller Foraminifera of the middle Lobitos

shales of northwestern Peru.? In the same year this formation was

named Saman shales by Iddings and Olsson.? Again in 1930 Olsson

changed the name from Saman to Talara shale‘ and correlated it with

the Bartonian as I did in 1928.

In my discussion of the smaller Foraminifera I mention the occur-

rence of Lepidocyclina- and Operculina-bearing grits or sandstone

about 958 feet above the base of the Talara shales (Saman shales).

These grits which are only several feet thick are yellow-brown cal-

careous sandstones with subangular grains up to 1.5 mm. in diameter.

These grains are mostly clear quartz with occasional dark ferruginous

grains, apparently limonite. What heavy minerals may be present

is unknown as no separation has been made. ‘These grits are thin

bedded and tend to weather to light-colored sand. The beds are

very sparsely fossiliferous and the described forms were obtained by

prolonged and careful collecting along the strike of the rocks.

The faunule consists of seven species of Lepidocyclina and three

species of Operculina. In this faunule the species of Lepidocyclina do

1 Received October 31, 1931. Work carried out under a grant-in-aid, National

Research Council.

2 Kelogae Geol. Helvetiae 21 (2): 390-405. 1928. - eo ee

$ Iddings and Olsson. The geology of northwest Peru. Bull. Am. Asso. Pet. Geol.

12 (1): 1928.

4A. A. Olsson. Eocene Mollusca. Bull. Am. Paleon. 17 (62): 1930.

| JAN 5-122

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 1

not seem to be closely related to any described forms with the excep-

tion of the one species of the subgenus Helicolepidina which is very

close to Lepidocyclina (Helicolepidina) spiralis Tobler from the Pria-

bonian of San Fernando, Trinidad, and Rio San ‘Pedro, Venezuela.

There is apparently no relation between these forms and the small

fauna from the basal portion of the same formation (Saman con-

glomerate) as described from the Atascadero limestone exposed about

22 miles northeast of this locality. There is a slight similarity between

these forms and the as yet undescribed forms from the Talara sand-

stones (Saman sandstones) collected north of Lagunitos. The simi-

larity between this faunule and the fauna of the Verdun grits (which

Olsson now refers to the Eocene) lies in the marked absence of micro-

spheric forms. None have been found in this collection and only

about 4 per cent in the Verdun fauna. |

The Operculina on the other hand bear a closer relation to those of

the Atascadero forms, as one is clearly a variety of Operculina atasca-

derensis W. Berry, described from the Atascadero limestone. The

other two are new to science.

The exact conditions under which this thin bed of sandstone was

laid down are indefinite. Apparently it is a local feature as it is not

found everywhere that the Talara shales are exposed. From the

coarse subangular character of the sand grains and the lack of micro-

spheric forms sedimentation must have been very rapid. ‘The forms

are all thought to be typical of shallow, warm, or tropical waters and

the shales both below and above the bed contain forms characteristic

of deeper and cooler waters. From what direction these coarse sedi-

ments were washed into the sea is undecided due to the limited extent

of the bed. From general appearance it is quite like the matrix of

the Verdun grits which are supposed to have come from the southwest.

It is quite apparent, however, that during the deposition of the Talara

shales there was a period of fairly sudden rise and then sudden deepen-

ing of the sea in this region as the shales do not grade into the sands

or the sands grade into the shales, the boundaries being very clearly

marked. Another possibilitiy is that for some reason the run-off

was especially rapid at this point for a short time and much sand was

washed into the sea. It is entirely possible that somewhere along the

then existing shore the forms from the basal portion of the formation

were developing and that they gave rise to this endemic faunule which

is to be described. The places where the evolution was going on

have either been destroyed by subsequent erosion before the sand-

stone was deposited or else have not yet been discovered.

JAN. 4, 1932 BERRY: FORAMINIFERA OF PERU 3

Genus LEPIDOCYCLINA.

Subgenus LEPIDOCYCLINA Ss.

Lepidocyclina samanica W. Berry n.sp.

Figure 10.

Test discoidal, equilateral, small, thin, 2.4 mm. in diameter, 0.75 mm.

thick, ratio of diameter to thickness 3.3:1. Test thins more or less evenly

from the center to the periphery, with no flange. Surface papillated, small

and fairly evenly spaced. Pillars polygonal in shape and 83.5 microns in

diameter at the surface. The lateral chambers at the surface are 116.9

microns in diameter with walls 16.7 microns thick.

The nucleoconch is composed of two subequal chambers separated by a

thin straight wall. The width of the nucleoconch is 218.4 microns and the

length is 312 microns, the ratio of the length to the width is 1.4:1, with walls

35.1 microns thick. The equatorial chambers are arcuate and are arranged

in circles; these chambers are 35.1 microns in radial diameter and 31.2 mi-

crons in tangential diameter, with walls 19.5 microns thick.

Cotypes.—Collection of Willard Berry No. L-22.

Occurrence.—Talara shale 958 feet above base; northwestern Peru.

L. samanica, which is next to the largest Lepidocyclina in this sandstone

does not seem to be related to any described form and can easily be recog-

nized by its large size and the ratio of the length to the width of the nucleo-

conch.

Lepidocyclina sectionensis W. Berry n.sp.

Bie. it,

Test discoidal, equilateral, small, thin, 1.83 mm. in diameter, 0.45 mm.

thick, ratio of diameter to thickness 4:1. Test thins evenly from the center

to the periphery, with no flange. Surface reticulate, sparingly papillated.

Pillars polygonal in shape and 66.8 microns in diameter at the surface. The

lateral chambers at the surface are 100.2 microns in diameter with walls 16.7

microns thick.

The nucleoconch is composed of two subequal chambers separated by a thin

straight wall. The width of the nucleoconch is 257.4 microns and the length

390 microns, the ratio of the length to the width is 1.5:1, the walls are 31.2

microns thick. The equatorial chambers are arranged in circles, these

chambers are 39 microns in radial diameter and 42.9 microns in tangential

diameter, with walls 23.4 microns thick.

Cotypes.—Collection of Willard Berry No. L-18.

Occurrence.—Talara shale, 958 feet above base. Northwestern Peru.

L. sectionensis has a rather characteristic arrangement of chambers around

the nucleoconch. On one side are 3 relatively large secondary chambers and

on the other side 2. This arrangement is nearest to L. sezs and L. ocha

from the same locality but these two have 3 large secondary chambers on

each side of the nucleoconch, but differ in other respects. L. sectionensis

is the thinnest form from this locality.

+ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 1

Lepidocyclina ocha W. Berry n.sp.

Fig. 4.

Test discoidal, equilateral, small, thin 1.67 mm. in diameter and 0.71

mm. thick, ratio of diameter to thickness 2.3:1. Test thins evenly from the

center to the periphery, with no flange. Surface papillated, small and evenly

spaced. Pillars polygonal in shape and 50.1 microns in diameter at the

surface. The lateral chambers at the surface are 83.5 microns in diameter

with walls 15 microns thick.

The nucleoconch is composed of two subequal chambers separated by a

thin straight wall. The width of the nucleoconch is 195 microns and the

length is 273.3 microns, the ratio of the length to the width is 1.4:1, with

walls 19.5 microns thick. The equatorial chambers are arcuate-rhombic and

are arranged in circles; these chambers are 39 microns in radial diameter and

31.2 microns in tangential diameter with walls 19.5 microns thick.

Cotypes.—Collection of Willard Berry No. L-19.

Occurrence.—Talara shale, 958 feet above base; northwestern Peru.

L. ocha is like L. seis and L. ariena in having 3 relatively large secondary

chambers on both sides of the nucleoconch. In ratio of length to width of

the nucleoconch it is like L. samanica but differs in all other respects. It is

easily recognized in thin section by the 3 secondary chambers on each side of

the nucleoconch and the heaviness of the equatorial chamber walls.

Lepidocyclina gritta W. Berry n.sp.

Fig. 9.

Test discoidal, equilateral, small, thin, 2.08 mm. in diameter, 0.60 mm.

thick, ratio of diameter to thickness 3.4+:1. Test thins evenly from the

center to the periphery, with no flange. Surface papillated, small, and evenly

spaced. Pillars polygonal in shape and 50.1 microns in diameter at the

surface. The lateral chambers at the surface are 83.5 microns in diameter

with walls 16 microns thick.

The nucleoconch is composed of two subequal chambers separated by a

thin, straight wall. The width of the nucleoconch is 292.8 microns and the

length is 331.5 microns, the ratio of the length to the width is 1.13-++:1, with

walls 27.3 microns thick. The equatorial chambers are arcuate to hexagonal

and are arranged part in circles and part in columns; these chambers are

58.5 microns in radial diameter and 58 microns in tangential diameter with

walls 17 microns thick.

Cotypes.—Collection of Willard Berry No. L-20.

Occurrence.—Talara shale, 958 feet above base; northwestern Peru.

L. gritta ean be easily recognized in thin section by the way the equatorial

chambers are first arcuate and in circles, then hexagonal and arranged in

columns and then arcuate and in circles. It is entirely unlike any described

form.

JAN. 4, 1932 BERRY: FORAMINIFERA OF PERU 5

Lepidocyclina ariena W. Berry n.sp.

Fig. 6

Test discoidal, equilateral, small, thin, 1.70 mm. in diameter, 0.62 mm.

thick, ratio of diameter to thickness 2.7-+-:1. Test thins evenly from the

center to the periphery, with no flange. Surface papillated, very noticeable,

and fairly evenly spaced. Pillars polygonal in shape and 83 microns in

diameter at the surface. The lateral chambers at the surface are 133.6 mi-

crons in diameter with walls 33.4 microns thick.

The nucleoconch is composed of two subequal chambers separated by a

thin straight wall. The width of the nucleoconch is 245.7 microns and the

length is 351 microns, the ratio of the length to the width is 1.42+:1, with

walls 31.2 microns thick. The equatorial chambers are open-arcuate and

are arranged in circles: these chambers are 31.2 microns in radial diameter

and 27.3 microns in tangential diameter with walls 23.4 microns thick.

Cotypes.—Collection of Willard Berry No. L-21.

Occurrence.—Talara shale, 958 feet above base; northwestern Peru.

L. ariena is like L. ocha and L. sezs in having 3 relatively large secondary

chambers on either side of the nucleoconch but differs in all other respects.

It is the smallest Lepidocyclina found in the formation and can easily be

recognized by the smallness of the equatorial chambers.

Lepidocyclina seis W. Berry n.sp.

Ie oe

Test discoidal, irregularly equilateral, fairly large, thin, 3.34 mm. in

diameter, 1.5 mm. thick, ratio of diameter to thickness 2.2+:1. Test thins

evenly to within 0.4 mm. of the periphery, where there is a narrow flange;

diameter of central boss 2.54mm. Surface papillated, fairly large and slightly

more numerous on the boss, otherwise evenly spaced. Pillars polygonal,

133.6 microns in diameter at the surface. The lateral chambers at the sur-

face are 50.1 microns in diameter with walls 20 microns thick.

The nucleoconch is composed of two subequal chambers separated by a

thin straight wall. The width of the nucleoconch is 249.6 microns and the

length is 347.1 microns, the ratio of length to the width is 1.39—:1, with

walls 27.3 microns thick. The equatorial chambers are arcuate-hexagonal

and are arranged in circles to columns; these chambers are 39 microns in

radial diameter and 42.7 microns in tangential diameter with walls 13.7

microns thick.

Cotypes.—Collection of Willard Berry No. L-24.

Occurrence.—Talara shale, 958 feet above base; northwestern Peru.

L. seis is very characteristic in thin section as the equatorial chambers are

first arranged in circles but about half way to the periphery they are arranged

in columns. See L. ariena and L. ocha for comparison with those species.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 1

se Ivauaes

TES

Sry

Fig. 1—Lepidocyclina (Helicolepidina) august-tobleri n. sp. X20.

Fig. 2—Operculina samanica n. sp. X20.

Fig. 3—Lepidocyclina seis n. sp. X20.

Fig. 4—Lepidocyclina ocha n. sp. X30.

Fig. 5—Operculina atascaderensis var. samanica n. var. X20.

JAN. 4, 1932 BERRY: FORAMINIFERA OF PERU 7

Fig. 6—Lepidocyclina ariena n. sp. X25.

Fig. 7.—Nucleoconch H. august-tobleri X64; Chambers 1-8 are primarily spiral

chambers.

Fig. 8—Operculina talara n. sp. X25.

Fig. 9—Lepidocyclina gritta n. sp. X25.

Fig. 10—Lepidocyclina samanica n. sp. X20.

Fig. 11—Lepidocyclina sectionensis n. sp. X20.

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 1

Subgenus HELICOLEPIDINA

Helicolepidina august-tobleri W. Berry n.sp.

Figval,

Test discoidal, equilateral, large, fairly thick, 3.74 mm. in diameter, 1.00

mm. thick, ratio of diameter to thickness 3.74:1. Test thins evenly from

center to within about 0.333 mm. of periphery where it thins more slowly,

producing a pronounced flange. Central boss 3.072 mm. in diameter. Sur-

face papillated, small and evenly spaced, the papillae on the boss being

slightly greater in diameter. Pillars polygonal in shape and 566.8 microns

in diameter at the surface. The lateral chambers at the surface are 83.5

microns in diameter with walls 17 microns thick.

The nucleoconch is composed of one nearly circular chamber surrounded by

eight inner primary spiral chambers (see Fig. 7.). The first circular chamber

is 156 microns in diameter with walls 23.4 microns thick. The secondary

spiral chambers are somewhat arcuate in shape, and make about 14 coils

before reaching the periphery. The normal equatorial chambers are open-

arcuate to hexagonal and average about 78 microns in radial diameter and 78

microns in tangential diameter with walls 15.6 microns thick.

Cotypes.—Collection of Willard Berry No. L-23.

Occurrence.—Talara shale, 958 feet above base; northwestern Peru.

H. august-tobleri resembles H. spiralis Tobler from the Priabonian of

Trinidad and Venezuela in general aspect. In thin section it is easily recog-

nized by having 8 primary spiral chambers and not 4 as in Tobler’s species.

It does not closely resemble the Helicolepidina mentioned from the Verdun

grits of Peru. It is named in honor of the author of the subgenus; the late

Dr. A. Tobler of Switzerland.

Genus OPERCULINA

Operculina atascaderensis W. Berry var. samanica W. Berry n.var.

Hic. 5.

Test medium to large, 3.67 mm. in diameter, and 0.80 mm. thick, ratio of

diameter to thickness 4.5:1. Entire test about the same thickness. Surface

ornamented by raised suture lines. The test starts with a well defined

nucleoconch then makes 3 gradually increasing coils, the last coil containing

29 chambers. The septa are curved convexly outward. In the last two coils

there are several septa which are compound or double on the inner end, and

single on the outward end.

Cotypes.—Collection of Willard Berry No. O-7.

Occurrence.—Talara shale, 958 feet above base; northwestern Peru.

This variety is very close to O. atascaderensis from the Atascadero lime-

stone (Saman conglomerate). Itis probably a descendant of O. atascaderensis

but differs from the parent in having the septa dividing near the outward

and not the inner end. This variety is quite like O. irregularis Reuss de-

scribed from Oberburg in Steiermark. It is easily recognized in thin section

by the character of the dividing septa.

JAN. 4, 1932 BALL: NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF LEAFHOPPERS 9

Operculina talara W. Berry n.sp.

Fig. 8.

Test small, 1.58 mm. in diameter and 0.5 m. thick, ratio of diameter to

thickness 3.16:1. Test much thicker at center than atperiphery. Surface

ornamented with raised suture lines. Test starts with poorly defined nucleo-

conch then makes about 3 very slowly increasing coils, the last coil containing

about 22 chambers. The septa are slightly curved convexly outward except

their outward ends where they are strongly bent backwards. The walls are

very heavy often being about 4 the height of the chambers in thickness and

the septa about 4+ the width of the chambers in thickness.

Cotypes.—Collection of Willard Berry No. O-9.

Occurrence.—Talara shale, 958 feet above base; northwestern Peru.

O. talara seems to bear a slight resemblence to O. vaughani Cushman,

described from the Ocala limestone and the Brito formation, in the number of

coils and the number of chambers in the last coil. Otherwise they differ

greatly. The new form is easily recognized by the extremely thick walls of

the chambers. }

Operculina samanica W. Berry n.sp.

Fig. 2.

Test medium, 2.34 mm. in diameter and 0.40 mm. thick, ratio of diameter to

thickness 5.68:1. Entire test about the same thickness. Surface smooth

except for slightly raised suture lines. Test starts with a poorly defined

nucleoconch, then makes about 34 gradually increasing coils, the last coil

containing 28 chambers. ‘The septa are curved convexly outward, the outer

end often curving a little more sharply than the rest.

Cotypes.—Collection of Willard Berry No. O-8.

Occurrence.—Talara shale, 958 feet above base; northwestern Peru.

O. samanica might be confused with O. peruviana W. Berry but it has a

greater number of chambers in the last coil and the septa are much less curved

and more regular.

ENTOMOLOGY.—New genera and species of leafhoppers related to

Seaphoideus.: E. D. BAuu, University of Arizona.

The writer in preparing a paper on the food plants, life histories

and larval characters of the species of Scaphoideus was impressed with

the fact that there were a number of groups included that were struc-

turally distinct and in a number of cases had quite distinct food habits

and ecological relationships. It appeared to be necessary, therefore,

to recognize these groups, describe some new species and discuss some

apparent synonomy before such a paper could be satisfactorily

prepared.

1 Received November 14, 1931.

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 1

Key TO THE GENERA OF NortH AMERICAN ForMS FORMERLY INCLUDED IN

THE GENUS SCAPHOIDEUS.

A. Ocelli small, close to the eyes—elytral nervures not minutely interrupted

with white.

B. Central anteapical cell strongly constricted and divided, two cross ner-

vures and usually a definite saddle-like marking. ...1. Sanctanus n. gen.

BB. Central anteapical not divided, a single cross nervure, except rarely in

Scaphoideus (sensus strict.), no definite saddle marking.

C. One to three supernumerary oblique veinlets to costa in the region

of the outer anteapical. The outer claval distant from the inner

margin of clavus, then bent suddenly at nearly a right angle on ap-

proaching the margin (an oblique dark mark often obscuring it and

making it appear to be reflexed), usually 2o0r3 lobate ivory areas along

- suture.

D. No reticulations along claval suture or costa (except as above),

outer anteapical cell oblique. Male plates terminating

CLG) gO) ghar pennant ra yA te tang ot nen 9 ght -...2. ScapHorpEus Uhl.

DD. Claval suture and costa heavily reticulate. Outer anteapical

cell parallel with costa. Male plates with filamentous append-

TY CNG So. ps oat seinen anc vey ence erate ze eae eae 3. Prescottia n. gen.

CC. No extra veinlets to costa in the region of the outer anteapical

cell which is parallel to costa. Claval veinlets normal. Male

plates with attenuate appendages......... 4. Osbornellus n. gen.

AA. Ocelli large, about equidistant from eyes and apex of vertex, outer

apical parallel with costa, nervures interrupted with minute white

POMS Ce Ae RISO ced, «= eee ee ee 5. Portanus n. gen.

Genus Sanctanus Ball n. gen.

Resembling Scaphoideus (sensus strict.) in the long antennae and in the

posterior bristles in groups, more nearly the shape of Aligia, especially in the

broader face and broader elytra. Strikingly distinct from either in the pres-

ence of the second cross nervure between the sectors, and the constricted and

divided central anteapical cell. The outer anteapical is usually narrow at

both ends and there is usually one or more reflexed veinlets to costa as well as

extra reticulations in some cells. The vertex is shorter or about equalling the

length of the pronotum, rounding or angular, the disc very slightly convex,

meeting the front in an acute angle. The front is broad above, narrowing

rapidly with straight sutures to the narrow clypeus, which is slightly wedge-

shaped and narrowing towards the apex rather than expanding as in Scaphozd-

eusand Aligia. Most species have a saddle patternof marking which obscures

the venation.

Type of the genus, Scaphoideus sanctus Say

This genus will include sanctus Say (= picturatus Osb.), fasciatus Osb.

(= neglectus Osb.), cruciatus Osb., orbiculatus Ball, Deltocephalus aestuarians

De L. & S., D. limicolus Osb., D. eburneus Del, D. fusconotatus Osb.,

and probably one or two others that have been described as species of Delto-

cephalus. They are, however, far removed from that group in habits, food-

plants and relationships. An examination of the types and long series shows

no character that will warrant separation of neglectus from fasczatus.

JAN. 4, 1932 BALL: NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF LEAFHOPPERS 11

Sanctanus orbiculatus Ball n. sp.

Resembling sanctus but smaller with a shorter vertex and narrower light

band. Reddish salmon with white markings and four black spots on vertex

margin. Length 2 5mm. o 4mm.

Vertex obtusely angled, broader than long, resembling fasciatus, the margin

rounding over at the ocelli and only becoming angled with the front at the

apex. Front and clypeus as in sanctus the front more inflated. Elytra very

long and slender and easily broken at apex. Venation of sanctus nearly, the

central anteapical constricted but only occasionally divided. Female seg-

ment with a slight median production. Male valve very broad, rounding;

plates long actuately triangular with the extremely long slightly curved black

styles appearing beyond.

Color. Reddish salmon above and below with black and white markings.

Vertex white with a short angular line under the apex and two spots above,

the ocelli in a pair of large spots and a still larger pair at the base, sometimes

wanting in the male. Pronotum and scutellum pale in the female, reddish

salmon in the male. Elytra pale salmon with a smoky cast in the female,

reddish salmon in the male. The scutellar margins broadly white in the fe-

male. A narrow white band across the bases of the anteapicals, the nervures

beyond it white with smoky margins, a narrow smoky apical band and a large

round eye-like black spot in the second apical cell.

Holotype @2 allotype o and twelve paratypes all taken by the writer at

Patagonia, Arizona, Sept. 7, 1929.

A strikingly distinct species by the salmon color and the eye spot.

Genus ScaPHoIpEus Uhl

To this genus as defined by its type zmmistus belong only those forms with

the outer anteapical cell oblique, the anterior “‘base’’ usually carrying a group

of about three oblique veinlets to the costa. The commissure usually has a

broad ivory white stripe that is divided into two or three lobes by oblique dark

lines. These lines occur near the apices of the claval nervures and have been

mistaken for the nervures themselves and thus the nervures have been de-

scribed as ‘‘strongly hooked.’ By use of transmitted light one discovers that

the outer claval nervures while at some distance from the margins are strongly

bent and approach the margin at nearly right angles regardless of the direction

of the dark markings.

There are a number of very closely related species in this group whose spe-

cific limits will not be accurately defined until their food plants have been de-

termined and good series of known origins are available for study. Wheresuch

series have been secured restricted variation has been found to be the rule and

constant characters can be defined.

The species may be roughly divided into three groups, as follows:

1. Face generally pale. There may be some irregular color besides the dark

lines above but the general ground color is pale. To this group belongs

productus Osb. (carinatus Osb. and magnus Osb.) apparently a single very

large and distinct species easily recognized by the vertex marking and broad

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. l

short male plates shown for magnus by Osborn; immistus Say (including var.

incisus Osb. which was never described) var. minor Osb. apparently a distinct

species, cyprius Ball, paludosus Ball, ochraceous Osb., intricatus Uhl and tri-

unatus Ball.

2. Face black or brown. There may be light areas in a few cases but the

general color is dark. ‘To this group belongs senszbilis Ball, nigricans Osb.,

inundatus Ball, melanotus Osb. (which appears to be a definite and constantly

marked species), obtusus Osb. and cinerosus Oshb., which appear to represent a

single gray form, and atlantus Ball.

3. Face uniformly tawny or reddish rather than dark. 'To this group belongs

opalinus Osb., littoralis Ball, and luteolus V. D., three species whose food habits

are definitely known. ‘The face color of opalinus was not described. It is

darker than that of the pronotum, pale brown with a fulvous or coppery

reflection.

Scaphoideus immistus var. titanus Ball n. var.

Form and structure of the species, calvus and adjacent corium dark brown

or black with the lobate areas and one or more pairs of ivory spots in sharp

contrast. Vertex ivory with a very narrow transverse band tawny, pronotum

and scutellum pale cinereus with only traces of light markings. Elytra very

dark except for the ivory marking, the apex with a broad smoky band. The

_ costal area and an area before the apical cells pale with the nervures broadly

smoky. Face and below pale, female with two black lines below vertex mar-

gin and traces of two dark areas on front; male with one brown line and

traces of another.

Holotype 2 Morgantown, West Virginia, August12. Allotype ~ Toronto,

Ontario, August 8, 1921, and one paratype male, Fairmont, West Virginia,

August 21, 1927.

This is either a striking color variety or a distinct species of which we should

know more.

Scaphoideus cyprius Ball n. sp.

Size and general form of zmmistus but with an almost uniformly coppery

shade slightly darker than in luteolus. Face pale. Length 9 5.5-6 mm., co’

omm.

Vertex about as in intricatus, right-angled or very slightly acute, shorter in

the male. Elytra as in zmmistus, the venation similar. Female segment

with the posterior margin rounding or slightly angularly produced and dark

marked. Male valve inconspicuous, plates together long, narrow, spoon-

shaped. Pygofers in both sexes with four tufts of black bristles.

Color. Pale coppery, vertex ivory, a narrow black line on anterior margin

and a rather narrow transverse tawny band. Pronotum and scutellum tawny

shading to coppery, a faint transverse ivory band just back of the eyes and a

definite yellowish ivory band back of the suture of the scutellum. Elytra

almost uniform coppery, the nervures scarcely darker except in the region of

the costal and anteapical cells, a narrow elongated lobate spot and two pairs of

irregular areas in the inner anteapical cells ivory, and the nodal cells milky.

Face and below creamy, the females with two and the males with one dark line

under the vertex margin. The males are paler than the females.

Holotype @ and two paratypes females August 7, 1897. Allotype @ and

two paratype females July 14, 1896, three paratypes July 20 and July 30, 1896

and August 9, 1895, all taken at Ames, Iowa by the writer.

JAN. 4, 1932 BALL: NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF LEAFHOPPERS 13

Examples of this species were mixed with those of znéricatus and it was only

when the following species was being compared that the mistake was

discovered.

Scaphoideus paludosus Ball n. sp.

Resembling cyprius in form and general coloring, broader with a broader

shorter head, tawny with ivory spots and lobate markings. Length 2 6mm.

o omm.

Vertex right-angled, length equalling its basal width, shorter than the

pronotum. LElytra proportionally broader than in cyprius with the venation

similar. The claval nervures approaching each other and sometimes united

by a cross nervure. Outer anteapical cell oblique but rarely stylate (as in

allotype). Three reflexed veinlets from its basal half. Female segment with

the posterior margin very slightly rounding and lacking the black band.

Male plates slightly shorter and broader at the apex than in cyprius.

Color. Tawny, slightly more orange than in luteolus, with a light creamy

face. Vertex ivory with a narrow tawny band that has a median point. Pro-

notum tawny with an indistinct ivory band behind the eyes. Scutellum pale

tawny with the apical third lighter, margined by two black dots. Elytra

tawny with rusty nervures before the apical cells, a narrow but definite

smoky band at the apex and a few dark dots. Two lobate areas along the

commissure and two or three pairs of ivory spots. Face and all below creamy

white, two narrow black lines below the vertex margin in both sexes.

Holotype 2 Sanford, Florida, July 20, 1927 (Ball). Allotype ~ Braden-

ton, Florida, June 11, 1928 (W. E. Stone), and two paratypes females Sanford,

July 10 and 29, 1926 (Ball & Stone) and one female Plant City, Florida, June

23, 1926 (Dr. Baer), all taken along the margins of deep swamps.

Scaphoideus triunatus Ball n. sp.

Size of magnus, nearly, but more slender, general appearance of sensibilis,

four broad transverse brown bands set off by five broad white ones on dorsum

of body. Length 9 6mm. o 5.25mm.

Vertex definitely acutely angular, more than half its length before the eyes,

equalling the pronotuminlength. Elytra narrowly appressed, giving a slender

appearance. Venation as in zmmistus, the outer anteapical cell oblique but

rarely pointed or stylate posteriorly, rarely more than two oblique nervures

to costa from its base. What appears to be a second cross nervure often pres-

ent. Female segment rounding and black-bordered posteriorly, male valve

as long as wide, acutely rounding. The plates together extremely long spoon-

shaped, the apices rounding and clothed with fine hairs.

Color. General color slightly tawny brown, males lighter. Vertex, prono-

tum, and scutellum ivory white with four broad transverse brown bands

as follows: one like a flying bird across the middle of vertex, a second covering

the anterior fourth of pronotum, an interrupted one dividing the remainder

of the pronotum, and a broader one occupying the basal half of the scutellum.

Elytra subhyaline with heavy rusty nervures, a black cloud at apex, asmoky

cloud across and behind the cross nervure and another surrounding the three

definite lobate ivory areas along the commissure. Face and below white, a

single black line below the vertex margin in the male, a pair in the female, as in

ochraceus.

14. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 1

Holotype @ allotype o and twelve paratypes taken by the writer July 17,

1929, at Granite Dells, Arizona.

Scaphoideus atlantus Ball n. sp.

Similar toimmistusinform and structure, larger. Size and general appear-

ance of auronitens. Dark copper with three pairs of black dots and no lobate

areas along commissure. Length o 5mm.

Vertex (in male) obtusely angulate, one-half longer than against eye, about

two-thirds the length of pronotum. Elytra long narrow appressed. Vena-

tion of the zmmistus type obscured by the coppery shade, no cross nervure on

clavus, the outer anteapical cell oblique but narrowing about equally at each

end with three reflexed nervures to costa from the basal half. Male valve ob-

tusely rounding, plates together twice as long as their basal width scarcely

narrowing before the abrupt, slightly oblique apices.

Color. Vertex ivory before the eyes with a definite black line on the

margin, a broad tawny band on the dise shading out posteriorly to leave a

creamy line at the base. Pronotum uniform dark coppery, scutellum a

little paler with two black dots at apex. Elytra of a uniform dark copper tint

with a broad apical band smoky, the nervures just before this rusty, the re-

mainder obscure, three pairs of black dots along the commissure. Face pale

brown with a coppery reflection, a black line under vertex margin bordered on

_ both sides with ivory, below this traces of one or two pale ares on the front.

Legs and below white, the venter dark.

Holotype o Glassboro, New Jersey, July 29, 1927.

This is so strikingly distinct in this group and so near like awronitens except

for the vertex markings and venation that it was thought best to describe it

from a single example in hopes that others might be found in collections and

lead to a food-plant record.

Scaphoideus sensibilis Ball n. sp.

A large black species resembling magnus in size and nigricans in color but

with more definite alternation of ivory and black. Length 2 6mm., 5mm.

Vertex right-angled the apex rounding, less pointed than in magnus with

a more definite notch in the posterior border. Pronotum as in immistus.

Elytra long, inclined to be appressed. Venation as in magnus but with the

central anteapical cell more constricted, the outer cell longer and narrower

with the two ends nearer alike. Female segment long, narrowing posteriorly,

the posterior margin angularly produced one-third the length of the segment,

the lateral margins of the produced portion concave, the apex obtusely tri-

angular, whole produced part shining black, the black extending half way

to the base on the median line. Male valve short and obtuse, plates together

long and narrow, nearly twice longer than wide, their apices individually

bluntly rounding and clothed with long silky hairs.

Color. Dark, the darkest species in the group. Vertex ivory, the usual

narrow submarginal black line in front, a transverse band across the middle

dark brown or black. This band is narrow at the anterior angle of the eye

and broadens to the middle, the posterior margin is rounding, the anterior

margin convex on each side of an acute median projection. ‘The whole is the

outline of a bird in flight, occupying less than one-third of the ivory disc.

JAN. 4, 1932 BALL: NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF LEAFHOPPERS 15

Pronotum black, a curved mark enters from each posterior angle, a broad

quadrangular transverse band just before the middle, a little longer than the

width of vertex, a narrow median light line. Scutellum with a large median

shield of ivory, slightly clouded with brown in front, a pair of large black spots

just inside the basal angles and a pair of points at apex. Elytra heavily

clouded with smoky brown and black emphasized on nervures and apex, omit-

ting two lobate median ivory spots and about four pairs along the claval su-

tures. A hyaline area along costa. Face black, the front smoky with one

broad ivory line below the vertex, two narrow light ones and a few partial

arcs below that. Legs and all below white except for the tarsal joints and the

apex of female segment.

Holotype 9 July 10, 1926, allotype & July 16, 1926, and 20 paratypes

taken at Sanford, Florida, from June 19 to July 16, 1926, by W. E. Stone, J. A.

Reeves and the writer.

Scaphoideus inundatus Ball n. sp.

Resembling zmmzstus, slightly smaller, darker, with a longer segment and a

smoky face. Length 9 5mm., o' 4.5mm.

Vertex, as in zmmistus, very slightly acutely angled, almost as long as pro-

notum. Elytralong,appressed. Venation asin zmmaistus, the claval nervures

approaching and often united by a cross nervure, outer anteapical cell oval,

smaller at the base than in zmmistus and only slightly or not at all stylated.

Female segment normal in length, posterior margin roundingly produced from

just inside the lateral angles into an obtuse projection that is broadly black-

marked. Male valve small obtuse, plates together elongated, broadly spoon-

shaped, much exceeded by the slender elongate pygofers.

Color. General color brown with a tawny cast, darker than zmmuistus or

melanotus but not as dark as sensibilis, nor with as definite light markings.

Vertex creamy back to the line of the eyes, then tawny brown shading out to

creamy at the base. Pronotum smoky brown with a faint quadrangular light

band before the middle. Scutellum tawny, the apex ivory with four black

dots on margin. Elytra slightly milky, subhyaline, heavily washed with

smoky brown on the nervures and in some of the cells. The lobate ivory

areas large with heavy black markings anterior to them, a broad smoky band

at apex. Face uniform pale brown, a broad ivory band margined by two

narrow black ones under the vertex margin and a few pale areas on front

below these. Legs white with the usual black annuli on tarsi.

Holotype @ allotype o and 4 paratypes taken with them June 9, 1928 and

ten paratypes taken from April 25 to July 31, by W. E. Stone and the writer

at Sanford, Florida.

This species is smaller than typical zmmistus but considerably larger than

minor. ‘The constant dark smoky face will at once separate it from these

species. From melanotus it is readily separated by the larger size, longer ver-

tex and lack of definite black on face.

Scaphoideus littoralis Ball n. sp.

Similar to opalinus in form but more tawny, not as tawny as luteolus and

more definitely marked. Length 2 5.5mm., o’ 4.75 mm.

Vertex about asin opalinus, slightly more acutely angulate, definitely longer

than in luteolus. Elytra slightly longer than in opalinus. Venation similar,

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 1

the outer anteapical cell longer and not as wide, narrowing posteriorly, often

pointed or stylate; central anteapical cell very broad near base, slightly nar-

rower in center than at apex. Female segment typical, the posterior margin

roundingly produced nearly one-third the length and shining black on the pro-

duced portion. Male valve triangular, plates elongate, their apices indi-

vidually rounding, both plates and valves clothed with fine hairs.

Color. Pale tawny with an opalescent shade on theelytra. Vertex creamy

with a tawny cast, the usual sub-marginal black line, a broad band behind the

middle, pale tawny. Pronotum pale tawny with an opalescent cast, traces

of a quadrangular band anterior to the middle. Scutellum tawny with a pair

of faint stripes, a pair of dots in the basal angles and a transverse band behind

the suture, ivory. Elytra tawny opalescent, an apical smoky band extending

to just before the cross nervures. ‘The nervures are mostly rusty brown and

there are two lobate ivory spots on the commissure and ivory spots on the cla-

valsutures asinopalinus. Face pale; slightly smoky in the female, with three

dark bands below the vertex margin; creamy with a single band in the male.

Legs and below white or pale, the disc of the abdomen and rings on the tarsi

dark. :

Holotype 2 allotype o and twelve paratypes taken at Woods Hole, Massa-

chusetts, by the writer, July 11, 1925.

Genus Prescottia Ball, n. gen.

Resembling Scaphoideus in the long antennae, the lobate commissure, and

the posterior angle of the outer claval nervure. Similar to Osbornellus in the

outer anteapical paralleling the costa. Related to Twiningia in the reticula-

tions along the costa and claval suture.

Head narrower than the pronotum, vertex angular, broad and flat or con-

cave with a sharp margin, forming an acute angle with the straight front.

Front slightly broader thanin Scaphoideus. Elytralongand appressed. Ven-

ation similar to Scaphoideus except that the outer anteapical is parallel with the

costa and has about five reflexed veinlets to costa and an equal number along

the costal area. The cells are more or less reticulate before the apical, es-

pecially emphasized along the claval suture but no definite second cross ner-

vure is apparent.

Type of the genus, Scaphoideus lobatus V.D.

Prescottia brickellia Ball n. sp.

Resembling lobata but much larger, darker with a broader head, a much

broader vertex with a definite black line beneath the acute margin. Length

OT mme, o Oso mm.

Vertex very slightly acutely angulate, as long as its basal width in the fe-

male, shorter in the male, the margin acute. Front broader than in lobata,

elytra with the same type of reticulate venation, usually a few more veinlets

to costa. Female segment about as in lobata, the posterior margin more pro-

duced and heavily black-marked. Male plates broadly rounding, then atten-

uately produced.

Color. Vertex creamy with a fulvous cast, traces of a line around the

anterior margin, a transverse band just back of the anterior margin of the

eyes, a shorter one half way between this and the apex. Pronotum and

scutellum creamy with a fulvous shade. Pronotum with heavy brown irrora-

tions, especially on the submargin. Scutellum with orange in the angles, a pair

JAN. 4, 1932 BALL: NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF LEAFHOPPERS 17

of spots on the disc and another pair at apex. Elytra with the scutellar mar-

gin and two lobate spots onthe commissureivory. The remainder heavily in-

scribed with brown, a smoky cloud on the apex. The scutellar margin is not

as broadly ivory as in lobata and the anterior lobate spot is elongate instead

of almost circular.

Holotype 2 allotype @ and fifteen paratypes taken by the writer at Gran-

ite Dell, Arizona, July 17, 1929.

Genus Osbornellus Ball, nov. gen.

Resembling Scaphoideus in size and form with the long antennae and nar-

row front but lacking the oblique anteapical cell, the extra veins to costa and

the claval veins are normal.

Head slightly narrower than the pronotum, enclosing the anterior third.

Vertex flat, angled in front and forming an acute angle with the narrow face.

Elytra long, the venation simple, regular, a single cross nervure. The claval

veins normal, not forming an exaggerated angle posteriorly, the outer anteapi-

cal cell parallel to costa. A single veinlet at or near each end, these together

with the apex of the third apical nervure broadened and reflexed to costa.

Female segment simple, the posterior margin straight or only slightly round-

ing. Male plates elongated into filamentous or plumose processes.

Type of the genus, Scaphoideus auronitens Prov.

To this genus auronitens Prov., ritanus Ball, consors Uhl., (= scalaris V.D.)

jucundus Uhl., cocanus Ball, albonotatus V.D. and unicolor Osb. of our fauna

have been referred and this seems to be the dominant group in the more trop-

ical regions.

Osbornellus ritanus Ball, nov. sp.

Resembling auronitens in size and general form but with a shorter vertex,

with the anterior line definitely concave on either side the apex, and no red

markings. Length 2 6mm., o15.75mm.

Vertex shorter than in auronitens, but the apex nearly as acute because the

side margins are definitely concave rather than straight or rounding as in that

species. The margin appears to be thicker but this is probably due to the

concavity of the lateral margins allowing the black line below the margin to

be visible from above. Elytra as in auronitens, the three reflexed nervures

to costa much broader, the anterior nervure arising at the base of the outer

anteapical or only slightly anterior to it instead of some distance along the

costal cell as is frequently the case in auronitens. Female segment slightly

produced, the pygofers with fine, almost downy hairs instead of bristles as in

auronitens. Male plates rather broad at base and black-lined, roundingly

narrowing to long filamentous white tips; pygofers black-tipped but lacking

the divergent black pencils of the former species.

Color of auronitens, slightly darker throughout, entirely lacking the red

markings and the second black band on vertex. The anterior band narrower,

curved or broken around the ocelli, concave before the apex allowing the band

below to appear, basal markings of vertex as in consors ending in a spot on the

suture before the middle. Pronotum pale brown with a pair of points on the

submargin. Three pairs of dark points on the commissure, a smoky band at

the apex of elytra, the costal veinlets and often a few areas in the discal cells

brown. Face pale smoky shading to light below, a single irregularly curved

black line below the vertex margin instead of a straight one as in auronitens.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 22, No. 1

Holotype 2 allotype o& and one paratype, Huachuca Mountains, June 15,

1930. Four paratypes from the same place, August 2, 1931. One from the

Chiricahua Mountains July 6, 1930 and two from the Santa Rita Mountains,

May 11, 1930 and June 30, 1929, all collected by the writer and all from high

elevations i in Arizona.

Osbornellus cocanus Ball, n. sp.

Resembling jyucundus but much smaller and narrower with a longer and

more acutely angled vertex. Rich fulvous with oval milky spots. Length

2 4.75mm., o' 4mm.

Vertex flat, right-angled, the apex a little rounding, as long as the pronotum,

a little longer than its basal width, while in jucundus it is definitely shorter.

Angle with face extremely acute, not more than two-thirds as wide as in

jucundus, the margin thick and set off by two definite black lines. Elytra

short, appressed, venation as in jucwndus, the anterior costal nervure arising

from the outer anteapical cell some distance from the base. Female segment

short and slightly rounding posteriorly. Male plates narrower than in

jucundus with thread-like appendages longer than the pygofers.

Color. Light yellow with ivory spots and tawny or red mottling. Vertex

with a white line on suture at apex bisecting the dark marginal line, an elon-

gate triangle on suture at base. Outside of these are two broad slightly oblique

red stripes slightly obscuredin thefemale. Pronotum irregularly washed with

tawny, scutellum tawny with seven white points. Elytra tawny shading to

subhyaline on the margin, the nervures definitely rusty, growing darker pos-

teriorly, a brown cloud in the apical cells. Face tawny.

Holotype 2 Cocoa May 5, 1926, allotype Sanford, May 1, 1927, and two

paratype males Sanford, May 12, 1926 and May 14, 1927. All taken in Flor-

ida by W. E. Stone and the writer.

This is a beautiful little species about half the size of gucundus.

Genus Portanus Ball, n. gen.

Resembling Scaphoideus in general form and appearance. Venation as in

Osbornellus. Strikingly distinct from either in the round white spots along

the nervures and the ocelli located in slight pits almost halfway from the eye

to the apex of vertex.

Head definitely narrower than the body, enclosing one-half the pronotum.

Vertex flat between the eyes, then rounding over and joining with the inflated

front in an obtusely pointed cone, with the large ocelli in pits above the margin

half way to the apex. Antennae elongate as in Scaphoideus, set in a deep pit

or groove formed by the inflated front. Front convex in both diameters,

nearly parallel margined until just before the apex. Elytra extremely long and

narrow. Venation regular, the cells long and narrow, the outer anteapical

extremely long, parallel with the costa, nervures to costa short straight.

Female segment short and truncate.

Type of the genus, Scaphozdeus stigmosus Uhl.

Uhler’s species was described from the West Indies. Examples of what is

apparently mexicanus Osb. from Guatemala have been compared with the

type of sfigmosus and are no doubt the same. S. longicornis Osb. from Boli-

via also belongs to this genus.

JAN. 4, 1932 RATHBUN: A NEW SPECIES OF CANCER 19

Genus TWININGIA Ball

The author has previously referred Scaphoideus blandus Ball, pellucidus

Ball (= irroratus Osb.) fumidus Ball and bicolor Ball to this genus and de-

scribed magnata and malvastra. ‘These forms are related to Mesamia rather

than to Scaphordeus.

PALEONTOLOGY —A new species of Cancer fram the Pliocene of the

Los Angeles basin.!|. Mary J. RatHBuN, National Museum.

From Prof. U. 8. Grant, University of California, Los Angeles,

has been received for report a species of Cancer unlike any hitherto

described.

Fig. 1. Cancer granti Rathbun, sp. nov. Anterior portion of carapace, X 13.

Cancer granti Rathbun, sp.nov.

igs

A portion of the anterior half of the carapace is exposed; surface thickly

covered with minute punctae; granules visible to the naked eye are loosely

scattered in groups on the protogastric, mesogastric, hepatic and epibranchial

regions; a tubercle behind inner angle of orbit; interregional grooves shallow;

anterior and antero-lateral margins bordered by elongate granules or blunt

spinules; lateral teeth upturned; the second tooth from the orbit is narrow,

little more than half as wide as the third tooth; fourth and fifth teeth sub-

equal, slightly narrower than third; the surface of the front between orbits

has 3 longitudinal furrows, the margin is obscure. Estimated width of

carapace 56.5 mm.

1 Received November 23, 1931.

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 1

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

To Dr. ANDREW Exuicorr Dove.ass, Director of Steward Observatory of

the University of Arizona, and to Dr. Ernst Antervs, of the University of

Stockholm, Sweden, were awarded on December 18, 1931, prizes of $2,500 given

by the Research Corporation of New York City through the Smithsonian

Institution. By studying the annual growth rings of trees in the Southwest,

Dr. Dovetass has established an unbroken chronology back to the beginning

of the eighth century, through which the dates of construction of prehistoric

pueblos in that region have been determined. Dr. ANTEvs has supplied

another record of weather in the past through a study of laminated clay

deposits known as varves, left in the wake of melting glaciers.

Obituary

SAMUEL WESLEY STRATTON, former Director of the National Bureau of

Standards and President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, died

at his home in Cambridge on October 18, 1931, shortly after dictating a tri-

bute to THomas A. Epison. Dr. Stratron was born at Litchfield, Ill., on

July 18, 1861. He received the degree of Bachelor of Science from the Uni-

versity of Illinois in 1884, Doctor of Engineering from the same University

in 1903, Doctor of Science from Western University of Pennsylvania in 1903,

Cambridge in 1908, Yale in 1919, Doctor of Laws from Harvard in 1923, and

Doctor of Philosophy from Rensselaer in 1924. From 1885-92 he served as

instructor in mathematics, associate professor and professor of physics and

electrical engineering at the University of Illinois. He was successively as-

sistant professor, associate professor and professor of physics at the University

of Chicago from 1892 to 1901. He became the director of the National

Bureau of Standards at its founding in 1901 and held this office until his volun-

tary retirement in 1923 to accept appointment as president of the Massa-

chusetts Institute of Technology. He later became president of the board of

the same institution.

Dr. STRATTON was a member of the American Physical Society, American

Association for the Advancement of Science, American Institute of Electrical

Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Philosophi-

cal Society, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council,

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, National Screw Thread Com-

mission, and the International Commission on Weights and Measures.

While resident in Washington, he was a member of the Washington Academy

of Sciences.

Dr. STRATTON was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1909, and

an Officer in 1928. He was awarded the Elliott Cresson medal of the Franklin

Institute in 1912 and the public welfare medal of the National Academy in

1917.

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JANUARY 19, 1932 No. 2

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Vou. 22 JANUARY 19, 1932 No. 2

CHEMISTRY .—The scientific work of Charles James.! B.S. Hopxins,

University of Illinois. (Communicated by R. C. WELLs.)

Usually the chemist regards work with the rare-earth group with

indifference, lack of interest, or even disdain. He is very apt to be-

lieve that the long-continued fractionations would exhaust his patience,

the enormously complex mixtures of similar substances would overtax

his ingenuity, the lack of efficient means of separation would dampen

his enthusiasm and the high cost of material as well as the necessary

wastefulness in its refinement would overpower his courage. Usually

in selecting a field to which he may devote his years of active and in-

tensive study, the chemist is of necessity restricted by the thought of

the probable usefulness of his results. The worker in the rare-earth

field is foredoomed to the knowledge that his results will be branded by

that scathing comment of the practical man: “It is of scientific inter-

est only.’ The deliberate selection of this field for one’s life work re-

quires a courage, resourcefulness, patience and thorough devotion to

scientific achievement which is possessed by few men. In Professor

James as in few men in our generation there were combined those ster-

ling qualities of character and mind which are essential to success in this

field. He was patient in his work, willing to retire from the busy

whirl of modern life to the quiet of his laboratory. He possessed a

remarkable ingenuity for devising new methods for work, his enthusi-

asm was contagious and he never lost sight of the fact that true scien-

tific progress comes not from lucky chance discoveries but as the result

of patient, painstaking effort. He inspired his students with a love

for chemistry and a devotion to truth; his vision extended far beyond

that of the practical mind for he realized that true progress is made by

advancing the scope of human knowledge. He saw that in the rare-

1 Reprinted, by permission, from The Nucleus (October, 1931), published by the

Northeastern Section of the American Chemical Society. Received November 6, 1931.

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 2

earth group there were involved many problems the solution of which

would go far toward unravelling much of the mystery of the Periodic

Table. He believed not only that the elements of the rare-earth group

held the key to a vast storehouse of scientific knowledge but also that

when their true relationship was understood they would find important

applications in our complex modern life. To him the rare earths were

not a theory but a problem, the solution of which was destined to con-

tribute materially to the comfort and welfare of the human race.

The outstanding contribution which Professor James has made in the

technical field of the rare-earth group is unquestionably his remarkable

ingenuity for devising new methods of separations. The methods

which were used by the early workers in this field were largely empirical

in their nature, extremely wasteful and with low efficiency. Many of

the methods now in use were suggested or developed by Professor

James. He studied the bromates more fully than any of his predeces-

sors and from this study he worked out a method which has been suc-

cessful in separating the members of the cerium group. Later this

same method has been applied to the study of the yttrium group with

the result that it has definitely contributed to the chemistry of these

elements. Another method for which we are indebted to Professor

James is that in which the separations are due to the fractional hydroly-

sis of the nitrites. This method has been used successfully in the sepa-

ration of the members of the yttrium group and it has been used

directly in the preparation of material used in determining the atomic

weights of yttrium, holmium, erbium, dysprosium, and other members

of the group. Probably the most widely used method of separating

the members of the rare-earth group into fractions from which the salts

of individual members may be obtained is the one which employs the

fractional crystallization of the double-magnesium rare-earth nitrates.

This is frequently referred to as the James method, because we are

indebted to him and his co-workers for this convenient and useful

process.

In addition to these well-known and widely-used methods he has

contributed many other processes which are available for specific pur-

poses. He found that ammonium sebacate was useful in removing the

alkali from the members of the yttrium group; he published the method

of removing cerium as the iodate and bromate; and he brought about

separations by the use of the carbonates, cacodylates, dimethylphos-

phates, cobalticyanides and many other salts. In pursuing his work

along such lines he studied the behavior of a large number of salts

many of which it may safely be claimed had never been prepared pre-

JAN. 19, 1932 HOPKINS: THE WORK OF CHARLES JAMES 23

viously. Among such compounds may be mentioned the pyromucates,

propionates, citrates, tungstates, m-nitrobenzoates, camphorates,

phenyloxyacetates, diphenylsulfonates, and the bromo-nitrobenzene-

sulfonates. He prepared a general scheme of separation for the entire

group and as he succeeded in making refinements from time to time,

this scheme was revised and improved.

Professor James recognized the desirability of introducing more exact

methods into rare-earth work and accordingly he devoted considerable

time to the adaptation of analytical procedures to this field. Realizing

the need of more accurate scientific information he determined the

solubilities of many of the rare-earth salts under various circumstances,

and his study of the solubility of the rare-earth bromates is the most

complete record in existence. These details have been of untold value

in promoting skillful rare-earth work. He has made extensive studies

upon the problem of the quantitative determination of the individual

members of the rare-earth group. ‘This is an extremely difficult task

because of the similarity of the members of this group, their close

resemblance to several of the neighboring elements and the marked

tendency of their precipitates to occlude various materials from solu-

tion. In spite of such handicaps successful methods were devised and

many have become standard practice where such work is required. We

are indebted to the James laboratory for methods for the quantitative

determination of yttrium, lanthanum, neodymium, and cerium; he

likewise pointed out some of the errors which were unavoidable in the

older methods.

Few problems in the whole field of chemistry require greater skill

and care in every minute detail than is needed in the determination of

atomic weights. Such work in the rare-earth group is doubly difficult

because of the tremendous task which is imposed by the difficulty in

preparing material of atomic weight purity. Professor James and his

coworkers were particularly successful in this field because of the skill

developed in handling rare-earth material. His determinations in-

clude the value of thultum, samarium, and yttrium. It is very signifi-

cant to observe that the values which he found are almost exactly those

which are now accepted by the International Committee.

When Professor James began his work upon the rare-earth group

there was much confusion concerning the number of elements which

should be included as well as in their relationship to one another.

Some of the elements were regarded as existing in a meta form and

thulium was said to consist of a mixture of thulium J, thulium II,

thuhum III. The James laboratory made a special and exhaustive

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 2

study of the behavior of thulium and finally succeeded in establishing

the fact that thulium is a definite chemical individual and that there

is no reason for believing it to be other than a single element. Much

confusion also prevailed concerning the elements of high atomic weight.

Professor James applied himself with his characteristic zeal to the study

of this portion of the group and it has been reported that in his labora-

tory he had succeeded in separating the compounds of lutecium before

the discovery of this element was reported from a European laboratory.

With his characteristic thoroughness he had waited for a confirmation

of his first results, so the honor of this discovery went elsewhere. Ina

closely similar situation Professor James had long been interested in

the presence of element No. 61, which had been predicted years before

the work of Moseley. Careful search through many years had failed

to reveal any indication of the presence of this element. But at last he

had succeeded in effecting a partial separation, but while his material

was being subjected to X-ray analysis at the University of Michigan

the announcement of this discovery of element No. 61 was made from

another laboratory. ‘This fact, however, must not be interpreted as

detracting from the credit due to Professor James, because his work in

that field was performed with the utmost care and it must stand as rep-

resenting the unusual skill and careful scientific precaution which so

thoroughly characterized his work.

It must not be assumed that Professor James had no interest outside

the rare-earth group. His interest extended to a study of many

related elements and in this work his rare-earth experience made his

investigations particularly valuable. He devised a new method of

separating thorium, a separation which is of much practical value be-

cause commercial thorium is separated from rare-earth ores. He also

was much interested in zirconium and its separation from the members

of the rare-earth group. His phenyl-arsonic acid method for the esti-

mation of zirconium and thorium mark a great step in advance in the

chemistry of these elements. Zirconium especially has long needed a

definite and conclusive method for its detection and estimation. The

new interest in zirconium which is reflected from hafnium and the fact

that we now have definite means for its quantitative determination

will undoubtedly lead to material advancement in the chemistry of this

much-neglected element. In addition, Professor James made out-

standing contributions to the chemistry of scandium, gallium, german-

ium, and beryllium.

In his later years Professor James had become interested in the rare-

earth and kindred metals. He prepared in his laboratory many of the

JAN. 19, 1932 PITTIER: SPECIES OF CESTRUM 25

metals and he was keenly interested in the possibilities of their com-

mercial utilization. His work upon uranium is outstanding in its

excellence and is typical of the work which he did. Although little has

been published concerning his work along these lines he has built a

permanent foundation upon which posterity may be expected to erect

a monument of achievement which will be a fitting tribute to his

memory.

Professor James was a prolific worker whose contributions to chem-

istry are both numerous and valuable. But no doubt the greatest

professional contribution of his life was his quiet and kindly influence

over the lives of his students. A list of publications reveals the fact

that he has been instrumental in the training of many chemists whose

names stand high in chemical circles. ‘To train such men is to make

a contribution whose influence is eternal.

BOTAN Y.—Studtes in Solanaceae.—I. The species of Cestrum collected

in Venezuela up to 1930.1. H. Pirrier, Caracas, Venezuela.

A few years ago I had undertaken the study of the Solanaceae of

my Venezuelan collection, but, having been given the hope that the

eminent monographer Dr. Bitter would soon revise the whole family,

with inclusion of our materials and in a far more authoritative way,

I gave up the matter. Dr. Bitter named and described several

Solana and a few species belonging to other genera, exclusive of

Cestrum. Now that death has unfortunately brought to an untimely

end the work of the able German scientist, | have taken up again the

examination of the Venezuelan species of the latter group, with the

results given in continuation.

It will be seen that 8 species, that is to say, over one-third of

the total number reported, could not be identified with any pre-

viously known and had to be described as new. Of these only two,

Cestrum Diasae and C’. amplum, proceed from the cold upper belt of

the Andes and constitute interesting additions to the group of small,

stiff-leaved species which includes besides C. melanochloranthum, C.

Lindemi and C. Miersianum, all belonging to our flora and also charac-

terized by their more or less violaceous flowers. Four more species,

C. dubtum, C. calycosum, C. caloneurum, and C. bigibbosum were

collected in the cloud-forests of Galipan and Colonia Tovar, in the

Coastal Range, where conditions seem to greatly favor endemism.

Finally, of the two remaining species one, C’. grande, which reaches the

1 Received November 15, 1931.

“el

yee

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 2

dimensions of a real tree, belongs to the terra caliente and to the

littoral belt, while the other, C. meridanum, grows in the hills of the

tierra templada of Mérida. Far as | am from sources and materials

for comparison, I am aware that some of the proposed new speciesmay

possibly have been described in recent times.

One species (Pittver 5797) collected at Maracay (Aragua) in 1913

and of which there is a specimen in the U. 8. National Herbarium but

none in our collection, was identified as Cestrum nocturnum L. This

is certainly wrong, since that species appears to be essentially West

Indian and Central American. Of the older species, I have collected

only C. diurnum (in gardens), C. alternifolium, C. melanochloranthum,

C. salicifolium, C. paniculatum, C. Moritzi, and C. Miersianum. C.

macrophyllum has been reported from the Lower Orinoco by Rusby

and Squires. C. tinctorium, C. potaliaefolium, C. tenuiflorum, C.

laxiflorum and C. Lindeni are known only from the type collections.

It is likely, since so small a part of Venezuela has been covered as

yet and there are strong indications of the existence of a certain degree

of endemism, that many more species remain to be discovered. From

Trinidad C. megalophyllum, C. latifolium (= C. chloranthum) and C.

subtriflorum, all first described by Dunal, have been reported, some of

which may be found on the neighboring coast of Tierra Firme. Mean-

while, the twenty-two species known to this date are grouped according

to their characters in the following key:

Filamenta laevia

Flores in apicibus ramulorum vel in axillis foliorum congesti

Folia 2.5 em. fere semper breviora, glabra; flores violacei, 1.5-1.9 cm.

longi—Crescit in Andinum frigidis C. melanochloranthum

Folia 3 em. longa vel longiora—In ealidis

Corolla nivea, 9-11 mm. longa, lobulis suborbicularibus, glabris, re-

volutis; antherae violaceae; stigma manifeste exsertum; folia glaber-

rima—Culta C. dvurnum

Corolla flavo-virescens vel purpurascens, 1.5-2.5 cm. longa, lobulis

linearibus, marginibus intraflexis pubescentibus; antherae flavae;

stigma inclusum; folia plus minusve pubescenti C. alternifolium

Flores in racemis simplicibus, paucifloribus, axillaribus terminalibusve

dispositi

Corollae tubus plus minusve cylindricus, basi 1 mm. lata vel latior,

apice versus plus minusve ampliatus

Venae primariae 6-12

Folia ovalia, subtus stellato-tomentosa, 4.5 em. longa vel breviora;

corollae tubus 10 mm. longus C. Diasae

JAN. 19, 19382 PITTIER: SPECIES OF CESTRUM 27

Folia utrinque glabra

Flores 1.4 em. longi vel breviores; folia usque ad 8 em. longa,

2.6 cm. lata C. tinctorium

Flores 1.5 em. longi vel longiores; folia 8 em. plerumque longiora

Corollae tubus 15-16 mm. longus; folia membranacea, obovato-

lanceolata, 18-25 em. longa, 6-9 em. lata C. potaliaefoliwm

Corollae tubus 12-13 mm. longus; folia coriacea, oblongo-

elliptica, 8-13 cm. longa, 3-4 em. lata C. dubsum

Venae primariae 16-20; folia glabra

Folia lanceolata, 9-13 cm. longa, 1-2.5 em. lata; inflorescentia

glabra; flores 2.5 em. longi C. salicifolium

Folia 4 cm. lata vel latiora; inflorescentia plus minusve cano-

furfurescens; flores pro genere brevi crassique

Calyx 10 mm. longus; corolla 1.5-2 cm. longa; folia coriacea,

elliptico-lanceolata C. caloneurum

Calyx 11.5-12.5 mm. longus; corolla 2.2 em. longa; folia mem-

branacea; ovato-lanceolata C. calycosum

Corollae tubus filiformis, basi quam 1 mm. diameter angustior

Venae primariae 18-19; calyx brevissimus, 3-4 mm. longus; folia

membranacea, glaberrima, ovato-lanceolata, basi rotundata apice

versus sensim attenuata C. grande

Venae primariae 6-9

Caules volubiles vel scandentes

Inflorescentiae terminales et axillares, anguste paniculatis; corolla

2.7 cm. longa; petioli recti C. paniculatum

Inflorescentiae plerumque axillares, racemosae, latae, laxae;

corolla 3.8 ecm. longa; petioli basi uncinato-incurvi C. terminale

Caules plus minusve erecti, suffrutescentes vel lignosi

Folia ovato-acuminata, 10-11 em. longa, nervis subtus plus

minusve tomentosis; flores 1.9-2.1 cm. iongi, in spicis axillaribus

dispositi C. tenuiflorum

Folia ovato-elliptica, 7.5-9.5 em. longa, glabra glabrescentes;

flores 2.3-2.8 em. longi, in paniculis terminalibus dispositi

C. laxiflorum

Filamenta circa basi partis liberae plus minusve glandulosa, dentulata vel

geniculata

Flores in racemis axillaribus, 3-6.5 em. longis dispositi; folia 11.5-2 em.

longa, subtus stellato-lanuginosa; corolla subglabra, 1.0-1.5 em. longa

C. Moritzi

Flores paniculati

Staminum filamenta infra emersionem sua dentato-appendiculata;

panicula amplia, floribunda C. nocturnum

Staminum filamenta supra emersionem sua glandulosa, dentata vel

geniculata

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 2

Panicula simplex, spiciformis et pauciflora; filamenta supra basin

bigibbosa; folia magna, lanceolata, glabra, 15-28 em. longa

C. bigibbosum

Panicula plus minusve composita; folia mediocria vel parva; glandula

basalis filamentorum singula vel obsoleta

Rami paniculae folia subaequantes; flores numerosissimi, violacei;

folia coriacea, glabra C. amplum

Rami paniculae folia multo breviora

Folia 10 cm. longa vel longiores, glabra

Calyx 2.6 mm. longus; corollae plus minusve flavescens 8-15 mm.

longa; folia ovato-oblonga C. macrophyllum

Calyx 3.7-4.5 mm. longus; corolla violacea, 17 mm. longa;

folia oblongo-lanceolata C. Lindeni

Folia 9 em. longa vel breviora, ovales, stellato-villosis

Flores tenui, pedicellati, viridi-flavescentes, 1.5-1.7 em. longi

C. meridanum

Flores crassi, sessiles, flavo-violaceis, 2 cm. longi

C. Miersianum

CESTRUM MELANOCHLORANTHUM Dunal in DC. Prodr. 13!: 622. 1852.

(Deser. emend. )

Arbuscula e basi ramosa, ramis virgatis, cortice rimosulo, sordide griseo,

minutissime puberulo tectis, ramulis tenuibus apice versus angulosis parce

pilosulis, pilis rufo-brunneis interdum glandulosis; foliis parvis, coriaceis,

utrinque glabris, breviter petiolatis, petiolo plano plus minusve rufo-brunneo,

laminis oblongo-ellipticis basi cuneato-attenuatis in petiolum decurrentibus

apice obtusiusculis, supra obscure viridis subtus pallidioribus venis primariis

plerumque 5-7 costaque prominulis; pseudo-stipulis parvis, foliaceis, ovato-

oblongis, obtusis, deciduis; floribus axillaribus subsessilibus in apicibus

ramorum subcongestis; bracteis minutis, linearibus, minute pilosulis, de-

ciduis; pedicellis brevissimis vel nullis, rufopilosulis; calyce tubuloso-cupulato,

striato, 5-nervio, atro-viridi, apice plus minusve spuberulo, sinubus ampliis,

dentibus inaequantibus; corolla infundibuliformi, atro-purpuea, tubo e basi

ad apicem sensim ampliato, striato, glabro, lobulis ovato-ellipticis, extus vix

minutissime puberulis floccosisve, intus marginibusque introflexis fulvis

pubescentibus; filamentis glabris, edentulis, fere usque ad medium adnatis,

supra basin leviter inflatis; antheris luteis, orbiculari-ellipticis; stylo filiformi,

glabro; stigmate capitato, globoso; bacca ovoidea, violacea.

Arbuscula 1-1.2 metralis. Petioli 1-3.5 mm. longi; laminae 1-3 cm.

longae, 0.5-1.8 cm. latae, Stipulae 0.5-1 cm. longae. Bracteae 2-4 mm.

longae. Flores 1.5-1.9 cm. longi. Pedicelli 0-0.3 mm. longi. Calyx 2-4

mm. longus, ore 2 mm. diam. Corolla 1.3-1.7 cm. longa, lobulis 3.5-3.7

mm. longis. Staminum pars libera circa 8mm. longa. Stylus 1.4 cm. longus.

Bacca 6 mm. longa, 4.8 mm. diam.

Meriva: Near El Portachuelo de Mucuchies (Funck & Schlim 1264 in

herb. D.C., type); Paramo de El Molino, 3000 m.; flowers January 22, 1922

(A. Jahn 923); San Rafael de Mucuchies, 3150 m.; flowers January 21, 1922

(A. Jahn 811); same locality, in low bushes along river; flowers February 6,

1928 (Pittier 12911); same locality, along Quebrada de Saysay; flowers

JAN. 19, 1932 PITTIER: SPECIES OF CESTRUM 29

June 25, 1930 (Gehriger 40), Mucuruba, 2700-3000 m.; flowers and fruits

June 25, 1930 (Gehriger 255).

Notwithstanding small discrepancies, as in the dimensions of the several

parts, the number of primary veins, etc., I think that the specimens examined

by me are conspecific with the plant of Funck & Schlim.

CESTRUM DIURNUM L. Sp. Pl. 1: 191. 1758.

This fine species, which seems to be indigenous in some of the West Indian

Islands, is known in Venezuela only as an ornamental, under the name of

Dama de noche (Lady of night), a mistaken denomination since the sweet-

scented flowers are permanently perfumed, though perhaps less during the

day. The plant is distinguished from all its Venezuelan congeners by its

pure white corollas and the exserted stigmas.

CESTRUM ALTERNIFOLIUM (Jacq.) O. E. Schulz in Urban, Symb. Antill.

6: 270. 1909-1910.

Cestrum vespertinum L. Mant. 2: 206. 1771.

We have in the Venezuelan herbarium no less than five distinct collections

proceeding from several districts of the warm and temperate belts, which

evidently should be included under this name. But, though very much

alike in their appearance, the shape and indumentation of the leaves, etc.

they show the greatest disparity in the dimensions of the several parts of the

flowers. We give here the extreme results of the dissections made:

Calyx 2.6-4.5 mm. Corolla 15.5-30.5 mm., the lobules 4-6.5 mm. long.

Stamens 14-23 mm.., the free part of the filaments 0.5-2.3 mm.

As these lengths are in no way correlative, there is hardly a possibility of

establishing on them well defined varieties. The collections of Saer nos. 15

and 184 may correspond to the var. pendulinum (Jacq.) O. E. Schulz, while

this last author attributes the specimens collected by Johnston at El Valle,

Margarita Island, to his var. mitanthum.

Cestrum Diasae Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbuscula e basi multiramea, ramis virgatis, teretibus, ramulisque brevibus

villoso-tomentosis sparsissime glandulosis; foliis parvis coriaceis breviter

petiolatis, petiolo marginato marginibus tomentosis, laminis ovalibus basi

cuneatis in petiolo decurrentibus apice subobtusis subacutisve supra lucidis

solute viridis plus minusve asperulo-villosulis venis primariis plerumque

7 impressis, subtus pallidioribus stellulato-tomentosis costa venisque promi-

nentibus; pseudo-stipulis foliaceis, parvis; inflorescentia ramosa, floribunda;

floribus in axillis spicatis, parvis, sessilibus vel breviter pedicellatis; bracteis

parvis, obovato-oblongis, villosis, caducis; calyce infundibuliformi, 5-nerve,

extus glanduloso-villoso, dentibus brevibus triangularibus apice subacutis

penicillatis; corolla brevi, tubo infunibuliformi, extus glabro violaceo-

flavescente, lobulis ovalibus imbricatis, extus atro-violaceis minutissime

pubescentibus, marginibus introflexis, pallidioribus, minute tomentosis;

staminibus tubo ad medio adnatis, filamentis laevibus, antheris ovato-

cordatis, obtusis, glabris; ovario glabro, stylo laevi, stigmate, capitellato.

a em a mmm mm ee ee =

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 2

Arbuscula ecirea 1 m. alta. Petiolus 4-7 mm. longus; lamina 3.5-4.5 em.

longa, plus minusve 2 em. lata. Pseudo-stipulae cum petiolo 1-1.5 mm.

longo, circa 1 em. longae, 0.5 cm. latae. Ramuli floriferi 3.5-10 em. longi.

Flores 12.2 mm. longi. Calyx 4-5 mm. longus, dentibus 0.5—0.8 mm. longis.

Corollae tubus 9.9 mm. longus, lobuli 2.3 mm. longi.. Staminum pars libera

plus minusve 5 mm. longa. Pistillum circa 1 cm. longum.

Meriva: Misint’ above Mucuchies (8500 m.) on dry slopes; flowers

Feb. 5, 1928 (Pittzer 12919, type).

This species does not seem to have close affinities with any of those reported

from the upper belt of the Andes. I have named it in honor of my diligent

assistant, Miss Margot Dias, who has cleverly prepared all the dissections

related to the Venezuelan species of Cestrwm in our herbarium.

CESTRUM TINCTORIUM Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. 3: 45, ¢. 332. 1798.

The type of this species, which we have not seen, is from Caracas, where it

was collected either by Jacquin himself or by Bredemeyer. Schulz con-

siders it as a simple variety of C. diurnum, identical with his var. venenatum

(Mill.). The characters given for the corolla in the original description,

however, do not seem to favor this view. Besides, since C. diurnum does

_ not exist in wild condition in Venezuela, it is unlikely that one of its varieties

could have been collected near Caracas.

CESTRUM POTALIAEFOLIUM Dunal in DC. Prodr. 13': 638. 1852.

Collected somewhere in the Andes by Moritz (no. 824, type), this im-

perfectly known shrub does not seem to have been seen again. The quotation

Colombia, in the Prodromus, is inaccurate, Moritz not having reached that

country in his travels.

Cestrum dubium Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbor parva (EK. Pittier), ramis flexuosis, glabris, parte defoliata cicatri-

culis foliorum delapsorum dense obtecta, juveniis angulosis, irregulariter

suleatis; foliis coriaceis, petiolatis, exstipulatis, glaberrimis, petiolo canali-

culato, laminis oblongo-ellipticis, basi cuneatis, apice acutis, supra obscure

viridis, costa venisque primariis 9-12 impressis, subtus pallidioribus, costa

venisque prominentibus; inflorescentia terminali, pauciflora, spicis subcicin-

natis; floribus purpureis, ebracteatis, pedicellatis, interdum (terminalibus)

sessilibus; calyce tubuloso, tubo striato, glabro, dentibus irregularibus,

triangularibus, apice puberulis; corolla infundibuliformi, glaberrima, lobulis

oblongis, apice obtusiusculis, marginibus introflexis; staminibus ad medium

tubo adnatis; filamentis laevibus, basi leviter incrassati; ovario styloque

glabro.

Petioli 0.6-1 em. longi; laminae 8-13 cm. longae, 2.8-4.1 cm. latae. In-

florescentia 7 em. longa. Flores circa 18 mm. longi. Pedicelli 0-5 mm.

longi. Calyx circa 5 mm. longus. Corolla circa 17 mm. longa, lobulis 5-6

mm. longis.

FEDERAL District: Forests around Los Venados de Galipan, 1500-1800

m., above Caracas; flowers Oct. 25, 1921 (Emilio H. Pittier 166, type).

The only specimen at hand is very deficient and had a single complete

JAN. 19, 1932 PITTIER: SPECIES OF CESTRUM ol

flower. It evidently should be placed near C. potaliaefolsum from which it

is distinguished by the smaller, coriaceous leaves and the larger flowers.

CESTRUM SALICIFOLIUM Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. 3: 42, ¢. 326. 1798.

Type from the vicinity of Caracas, where it was collected again by Hum-

boldt and Bonpland. Our single specimen is from the State Miranda, where

Allart found it at Quebrada de las Comadres, near Las Mostazas, 1100 m.,

at the headwaters of the Guayas River. In the main, our plant agrees with

the descriptions.

Cestrum caloneurum Pittier sp. nov.

Arbor parva, ramis ramulisque virgatis, apice plus minusve pulverulento-

pubescentibus; foliis coriaceis, glaberrimis, petiolatis, pseudo-stipulis munitis;

petiolo pro genere longo, canaliculato, costaque nigrescente; laminis elliptico-

lanceolatis, basi longe cuneatis, apice sensim acuminatis acutissimis, supra

nigrescentibus costa impressa venis primariis circa 20 venulisque prominulis,

subtus pallidioribus costa venisque prominentibus venulis prominulis;

marginibus minute revolutis; pseudo-stipulis faleatis, glabris, persistentbus;

floribus pedicellatis, bracteolatis, in panicula composita dispositis; cincinnis

axillaribus, paucifloribus, rhachi dense cano-tomentello; pedicellis brevibus,

interdum subnullis; bracteolis subulatis, caducis; calyce tubuloso-cupulato,

tubo basi cano-puberulo, dentibus parvis, irregularibus, acutis, intus fulvo-

pubescentibus, marginibus ciliatis; corolla virescente, tubo infundibuliformi,

glabro, lobulis ovato-lanceolatis, obtusiusculis, marginibus introflexis, parce

tomentellis; staminibus ad 1/2 tubo adnatis, filamentis basi leviter in-

crassata, interdum parcissime minutissimeque pilosulis; antheris subglobosis;

stylo glabro, stigmate discoideo.

Arbor 2-4 m. alta. Petioli 1.2-2.5 em. longi; laminae 7.5-18 cm. longae,

3-6 cm. latae. Pseudo-stipulae 0.5-1.2 em. longae. Panicula ad 15 cm.

longa; cincinni 2.5-7 cm. longi. Flores circa 2.2 em. longi. Pedicelli 0-3

mm. longi. Calyx 10 mm. longus. Corollae tubus circa 1.7 mm. longus;

pepe 3.0 mm. longi. Filamenta 6.5-7 mm. longa. Stylus circa 13.5 mm.

ongus.

ARAGUA: Colonia Tovar, 1800-1900 m., in cloud-forests; flowers December

28, 1921 (Pitter 10045, type).

This species forms with Cestruwm calycosum a group characterized by the

larger dimensions of the calyx as compared with the corolla. Also both are

small trees, inhabiting the high forests of the coastal range of Venezuela.

But they differ entirely in the size, shape and consistence of the leaves which,

besides, are exstipulate in C. calycosum and provided with characteristic

pseudo-stipules in C. caloneurum.

Cestrum calycosum Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbor parva ramis ramulisque flexuosis, glabris, lentiginosis; foliis magnis,

glabris, membranaceis, longe petiolatis, exstipulatis, petiolis canaliculatis,

laminis oblongo-ellipticis, utrinque attenuatis, basi cuneatis, apice acutissime

breviterque acuminatis, supra laete viridibus, subtus parum pallidioribus,

costa venisque primariis circa 18 tenuibus prominentibus; inflorescentia

terminali, pauciflora, rhachi tomentello-puberulo; floribus sessilibus pedi-

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 2

cellatisve, bracteolatis, bracteolis lineari-subulatis brevibus, caducissimis;

calyce tubuloso, irregulariter 4-5 dentato, extus parce tomentello-puberulo,

intus minutissime pubescenti; corolla ampla, tubo glabro, lobulis erectis,

oblongo-obtusis, marginibus introflexis; tomentellis; staminibus ad 1/2 tubo

adnatis, filamentis laevibus, basi minutissime pilosulis, antheris orbicularibus;

ovario ad apicem minutissime puberulo, stylo glabro, stigmate discoideo,

atro-purpureo.

Arbor 2-3-metralis. Petiolus 2-3 cm. longus; laminae 13-22 cm. longae,

5.5-8 cm. latae. Pedicelli 0-12 mm. longi. Bracteolae 1-2 mm. longae.

Calyx 11.5-12.5 mm. longus, 2.5-3.5 mm. diam. Corolla circa 22 mm. longa,

lobulis 4-5 mm. longis. Filamentorum pars libera circa 6 mm. longa.

Stylus circa 13 mm. longus.

Aracua: Colonia Tovar, 1800-2000 m., in cloud-forests; flowers December,

1924 (Allart 480, type).

Cestrum grande |Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbor pro genere elata, ramulis tenuibus, glabratis, purpurascentibus;

foliis membranaceis, glaberrimis, petiolatis, exstipulatis, petiolo tenui, in

sicco nigrescenti, laminis ovato-lanceolatis basi rotundatis, saepe inaequali-

bus, apicem versus sensim attenuato-acutatissimis, supra solute viridis costa

venisque primariis 18-19 impressis, subtus vix pallidioribus costa venisque

prominentibus, venulis tenuibius reticulatis; floribus pedicellatis, albo-vires-

centibus, tenuibus, in cymis axillaribus 2-8-floribus saepe geminatis dis-

positis, rhachi gracili pedicellisque cano-pubescentibus; pedicellis filiformibus,

calyce longioribus; bracteolis subulatis, calyce longioribus, pilosulis, cadu-

cissimis; calyce tubuloso apicem versus leviter ampliato, glabrescente; corolla

parva, tubo tenui apicem versus parum ampliato, glabro, lobulis oblongis

obtusiusculis, marginibus leviter introflexis, tomentellis; staminibus usque ad

tubi apicem adnatis, filamentorum parte libera laevi, glabra; antheris globo-

sis; pistillo glabro; stigmate clavato; bacca globosa, glabra, calyce accres-

cente, cupulato, profunde lobulato suffulta; bacca immatura parva, globosa,

calyce persistente suffulta.

Arbor 3-8-metralis. Petioli 0.8-1.1 em. longi; laminae 13-15 cm. longae,

3.5-4.5 em. latae. Cymae 2-2.5 em. longae. Pedicelli 3-4 mm. longae.

Bracteolae 2-4 mm. longae. Flores circa 1.5 cm. longi. Calyx 3-4 mm.

longus. Corollae tubus 9-10 mm. longus; lobuli 0.3 mm. logi. Staminum

filamenta circa 3 mm. longa. Pistillum 12 mm. longum. Bacca 4-5 mm.

diam.

FrepEeRAL District: Curucuti, 400 m., on old road from Caracas to La

Guaira, in low, cool forest; flowers and fruits June 22, 1922 (Pzttier 10393).

This species is distinguished from all the Venezuelan ones known to date,

by its leaves, broadly rounded at the base and beautifully lanceate, its very

small flowers and the globose berries.

CESTRUM PANICULATUM H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 62. 1818.

The type was collected in the vicinity of Caracas by Humboldt & Bonp-

land. We assume that Saer no. 162, obtained from Macuto near Bar-

quisimeto, State Lara, belongs to this species. It differs from the following,

C. terminale, in the shape, consistence and size of the leaves, which are also

closer and with straight petioles, in the inflorescences, lax and broad rather

than elongated, with a distinct arrangement of the much longer flowers.

JAN. 19, 1932 PITTIER: SPECIES OF CESTRUM. 33

Cestrum terminale (Dunal) Pittier

C. scandens var. terminale Dunal in DC. Prodr. 131: 665. 1852.

Scandente, sarmentosum, subvolubile, ramis ramulisque glabris; foliis

membranaceis, petiolatis, glabris, petiolo crasso, canaliculato, basi uncinato,

incurvato, laminis ovalibus ovato-oblongisve, basi rotundatis interdum

leviter emarginatis in petiolo attenuatis, supra solute viridis costa impressa

venis primariis 6-7 prominulis, subtus pallidioribus, obscure reticulatis

costa prominente, venis primariis prominulis; racemis axillaribus foliis

brevioribus, terminalibus multo longioribus, saepe depauperatis, foliosis,

rhachi gracili plus minusve puberulo; floribus pedicellatis; pedicellis filiformi-

bus apice bracteolatis; bracteolis lineari-lanceolatis, puberulis, caducissimis;

calyce campanulato, 5-nervo, dentibus parvis, acutis, puberulis; corolla albo-

virescente extus glabra, tubo filiforme, apice ampliato, lobulis lanceolato-

acutis, marginibus introflexis, puberulis; filamentorum parte libera brevissima,

laevia, antheris ovoideis; ovario glabro, subgloboso, stylo filiformi, stigmate

obtuso, apice papilloso, albido; bacca elliptica, obtusa, calyce persistente

suffulta.

Petiolus 4-6.5 mm. longus; laminae 4-12.5 cm. longae, 3.5-7 cm. latae.

Racemi axillares 5-12 em., terminales usque ad 20 em. longi. Pedicelli

3-8.5 mm. longi. Bracteolae 2-5 mm. longae. Calyx circa 4 mm. longus.

Corolla 2-2.8 mm. longa, tubo 1.5-2.1 mm. longo, lobulis 5.5-6 mm. longis.

Filamenta 0.5-0.7 mm. longa. Stylus 1.5-2 cm. longus. Bacca 7.5-8.5 mm.

longa, 4-5 mm. diam.

Type from Santa Marta, Colombia, collected by Bertero (in herb. DC.).

FEDERAL District: Hacienda Panarigua, near sea-level, at the entrance

of the valley of Puerto La Cruz; flowers Feb. 11, 1921 (Pittzer 9200).

Identified at first as the typical C. scandens Vahl, but a subsequent, more

careful examination showed that our plant agreed better with the description

of the var. terminale of Dunal, which is so different from the type in the shape

and size of the leaves, the arrangement and dimensions of the flowers, etc.,

that we think it is preferable to consider it as a distinct species.

CESTRUM TENUIFLORUM H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3:61. 1818.

Type collected on the slopes of Mount Duida, near Esmeralda in:the upper

Orinoco Valley, by Humboldt and Bonpland. O. E. Schulz considers it as a

mere variety of C. latifolcum Lam.

CESTRUM LAXIFLORUM Dunal in DC. Prodr. 131: 665. 1852.

Cited by Dunal as proceeding from Colombia, this species, the type (Moritz

212) of which is in the DeCandolle Herbarium, is most probably from the

Venezuelan Andes, since the collector’s explorations west of Caracas do not

seem to have gone beyond the States of Mérida and Trujillo.

Crstrum Morirzit Dunal in DC. Prodr. 13!: 619. 1852. (Descr. emend.)

Arbuscula ramosa, ramis virgatis lanuginoso-tomentosis, foliis magnis,

pseudo-stipulatis, membranaceis, petiolo tereto, sulcato, lanuginoso, laminis

ovalibus, basi acutis apice breviter acuminatis, acutis obtusisve, supra

saturate virididis costa venisque primariis circa 12 plus minusve lanuginosis

demum glabratis, subtus pallidioribus costa venisque lanuginosis, demum

pilis furcatis stellulatisque plus minusve conspersis, marginibus minute revo-

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 2

lutis; pseudo-stipulis foliaceis, parvis; racemis axillaribus, sessilibus peduncu-

latisve, petiolis duplo-quintuplove longioribus rhachi lanuginoso; floribus

sessilibus, glomeratis, congestis, stipulis parvis obovato-linearibus caducis

suffultis; calyce poculiformi, striato, stellulato-languinoso, dentibus parvis

acutis inaequalibus; corolla albida, tubo infundibuliformi, striato, glabro, in

sicco sordide flavescente, lobulis ovalibus, apice subobtusis, in sicco fusco-

badiis, marginibus introflexis tomentosinusculis; filamentis usque ad medium

tubo adnatis, parte libera supra basin geniculato-tumida, basi plus minusve

villosula; antheris ovato-rotundatis minutissime puberulis; ovario obovoideo,

glabro; stylo glabro, filiforme; stigmate discoideo.

Arbuscula circa 1 m. alta. Petioli 1.2-1.5 em. longi; laminae 11.5-22 cm.

longae, 3-10 cm. latae. Pseudo-stipulae 1-1.5 em. longae. Racemi 3-6.5

em. longi. Flores 13-15 mm. longi. Bracteolae 1-3.5 mm. longae. Calyx

3.0-5.5 mm. longus. Corolla 10.6-14.8 mm. longa, lobulis 1.6-2.5 mm.

longis. Filamentorum pars libera 4.5-5 mm. longa. Pistillum 13 mm.

longum.

TrusILLO: Mendoza, 1225 m., in shady places of the river flats and in

coffee plantations; flowers January 19, 1928 (Pittier 12639). The type

(Moritz 309) is wrongly given as from Colombia.

Notwithstanding the much larger leaves and a few other rather slight dis-

crepancies in the description, our specimens evidently correspond to Dunal’s

species under the above name. It is not a species of the higher regions, but

is to be looked for in the tierra templada. In Mendoza it is known vernacu-

larly as guacharaquito. Its racemose inflorescences are striking and char-

acteristic.

CESTRUM NOCTURNUM L. Sp. Pl. 1: 191. 1758.

FEDERAL District: Coromoto, 900-1000 m., valley of Camuri Grande

on the coast east of La Guaira, in garden; flowers November 8, 1926 (P2ttzer

13029)—Estapo Aracua: La Trinidad de Maracay, 440 m., in bushes;

flowers February 2, 1913 (Pitter 5797).

No. 13029 is our latest acquisition in the genus and it agrees fairly well

with Dunal’s description, though less with O. E. Schulz’s, with one excep-

tion, which may distinguish it as a special type. The teeth are borne on

the adnate part of the filament and not on the free part. Several flowers have

been examined and all show the same very large and obtuse teeth, inserted

below the emergence of the filaments. At first, I felt inclined to separate

this shrub as a distinct species and had even given it a name suggested by

the relatively large size of the teeth. But, on second thought, the name

nocturnum was preserved, until the necessary comparison of specimens can

be made. The plant behaves exactly as described for C. nocturnum.

When I collected my specimens, the corollas were odorless and closed tight

as if still immature, but when I put them in the press at dusk, they were

broadly open and emitted a strong, sweet scent.

Specimens of our no. 5797 we have not at hand and its identification,

which, until verified, should be considered doubtful, was made at Washing-

ton, perhaps by myself.

JAN. 19, 1932 PITTIER: SPECIES OF CESTRUM. 30

Cestrum bigibbosum Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbor parva, ramis ramulisque flexuosis, cortice griseo laevi tectis; foliis

magnis, membranaceis, petiolatis, glaberrimis, exstipulatis, petiolo canali-

culato, laminis elliptico-lanceolatis, basi acutis in petiolo decurrentibus,

apice acuminatis tenuiter cuspidatis, supra laete viridis minutissime reticulatis,

costa venisque primariis circa 12 impressis, venulis vix prominulis, subtus

pallidioribus costa venisque prominentibus; inflorescentia terminali, brac-

teosa, depauperata, persistenti rhachi parce puberulo; bracteae lanceolatae,

acuminatae, glabrae; floribus breve pedicellatis bracteolatis; bracteolis

lineari-subulatis, pedicellisque puberulis; calyce tubuloso-infundibuliformi,

plus minusve irregulariter 4-5-dentato, extus glabrato, dentibus parvis,

obtusiusculis, apice puberulis; sinubus latis; corolla alba, tubo glabro basi

tenui apice sensim ampliato, lobulis ovalibus oblongisve apice obtusis, mar-

ginibus anguste introflexis, dense puberulis; staminibus usque ad + tubo

adnatis, filamentis glabris basi bigibbosis, antheris ovalibus, puberulis;

pistillo glabro; stigmate capitato.

Arbor 2-4 m. alta. Petioli 1.6—-2 cm. longi; laminae 15-28 cm. longae,

4-9 cm. latae. Bracteae 1-2.5 cm., bracteolae 1-3 mm. longae. Pedicelli

circa 1mm. longi. Flores circa 2mm. longi. Calyx 5mm. longus. Corollae

tubus 1.5 mm. longus; lobuli 4-4.5 mm. longi. Filamenta 3 mm. longa.

Pistillum 11 mm. longum.

FEDERAL District: Between Aguacatal and Alto del Cogollal, 1500 m.,

valley of Puerto La Cruz, in dense forests; flowers February 18, 1921 (Pitter

9245, type).

Cestrum bigibbosum, which I have not been able to match with any other

described species, is distinguished by its very large leaves, and its long-

adnate filaments provided near the base of the free part with two well formed

protuberances.

Cestrum amplum Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbuscula ramis ecrassis, erectis, atro-violaceis, glaberrimis, foliosis; foliis

coriaceis petiolatis, plus minusve complicatis, glaberrimis, petiolo canali-

culato, rugoso, in sicco nigrescente, laminis ovato-lanceolatis, basi cuneatis

apice acutis subcuspidatisve, supra lucidis, costa impressa venis primariis

10-11 venulisque prominulis, subtus pallidioribus costa venisque primarlis

valde prominentibus venulis reticulatis prominulis, marginibus revolutis;

stipulis foliaceis, parvis; inflorescentia paniculata, ampla, spicis axillaribus

defoliatis densifloris, laxis, foliis subaequantibus; floribus pedicellatis sub-

sessilibusve, pedicellis subcrassis calyce brevioribus apice bracteolatis; bracteis

plus minusve foliaceis plerumque lineari-ellipticis, quam calyce saepe longiori-

bus, nervo medio conspicuo; bracteolis lineari-filiformibus, brevibus; calyce

tubuloso-poculiformi, tubo glabro plus minusve striato, dentibus irregulari-

bus, plerumque angustis, duobus saepe ad medium adnatis, apice acutis, puberu-

lis; corolla e basi angusta sensim dilatata, violacea, tubo glabro, lobulis

ovatis ovato-ellipticisve, acutis, extus glabris, intus marginibusque intro-

flexis fulvo-tomentellis; staminibus usque ad medium tubo adnatis, glabris,

filamentis basi gibbosis, leviter incrassatis: antheris suborbicularibus; ovario

subovoideo, stylo elongato filiformi, stigma discoideo minutissime puberulo.

Arbuscula supra metralis. Petioli 0.6-1 cm. longi; laminae 9-11 cm.

longae, 2.5-3.7 cm. latae. Stipulae 1.5-2.5 cm. longae. Panicula usque ad

30 cm. longa, basi 20 cm. lata; spicae 10 cm. longae vel breviores. Pedicelli

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 2

0-3 mm. longi. Bracteae 4-6.5 mm., bracteolae 1-3 mm. longae. Calyx

7.3-7.7 mm. longus. Corolla 20-21 mm. longa, lobulis 4-5 mm. longis.

Ovarium 1.2 mm. longum, 1.1 mm. diam.; stylus circa 2 em. longus.

Méripa: Paéramo de El Morro, 2800 m.; flowers April 1, 1922 (A. Jahn

1075, type). ;

This species was identified at first with Cestrum Lindent Dunal, but on

further examination it was found that the leaves are on the whole shorter and

narrower, the panicles larger, the flowers much longer, ete. Furthermore

the type specimen of C. Lindeni seems to have suggested to its deseriber a

scandent shrub, while our C. amplum is without any doubt an erect plant,

as seen by the specimens and also because a species with climbing habit would

hardly be in its place among the low vegetation of a paramo.

CESTRUM MACROPHYLLUM Vent. Choix des Pl. 18, t. 18, 1803.

Plant known hitherto only from Santo. Domingo and Porto Rico, and re-

ported by Rusby & Squires (no. 327) as part of their collections on the Lower

Orinoco in 1896. This indication is doubtful.

CrstTRUM LINDENI Dunal in DC. Prodr. 131: 611. 1852.

The type was collected in the Andes of Trujillo, at 3000 m., by Linden

(no. 784). It differs from our C. meridanum mainly in its larger glabrous

leaves and longer flowers. I have not seen the plant.

Cestrum meridanum Pittier, sp. nov.

Arbuscula ramis erectis densiuscule stellato-tomentosis; foliis coriaceis

exstipulatis (?), petiolo brevi, suleato, hirsuto, laminis ovalibus, basi cuneato-

attenuatis apicem versus sensim angustatis acutiusculis, supra costa impressa

puberula excepta primum parce stellulato-villosulis cito glabris sublucidis,

crebre reticulatis venis primariis circa 12 venulisque prominulis, subtus

parce stellulato-tomentosis costa venisque primariis dense rufescenti-tomento-

sis prominentibus, marginibus minute revolutis; inflorescentia e spicis brevi-

bus in axillis subverticillatis, multifloribus composita; floribus tenuibus,

sessilibus brevissime pedicellatisve; bracteoli-minutis, oblongis, basi attenua-

tis, obtusiusculis; calyce cyathiformi, striato, extus villoso-tomentosulo,

dentibus brevibus subacutis, sinubus acutis; corolla infundifuliformi, virido-

flavescente, glabra, tubo tenui, lobulis late ovatis obtusis, marginibus vix

revolutis; staminibus usque ad 3? tubo adnatis, glabris, filamentis supra

basin geniculato-gibbosis; antheris flavis; ovario globoso, stylo glabro;

stigmate capitellato, discoideo, minute puberulo.

Arbuscula 0.80-1.20 m. alta. Petioli 4-8 mm. longi; laminae 7.5-9 cm.

longae, 3-4.5 em. latae. Bracteae 3-4 mm. longae. Flores circa 16 mm.

longi. Calyx 5-6 mm. longus. Corolla 15-16 mm. longa, lobulis circa 3

ee longis. Filamentorum pars libera 5-6 mm. longa. Stylus 13 mm.

ongus.

Méripa: Vicinity of the city of Mérida, 1700 m., in bushes; flowers

February 3, 1928 (Pitter 12858, type).

Belongs to the group of C. Miersianum but differs in its general appearance

and especially in the shape and size of the flowers.

JAN. 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ai

CrstrumM Mrrerstanum Wedd. Chloris Andina 2: 97. 1857. (Descr. emend.).

Arbuscula ramis subecrassis virgatis ramulisque brevibus pulverulento-

tomentosis; foliis exstipulatis, coriaceis, breviter petiolatis, petiolo villoso,

stellato-tomentoso, laminis ovalibus lanceolatisve basi rotundatis, apice

acutis subacutisve supra primum parce stellato-pilosulis in aetate glabratis,

subtus pallidioribus plus minusve stellato-tomentosis tomento rufescente;

floribus sessilibus raro breviter pedicellatis in ramulis brevibus axillaribus

plus minusve defoliatis inflorescentiam terminalem valde multifloram conges-

tamque efformantibus; calyce tubuloso, extus puberulo vel tomentello;

tubo elongato dentibus brevibus obtusiusculis, corolla aequaliter tubuloso-

infundibuliformi, tubo flavescente, glabro, lobulis ovatis, purpurascentibus,

extus minute puberulis, intus marginibusque introflexis tomentellis; staminibus

usque ad 2 tubo adnatis, glabris; filamentorum parte libera basi crassiora

gibbosa; pistillo capitellato, superne minutissime pilosulo.

Arbuscula circa metralis. Petiolus 4-6 mm. longus; laminae 5-6.5 em.

longae, 2.5-3.5 cm. latae. Flores 2 cm. longi: calyx 5.8-7.4 mm. longus

irregulariter dentatus; corolla 1.7-1.9 mm. longa, lobulis 3-4 mm. longis.

Staminum pars libera 5.5-6 mm. longa. Stylus 1.5-1.7 mm. longus.

Type from Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, 3300 m., Colombia (Linden

1615).

Meriva: San Rafael de Mucuchies, 3150 m.; fl. January 22, 1922

(a vonn 767).

The specimens in our herbarium agree in the main with Miers, succint

description, the principal differences being the ovate rather than lanceolate

leaves and the flower twice longer. We know however that in this genus the

the shape of the leaves is variable and on the studied specimens there are

also a few flowers apparently fully developed and not exceeding the dimension

given by Weddell. Locally, the shrub is known as wovto.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

479TH MEETING

The 479th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, May 13, 1931, President O. EK. Mrinzmr presiding.

Section V of the Standing Rules of the Society was amended to read as

follows:

V.—Annual Meeting and Election of Officers. The order of procedure at

the annual meeting shall be as follows:

1. Reading of the minutes of the last annual meeting.

2. Presentation of the annual reports of the Secretaries.

3. Presentation of the annual report of the Treasurer.

4. Announcement of the names of members who, having complied with

Article III of these Standing Rules, are entitled to vote on the election of

officers.

5. Election of President.

6. Election of two Vice-Presidents.

7. Election of Treasurer.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 2

8. Election of two Secretaries.

9. Election of five members-at-large of the Council.

10. Consideration of amendments to the Constitution.

11. Reading of the rough minutes of the meeting.

The election of officers shall be conducted as follows: The President shall

annually appoint, at least four weeks before the Annual Meeting, a Committee

of three active members, not members of the Council, whose duty it shall be

to propose the names of one or more candidates for each office of the Society,

the names to be presented at a meeting of the Society at least two weeks prior

to the Annual Meeting. Additional nominations for each office may be made

from the floor at the Annual Meeting by an active member qualified to vote

and the additional nominations shall be added to those proposed by the

nominating committee, provided each such floor nomination be seconded by

at least two other members present.

Election shall be by written ballot in the order specified above. The elec-

tion shall be by written preferential ballot, counted by the Hare method, in

accordance with the rules, given on pages 13 to 16 in Leaflet No. 11 of the

Proportional Representation League, for the ‘‘exact’’ method of counting

ballots. (A copy of Leaflet No. 11 of the Proportional Representation League

is made a part of this Section.)

Regular program: W. G. Pierce: Small folds produced by slumping in

southeastern Montana.—In southeastern Montana, roughly 25 miles southwest

of Miles City, three small asymmetrical folds were found. Two of them are

overthrust and slightly sheared. They occur in the Tullock member of the

Lance formation in an area where the beds are practically horizontal and from

25 to 100 miles from regions of known crustal compression. In two of the

three folds, thin coal seams are the principal beds involved in the folding.

The folding has taken place after consolidation and metamorphism of the

coal to subbituminous rank, so that the folds can not be a phenomenon of

sedimentation. The outstanding features of the folds are: the folds do not

persist with depth; they occur in the bottoms of valleys and only a few feet

above the beds of creeks; alluvium is present a few feet above the folds and is

not folded; the folds are parallel to the valleys in which they occur; the folds

are not all overturned in the same direction, two are asymmetrical to the east,

and the third is asymmetrical to the west.

An unusual type of slump was noticed in the same area; a similar type of

movement may have caused the small folds. The dimensions or movement of

the slump are 215 feet vertical and 600 feet horizontal. The last part of the

movement (85 feet exposed) was horizontal, on a bedding plane. Inasmuch

as it has moved on a bedding plane, some thickness of strata was shoved up

in front of the slump block. It is conceivable that the beds so moved would

be shaped into small folds and thrusts.

Two methods of folding by the movement of a slump block are possible:

(1) By direct shoving against the strata normal to the bedding, as just indi-

eated. (2) If considerable friction developed between the slump block and

the underlying beds, the beds below the slump plane would be dragged into

small folds and overthrusts. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. BripGE, BEvAN, SEARS, GOLDMAN, and MISER.

H. A. Marmer: The determination of mean sea level.—Sea level varies from

day to day, from month to month and from year to year. From one day to

the next, sea level may vary by as much as a foot or more, while within a

single year the altitude of sea level from two different days may differ by as

JAN. 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY a9

much as five feet. The variation in sea level from month to month is in part

periodic and in part non-periodic, and within a single year two determinations

of monthly sea level may differ by a foot or more. Yearly determinations of

sea level may show differences of a quarter of a foot or more.

The determination of mean sea level thus involves two problems: (a) how

long a series of observations is required to give an accurate determination of

mean sea level? (b) how can sea level derived from a short series of observa-

tions be corrected to a mean value?

Since nineteen years is taken as constituting a full cycle in tidal work, this

period of time is taken as giving a primary determination of mean sea level.

It is found, too, that nine years of observations will give a sufficiently accurate

figure for mean sea level for most purposes. Secondary determinations of

mean sea level may be derived from observations covering a period of a month

or more, by correcting the sea level from these short series of observations by

comparison with simultaneous observations at some suitable station where a

long series of observations is at hand. In general it may be presumed that

when corrected by suitable simultaneous observations, a month of observa-

tions will give mean sea level within 0.1 foot; a year will give it within 0.05

foot; while four years will give it within 0.02 foot. (Auwthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. GILLULY, MatrHes, MEINzZER, HEWETT, BRADLEY,

and MENDENHALL.

W. P. Wooprine, and W. 8. W. Kew: Tertiary and Pleistocene deposits

of the San Pedro Hills, California.—Metamorphic rocks of doubtful Jurassic

age are the oldest rocks in the San Pedro Hills and the only ones that are not

of Tertiary or Quaternary age. JDetrital deposits of middle Miocene age, with

Temblor mollusks and Foraminifera of the Valvulineria californica zone, rest

on the metamorphics. Siliceous shales that are apparently of the same age as

the lower part of the Modelo formation of the Santa Monica Mountains rest

on the middle Miocene beds with gradational contact. They are overlain,

apparently without discontinuity, by the upper Miocene diatomite. Resting

disconformably on the diatomite are deposits of upper Miocene age consisting

principally of radiolarian mudstone, which are overlain, probably disconform-

ably, by foraminiferal silt referred to the lower Pliocene. A period of folding,

the results of which are visible in all parts of the hills, followed the deposition

of these beds.

The earliest Pleistocene formation, which fails to crop out on the water

front and therefore was unknown to Arnold, embraces a calcareous facies

and a detrital facies that finger into each other. At one locality it is overlain

by the silt that Arnold referred to the Pliocene, but elsewhere the lower part

of the silt may be the equivalent of part of the calcareous formation. The

silt is succeeded by a granitic sand (Arnold’s lower San Pedro). At San

Pedro the contact is gradational, but on Deadman Island, which has been

destroyed, it was disconformable. Another period of folding, of mid-Pleisto-

cene age, followed the deposition of this sand. These three Pleistocene for-

mations may not differ greatly in age.

After this period of folding the hills were almost completely submerged

and then rose intermittently. During this rise the conspicuous terraces

were formed. Fossiliferous deposits are found on the lowest four or five of

these terraces. Those on the lowest one were called the upper San Pedro

formation by Arnold. It is relatively much younger than the strongly de-

formed Pleistocene deposits. Along a mobile zone at the north edge of the

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 2

hills the youngest terrace and the deposits lying on it were deformed by

renewed movements along earlier folds.

All the Pleistocene beds are marine and contain abundant fossils. The

different faunas have different temperature facies, but it is not yet clear

ee can be linked with glacial and interglacial stages. (Authors’

abstract.

Discussed by Messrs. MENDENHALL, Hess, and RuBEY.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

W. C. MENDENHALL, a member of the AcapEMy, became Director of the

Geological Survey December 21, 1931. His appointment by President

Hoover is a promotion from within the service. Mr. Mendenhall has been

connected with the Geological Survey for 38 years, having been appointed

assistant geologist in 1894. He was geologist in charge of ground-water in-

vestigations from 1908 to 1912 and chief of the land classification board of the

Survey from 1912 until 1922, when he became Chief Geologist.

The annual meetings of the Geological Society of America, the Mineralogi-

cal Society of America, and the Paleontological Society were held at Tulsa,

Okla., during Convocation week. ‘The officers for 1932 are as follows:

Geological Society of America.—R. A. Daty, President; N. M. FENNEMAN,

W. E. WratHER, R. 8. BASSLER (representing the Paleontological Society),

and A. N. WINcHELL (representing the Mineralogical Society), Vzce-Presz-

dents; C. P. Bnrxey, Secretary; E. B. Matuews, Treasurer; D. F. Hewntt,

A. C. Lanz, W. J. Mreapz, W. C. MENDENHALL, SIDNEY PowzrRs, HEINRICH

Riss, and F. R. Van Horn, Councilors.

Mineralogical Society of America.—E. 8S. Dana, Honorary President; A. N.

WINCHELL, President; JosppH L. Gruuson, Vice-President; F. R. VAN Horn,

Secretary; W. T. SCHALLER, Treasurer; WALTER F. Hunt, Editor; C. S. Ross,

P. F. Kerr, W. 8. Baytey, W. J. McCauauey, and A. H. Pariurps, Coun-

culors.

Paleontological Society —R. S. Bassuer, President; S. B. PuumMer, E.

H. SEvuarps, and C. W. Giumore, Vice-Presidents; C. O. DUNBAR, Treasurer;

WALTER GRANGER, Editor.

: Janvary 20. “The e Washington Sout of Bogincers

The Medical Society —

a 7 The: Academy aL rae

ts The Geographic Society

- The Biological Society We

27 The Geological Society

_ The Medical Society

The Geographic ocieky”

30 a The Philosophical Society

eu |The Botanical Dene. |

‘The Medical ‘Society

"The or onnone Rociety

, Asis Henry aan vans, Const and Eaudene Survey

aN reek TIER. esses seers eee

ScIENTIFIC Notes AND News. eee oe pkey gel wre ae eak te tees

Php ‘This Jourwat is indexed in the International Index to

° A ; : A a 2% or &

Ne ee Sere RT a eae ater

Von. 22 Fresruary 4, 1932 . No. 3

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VoL. 22 FEBRUARY 4, 1932 | No. 3

CHEMISTRY.—Synthesis of a humus-nucleus, an important constituent

of humus in soils, peats and composts... SELMAN A. WAKSMAN

and K. R. N. Iver. (Communicated by C. THom.)

The chemical nature and origin of humus in soil, in peat, in com-

posts and in other natural substrates, where plant or animal residues

are undergoing decomposition has attracted considerable attention

during the last century and a half. This problem is not only of

theoretical interest, but of great practical importance, since humus

plays an important rdle in modifying the physical, chemical and

biological properties of the soil, as well as in making the soil a favorable

medium for the growth of cultivated plants.’

The problem of the origin and chemical nature of humus has been

studied in this laboratory for more than 10 years. A number of papers

have been already published, in which an attempt was made to study

the process of transformation of the plant and animal residues which

give origin to humus. Three general methods of approach were

employed, namely:

(1) The decomposition of plant constituents of known chemical

composition, such as cellulose, hemicelluloses, proteins, lignins, as

well as various plant materials, such as straw, corn stalks, various

leaves and needles of trees, etc., by pure and mixed cultures of micro-

organisms, under controlled laboratory conditions. The results

obtained in these studies definitely established the fact that some of

the plant constituents are decomposed very rapidly by microérganisms,

1 Journal Series paper of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Depart-

ment of Soil Chemistry and Bacteriology. Received December 12, 1931.

* Summary papers dealing with the studies of the origin and chemical nature of

humus were reported in Nat. Acad. Sci. 11: 476-481. 1925; Soil Sci. 22: 123-162. 1926;

Cellulosechem. 8: 97-103. 1927; Naturwiss. 34: 689-696. 1927; Trans. 2nd Comm.

Intern. Soc. Soil Sci. Budapest, A: 172-197. 1929; Amer. Jour. Sci. 19: 32-54. 1930;

Ztschr. Pfl. Diing. Bodenk. A, 19: 1-31. 1931.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 3

leaving no definite residue except the synthesized cell substance of

the microérganisms, while other plant constituents are highly resistant

to decomposition, especially under anaerobic conditions, and tend

to accumulate, as shown by comparison with the total residual

material.’

(2) The analysis of the organic matter or humus in the soil itself,

including forest, peat and mineral soils. The results obtained sub-

stantiated markedly the findings in the first series of investigations,

namely that the organic matter or humus of the soil comprises, (a)

complexes of plant origin, which have resisted decomposition by micro-

organisms, although frequently considerably modified in their chemical

nature, and (b) complexes synthesized by the microérganisms, during

the process of decomposition. The first group consists largely of

lignins and modified lignin complexes, and to a less extent of certain

waxes and hemicelluloses, while the second group consists predomi-

nantly of proteins and certain hemicelluloses.?

(3) Synthetic processes, whereby complexes almost the same or

quite similar to those found in the soil, peat and compost, or produced

in the laboratory by decomposition of plant residues by microérgan-

isms, have been synthesized. It is the latter phase of the investiga-

tions which will be reported here, since it completes in a way the cycle

of studies and confirms the results obtained in the previous investiga-

tions by the other procedures.

Before reporting the results, however, it is necessary to define the

terms commonly employed in the study of soil humus.’ It has been

recognized by the early students of the subject, such as Sprengel,

Berzelius and others, that humus is not a homogeneous compound,

but that it can be readily separated into two or more complexes.

3 These studies have been described in a series of papers by Waksman, S. A. and

Heukelekian, H. Jour. Biol. Chem. 66: 323-342. 1925; Fourth Intern. Soil Sci. Conf.

Rome. 3: 216-227. 1924; Waksman,S.A.and Tenney, F.G. Soil Sci. 22: 395-406. 1926;

24: 275-283, 317-333. 1927; 26: 155-171. 1928; 28: 55-84, 315-340. 1929; Waksman,

S. A. and Stevens, K. R. Soil Sci. 26: 113-137, 239-251. 1928; Waksman, S. A. and

Diehm, R. A. Soil Sci. 32: 73-96, 97-118, 119-140. 1931; Waksman, S. A. and Gerret-

sen, F.C. Ecology, 12: 33-60. 1931.

4 These studies have been published in a series of papers by Waksman, S. A., Tenney,

F. G. and Stevens, K. R. Ecology, 9: 126-144. 1928; Waksman, S. A. and Stevens,

K.R. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 51: 1189-1196. 1929; Soil Sci. 30: 97-116. 1930; Waks-

man, S. A. and Reuszer, H. W. Cellulosechem. 11: 209-220. 1930.

5 The term humus is used here to designate the soil organic matter as a whole, as well

as the total organic matter in composts and peat which has undergone extensive decom-

position as shown by a marked change in appearance, as well as in chemical composition,

from the original material.

FEB. 4, 1932 WAKSMAN: SYNTHESIS OF A HUMUS-NUCLEUS 43

By using an alkali as the extraction agent, it was found that a part

of the humus is soluble in this reagent and a part is insoluble. The

soluble part was referred to as ‘‘humic acid,” “‘ulmic acid,” ‘‘crenic

acid,’”’ etc., while the insoluble part was spoken of as “‘humin,’’ “ul-

min,” “humus-coal,”’ etc. In more recent investigations, the alkali-

soluble part is referred to as “humic matter,’ ‘humus fraction,”

‘oure humus,”’ and the alkali-insoluble part as “non-humic matter”

or ‘‘non-humus fraction,”’ ete. .

The existence of two different groups of complexes in soil humus,

one of which forms a characteristic constituent of the humus and

frequently makes up the larger part of it, has been established also by

such reagents as dilute H.O, solution, permanganate solution, hypo-

chlorite solution, etc. That part of the humus which was acted upon

by these oxidizing agents was believed to comprise the fraction which

gives to the humus its specific, characteristic properties; the accumula-

tion of this fraction was believed to be parallel with the extent of

“humification” of the plant residues. The fact that this process of

“humification”’ is accompanied by definite chemical changes in the

residual plant constituents and possibly by the synthesis of new com-

pounds has been also brought out by the use of acetyl bromide,®

whereby it was shown that while fresh plant material is completely

dissolved by this reagent, ‘“‘humified”’ plant material leaves a con-

siderable part unacted upon; this fraction, or so-called ‘‘pure humus,”’

is presumably the same or about the same as that which was

previously referred to as ‘‘humic acid,” “‘humic matter,”’ etc.

There is no doubt that the lignin in the humus originates largely

from the plant residues, with possibly certain chemical modifications,

such as loss of methoxyl groups,’ etc. The proteins, however, have

been largely synthesized through the activities of microdérganisms.

Although in the fresh plant residues the ratio of carbon to nitrogen is

from 200:1 to 50:1, the humus in the soil shows a much narrower

ratio of C:N, about 10:1, with considerable variation, depending on

the nature of the organic residues, extent of decomposition, environ-

mental conditions, etc. This great relative increase in nitrogen

content can be explained only by the fact that the nitrogenous com-

plexes in the humus are rendered resistant to further rapid decomposi-

6 Karrer and Bodding-Wieger. Helv. Chem. Acta, 6: 817. 1923; Springer, U.

Ztschr. Pfl. Diing. Bodenk. A, 11: 313-359. 1928; 22: 135-152. 1931; Grosskopf, W.

Suddeut. Forst. Jagdz. 1931, p. 33-48.

7See Fuchs, W. Die Chemie der Kohle. J. Springer, Berlin. 1931.

i4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 3

tion. This is of considerable practical importance, since it indicates

that either the organic nitrogenous complexes in the humus are not of a

protein nature or, which is probably more correct, that they are not

in a free state, otherwise they would decompose:as readily as the plant

and animal proteins ordinarily do.

A detailed study of the chemical composition of the organic matter

in forest soils and in inorganic soils brought out definitely the fact

that humus, or the organic matter of the soil which has undergone

considerable decomposition, consists largely of two chemical complexes,

namely lignin (40-45 per cent of the total humus) and of protein

(30-35 per cent of the total humus), with smaller quantities of other

substances, especially hemicelluloses, and to a less extent fats, waxes

and others. In spite of the high protein content of the humus, the

nitrogen is not available to the growth of higher plants. The pos-

sibility that we are dealing here with the formation of a tannin-protein

or a lignin-protein complex* which would render the protein resistant

to microbial attack has been suggested. It has also been suggested?

that the formation of the resistant ‘“humus’’ complexes of the soil

is due to the chemical interaction of carbohydrates with proteins.

Among the other characteristic properties of humus, to which

attention may be called here, is its high base-combining power, which

gives it a strong base exchange capacity, a phenomenon very im-

portant in soil processes; this property of humus exists only to a

limited extent in the original plant material, and is considerably

greater than that of lignin.

Since lignin and protein were found to make up a large percentage

of the total constituents of humus, and since these substances were

found to give to humus its most characteristic properties, it was

considered important to begin the synthesis of humus with these two

complexes. By mixing lignin and protein in the same proportion

that they exist in the soil organic matter, and allowing the mixture

to undergo decomposition by microdrganisms in sand and solution

media, it was found that lignin had a depressive effect upon the

decomposition of the protein, as measured by the evolution of CO,

and the formation of ammonia. However, this depression was only

8 Dehérain, P. P. Ann. Agron. 14: 97-133. 1888; Hobson, R. P. Thesis, Univ.

London, 1925; Moeller, W. Der Gerber. No. 1000, 1003, 1008. 1916. (Chem. Centrbl.

II, 856. 1916; I, 30, 440. 1917); Jensen, H. L. Jour. Agr. Sci. 21: 38-80. 1931.

® Maillard, L.C. Genése des matiéres protéiques et des matiéres humiques. Paris,

1913.

FEB. 4, 1932 WAKSMAN: SYNTHESIS OF A HUMUS-NUCLEUS 45

quantitative in nature, amounting to between twenty-five and fifty

per cent of the total decomposition; in other words, in the presence

of the lignin mixed mechanically with the protein, there was twenty-

five to fifty per cent reduction in the amount of protein decomposed

in a given period of time.

The protein was next dissolved in an alkali solution, and mixed with

three to five volumes of a similar solution of lignin; the reaction of the

mixture of the two solutions was then adjusted to a pH of about 4.5,

where a precipitate was formed. The precipitate was now washed,

dried and allowed to decompose. The complex underwent only a

very limited decomposition, not much more than the “humic acid”’

obtained from soil or peat, by extraction with alkali and precipitation

by acid.

By introducing into the precipitating mixture bases, especially

calcium, magnesium, iron, all of which are important in soil processes,

and allowing precipitation to take place at a pH of about 7.0, a com-

plex was obtained which showed all the characteristic properties of the

important constituents of soil humus, formerly referred to as ‘‘humic

acid.’ Both in appearance, and in their chemical, physico-chemical

and biological properties, the preparations were similar to the various

“humie acid” or ‘‘a-humus”’ preparations that can be obtained from

different soils.

The lignin used for this purpose was prepared by extracting straw,

previously treated with water and hot dilute mineral acid, with 4 per

cent NaOH solution under 15 pounds pressure; the lignin was pre-

cipitated with hydrochloric acid, and washed free from chlorides; the

lignin thus prepared contained only traces of ash, nitrogen and car-

bohydrates. As a source of protein, casein prepared after Ham-

mersten and gliadin were employed. Five parts of lignin and one part

of casein were separately dissolved in hot alkali solutions, the solutions

were well mixed and the reaction adjusted by hydrochloric acid to

pH 7.0; on adding an excess of CaCl solution, the complex was pre-

cipitated; it was then washed free from chlorides. In a similar

manner magnesium and iron compounds of the ligno-proteinates were

prepared. The chemical composition of the “synthesized humus”’

thus prepared in the laboratory and the ‘‘natural humus’”’ or the

“humic acid’ isolated from the soil are nearly the same and their

behavior to different chemical reagents is alike.

The decomposition of these ligno-proteinates was tested in solution

and in sand media, inoculated with pure and mixed cultures of soil

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 3

microérganisms. ‘Their decomposition was no more rapid than that

of an equivalent amount of soil humus, prepared from peat or from

soil (so-called “‘humic acid’”’ or ‘‘a-fraction of humus’’).

These “‘synthesized humus’’ complexes were found to have a highly

beneficial effect upon soil microbiological processes, as shown by their

influence upon the decomposition of dextrose by soil bacteria, growth

and fixation of nitrogen by Azotobacter (especially the iron complex),

decomposition of cellulose by bacteria and fungi, etc. However,

although containing about 2 per cent of nitrogen, the complexes

cannot be used as sources of nitrogen by the various soil organisms.

The proteins have become “‘lignified’”’ and in this condition cannot be

readily attacked by the common soil microérganisms.

Chemically and in their base-exchange capacity the “‘artificial-

humus” complexes behave exactly in the same manner as that part of

the soil humus which is soluble in alkalies and is precipitated from

the alkali solution by acid, namely the ‘‘humic acids” or the ‘‘a-

humus.”’

The authors believe that they have succeeded in synthesizing from

plant constituents, in the laboratory, by simple chemical treatment, a

complex which has the characteristic properties of the most important

constituent of the soil humus. ‘The most appropriate name for this

complex would have been ‘“‘synthetic humus,” which it actually is;

however, since this term has been so much used and misused historic-

ally for preparations which have nothing to do with the soil humus,

such as the dark-colored material obtained on treating various sugars

and other carbohydrates with sulfuric and hydrochloric acids, this

term will be avoided. It is proposed to apply to these complexes the

name humus-nucleus, since they form the nucleus of the humus in

soils, peats and composts, making up 50 to 80 per cent of these mate-

rials, depending on their nature and degree of decomposition.

The mechanism of formation of the humus-nucleus in soil can be

schematically presented as follows:

When plant residues are introduced into the soil, rapid decomposi-

tion will set in, under favorable conditions of temperature and mois-

ture, immediately. However, the plant material does not decompose

as a whole; some of the constituents, especially the water-soluble

substances, such as the sugars and amino acids, are attacked imme-

diately by a large number of fungi and bacteria; these are followed

soon by the decomposition of the starches, proteins, certain hemi-

celluloses (pentosans, mannans) and the true cellulose; some of the

FEB. 4, 1932 WAKSMAN: SYNTHESIS OF A HUMUS-NUCLEUS 47

constituents, like the sugars, starches and proteins are attacked by a

great variety of organisms, while others, like the cellulose, are decom-

posed only by certain specific fungi and bacteria, some of which are

highly selective in nature; the lignin is, of the more abundant plant

constituents, most resistant to decomposition, especially under

anaerobic conditions. These decomposition processes are accom-

panied by continuous synthesis of microbial cell substance, due to the

rapid multiplication of the bacteria and fungi decomposing the plant

constituents, to the rapid development of the protozoa, nematodes and

other invertebrates feeding upon the bacteria and the fungi as well as

upon some of the undigested or partly digested plant residues, and

finally to the development of various microdrganisms feeding upon

the products of the metabolism of the other organisms, such as the

algae, autotrophic bacteria, etc. These synthetic processes result in

the building up of considerable quantities of microbial cell substance

which is rich in proteins (10 to 60 per cent) and in certain hemicel-

luloses (microbial gums, slimes). In view of the fact that this cell

substance is considerably richer in nitrogen than the original plant

residues (most of the plant residues containing only 1.2 to 6 per cent

protein), there is a continuous accumulation of the protein with the

advance of the decomposition of the plant residues. This protein

does not remain in a free state or in the microbial cell substance, but

with the breakdown of the latter by other microérganisms, the protein

combines with the lignins and the modified lignins of the plant resi-

dues, liberated as a result of the decomposition of the cellulose, to give

rise to ligno-protein complexes; this renders the proteins resistant to

rapid decomposition. These complexes are acid in nature, and in the

absence of bases in the soil or in the plant residues, they make the

humus acid, as in the case of the upper layers of organic matter in the

raw-humus forest soils. However, in the presence of bases, especially

calcium and magnesium, they interact with these to give rise to

calcium and magnesium ligno-proteinates, which are neutral in reac-

tion or only slightly acid. With an increase in the formation of the

ligno-proteinates, especially their basic compounds (Ca, Mg, Fe, etc.),

there is a darkening in the color of the mass undergoing decomposi-

tion ; this dark color is a characteristic property of the ligno-proteinates,

depending on the degree of their oxidation, nature of bases, etc.

The ligno-proteinates form the most essential constituents of the

soil humus or the nucleus of the humus. They are accompanied by

various other organic complexes, of plant, animal and microbial

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 3

origin, undecomposed or in the process of decomposition. Here

belong certain hemicelluloses, especially pectins and other uronic

acid complexes, a small amount of cellulose (especially in the surface

layers of forest soil), fats, waxes, corky substances, various organic

acids, alcohols in a free or combined state, ete.

The total organic matter of the soil, or the soil humus, can thus be

divided into two distinct groups:

1. The humus-nucleus consisting of ligno-proteinates, combined with

bases, thus giving H-ligno-proteinate, Ca-ligno-proteinate, Fe-ligno-

proteinate, Al-lgno-proteinate, and probably also with silicates and

phosphates, to form organic-inorganic complexes, which give to the

soil its characteristic colloidal properties. These ligno-proteinates

are probably combined also with certain other organic complexes,

such as the hemicelluloses. This is the fraction which has formerly

been referred to as “‘humus,”’ “‘humic acid,” “ulmie acid,’ “humic

bodies,’ ete. It is the mobile fraction of the soil organic matter

(which is probably active in removing the bases of the surface soil

layer in the process of podsolization). It is the resistant fraction,

which immobilizes the soil nitrogen. It is the ‘‘humified”’ fraction,

which gives to the soil its characteristic color and organic colloidal

properties.

2. The remaining constituents of the humus, comprising cellulose,

hemicelluloses, starches, fats, waxes, ete. This fraction consists

largely of plant residues in the active stages of decomposition and is

particularly abundant in composts, in the surface layers of forest soils,

in highmoor peats, etc., while it is low in those natural substrates where

the plant organic matter has undergone considerable decomposition,

such as inorganic soils, lowmoor and sedimentary peats, and may even

disappear in the course of time, as is possibly the case of Cassel Brown

and coal. This fraction has been usually referred to as ‘‘humin”’

(although under this term as well certain of the ligno-protein complexes

might have been included), ‘“‘non-humic bodies,’”’ etc., as well as

“erenic,”’ ‘‘apocrenic,” ‘‘fulvic,”’ ‘“humal’’ and other so-called acids.

In view of the fact that the hgno-proteinates, or the humus-nucleus,

tend to have a definite ratio between the lignin and the protein, we

would also expect a more or less definite ratio between the carbon

and nitrogen in the complex; actually the preparations synthesized

and isolated from the soil contain about 3 per cent nitrogen, which

gives about 81 per cent lignin and 19 per cent protein. By allowing

62 per cent for the carbon content of the lignin and 50 per cent for the

FEB. 4, 1932 WAKSMAN: SYNTHESIS OF A HUMUS-NUCLEUS 49

carbon content of the protein, and four parts of lignin to one part of

protein the complex should contain theoretically 59.6 per cent carbon.

However, the presence in the soil humus of other organic complexes,

of a lower carbon content, will reduce this percentage of the carbon

in the humus, especially in the case of the surface layers of forest soils,

composts, highmoor peats, which contain considerable quantities of

cellulose, hemicelluloses and other complexes, of a lower carbon

content. These ligno-protein complexes are not absolutely resistant

to decomposition, but can be attacked by certain organisms, such as

the edible mushroom and probably various other higher fungi, such

as the tree-forming mycorrhiza. ‘The correlation between the two

groups of complexes in the humus need not, therefore, hold true for

all forms of humus. One can readily imagine that under certain

conditions, as in certain processes of podsolization, some of the com-

pounds, such as the proteins (possibly due to the destruction of the

lignins by certain specific fungi), should be removed more readily

than the others, as a result of which we may find in the accumulation

horizon organic complexes of a higher nitrogen content. Under other

conditions, as in highmoor peats, where the accumulation of nitrogen

complexes is only very limited, the humus-nucleus may be much less

abundant than the remaining part of the humus; this nucleus, if formed

at all may be poorer in protein than the nucleus in soil or lowmoor peats.

While lignin itself has only a very low base-exchange capacity

(about 6.5 M. E. per 100 gm.), the ligno-protein complexes were found

to possess a very high capacity for base absorption and exchange

(between 120 and 130 M. E.). Lignin no doubt undergoes, in the

process of decomposition of plant residues, certain processes of oxida-

tion and de-methoxylation. In this state, it interacts with the

proteins, largely synthesized through the activities of the micro-

organisms. The nature of the complex formation is still problemati-

cal. Several possibilities present themselves. One is between the

NH, groups of the protein molecule, reacting with a carbonyl group,

either ketonic or aldehydic, in the lignin molecule, as shown by the

following reaction :!°

Cs2H 6010 (OCHS) - (COOH) - (OH).-CO +H.N:-R:COOH >

Lignin Protein

Cs2H 46019 (OCH) - (COOH) : (OH).-C =HN:-R:COOH + H,.0

Humus-nucleus

10 This reaction has been suggested by Dr. M. Phillips of the Bureau of Chemistry

and Soils.

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 3

A compound of this type would be quite stable, especially to hydro-

lytic agents. It also explains the high base exchange capacity of the

ligno-protein complexes. The protein is an amphoteric substance

and, when the NH, group is tied up by combining with a carbonyl

group of the lignin molecule, the acidic character of the COOH groups

becomes prominent, which results in a decided increase in the base-

exchange capacity of the complex. The COOH groups of the lignin

molecule may also become more reactive with bases, as a result of the

complex formation. The possibility of interaction of the NH, groups

with the phenolic OH groups of the lignin or the acidic COOH groups

may also be suggested, although the complexes of this type would be

less stable than is the case of the ‘‘humus-nucleus.”’

The synthesis of artificial humus, or a lignin-protein complex,

offers numerous possibilities for further study, which would lead to

the elucidation of the chemical nature of soil humus and its réle in

soil processes. Some possibilities may be briefly outlined as follows:

1. The nature of the replaceable hydrogen, since, aside from the fact

that the original lignin has a low base-exchange capacity, the complex

formed seems to possess a higher capacity than can be accounted for by

the COOH group of the protein molecule. 2. The possibility of

combining varying numbers of protein molecules with a given number

of lignin molecules, thus accounting for the varying nitrogen content

of the soil humus, formed in different soils, at different depths and

under different climatic conditions. 38. The possibility of certain

bases, like the sesquioxides, of forming compounds possessing definite

amphoteric properties. 4. The possibility of using this complex for

attaching molecules of other compounds, especially the hemicelluloses,

which, due to the uronic acid complexes, possess base-combining

properties. 5. The possibility of building up organic-inorganic

complexes, which may account for a number of soil reactions, such as

availability of certain soil minerals, especially iron, phosphorus and

potassium, for plant nutrition, etc.

PHYSICAL GHOGRAPHY.—The classification of peat soils... A. P.

DacHNowski!1-SToKEs, U.S. Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

It need scarcely be pointed out that classifications are subjective

concepts. They are more or less adequate means by which objects

under investigation, whether peat soils or other materials, are arranged

in an orderly fashion.

1 Received December 7, 1931.

FEB. 4, 1932 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: CLASSIFICATION OF PEAT SOILS dl

Classification has three purposes which though distinct, can not well

be dissociated. It may be employed (1) to facilitate identification

and differentiation of the objects classified, (2) to show relationships

and to organize our knowledge concerning the particular objects,

and (8) to serve various practical interests, such as agriculture and

industry. Thus it happens that on seeking a definition and classifica-

tion of peat soils great difficulty is encountered in finding a nomencla-

ture or system that avoids including more than was intended, or

leaving out something which should be taken in.

In the popular mind peat soils are still classed as peat and muck.

The differences are based either on a simple character or on very

simple combinations of characters. Arrangement according to any

readily perceived, simple property is comparatively easy and is the

first to suggest itself.

The first classifications of peat soils made by scientists were based

on color, weight, ash content, reaction, and other properties which are

still depended on as means of identification. Those likenesses among

peat and muck materials which are due to their possession in common

of some color, weight, or calorific value were believed to coexist with

other properties and hence peat soils were placed together which

later proved to be unlike in their essential natures.

In recent years it has become obvious that the arrangement of peat

and muck according to combinations of properties, which though

fundamental are not conspicuous, requires analyses based on consider-

able field investigation and laboratory work. The grouping of complex

objects such as peat soils can reach its complete form only by slow

steps and after analysis has made more progress. As the pedographic

knowledge of regional peat areas increases it becomes possible to as-

certain which properties of peat soils are most characteristic, and to

make groups of the members that have many properties in common.

The ultimate arrangement will serve not only to identify peat soils

completely and express the greatest information regarding their char-

acter in any of the major groups but it will also permit the prediction

of a great number of facts about deposits of peat in other countries

and by so doing reveal the precise correspondence between “‘our con-

cepts and the reality.”

The writer’s own investigations illustrate well the phases through

which classification of peat soils is passing. In early attempts at some

systematic manner, all kinds of peat were separated by conspicuous

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 3

physical characteristics into three classes comprising woody, fibrous,

and sedimentary peats. The limits were narrower and different other-

wise from those assigned to them by earlier observers. In successively

later attempts more regard was paid to botanic composition co-

ordinated with the simplest analytical methods such as those employed

for crops and feeding stuffs, for determining a number of chemical

complexes which represent essential but generally inconspicuous

changes in the transformation of organic materials.

Passing through various modifications in which the arrangement was

dictated by the viewpoint of degree of decomposition and the recogni-

tion of conspicuous morphological features in the inherent structure

of peat deposits, another order of facts came to be recognized,—those

of development.

Ecological studies led to an arrangement of peat deposits into groups

and subgroups in such a way as to display the developmental differ-

ences produced by climate, by natural vegetation, and by the larger

topographic diversities existing among the several great groups of

peat areas in this country. The fundamental differences in the

development of peat deposits —that is, in origin, sequence of parent peat

layers, and the varying stages of profile development—did not admit of

being placed in a linear order, but only in an arrangement perhaps

not unlike that regarded as a branching of clusters. If it be supposed

that dots representing type profiles form clusters expressing genera and

species, the names of which it is impracticable to insert here, and if the

successively larger groups and their general distribution constitute

orders in the subkingdom of organic soils, an approximate idea will be

formed of some of the facts that should be included in a classification

of peat soils. ‘The relationships of these diverging groups cannot,

however, be expressed on a flat surface, or in space of three dimensions,

but must also include the more significant contrasts ascribed to time.

Though under present conditions it seems too soon to attempt a

definite scheme of classifying peat soils and their relationships, yet it

has seemed that an outline of a tentative scheme may be ventured

presenting in a general way such relationships as they are now con-

ceived. In a forthcoming publication a scheme will be described

dealing with American peat deposits, their characteristic profiles and

classification. In this classification is exhibited a conclusion of basic

significance, namely that the structural profile features by which

members of one group differ from those of another, have developed

under dominating influences active in past periods; they are largely

FEB. 4, 1932 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: CLASSIFICATION OF PEAT SOILS 53

products of forces and changes in environmental conditions that

operated long before the present period. In the present paper an

illustration will be given to indicate the nature of the conditions which

caused such differences in former times, and the character of the peat

soils that developed in various layers of the profile under the influence

of the major soil-making processes.

III

Facts which illustrate the development of peat areas and their soils,

and the influence of surrounding conditions, are abundant and familiar

to many. The restriction of different kinds of vegetation to their

particular environment is the broadest, basic fact of ecology and of

geographic distribution. There are extensive plant communities that

are respectively aquatic or amphibious, and others that are confined

to the land. Besides hydrographic and topographic limitations there

are the familiar limitations made by climate. These factors vary from

place to place and from time to time, producing by their effects an

extension or restriction on vegetation and on soil formation.

To the limiting environmental factors must be added others imposed

by the reciprocal relations of plant associations, either competing,

directly destructive to one another, or coacting in what is now known

as succession and the development of the climax community. Plant

associations are held together in a web of relations, and any consider-

able modification which one aggregation of plants undergoes acts

indirectly on others, eventually changing the conditions of nearly all

other communities associated with them. In the development of peat

deposits from extreme conditions in the water relation, whether

building up a substratum from a lake bottom or from land or bare

rock, the plant communities involved and their habitat change more or

less rapidly. Each community of plants contributes certain effects to

this developmental process; each modifies its own environment in the

quantity of light and heat, the movement of air, water, and salts, the

activity of soil micro6rganisms, and hence its own chances of per-

manency. ‘Thus takes place a succession in which differently consti-

tuted plant communities replace one another, each forming a layer of

peat with characteristic soil properties, each contributing modifications

to the development of an organic aggregate, until the conditions of

drainage, aeration, and the activity of microédrganisms become stable

enough to produce a relatively permanent or climax stage of peat soil

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 3

and vegetation cover. It is logical to assume that each climax vegeta-

tion should be and probably is a center of organic soil production,

characteristic of that particular region and its vegetation.

Peat areas of the type of profile development representing the uni-

serial succession from lakes and ponds have been described in many

publications. They may be found as minor or intermediate suc-

cessional stages in adjoining regions and some of the earlier stages

may have a wide distribution in regions characterized by a different

vegetation climax. But the accumulation of evidence has brought the

conviction that many peat profiles are made up of layers marked off

from one another by great morphological contrasts, and that the

strongest divergences in structural characteristics are products of

changes in climate and plant migration. |

The progress of peat investigations has shown with increasing force

the extent to which past environmental changes have contributed to

the development and distribution of characteristic peat soils as

expressed in the profile during the course of its formation in space and

time. It was shown elsewhere that departures from the general,

uni-serial development of peat deposits may include abnormal and to a

greater or less extent complex profiles. Infact, development may have

taken place repeatedly in the same direction, and in no connection

- with the present environmental conditions. A classification of peat

soils so comprehensive as to stimulate investigation into every feature

of peat deposits should, therefore, include information not only regard-

ing changes that occur now or may occur in the near future, but also

the characteristic materials that have been produced in the distant

past. It should include data on the nature of the processes recorded

in the history of the profile, and bring out the contrasts and important

properties of the respective products that developed from the parent

material at earlier times.

In all peat deposits, layers of buried plant remains are found in

greater or less abundance which were exposed in varying degrees to the

influence of soil-making processes and to partial or extensive decom-

position. The differences between layers of peat are, speaking

generally, small and continuous where the main environmental condi-

tion, notably the quantity and quality of the ground water, was a

continuous factor. Leaving out of consideration those paralellisms

among trends of development which characterize type profiles belong-

FEB. 4, 1932 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: CLASSIFICATION OF PEAT SOILS 55

ing to each group or subgroup, the occurrence of morphological differ-

ences is greater where the factors of a major process that caused such

differences were more dynamic and effective. It will necessarily

happen that changes in local conditions to which a type has been

subjected directly or indirectly will give no evidence of modifications

that have generic value; the transitions will be less numerous in peat

areas which in the past were less variously conditioned. The type

profile may be defined, therefore, as a unit the boundaries of which

include transitions and variations in color, thickness, or reaction, but

not in the number, sequence, and character of the layers. The latter

express the direction as well as the stage of profile development, and

they show the extent and the kinds of effects produced by the changes

in environmental forces which influenced decomposition. The con-

trasts in parent materials, degree of decomposition, and the character

of the resulting peat soils will be comparatively large and abrupt

where the changes in environment were correspondingly wide or sudden

or where modifications of the parent material took place more or less

completely as a result of long-continued soil-forming processes.

Instructive examples of profiles showing remarkable changes in the

course of their development are furnished by deposits of peat in

northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. The type profile

described below is located near Three Lakes, Oneida County, Wis-

consin. The following brief summary of its morphological features

and history of development is intended to show the problems which a

classification of peat soils must solve, and to explain structural char-

acteristics that are otherwise unaccountable. |

In Menominee County, Michigan, in Oneida, Bayfield, and Douglas

Counties, Wisconsin, and in St. Louis, Lake of the Woods, and Roseau

Counties, Minnesota, are areas whose profile consists of five separate

layers. In the order of sequence, from below upward, they are

composed of reed-sedge peat, followed by woody peat, and a surface

layer of sphagnum-moss peat. Of chief interest is the presence of a

second and well defined younger layer of woody peat which separates

the surface layer of moss peat into two distinct parts.

The basal layer of reed and sedge peat is generally yellowish brown

in color, poorly decomposed and coarsely fibrous to felty matted,

indicating that the deposit developed from a marsh stage of vegetation

under conditions of water level at or near the surface. The flat-

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 3

pressed rhizomes represent largely the well preserved cuticular tissues

of reeds and a variety of sedges. The thickness of the layer and the

lack of marked differences in respect to degree of decomposition and

color show that the layer was not impoverished and not exposed to

contrasts in weathering, leaching, or evaporation and the concentration

of salts. At that time reed marshes were spreading over wide sections

of this country. ‘They continued to persist as dominant communities

for a long period, and hence a deposit was formed consisting essentially

of reed-sedge peat to a height approximating that to which ground

waters rose in the capillary spaces. Differences in the character of the

peat soils which may have developed from the parent material of this

extensive unit of natural vegetation are much obscured by the varying

botanical composition of the whole layer.

At a later period various portions of the ancient marshes in the Great

Lakes region became wooded with thickets of deciduous shrubs,

finally culminating in a swamp forest of mixed conifers and hardwoods.

Cedar and tamarack were prominent with a small percentage of

deciduous trees, both as a mosaic of pure stands and a general mixture

which included an undergrowth of herbaceous plants. The properties

of that portion of the parent reed peat in contact with the woody

material were almost entirely changed; reed muck of varying depth

merged with the dark-brown, partly granular woody material and

ligneous fragments derived from the swamp forest.

With such evidence the assumption is not altogether unwarranted

that the reed muck in contact with the wood peat soil reflects a fluc-

tuating, lowered water level, better drainage and aeration. ‘The

penetration of woody roots into the reed peat, the shading of the organic

material by a forest crown, and the accumulation of granular residue,

stumps of trees, fallen timber, branches, bits of fungal mycelium, and

the litter of needles, scales, and cones indicate the diversity of growth

forms of this stage of vegetation. They reveal differences in physical

conditions and disclose the presence of aerobic microérganisms and

wood-destroying fungi causing decay.

How long ago the miscellaneous plant remains of the ancient forest

were exposed to an environment so radically different in soil-forming

conditions can not be determined precisely. Doubtless the process

was gradual and continuous, removing effectively the more soluble

organic complexes and developing the woody residue; but there may

have been times when the disintegration of ligneous tissues was more

rapid than at others.

FEB. 4, 1932 DACHNOWSKI-STOKES: CLASSIFICATION OF PEAT SOILS 57

One more striking fact must here be set down. It is noteworthy

that trees of pine, tamarack, cedar, and several deciduous species of

large diameter occupied at one time a section of the Great Lakes region

in which today only dwarfed spruce dominate. It is well known to

ecologists that a stage of mixed conifer and hardwood forest was more

extensive several thousand years ago than today. Its geographical

position is recorded by plant remains found well within the limits of the

boreal region and in peat deposits of southeastern Canada. They

suggest a period marked by a warm and generally dry climate and by

the movement northward of deciduous forests.

As pointed out above, the layer superimposed upon the woody peat

soil is yellowish-brown, spongy-fibrous, poorly decomposed moss peat,

_ grading to reddish-brown partly decomposed material derived from

several species of Sphagnum. ‘The penetration of woody underground

stems from shrubby heaths is chiefly along shallow depths extending

from 4 to 7 inches below the surface. Stumps of small spruce trees are

also found at this level. With the exception of the dome-shaped de-

posits along the northeastern coast of Maine and the slightly curved

areas near Corona and Floodwood, Minnesota, the surface layer of

moss peat in the Great Lakes region is rarely three feet in thickness.

The evidence so far secured strongly suggests that this region may have

experienced the effects of a marked shifting of ice movement in north-

ern Canada, and that a great change in temperature and humidity

affected the northern portion of the Great Lakes Basin. The south-

ward swing of colder conditions was accompanied by a southward

movement of Sphagnum mosses, followed by an arctic floral element,

by heaths and spruce. ‘That such disturbances affected also human

migrations is a fact to be found recorded in history. The dependence

of Sphagnum mosses upon cool and moist atmospheric conditions,

their habit of growth, and the capacity of moss peat for taking up and

holding large quantities of precipitation water, give these plant

remains a unique quality toward checking aeration, bacterial activity

and decomposition, and intensifying an acid reaction. The réle of

Sphagnum mosses in the invasion of reed and sedge marshes and in the

ultimate extinction and burying of forests has been described fre-

quently. As a plant community Sphagnum mosses and their asso-

ciates had no relation, either floristic or successional, to the swamp

forest of that earlier period. Even today they stand in great contrast

as outposts to the south, outside the limit of their present climax

in the boreal region. The layer of moss peat points, therefore, to a

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 3

change to colder and more humid conditions, to leaching, the loss of

nutrients, and the general impoverishment of soils and vegetation.

It may be well to note briefly that the second and younger layer of

woody peat soil represents a mixed coniferous forest of possibly parallel

nature to the “‘Grenzhorizont” of European highmoors. The occur-

rence of dark-colored woody material in an advanced degree of decom-

position between layers of comparatively well preserved moss peat is a

striking morphological fact not explicable as a result of the forces that

led to the accumulation of moss peat. It points to a shift of climatic

conditions and to a readvance of mixed conifer forests and deciduous

trees from the south and east. It involves a process of decomposition

whereby woody plant remains were converted into residual products

that were left in place. It reflects environmental conditions which

were temporarily much less cold and humid as judged by the vegeta-

tion that formed the intervening, impoverished layers of moss peat.

There is little to be said concerning the trend of peat soil formation

in the Great Lakes today. It represents an approach toward condi-

tions which displace and exclude Sphagnum mosses and their asso-

ciates, but favor the dominance of a vegetation cover which finds its

extreme expression in a mixed conifer swamp forest. These facts are

evidence pointing toward an oncoming period of desiccation and a

renewed tendency to the development of forest soil. It is not un-

reasonable, therefore, to regard the modern trend in the climate of

North America as characterized by irregular fluctuations, and as

passing once more to a warmer and generally drier climate than was

that of a few thousand years ago.

Thus one is brought to realize that the development of peat profiles

is an orderly thing. Especially will this be the case where profiles of

individual deposits have become relatively definite and where shifts in

environmental conditions were accompanied by a corresponding

complexity in structural features. The resulting differences in the

character of peat soils may in such cases become so pronounced as to

greatly obscure the relation to the parent material.

With due allowance for the difficulties encountered in reconstructing

past environmental conditions, it is now generally recognized that

peat investigations are the best approach to a knowledge of the nature

of past changes in environment. ‘This implies that they tend likewise

to show the effects of the major environmental processes in develop-

ing peat soils of widely differing character. Doubtless an exhaustive

study of profiles would disclose that the soil-making processes of former

FEB. 4, 1932 KILLIP: NEW SPECIES OF BOMAREA 59

periods bear to our present contrasting conditions a corresponding

relationship.

But how past climatic and other dominating factors have worked

in the production of peat soils cannot be thus accounted for. This is

to be determined mainly by more detailed investigations of peat

profiles and the chemical constituents of peat soils codrdinated with

more adequate knowledge concerning the microérganisms capable

of bringing about decomposition.

BOTANY .—Five new species of Bomarea from Peru.! ELusworts P.

Kiuuir, U. 8S. National Museum.

In the course of recent studies which I have been making of Peruvian

material of the amaryllidaceous genus Bomarea, five new species were

found to be represented. Descriptions of these follow:

Bomarea caudata Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis volubilis glaberrimus; folia oblongo-lanceolata, abrupte acuminata

basi rotundata membranacea supra glabra subtus in nervis primariis pilis

crispatis hyalinis sparse hirsuta; bracteae lanceolatae et setaceae; umbella ca.

18-radiata dense rufo-tomentosa; ovarium turbinatum dense rufo-tomen-

tosum; sepala oblanceolata longe corniculata coccinea; petala sepala sub-

aequantia spathulata in costa rufo-tomentella viridia, brunneo-maculata.

Vine; stem subangulate, glabrous; petioles up to 8 mm. long, strongly cor-

rugate at margin; leaves oblong-lanceolate, 7 to 10 em. long, 2.5 to 3.5 em.

wide, abruptly acuminate at apex, rounded at base, membranous, glabrous

above, sparingly hirsute with long crispate hyaline hairs on the principal

nerves beneath, the nerves about 1 mm. apart, unequally prominent;

bracts of two forms, the outer lanceolate, 1.5 cm. long, 6 mm. wide, the inner

setaceous, | cm. long; umbel about 18-rayed, the rays 2.5 to 3 cm. long,

straight, densely rufo-tomentose, ebracteolate; ovary turbinate, densely

rufo-tomentose; sepals oblanceolate, about 2 em. long, 7 to 8 mm. wide,

dorsally corniculate near apex (horn 5 to 6 mm. long), sparingly rufo-pilo-

sulous or glabrous, blood-red; petals spatulate, subequal to sepals, barely 1.5

mm. wide in lower half, 5 to 6 mm. wide toward apex, rufo-tomentellous on

midrib dorsally, otherwise glabrous, green, brown-spotted; stamens 2 to 2.5

em. long, the anthers ovate, 3.5 mm. long, 2 mm. wide.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

562,472, collected in evergreen forest, Choimacota Valley, Province of Hu-

anta, Department of Ayacucho, Peru, altitude 2,800 to 2,900 meters, February

28 to March 10, 1926, by A. Weberbauer (no. 7559).

The only other species of Hubomarea with long-horned sepals are quite

different. Bomarea cornigera is glabrous throughout and has leaves not over

1.5 em. wide and an umbel of only 1 to 4 flowers. Bomarea cornuta has

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

December 24, 1931.

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 3

forked umbel rays, and is closely related to B. ovata. The proposed species is

probably allied to B. purpurea, from which it differs in the horned, propor-

tionately broader sepals and a scantier indument on the under surface of the

leaves.

Bomarea nematocaulon Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis tenuis subteres glaber ad apicem glanduloso-puberulus foliosus;

folia anguste oblonga vel lanceolato-oblonga, apice acuta et crassa, brevi-

petiolata parum revoluta 9-15-nervia supra glabra subtus in nervis pilis

crispatis hyalinis strigillosa; bracteae 3-4 foliis similes; umbellae 2-3-radiatae,

radiis glanduloso-puberulis 1-2-furcatis, bracteolis lineari-lanceolatis acumina-

tis revolutis; perianthium parvum, segmentis aequalibus; ovarium subglobo-

sum truncatum glanduloso-puberulum; sepala oblanceolata saepe mucronu-

lata extus ad basin glanduloso-pubescentia luteo-rubra; petala unguiculata

lutea ad apicem purpureo-maculata.

Vine; stem slender, wiry, subterete, glabrous, glandular-puberulent at tip,

leafy (internodes 1.5 to 3 cm. long); leaves narrowly oblong or lanceolate-

oblong, 1.5 to 3.5 em. long, 0.4 to 1 cm. wide, subacute and callous-thickened

at apex, rounded or rarely acutish at base, petiolate (petioles 2 to 5 mm.

long), slightly revolute, 9 to 15-nerved (nerves uniform, elevated on upper

surface, the cross-veins prominent), coriaceous, dark green, glabrous and

sublustrous above, paler beneath, strigillose with crispate hyaline hairs on the

nerves beneath; bracts 3 or 4, similar to the leaves; umbel compound, 2 or

3-rayed, the rays up to 4 cm. long, glandular-puberulent, once or twice forked,

bracteolate at the forks, the bracteoles linear-lanceolate, 5 to 8 mm. long,

up to 2 mm. wide, acuminate, revolute; flowers 1 to 1.5 em. long, the sepals

and petals equal; ovary subglobose, truncate, glandular-puberulent; sepals

oblanceolate, often mucronulate, proximally glandular-pubescent without,

otherwise glabrous, yellow-red; petals unguiculate, the claw and blade nearly

equal in length, yellow, blotched distally with purple; stamens 5 to 7 mm. long,

included, the anthers ovate-oblong, about 2 mm. long.

Type in the Field Museum of Natural History, no. 535,916, collected at

Playapampa, Department of Hudnuco, Peru, altitude about 2,800 meters,

June 16 to 24, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 4870). Duplicate in U. S.

National Herbarium.

This species belongs to the small group of Bomarea with relatively in-

conspicuous flowers in a compound umbel, of which B. salszlla L. is the best-

known representative. Bomarea nematocaulon is a more slender plant than

B. salsilla, the leaves are much thicker and have more numerous, more

prominent, uniform nerves, and the petals are differently marked. The

size and shape of the leaves and the small flowers suggest B. sclerophylla, a

plant of the simple-rayed group of Bomarea, which, in addition, has glabrous

leaves.

Bomarea angustissima Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis volubilis glaber; folia linearia caudato-acuminata subsessilia revo-

luta 7-9-nervia coriacea supra glabra subtus in nervis leviter pilosula; bracteae

lineari-lanceolatae reflexae; umbella 3-radiata, radiis arcuato-adscendentibus

FEB. 4, 1932 KILLIP: NEW SPECIES OF BOMAREA 61

glabris 1-2-furcatis, bracteolis lineari-lanceolatis acutis; ovarium turbinatum

glabrum; sepala oblanceolata obtusa; petala unguiculata sepala aequantia,

medio abrupte dilatata, apice suborbiculata, viridia, intus purpureo-

maculata.

Vine; stem subterete, tortuose, glabrous, light golden-brown; leaves linear,

8 to 10 em. long, 3 to 5 mm. wide, caudate-acuminate and tortuose at apex,

subsessile, strongly revolute, 7 or 9-nerved (nerves uniform), coriaceous,

glabrous and dark green above, finely pilosulous on the nerves and glaucescent

beneath; bracts linear-lanceolate, up to 1.5 cm. long and 2.5 mm. wide,

reflexed; umbel 3-rayed, compound, the rays 12 to 15 cm. long, arcuate-

ascending, purplish distally, glabrous, once or twice furcate, bracteolate at

forks, the bracteoles linear-lanceolate, 0.5 to 1 cm. long, acute; ovary tur-

binate, glabrous, gradually tapering to base; sepals oblanceolate, 2 cm. long,

7 to 8mm. wide, slightly cucullate, obtuse, proximally deep red, distally green;

petals unguiculate, as long as the sepals, abruptly dilated at middle, the upper

part suborbicular, about 1 cm. wide, green, purple-blotched within; stamens

about as long as the perianth, the anthers oblong, 5 mm. long.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

535,495, collected at Tambo de Vaca, Peru, altitude about 4,000 meters,

June 10 to 24, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 4409).

This is at once distinguished from all other Peruvian species of Bomarea

by its very long, narrow leaves.

Bomarea speciosa Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis volubilis crassus glaber; folia late lanceolata cuspidata plana ca.

60-nervia membranacea glabra; bracteae lineari-lanceolatae mox deciduae;

radii umbellae 10-12 crassi rufo-pilosuli viscidi 1 (raro 2)-furcati 1-bracte-

olati, bracteolis anguste oblongo-lanceolatis sessilibus; sepala oblanceolata

subconcava ad apicem crassiora extus tenuiter puberula; petala sepalis

subaequalia spathulata, extus alba et viridia puberula, intus alba, margine

viridia, ubique purpureo-maculata et -punctata.

Vine; stem stout, tortuose, glabrous; leaves broadly lanceolate, 15 to 20

cm. long, 4.5 to 5 em. wide, cuspidate-acuminate at apex, rounded at base,

petiolate (petiole stout, about 1 cm. long), not revolute, about 60-nerved

(nerves uniform), membranous, glabrous; bracts linear-lanceolate, about

2 cm. long, early deciduous; umbel compound, the primary rays 10 to 12,

about 15 em. long, stout, rufo-pilosulous, viscid, once or (rarely) twice furcate,

bearing at the forks a narrowly oblong-lanceolate, sessile, rufo-puberulent

bractlet up to 3 cm. long and 8 mm. wide, the secondary rays up to 6 cm.

long; sepals oblanceolate, 4 to 5 em. long, 8 to 10 mm. wide, slightly concave,

apically thickened, pink, finely puberulent without; petals spatulate, subequal

to the sepals, 12 to 15 mm. wide, the outside white proximally, green distally,

the midnerve pink, puberulent, the inside white, green at margin, blotched

and dotted with purple throughout; stamens and pistil subequal, slightly

shorter than the sepals; anthers oblong, about 4 mm. long; style cleft about

1 cm.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

534,773, collected in the montafia, Yanano, Department of Hudnuco, Peru,

altitude 1,800 meters, May 13 to 16, 1923, by J. F. Macbride (no. 3711).

Duplicate in U. S. National Herbarium.

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 3

This belongs to the group of Bomarea species having a compound inflor-

escence and the perianth segments subequal. The very large flowers indicate

an alliance with B. hookeriana, a plant with leaves densely strigillose beneath,

and with much shorter, more numerous umbel rays. This may be B. macro-

carpa, which I know only from Ruiz and Pavon’s description and figure, and

which has usually been considered a form of B. ovata. There are, however,

many points of difference between the Macbride specimen and the diagnosis

of B. macrocarpa.

Bomarea dolichocarpa Killip, sp. nov.

Caulis volubilis glaberrimus; folia lanceolata vel ovato-lanceolata, 25-30-

nervia, nervis alternis prominentibus, membranacea utrinque glabra vel subtus

in nervis tenuiter pilosa; radii primarii umbellae 3-6, 3-4-furcati bracteolati,

bracteolis lineari-lanceolatis; ovarium anguste obprismaticum plus quam

duplo longius quam latum, basi attenuatum glabrum vel leviter rufo-puberu-

lum; sepala oblonga obtusa; petala spathulato-unguiculata sepalis aequalia

vel parum breviora, ad basin rosea, ad apicem viridia purpureo-maculata.

Vine, with an elongate glabrous stem; petioles up to 1 em. long; leaves

lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, 10 to 15 cm. long, 1.5 to 3.5 em. wide, acute at

apex, subcuneate at base, 25 to 30-nerved (alternate nerves prominent),

membranous, glabrous throughout or finely pilose on the nerves beneath;

bracts similar to the leaves, smaller; umbel compound, the rays up to 25 em.

long, glabrous or finely pilosulous, the primary rays 3 to 6, 3 or 4 times forked,

bracteolate at forks with a linear-lanceolate bractlet up to 2 em. long at the

lowest fork, the upper bracteoles much smaller; ovary narrowly obprismatic,

more than twice as long as broad, attenuate at base, glabrous or finely rufo-

puberulent; sepals oblong, 2 to 3 cm. long, 6 to 9 mm. wide, obtuse, pink

proximally, green distally; petals spatulate-unguiculate, as long as or slightly

shorter than the sepals, 6 to 7 mm. wide, pink proximally, green and densely

purple-spotted distally; stamens 1.5 to 2 cm. long, the anthers ovate, 2.5 to

3 mm. long; fruit narrowly obprismatic, 3.5 to 4 em. long, 1.3 to 1.5 cm.

wide, attenuate at base, apparently 1-celled.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,460,267, collected at Puerto

Yessup, Department of Junin, Peru, altitude 400 meters, July 10, 1929,

by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 26306). Duplicates at New York

Botanical Garden and Field Museum.

Additional specimens examined.—

Peru: San Martin: San Roque, 1,350 to 1,500 meters, L. Williams 7022,

7326, 7771, 7679. Loreto: Puerto Arturo, near Yurimaguas, L. Walliams

5290.

All these specimens have an elongate slender ovary, which becomes an

elongate fruit nearly 4 cm. long, noticeably tapering to the pedicel. Because

of its compound inflorescence, with the perianth segments subequal, the

species obviously is related to B. ovata, a fact borne out by the coloring of the

flowers. Bomarea ovata is the earliest described of the species of Alstroemerza

now referred to Bomarea. It shows a good deal of variation and the list of

names synonymous with B. ovata is a long one. Possibly one of these names

applies to the species here proposed, but I have seen type material or illustra-

FEB. 4, 1932 MORTON: NEW SPECIES OF HYMENOPHYLLUM 63

tions of most of these earlier species and none of them show the characteristic

ovary of B. dolichocarpa.

BOTANY.—A new species of Hymenophyllum from Peru. C. V.

Morton, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by WiLLI1AM

R. Maxon).

Mr. C. Bis, of Quillabamba, Peru, has collected many very interest-

ing Peruvian ferns. A considerable number of these have been

received by the U. 8. National Museum through the kindness of

Professor Fortunato L. Herrera, of the University of Cuzco. Included

in the collection is a remarkable species of Hymenophyllum, here

described as new.

Hymenophyllum amabile Morton, sp. nov.

Fig. 1

Euhymenophyllym; rhizoma longe repens parce ramosum fuscum 0.5 mm.

diametro, pilis furcatis flavidis flaccidis pluricellularibus instructum, radicibus

numerosis; stipites 2.5-6 cm. longi, 0.5 mm. diametro, teretes nec alati nigri

nitidi dense pubescentes, pilis fuscescentibus stellatis stipitatis, demum

glabrata; rhachis recta, teres, haud alata, 0.5 mm. diametro, pilis densissimis

eis stipitis similibus; laminae pendulae lineares, 21-35 cm. longae, 3-4 cm.

latae, pinnatae, pinnis pinnatipartitis; pinnae ovatae vel oblongae, maximae

2.5 cm. longae et 1.5 cm. latae, apicem versus gradatim reductae, sessiles,

paullo decurrentes, haud surcurrentes, margine venisque densissime griseo-

ferrugineo-pubescentes, pilis stipitatis ramis numerosis stellatis, rhachibus

venisque vix flexuosis nigris; lamellae desunt; segmenta inferiora pinnati-

partita, superiora semel furcata vel integra; segmenta ultima oblonga, maxima

4 mm. longa, omnia ca. 1 mm. lata, obtusa nec emarginata, nervis apicem

non attingentibus, simplicia vel semel furcata; sori in lobulis extremis haud

abbreviatis terminales; indusium non immersum, ad basin bilobum, lobis

transverse ovalibus, ca. 0.6 mm. altum, 1 mm. latum, tenuissime membrana-

ceum, fragile, margine integrum, extus densissime pubescens et ciliatum,

pilis stellatis; sporangia numerosa in apicibus capitatis receptaculorum.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,515,445, collected at Michi-

huafiuncca, Huadquifia, Prov. de la Convencién, Dept. Cuzco, Peru, alt.

3,000 meters, December, 1920, by C. Biies (no. 715).

Hymenophyllum amabile belongs to the H. serzceum group of species. It is

distinguished at once from that species and its relatives H. tomentosum, H.

pyramidatum, H. lobato-alatum, H. fusugasugense, and H. plumosum by the

absence of wings on the secondary rhachises and veins. The remaining

species of the group are H. pulchellum, H. karstenianum, H. chrysothriz, H.

spectabile, H. refrondescens, H. speciosum, H. buchtientt, H. elegantulum, H.

sprucet, H. trichophyllum, and H. interruptum. The last four named are

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

December 24, 1931.

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22,.No.13

UNITED STATES NATIONAL Museum

PLAMTS OF PERU

Fig. 1. Hymenophyllum amabile Morton, type specimen. Slightly less than one

half natural size.

FEB. 4, 1932 GALTSOFF: SPAWNING REACTIONS OF OYSTERS 65

quite unrelated to the present species. The close, fine pubescence of H.

karstenianum, H. spectabile, and H. speciosum, in which the individual hairs

are not apparent except under magnification, is very different from the coarse

pubescence of H. amabzle, in which the individual hairs are prominent. All

three of these species differ from ours also in their elongate, acuminate (rather

than ovate or oblong, obtuse) pinnae. AH. buchtienzz Rosenst. and H. pul-

chellum C. & 8S. have pubsecence somewhat similar to the present species,

but the hairs are less coarse and are sessile or only short-stipitate, in contrast

to those of H. amabile which are long-stipitate. H. bucht:eni (from Bolivia)

is moreover a much smaller and more delicate plant with non-decurrent

pinnae. H. pulchellum has a very different range (Mexico) and differs in

several particulars from the present species, especially in its smaller size and

less divided, petiolate (rather than sessile) pinnae. JH. refrondescens Sod., of

Ecuador, differs conspicuously in its alate rhachises and adnate pinnae;

it is known to me from description only. H. amabile has terete non-alate

rhachises and nearly free pinnae, i.e. not at all surcurrent and only slightly

decurrent. Hymenophyllum chrysothrix Sturm, a little known species of

Venezuela and Brazil, is perhaps most closely related, differing in its finer,

less dense pubescence, broadly lanceolate (rather than linear) blade, petiolate

(not at all decurrent) pinnae, and subimmersed indusia. The indusium of

H. amabile is not at all immersed in the leaf tissue.

ZOOLOGY .—Spawning reactions of three species of oysters.1 Pau S.

GALTSoFF, U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries.

Since 1927 the author has been engaged in a study of the factors

that control the shedding of eggs and sperm of the eastern oyster,

Ostrea virginica. In 1929 the opportunity presented itself to experi-

ment with the Japanese oyster, O. gigas, grown in Puget Sound, and

during the summer of 1930 several experiments were carried out with

the Australian oyster, O. cucullata, and O. virginica grown in the waters

near Honolulu, T. H. A complete report of these investigations

comprising nearly four hundred experiments will be published in the

Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries.

The technique employed in all the experiments consisted in placing

the oyster in a tank of about 20 or 30 liter capacity, in which the water

was aerated, stirred and kept at constant temperature. In the

majority of the experiments the thermo-regulators were set at 22.5°C.

and they maintained this temperature within 0.5°C. The oyster was

immobilized with plaster of Paris and one of its valves was attached to a

light kymograph lever made of a strip of celluloid. It has been shown

1 Published by permission of the U.S. Commissioner of Fisheries. Received January

5, 1932.

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 3

in a previous paper? that spawning of the female oyster consists of a

series of the following reactions: contractions of the mantle, rhythmi-

cal contractions of the adductor muscle, and discharge of eggs. Rhyth-

mical contractions of the muscle enable one’ to obtain a permanent

record which can be easily analyzed. The results of a large number

of experiments with O. virginica carried in 1927-1929 show that no

spawning occurs below 20.0°C., whereas the same specimen reacts

to the same suspension of sperm as soon as, the temperature has been

brought above 20.0°. In a few instances it has been noticed that

oysters spawned at 27.5° without being stimulated by sperm. Inas-

much as in those cases unfiltered water was used the possibility of its

contamination with sperm was not excluded. In the experiments with

O. gigas it has been found that a ripe female oyster can be induced to

spawn by a temperature of 30.0°C. The question naturally arises

whether the same results could not be obtained with the other species.

During the summer of 1931 experiments were carried out at Woods

Hole with ripe oysters which were kept in aquaria at a temperature

of about 20.0°C. To avoid possible contamination the water used in

the experiments was filtered through a layer of asbestos about three

quarters of aninch thick. The results of the experiments, summarized

in Table 1, indicate without any doubt that ripe females can be induced

to spawn by placing them in water having a temperature from 24.5°

to 30.0°C. At 31.0°C. the females usually close their valves and

remain closed until the temperature drops to 30° or 29°.

The latent periods of spawning reactions, i.e. the time elapsed from

the moment the oyster was exposed to a given temperature until the

beginning of spawning, varies from 22 to 257 minutes and apparently

is not correlated with the temperature, the quickness of the response

probably depending on the conditions of the organism itself. In a

series of other experiments which can not be described in a brief

article, the females which failed to respond to high temperature

(26°-30°C.) readily responded to the addition of sperm. In all the

experiments recorded in Table 1 the eggs discharged by the oysters

were unfertilized and did not develop. The fact that the females can

be stimulated by a temperature of 24.5° or higher suggested the

possibility that a similar effect might be obtained by a longer exposure

to temperatures between 20.0° and 24.5°C. The results of a long

number of experiments, of which only three will be here described,

2 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sei. 16: 555-559. 1930.

FEB. 4, 1932 GALTSOFF: SPAWNING REACTIONS OF OYSTERS 67

show that this is very doubtful. On July 10 three ripe females were

taken from the tank, in which the temperature during the previous

week fluctuated between 18.5° and 19.5°C., and placed in an aquarium

filled with filtered sea water. The temperature was kept at 22.6°C.

but occasionally rose to 23.4°C. The shell movement of each oyster

was recorded on the kymograph. ‘The first oyster was kept for 5

hours 22 minutes, the second for 29 hours 53 minutes, and the third

one for 73 hours 13 minutes. ‘The water in the tanks in which the

second and third oysters were kept was changed twice a day. None

of the oysters spawned during that time but each of them spawned

after sperm was added to the water the latent periods being 16, 24

and 15 minutes respectively.

TABLE 1.—SPAWNING REACTIONS OF THE FEMALES OF O. VIRGINICA INDUCED

BY TEMPERATURE

Temperature °C. z

: Duration of

Latent period SEE

Date in 1931 Experiment No. in minutes

Before During minutes

experiment experiment

July 10 320 19.5 24.5 65 43

9 321 19.9 25.0 22 118

f 317 19.9 25.3 250 46

9 322 19.9 26.0 257 38

8 318 19.9 28.0 32 25

8 319 19.9 28.5 55 44

17 340 20.4 30.0 20 ?

320 19.9 30.0 42 52

It is interesting to note that in both cases of stimulation either by

the temperature or by the sperm the reaction is alike and is character-

ized by a series of rhythmical contractions of the adductor muscle and

of the mantle. From that an inference can be made that both factors

release some mechanism in the organism of the female which in turn

stimulates the adductor muscle and causes the discharge of eggs from

the ovary. In this respect the reaction is not specific. It is, however,

specific in the sense that sperm of other mollusks (Mya spp., Mytilus

spp.) fail to induce spawning of the oyster. No positive results were

obtained also when the sperm of O. cucullata was added to the female

of O. virginica and vice versa. The last experiments are not conclusive,

however, because of the failure of the specimens used in the experi-

ments to spawn immediately upon the addition of the sperm of the

same species. A few days later the shedding of eggs was successfully

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 3

stimulated by adding sperm of the same species. Attempts to fertilize

eggs of O. cucullata by sperm of O. virginica and vice versa were unsuc-

cessful. There was no formation of the fertilization membrane and

no cleavage, whereas in the controls the eggs developed fairly well.

The spawning reaction of the male consists in a discharge of sperm

which is carried away by the stream of water produced by the gill

epithelium. The reaction is much simpler than it is in the female;

it does not involve the adductor muscle and therefore can not be

recorded on a kymograph. The males respond to the increase in

temperature more readily than the females and often spawn in the

tanks when the temperature reaches 24°C. Similar to the spawning

of the females the shedding of sperm can be easily provoked by the

addition of a few drops of egg suspension or egg water. Unlike the

female in which the latent period lasts for several minutes the latent

period of the spawning reaction of the male is of brief duration. It

lasts only a few seconds. The reaction can be repeated many times

until the male is spent. In case of O. gigas the males respond to egg

suspension even when the water has been cooled to 12.5°C.

In 1930 several experiments with the two species of oysters, O.

virginica and O. cucullata, were performed at Honolulu. The males

failed to respond to the addition of sperm of another species but

immediately reacted by discharging sperm to the addition of eggs of

the same species. These results indicate very clearly the specificity of

the response of the male to the presence of eggs. It would be very

interesting to extend these experiments to other species of oysters the

taxonomic characters of which, as for example those of O. virginica

and O. angulata, are rather indistinct. There is no doubt that physi-

ological differences that might be found would help in determining the

validity of the present definitions of various species of the genus

Ostrea.

Besides being stimulated by the temperature and egg suspension

the males of O. virginica can be stimulated also by sperm. In that

case the latent period of the reaction is approximately of the same

duration as it is in the case of the stimulation of the female. A

probable explanation is that the active principle of sperm suspension,

being insoluble in the sea water, acts upon the organism through the

digestive tract.

From a biological point of view stimulation of spawning either by

the temperature or by the sperm and egg suspension is of great interest.

It provides a mechanism which insures successful propagation of the

FEB. 4, 1932 BARTSCH: A NEW LAND SHELL 69

species. Should the temperature of the water fail to reach the effective

point which would induce shedding of eggs by the females, still the

spawning of the latter could be provoked by the sperm discharged

by the males which are more susceptible to the increase in tempera-

ture. In most of the cases observed by the author when several

oysters were kept together, the males spawned first and induced the

shedding of eggs by the females. The process, once started, spreads by

mutual stimulation of the two sexes throughout the whole oyster bed

and results in simultaneous spawning of the oyster population.

MALACOLOGY.—A new land shell of the genus Rhiostoma from Siam.!

Paut Bartscu, U.S. National Museum.

Dr. Hugh M. Smith, Fisheries Adviser to His Majesty’s Govern-

ment, Bangkok, Siam, has sent to me for determination a magnificent

specimen of Rhiostoma, which he collected at Kao Sabap, south-

eastern Siam, June 28, 1931, at an elevation of 450 meters.

Rhiostomas are ground-dwelling mollusks that frequent leaf mulch,

burying themselves beneath such debris, and coming to the surface

on moist days. Among a dozen or more known species of Rhiostoma,

the present one has only one rival for size, namely, Rhiostoma hainesi

Pfeiffer, from which it is at once distinguished by its lesser number of

whorls, Rhiostoma smitht having but 5, while Rhiostoma hainesi has 7.

Rhiostoma smithi, n. sp.

Fig. 1

The shell is depressed helicoid, excepting the last two-fifths of the last turn

which are solute, and which are deflected outward and downward. The

under surface is openly umbilicated, all the whorls showing within the umbili-

cus. The early turns are straw-colored, the later whorls tending to pale

olivaceous brown. In the type there are no color markings beyond this except

an occasional darker varicial streak. (On the two paratypes, however, we

have a subperipheral zone of chestnut brown and fine narrow axial vermicula-

tions of brown. These, however, are not very conspicuous.) The early

whorls are sufficiently eroded on the upper surface to make it impossible to

differentiate the termination of the nuclear portion in the three specimens

before us. ‘The sculpture begins to show on the last half of the second whorl;

from there on the shell is covered by a moderately thick periostracum. The

sculpture of the shell consists of numerous, slender, threadlike wrinkles which

assume almost the strength of slender lamellae on the summit of the whorls

near the suture where they have been protected. This in reality represents

projecting portions of the periostracum. These incremental threads are

closely approximated and are of somewhat varying strength. They give to

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

December 18, 1931.

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 3

the surface of the shell a decidedly wrinkled appearance. What is said of

the sculpture on the dorsal surface also obtains on the under side of the shell,

the lines of growth extending into the umbilicus. The solute portion of the

last whorl shows a feeble carina, corresponding to the posterior angle of the

aperture, which is rendered conspicuous by the fact that the periostracum

here is worn and leaves a white streak. This carina terminates anteriorly

in the ear of the peristome The aperture is circular; the peristome is double,

forming an ear or anteriorly open tube at the posterior angle of the aperture.

This ear is rather short. The outer peristome is conspicuously expanded

from the ear to the middle of the basal lip, becoming decidedly narrow on the

parietal wall. The inner peristome projects slightly above the outer and is

very slightly reflected. Both of them contribute to the production of the ear.

The operculum forms a multispiral elevated cone, which is slightly concave

in the middle on the outside. There are more than 14 whorls to the oper-

culum. ‘The outer portion of the operculum consists of an oblique calcareous

lamina, which is spirally disposed and which bears on its outer surface a

brownish periostracum which extends for a distance equaling the width of

the lamella, beyond this being cut up into ragged fringes. The inside of the

operculum is deeply cupped.

Fig. 1. Rhiostoma smithi

The type, U. S. N. M. No. 382943, has 5 whorls, and measures: Altitude,

20.3 mm.; greater diameter, 34.5 mm.; lesser diameter, 21.0 mm.

Two paratypes, U.S. N. M. No. 382944, have each 5 whorls, and measure:

Altitude, 21 mm., 19.8 mm.; greater diameter, 34 mm., 32.3 mm.; lesser

diameter, 22.3 mm., 20.2 mm., respectively.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

243D MEETING

The 243d meeting of the ACADEMY was a joint meeting with the Washington

Society of Engineers and the District of Columbia Section of the American

Society of Civil Engineers, and was held in the Auditorium of the Interior

Department Building, on Thursday, November 19, 1931. About 200 persons

were present. President Cozs called the meeting to order at 8:20 P.M., and

turned the chair over to Dr. R. 8. Patron, Director of the Coast and Geodetic

Survey who introduced as speaker of the evening, Professor JyoJI SUYEHIRO,

Director of the Earthquake Research Institute of The Tokyo Imperial

University, who delivered an illustrated address, an abstract of which follows:

FEB. 4, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 71

Program: J.SuyEHr1ro: Engineering aspects of earthquake research in Japan.

Two subjects were covered in this lecture—the Idu earthquake of November

26, 1929, and the effect of vibrations on buildings. The earthquake menace

is accentuated in Japan because of the dense population but in fact very

strong shocks occur only about once in 30 years. The numerous fore and

after-shocks are often strong enough, however, to cause damage. Asa result

of the very great importance of these shocks to the people of Japan the interest

of the Earthquake Research Institute, which was founded after the destruc-

tive shock of 1923, has been primarily directed towards local shocks rather

than teleseismic shocks.

While the 1929 shock was in no way comparable with the great disaster of

1923, 261 persons lost their lives and 2,000 houses were destroyed. The shock

is believed to have originated in the 30 km. long Tanna fault running north

and south near the middle of the peninsula. A northward displacement of

three feet is found on the east side of the fault. A large tunnel which crosses

the fault was under construction at the time. No very serious damage

occurred though the minor fault lines crossed the tunnel in about six different

places. The ground through which the tunnel runs is mostly volcanic ash

with some rock intrusion. Special instruments were installed to measure the

minute slipping which continued after the main shock.

Fore shocks began 19 days in advance. Seven hundred and eighty-nine

shocks were recorded in one day and 4,000 over a period of 56 days. Tilt

measurements in this case showed nothing which could have been considered

as predicting an earthquake. ‘This may be related to the fact that the mo-

tion was chiefly horizontal. It happened that a line of levels was being run

on the day before the earthquake in one direction and was repeated on the

day afterwards but showed no difference. ‘The change across the main fault

was 20 cm. ‘Triangulation results are not yet available. Seismographs in

the tunnel and outside, constructed of stainless steel on account of the mois-

ture, gave similar records except that small short-period vibrations on the

outside instruments did not show up on the underground records.

For the purpose of studying the effects of earthquakes on buildings the

latter are divided into three classes—strong, fairly strong, and weak. In the

case of strong buildings the record made at the top of the building agreed

very closely with that of the ground. In fairly strong buildings the simi-

larity was not so marked while in weak buildings the record at the top showed

almost entirely the natural period of the building and not the earthquake

effect.

The inference to be drawn is that in designing buildings both forced and

free vibrations must be considered. The view was expressed that the fate of

a building is decided in the first 10 seconds of the shock. It is also felt in

Japan that accelerations corresponding to periods of less than 1/3 second need

not be considered in the study of strong earthquake motions as they are con-

sidered to be within the elastic limits of most structures. The opinion was

further expressed that, while there is no real basis for adopting the maximum

acceleration at any given percentage of g, such a practice with a properly

adopted factor of safety is about the best that can be done until our knowledge

becomes more complete.

CHARLES THoM, Recording Secretary.

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 3

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

ANDREW THOMSON, previously aerologist for the Meteorological Service

of New Zealand and for some years director of the Apia Observatory, has been

appointed meteorologist in the Canadian Meteorological Service.

Dr. FrepEeRIcK V. CoviLue, Curator of the Division of Plants of the

National Museum, was recently awarded the George Robert White Gold

Medal of Honor by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for distinction in

botanical fields.

At the thirty-ninth annual meeting of the Geological Society of Wash-

ington, held December 9, 1931, the following officers were elected: President,

F. E. Matrues; Vice-Presidents, F. L. Hess and H. G. Frere@uson; Secre-

taries, J. F. ScuHarreR and W. H. Bravery; Treasurer, C. WytHE CooKE;

Members-at-large of the Council, E. P. Hmnprerson, T. B. Nouan, FRANK

REEVES, C. E. Ressrr, and F. G. WELLS.

The Pick and Hammer Club met at the Geological Survey January 15.

H. D. Miser discussed the conduct of the fifth annual field conference of the

Kansas Geological Society; R. H. Sarcent described the work of topographers

of the Geological Survey in Alaska and showed many colored slides; Jostau

BrirpGE showed three reels of motion pictures of geologists at work in the

southern Appalachians and other regions.

At a special meeting of the Pick and Hammer Club held at the Geological

Survey, January 21, Dr. F. A. Ventna MEINeEsz, professor of geodesy at the

University of Utrecht, told of his work in a submarine on determinations of

gravity at sea in the East and West Indies.

At the annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association held

at Andover, Mass., December 28 and 29, 1931, Dr. Joun R. Swanton of the

Bureau of American Ethnology was elected president for the ensuing year;

Dr. Joon M. Cooper, Professor of Anthropology in the Catholic University

of America, was reelected secretary, and Dr. Frank H. H. Roserrts of the

Bureau of American Ethnology was made an associate editor of the American

Anthropologist, the organ of the association.

The Cosmos Club on January 18 elected officers as follows: Jonn H.

Hanna, President; ARTHUR L. Day, Vice-President; D. L. Hazarp, Secretary;

GrorGE E. FLEMING, Treasurer; HENRY GRATTAN Dore, Henry C. FULLER,

and Neitz M. Jupp, Managers to serve until 1935; Joan H. MacCrackeEn,

Detos H. Smitru, and Joun VAN RENSSELAER, Members of the Committee on

Admissions; Victor 8. CLARK, KE. DANA DuRAND, and J. WILMER LATIMER,

Members of the Endowment Fund Committee.

H. W. Krigcer, Curator of Ethnology, National Museum, left January 16

for the West Indies, where he will investigate shell heaps and other aborigi-

nal remains on the islands of San Salvador and Cuba.

eae

] :

i |

OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND |

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES |

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS

Friday, February 5 The Geographic Society : ;

Saturday, February 6 The Biological Society | \

Tuesday, February 9 The Electrical Engineers |

Wednesday, February 10 The Geological Society |

The Medical Society |

Thursday, February 11 The Chemical Society

Friday, February 12 The Geographic Society \

Saturday, February 13 The Philosophical Society 3

Tuesday, February 16 The Anthropological Society |

The Historical Society |

Wednesday, February 17 The Washington Society of Panes |

| | The Medical Society |

_ Thursday, February 18 The Academy

Friday, February 19 The Geographic Society

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: L. H. ApaAms, Geophysical Laboratory.

Corresponding Secretary: Pau E. Hower, Bureau of Animal Industry.

Recording Secretary: CHARLES THOM, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey

ee. enna

Ison ear. sees

a: HEP wp ot

3 Rk ;

a Py

el a a

-_ <a

ORIGINAL PAPERS

Chemistry.—Synthesis of a humus-nucleus, an t

soils, peats and composts. Swuman A. WAKsMAN and K, *

Physical Geography.—The classification of peat soils. 5

STOMNE. «iid ui trsara peste das tae tk

Botany.—Five new species of Bomarea from Peru. Eutsworra P. P

Botany.—A new species of Hymenophyllum from Peru. C. v.

Zoology.—Spawning reactions of three species of oysters. P. 8.

Malacology.—A new land shell of the genus Rhiostoma from Siam.

PROCEEDINGS

The ACADMMY. (. 0.644, ss2sarensKin ta to tymap en grees ete vas een

Pants? ane

ScrentiFic NOTES AND Newe2s-si2ccin tw oceeiys age ene eee Fc}

This JourNat is indexed in the International Index to

PV ou 22 - Fepruary 19, 1932

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Hues L. DrypEn CHARLES DRECHSLER Wiumot H. BrRapLEY

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ASSOCIATE EDITORS

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 22 Fresruary 19, 1932 No. 4

MATHEMATICS.—A comparison of certain symmetrical growth

curves... CHARLES P. Winsor. (Communicated by RAYMOND

PEARL. )

In recent years much has been written on the mathematical repre-

sentation of growth, both of organisms and of populations. Various

equations have been used for the purpose, either selected empirically

or derived from more or less rational biological considerations. In

particular the equation

y = os (1)

1+e

derived by Verhulst, and by him called the logistic, has been used

extensively. (For full references, see Pearl (5)). As is well known,

this curve has asymptotes y = 0 and y = k, no point of zero slope

between the asymptotes, and a point of inflection when y = //2.

It is of course clear that there are many other curves which possess

similar properties. The question has been raised (among others, by

Bowley (2) and Davies (3) as to why the use of the logistic should be

preferable to that of the integrated normal curve.

In general the choice of a mathematical function to represent ob-

served data is influenced by two different considerations. We may

have, or think we have, a priori knowledge of the mechanics of the

phenomenon, from which we may deduce that the data should follow

a certain law. More often, in biological work, the underlying causes

and their mode of action are so obscure that we are in no position to

make sound deductions about laws; we have to infer our law from the

observations. We shall, under such conditions, probably be guided

1 From the Department of Biology of the School of Hygiene and Public Health of the

Johns Hopkins University. Received January 2, 1932.

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 4

by some such considerations as these: (1) we want a function which is

mathematically simple, both in its functional form and in the number

of arbitrary constants involved; (2) the function must reproduce the

observations with reasonable fidelity; (3) the function must not lead

to absurdities on extrapolation. Obviously, these considerations are

not sufficient, in the mathematical sense; different workers will

interpret them differently, and it may be quite impossible to reconcile

differences of opinion which may arise. |

In the particular case which interests us here, we seem to be faced

with just this kind of problem. There is little understanding or

agreement as to the underlying mechanism of growth; there is a con-

siderable body of data on growing individuals and growing popula-

tions. In particular, it has been found that many sets of growth data

can be fitted, more or less closely, with logistic curves. But clearly

this does not exclude the possibility that they might be as well, or

better, fitted with some other curve.

It is the primary purpose of the present paper to make a mathe-

matical comparison of certain symmetrical curves, not with observa-

tional material, but with each other, with a view to determining how

different in form they actually are. Clearly whether it is actually

possible to discriminate between functions on the basis of goodness of

fit to observations will depend in part on the differences between the

curves themselves, and in part on the regularity or irregularity of the

observations. It is useful to compare the curves as curves, since we

can then form an opinion as to whether observational material is

likely to be regular enough to furnish an adequate test of one hypoth-

esis aS against another.

The particular curves which will be considered here are the logistic,

the integrated normal curve, the are-tangent curve, and the integrated

Pearson Type VII curve.2. The equations to these curves are:

Logistic: ==) anaes ay 1

g Yr 1 it : b ( )

Integrated Normal : i ae (2)

ntegrate Onmal oe. &— ee — € x

Z 2 NOG J- ©

k - k;

Arc-tangent: Ui. ae walt (7—*) AF 5 (3)

* There are of course many other symmetrical growth curves which might with equal

reason be used: e.g., y = K tan 1% +6

FEB. 19, 1932 WINSOR: A COMPARISON OF GROWTH CURVES 75

Integrated Type VII: y, = me (1 a. ol dx (4)

For purposes of comparison, we shall make the upper asymptote

unity for all curves; and we shall choose the time origin at the point of

inflection. This will leave us one constant in each of the first three

curves, and two in the Pearson curve, to be determined. Further, it

is convenient to set ¢ = 1 in the integrated normal curve, since this

enables us to read its ordinates direct from Sheppard’s Table. This

throws our equations into the form:

Logistic: y, = ares a)

Integrated Normal: yy = oe i : e ** dex @»

Arc-tangent: Ua = ~ tan” (=) +4 (3”)

Integrated Type VII: y, = AE ‘i i (1 + =) ve (4’)

The natural method to follow in fixing the values of the constants of

these equations would be the method of least squares; this, however,

involves us in difficult integrations, and it is questionable how far the

results obtained would be of value in practice.? The method of

moments is perhaps the next that occurs to one; naturally not the

moments of the curves themselves, but of their first derivatives. This

method may be followed for comparing equations (1), (2), and (4);

but in the case of the arc-tangent curve the second moment of the

derivative is infinite.

We may also determine the constants by fixing the points of inter-

section of the curves. ‘This will be simple in the case of all but equa-

tion (4). We shall arbitrarily set the points of intersection at

y =%,y =3,y = 2. By symmetry, an intersection at y =(4 — a)

determines an intersection at y = (5 +a).

In practice, we are dealing only with a finite segment of the curve, and in general |

only with that portion where growth is active; but a least squares solution gives equal

weight to differences wherever they occur.

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 4

We shall have then two comparisons: (A) equations (1), (2), and

(4) compared by the method of moments, and (B) ede (iy (2);

and (3) compared by fixing points of intersection at y = ae

Oo ae

We obtain the following equations:

Comparison A.

Logistic: Yr = Lena

1 v — i 72

Integrated Normal: yy = z= 4 6 ae

Pou x ; ee i

Integrated T Vik: aS — raved | € =) Pe

ntegrated lLype Yp a5 A/T JI x = - (

Comparison B.

Logistic: Y, = ee

Integrated Normal: yy = ror a e*” dr

27 J—o

Are-tangent: Yr = St pail ( z ) + 3

T .67449

Tables 1 and 2 show the ordinates of each of these curves for com-

parisons A and B respectively; Figures 1 and 2 show the course of the

the curves graphically. It will be noted that the Type VII curve

gives a much closer fit to the logistic than the normal curve; this,

of course, is to be expected, since we have equated one more moment.

It will also be observed that in comparison B we have a distinctly

closer agreement between the normal curve and the logistic than

in Comparison A, over that part of the growth cycle that is of

greatest interest to us. We may infer that the method of moments

is not the best method for use in this particular case; and that per-

haps a still better fit would be obtained by the method of least squares.‘

The comparison may be made in another way, which may be of

interest. Values of HE al

plotted on semi-log paper give a straight

4 Subject to the consideration in the previous foot-note.

FEB. 19,1932 WINSOR: A COMPARISON OF GROWTH CURVES 77

arsed

tions, we shall have curves which approach a straight line more or

less closely as the curves themselves approach the logistic more or

line if y follows a logistic. If we plot values of for other equa-

TABLE 1.—Comparison OF INTEGRATED NORMAL, LOGISTIC, AND INTEGRATED TYPE

VII Curves. Constants DETERMINED BY MetHop or MOMENTS

x Integrated Normal Logistic Integrated Type VII

0 . 9000 .5000 .9000

2 .5793 .5897 . 0871

4 .6554 .6738 .6695

6 1250 7481 7433

8 | .7881 .8102 .8060

1.0 8413 .8598 .8569

i Ble .8849 .8981 . 8966

1.4 .9192 .9269 .9266

1.6 .9452 .9479 .9485

£78 9641 .9632 . 9642

2.0 .9772 9741 .9752

De, 9861 .9818 .9829

2.4 .9918 .9873 . 9882

2.6 .9953 .9911 .9919

2.8 .9974 .9938 .9944

3.0 .9987 .9957 .9961

TABLE 2.—Comparison OF INTEGRATED NORMAL, LoGisTic, AND ARC-TANGENT

Curves. PorInts or INTERSECTION AT y = 3, y = 3, yY = ?

z Integrated Normal Logistic Arc-tangent

0 .5000 .5000 . 9000

2 .5793 . 5806 .9958

A .6554 .6571 .6704

6 aT P45i . 1262 .7314

8 .7881 . 7859 iene

1.0 .8413 .8356 .8111

1:2 .8849 . 8756 .8370

1.4 .9192 . 9069 .8571

1.6 .9452 .9309 .8730

18 .9641 .9491 8859

2.0 9772 .9627 .8965

2? .9861 .9728 .9053

2.4 .9918 .9802 .9128

2.6 .9953 .9856 .9192

2.8 .9974 .9896 .9248

3.0 .9987 .9924 .9296

In these tables ordinates have been tabulated only for positive values of x; for

negative values of z, the ordinate y_z. = 1 — yz.

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 4

less closely. Figure 3 shows the values (tas for the curves in

comparison B.

— Logistic

------~ (tegrated Normal

——ntegrated Type VI

BLE, ~2 -/ a +/ +2 +3

Fig. 1. Logistic, Integrated Normal, and Integrated Type VII curves. Equating

moments.

=3 =2 =/ 0 +/ +2 +3

Fig. 2. Logistic, Integrated Normal, and Arc-tangent Curves. Points of Inter-

section Fixed.

FEB. 19,1932 WINSOR: A COMPARISON OF GROWTH CURVES io

From the discussion above, it appears that the logistic and the

integrated normal curve are so nearly similar as to suggest a question

as to whether one could discriminate between them on the basis of

experimental data. It will be noted that the maximum difference in

corresponding ordinates is of the order of 1.5 per cent of the asymptote;

and an examination of published observational data will show but

little material approaching this order of accuracy. The data of

lame]

Fig. 3. Values of

for Logistic, Integrated Normal, and Arc-tangent Curves, on

arithlog paper.

Carlson (1) on growth of yeast, which have been worked over by

Pearl (4) and Schultz (6), are, however, sufficiently regular and

sufficiently extensive to suggest an attempt at a graduation com-

parison.

Fitting by the method of least squares, we obtain equations as

follows:

662.88

Logistic: Up jai pi vabe = BA = (5)

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 4

658.38 ( _3 (z= 2):

RiGat wy Oe (6)

Integrated Normal: yy, =

Table 3 shows the results of the graduation by these two equations.

It will be observed that not merely does the logistic give a better fit,

as indicated by the quadratic mean error, but that there is distinctly

more tendency to systematic deviations in the case of the normal curve.

TABLE 3.—ComMPARISON OF LOGISTIC AND INTEGRATED NORMAL CurRvEs FITTED TO

GROWTH OF YEAST

Calculated Deviations from observations

Time in hours Observed» SU

x Yobs Logistic Normal Logistic Normal

YL YN. Yobs — YL Yobs — YN

0 9.6 9.05 3.69 + .55 +5.91

1 18.3 15.51 8.95 +2.79 +9.35

2 29.0 26.38 19.62 +2 .62 +9.38

3 47 .2 44 36 39.31 +2.84 +7.89

4 pis odd 71.90 —2.07 —0.80

5 119.1 117.16 120.48 +1.94 —1.38

6 174.6 179.54 185.40 —4.94 —10.80

t 257.3 259.35 263 .94 —2.05 —6.64

8 350.7 349 02 348.88 +1.68 +1.82

9 441.0 436.17 432.03 +4.83 +8.97

10 513.3 509.74 504.78 +3.56 +8.52

11 559.7 564.82 562 .26 —5.12 —2.56

12 594.8 602.41 603 .34 —7.61 —8.54

13 629.4 626.54 629.48 +2 .86 —0.08

14 640.8 641.38 644.29 —0.58 —3.49

15 OSL 650.29 652 .39 +0.81 —1.29

16 655.9 655.54 656.01 +0.36 =O). Ti

17 659.6 658 . 60 657 . 52 = +2.08

18 661.8 660. 40 658.12 +1.40 +3.68

Sum of squares of deviations = 194.88 415.20

Quadratic mean error = 3.49 6.69

5 Data from Carlson’s (1) Table VIII.

It seems clear that in this instance, at least, the logistic is essentially

a better growth curve than the integrated normal.

It does not appear worth while to attempt a comparison with the

arc-tangent curve or with the integrated Type VII curve. The

arc-tangent curve will not even approximately fit the data; the Type

VII curve will perhaps give a good fit, but only at the cost of an un-

warranted amount of effort.

FEB. 19,1932 WINSOR: A COMPARISON OF GROWTH CURVES 81

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

From a comparison of the logistic equation with those for the arc-

tangent curve and the integrated normal curve, it appears that the

logistic and normal curves are of closely similar shape, and that both

differ widely from the arc-tangent curve. It also appears that the

logistic curve describes the growth of a population of yeast cells with

distinctly greater accuracy than does the integrated normal curve.

I wish to thank Dr. Raymond Pearl, at whose suggestion this paper

was written, for his advice and criticism.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Carlson, T. Uber Geschwindigkeit und Grésse der Hefevermehrung in Wiirze. Bio-

chem. Zeitsch 57: 313-334. 1913.

2. Bowley, A. L. Discussion in Jour. Roy. Stat. Soc. 88: 76-81. 1925.

3. Davies, George R. The growth curve. Jour. Am. Stat. Assoc. 22: 370-374. 1927.

4. Pearl, R. The Biology of Population Growth. New York. 1925. [Pp. 9-10 and

Table 4, p. 217.]

5. Pearl, R. Introduction to Medical Biometry and Statistics. Second Edition, Phila-

delphia. 1930. [Chapter XVII, pp. 417-428.]

6. Schultz, Henry. The standard error of a forecast from a curve. Jour. Am. Stat.

Assoc. 25: 139-185. 1930.

APPENDIX

1. Moments of the logistic derivative.

The logistic equation

has for its derivative

s bene

(1 iis es bes

We require the moments of this derivative curve:

a x” y’ dz

Plainly all odd moments are zero; and also

eeenee o” dx

Hon = 26 Fe Cts baNS

Bh eek)

Setting br = u, and expanding the denominator we have

Iw (° ie.

bin = 7 2 \ ait tres tkem ie

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 4

And changing variables again, setting ku = v,

— (0a, pee

Her hen f2n 0

k=1

b2n : ; Jn

ye As 0 a = (— yet} 1

But this is a well-known series involving the Bernoullian numbers, so that we have

finally

2n—1

— 1) @ B,,

b2n

2 (2

Hon =

B, = %, Bz = ¥, etc.

And we have as the moments of the logistic derivative

oe T

(2 3 BP

as 7 7

eee a

2. For comparison with the normal curve, we set

po = 1

— = 1.81380

4/3

3. We have for the values of the constants in the Pearson Type VII curve:

‘hee 5 Bo — 9

2 (Bz. — 3)

” 2 we Be

Bo — 3

N T (m)

And setting N = 1, wo = 1, B2 = 4.2, we have

m = 5, a = 7, yo = 0.439990

4. To determine constants so that the logistic, integrated normal, and arc-tangent

curves shall intersect at y = 3

FEB. 19,1932 WINSOR: A COMPARISON OF GROWTH CURVES 83

When y = 32, « = 0.67449

for the integrated normal curve.

Logistic:

1 == Op

Ci = Sa pe Ue LOR,

1+e Yu

yi = 3, 2 = 0.67449

1.62880

Arc-tangent:

I 1

Ui ek VES ee cies

Yp = 4, © = 0.67449

0.67449

5. Comparison with Carlson’s observations.

Carlson’s data are taken from his Table VIII (also given by Pearl (4) and Schultz

(6). Schultz has fitted these data by the least squares, but states that a better fit than

given by his equation (53) might be obtained by a repetition of the least square proce-

dure. Accordingly the constants in his equation (53) were used as first approximations.

The results hardly justified the trouble, as the quadratic mean error was only reduced

from 3.50 to 3.49.

For the least square fit to the normal curve, approximate values of the constants were

selected as follows:

ky = 662

Lo, = 7.8

oo = 3.1

The corrections found were:

Ak = — 3.62

Azo = — .030

Ac = — .0366

giving final values

k = 658.38

xo = 7.770

Sad

(=)

(=P)

(Ie)

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 4

A comparison of the retained and neglected terms for 0, 9, and 18 hours indicated

that the neglected (second order) terms were actually small in comparison with the

retained terms.

GEOLOGY.—Faunal zones in the Miocene Choctawhatchee formation

of Florida... WENDELL C. MANSFIELD, U. S. Geological Survey,

and GERALD M. Ponton, Florida Geological Survey.

In March, 1930, the writers discovered fossiliferous outcrops of

Miocene beds in the valley of Alaqua Creek, Walton County, Florida,

farther south than fossils had previously been reported from this

region.2 Fossils from these beds, when studied by the senior author,

showed that they belong to the Choctawhatchee formation. They

not only give more substantial evidence of the close faunal relationship

of the Shoal River formation to the succeeding Choctawhatchee

formation but also reveal the sequence of the zones of the Choctaw-

hatchee formation and the position in the formation of the typical

deposits at Red Bay.

The map (Figure 1) shows the type localities of the Shoal River and

Choctawhatchee formations and the places at which fossils have been

collected near Alaqua Creek. ‘The numbers onthe map are the serial

numbers recorded in the station book of the U. 8. Geological Survey

kept at the National Museum. The boundary between the Shoal

River formation and the Choctawhatchee formation as drawn is

entirely conjectural. The newly discovered localities are stations

1204448, 12060, and 12527. The following are the explanations of

the station numbers:

3742. Shell Bluff. Type locality of the Shoal River formation.

3747. Parker place. Shoal River formation.

4975, 7152. Red Bay. Choctawhatchee formation (Hcphora zone

and upper part of Arca zone).

5618. Langley’s old farm. Shoal River formation.

9959. One-fourth mile west of Pleasant Ridge Church. Shoal River

formation.

10612. Chester Spence’s farm. Provisionally placed in the Shoal River

formation.

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey and of the

State Geologist of Florida. Received January 12, 1932.

2 Station 3747, reported by Gardner (U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 142) as 8 miles

south of Lake DeFuniak, is 8 miles nearly due west of DeFuniak Springs, in SW. j sec.

34, T. 3 N., R. 20 W.—an error of the clerk in copying the station record. The shells

were found at a depth of 30 feet in a well dug for water.

FEB. 19, 1932 MANSFIELD AND PONTON: FAUNAL ZONES IN MIOCENE 85

12044. Bell farm, upper locality. Choctawhatchee formation (Arca

zone).

12045. Bell farm, lower locality. Choctawhatchee formation (Arca

zone).

12046. Vaughan Creek, upper locality. Choctawhatchee formation

(Arca zone).

12047. Vaughan Creek, lower locality. Choctawhatchee formation

(Arca zone).

12048. Permenter’s old place. Choctawhatchee formation (Hcphora

zone).

12060. Frazier’s old farm. Choctawhatchee formation (Yoldia zone).

12527. Alice Creek. Choctawhatchee formation (upper part of Arca

zone).

BERS AE EEE

(IS CTE TS Oa

_ CD Sanne ae eae eee

Mea lca la tai lathe de [lobe te sd ap ole Dele

ee Ea Detinjak Springs] |] | TT

(Ts Peps ee el sO a eee

deat eal ONS LCS Ei le Gel VW

eae ee ero a ee ol eg

be eid Na Belial} i} pte

uctoaesice| | | | | fal | | | et

iin Peet ttt It

A SSe ee

Fig. 1. Fossiliferous localities in Walton County, Florida.

The most southerly locality in the valley of Alaqua Creek at which

fossils had previously been collected is the Chester Spence farm in the

mei sec. lf, 1.2 NN. R.19-W. (U.S. G. S. station 10612). The

fauna at this place appears to be transitional from that of the Shoal

River formation to that of the Choctawhatchee formation. This

fauna is provisionally left in the Shoal River formation, where it was

placed by Gardner; but it may eventually be placed in the basal part

of the Choctawhatchee formation.

The following generalized section shows the divisions that are NOW

recognized in the Choctawhatchee formation.

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 4

GENERALIZED SECTION OF ‘THE CHOCTAWHATCHEE FORMATION

; Feet

5. Cancellaria zone. Fine to coarse clayey fossiliferous sand.......... 25-30

4, “Aluminous clay.”” Grayish unfossiliferous clay................. 25

3. Hephora zone. Sandy fossiliferous clay... ....~...5..as eee 15-25

2. Arca zone. Gray sandy fossiliferous marl... .... +. ... 4. eee 55

1. Yoldia zone. Dark-gray to bluish micaceous and carbonaceous

clayey fossiliferous saihd....«..e. : usw ew, ok eee 15

The Yoldia zone, which is here recognized for the first time, and the

Arca zone are now regarded as representing the upper part of the

middle Miocene; the Ecphora zone, the “aluminous elay,” and the

Cancellaria zone are referred to the upper Miocene.

Yoldia zone.-—A new name, Yoldia zone, is here proposed for a bed

carrying many individuals of the genus Yoldia. The type locality is

the Frazier farm (formerly the Spencer farm), Walton County, in

SE. sec. 18, T. 2 N., R. 19 W. (station 12060). The sediments com-

posing the zone consist of dark-gray to bluish micaceous clayey sand

with inclusions of carbonaceous particles. The thickness has not been

accurately determined, but it probably does not exceed 15 feet.

The zone is believed to represent the basal bed of the Choctawhatchee

formation although the contact with the underlying Shoal River for-

mation which may be conformable with it has not been recognized

with certainty. The zone is separated from the overlying Arca zone

because of its abundant content of large Yoldia shells, a genus which

usually indicates that the temperature of the water in which it lived

was rather cold.

Arca zone——The name Arca zone was proposed by Mansfield?

in 1929. The zone is typically exposed at Red Bay, Walton County,

where it forms the lowermost fossiliferous bed, about 21 feet thick, in

the exposure (stations 4975, 7152). A nearly unfossiliferous upper bed

of clay at this locality, which was formerly are Mel in the Arca zone,

is now placed in the Ecphora zone.

The Arca zone consists mainly of very fossiliferous gray sandy marl

having an estimated total thickness of about 55 feet. It probably

rests conformably upon the Yoldia zone. The upper limit of the

Arca zone is provisionally placed at the contact of the marl with an

overlying plastic clay bed which, in the section at Red Bay, carries no

determinable fossils. The shells in the marl are worn and broken.

3 W. C. MANSFIELD in C. W. CookE and Stuart Mossom, Geology of Florida, Florida

Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. 20: 140. 1929; and W. C. Mansrretp, Miocene gastropods and

scaphopods of the Choctawhatchee formation of Florida, Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 3: 15.

1930.

FEB. 19, 19832 MANSFIELD AND PONTON: FAUNAL ZONES IN MIOCENE 87

The absence of fossils from the clay and the lithologic difference

between the mar! and the clay suggest an unconformity between the

two beds, but this relationship has not been fully established.

The Arca zone was observed in the Alaqua Creek Valley at the head

of small branches flowing into Sconiers Mill Creek, on the Bell farm,

in the NE.# sec. 29, T.2 N., R. 19 W. (stations 12044—45); on Vaughan

Creek, in secs. 27 and 28, T. 2 N., R. 19 W. (stations 12046—47) ; and

at Alice Creek, in the SE.4 sec. 8, T. 1 N., R. 19 W. (station 12527).

The beds exposed at the Bell farm and along Vaughan Creek are

believed to carry the earliest fauna of the Arca zone, whereas the lower

fossiliferous bed at Red Bay carries the latest fauna of this zone.

The senior author, basing his evidence upon the study of the mollusks,

believes the beds at the Bell farm and along Vaughan Creek have

nearly if not the same stratigraphic position, but the junior author,

basing his evidence upon the study of the foraminifera, is inclined to

believe that the beds along Vaughan Creek are lower in the section

than those at the Bell farm.

Ecphora zone—The Ecphora “bed,’’ named by Dall and Harris,‘

is now known as the Ecphora zone.’ Its type locality is at Alum Bluff,

Apalachicola River, Liberty County, Fla., where it forms the upper-

most fossiliferous bed of the section. The sediments composing the

zone consist of a sandy clay which is bluish where unweathered. The

bed ranges in thickness from 15 to 25 feet at Alum Bluff.

At Alum Bluff the Ecphora zone, with somewhat doubtful uncon-

formable relations, rests upon a fossil leaf-bearing sand which Cooke

and Mossom® questionably refer to the Alum Bluff group. It is con-

formably overlain by the ‘‘aluminous clay”’ of Dall.

An exposure in the east bank of Alaqua Creek on Permenter’s old

place, in sec. 17, T. 1 N., R. 19 W. (station 12048) apparently repre-

sents the Ecphora zone. At Red Bay the upper poorly fossiliferous

plastic clay bed, about 27 feet thick, is placed in this zone.

The “‘aluminous clay.”’—The “‘aluminous clay,” a name applied by

Dall’ to a 25-foot bed of grayish clay overlying the Ecphora zone at

Alum Bluff, Liberty County, Fla., has not been recognized in the

Alaqua Creek Valley.

4W. H. Datu and G. D. Harris, The Neocene of North America, U. S. Geol. Survey

Bull. 84: 123-124. 1892.

> W. C. MAnsFIELD in Geology of Florida, p. 140, 1929.

6 C. W. Cooke and Stuart Mossom, Geology of Florida, Florida Geol. Survey Ann.

Rept. 20: 108. 1929.

7W. H. Datu and JosepH STANLEY-Brown, Cenozoic geology along the Apalachicola

River, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 5: 168-169. 1894.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 4

Cancellaria zone-—The name Cancellaria zone was proposed by

Mansfield’ to include beds that carry the latest Miocene fauna. This

zone is typically exposed in the highest fossiliferous beds along Harveys

Creek, in the SW. sec. 9, T. 1 8., R. 3 W., Leon County, Fla. The

Cancellaria zone is composed of fine to coarse grained clayey sand

replete with fossils, having an estimated total thickness of 25 to 30

feet. It has not been recognized in the Alaqua Creek Valley.

BOTANY .—WNew species of slime molds.1 G. W. Martin, State

University of Iowa. (Communicated by WiLtuiam R. Maxon.)

In the present paper six species of Myxomycetes are described as

new,—one from Colombia, one from Ontario, and four from the

western United States. The descriptions of the two species of Cri-

braria are based in part upon the monographic study of the genus

made by Miss Eunice Lovejoy and filed, as a thesis, in the library of

the State University of lowa. The type specimen of the Colombian

species and portions of the type specimens of the others are deposited

in the United States National Herbarium.

Badhamia cinerascens Martin, sp. nov.

Peridia sessilia, globosa vel leniter depressa, 0.7—1.5 mm. lata, agglomerata;

tunica tenuis, fragilis, cinerea, rete calcifero obducta; capillitium album;

sporae liberae, fuscae, valide echinulatae, 12-15 » diam.

Sporangia globose or flattened, sessile or occasionally borne on a pallid,

membranous stipe, 0.7-1.5 mm. in diameter, densely aggregated and more or

less superimposed, on a pallid membranous hypothallus; peridium thin,

fragile, ashy, covered by a dense network of calcareous thickenings; capillitium

abundant, white, badhamioid under lens, but under the microscope exhibiting

numerous threadlike tubules; spores intensely black in mass, spherical, non-

adherent, deep blackish brown by transmitted light, densely and strongly

spinulose, 12-15 yw, averaging 13.5 uw, 2 w representing the spiny margin.

CoLomBia: On tree trunk, La Sierra, Antioquia, alt. 2,000 m., March 8,

1931, W. A. Archer 1662 (type, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Close to B. macrocarpa and, like that and related species, with a more or

less physaroid capillitium, but distinguished by its ashy color, the heaped

sporangia, and the extremely dark, coarsely and densely spiny spores. In

appearance not unlike some specimens of Physarum cinereum, but the capilli-

tium distinctly more badhamioid than physaroid, and the spores much

larger, darker, and rougher.

8 W. C. MANSFIELD in Geology of Florida, p. 140. 1929.

1 Received December 30, 1931.

FEB. 19, 1932 MARTIN: NEW SPECIES OF SLIME MOLDS 89

Amaurochaete ferruginea Macbr. & Martin, sp. nov.

Aethalium pulvinatum, longitudine 7 cm.; peridium fugaceum; capillitium

ferrugineum; sporae ferrugineae, minute verrucosae, 7.5-9 w diam.

Aethalium pulvinate, flat, up to 7 cm. in length and 4 cm. in width; peri-

dium fugaceous; hypothallus shining, silvery, extending somewhat beyond

the margin of the aethalium; definite columellae lacking, but capillitium

branching from numerous rigid irregular branches arising from the hypo-

thallus and soon dissipated into subordinate branches; threads dark brown,

bearing numerous lighter brown irregular membranous expansions; spores

cinnamon-drab to benzo-brown (Ridgway) in mass, pale reddish brown by

transmitted light, minutely warted, 7.5—9 u.

CALIFORNIA: On charred coniferous wood, Yosemite Park, Aug. 31,

1905, T. H. Macbride (type, in herb. State Univ. Ia., no. 1488). OREGON:

On decorticated coniferous wood, 8. U. I. 1489.

The structure of the capillitium is very similar to that of A. fuliginosa,

from which species this differs in the brownish color of the capillitium and in

the small, pale, relatively smooth, ferruginous spores, the two characters to-

gether giving the fructification a ferruginous cast in marked contrast to the

black of the other species of the genus.

Amaurochaete trechispora Macbr. & Martin, sp. nov.

Aethalium pulvinatum, longitudine 7 cm.; peridium obscurum, nitens,

fugaceum, tuberculatum; capillitium nigrum; sporae atroviolaceae, reti-

culatae, 13-15 » diam.

Aethalium pulvinate, flat, up to 7 cm. in length; cortex dark, shining,

evanescent, faintly tuberculate as though suggesting the tips of component

sporangia; hypothallus broadly expanded, persistent, extending well beyond

the borders of the aethalium, silvery, with yellowish stains, and amber globu-

les representing remnants of the presumably yellow plasmodium; capillitium

black, irregular, composed of numerous stout columella-like bases, these soon

becoming dissipated into numerous freely anastomosing branches; periph-

eral nets lacking; spores purplish black in mass, lilaceous brown by trans-

mitted light, globose, ornamented with a pronounced reticulation formed

of wing-like ridges, the meshes coarse and often unequal, 13-15 uw in diameter,

10-12 u representing the diameter of the body of the spore, the balance the

ridges of the reticulum.

OntTaRIO: On Sphagnum, Temagami Forest Reserve, Oct. 6, 1919, J. H.

Faull (type, in herb. Univ. Toronto, no. 5135); on herbaceous stem, Aug. 14,

1931, H. S. Jackson (herb. Univ. Toronto 2460).

A well-marked species, related to A. fuliginosa but separated by its re-

markable and striking spores. Based on a collection well described by Miss

Currie? and by her doubtfully referred to Stemonitis fusca Roth var. trechi-

spora Torrend. Aside from the reference to the strongly reticulated spores

and the occurrence on Sphagnum, there is nothing in Torrend’s brief descrip-

tion of his variety* to suggest the present species, nor can it be the form

2 Trans. Royal Can. Inst. 1919: 296.

3 Fl. Myx. 141. 1909.

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 4

described and illustrated by Jahn‘ as Stemonitis trechispora Torr. It is clearly

an Amaurochaete.

120 tee

' ‘

s ? gt dA by ee oot at Mer!

' A

' /

seat htarre! . F

pine Micra tes

! ’

asepres ‘ 1 OS Perverts (

1 ’ '

° % ao.

pers seers ne % de. 2

’ ‘ ne

11 13

Figs. 1-2, Badhamia cinerascens, sp. nov. 1, Three spores, two in outline to show com-

mon variations in shape, X 1500. 2, Portions of capillitium, badhamioid at left, some-

what physaroid at right, X 164. Fig. 3, Amaurochaete ferruginea, sp. nov., spore, X

1500. Figs. 4-5, Amaurochaete trechispora, sp. nov. 4, Portion of capillitium, X 164.

5, Two spores, X 1500. Figs. 6-7, Hnerthenema melanospermum, sp. nov. 6, Fructifica-

tion, X 20. 7, Spore, X 1500. Figs. 8-9, Cribraria dictyospora, sp. nov. 8, Two sporan-

gia, X 20. 9, Two spores, X 1500. Figs. 10-13, Cribraria atrofusca, sp. nov. 10, Two

sporangia, X 20. 11, Margin of calyculus, showing concentric lines of granules, X 164.

12, Portion of net and spore, X 682. 13, Two spores, X 1500.

Te ae

ble 5

4 Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 41: 394. 1923.

FEB. 19, 1932 MARTIN: NEW SPECIES OF SLIME MOLDS oi

Enerthenema melanospermum Macbr. & Martin, sp. nov.

Peridia stipitata, sphaeroidea vel ovata, nigra, 0.8-1 mm. lata, 2 mm.

alta; stipes niger, crassus, sub apicem attenuatus; sporae atro-olivaceae,

crassiter verrucosae, 12-14 uw diam.

Sporangia intense black, gregarious in small clusters of three to a dozen,

these in larger aggregations, globose or oval, stalked, 0.8 to 1 mm. in diameter,

total height 2 mm. or more; stipe black, shining, rather stout, attenuate

upward and continued as a slender unbranched columella capped with a very

large, shining, infundibuliform terminal disk, up to 0.5 mm. in diameter;

capillitium dense, black, rather freely branched, arising from terminal disk

and with ends free; spores free, dark olivaceous, coarsely warted, 12-14 u.

OrEGON: Three Sisters Mountain, 7. H. Macbride (type, in herb. State

Univ. Ja., no. 1487). |

Obviously close to H. papillatum, but clearly distinct by reason of its large |

size, the intense and permanent black color, the very large apical disk, and

the large, dark, very rough spores.

Cribraria dictyospora Martin & Lovejoy, sp. nov.

Peridia globosa, erecta, atrofusca, 0.4—0.8 mm. lata; calyculus partem

tertiam peridii occupans, margine denticulatus; nodi crassi, atri; sporae

violaceae, coacervatae, ochraceo-brunneae, minute verrucosae et ampliter

reticulatae, 8-8.8 uw diam.

Sporangia gregarious, dark purplish brown, erect or slightly nodding,

globose, 0.4—-0.8 mm. in diameter, total height 1-2 mm.; calyculus occupying

about one-third of the spore case, marked with irregular, dark, granular rays,

the margin toothed; net rather fine-meshed, the connecting threads narrow,

the nodes flat and angular, not greatly thickened, densely filled with large,

dark granules, making them appear black, free ends abundant, often branched,

arising both from nodes and from connecting threads; stipe slender, two or

three times the diameter of the sporangium, furrowed, light at the apex,

otherwise dark; spores ochraceous brown in mass, clear violet by transmitted

light, globose or somewhat angular, minutely warted, and covered with a

coarse and often imperfect reticulum of three to five meshes to the hemi-

sphere, 8-8.8 wu, averaging 8.5 uy.

OREGON: On dead wood, other collection data lacking (type, in herb.

State Univ. Ia., no. 1435). A different collection, also from Oregon, herb.

S. U. I. 1436.

No. 1435, designated as the type, is the more ample collection. The

sporangia are slightly smaller than those of no. 1436, the stalks relatively

longer, the spores a trifle larger (averaging 8.5 u as compared with 8.3 yu)

and the reticulations slightly less conspicuous. They are, clearly, slightly

different aspects of the same species.

The most striking characteristic of this species is the reticulation of the

spores, otherwise unknown in the genus. ‘The nodes are similar to those of

C. macrocarpa, but the granules with which they are filled are larger and

much darker. The margin of the calyculus, with its granular rays, suggests

that of C. piriformis.

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 4

Cribraria atrofusca Martin & Lovejoy, sp. nov.

Peridia globosa vel obovata, atrofusca, nitentia, 0.4-0.6 mm. lata, erecta;

calyculus partem dimidiam peridii occupans, intus concentricus, margine

denticulis longis praeditus; nodi dilati, granulati; sporae atrofuscae, tenuiter

verrucosae, 7.5-8.5 uw diam.

Sporangia loosely gregarious, dark purplish brown to nearly black, shining,

iridescent, globose or somewhat obovate or occasionally pyriform, usually

erect, 0.4-0.6 mm. in diameter, total height 1-2 mm. or more; calyculus

occupying nearly or quite one-half of spore case, marked by slender granular

ribs radiating from the stipe and by broken concentric granular thickenings

deposited on the inside, the concentric character being visible without under

the lens in brilliant light, the margin with very fine teeth and long, slender

toothlike projections, these bearing the net and similar to its nodes; net

regular, with broad connecting threads, the nodes expanded, granular, dark

brown, with a few free ends arising from both nodes and threads, the silvery

peridium tending to persist; hypothallus small; stipe dark brown or nearly

black, slender, furrowed, 0.6-1.8 mm. long; spores dark reddish brown in

mass, grayish brown by transmitted light, finely verrucose, 7.5—-8.1 u, averag-

ing 7-9 uw.

CoLorapo: On coniferous wood, 7. H. Macbride (type, in herb. State

Univ. Ia., no. 1103); on coniferous wood, EL. Bethel, 8. U. I. 1449; on conif-

erous wood, 1909, #. Bethel, S. U. I. 1450; on coniferous wood (locality not

given, but probably Colorado), 8. U. I. 1451.

A notable species. The dark, glistening sporangium, the dark spores, and

the granular concentric rings within the calyculus are diagnostic. The

toothlike projections which bear the net are longer and more slender than in

any other species, but their structure suggests that they are to be regarded as

elements of the net rather than of the calyculus. The peridium tends to be

more persistent than in most cribrarias and in its shining silvery character

suggests Lamproderma arcyrionema. The spores are much the color of some

of the more ferruginous species of Stemonitis.

BOTANY.—The distribution of Dictyostelium and other slime molds

in soil! KENNETH B. Raper and CHARLES THOM, Bureau of

Chemistry and Soils.

In our previous paper (7) it was reported that amoeboid organisms

were present in abundance in all samples of soil examined. From

certain of these samples plasmodia developed indicating that many

of these amoeboids represented only a stage in the life cycle of the

Myxomycetes. The fruiting bodies of Dictyosteliwm belonging to the

Acrasieae, a group of organisms related to the Myxomycetes but

which do not have a flagellate stage, and which fruit through a mass

movement of amoebae instead of the formation of true plasmodia,

also developed in cultures from some samples.

1 Received January 8, 1932.

FEB. 19,1932 |= RAPER AND THOM: SLIME MOLDS IN SOIL 93

Following this we encountered these organisms so frequently in our

cultures and from such varied sources as to indicate that they were

more abundant and widely distributed than previous reports showed.

Since the genera of the Acrasieae pass the whole of their vegetative

period as amoeboids and merely form aggregates in their fruiting phase,

their identification even to the group depends upon finding culture

methods which enable them to complete their life cycle. Thus the

possibility was apparent that Dictyostelowm and the closely related

genus Polysphondylium when present might easily be overlooked.

It is equally apparent, that special culture procedures must be used

in isolating and identifying these organisms. ‘The methods employed

in this investigation have been rather simple. The sample of soil or

decaying vegetation was thoroughly ground in a clean mortar and

diluted with approximately ten volumes of sterile water. The result-

ing suspension was then streaked upon freshly solidified mannite

agar (Ashby’s formula) plates, about four to five drops being used to

each plate. Incubation was for two to three weeks at room tem-

perature or in an incubator at 16-18°C. ‘The necessary incubation

period at the lower temperature is slightly longer but certain fungi

are held in check which at the higher temperature tend to overrun

the plates.

The fruiting bodies of Dictyostelium when present are easily recog-

nized under low magnifications. ‘They appear very much like fruiting

structures of some mucors, but the absence of any mycelium leading

away from the base readily identifies them as belonging to the Acra-

sieae. The stalk is considerably swollen at the base and tapers con-

siderably toward the top. Polysphondylium, with its verticillately

branched sporophore simulates certain mycelial fungi in appearance

but can likewise be readily recognized by the absence of a mycelium.

With a compound microscope either is at once identifiable by the

peculiar and characteristic structure of the stalk, which is formed of

polygonal cells, arising from amoebae during fruiting, piled one on top

of the other.

Dictyostelium grows slowly and poorly on mannite agar, hence it is

best to transfer as soon as possible to more favorable media. Mannite

agar is used in isolating these organisms, not because it is a particu-

larly favorable medium for them, but because it is quite unfavorable to

most fungi and some bacteria, which, if a stronger medium were used,

would overrun the plates in a very few days to such an extent that

fruiting bodies of Dictyostelium would not be able to develop or not

found if they did develop. Fair growth has been obtained upon hay

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 4

infusion, carrot or a weak horse dung decoction agar. Moist hay

has been used with some success. But we have found a medium con-

sisting of mannite agar plus rat dung? to be most satisfactory. Ex-

cellent growth is obtained upon this medium and the organisms are

easily kept in culture by transferring every four to five weeks. The

cultures tend to die off after prolonged artificial cultivation.

Polysphondylium grows better than Dictyostelium upon mannite

agar. Good growth is obtained upon hay and mannite-dung agars.

A weak horse dung decoction agar also gives excellent growth.

Harper used a weak dung decoction in his studies on Dictyostelium

(2) and Polysphondylium (3). Olive (5) employed both dung and

peptone agar in his work on the Acrasieae. Skupienski (6) grew

Dictyostelium mucoroides on weak hay infusion agar.

Our interest in these genera was increased when it became evident

that their amoeboid phase appeared in samples of soil from widely

different areas. A survey of a considerable series of soil samples was

therefore undertaken. ‘This paper is intended to give a brief review

of this survey.

During this study Dictyostelium has been identified in plates from

fifteen samples of various kinds collected in Washington, D. C., and

in nearby Maryland and Virginia. Included in these were samples of

decaying vegetation such as leaves of curly dock, leaves and stems of

Erigeron, stems of ragweed, dead blue grass and feather grass, oak

leaves from the forest, leaf mould underlying oak and maple leaves, and

dead grass floating in a pond. It has been obtained a number of

times from soils underlying grass, both at the surface and at a depth of

three inches, and from forest soil underlying leaf mould. It has also

been isolated from stagnant water.

Samples for this study were collected in some of the eastern states

during September, 1931. Both Dictyostelium and Polysphondylium

were identified in, and isolated from a considerable number of these

samples. Table 1 best shows the diverse types of samples studied,

the substrata upon which the two genera were found and the place of

collection.

In the course of other studies, samples of cultivated field soils from

a number of western states were collected by this laboratory during

the fall of 1930. They were air dried when collected and remained in

this condition in the laboratory. Almost a year later, in September

and October, 1931, some of these soils were plated on mannite agar in

2 Mannite agar plates to which sterile rat dung is added before the agar solidifies.

FEB. 19,1932 © RAPER AND THOM: SLIME MOLDS IN SOIL 95

the usual way, incubated at 18-20°C. for three weeks, and studied for

presence of these organisms. Dictyostelium appeared in many of the

plates. The results obtained are given according to states. Dzctyo-

stelium developed in four of ten samples from Utah, in three of seven

from Nebraska, in four of ten from North Dakota, in two of six from

Colorado; while it was not found in the three samples from Iowa.

All of these western soils were definitely alkaline, some even as much

as pH 8.40, whereas the eastern soils studied were all more or less

acid. |

The finding of Dictyostelium in so many of these soils was especially

interesting as showing that members of this genus are not uncommon

in cultivated fields in the plains area but normally constitute a part of

the micropopulation. It indicates that members of the genus are

TABLE 1

No. Genus Found

T4 Dictyostelium

Nature of Sample

Rotting wood

Place of collection

Staunton, Va.

Polysphondylium

T5 Polysphondylium | Forest soil and humus Clifton Forge, Va.

T10 Dictyostelium Forest soil Johnson City, Tenn.

T20 Dictyostelium Phosphatic soil, field Lexington, Ky.

T28 Dictyostelium Decomposing leaves, hard- | North Vernon, Ind.

wood forest

733 Dictyostelium Forest leaves Scottsburg, Ind.

T37 Polysphondylium | Decaying holly leaves Leonardtown, Md.

T39 Polysphondylium | Pine needles Leonardtown, Md.

T41 Polysphondylium | Soil underlying pine needles | Leonardtown, Md.

176B | Dictyostelium Leaf mould layer, hardwood | Plainsville, N. Y.

forest

widely distributed as soil organisms, presenting much the same picture

in these soils as in soils collected in and around Washington, D. C.

It showed clearly that Dictyostelium can retain its viability in spite

of prolonged dessication, either as spores or encysted myxoamoebae,

microcysts.

Until recently these organisms were reported and considered prim-

arily as coprophilous species, which might occasionally be found

growing upon decaying vegetation. That view is no longer tenablein

view of the studies made by Krzemieniewski (4) who found Dictyo-

stelium mucoroides in almost all soils examined, and Polysphondylium

violaceum, though rarely, in uncultivated soils. Similarly, Harper

(3) isolated Polysphondylium violaceum from soil in the parks of New

York City. This paper extends these American observations to

apply to wide areas.

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 4

In our studies, species have not been accurately determined, but all

cultures of Dictyosteliwm isolated, with two exceptions, appear to

belong to the single species D. mucoroides. Polysphondylium vio-

laceum is the only species of that genus isolated.

CONCLUSION

Attention is therefore called to species of these genera as con-

stituting a part of the normal microflora of soils and decaying vegeta-

tion. They should be taken into account in any soil population

studies. Although the forms thus far recognized do not account for

all of the amoeboid forms found in soil and decaying vegetation of

various kinds, they undoubtedly, as shown here, do account for many.

Improved culture methods may enable us to identify still more of the

“soil amoebae’’ as belonging in the slime mold group.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Brefeld, O. Polysphondylium violaceum and Dictyostelium mucoroides. Schim-

melpilze 6: 1-34. 1884.

2. Harper, R.A. Morphogenesis in Dictyostelium. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 53: 229-

268. 1926.

3. Harper, R. A. Morphogenesis in Polysphondylium. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 56:

227-258. 1929.

4. Krzemieniewski, Helena S. Z Mikroflory gleby w Polsce. (Contribution ala micro-

flore du sol en Pologne) Acta. soc. Bot. Poloniae 4: 141-144. 1927.

5. Olive, E.W. Monograph of the Acrasieae. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. History, 30: 451-

513. 1901.

6. Skupienski, F. X. Swr la sexualite chez une espece de Myxomycete Acrasies Dictyo-

stelium mucoroides. Comptes Rendu 167: 960-962. 1918.

7. Thom, C., and Raper, Kenneth B. Myxamoebae in soil and decomposing crop resi-

dues. This JOURNAL 20: 362-370. 1930.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. T. W. Stanton has been appointed Chief Geologist of the U. 8.

Geological Survey, effective February 1.

Cou. C. H. Brrpsryve has been reinstated in the U.S. Geological Survey as a

principal engineer and entered upon that duty February 1. He will serve for

the present as consultant to the engineering branches and the Director.

Announcement has been received from the permanent committee of the

International Congress of Zoology that in accordance with the resolution

voted by the 11th Congress at Padua in September, 1930, and after obtaining

consent from the Portuguese authorities, the 12th International Congress will

be held at Lisbon during the summer of 1935, under the presidency of Dr.

ARTHUR R. Joras, Professor in the University of Lisbon and Director of the

Musée Bocage.

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Ethnology, has been detailed to the Carnegie Institution of Washington to

serve as consulting archaeologist in connection with the Carnegie’s excavations

at Chichen Itza. Doctor Roserts sailed from New York on February 2,

and will not return until after the first of March.

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VoL. 22 Marcu 4, 1932 No. 5

CHEMISTRY.—Hydration of the solute ions of the lighter elements.

L. H. Fuint, Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by G.

N. Coins.)

INTRODUCTION

The researches carried out by Jones and his collaborators in the

Chemical Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University over a period

of years and reported in various papers,” developed several independent

lines of evidence, each of which pointed to the existence of hydrates in

aqueous solutions. These researches may be said to constitute one of

the fundamental bases of a relationship which in subsequent years

has become widely recognized as an intimate one. At the present

time the validity of a relationship between’ solute ions and their

solvent is scarcely to be questioned.

The relationship between solute ions and solvent appears to be one

of attraction, somewhat comparable with that characterizing many

electrolytes crystallizing out of saturated solutions under certain con-

ditions to form hydrated erystals. In the latter instance, however, a

definite and usually integral number of water molecules is recognized as

incorporated with each salt molecule. The relationship in both cases

is termed hydration, but our knowledge of the specific molecular values

involved in solutions is not sufficient to permit any precise evaluation

corresponding with the use of the term as applied to crystals.

As a matter of fact we can find little satisfaction in our knowledge

of the hydration of solute ions. We may observe that the velocity

of a solute ion is not what we had expected it would be,—and may say

that the ion is hydrated. We may note that a solute ion does not

1 Received December 18, 1931.

? Amer. Chem. Journ. 23: 89, 1900; 31: 303, 1904; 33: 584, 1905; 37: 126, 1907. Carn.

Inst. Wash. Pub. 60: 80, 1907; 180: 1913, and others.

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 5

depress the solubility of gases to the extent anticipated,—and may say

that the ion is hydrated. We may find other real or apparent incon-

sistencies,—and attribute the results to the hydration of the ions. In

resorting to the generalization we may often be correct,—but our

explanation can scarcely become productive until our information is

sufficient to permit mathematical expression.

Following a study of the hydration of ions over a period of several

years, the writer has become convinced that a better understanding of

this subject holds much of promise for the establishment of a more

satisfactory interpretation of various inter-related solution phenomena.

In outlining some of the reasons for such a conviction as a possible

contribution to the subject it will be necessary to make two simple

assumptions at the outset. These are (1) an inverse integral rela-

tionship between the anhydrous weight of a solute ion and the degree

of its hydration, and (2) an orderly change in weight accompanying

ionization. There are obvious objections to both these assumptions,

and the objections may be sustained throughout the inquiry. Never-

theless, some of the suggested relationships which appear to follow the

assumptions are of more than passing interest. A number of such

relationships touching upon the characteristics of the solute ions of the

lighter elements will be considered in this paper.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AS AN INDEX OF VELOCITY AND HYDRATION

Following the first assumption we may examine the observed elec-

trical conductivities of simple solute element ions of the lighter ele-

ments and obtain the order of hydration indicated by the relative

velocities of the ions. With univalent ions such as Nat+ and Kt the

conductivities and velocities may be considered to be of the same order,

and through the extension of Graham’s Law the relative velocity

values of the ions Na+ and K* (as derived from observed measurements

of conductivity through the use of transference data) become indices

of relative hydration. The assumption of hydration on an inverse

integral basis requires that a succession of weight values be char-

acterized by regular intervals. Such a requisite regularity does not

characterize the observed combining weights of the lighter elements,

but is found in their atomic numbers. These numbers may be

brought to the O = 16 scale by doubling, in which case a tentative

series of regular weight values is attained as a basis upon which to

project an assumed inverse integral hydration. The following con-

MARCH 4, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 99

ductance values for the ions Na* and K+ at 18°C. are given by Nernst:3

K+ = 65.8, Na+ = 44.4. These values, considered as relative

velocities, permit the assumption of an inverse integral hydration only

when the weight 38, representing potassium, has four water molecules

attached, and the weight 22, representing sodium, has twelve water

molecules attached. The weight, hydration and velocity values which

TABLE 1.—Weicut, HyDRATION AND VELOCITY VALUES CALCULATED FOR THE LIGHTER

ELEMENTS THROUGH AN EXTENSION OF Gas LAws IN RELATION TO

OBSERVED ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITIES

Postulated

AN. 13 aw Va vis | AebeRcs Weve mica Vz

2X AN: Aolesules Hydration Molecule

0 = ) — 23 414 414 491

1 H 2 7082 22 396 398 501

2 He 4 5000 21 378 382 512

3 Li 6 4090 20 360 366 523

4 Be 8 3546 19 342 350 535

5 B 10 3162 18 324 334 547

6 C 12 2887 We) 306 318 561

7 N 14 2672 16 288 302 575

8 O 16 2500 15 270 286 591

9 F 18 23500 14 252 270 609

10 Ne 20 2236 13 234 254 627

11 Na 22 2132 12 216 238 648

12 Mg 24 2041 11 198 222 671

13 Al 26 1961 10 180 206 698

14 Si 28 1890 9 162 190 726

15 P 30 1826 8 144 174 758

16 S 32 1768 b 126 158 796

17 Cl 34 1715 6 108 142 839

18 A 36 1667 5 90 126 891

19 K 38 1622 4 72 110 953

20 Ca 40 1581 3 54 94 1031

21 Se 42 1543 2 36 78 1133

22 A 44 1508 1 18 62 1271

20 Vv 46 1474 0 0 46 1474

thus develop for the lighter elements from the assumed inverse integral

relationship in conjunction with observed electrical conductivities are

brought together in Table 1.

In Table 1 the first column gives the atomic number of the element,

the second column gives the chemical symbol of the element, and the

third column gives the atomic number transposed to the familiar O = 16

3 Citation on page 177 in Bayliss, W.M. Principles of General Physiology. 1915.

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 5

scale as an expression of weight. The fourth column gives the recip-

rocals of the square-roots of these weight values, multiplied by 10!

for convenience in manipulation. These reciprocal values represent

theoretical relative velocities as derived through the extension of

Graham’s Law under an assumption of no hydration, and on this

account they have been designated as V; values. The fifth column

gives the numbers of water molecules which must be postulated as

characterizing hydration when an inverse integral relationship between

weight and hydration is associated with the observed relative con-

ductances of potassium and sodium considered as of weight 38 and 22

respectively. The sixth column gives the weight of these water

molecules, and the seventh column the total weight of the elements

represented as so hydrated. The eighth column gives the reciprocals

of the square-roots of these “hydrated weight” values, multiplied by

104 for convenience in manipulation. The values of the eighth column

represent the theoretical velocities under the indicated hydration as

derived through the extension of Graham’s Law, and have been

designated as V» values.

The series as above tabulated comprises the elements of the first

quarter of the periodic system,—a unique division. , These elements

are hereinafter arbitrarily termed the lighter elements as distinguished

from the remaining heavier elements of the periodic system.

We may study the possible usefulness of Table 1 by using the second

assumption of the paper in connection with it,—namely, the assump-

tion that a regular change in weight accompanies ionization. Under

such an assumption the most natural increment of change is that

which would be effected by the gain or loss of a unit electrical charge on

the nucleus of an atom, by virtue of which the weight characteristic

represented in column three of Table 1 would be subject to unit change.

There are objections to the assumption of a change in weight as an

accompaniment of ionization. These objections do not appear to be

as serious at present as they would have been before the advent of an

electrical interpretation of matter and a knowledge of the modifications

characterizing radioactive elements. Nevertheless, the objections

to the second assumption may be sustained throughout the inquiry,—

notwithstanding which it will be of interest to examine some of the

relationships which appear to follow the assumption.

With specific reference to the potassium and sodium ions, K+ and

Nat, it follows from the above: assumption that the regular weight

values assigned to the elements, potassium (38) and sodium (22), in

MARCH 4, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 101

the consideration of their hydration as indicated by relative velocity

now become subject to further description as relative weights of the

un-ionized or ‘neutral’ elements. These weights as assigned to

potassium and sodium further become subject to unit modification for

unit charge characterizing the ionized state, and since the potassium

and sodium ions being considered have a single positive charge each,

it follows that the weights of the so-called ‘‘neutral’’ elements would

advance one step upon becoming so ionized. The weight values

representing the potassium and sodium ions thus become K+ = 40

and Nat = 24, and the hydration characterizing these ions as derived

from Table 1 is now to be noted as 3 H;O with K~* instead of 4 H,O

and 11 H;,O with Nat instead of 12 H.O, the values 4 H.O and 12 H.O

still representing the indicated degree of hydration characterizing ions

of weight 38 and 22 respectively. We now have the K and Na ions

with weights modified from the regular values tentatively assigned as

prerequisites of an inverse integral hydration relationship and sub-

sequently described as the relative weights of the un-ionized or

‘neutral’ atoms. These modified weights may be further designated

as the relative weights of the anhydrous ions, or as ‘‘ionic’’ weights.

If the anhydrous ions thus characterized by weight hydrate to the

degree corresponding to such a weight, as derived from observed

conductivities and indicated in Table 1, it follows that we are now in a

position to study the relationship which would have to follow such a

hydration system. On the other hand, if the anhydrous ions thus

characterized by weight do not hydrate at all, but remain as un-

hydrated solute ions, it follows that we are also in a position to study

the relationships which would have to follow that system. In other

words, although we are interesting ourselves primarily in a hydration

relationship, we are nevertheless in a strategic position to note an

absence of hydration, should any solute ions appear from other con-

siderations to be so characterized.

Before taking up the examination of observed measurements in

relation to the two fundamental assumptions of this paper and to the

hydration system embodied in Table 1 it may be to our advantage to

recapitulate with respect to the use of the word ‘‘weight.’’ Our first

assumption of an inverse integral hydration required a regular system

of weight values. Since the observed combining weights did not afford

such a system the atomic numbers were doubled to obtain a tentative

series of weight values later designated as the relative weights of the

un-ionized or “‘neutral’’ atoms. Our second assumption of an orderly

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 5

change in weight accompanying ionization gave us new values des-

ignated as relative weights of the ions, or “ionic’’ weights. It is to

be noted that neither the weights of the “neutral’’ atoms nor the

weights of the ions correspond to the weights characterizing the atoms

in combination and commonly designated as the combining weights

of the atoms, or more simply, the atomic weights. The possible

interrelations of the three designations of weight will be considered at a

subsequent point.

We may now turn our attention to the study of the possible use-

fulness of Table 1 in the prediction of solution characteristics. It

immediately becomes evident that in the event the indicated numbers

of water molecules combine with the respective element-ions to form

hydrated ions, the transfer of such water from the solvent to the

solute must profoundly influence. the concentration of ions thus

hydrated. Jones and his co-workers recognized this fact, but they

were without a tentative basis for evaluating the extent of the in-

fluence. Table 1 affords such a basis.

The molecular weight values of the hydrated ions of the lighter

elements may be readily derived from column seven of Table 1. For

example, the molecular weight of the ion K+ when hydrated may be

derived as follows:

K = 38, K+ = 38 + 2,= 40,.K* hydrated,= K* + 3 B30 i

(3°18). 44

From the summation weights of the ions characterizing a solution

of any electrolyte comprising such ions, the extent of the influence of

the assumed hydration may be mathematically calculated. For

example, the relative amounts of solvent and solute characterizing a

1.0 molecular solution of KCl would be derived as follows:

K = 38, K+ = 40, K+ hydrated = K* (40 gms.) + 3 H,0 (54

gms.) = hydrated K*, 94 gms.

Cl = 34, Cl- = 32, Cl- hydrated = Cl- (82 ems.) +°7°H0

(126 gms.) = hydrated Cl-, 158 gms.

94 pms. hydrated K+ + 158 gms. hydrated Cl- = 252 gms. solute.

In a solution 1.0 molecular made up to 1000 grams, the amount of

solvent present would be calculated as 1000 — 252 = 748 gms., or

74.89% of the amount present at ‘zero’ concentration of solute.

In a solution 1.0 molecular made up to a liter with observed combining

MARCH 4, 19352 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 103

weights the concentration would be 1.035 on the above basis by

virtue of an observed weight of 74.553 as compared with a calculation

weight of 72. Moreover, the total weight of solution under the

observed conditions would not be 1000 grams, since the density of

the solution is not that of the solvent. Yet a relationship between

combining weights and the assumed weights for ‘“‘neutral’”’ and “‘ion-

ized’ atoms can not be considered in this paper without involving

argument in digression. Furthermore, in some electrical conductivi-

ties of concentrated solutions as observed by various investigators

the values have been transposed from a volume to a weight basis

through ‘‘corrections.’”’* Under the circumstances in a reconnaissance

survey of certain relationships which appear to follow our initial

assumptions we may disregard the factors which differentiate the two

bases, and entertain a degree of tolerance for approximate agreements.

Through the use of Table 1, then, we have calculated that at 1.0

molecular concentration a solution of KCl contains 74.8% of the

weight of solvent which characterizes it at ‘“‘zero’’ concentration. The

observed specific molecular conductivities of KCl at ‘‘zero”’ and 1.0

molecular concentrations, 18°C., as given by Noyes and Falk,® are

130.0 and 96.5 respectively. The relative specific molecular conduc-

tivity is thus 96.5 + 130.0 = .742, or 74.2%.

The obvious suggestion following the order of agreement noted

is that the decrease in specific molecular conductivity with concentra-

tion, which is quite generally interpreted as indicating incomplete

dissociation of the electrolyte, may in reality be an index of the

relative weight of solvent present in a solution of a completely ionized

electrolyte.

Yet with respect to observed conductivity measurements such an

interpretation leads to the inference that the values for concentration,

ranging from 1.0 molecular to ‘‘zero”’ molecular, for example, would

involve the use of varying bases. If such should prove to be the case

the order of relative specific molecular conductivities of various electro-

lytes comprising ions of the lighter elements should be predictable

from the summations of velocities as given in Table 1, through modifi-

cation to the extent indicated by the summations of weight values

(also given in Table 1) in relation to the amount of solvent present.

Thus, the amount of solvent characterizing a 1.0 molecular solution of

KCl was calculated above from Table 1, as 74.8%. The summation

4 For example, see Noyes and Falk. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 34: 454, 1912.

6 Previous citation. ,

ee ee

LO8l = 1890.1 6S = [890L O°H OT = 1830, | (€§ = 34 ‘qQuiod)

(eseq) aaa ie eS ORL Oe Rae eee ee Ale Coie — 10)

ool 8 FL L9ET LOET O62) = — 1) = 0001 + 8FZ ssl = -—ID O*7H LZ = —I0 (66 = ‘94 ‘quiod) | Lop’ sé feds!

LOSI = LO8I X 8bL | 1801 = +3 8hL = 062 — OOOT | 76 = + OH = +51 OF = +41

609l = [890 %9' 19 10 ‘919° | 0O8E = 1%90L O°7H 81 = [890], | (LT = “34 “quiod)

TT es = 0001 + 929 ——— ee ME

ge 89 9°19 LSOL 2601 169 = —a 919 = $2E — OOOT | 986 = —A Ons) == (68 = “94 ‘quq0d) 0 61 4AM

L601 = C291 X 919° | 1801 = +H PCE = 9G — O8E m6 = +S O'bcr = +51 OF = +41

SLE = 1890L OfH ST = [FOL

GL9T = 1902 X II8° | 2906 = [FIO.L —__—_—_—_ | ————_ | (&8 = *}4 ‘quuoo)

RES! =" (000-083) == or %e 29 10 ‘229° | SSI = —ID OL = =D Gs = —10

é 19 G69. OLST SLOT 118 = 681 — 0001 | 964 = —-ID = 0001 = 669 sr — —ID OHL = —IO | (th = ‘344 ‘quioa) 40° 0F uO) @)

68 = 2 + SLE | IZZt = +48 | 229 = SLE — OOOT | 29 = 44+%D0 | OOH T = ++¥8O HF = +480

LOB = [899O.L 6Se = [890L O7H OF = [890.L | (€8 = “944 “qui0d)

(e88q) 2 a Maye. BL cs = —l0

6 bL 8° FL LOST LOST 962 —5— 19 = 0001 + 8PhL ssl = —1D Ofer. ==—1) (68 = “94 ‘quIOd) | 960°6E IOM

LOST = LO8l X 8bL | L80l = +H SPL = 266 — 0001 | 16 = + OF e =) +51 OF = sai

689 = [399.L O°H 82 = [890.L

9SZI = COSI X 682° | 26ST = [8901 : 8SI= -10 | OHL = —ID| (88 = 4 “quiod)

¥ 98 8 9& 8861 9961 68> ="0008.= § 6822) =|, %8 98 10 ‘g9g' | 8ST = -10 | O8H LZ = -IO c€ = —IO

€'68L = 99 O12 — OOOT | 964 = —-—ID = 0001 + 89€ ssl= -10 | O7HL = —IO | (6% = 3 ‘quiod) L696 IOV

99 012 = & + 289 | 962 = +44+1V | 898 = 289 — OOOT | 8ST = 444+1V | OH L = +4+4+IV CG = eq,

90S = [%19.L O*H & = IFI9.L

G LElL = Gest X LoL | Gest = [BIOL ————————_ | —————_ | (88 = ‘7 ‘quio9)

LL: OUD Seek eAl caer Sa oe %y 6h 10 ‘t6h | 8S = -1IDO | OHL = -IO c& = —ID ,

1 8P v 6P bSCl G LEIl LL = €9¢ — OO0OT | 964 = —IO = 0001 + 6b SI = 10 | OH LZ = —IO | (93 = “94 “quiod) GE FG 7103

60 = 3 + 909 | 92L =++3W | FOP = 909 — O0OT | 061 = ++9N | OCH GB = ++9W 83 = ++9N

LOFT = [390.L %9 L910 919° | O88 = IFIOL OfH 81 = 1®I0L | (88 = “94 “qQuioo)

a = 0001 = 929 = @— See | a 6 = —ID ‘

8°29 9°29 886 666 962 = —ID 919 = #2E — 000IT | 881 = —ID O'HL = —ID (gZ = “94 ‘quIod) | 166 22 IDRN

266 = LOFL X 949° | 149 = +BN PoE = 99 — O8E 626 = +BN O*H IT = +8N 6 = +8N

Igél =1870.L %e $F 10 *tEG° | 80g = [FIOL O*H 92 = 1790.L | (€8 = “344 “Quioo)

— = 0001 + G&S ee | cf = —ID

4°09 G &g COL 802 962 = —ID ceo = 89h — 0001 | 8ST = —ID OH L = -ID (L = ‘9 ‘qurod) 069 lOVl

SOL= I€8l X ces’ | Seg = +!T 89h = OF — 809 ose = +I OF RG hil Sue

“QUOD ‘JOUL | *OUOD "[OUI | ‘90d ‘[OUT | ‘OUD ‘[OUT 3

QT ye Agr | OT 4e 0198 0198 ASS eee uorequadnog | (TAIqBL WOM)! ( gquy wos) | (E UTL word) Toner

-AlyonpuoD | yueseid | puoD ‘fow | A T00]9A AYLOTIA IB[Noe[OUL 0 AQD0TOA “[OUL CT 4B suoy payeipA PH suo] Jo UOT} suoyT UCLIG A, oA]

‘TOW “dg | Jueajog % | ‘ds qu qu () 4LUN IO} UOIZB[NIBD Ane is i = qyueAfog % IO} JO JYSIOM ays ee snoipAyuy jo jo yYBIOM -01}99 [74

OATPBIOY OAIZBIOY DATPBOY DATPEOY Scr ane (9) UOIYB[NITBA pounssy Pe ESe. Vv JYUSIOM pournssy paasesq()

(g) PAATOSGO] PexE[NITBD |(,) PeAsesqg] pezelnoyVO

Ve Cy SS ee a ee i a ee ee ee ee ee eee eee a en

‘Ty G1dV], NI GHIdOdNA SNOILVUACISNO/S) LHDOIGM GNV NOILVYUGAH ‘ALIOOIN A HLIM SLNAWNGTIY AUSLHDIT

@HL 40 SNOT DNIAIOANI SALAIOULOATY ANOS AO SAILIAILOQNGNOY) TYOINLOE TH UVIDOATO[L OIMIONCG AHAUASAC 40 NOSIYUVdNO/)— SZ HIAV.L

104

MARCH 4, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 105

of the velocity values corresponding to the molecular weights of the

hydrated ions K and Cl may be derived from Table 1, column 8, as

follows:

eos, hon — Al) Ke hyvaraed — 40 + 3 HoO, Ve-— 103r

iat Ola — a2, Cla hvanated,— a2 —-- ( Ho, Vv. 796

Summation = 1827

If, now, we represent the specific molecular conductivity of KCl

at ‘“‘zero”’ concentration by the summation velocity value 1827, at 1.0

molecular concentration the apparent relative velocity value may be

calculated as 74.8% of 1827, or 1367, since the transfer of water from

solvent to solute under the assumed inverse integral hydration system

would reduce the apparent concentration of solvent, as previously

noted.

We may now examine a group of electrolytes involving ions of the

lighter elements with respect to the above suggestions and the assumed

interrelations of weight, hydration and velocity embodied in Table 1.

To facilitate such an examination the respective data are brought

together in Table 2. |

In Table 2, the electrolytes in the respective series are arranged in

the order of the increasing atomic weight of the variant ion, as indicated

in the second column. In such series the assumption of an inverse

integral relationship between weight and hydration would yield

relative velocities of an order increasing with weight as calculated

6 Observed values may involve weight-normal or volume-normal solutions. The

observed values cited for LiCl, NaCl and KF involved no “‘correction’’ to weight-

normal basis, and calculations are, therefore, made to correspond with the observed

volume-normal basis. The other observed values involve ‘‘corrections”’ to the weight-

normal basis. All observed values in the first series are at 0°C., and in second series

at 18°C., except as otherwise noted.

7LiCl, Jones and Getman, Ztschr. phys. Chem. 46, 1903, p. 262, 1.67 m = 42.28,

.88 m = 35.58, by interpolation 1.0 mol. = 36.597; NaCl, Int. Crit. Tables, Vol. VI, p.

233, 1.0 mol. = 47.5; MgCls, Jones, Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub. 180, p. 65, .9415 m = 60.31;

AIC]; same p. 78, 1.0 mol. = 61.93; KCl, same p. 16, 1.05 mol. = 65.7; CaCl, same,

p. 16, 1.0 mol. = 75.5; KF, Noyes and Falk, J. A. Chem. Soc. 34, 1912, p. 463, 1.0 mol.

= 75.95; KCl, same, p. 463, 1.0 mol. = 98.22.

8 Additional values as follows: LiCl, Washburn, J. A. Chem. Soc. 33, 1911, p. 1474,

‘“zero’”’ conc. = 60.3; NaCl, Kohlrausch and Holborn, Leitvermégen der Elektrolyte, 1898,

p. 158 [18°C.], 1.0 mol. = 74.4, .6001 mol. = 109.7; MgCl:, Jones, Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub.

180, p. 65, ‘‘zero’’ cone. = 123.95; AlCl;, same, p. 78, ‘‘zero’’ conc. = 170; KCl, Noyes

and Falk [18°C.], J. A. Chem. Soc. 34, 1912, p. 461, ‘‘zero’’ conc. = 130.0, p. 462, 1.0

mol. conc. = 96.5; CaCl., Jones, Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub. 180, p. 63, ‘‘zero’’ conc. =

123.46; KF, Noyes and Falk, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 34, 1912, p. 461, ‘‘zero’’ conc. = 111.2.

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 5

from Table 1 and given in the ninth column. The observed velocities

as inferred from the relative unit specific molecular conductivities given

in the tenth column are to be noted as of corresponding order. On the

other hand, the specific hydration values derived from the above

assumption as related to the observed relative ion conductance of the

Na and K ions yield an entirely random series of values for the amount

of solvent characterizing 1.0 molecular solutions of the respective

electrolytes as derived in the fifth and sixth columns and given in

the seventh column. The observed relative specific molecular con-

ductivities at 1.0 molecular concentration given in the twelfth column

are to be noted as of a corresponding order. In the last four columns

of Table 2 we have, therefore, a double-checking series of comparisons

relating the values of Table 1 to observed measurements. On the

one hand relative velocities predicted upon the assumed hydration

through the extension of Graham’s Law are to be noted as in substan-

tial agreement with observed relative conductivities. On the other

hand, the changes in concentration of solvent which would be antic-

ipated from the assumed hydration are to be noted as in agreement

with the observed apparent modifications of specific molecular con-

ductivities. These interlocking series of comparisons involving two

aspects of solution phenomena as measured by electrical conductivity

thus appear to be characterized by agreements beyond the possibility

of mere accident.

In the third column of Table 2, it may be noted that assumed

combining weights are given in parentheses below the assumed

weights of the anhydrous ions. These combining weights are inter-

mediate between the respective ‘‘neutral’”’ and ‘‘ionic”’ weights pre-

viously discussed, and mathematically represent the sharing of

electrons in chemical combination, considered from the standpoint

of weight-change as an accompaniment of ionization. For example,

if the element sodium represented as Na is assigned a weight of 22 in

the un-ionized or ‘‘neutral” state, and a weight of 24 following the

loss of an electron to become positively ionized as Na*, then when it

shares a single electron in combination, its combining weight quite

naturally may be assumed as the intermediate value, or 23. The

values thereby attained as combining weights for such ions as Lit,

Nat and K+ do not depart appreciably from observed values, but

since the corresponding values for many other ions are at variance with

observed values the matter of combining weights of the lighter ele-

ments requires particular consideration in relation to the assumptions

regarding hydration and weight change. If we are to make the two

MARCH 4, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 107

initial assumptions of this paper it appears incumbent upon us to

eventually define combining weight and relate it to asubstantial group

of observed measurements. At this time, however, the matter of the

hydration of the ions must take precedence, and their combining

weights must remain parenthetical.

We may now continue the inquiry through an examination of the

measurements of other phases of solution phenomena.

FREEZING-PoINT DEPRESSION AS AN INDEX OF HYDRATION IN THE

LIGHTER ELEMENT [ONS

The work of Raoult? established an importance for the freezing-

point depression of a solvent effected by a solute, and in subsequent

years the measurement has become important in the determination

of the molecular weights of dissolved non-electrolytes, in the measure-

ment of osmotic pressure of both electrolytes and non-electrolytes and

in the measurement of the electrolytic dissociation of electrolytes.

As related to each of these applications the usefulness of the measure-

ment appears to be largely restricted to dilute solutions. As related

to osmotic pressure the measurement has attained importance through

analogy, following the demonstration of a direct proportionality

between freezing-point lowering and osmotic pressure. As related

to the electrolytic dissociation of electrolytes the measurement attained

importance through inference, following the interpretation of the

decrease in specific molecular conductivity with increase in concentra-

tion as an index of incomplete dissociation.

Yet in the foregoing section observed electrical conductivity values

for solutions involving ions of the lighter elements were noted as

corresponding with hydration, weight and velocity values predictable

from Table 1. The apparent decrease in observed specific molecular

electrical conductivity with increase in concentration was suggested

as associated with unevaluated changes in concentration caused by

the hydration of the ions. The “true’’ specific molecular conductivity

was thus indicated as a constant, whereupon complete ionization at

all concentrations became characteristic of all solutions under the

initial assumptions of the paper. It will be of interest to study the

freezing-point depression of electrolytes involving the lighter element-

ions with respect to the considerations embodied in Table 1.

In dilute solutions the depression of the freezing-point of the solvent

by the solute is considered proportional to the number of molecules

or ions of solute present.

® Ann. Chem. Phys. 28: 137, 1883; 2, 66, 1884.

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 5

We may now examine some observed freezing-point depressions with

particular reference to the familiar relationship underlying the inter-

pretation of freezing-point data, namely, that the gram molecular

weight of a non-lonizing solute added to 1000 gms. of water reduces

the freezing-point by 1.86°C. This relationship is considered as

subject to direct modification through ionization, a solute giving rise

to two ions, as KCl, effecting a reduction of 2 1.86°C., or 3.72°C.

and a solute giving rise to three ions, as CaCl., effecting a reduction

of 3 X 1.86°C., or 5.58°C. The degree of agreement between the

values postulated under such a relationship and the observed values is

commonly interpreted as a measure of dissociation. Yet under the

assumptions of this paper electrical conductivities suggest complete

ionization at concentrations up to 1.0 molecular KCl or its ionic

equivalent.

TWO-ION ELECTROLYTES

Lithium Chloride, LiCl: The following observed values for the

freezing-point depression of this electrolyte may be cited:!® 1.0 mol.

="3.80°; .7939 mol.’ = '2.945°: .5012° mol. '=" 1.81"; "2474 =a

The summation weight representing the hydrated solute LiCl at 1.0

mol. concentration as derived from Table 1 is 508, and the propor-

tionate values of the above concentrations may be calculated as

follows: ‘1.0’ mol. =" 1 «508° = 508; -7939 mol? =“79so a

403.5; .5012 mol. =9.5012 < 508 = 254.7; .2474 mol. = 2474 508

= 125.8. The observed freezing-point depressions are plotted against

these proportionate values in the graph shown in Figure 1 and con-

nected by a heavy line. For comparison we may venture to indicate

the freezing-point depression of LiCl when the complete ionization

suggested by electrical conductivity measurements is assumed. This

depression would be 2 X 1.86°C. (unit molecular depression), or 3.72°C.

for a summation weight of an electrolyte forming two ions. The

weight value, 508, represents the amount of solute at 1.0 molecular

concentration. The values are represented in the graph shown in

Figure 1 as a broken line.

Sodium Chloride, NaCl. The following observed values for the

freezing-point depression of this electrolyte may be cited:!! 1.0 mol. =

a.o0 ; .f00/mol. = 2747384292 mol. = W447 2 22525) alae

101.0 mol. from Int. Crit. Tables, 4: 258. Other values from page 227 in Smithsonian

Tables, 6th Edition, 1914.

111.0 mol. from Int. Crit. Tables, 4: 258. Other values from page 227 in Smithsonian

Tables, 6th Edition, 1914.

MARCH 4, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 109

The summation weight representing the hydrated solute, NaCl, at

1.0 mol. concentration as derived from Table 1 is 380, and the propor-

tionate values of the above concentrations may be calculated as

follows: 1.0 mol. = 1 X 380 = 380; .700 mol. = .700 x 380 = 266;

4293 mol. = .4293 x 380 = 163.2; .2325 mol. = .2325 x 380 = 88.4.

The observed freezing-point depressions are plotted against these

proportionate values in the graph shown in Figure 1 and connected

by a heavy line. The calculated depression for the ionization Nat

fae ee : i

ee ree ter eee eh

“Scellanis a a ee

HSS

{cale

e Li Cl

° 400 J 200 300 4oa oO

Rebtive Weight of Solute

Fig. 1. Observed and calculated freezing-point depressions for some two-ion elec-

trolytes.

and Cl- would be 2 xX 1.86°C., or 3.72°C. for a summation weight

of 380, representing the amount of solute present at 1.0 molecular

concentration. The values are represented in the graph shown in

Figure 2 as a broken line.

Potassium Chloride, KCl. The following observed values for the

freezing-point depression of this electrolyte may be cited: 1.0 mol. =

3.268°; .476 mol. = 1.605; .3139 mol. = 1.07. The summation weight

representing the hydrated solute KCl at 1.0 mol. concentration as

derived from Table 1 is 252, and the proportionate values of the

above concentrations may be calculated as follows: 1.0 mol. = 1 x

202 = 252; .476 mol. = .476 * 252 = 120; .3139 mol. = .3139 x

? Smithsonian Tables, 6th Edition, p. 227, 1914.

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 5

252 = 79.2. The observed freezing-point depressions are plotted

against these proportionate values in the graph shown in Figure 1

and connected by a heavy line. The calculated depression for the

ionization K+ and Cl- would be 2 X 1.86°C., or 3.72°C. for a summa-

tion weight of 252, representing the amount of solute present at 1.0

molecular concentration. The values are represented in the graph

shown in Figure 1 as a dotted line.

The comparisons set forth in the graph shown in Figure 1 indicate

only a general order of agreement, yet they appear to warrant the

is a Weight of oe Hf .

mle ike [eae leole i rrr

CREE a

BLO NES EE er

HANS

2S INS a eee

pp NE

500

ee ve Weight” set

Fig. 2. Observed and calculated freezing-point depressions for some three-ion elec-

trolytes.

consideration of other electrolytes at corresponding ionic con-

centrations.

THREE-ION ELECTROLYTES

Magnesium Chloride, MgCl:. .The following observed values for

the freezing-point depression of this electrolyte may be cited. .65

mol. = 3.854;..45 mol. =/2.537¢.:35 mol. = 1,910; .25 moles,

The summation weight representing the hydrated solute MgCl, at

1.0 molecular concentration as derived from Table 1 is 506, and the

proportionate values of the above concentrations may be calculated

13 Jones, H. C. Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub. 180: 23, 1913.

MARCH 4, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS fit

as follows: .65 mol. = .65 X 506 = 329; 45 mol. = .45 x 506 = 228;

Bommel =. 3500500077525 mol =! 25959506. =1 126.521 1he

observed freezing-point depressions are plotted against these propor-

tionate values in the graph shown in Figure 2 and connected by a

heavy line. At .666 mol. concentration, equi-ionic with 1.0 molecular

KCl, the calculated freezing-point depression would be 3? xX 3 xX

1.86°C. = 3.72°C., for a summation weight of .666 x 506, or 337.

These values are represented in the graph as a broken line.

Calcium Chloride, CaCl.. The following observed values for the

freezing-point depression of this electrolyte may be cited: .65 mol. =

S209) 45 mol, — 2.35°-7.30 mol. — 1.801, The summation weight

representing the hydrated solute, CaCl, at 1.0 molecular concentra-

tion as derived from Table 1 is 378, and the proportionate values of the

above concentrations may be calculated as follows: .65 mol. = .65 X

mien 24S mol, — 7.45 < o/6 — 170; 30 mol.-— 30) <3/8 =

132.3. The observed freezing-point depressions are plotted against

these proportionate values in the graph in Figure 2 and connected

by a heavy line. At .666 mol. concentration the suggested freezing-

point depression would be 2 X 3 X 1.86°C., or 3.72°C., for a sum-

mation weight of .666 x 378, or 252. These values are represented

in the graph shown in Figure 2 as a broken line.

FOUR-ION ELECTROLYTE

Aluminum Chloride, AlCl;. The following observed values for the

freezing-point depression of this electrolyte may be cited: .50 mol.

mei es mol. — 290-25 molt =— 1.6004 ; 2 mol.” = 1.279:

The summation weight representing the hydrated solute AICI; at

1.0 molecular concentration as derived from Table 1 is 632, and the

proportionate values of the above concentrations may be calculated

as follows: .50 mol. = .50 X 6382 = 316; .4mol. = .4 X 632 = 252.8;

ING eae Oo2 Nao. a mol — 2 x bac — 12044 ihe

observed freezing-point depressions are plotted against these propor-

tionate values in the graph shown in Figure 3 and connected by a

heavy line. At .50 molecular concentration, equi-ionic with 1.0

molecular KCl, the calculated freezing-point depression would be

i x4 X 1.86°C., or 3.72°, for a summation weight of $ X 632, or 316.

These values are represented in the same graph as a dotted line.

The order of agreement to be noted in the foregoing graphs indicates

144 Jones, H. C. Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub. 180: 22, 1913.

15 Jones, H. C. Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub. 180: 78, 46, 1913.

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 5

that the suggestion of complete ionization at concentrations as great as

1.0 molecular, a suggestion arising from a consideration of electrical

conductivity measurements, is not without support in the data of

freezing-point determinations. It is readily apparent that at the lower

concentrations shown in the graphs the observed freezing-point de-

pressions are less than the calculated values. These differences are

substantially off-set when the concentrations of the observed values

are recalculated on the weight-normal basis used in apportioning the

relative amounts of solute and solvent. It is further apparent from

Relative Weight” of Solvent”

fob titod eT aL ike banker: i aaa

a) Mk a cult eh aati ial a

of fhe Freexing-poont

Depression

pane Weight of hae

Fig. 3. Observed and calculated freezing-point depressions for a four-ion electrolyte

these graphs, moreover, that at concentrations approaching one

molecular (for KCl type), or its ionic equivalent, the observed freezing-

point depressions of such electrolytes as LiCl, MgCl. and AICI;

are greater than those anticipated under the calculated straight-lme

relationship. These electrolytes are indicated in Table 2 as being

characterized by the greater degree of hydration, suggested as a

significant factor in the more concentrated solutions. It appears to

be of interest, therefore, to examine the freezing-point measurement

to the point of solidification of the solution.

A series of freezing-point measurements of solutions of CaCl, at

various concentrations approaching the point at which the solution

MARCH 4, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 113

solidifies are available from Jones,’ and on this account this electrolyte

will be examined in some detail with respect to hydration.

As derived from Table 1 the anhydrous calcium ion, Ca++, has a

weight of 44 (suggesting thereby a combining weight of 42), with a

hydration of one water molecule, by virtue of which hydration the

hydrated ion has a weight of 62. Similarly, the anhydrous chlorine

ion, Cl-, has a weight of 32 (suggesting thereby a combining weight of

33) with a hydration of seven water molecules, the weight of the

hydrated ion being 158. On such a basis, therefore, the summation

weights associated with CaCl, are as follows: anhydrous state, Ca++

—44 Cls\=— 32, .Cl- — 32, total = 108:hydrated state, Cat+ =. 62,

Cl- = 158, Cl- = 158, total = 378. We may now calculate a series

of characteristics for solutions of CaCl, at various concentrations on

the foregoing basis. Taking 1000 grams of solution as a concentration

standard, we may calculate the expected saturation point as follows:

1000 + 378 = 2.645. At 2.645 molecular on the weight basis the

solution should be saturated, and when concentration is expressed

as a weight of electrolyte added to 1000 gms. of water, (which is the

basis of concentration used in freezing-point depression studies), and

the observed weight of CaCl, is taken as 111, the 2.645 molecular

value becomes 3.605 molecular, or 400 grams CaCl, added to 1000

gms. H.O. The expected depression of the freezing-point at 2.645

molecular, assuming complete ionization, may be calculated as follows:

2.645 x 3 X 1.86° = 14.76°. But whereas at zero concentration of

solute there are 1000 grams of free solvent and anhydrous solute

present, at 2.645 molecular concentration of solute there is no free

solvent present and 286 gms. of solute. If the freezing-point depres-

sion is assumed to have been influenced by this change, the extent of

the influence becomes measurable by simple division, in which the

relative amount of solvent and anhydrous solute is expressed as a

fraction. Thus 14.76° + .286 = 51.6°. On such a basis, there-

fore, we may calculate the expected additional depression of the

freezing-point attributable to the transfer of water from solvent to

solute under the assumed hydration. <A series of values for CaCl,

at various concentrations has been calculated and incorporated in

Table 3, wherein is also cited a series of corresponding values from

observed freezing-point depressions at various concentrations as

obtained by Jones.

16 Jones, H.C. Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub. 180: 15, 1913.

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 5

We may now plot the values of Table 3 relating to proportion of

solute and freezing-point depression. In the graph in Figure 4

calculated values appear represented by heavy lines. The straight

line is derived from column four of the calculated series, and is an

expression of the relationship fundamental to the interpretation of

freezing-point depression—1.86°C. depression for each gram ion

TABLE 3.—Datva or CALCULATED AND OBSERVED FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION IN

RELATION TO AN ASSUMED HYDRATION

Calc. Freezing-

Conc. Freezing- Grams Grams Point

Mol. Cone.| Grams | Hydrated Point Grams Aetia Solvent Depression

(Observed | Hydrated Solute Depression Free dros Plus Grams | Calculated

Basis) Solute (Weight | (Conc. Hyd.| Solvent Salute Anhydrous | for conc. on

Basis) Sol. x 3 Solute Observed

X< 1.86°) Basis,

CALCULATED SERIES .

0 Omer eE NG 0° 1000 0 1000. 0°

a) 184 .487 2:%2° 816 52.6 868 .6 3.13°

1.0 350 .926 5. 165° 650 100. 150. 6.89°

ss 500 1.323 1.38" 500 142.75 642.75 11.48°

pk 8) 636 1.6825 9 .385° 364 | 181.8 545.8 1 ee

2.5 760 2.01 11.225 240 | 217.3 457.3 24.52°

3.0 876 2.318 12 .93° 124 | 250. 374. 34. 58°

3.9 980 2.592 14.475° 20 | 280. 300. 48 25°

3.605 1000 2.645 14.76° 0 | 286. 286. al O°

OBSERVED SERIES

Obs. A

3 113 .299 160° 887 32.3 919.3 1.82° i 5

a 253 .67 3. 44° 747 42.2 819.2 4.57° 4.065°

1.0 350 .926 5.16° 650 100. 750. 6.88° 6.41°

1.4 471 1.246 6 .95° 529 134.5 663.5 10. 48° 10.05°

aor (a) 569 1.505 8.40° 431 162.6 593 .6 14.17° 14.33°

2.2 687 1.8175 10. 15° 313 196.5 509.3 19.95° 21.07°

Del 808 2.138 11.92° 192 || 232. . 424. 28.1° 30 .25°

3.1 896 2.34 iS 2078 104 | 256. 360. 36775) 39.5°

5.51 980 2.59 14. 45° 20 | 280. 300. 48 15° 49 5°

present—although the concentration basis has been modified from ‘‘a

weight of electrolyte added to 1000 gms. water’ to ‘‘a weight of

electrolyte in 1000 gms. solution.’’ This fundamental relationship

thus involves the number of ions present, and in so doing further

involves the implication that all solute ions are of the same size—an

implication which also follows from the extension of the gas laws in

relation to velocity as interpreted through observed electrical con-

ductivities. The curved line derived from column eight of the same

MARCH 4, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 115

series is an expression of the modification of the straight-line relation-

ship which might be anticipated as a result of the assumed hydration.

In other words, under the assumed hydration each molecule of CaCl,

removes fifteen water molecules of solvent, and the unevaluated con-

centration thereby brought about gives an apparent falling-off in

freezing-point depression represented by the departure of the curved

line from the straight line.

We may now examine the values for freezing-point depression as

derived from column nine of the observed series and represented by a

dotted line curve in the graph.

Relafive Weight of Solven’®

TT. en ae

bugs! Sangam

| eee

Bt ahetclal lade) Eo

_ ee ee

a i a a Bat

AlLaw

a eae a ee

co i a i ie Ba ea

Relative Weight of Soluxe

Depression of {he Freezing- po

Fig. 4. Observed and calculated freezing-point depressions for aqueous solutions

of CaCl, at all concentrations.

The agreement between the observed and calculated values as

represented respectively by the dotted and full curved lines appears

to be beyond the possibility of accident. The calculated point at

which the mixture of CaCl, and water becomes 100% hydrated

CaCl, (—51.6°C.) corresponds with the observed cryohydric or

eutectic point for CaCl, in water,!7? which agreement further sub-

stantiates the specific hydration assumed. It is of interest to note

also that the concentration indicated by the depression 51.6° is 9.25

mol. (51.6 + 5.58 = 9.25). This concentration has the same rela-

17 Int. Crit. Tables, 4: 257, gives —51°C.

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 5

tionship to the concentration of hydrated solute, 2.645 mol., as does

the initial weight of solvent (1000) to the final weight of anhydrous

solute at saturation (286). Since the molecular weight of CaCl, is

involved in the foregoing relationships it is obvious.that these freezing-

point depression measurements may serve as indices of the weights of

calcium and chlorine, the assumed weights being at variance with those

commonly observed. As previously noted the matter of combining

weight can not be considered in this paper.

The order of agreements above noted with respect to the depression

of the freezing-point appears to be in support of the initial assumptions

of this paper and the considerations developed through a study of

electrical conductivity in relation to them. They appear sufficient,

moreover, to warrant a more extended consideration of freezing-point

measurements of concentrated solutions, but further studies can not

be given space here.

BOILING-POINT ELEVATION AS AN INDEX OF HYDRATION IN THE LIGHTER

ELEMENT IONS

The elevation of the boiling-point of any solvent by a solute is

commonly considered as proportional to the number of molecules of

solute present in a given weight of asolvent. For example, a molecular

weight of a solute in grams when added to a liter of water in general

raises the boiling-point 0.52°C.,—provided there is no ionization. An

increase in the observed elevation over the expected one is interpreted

as an index of ionization.

In the foregoing considerations of electrical conductivity and

freezing-point depression in relation to an assumed hydration and

change in weight, complete ionization of such electrolytes of KCl,

LiCl, CaCl, ete., has been suggested at all concentrations. Con-

sequently on the above basis we would expect that a gram-molecular-

weight of KCl, for example, dissolved in a liter of water, would raise

the boiling point twice the unit molecular amount, or 1.04°C. Simi-

larly we would expect that a three-ion electrolyte, as CaCl, would

raise the boiling-point 3 x .52°, or 1.56°, while AlCl; as a four-ion

electrolyte would raise the boiling-point 2.08°C.

On the foregoing bases we may compare the calculated and observed

elevations of the boiling-point characterizing solutions of electrolytes

involving ions of the lighter elements as follows:

18 References for observed values: KCl, NaCl, Jablezyfiski and Kon, Jour. Chem.

Soc., London 123: 2953, 1923. CaCl, Baker and Waite, Chem. and Metallurgical

Engineering 25: 1174, 1921. Mg Cl, Kahlenberg, L., Jour. of Physical Chem. 5: 366,

1961. LiCl, Biltz, Zeit. fur physik. Chemie, 40: 208, 1902.

MARCH 4, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS Ey

TWO-ION ELECTROLYTES

Calculated KCl: Assuming for an approximation that one mole in

1000 parts by weight effects a unit elevation of .52°C., we have KCl,

K* = 40, mol. wt. hyd. = 94, Cl- = 32, mol. wt. hyd. = 158, 94 +

158 = 252, total mol. wt. 2 ions, 2 X .52° = 1.04°; Observed KCl:

8842 m. = .824°, .8842 x 252 = 223. Calculated NaCl: Na+ = 24,

mol wt. hyd. = 222, Cl- = 32, mol. wt. hyd. = 158, 222’ + 158 =

a total mol. wt. 2 ions, 2 x .52° = 1.04°, Observed NaCl: .9208 m.

888°, .9208 x 380 = 350. Calculated jets Lit = 8, mol. wt.

Relative Wei Sy of Sol

200

Relative Weight of Solute

100

Fig. 5. Observed and calculated elevations of the boiling-point for some two-ion

electrolytes.

hyd. = 350, Cl- = 32, mol. wt. hyd. = 158, 350 + 158 = 508, total

mol. wt. hyd. 2 ions, 2 X .52° = 1.04°, Observed LiCl: 1.05 m. LiCl

gives an elevation of the boiling point of 1.063°C. Observed Weight

LiCl = 42.48, Calculated Weight = 40, 42.48 + 40 = 1.062, 1.062 x

Gor lata <x 5080— 566.

THREE-ION ELECTROLYTES

Calculated CaCl,: Cat+ = 44, mol. wt. hyd. = 62, Cl- = 32, mol.

wt. hyd. = 158, Cl- = 32, mol. wt. hyd. = 158, 62 + 158 + 158 =

3/8, total mol. wt. 3 ions, 3 x .52° = 1.56°. Observed CaCl.: 10 gms.

CaCl, added to 100 gms. HO, gives boiling point of 101.3°C. Same

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 5

as 100 gms. added to 1 liter H.O, 100 + 1100 = .091 or 91 parts per

thousand. 91 ~ 108 (theo. mol. wt. anhydrous CaCl.) = 318.

Elevation effected: 1.3°C. Calculated MgCl,: Mg++ = 28, mol. wt.

hyd. = 190, Cl- = 32, mol. wt. hyd. = 158, Cl- = 32, mol. wt. aay

= 158, 190 + 158 + 158 = 506, total mol. wt. 3 ions, 3. X .52°

1.56° . Observed MgCl.: 9.156 gms. added to 100 gms. water =e

boiling point 1.351°C. Equivalent to 91.56 gms. added to 1000 gms.

water. 91.56 : 1091.56 :: x : 1000, x = 73.9 (equivalent to 83.9

gms. per 1000 gms. spin, 83.9 + 92 oe wt. anhydrous MgCl.)

ve Weigh of Solv

STmr

PCAC Eee

nee s

DA nPME NNRER urabeccene.

SHEET EE

Ce ae

Elevation of the Borling- point

cee

Riss:

BEE:

Ue ee

Meng GRRGRSESETSSRGETG.

Relative Weight of Solvfe

See © ee

Fig. 6. Observed and calculated elevations of the boiling-point for some electrolytes

of more than two ions.

= 912, .912 x 506 (mol. wt. hyd. MgCl.) = 461.5, relative wt. of

hydrated solute.

FOUR-ION ELECTROLYTES

Calculated AIC1,; Al+++ = 32, mol. wt. hyd. = 158, Clix =ta2, mo

wt. hyd. = 158, Cl- = 82, mol. wt. hyd. = 158, Cl- = =o, HOF wt.

hyd. = 158, 158 (Al+++) + 158 (Cl-) + 158 (Cl-) + 168 (Clair

632, 4 ions; 49>. .62? =. 208°,” |Observed AICl;: Corresponding

observed values are not readily available at this writing.

An examination of the graphs in Figures 5 and 6 indicates that the

calculated and observed values are in substantial agreement, and the

MARCH 4, 1932 BERRY: A STERCULIACEOUS FRUIT FROM EOCENE 119

boiling-point measurements to the extent of the agreements thus

become subject to interpretation as indicating complete ionization at

all concentrations. The data thus appear to support the suggestions

of electrical conductivity and freezing-point depression in this regard.

With the addition of more and more solute to a solvent the boiling-

point is raised higher and higher. The ratios of solvent to solute

brought about by such concentrations suggest that the assumed

attraction of the solute for the solvent is gradually offset through the

elevation of the temperature. In any case the measurement of

boiling-point elevation at high concentrations becomes of interest in

relation to the initial assumptions of this paper, but such data are not

readily available at present. Until such measurements become

available the elevation of the boiling-point appears to be a measure-

ment which can supply only indirect evidence for hydration.

SUMMARY

In the foregoing pages an inquiry has been made into the hydration

of the solute ions of the lighter elements. Two initial assumptions

were made (1) an inverse integral relationship between the anhydrous

weight of a solute ion and the degree of its hydration and (2) an

orderly change in weight accompanying ionization. Many observed

measurements, involving electrical conductivity, freezing-point de-

pression and boiling-point elevation have been noted as subject to a

uniform interpretation on the basis of these assumptions. The order

of agreement attained appears to warrant the extension of the inquiry

to other ions,—a study which will be reported in a subsequent paper.

PALEOBOTANY.—A sterculiaceous fruit from the lower Eocene (?)

of Colorado.! Epwarp W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University. —

A unique fossil fruit, which was sent to me for determination some

months ago by Professor R. D. George of the University of Colorado,

is sufficiently characteristic and important to be placed on record.

‘It seems to be definitely referable to the family Sterculiaceae, which

family is abundantly represented by a variety of foliar remains

throughout the Upper Cretaceous and early Tertiary, but which

becomes restricted to the warmer and more humid regions of lower

latitudes after the early Tertiary.

The limited amount of carpological material of reeent members of

the Sterculiaceae or of allied families of the order Malvales has pre-

1 Received January 19, 1932.

120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 5

vented me from finding an exact living representative of the fossil

assuming that there is such a representative, and I have therefore been

constrained to refer it to the form genus Sterculiocarpus. This genus

was proposed by me? in 1916 for fruits belonging ‘to the family Ster-

culiaceae, but with unknown or uncertain existing representatives.

Two species, Sterculiocarpus eocenicus? and Sterculiocarpus sezanel-

loides,* were described, and a third species, Sterculiocarpus sphericus,

was described’ in 1930. ‘These were all from the lower Eocene Wilcox

group and clearly represented three distinct types which it is difficult

to imagine could have come within the limits of a single natural genus.

Figs. 1, 2.—Sterculiocarpus coloradensis, natural size

The only other pertinent reference in the literature is a paper by

Viguier® describing the remarkable flowers and fruits from the lower

Eocene travertine of Sézanne in France, which are definitely referable

to the tribe Lasiopetaleae of this family, and for which the genus

Sezanella, with two species was erected.

The present specimen may be described as follows:

Sterculiocarpus coloradensis n. sp.

Figs. 1, 2.

The single specimen consists of a limonite replacement, whether secondary

after siderite, directly from lignite, or a cavity filling is unknown, of a large

2 EpwarpD W. Berry. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 91: 287. 1916.

3 Idem: 288, pl. 74, figs. 1-3.

4 Idem: 288, pl. 72, figs. 4-6.

5H. W. Berry. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 156: 109, pl. 25, fig. 19; pl. 48, figs.

9-14. 1980.

6R. Vieuier. Revue génér. bot. 20: 6-13, text fig. 1-6, pl. 5. 1908.

MARCH 4, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 121

spheroidal capsule. One longitudinal half is nearly complete and there are

parts of nearly all of the base of the opposite side.

Form prolate spheroidal, somewhat more fully rounded proximad than

distad. Length about 5.25 centimeters. Equatorial diameter about 4

centimeters in the plane of flattening and 3 centimeters in the plane at right

angles to it. Surface with 10 fairly prominent longitudinal ridges, equally

alternating with 10 suleae. The latter may be a living feature but have the

appearance of representing lines of dehiscence of a tardily dehiscent capsule.

The surface is minutely ornamented with fine transverse, subparallel, inoscu-

lating, impressed lines, which may be a natural feature, or merely result

from the manner of fossilization. Exposed inner faces in the radial planes

of the surface sulcae show similar markings, and these are the basis for con-

sidering the capsule to have been septicidal.

The capsule is divided into 10 compartments and appears to have been

ligneous in life. It is possible that the longitudinal ridges of the outer surface

represent the exterior edge of the compartment walls, in which case the dehis-

cence was loculicidal. The first of these alternatives seems the more probable.

It is also possible that these ridges represent the position of parietal placentae,

but it seems more likely that the placentation was axile. I surmise this from

rather obscure internal markings which may represent the impression scars

of seeds. No structural features other than those mentioned are discernable.

An undeformed equatorial cross section is shown in fig. 2 and I have

indicated on this the alternative interpretations at S (septicidal) and L

(loculicidal).

The single specimen is the property of Cecil Shelton of Kutch, Colorado,

and it came from the valley of Big Sandy Creek in Sec. 5, T. 11 8., R. 60 W.,

6th principal meridian. The country rock here is Laramie, near the Laramie-

Dawson contact. Tertiary rocks of Miocene-Pliocene age border the val-

ley on both the north and south sides within a couple of miles. It seems

probable that the fossil is of Dawson age, although this is subject to the un-

certainty attending the discovery of an entirely new type. An early Eocene

age is assigned to the Dawson.

The only comparable carpological remains, which have already been

mentioned (ante) come from the lower Eocene of the Mississippi Gulf embay-

ment, and from the lower Eocene of France, but the weight of this is somewhat

discounted by the fact that leaves of various types of Sterculiaceae are com-

mon as early as the base of the Upper Cretaceous in this general region,

where they disappear after Eocene time. The present specimen, although

differing in size and external form, agrees with Sezanella in having ten com-

partments, septicidal dehiscence, and axile placentae.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

244TH MERTING

The 244th meeting of the Academy was held in the Auditorium of the

Interior Department Building, on Wednesday, December 9, 1931. President

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 5

N. A. Coss called the meeting to order at 8:15 and introduced the speaker

of the evening, Dr. E. G. Conxuin, Professor of Zoology, Princeton Uni-

versity, who delivered an illustrated address on Fitness and purpose in the

living world. About 270 persons were present.

245TH MEETING

The 245th meeting of the Academy was a joint meeting with the Geo-

logical Society of Washington, held in the Auditorium of the Interior Depart-

ment Building, on Tuesday, January 12, 1932. 150 persons were present.

Vice-President H. L. Curtis called the meeting to order at 8:15 and intro-

duced Dr. F. E. Matruss who presented Professor F. A. Veninc MEINESz

of the University of Utrecht, member of the Netherlands Geodetic Com-

mission, who delivered an address on Gravity results of submarine expeditions

in the East and West Indies and their relation to tectonic phenomena. Doctor

VeNnING MeINeEsz has developed a new and accurate method for measuring

gravity at sea. During the past decade he has travelled 50,000 miles in

submarines and has occupied many hundreds of gravity stations at sea.

His work is of great importance to geodesy and to our knowledge of isostasy,

tectonics, and the shape of the earth.

After a brief intermission the address was followed by the 34th annual

meeting of the Academy, which was called to order by Vice-President H. L.

CuRTIS.

The report of the last annual meeting was read by the Recording Secretary

and approved. ‘The report of the Corresponding Secretary, Pau E. Howe,

showed the membership of the Academy on January 1, 1932, to consist of

15 honorary members, 3 patrons, and 569 members, one of whom was a life

member; a total of 587, of whom 384 reside in or near the District of Columbia,

28 in foreign countries, and 175 in other parts of the continental United

States. The members of the Academy stood in respect to the memory of

those who had died during the year: Epwarp GoopricH AcHESON, New

York City, July 6, 1931; Henry Marc Ami, Ottawa, Canada, January 4,

1931; J. W. Giptey, Washington, September 26, 1931; ALFRED JUDSON

Henry, Washington, October 5, 1931; Howarp L. Hopexins, Washington,

February 13, 1931; George Martin Koper, Washington, May 24, 1913;

Russevt A. Oaktey, Washington, August 6, 1931; L. H. Pammern, Ames,

Iowa; HENRY MarTINn Pav, Washington, March 15, 1931; R. A. F. Penross,

Jr., Philadelphia, Pa., July 30, 1931. Honorary Members: F. WiGGLeEs-

WORTH CLARKE, Washington, May 23, 1931; Raount GautTimr, Switzerland,

April 9, 1931, Davip Starr JORDAN, Stanford University, September 19, 1931.

The report of the Recording Secretary showed 8 scientific meetings during

the year of which three were joint meetings. The meetings and abstracts

of the addresses given at these meetings, have been filed and published in the

Journal of the Academy. The report was approved.

The report of the Treasurer, H. G. Avers, showed $6,712.14 to be ac-

counted for with disbursements of $4,843.45 and a bank balance of $1,868.69

on December 31, 1931. Assets were listed as $23,074.12.

The report of the Auditors consisting of approval of the report of the

Treasurer, was read and both reports were accepted and filed.

The Senior Editor of the Journal, C. WyTHE Cooke, submitted the follow-

ing record of the twenty-first year of publication of the Journal:

Volume 21 consists of 552 pages, containing 41 papers by members and

MARCH 4, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 123

39 communicated papers, and being illustrated by 14 half-tones and 47 line

engravings. Relative to the number of pages occupied by them these papers

were distributed as follows: 5 mathematical or physical papers, 32.8; 5 papers

on chemistry, physical chemistry, or crystallography, 35.6; 14 papers on

geophysics, geology, paleontology, or paleobotany, 101.1; 18 papers on

botany, 108.5; 35 zoological papers, totaling, 140.6; 3 papers on archeology,

ethnology, or necrology, 11.0.

This report was approved.

Mr. O. H. Gisu, Chairman of the Teller’s Committee, reported 270 bal-

lots counted. The following officers were elected: L. H. Apams, President;

W. F. EIcHELBERGER and W. H. Witmer, Non-resident Vice-Presidents;

Pau E. Hows, Corresponding Secretary; CHARLES THoM, Recording Secre-

tary; H. G. Avers, Treasurer; C. WyTHE CooKE and J. A. FLemiInc, Man-

agers for the term of three years ending January, 1935.

The Corresponding Secretary reported the following members as nominated

for Vice-Presidents by the affiliated societies. Upon motion the Secretary

was directed to cast one ballot for the election of the list as read: Anthropo-

logical, Mr. N. M. Jupp;! Archaeological, Dr. WALTER Hoves; Bacteriological,

Dr. L. A. Rogers; Biological, Mr. H. H. T. Jackson; Botanical, Dr. H. B.

HumpuHrReY; Chemical, Dr. Epwarp Wicuers; Electrical Engineers, Dr.

EuGENE C. CRITTENDEN; Engineers, Prof. O. B. FRencH; Entomological,

Dr. Harotp Morrison; Foresters, Dr. F. C. CraiGHEAD; Geographic, Dr.

F. V. Covitue; Geological, Mr. O. E. Metnzer; Helminthological, Dr. G.

STEINER; Historical, Mr. ALLEN CuaRK; Mechanical Engineers, Dr. H. L.

WHITTEMORE; Medical, Dr. Henry C. Macatss; Military Engineers, Col.

C. H. Brrpseye; Philosophical, Dr. H. L. Curtis.

Past President HumpHReEys was delegated to escort President L. H. ADamMs

to the chair. President Apams addressed the Academy briefly and declared

the meeting adjourned at 9:55 P.M.

CHARLES THom, Recording Secretary.

RECENTLY ELECTED TO MEMBERSHIP IN THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

ScIENCES

HONORARY MEMBER

Sir JAMES Hopwoop JEANs has been made an Honorary Member in recog-

nition of his contributions to the dynamical theory of gases, to cosmogony,

and to astrophysics. His brilliant applications of mathematical physics to

the problems of astronomy have made him one of the leaders in the recent

great advance in that science. Among his important publications are the

following books: The Dynamical Theory of Gases, Problems in Cosmogony and

Stellar Dynamics, and Astronomy and Cosmogony. He is a Research Asso-

ciate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

MEMBERS

Dr. FREDERICK SUMNER BRACKETT, director of the Division of Radiation

and Organisms, of the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. BRackErTrT is well known

for his investigations in spectroscopy, including the development of thermo-

piles, and for his researches on plants and radiation, the results of which

have been published in various journals.

1 Elected by Board of Managers.

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 5

Dr. Ropert Herman BoGugE, research director, Portland Cement Associa-

tion Fellowship at the Bureau of Standards. Dr. Bocuse was elected to mem-

bership in recognition of his contributions to colloid chemistry and to the

Ser chemistry of silicates. He is the author of numerous papers on these

subjects.

Prof. Oakes AEs, Professor of Botany, Supervisor of Biological Laboratory

and Botanical Garden (Cuba), Arnold Arboretum and Botanical Museum,

Harvard. Prof. Ames was elected to membership in recognition of his con-

tributions to systematic orchidology. He is the preeminent authority in this

large and exceedingly difficult group of plants.

Dr. THomas Bargovr, director, Museum of Comparative Zoology. Dr.

BaRBour was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to

herpetology and ornithology.

Dr. JOHANNES HADELN Brutn, Research Associate at the Bureau of Stand-

ards. Dr. Bruun was elected to membership in recognition of his work on

the separation and identification of the constituents of petroleum, the results

of which have been published in various journals.

CHARLES ALLEN Cary, Physiological Chemist, Research Laboratories,

Bureau of Dairy Industry. Mr. Cary was elected to membership in recog-

nition of his contributions to the knowledge of nutrition and particularly the

protein metabolism of milking cows. He is the author of numerous papers on

these subjects.

Henry B. Couuins, Jr., Assistant Curator, Division of Ethnology, U. 8.

National Museum. His election to membership was in recognition of his

archeological researches in the southeastern section of the United States and

in Alaska, and his contributions to physical anthropology.

Dr. James Firron Coucu, Chemist, Bureau of Animal Industry. Dr.

CoucuH was elected to membership in recognition of his work on the active

principles of stock-poisoning plants. The results of his work have been pub-

lished in various journals and bulletins.

Dr. Caru 8. Cracon, Physicist, Bureau of Standards. Dr. CRaGor

was elected to membership in recognition of his work on the thermodynamic

properties of ammonia and of petroleum products.

Dr. Leon Francis Curtiss, Physicist, Bureau of Standards. Dr. Curtiss

was elected to membership in recognition of his investigations in radioactivity

and cosmic radiation.

Dr. Francis Marion Drranporf, Physicist, Bureau of Standards. Dr.

DEFANDORF was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions

to the science of electrical measurements, particularly in the field of high

voltage.

HerBert N. Eaton, Acting Chief of the hydraulic laboratory, Bureau of

Standards. Mr. Eaton was elected to membership in recognition of his work

in aeronautics and hydraulics. He has written numerous articles on aero-

nautic instruments.

d twenty. fifth day © of each month.

es tae

: Bete oe of Chemistry and Soils. : :

vast and Geodetic Survey : sy ee

Paloaeaky ae sterculiaceous fruit fant i lower Bocene(?)

» warp W. Burry.

tia dn bine 1 eM cos ie WC SM ae ae Re oi

This Jounwat is indexed in the International Sree ee

x a ae Sere bet eg Se MRS eae Ay RESTS yin ITS ee by ‘ ae

Fal

No. 6

NOx. 22 Marcu 19, 1932

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VoL. 22 Marcu 19, 1932 No. 6

BOTANY.—The genus Sanchezia in Peru.t E. C. Lronarp, U. 8.

National Museum. (Communicated by E. P. Ki.uip).

The genus Sanchezia, belonging to the family Acanthaceae, consists

mainly of shrubs having large, firm, subentire leaves, which are either

bright green or, in a few species, conspicuously variegated along the

main veins. The flowers, arranged in spikes or panicles, have tubular,

small-lobed, red, yellow, or purple corollas. Inserted at the base of

the corollas are two pairs of stamens, one pair long and usually ex-

serted, the other shorter and sterile (staminodes). Floral bracts are

present in all the species. In some they are small and inconspicuous,

but in others they are large and bright red or yellow. The brilliant

color of the inflorescence as a whole, in contrast to the bright green of

the leaves, adds greatly to the attractiveness and beauty of these

plants. They grow wild in the wet forest regions of the northern

Andes, but being easily adaptable to cultivation they have been carried

to widely separated countries, where, either as greenhouse plants or

escapes, they readily flourish. I have examined such collections from

Costa Rica, Cuba, Java, and Amboina.

Since the publication of an earlier paper? on Sanchezia, a large num-

ber of Peruvian specimens have been submitted to me for identifica-

tion, among these nine undescribed species. It seems well worth

while, therefore, to bring together in a single paper descriptions of all

the Peruvian species (21) now known. The recent material has been

obtained largely through the collecting of E. P. Killip and A. C.

Smith, Llewelyn Williams, and Guillermo Klug. Further explora-

tion will doubtless bring to light many additional species in this in-

teresting and complex group.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

January 22, 1932.

2H. C. Leonard, Notes on the genus Sanchezia. This Journal, 16: 484-492. 1926.

125

{4 :

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 6

KEY TO THE PERUVIAN SPECIES

Calyx lobes lanceolate, slender-acuminate.

Bracts:6.0.0e (Cm 10M eo aoe sees: «nce eee Oe 1. S. filamentosa.

Bracts 2 cm. long or less.

Sterile bracts 1 to 1.5 em. long, 4 to 5 mm. wide; corolla puberulent.

2. S. williamsii.

Sterile bracts 4 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. wide; corolla glabrous.

Leaf blades large, up to 25 em. long and 12 cm. wide, glabrous; stamin-

odes 2.5 ema. idng. “pilose. :.) 05 ce aoe S 3. S. oxysepala.

Leaf blades smaller, up to 11 cm. long and 3.5 em. wide; staminodes

1:3em:. long or less; gialorousie 2s a ee 4. S. sprucei.

Calyx lobes oblong, acute to rounded.

Bracts small, shorter than the calyx (sometimes exceeding the calyx in

no. 5).

Inflorescence of 1 or more slender unilateral spikes (imperfectly uni-

lateral in no. 5).

Leaves elliptic, abruptly narrowed at base, less than twice as long as

broad: bracts72’ (6:0: mm longs... 204 seer 5. S. sylvestris.

Leaves oblong-elliptic, gradually narrowed to base, more than twice

as long as broad; bracts 8 to 25 mm. long.

Bracts acuminate, 1.6 to 2.5 em. long, often equaling or exceeding

the, ‘calivac an CN. eke 5. sian ae ee, eee 6. S. rosea.

Bracts obtuse or acute, 1.5 cm. long or less, much shorter than the

calyx.

Corolla pubescent; calyx segments 1.7 to 2 cm. long; bracts

SA DTOUS trae ses) scone aad acer ek ee pe ee 7. S. loranthifolia.

Corolla glabrous; calyx segments 1.4 to 1.6 cm. long; bracts

pubermlent, 8.48 2 nes ee 8. S. tigrina.

Inflorescence compact, not unilateral.

Leaves rounded or obtuse at base; flowers sessile in the axils of the

DPEICUSs chee Phe aes escioee le el cae CR Ain tl ae 9. S. conferta.

Leaves acute at base; flowers crowded at the ends of the peduncles.

10. S. capitata.

Bracts large, longer than the calyx and concealing it.

Leaves’ “pubescent 0c. sce Reta ie GOS o Genel aang ae 11. S. ovata.

Leaves glabrous.

Bracts connate at least to middle.

Lateral nerves 15 to 17 to a side; corolla lobes 5 mm. long.

12. S. cyathibracteata.

Lateral nerves 9 to 12 to a side; corolla lobes 3 mm. long. .

13. S. pennellii.

Bracts not connate.

Corolla manifestly pubescent.

Bracts and bractlets pubescent; corolla 4 em. long or less.

14. S. oblonga.

Bracts and leaflets glabrous; corolla 5 to 6 cm. long.

15. S. macbridei.

Corolla glabrous, or with a few hairs near the tip of the lobes.

Leaves gradually narrowed into winged petioles.

Corolla red; staminodes about 3 mm. long, glabrous above.

16. S. peruviana.

MARCH 19, 1932 LEONARD: THE GENUS SANCHEZIA IN PERU 127

Corolla yellow; staminodes about 2 cm. long, pilose above.

17. S. flava.

Leaves plainly differentiated into leaf blade and petiole.

Corolla red.

Leaf blades entire or undulate; staminodes averaging 10 mm.

OO cy %,. 4 che em ede Becht oe Liatcieaies 1: 18. S. rubrifiora.

Leaf pies coarsely crenate-dentate; staminodes averaging

ATOM ONG 4) Boer ayers S gone sil ed. sybe 19. S. pulchra.

Corolla yellow.

Leaf blades ovate, obtuse or rounded at base; inflorescence

capitate or a short congested spike; staminodes glabrous

‘ or sparingly pubescent above....... 20. S. stenantha.

Leaf blades oblong, elliptic, or oblong-obovate, narrowed

at base; inflorescence spicate; staminodes pilose above.

21. S. killipii.

1. Sanchezia filamentosa Lindau, Bull. Herb. Bois. II. 4: 314. 1904.

Stem subquadrangular, pubescent; petioles 3 to 7 cm. long, pubescent;

leaf blades ovate, up to 30 cm. long, 12 cm. wide, obliquely acuminate at

apex, slightly narrowed at base, the nerves and midrib pubescent, the cysto-

liths 0.5 mm. long; inflorescence a terminal panicle, the branches unilateral,

the bracts opposite, one sterile the other subtending 2 to 4 flowers; bracts

and bractlets up to 7 cm. long, 3 to 5 mm. wide at base, produced into a

long slender tip; calyx segments linear-lanceolate, 3.5 to 6 cm. long, 3 to 4

mm. wide at base, pubescent; corolla purple, 4.5 em. long, pubescent toward

tip, the lobes 3.5 mm. in diameter; stamens and staminodes pubescent at

base, pilose above, the staminodes about 2 cm. long, slender and narrowly

capitate.

Type collected near Pongo de Cainarachi, Department of Loreto, Peru,

by E. Ule (no. 6401).

No material is available for my examination and the above description

has been compiled from the original. This species should be easily recog-

nized by its extremely long slender bracts and calyx segments.

2. Sanchezia williamsii Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis gracilibus subtetragonis glabris vel pubescentibus; foliis

ellipticis vel leviter obovatis basi acutis vel breviter in petiolum decurrentibus,

apice acuminatis, margine integerrimis vel undulatis, glabris, nervis fulvo-

pilosis exceptis, cystolithis conspicuis; spica interrupta; bracteis lanceolatis

pubescentibus dense ciliatis; bractéolis anguste lanceolatis; calycis laciniis

anguste lanceolatis; corolla rubra puberula.

Shrub; stem slender, quadrangular with rounded angles, glabrous or

slightly pubescent at the nodes; petioles 2 to 4 cm. long, channeled, glabrous,

or pubescent above; leaf blades elliptic or slightly obovate, up to 16 cm. long,

6.5 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, acute at base and subdecurrent on the

petioles, entire or undulate, glabrous except the nerves and midrib, these

prominent and pilose with yellowish-brown ascending or spreading hairs

0.5 mm. long, the cystoliths 0.25 to 0.5 mm. long, prominent and numerous

on upper surface, less so on lower, crowded and parallel on nerves and midrib;

inflorescence an interrupted spike 10 to 22 cm. long, the lowermost inter-

node about 5 em. long, the others successively shorter toward the summit,

all pubescent with ascending hairs up to 1 mm. long; bracts lanceolate, 10

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

to 15 (occasionally 20) mm. long, 3 to 5 mm. wide (bract subtending the

flowers slightly larger than the opposite sterile one), acute or acuminate at

apex, pubescent with ascending hairs, densely ciliate, the cystoliths prominent

and crowded; flowers one to several, crowded on a short peduncle 1 to 5 mm.

long; bractlets linear-lanceolate, otherwise similar to the bracts; calyx 2 to

2.8 cm. long, the segments linear-lanceolate, 2 to 3 mm. wide, sparingly

pubescent without, densely so within, the hairs ascending; corolla (immature)

red (?), puberulent, the lobes 2 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, shallowly emarginate;

filaments glabrous; staminodes 3 mm. long (?); style 4 em. long, glabrous.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,444,810, collected at San

Roque, Department of San Martin, Peru, altitude 1,350 to 1,500 meters,

January or February, 1930, by Llewelyn Williams (no. 7701). Williams’

no. 7215 from the same locality also belongs to this species.

This is closely related to S. orysepala, but can be distinguished readily

by its simple spike, its denser pubescence, and its larger bracts (10 to 15 mm.

long). In S. oxysepala the spikes are sparingly branched at the base and the

bracts are 8 mm. long or less.

3. Sanchezia oxysepala Mildbr. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 9: 983. 1926.

Stem quadrangular, glabrous; petioles 2 to 5 em. long; leaf blades elliptic-

ovate, up to 25 cm. long, 12 cm. wide, acuminate, repand-dentate, glabrous;

inflorescence terminal, of one to several unilateral spikes; bracts opposite,

those subtending the flowers 6 to 7 mm. long, the sterile one much smaller;

bractlets 8 mm. long, 2 mm. wide; sepals linear-subulate, 2.5 to 3 em. long,

2.5mm. wide; corolla 5 cm. long, the lobes 5 to 6 mm. long, 4 mm. wide; stamens

exserted, pilose; staminodes 2.5 cm. long, capitate, pilose.

Type collected at mouth of Rio Santiago, Department of Loreto, Peru,

by G. Tessmann (no. 3874a). Photograph in the U. S. National Herbarium

and in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden.

No actual specimens have been seen by the writer.

4. Sanchezia sprucei Lindau, Bull. Herb. Boiss. 5: 648. 1897.

Stem terete, pubescent; petioles 6 to 12 mm. long, pubescent; leaf blades

elliptic, up to 11 em. long, 4.5 em. wide, acute at apex and base, sparingly

pilose, the cystoliths prominent; inflorescence terminal, of one or more inter-

rupted spikes; bracts (one subtending the flower, the opposite one sterile)

ovate, 7 to 13 mm. long, 2 to 5 mm. wide, acuminate, pilose; bractlets lanceo-

late, 1.3 em. long, 4 mm. wide; calyx segments 2 to 2.2 cm. long, 3.5 to 4.5

mm. wide, the margin pilose and subhyaline; corolla 3.8 em. long, 9 mm. wide

at middle, the lobes 3 mm. in diameter; stamens exserted, the filaments

sparingly pilose; anthers 4 mm. long; staminodes 1.5 to 1.8 em. long, glabrous;

style 4.5 cm. long; stigma 4 mm. long; capsule 1.6 cm. long, 8-seeded.

Type collected near Tarapoto, Peru, by R. Spruce (no. 4325). Type

collection in the Gray Herbarium; photograph in the U. 8. National Her-

barium.

Near S. oxysepala, but distinguished from that species by the smaller leaves,

pubescent stems, and the shorter glabrous staminodes.

5. Sanchezia sylvestris Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis subtetragonis glabris; foliis ellipticis vel oblongo-ellipticis

basi obtusis apice abrupte breviterque acuminatis glabris, margine sinuato-

MARCH 19, 1932 LEONARD: THE GENUS SANCHEZIA IN PERU 129

dentato; inflorescentia terminali paniculata; bracteis oppositis ovatis acutis

subtiliter ciliatis; bracteolis ovatis obtusis parce puberulis ciliatis; calycis

laciniis oblongis paullum inaequalibus; corolla punicea glabra, lobis ciliatis

exceptis; filamentis parce pilosis; staminodiis basi tomentosis apice glabris.

Shrub 1 meter high; stem quadrangular with rounded angles, glabrous;

petioles 2 to 3 em. long, glabrous; leaf blades elliptic to oblong-elliptic, up to

17 em. long, 10 cm. wide, abruptly narrowed to a slender tip, obtuse at base,

shallowly sinuate-dentate, glabrous, the upper surface marked with numer-

ous, very minute, papillate projections, the cystoliths rather numerous and

prominent, closely parallel on the nerves and midrib; inflorescence a terminal

panicle about 20 cm. long, composed of slender unilateral spikes; bracts

opposite (one subtending a flower, the other sterile), ovate, 3 to 6 mm. long,

1 to 2 mm. wide, acute, minutely ciliate; bractlets ovate, 4 to 5 mm. long,

3mm. wide, obtuse, sparingly puberulent and ciliolate; calyx segments oblong,

slightly unequal, 9 to 10 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. wide, obtuse and apiculate

at apex, glabrous or inconspicuously and sparingly puberulent, furfuraceous

toward tip, ciliolate; corolla 4 cm. long, pink, glabrous (except the finely

ciliate lobes), 3 mm. broad at base, 7 to 8 mm. broad at throat, the lobes

3 mm. long, 2.5 mm. wide, emarginate; stamens 3.5 to 4 cm. long, the fila-

ments flat and sparingly pilose, the anthers 5 mm. long; staminodes 1.5 cm.

long, 0.5 mm. broad at base, flat and tomentose toward base, the upper portion

glabrous, very slender and narrowly spatulate at tip; style 4 to 5 cm. long,

glabrous; capsule 1.2 cm. long, 3 mm. broad, glabrous, or with a few appressed

hairs near the tip.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,461,741, collected in dense

forest between Yurimaguas and Balsapuerto, Department of Loreto, Peru,

altitude 135 to 150 meters, August 26, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith

(no. 28093). Klug’s 1653, collected in the Rio Putumayo forest, is also of

this species.

Sanchezia sylvestris is readily distinguished by its minute bracts, which

are seldom more than 5 mm. long. In all other Peruvian species the bracts

are 10 mm. long or more. 3

6. Sanchezia rosea Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis subtetragonis glabris; foliis oblongo-ellipticis glabris, apice

acuminatis basi acutis, margine leviter crenato-dentato; spica subunilaterali;

bracteis ovato-lanceolatis glabris vel subtiliter ciliatis; bracteolis oblongo-

ovatis glabris; calycis laciniis oblongis apice rotundatis et mucronulatis;

corolla lutea glabra, lobis parce ciliatis exceptis; staminodiis basi tomentosis

apice pilosis.

Low shrub; stem quadrangular with rounded angles, glabrous; petioles

2 to 4 cm. long, glabrous; leaf blades oblong-elliptic, up to 24 em. long, 9 cm.

wide, acuminate at apex, acute at base, shallowly crenate-dentate except

the basal third (here entire), glabrous, the upper surface bearing minute

papillate projections but these less numerous and conspicuous than in S.

sylvestris, the cystoliths 0.5 mm. long; inflorescence spicate, imperfectly uni-

lateral; bracts opposite (one subtending a sessile cluster of several flowers,

the other slightly smaller, sterile, or subtending a single flower), ovate-

lanceolate, 1.6 to 2.5 em. long, 6 to 11 mm. wide near base, gradually narrowed

to a slender tip, glabrous or minutely ciliate, the cystoliths parallel and rather

prominent; bractlets oblong-ovate to oblong, 6 to 16 mm. long, 2 to 5 mm.

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

wide, glabrous; calyx segments oblong, equal or nearly so, 1.5 to 1.8 em.

long, 2 to 4 mm. wide, rounded and mucronulate at apex, conspicuously

puberulent and ciliate at tip, otherwise glabrous, the cystoliths minute and

parallel; corolla light red, glabrous without except for a few scattered hairs

on the margin of the lobes, glabrous within except for a white tomentum

about the insertion of the stamens, 4 to 5 em. long, 3 mm. broad at base,

1 cm. broad at throat, slightly constricted at mouth, the lobes 3 mm. long,

2 mm. wide, rounded and emarginate at apex; stamens exserted about 5 mm.,

the filaments sparingly pilose, the anthers 5 mm. long; staminodes 1.8 em.

long, ending in a flat spatulate tip 0.75 mm. wide, white-tomentose at base,

otherwise pilose with spreading hairs 1 to 2.5 mm. long; style slightly exceed-

ing the stamens.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,461,695, collected in woods

along the lower Rio Huallaga, Yurimaguas, Department of Loreto, Peru,

altitude about 135 meters, August 25, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith

(no. 28040).

Sanchezia rosea is related to S. tugrina, from which it differs mainly in its

thinner leaf blades, longer bracts, and pilose staminodes. Although it agrees

with S. loranthifolia in having pilose staminodes, it does not possess the

puberulent corolla and firm dark leaf blades of that species.

7. Sanchezia loranthifolia Lindau, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4: 314. 1904.

Stem quadrangular, glabrous; leaf blades oblong, up to 18 em. long and

5 em. wide, acuminate at apex, narrowed at base to a short petiole, glabrous,

firm and dark colored, the cystoliths conspicuous; inflorescence a terminal

panicle, the flowers in clusters of 4 to 6 crowded in the axil of one of each

pair of bracts; bracts ovate, obtuse, up to 1.6 cm. long, 6 mm. wide; bractlets

up to 1.4 em. long, 3.5 mm. wide; calyx segments unequal, 1.7 to 2 em. long,

3 to 4 mm. wide; corolla red, 4 mm. wide at base, 9 mm. wide at throat,

puberulent toward tip, the lobes 5 mm. long, 3 mm. wide; stamens 4.2 cm.

long, pilose; staminodes 1.4 to 1.7 em. long, pilose, spatulate at tip; style

5 em. long, glabrous; capsule 1.7 cm. long, 2.5 mm. in diameter, glabrous.

Type collected along the Cumbaso River, near San Pedro, Department

of Loreto, Peru, by E. Ule (no. 6820).

I have seen no material of this species, and the above description is com-

piled from the original.

8. Sanchezia tigrina Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis tetragonis glabris, nodis parce pubescentibus exceptis;

foliis oblongo-ellipticis basi acutis, apice acuminatis glabris, marginibus

integerrimis vel undulatis; inflorescentia terminali paniculata, spicis pluribus

unilateralibus; bracteis oblongis vel oblongo-ovatis puberulis, margine sub-

scarioso; bracteolis oblongis; corolla glabra, lobis parce ciliatis exceptis;

staminodiis basi tomentosis apice glabris.

Shrub; stem quadrangular, glabrous or sparingly pubescent at nodes;

petioles up to 2.5 em. long, channeled, sparingly puberulent above, glabrous

beneath; leaf blades oblong-elliptic, up to 25 em. long, 8 cm. wide, narrowed

and acuminate at apex, narrowed at base, firm, drying olive-brown, entire

and undulate, both surfaces glabrous, the upper marked by numerous minute

papillae, the cystoliths 0.5 to 0.75 mm. long; inflorescence a terminal panicle

MARCH 19, 1932 LEONARD: THE GENUS SANCHEZIA IN PERU 131

consisting of several unilateral spikes, the lowermost node 1 to 3 cm. long,

the others successively shorter, pubescent, the flowers in clusters of 3 or 4,

or solitary, sessile in the axil of one of each pair of bracts, the opposite bract

sterile; bracts oblong to oblong-ovate, up to 1.7 cm. long, 7 mm. wide, acute

at apex, puberulent, the margin subscarious, ciliolate; bractlets oblong, up

to 15 mm. long, 5 mm. wide, obtuse; calyx segments oblong, 1.5 to 1.7 cm.

long, 3 to 5 mm. broad, obtuse and sparingly pubescent at apex, the margin

scarious; corolla glabrous except for a few scattered hairs at the margin

of the lobes, 4.5 cm. long, 3 mm. broad at base, slightly contracted, 1.2 cm.

broad at mouth, the lower portion of the throat streaked with brown (dry

flower), the lobes 5 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, shallowly emarginate, conspicu-

ously reticulate; filaments white-tomentose at base, sparingly pilose above;

anthers 4 mm. long; staminodes 1.5 to 1.8 em. long, white-tomentose below,

glabrous above, narrowly capitate; style 5 to 6 cm. long, glabrous; stigma

linear, one lobe 2 mm. long, the other vestigial.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,444,803, collected at Iquitos,

Department of Loreto, Peru, altitude 120 meters, October, 1929, by Llewelyn

Williams (no. 3622).

This species is closely related to S. loranthifolia, but is distinct in its

glabrous corolla, puberulent bracts, and smaller calyx. The specific name

was chosen because of the peculiar markings on the lower part of the corolla

throat, a character found in only a few species of Sanchezza. :

The color of the flowers can not be determined with any degree of certainty

from the type. Judging from the closely related species S. sylvestris, S. rosea,

and S. loranthifolia, it may be inferred that they are either red or pink.

9. Sanchezia conferta Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis tetragonis glabris, nodis pubescentibus exceptis; foliis ovatis

glabris, basi rotundatis vel obtusis, apice acuminatis, margine sinuato-

dentato; spica densa, floribus confertis; bracteis ovatis acutis vel obtusis;

bracteolis oblongis obtusis pubescentibus; calycis laciniis oblongo-lanceolatis

paullum inaequalibus; corolla glabra, lobis pilosis exceptis; staminodiis

angustis glabris vel parce pubescentibus.

Stem quadrangular, glabrous or pubescent at the nodes; petioles up to

2 cm. long, channeled, glabrous; leaf blades ovate, up to 14 cm. long and

6 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded or obtuse at base, shallowly sinuate-

dentate, glabrous, the cystoliths about 0.5 mm. long, inconspicuous, sur-

rounded by minute papillate projections; inflorescence terminal, the flowers

numerous and crowded in the axils of the bracts, the internodes short and

concealed by the flowers, pubescent; bracts ovate, up to 1.5 em. long, acute

or subobtuse at apex; bractlets oblong, subobtuse, pubescent, much smaller

than the bracts; calyx segments subequal, oblanceolate, 2 to 2.3 cm. long,

2 to 2.5 mm. wide at base, 2.5 to 4 mm. wide above middle, acute at apex,

thin, pubescent without with ascending hairs up to 0.75 mm. long, glabrous

within; corolla 4.5 cm. long, 2.6 mm. broad at base, 8 mm. broad at throat,

glabrous except for the lobes, these 4 mm. long, 3.5 mm. wide, emarginate,

rather conspicuously pilose with hairs up to 0.5 mm. long; filaments white-

tomentose at base, sparingly pilose above; staminodes 10 mm. long, linear,

glabrous, or bearing a few minute hairs at the margin; style glabrous.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,359,680, collected in dense

132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

forest on Pichis trail to Yapas, Department of Junin, Peru, altitude 1,350

to 1,600 meters, June 29, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 25479).

Although evidently related to the small-bracted group of Sanchezia (8.

sylvestris, S. rosea, S. loranthifolia, and S. tigrina), this species is strongly

differentiated by its compact inflorescence, larger calyx, and _ shorter

staminodes.

10. Sanchezia capitata (Nees) Lindau, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4: 315. 1904.

Ancylogyne capitata Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 222. 1847.

Shrub up to 2 meters high; stem subquadrangular, glabrous; petioles 3 to 4

cm. long, glabrous; leaf blades ovate to obovate, up to 28 em. long, 9 em.

wide, acuminate, gradually narrowed from about the middle to base, undulate-

crenate, entire at base, glabrous; inflorescence terminal, the flowers crowded

in several compact heads up to 4 em. broad on stout peduncles about 3 em.

long; bracts red, oblong, up to 5 mm. long, acute; calyx segments (mature)

linear-oblong, 3.3 to 3.5 em. long, 4 to 5 mm. wide, obtuse or rounded at

apex, glabrous; corolla 2.5 cm. long, red; capsule 1 to 1.2 em. long, 3 to 4 mm.

broad; seeds lenticular, 4.5 mm. broad, about 1 mm. thick, brown.

Type collected at Pangoa, Peru, by A. Mathews (no. 1230).

Peruvian specumen examined.—

Junin: Pichis Trail, between San Nicolas and Azupizi, 650 to 900

meters, Killip & Smith 26092.

This specimen agrees very well with Nees’ brief description of Ancylogyne

capitata, at least in respect to the leaves and inflorescence. The Killip and

Smith plant is well keyond the flowering stage, and no corollas are present.

11. Sanchezia ovata R. & P. Fl. Peruv. Chil. 1: 7. pl. 8, fig. c. 1798.

Sanchezia glabra Pers. Syn. Pl. 1: 24. 1805.

Stem quadrangular, glabrous; leaf blades ovate, acuminate, entire, pubes-

cent; inflorescence a terminal spike, the flowers sessile and crowded in the

axils of the purple, ovate, acute, concave bracts; bractlets oblong, emarginate,

purplish; calyx segments oblong, rounded; corolla yellow, glabrous; filaments

hirsute except at base; staminodes about 4 mm. long.

Reported from Cuchero, Pozuzo, and Pillao, Peru, by Ruiz and Pavon.

As no material is available for my examination, the description is compiled

from the original.

12. Sanchezia cyathibracteata Mildbr. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 9: 267.

1925.

Stem stout, glabrous; petioles 4 to 6 cm. long; leaf blades oval, up to 30 em.

long, 16 cm. wide, obtuse at apex, subcuneate at base, coarsely crenate-

undulate, the nerves 15 to 17 on each side of midrib; inflorescence a spike

up to 20 cm. long, the internodes 3 to 4 cm. long; bracts ovate, 4 to 5 cm.

long, connate to middle or beyond; flowers numerous, sessile; calyx segments

unequal, 1.3 to 1.6 em. long, 3 to 4 mm. wide, rounded at apex; corolla gla-

brous, yellow, 5 cm. long, the throat 8 mm. broad, the lobes 5 mm. long,

3 mm. broad; filaments 4 cm. long; anthers 6 mm. long; staminodes 5 mm.

long.

Type collected at the mouth of the Capanahua River, eastern Peru, by

G. Tessmann (no. 3134).

MARCH 19, 1932 LEONARD: THE GENUS SANCHEZIA IN PERU 133

The relationship between this species, the type of which I have not seen,

and S. pennellii is extremely close, the main differences lying in the number

of lateral nerves of the leaves and in the size of the corolla lobes. Further

material may show that the two are conspecific.

13. Sanchezia pennellii Leonard, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 16: 488.

1926.

Stem obscurely quadrangular, glabrous; petioles up to 4 cm. long; leaf

blades elliptic to elliptic-obovate, up to 30 cm. long, 13 em. wide, abruptly

narrowed to a blunt tip, narrowed at base, shallowly crenate, glabrous, the

lateral nerves 9 to 12 to a side; inflorescence a terminal spike; bracts ovate,

up to 5 em. long and 3.5 cm. wide, connate at base, acute to obtuse at apex,

red; sepals ligulate-obovate, 1 to 1.5 em. long, 2 to 5 mm. broad; corolla

yellow, 4 to 5 em. long, 6 to 7 mm. broad at throat, the lobes 3 mm. long,

rounded and emarginate at apex; filaments pilose; staminodes 4 to 5 mm.

long; style glabrous.

Type collected at Vuelta de Acufia, Magdalena River, Department of

Antioquia, Colombia, by F. W. Pennell (no. 3798).

RANGE: Panama; Colombia; Peru.

Peruvian specumens examined.

Loreto: Dense forests at Yurimaguas, ‘Lower Rio Huallaga, about 135

meters, Killip & Smith 27993. Dense forests, Santa Rosa, lower Rio Hual-

laga below Yurimaguas, 135 meters, Killip & Smith 28829.

The inflorescence of both Peruvian specimens is immature and the corollas

are not fully developed; the leaves and bracts, however, agree well with those

of specimens from Panama and Colombia.

14. Sanchezia oblonga R. & P. Fl. Peruv. Chil. 1: 7. pl. 8, fig. 6. 1798.

Sanchezia hirsuta Pers. Syn. Pl. 1: 24. 1805.

Stem glabrous; petioles winged, connate; leaf binds oblong-lanceolate,

acuminate, glabrous; inflorescence a terminal spike with a few short lateral

branches; bracts ovate, red, pubescent; bractlets linear, hirsute, red; calyx

segments rounded at apex, yellow; corolla yellow; filaments hirsute; stamin-

odes 4 to 5mm. long.

Reported from Cuchera, Pozuzo, and Pillao, Peru, by Ruiz and Pavon.

15. Sanchezia macbridei Leonard, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 16: 487.

1926.

Stem glabrous; petioles winged; leaf blades up to 30 em. long, 12 cm. wide,

acuminate at tip, narrowed to a somewhat clasping base, undulate-dentate,

glabrous; inflorescence spicate, or occasionally with a few lateral branches;

bracts ovate, up to 5 em. long, 3 cm. wide, red, glabrous, the lower long-

acuminate, the upper obtuse at apex; bractlets oblong, up to 2.5 cm. long, 1

cm. wide, obtuse at tip; sepals 1.5 to 1.8 em. long, 2 to 4 mm. wide, rounded

at apex; corolla yellow, the tube up to 5 cm. long, finely appressed-pubescent,

the lobes 4 to 5 mm. long, 2.5 mm. wide; filaments 4.5 em. long, pubescent

below with white hairs 0.5 mm. long, sparingly pilose above with hairs up to

1.5 mm. long; staminodes 1.5 to 1.8 cm. long, white-pubescent at base,

glabrous at tip; style 6 cm. long, pubescent toward base.

Type collected at the mouth of the Chinchao River, Pampayacu, Peru

by J. F. Macbride (no. 5056).

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

Peruvian specimens examined.—

Loreto: Soledad, Rio Itaya, 110 meters, in dense forests, Killip &

Smith 29549.

HuAnuco: Pampayacu, Macbride 5056 (type).

Junin: La Merced, 700 meters, thickets, Killip & Smith 23411.

AyacucHo: Rio Apurimac Valley, near Kimpitiriki, 400 meters, edge

of forest along beach, Killip & Smith 22954. Densely forested valley at

Cearrapa, between Huanta and Rio Apurimac, 1,500 meters, Killip & Smith

23205.

This species is readily recognized by its large bracts and its conspicuous,

bright yellow, pubescent flowers.

16. Sanchezia peruviana (Nees) Rusby, Mem. Torrey Club 6: 103. 1896.

Ancylogyne peruviana Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 222. 1847.

Stem quadrangular, glabrous; leaf blades oblong-elliptic or obovate, up to

35 cm. long, 15 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, narrowed from below middle

to a winged petiole, sinuate-dentate, glabrous; inflorescence a terminal spike

up to 20 cm. long, the lowermost internode up to 8 ecm. long, the others

successively shorter, the upper ones hidden by the flower clusters; bracts

opposite, ovate, up to 3.5 cm. long, 4 cm. wide, obtuse, bright red, glabrous;

bractlets oblong; calyx segments unequal, 2.2, 2.5, and 3 cm. long, 2 to 7 mm.

wide, rounded at apex; corolla 4 em. long, red, glabrous, or the lobes sparingly

ciliate; filaments tomentose at base, pilose above, the hairs spreading, up to

2 mm. long; staminodes 2 to 3 mm. long, tomentose at base, glabrous above.

Type collected at Sesuija, Peru, by Mathews (no. 1221).

RanGE: Peru and Bolivia.

Peruvian specimens examined.—

San Martin: San Roque, 1,350 to 1,500 meters, Walliams 6933.

Jun{N: Wooded valley, La Merced, 1,200 meters, Schunke 292; Killip

& Smith 24080.

Sanchezia peruviana has inflorescence and flower parts similar to those of

S. munita (Nees) Planch., a native of Brazil, but is distinguished by the

character of the leaves. In S. munita the petioles are wingless, and the leaf

blades, usually under 20 cm. in length, are entire. On the other hand, the

petioles of S. peruviana are broadly winged and the blades are sinuate-den-

tate.

17. Sanchezia flava Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis tetragonis glabris; foliis oblongo-ellipticis vel oblongo-

obovatis glabris, apice acuminatis, basi acutis, margine sinuato-dentato;

petiolis alatis; spica simplici vel parce divisa; bracteis ovatis, infimis acutis

rubris, summis obtusis flavis; bracteolis oblongis; calycis laciniis oblongo-

ovatis rotundatis inaequalibus; corolla lutea glabra, lobis parce ciliatis

exceptis; staminodiis gracilibus pilosis.

Shrub 1 to 2 meters high; stem quadrangular, glabrous; leaves narrowed

into short, winged petioles; leaf blades oblong-elliptic to oblong-obovate,

up to 30 em. long, 13 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, acute at base, rather

shallowly sinuate-dentate, glabrous; inflorescence spicate, simple or bearing

one or more branches at the basal node, the upper nodes hidden by the bracts;

bracts ovate, up to 4 cm. long, 3 em. wide, the lower acute and bright red,

the upper obtuse and yellow; bractlets oblong; calyx ‘segments unequal,

oblong-ovate, 2 to 2.5 cm. long, 2 to 7 mm. wide, rounded at apex; corolla

bright yellow, glabrous, or with a few minute hairs near the tip of the lobes,

MARCH 19, 1932 LEONARD: THE GENUS SANCHEZIA IN PERU 135

about 5 cm. long, 7 mm. broad, the lobes suborbicular, about 3.5 mm. in

diameter; filaments finely pubescent below, pilose above with hairs 2 mm.

long; staminodes 2 em. long, slender and pilose above; ovary glabrous; style

5 em. long, rather densely pilose below with hairs 0.5 mm. long, glabrous

above.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,358,997, collected in dense

forest of the Schunke Hacienda, above San Ramon, Department of Junin,

Peru, altitude 1,400 to 1,700 meters, June 8, 1929 by E. P. Killip and A. C.

Smith (no. 24640).

This differs from S. peruviana in its yellow flowers and long slender pilose

staminodes.

18. Sanchezia rubriflora Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis tetragonis glabris; foliis oblongo-ellipticis vel leviter obovatis

glabris, apice acuminatis, basi acutis, margine integerrimo vel leviter crenato;

spica terminali; bracteis infimis lanceolatis acuminatis, summis ovatis obtusis

rubris; bracteolis oblongis obtusis; calycis laciniis paullum inaequalibus

angustis oblongo-ovatis apice rotundatis glabris; corolla rubra glabra vel

lobis apice parce pilosis; staminodiis angustis, basi tomentosis apice glabris.

Shrub 2 or 3 meters high; stem quadrangular, glabrous; petioles up to 4 cm.

long, glabrous; leaf blades oblong-elliptic or slightly obovate, up to 25 cm.

long, 12 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, acute or acutish at base, entire or

shallowly crenate, glabrous (nerves and midrib bright yellow in Macbride

4665); inflorescence a terminal spike, the lowermost internode up to 9 cm.

long, the others successively shorter, those near the tip hidden by the bracts;

lowest pair of bracts lanceolate, 2 cm. long, 2 cm. wide near the base, gradually

narrowed to a slender tip, the upper bracts ovate, smaller, obtuse, all red

and glabrous; bractlets oblong, obtuse; flowers several in each axil; calyx

segments subequal, narrowly oblong-ovate, 1.8 to 2 em. long, 3 to 5 mm.

wide, rounded at tip, glabrous; corolla red, glabrous or with a few hairs near

tip of lobes, 4 to 5 cm. long, 2 mm. in diameter at base, 7 mm. wide above

base, the lobes 3 mm. long, 2.5 mm. wide, emarginate; stamens 4 to 5 cm.

long, the filaments white-tomentose below, sparingly pilose above with hairs

1 mm. long; staminodes linear, about 10 mm. long, white-tomentose below,

glabrous above; ovary and style glabrous, or the style bearing a few long hairs

near base.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,460,617, collected in dense

forest at Cahuapanas, Rio Pichis, Department of Junin, Peru, altitude

about 340 meters, July 20, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 26768).

Additional Peruvian specimens examined.—

Loreto: La Victoria, Amazon River, Williams 2880.

HvAnwuco: Pozuzo, Macbride 4665.

This closely resembles S. munita, of western Brazil, but that species has

staminodes about 2 mm. long (not 10 mm. long or more, as in S. rubriflora).

Macbride’s no. 4665 was erroneously cited in my previous paper as S. peru-

viana.

19. Sanchezia pulchra Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis tetragonis glabris; foliis obovatis glabris, basi cuneatis,

apice breviter acuminatis, margine crasse crenato-dentato; spica terminali;

bracteis infimis lanceolatis glabris, reliquiis ovatis glabris rubris; bracteolis

oblongis obtusis; calycis laciniis inaequalibus spathulatis; corolla luteo-

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

rubra glabra, lobis apice pilosis exceptis; staminodiis basi tomentosis, apice

glabris.

Suffrutescent, 1 meter high; stem quadrangular, glabrous; petioles up to

6 cm. long, glabrous; leaf blades obovate, up to 30 cm. long, 16 em. wide,

rounded or abruptly narrowed to a short acumen, cuneate at base, coarsely

crenate-dentate, glabrous; inflorescence a terminal spike, the flowers clus-

tered in the axil of the bracts, the lowermost internode up to 5 em. long,

the others partially hidden by bracts and flowers; lowermost bracts lanceo-

late, up to 7 cm. long, 2.5 cm. wide near base and gradually narrowed to tip,

the others ovate, acute, all dark red and glabrous; bractlets oblong, obtuse

at apex; calyx segments unequal, spatulate, 1.4 cm. long, 3 to 4 mm. wide

toward the rounded tip, gradually narrowed to 2 mm. at base, glabrous, the

margin subscarious; corolla orange-red, glabrous except for a tuft of hairs at

tip of lobes and a white tomentum at insertion of stamens, 4 to 4.5 cm. long,

the tube 2 mm. broad, the throat 6 to 8 mm. broad, the lobes about 3 mm.

long and broad, emarginate, reticulate-veined; filaments white-tomentose

at base, pilose above with hairs up to 1 mm. long; staminodes 3 to 4 mm. tong,

white-tomentose except for the glabrous tip; ovary and style glabrous.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,461,526, collected in dense

forest at Puerto Arturo, lower Rio Huallaga below Yurimaguas, Peru, August

24, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 27842).

Additional Peruvian specimens examined.—

Loreto: Forest, Mishuayacu, near Iquitos, 100 meters, Klug 667.

Lower Rio Huallaga, 155 to 210 meters, Williams 5143.

JuNiN: Dense forest, Puerto Bermudez, 375 meters, Killip & Smith

26447.

This is distinguished from S. rubriflora and S. pulchra by its large, obovate,

coarsely crenate-dentate: leaves. It is further differentiated from S. rubri-

flora by its short staminodes.

Killip & Smith’s 26447, from Puerto Bermudez, is doubtfully referred

to S. pulchra. In this specimen the inflorescence is very immature, and the

upper pair of leaves have broadly winged, clasping petioles, although the

second pair are typically slender-petioled.

20. Sanchezia stenantha Leonard, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 16:

489. 1926.

Stem quadrangular; petioles slender, 4 to 6 cm. long; leaf blades ovate

to oblong-ovate, up to 25 em. long, 12 cm. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded

or obtuse at base, entire or undulate, glabrous; inflorescence a terminal

spike (occasionally capitate), the lowermost internode up to 7 em. long, the

others much shorter and hidden by the bracts; bracts ovate, concave, up to

4 em. long, 2.5 em. wide, obtuse or acutish at apex, bright red; bractlets

oblong-obovate; sepals equal, obovate, narrowed to a slender base, rounded

at apex, about 1.5 em. long, 4 to 8 mm. wide; corolla bright yellow, glabrous

(lobes sparingly ciliate), 4 to 5 em. long, 6 to 7 mm. broad; filaments white-

pubescent at base, sparingly pilose above with hairs about 1 mm. long;

staminodes 1.3 to 1.4 em. long, white-pubescent below, glabrous above; style

glabrous.

Type collected at Pozuzo, by J. F. Macbride (no. 4634).

Peruvian specimens examined.—

HvAnuco: Pozuzo, 650 meters, Macbride 4634 (type).

MARCH 19, 1932 SCHAUS: NEW SPHINGIDAE AND SATURNIIDAE 137

Junin: Dense forests, Yapas, Pichis Trail, 1,350 to 1,600 meters, Kzllip

& Smith 25472. Thickets, Meriatiriani, Pichis Trail, 500 meters, Killip &

Smith 26207. Dense forest, Rio Paucartambo Valley, near Perene Bridge,

700 meters, Killip & Smith 25287.

A well-marked species, easily recognized by the ovate, nearly entire leaf

blades with rounded bases, and by the large compact spike of bright yellow

flowers.

21. Sanchezia killipii Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis tetragonis glabris; foliis oblongo-ellipticis glabris utrinque

acutis, margine undulato; spica terminali; bracteis acutis glabris; bracteolis

oblongis obtusis; calycis laciniis oblongis inaequalibus obtusis glabris; corolla

lutea glabra; staminodiis basi tomentosis, apice pilosis.

Shrub about 1 meter high; stem quadrangular, glabrous; petioles up to

1.5 em. long, glabrous; leaf blades oblong-elliptic, up to 18 cm. long, 7 cm.

wide, narrowed at both ends, glabrous, entire or shallowly undulate; inflo-

rescence a terminal spike, the flowers clustered in the axils of the bracts

(sometimes short secondary spikes present in the axils of the lower bracts),

the lowermost internode 3.5 cm. long, the others successively shorter, about

equaling the flower clusters; bracts (lowermost pair not seen) ovate, up to

2.2 em. long, 1.8 em. wide, acute, glabrous; bractlets oblong, obtuse; calyx

segments oblong, subequal, 1.8 to 2 cm. long, 4 to 6 mm. wide, obtuse at apex,

narrowed at base, glabrous; corolla yellow, glabrous except for a white tomen-

tum at insertion of stamens, 4 cm. long, 3 mm. wide at base, 9 mm. wide at

middle, 6 mm. wide at mouth, the lobes 3 mm. long, 3.5 mm. wide, emar-

ginate; filaments white-tomentose at base, pilose above with hairs up to 2mm.

long; staminodes about 15 mm. long, white-tomentose below, pilose above,

the hairs most numerous and longest just below the slightly enlarged curved

tip; ovary and style glabrous.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,462,404, collected in dense

forests of Santa Rosa, lower Rio Huallaga below Yurimaguas, Peru, altitude

about 135 meters, Sept. 4, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 28967).

In the character of the staminodes this species agrees with S. flava, but

can be distinguished by its well-defined, wingless petioles.

ENTOMOLOGY.—New species of Sphingidae and Saturniidae in the

U.S. Nationai Museum. W. Scuaus, Bureau of Entomology.

(Communicated by Harotp Morrison.)

The new species described herein have been received within recent

times and are a valuable addition to the national collections. They

include 15 new species, one subspecies, two races, and one aberration.

SPHINGIDAE

Protoparce camposi, new species |

Male.—Palpi iron gray above, white underneath. Head, collar, and

tegulae iron gray; a white spot at base of antenna and at side of neck. Thorax

dark olive gray. Abdomen above black, thickly mottled with white and

1 Received January 13, 1932.

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

pinkish buff scales, leaving a dorsal interrupted black line and subdorsal

white spots; three large lateral chrome spots on basal segments, broadly

edged sublaterally with black; sublateral segmental white lines connected

by a wavy white line; venter whitish with transverse gray bands. Fore wing

fuscous black; a short white basal line from subcostal to below cell, a patch

of white hairs at base of inner margin; an antemedial white lunular line,

outbent on costa, outangled in cell and inbent to inner margin preceded by

some fine white lines to submedian fold and diverging on costa; medial area

with some grayish and faint cinnamon irrorations; a wavy jet black line

follows the antemedial, and a dentate similar line precedes the postmedial,

and consists partly of cuneiform spots; a small white spot on discocellular;

postmedial line narrow, white, lunular dentate edged with jet black almost

vertical from costa, inbent below vein 4, followed by diffuse grayish and

cinnamon scaling to the black lunular dentate subterminal line; a wavy black

line, from the subterminal at vein 6 to apex, mottled above with white and

gray and preceded by a fuscous black space expanding at costa; a similar

fuscous black spot, from vein 2 to inner margin at tornus, edged outwardly

with white; a broken marginal black line partly defined by white scaling;

some grayish shading on termen; cilia black with white spots on interspaces.

Hind wing fuscous black; an antemedial white patch from costa to below

cell; a postmedial series of small white spots forming a distinct line below

middle, upcurved at inner margin, with two other curved short white lines

above it on inner margin, all separated by black lines; the postmedial spots

edged above by a dentate black line and some very small white spots; cilia

white at anal angle, otherwise black with white spots. Fore wing below with

fuscous streaks in and below cell; costa and outer half thickly irrorated with

white scales; a white line on discocellular; postmedial line black edged with

white, more distinctly on inner side; some white scaling at apex. Hind wing

below: Base white irrorated with deep mouse gray; a fuscous dentate medial

line; postmedial line broader, black, deeply dentate, edged with white, on

basal side the white edged by a fine dark line; termen thickly irrorated with

white. |

Expanse, 118 mm.

Habitat—Ecuador.

Type—Cat. No. 34401, U. 8. N. M.

Protoparce florestan ishkal, new subspecies .

Male.—Palpi white, tipped with pale smoke gray. Head, thorax, and

fore wing pale smoke gray; a fine black line from shoulders curved at front of

collar, also extending below shoulder as a thick black line along outer edge

of tegulae. Abdomen above mottled with dark scales; segmental black

lines; subdorsal black spots on basal segment; a lateral black line expanding

at segmental lines, except on three terminal segments; a sublateral fine fuscous

line; body below white with ventral fuscous spots on terminal segments.

Fore wing irrorated with fine black scales, in places absent, forming whitish

edging to the postmedial lines, also to the antemedial line proximally; a

black basal and a subbasal spot on costa, and an intermediate spot near base

of cell; antemedial line lunular, inbent below cell; medial line double, lunular,

black, outcurved, below cell fainter inbent, parallel with antemedial, incurved

to near base on inner margin; a white point on discocellular, followed by an

interrupted black line crenulate below vein 4 to inner margin; postmedial

line outcurved, triple below vein 5, finely crenulate and incurved below vein 4,

MARCH 19, 1932 SCHAUS: NEW SPHINGIDAE AND SATURNIIDAE 139

partly edged with white towards inner margin; subterminal line outbent

from costa to vein 6, where it is connected with the apex by an irregular black

line, below vein 6 the line crenulate on interspaces and disconnected; small

marginal black lunules at veins 3 and 4; cilia white with black spots at veins.

Hind wing: Costa whitish to postmedial line; basal third benzo brown;

thick fuscous black streaks from base below cell and before inner margin to

medial line; inner margin cinnamon drab; medial line broad, fuscous black,

excurved and downcurved at inner margin followed below vein 5 by whitish

and crossed by a downcurved fine black line at inner margin; postmedial line

broad from costa, fuscous black, suffusing with the fuscous termen to vein 5, di-

minishing in width towards anal angle; termen from below vein 5 broadly pale

smoke gray; cilia as on fore wing. Wings below with the termen broadly

dark cinnamon drab with fine whitish irrorations on outer half. Fore wing:

Costa grayish; inner margin from cell and to postmedial line whitish; post-

medial outcurved at costa and inbent, parallel with termen, benzo brown,

edged on either side with whitish. Hind wing white with dark irrorations

on costa, in cell, and beyond medial line, the latter thick, benzo brown,

irregular, and somewhat dentate; postmedial line fine, dentate, becoming

indistinct towards inner margin. Female the same as male, but the termen

of hind wing less extensively gray, but with a broad white patch on inner

margin between the two lines.

Expanse, male 100 mm., female 112 mm.

Habitat.—Tehuacan, Mexico.

Type.—Cat. No. 34476, U.S. N. M.

An examination of the genitalia shows this to be a good subspecies of

P. florestan Cr.

The longitudinal black lines on fore wing of P. florestan are entirely absent.

Protoparce florestan cabnal, new race

Male.—The fore wing with a large medial space mottled cinnamon drab

and rufous, irregularly triangular with its apex at vein 2, and with short

black streaks on veins 3 and 4 near cell; the subterminal black line is fine

wavily lunular, outwardly with drab scaling and a dentate whitish line,

below vein 2 the drab scaling becoming cinnamon drab; cilia white inter-

rupted by black lines.

Expanse, Male 92 mm., female 140 mm.

Habitat.—Jalapa, Mexico; Texas.

Type.—Cat. No. 34477, U.S. N. M.

This race seems confined to the temperate district of Eastern Mexico,

extending into Brownsville, Texas.

Ceratomia igualana, new species

Male.—Palpi fuscous black, heavily fringed with white on first and second

joints. Head, thorax, and abdomen above dark drab gray; a velvety black

line, medially angled on front of collar, outbent on collar, and continued

along outer edge of tegulae and a fine line on dorsal edge of tegulae; meta-

thorax somewhat paler; abdomen dorsally with a fine interrupted black line,

sub-dorsal whitish points at the lunular black lateral line; abdomen below

whitish; thorax below with a lateral broad black line. Fore wing dark drab

gray; a white point at base; a fine darker curved subbasal line and a similar

double antemedial line; a more distinct black line, closely accompanied by a

faint line, outbent from costa before middle to median, then angled and inbent

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

to inner margin at antemedial line; postmedial line black, outcurved, well

marked, below vein 4 inbent to middle of inner margin, and closely followed

by a double, fainter, lunular line; subterminal line fine, black, outcurved

from costa to vein 4, then slightly incurved; a black streak above veins 2 and

3 from cell to subterminal line; a wavy black streak from subterminal above

vein 6 to apex; two shorter streaks from subterminal at veins 3 and 4 with

hooks at termen; a white dark-edged point at end of cell. Hind wing fuscous

with paler shading on costa and postmedially; short black and white streaks

at anal angle. Fore wing below brownish drab; a pale line at discocellular;

traces of a postmedial double dark line. Hind wing below somewhat paler

than fore wing, the inner margin white from base to near termen; postmedial

line faint. Cilia of both wings white with fuscous spots at veins.

Expanse, 57 mm.

Habitat.—Iguala, Mexico.

Type.—Cat. No. 34471, U.S. N. M.

Nannoparce balsa, new species

Female.—Palpi white, mottled with some fawn-color hairs and with a

black streak above. Head and collar mouse gray; a black dorsal line on

vertex, expanding on collar. Thorax medially pallid mouse gray; tegulae

mouse gray, dorsally edged by a broad black line not reaching tips, outwardly

edged with white. Abdomen above mouse gray with a dorsal black line and

a subdorsal irregular line; body below white with black tufts at base of fore

wing. Fore wing pale mouse gray with slightly darker suffusions; an irregu-

lar subbasal fine dark line and a fuscous spot at base of inner margin; a double

antemedial fuscous line forming an annulus in cell, very indistinct from be-

low cell; a double medial line from costa, also forming an annulus in cell;

postmedial line faint, double, minutely dentate, slightly outbent to vein 4,

then incurved, preceded by a darker quadrate spot from veins 5 to 7, crossed

by short fuscous streaks; subterminal line outcurved and incurved below

vein 4, suffusing with the postmedial; a black line from postmedial above

vein 6 to apex; black streaks above veins 3 and 4 from cell to postmedial line;

short black streaks on veins at termen crossing the white cilia. Hind wing

fuscous gray, the inner margin white; a medial whitish gray shade; terminal

shade with darker streaks on interspaces. Fore wing below light drab with

faint traces of a postmedial darker line. Hind wing below with the inner

margin more broadly white.

Expanse, 70 mm.

Habitat.—Balsas, Mexico.

Type.—Cat. No. 34472, U.S. N. M.

Hyloicus merops monjena, new race

Male.—Palpi grayish drab, fringed with paler white-tipped hairs. Head

and thorax grayish drab. Collar and dorsal half of tegulae benzo brown,

finely edged with black, the outer half of tegulae white, mottled with cinna-

mon drab scales. Abdomen as in H. merops. Fore wing thickly mottled

white, benzo brown, and light cinnamon drab; a short black line at base of

costa and below cell, the latter with some black hairs below it; a broad whitish

space below cell to medial line and a narrower buffish streak from cell to post-

medial; antemedial line double on costa, the outer part close and parallel

MARCH 19, 1932 SCHAUS: NEW SPHINGIDAE AND SATURNIIDAE 141

with medial line, deeply outcurved, inangled on pale space where it is cinna-

mon buff; medial line fine, double, fuscous, deeply outcurved with black

points on it at costa and below cell, from vein 2 inbent to inner margin near

base; a small whitish spot edged with black and containing a black point on

discocellular; no second spot above it; postmedial line very faint, double on

costa, with some whitish scales below costa, then deeply excurved, dentate,

partly edged proximally with some whitish spots, a very fine black line from

it at vein 6 to vein 7 near termen where it is broken and above vein 7 extends

to apex; the postmedial is followed by a drab shade to subterminal, this latter

outbent on costa, inwardly shaded with white, evanescent from vein 7 to near

termen at vein 6, then wavy, black, inbent to vein 2 and bent downward to

inner margin, followed by whitish gray scaling; a fine terminal black line,

preceded by small black spots; on postmedial area vein 2 is white with black

spots; cilia alternately white and drab. Hind wing above as in H. merops;

the cilia white, without spots. Fore wing below rather grayer, with an out-

curved fuscous post-medial macular line with faint traces of a line beyond

cell. Hind wing below with costal half to postmedial light buff, thickly

irrorated with drab; some black streaks below cell near base on a large white

space to inner margin and postmedial line, this latter black, dentate from costa

to vein 3, then broad and downcurved, followed throughout by a broad white

space; termen grayish irrorated with drab; large fuscous quadrate blotches on

interspaces.

Expanse.—112 mm.

Habitat.—El Monje, Loja, Ecuador.

Type.—Cat. No. 34404, U.S. N. M.

Hyloicus chisoya, new species

Female.—Head and thorax purplish gray, slightly mottled with paler

hairs; fine oblique black lines from vertex across collar, continuing on tegulae;

tegulae dorsally edged with a black line. Abdomen dorsally purplish gray,

with a fine black dorsal line; a subdorsal black spot at base; lateral pale pur-

plish gray spots on two following segments, then white spots on next three

segments, all broadly edged with black; abdomen below light purplish gray,

mottled with white between segments: a black ventral line. Fore wing

purplish gray with oblique paler suffusions: a black spot at base of inner mar-

gin; a double antemedial fuscous line outcurved below cell and inbent to the

black spot on inner margin, with pale suffusions above and below it; a fine

black line in cell above median, and a short line above it in end of cell; heavier

black streaks from cell above and below vein 3; a longer black streak above

vein 5 crossing the postmedial; a postmedial fuscous shade faintly double,

outcurved beyond cell and dentate, below vein 3 sinuous to middle of inner mar-

gin and outwardly edged with light purplish gray; from postmedial a fine black

streak above vein 6 upturned and more heavily marked at vein 7, then oblique

to apex; from vein 6 to vein 2 a slightly sinuous black line outwardly edged

with white which gradually expands; a fine terminal black line; cilia fuscous

with small pale spots. Hind wing fuscous; base pallid purplish gray and a

similar broad postmedial shade downcurved above anal angle, its anterior

half suffused with cinnamon drab; cilia white, spotted with black except at

anal angle and on inner margin. Fore wing below hair brown; a postmedial

inbent fuscous fascia with diffuse edging followed by a fainter outcurved

dark shade; a fine black streak from vein 6 to apex. Hind wing below:

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

Base broadly purplish gray; a broad diffuse fuscous fascia followed by a broad

pale purplish gray space; termen deep purplish gray, its proximal edge with

black suffusions.

Expanse.—85 mm.

Habitat.—Mexico, without precise locality.

Type.—Cat. No. 44470, U.S. N. M

Somewhat like Druce’s figure of H. perelegans (nec Edwards) which was

named by Rothschild and Jordan H. mexicanus; they figured a male which

is again a very different species.

Hyloicus balsae, new species

Male.—Palpi white, irrorated laterally with fuscous, above thickly mottled

with black, at third joint with wood brown. Head, collar, and thorax thickly

mottled buffy brown and gray, the latter shade predominating on thorax

dorsally; tegulae fuscous; two black lines diverging from vertex to tegulae,

the latter edged with distinct black lines. Abdomen dorsally hair brown

with a fine dorsal black line, and fine black segmental lines; laterally the seg-

ments black with white segmental lines; abdomen below whitish. Fore

wing drab, suffused with gray, the lines black; a subbasal line; antemedial

line double, fine, macular on costa and deeply outcurved, interrupted by

veins, inbent below cell, the inner line forming a fine black line to base below

median, there broadly edged below by a whitish shade, the outer antemedial

- cinnamon below cell where crossing the white shade, then obsolete; a double

medial line, outangled in cell, slightly incurved below cell, and outcurved at

median and inbent to base of inner margin forming two fine and distinct black

lines; a fine black line from antemedial through cell, passing between the two

white black-edged spots on discocellular to the postmedial line; black lines

below veins 4 and 3 from cell to subterminal line; postmedial line wavy, out-

curved, followed by another double line filled in with grayish white scaling,

and cut by a grayish black-edged streak on vein 6 to termen above which is a

black streak to termen close to apex; subterminal line well outcurved, sinu-

ous, hardly traceable below vein 4; an inbent line from termen at vein 5 to

vein 3; a fine terminal line; cilia white, mottled with black at veins. Hind

wing black; some white at base; an antemedial white shade, expanding on

inner margin; a thick white postmedial line, upcurved below vein 4 and down-

curved to inner margin at anal angle; cilia as on fore wing. Fore wing below

deep gray suffused with hair brown; a white discal point and faint traces

of postmedial lines, edged with whitish at inner margin. Hind wing below:

Costa and basal half to below cell drab, irrorated with cinnamon drab, the

inner margin white; a postmedial fuscous black shade narrower and intensely

black at inner margin, outwardly edged broadly with white; termen similar to

fore wing.

Expanse, 72 mm.

Habitat.—Balsas, Mexico.

Type.—Cat. No. 34461, U.S. N. M.

Nearest H. lugens Walk. Brighter colored with distinct black longitu-

dinal lines; the postmedial white line on hind wing more deeply upcurved

before inner margin.

MARCH 19, 1932 SCHAUS: NEW SPHINGIDAE AND SATURNIIDAE 143

Cautethia simitia, new species

Female.—Palpi below grayish white. Body above drab gray, irrorated

with darker gray and hair-brown scales; abdomen with fine black segmental

lines above, laterally on basal half light buff, underside whitish except on

terminal three segments. Fore wing drab gray, irrorated with darker scal-

ing; traces of subbasal black patches between veins; antemedial line double,

black, outangled on median vein; a small linear quadrate black spot at dis-

cocellular, the inner edge more heavily marked, a faint dark line above it

on costa, and a short black line on vein 5 beyond it; postmedial line black,

outwardly edged with whitish scaling, dentate from costa to vein 3, below

vein 3 straight, more heavily marked, and vertical to inner margin; terminal

space with a double series of dull drab patches on interspaces, connected by

grayish white scaling; a fine terminal benzo brown line expanding on inter-

spaces. Hind wing: Basal half orange, distal half fuscous.

Expanse, 34 mm.

Habitat.—Simiti, Colombia.

Type.—Cat. No. 34445, U.S. N. M.

Conspicuous by the absence of the fuscous oblique streak at tornus of fore

wing, present in all the other species.

SATURNITDAE

Rothschildia coxeyi, new species

Female.—Head and collar pinkish cinnamon, the latter edged with white.

Thorax orange cinnamon. Abdomen pinkish cinnamon; a narrow transverse

white line at base, a lateral white line divided by a cinnamon buff line; legs

pinkish cinnamon, partly streaked with white. Wings above to postmedial

line orange cinnamon; postmedial fine, fuscous, lunular dentate, outwardly

white, followed by a narrow fuscous shade irrorated with lilacine white, then

by a broad pale grayish vinaceous space distally deeply dentate on veins,

narrowly edged with russet. Fore wing: an antemedial white line distally

edged with fuscous, outbent to median, then inbent to near base of inner

margin; the hyaline spot basally incurved, distally rounded across postmedial

line, below strongly inbent, partly edged by a very fine black line; outer space

brown, below vein 6 broadly ochraceous orange, limited by a fine lunular

black line, above vein 6 a large white and pallid vinaceous-drab space to costa

and apex, outwardly edged with ochraceous orange; between veins 6 and 7

the subterminal line enclosing a triangular black spot and a broken English

red line; termen tawny olive. Hind wing: An incurved black and white

line near base; the hyaline spot basally incurved, almost angular, constricted

before crossing postmedial line, the broad pale grayish vinaceous space not so

conspicuously dentate as on fore wing; the outer space orange cinnamon

thickly irrorated with brownish drab; subterminal line fine, black, almost

straight preceded by Hay’s russet spots; below middle of costa an elongated

oval hyaline spot edged with white and then a black line. Wings below to

postmedial line clay color, the broad space beyond postmedial paler than

above and extending to apex, the interspaces towards margin below vein 6

cinnamon buff. No antemedial line on fore wing; the oval spot below costa

of hind wing very distinct.

Expanse, 118 mm.

Habitat.—Maceas, Ecuador.

144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

Type.—Cat. No. 34876, U.S. N. M.

Named in honor of its discoverer, W. Judson Coxey.

The whole appearance of the species is very distinct.

Automeris semicaeca, new aberration

Male.—Antenna, head, and collar cinnamon; thorax and abdomen above

orange cinnamon; body below light pinkish cinnamon. Fore wing acute,

somewhat falcate, orange cinnamon, the terminal space beyond line brownish

vinaceous; lines light vinaceous cinnamon; antemedial vertical, inwardly

dark edged; outer line from costa near apex to beyond middle of inner margin

outwardly dark edged; a fine, small, dark annulus at discocellular filled in

with light vinaceous cinnamon. Hind wing russet vinaceous; a small white

spot at discocellular with a pointed dash of white scales extending from it

distally; a fine subterminal lunular black line followed by a broader brazil

red parallel line; termen narrowly light pinkish cinnamon. Fore wing below

somewhat paler, more of a brownish vinaceous shade; a round black spot at

discocellular containing a small white spot; outer line black, faintly wavy.

Hind wing below russet vinaceous, suffused with pinkish cinnamon; a faint

darker postmedial line; no discal spot.

Expanse, 72 mm.

Habitat.—Santa Catharina, Brazil.

An abberation of the reddish form of Automeris memusae Walker.

Hylesia coarya, new species

Male.—Antenna with red shaft and orange pectinations. Head, collar,

and thorax purplish fuscous. Abdomen above raw sienna with transverse

brussels brown lines, underneath vinaceous drab. Wings vinaceous drab.

Fore wing: A thick fuscous line from base of costa, outbent to inner margin;

a fine dark medial line outcurved to vein 2, then slightly outbent, suffusing

with the similar postmedial line at inner margin; the postmedial outcurved

on costa, then straight and inbent; a thick dark line on discocellular; the veins

from medial line to termen finely darker; a pallid purple drab spot at apex.

Hind wing: A faint darker medial shade, its edge dentate on veins; a faint

subterminal shade. Wings below somewhat darker, the hind wing with a

darker line from costa near apex to above middle of inner margin; the sub-

terminal shade as above.

Expanse, 34 mm.

Habitat.—Coary, Amazons.

Type.—Cat. No. 34463, U.S. N. M.

The apex of fore wing slightly produced, rounded.

Hylesia cottica, new species

Male.—Antenna ochraceous buff. Head and thorax chaetura drab; abdo-

men mars brown, mottled with light buff hairs and with fuscous segmental

lines. Fore wing hair brown, the medial space paler, the lines and veins

finely darker; antemedial line very faint, vertical, the postmedial inbent; a

faint dark shade on discocellular; a small pale smoke gray spot above vein 7

on termen; inner margin narrowly fuscous. Hind wing the same shade as

medial space of fore wing, the inner margin with long darker hairs; faint traces

of a subterminal line. Wings below of a uniform duller color. A distin-

MARCH 19, 1932 SCHAUS: NEW SPHINGIDAE AND SATURNIIDAE 145

guishing feature is the shape of the fore wing: The apex is bluntly produced

and the termen more inbent than in the usual run of species, so the wing

appears longer and narrower.

Expanse, 39 mm.

Habitat.—Moengo, Cottica River, Surinam.

Type.—Cat. No. 34464, U. 8. N. M.

Hylesia huyana, new species

Female.—Head and thorax brownish drab. Abdomen cinnamon buff with

clay color segmental lines. Fore wing light cinnamon drab, the terminal

space pale ecru drab; an irregular darker subbasal line; a fine lunular ante-

medial line; a white line on discocellular; a fine dark somewhat lunular line

from costa near apex to middle of inner margin. Hind wing light cinnamon

drab, the veins finely darker; a fine dark line on discocellular; traces of a

straight postmedial line from costa before apex to middle of inner margin,

more distinct on underside. Fore wing below somewhat paler than above,

the markings visible in transparency. The termen is more oblique than usual

in Hylesia.

Expanse, 70 mm.

Habitat.—Yahuarmayo, Peru.

Type.—Cat. No. 34469, U.S. N. M.

Hylesia ileana, new species

Male.—Palpi burnt sienna. Head, collar, and tegulae cacao brown, the

thorax walnut brown. Abdomen above grayish cinnamon, underneath clay

color. Fore wing: Base russet vinaceous limited by a darker vertical ante-

medial line; medial space wider on costa than on inner margin, light russet

vinaceous with a large oval russet vinaceous spot on discocellular; postme-

dial line vinaceous brown, slightly outcurved on costa, and inbent to inner

margin; terminal space russet vinaceous, crossed by a subterminal light russet

vinaceous shade from apex to tornus somewhat interrupted opposite cell;

cilia kaiser brown. Hind wing deep brownish vinaceous, the veins finely

darker; termen light russet vinaceous. Wings below deep brownish vinace-

ous, the veins darker. The fore wing is slightly produced at apex, but not

acute.

Expanse, 36 mm.

Habitat.—Chiapas, Mexico.

Type.—Cat. No. 34462, U.S. N. M.

2 The paratypes are in the collection of Don Carlos Hoffmann, Mexico

“ity.

Hylesia orbana, new species

Male.—Antenna cinnamon. Collar and thorax purple drab. Abdomen

dull cinnamon, mottled with purple drab hairs on segments, leaving dull

cinnamon segmental lines; ventral surface purple drab. Fore wing purple

drab; some small antemedial pallid purple drab spots; postmedial line out-

curved at costa, slightly inbent below vein 5, defined by irregular pallid purple

drab scaling; a large fuscous spot at end of cell; some pale scaling on termen

above vein 7. Hind wing largely purple drab; the costa paler; a postmedial

and terminal light purple drab shade. Fore wing below darker; a dark streak

on discocellular; postmedial and terminal paler shading. Hind wing below

light cinnamon drab with darker postmedial and subterminal shading.

146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

Female darker, the markings more of a dusky brown with fuscous suffu-

sions at base; discal spot broader, not so round; postmedial shade broad; the

termen darker shaded. Hind wing with darker veins and a curved line on

discocellular.

Expanse, Male 52 mm., female 57 mm.

Habitat.—Boven, Surinam.

Type.—Cat. No. 34466, U.S. N. M.

Allied to H. mixtiplex Dognin.

Dysdaemonia avangareza, new species

Female.—Palpi and head benzo brown. Collar and thorax tilleul buff.

Abdomen above ecru drab, underneath buffy brown; legs brownish drab.

Fore wing tilleul buff suffused with avellaneous; faint traces of an outbent

wood brown antemedial line; a double wood brown line widely separated, from

near middle of costa, slightly excurved to the postmedial line at inner margin;

a fine pale line on discocellular defined by cinnamon brown edging, followed

by two elongated, large hyaline spots also finely edged with cinnamon

brown, the spots distally rounded, the upper spot only slightly smaller and

narrower; a fine vertical postmedial line, buffy brown, intercepted by the

hyaline spots, the space beyond to outer line light cinnamon drab; outer line

well marked, hair brown, outcurved below costa and inbent to postmedial

line on inner margin; outer line irregularly followed by light vinaceous fawn;

a large army brown spot on costa not reaching apex, its proximal edge in-

curved, its distal edge sinuous; some triangular fuscous brown spots from vein

3 to inner margin close to outer line; termen suffused with army brown from

apex to below vein 3 expanding at vein 4; the crenulate margin mostly edged

with cinnamon brown. Hind wing: Base as on fore wing, a faint darker an-

temedial line vertical from costa, curved just above postmedial and upbent

to inner margin, broader and diffuse; post-medial line benzo brown outwardly

shaded with dusky drab then light cinnamon drab to outer line, the latter

buffy brown, broad to vein 6, then inbent fuscous, narrowing to inner margin;

termen broadly pale vinaceous fawn, some army brown clusters of scales from

below vein 3 to inner margin close to outer line, some subterminal army

brown shading from costa to vein 6; termen narrowly suffused with army

brown. Wings below cinnamon drab. Fore wing: The outer line buffy

brown, not so outcurved at costa; postmedial line very faint. Hind wing:

Postmedial line fawn color, outer line darker.

Expanse, 131 mm.

Habitat.—Avangarez, Costa Rica.

Type.—Cat. No. 34417, U.S. N. M.

Dysdaemonia guyaquila, new species

Female.—Palpi and head benzo brown. Collar and thorax vinaceous

buff. Abdomen cinnamon drab. Fore wing: Costa mostly vinaceous fawn,

mottled with drab; a dark line on base of median, space below light vinaceous

fawn, covered with long hairs, outwardly limited by an outbent antemedial

army brown line from below cell to inner margin; a sinuous outbent medial

line from subcostal, preceded by light vinaceous fawn scaling, and broadly

followed by fawn color which joins the postmedial line below vein 3, the space

above it to costa light vinaceous fawn enclosing two hyaline spots, the upper

spot quite small, neither of them with any edging; a fine dark line on dis-

cocellular with verona brown points at upper and lower angle of cell; post-

MARCH 19, 1932 SCHAUS: NEW SPHINGIDAE AND SATURNIIDAE 147

medial line mikado brown, slightly sinuous, and passing beyond the hyaline

spots, outwardly shaded with sayal brown to near outer line which is fine,

fuscous, outcurved at costa where it is preceded by some light vinaceous fawn

scaling; on costa before apex an irregular Hay’s russet spot; termen at apex

light vinaceous fawn, otherwise largely deep brownish drab; beyond outer

line a series of triangular liver brown spots on interspaces, except between

veins 4 and 6; the spot above vein 6 more elongated; all these spots edged with

light brownish drab. Hind wing from base to postmedial light brownish

drab, the inner margin with long light vinaceous fawn hairs; from below

cell an antemedial fawn color fascia curved to inner margin; postmedial line

hazel, broadly shaded distally with cinnamon rufous; outer line faint from

costa, from vein 5 to inner margin black, followed by light brownish drab; a

subterminal series of dark spots coalescing towards costa; outer margin light

vinaceous fawn, the termen from projection below vein 5 hazel. Fore wing

below cinnamon drab, dark from postmedial to outer line; termen suffused with

light vinaceous fawn.. Hind wing below avellaneous to postmedial line; the

outer line distally edged with light vinaceous fawn; some similar shading on

termen.

Expanse, 132 mm.

Habitat.—Guayaquil, Ecuador.

Type.—Cat. No. 34416, U.S. N. M.

Copiopteryx phippsi, new species

Male.—Palpi and a line behind head blackish brown. Head pale pinkish

cinnamon. Collar pinkish buff with a fine transverse sayal brown line.

Thorax sepia, the shoulders avellaneous, mottled with vinaceous fawn.

Abdomen above natal brown, underneath drab with a double hair brown line

on basal half. Fore wing above: Costal margin on basal fourth pinkish buff

with drab mottling; base below subcostal broadly sepia united by an ecru drab

antemedial line, obliquely outcurved in cell, below cell slightly outbent and

somewhat incurved above inner margin, this line outwardly edged by a fine

dark line which extends on to costa as a black outangled line; from this line

at subcostal a snuff brown line is outbent and curved to lower angle of cell,

then upbent to a point on vein 4, is there upbent to costa, and downcurved

to inner margin forming the postmedial line, the large space enclosed above it

pale vinaceous fawn, irrorated with light drab, chiefly on costa; on this space is

a small triangular hyaline spot, edged outwardly by a snuff brown sinuous fascia

which extends above it to subcostal; the medial space below the line verona

brown, suffused with brownish drab along the antemedial line, and before the

postmedial from vein 2 to inner margin becoming pinkish buff; the postmedial

line is followed by light drab, broadly from costa to vein 6, limited by a fine,

wavily outcurved, dark line which is incurved below vein 6 and becomes black

following closely the postmedial to inner margin, the light drab preceding it

forming a broad line, partly edged with pinkish buff; the outer dark line is

followed by narrow hyaline spots from above vein 5 to below vein 4; termen

from costa to vein 5 suffused with drab and buffy brown; below vein 5 to

near vein 3 a dark vinaceous brown shade, inner edge sinuous and excurved

towards vein 3; terminal space above tornus pale vinaceous fawn, irrorated

with drab, and with some dark points close to outer line; cilia mostly fuscous.

Hind wing: Costal half light cinnamon drab; inner margin to postmedial

line army brown; a medial curved darker line below cell, above it at inner mar-

gin a light drab patch containing a small semilunar hyaline spot; postmedial

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

line army brown, broad, downbent, and sharply angled and upbent towards

inner margin, this line followed by a second line well below apex, becoming

fuscous and thicker, where downbent on tail, also sharply angled and upbent

to inner margin; a light buff shade between the postmedial and marginal lines

where angled; the fuscous line extending to beyond middle of tail, the ter-

minal portion dark tilleul buff. Wings below light buff with cinnamon drab

and hair brown striae. Fore wing: Traces of a postmedial line from costa,

the outer line distinct from vein 5 to inner margin. Hind wing with only the

marginal lines.

Expanse, 100 mm.

Habitat.—Province of Rio, Brazil.

Type.—Cat. No. 3440, U.S. N. M.

I take pleasure in naming this species in honor of Senator Phipps who con-

tributed generously to the purchase of the Dognin collection where this fine

species was found.

This species is somewhat like C. sonthonnaxi André. The termen from

vein 6 to apex is wavy, below vein 6 more inbent and not so deeply crenulate

asin C. sonthonnazi. It is also allied to C. virgo Zikan.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

| SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

MEMORIAL RESOLUTION ON THE DEATH OF FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE

Dr. F. W. CLarkg, one of the founders and a past president of the Washing-

ton Academy of Sciences and one of the stanchest supporters of its Journal

peacefully passed away at his home in Chevy Chase, Maryland, on May 23, at

the age of 84. In his death Science has lost a most notable and enthusiastic

worker and the Academy one of its most distinguished and faithful members.

Dr. CLARKE believed in research in fundamental principles rather than in

applied science, although he realized that both were necessary, for, as he was

often heard to say: ‘‘How can science be applied if there is no science to

apply?” In 1872, at the age of 25, he advanced this principle when he sub-

mitted to the Smithsonian Institution his first manuscript on the Constants

of Nature. Again, in 1878,in his address as chairman of the section of chemistry

of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, after expressing

his adherence to this principle, he lamented the fact that so little support was

given to the study of the basic truths of nature and especially mentioned the

lack of codperation in what little work was being done in his own science, say-

ing ‘‘What chemistry needs is combined effort upon some general plan.”

Undoubtedly, CLarKn’s repeated calls for close codperation in scientific work

materially influenced our present day attitude. He advocated the estab-

lishment of governmental research laboratories with skilled specialists before

any of the present ones came into existence.

CLARKE’s instinctive critical ability enabled him to evaluate rapidly the

work of other people and his systematic procedure made him a notable

compiler, as evidenced by his Constants of Nature, his many reports on

atomic weights, and finally his Data of Geochemistry, which went through five

editions. The best part of his life was spent as Chief Chemist of the U. 8.

MARCH 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 149

Geological Survey, a position he filled for many years from his appointment in

1883.

Always kind and generous he reflected only the bright side of life to his

associates. His witty and humorous remarks often helped to brighten the

day for those who were in contact with him.

Now, Whereas, FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE, a past president of this

Academy was long one of its most influential members and largely instru-

mental in reviving the publication of the Journal of the Academy in 1911,

and

Whereas, he was recognized as an international authority on atomic weights

and geochemistry, and was one of the first to compile tables of fundamental

physical and chemical constants, so that by his death the Academy has sus-

tained a distinct loss,

Therefore, be it resolved that the Academy express itself as appreciative of

the high quality of his work and his long sustained interest in many varied

fields of science. And further, that the sympathy of the Academy be ex-

tended to his bereaved family, that these resolutions be published in the Jour-

nal, and that a copy be transmitted to his family.

(Prepared for the Academy by W. T. ScHauLer, GEorGE Steiger and R. C. WELLs.)

Newty Evectep MEMBERS OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

FREDERICK EUGENE Fow 1s, Research Assistant, Smithsonian Astrophysi-

cal Observatory, was elected to membership in recognition of his contribu-

tions to astrophysics and in particular his researches on the absorption of

solar radiation by atmospheric water vapor and atmospheric ozone. He has |

been Editor of the Smithsonian Physical Tables since 1910.

Dr. Witutam C. Frazier, Senior Bacteriologist, Research Laboratories,

Bureau of Dairy Industry, was elected to membership in recognition of his

contributions to the science of bacteriology and especially to the metabolism

of bacteria.

Dr. Pauu 8. Gattsorr, Biologist in charge oyster fishery investigations,

Bureau of Fisheries, was elected to membership in recognition of his con-

tributions to experimental biology and in particular his researches on re-

generation of sponges and physiology of Pelecypoda (Oyster).

Roy W. Goranson, Physicist, Geophysical Laboratory, was elected to

membership in recognition of his work on density distribution in the earth’s

crust and his work on thermodynamic relations in multi-component systems

Dr. JOSEPH GRINNELL, Director, Museum of Vertebrata and Zodlogy,

and Professor of Zodlogy, University of California, was elected to membership

in recognition of his contributions to ornithology and zodgeography.

J. N. B. Hewirt, Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology, was elected

to membership in recognition of his researches among the Iroquoian Indian

tribes, and particularly his work on the League of the Iroquois Nations.

H. H. T. Jackson, Senior Biologist, Bureau of Biological Survey, was

elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to systematic

mammalogy.

Dr.. CARL CLARENCE KikEss, Senior Physicist, Bureau of Standards, was

elected to membership in recognition of his work on the description and classi-

fication of spectra, comet and planetoid orbit observations and stellar spectra.

Dr. AtBpERT E. Lonauery, Associate Botanist, Division of Genetics and

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

Biophysics, Bureau of Plant Industry, was elected to membership in recog-

nition of his work in cytology.

Dr. D. J. McApam, Jr., Senior Metallurgist, Bureau of Standards, was

elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to physical metal-

lurgy and his studies of the corrosion of metals.

Dr. Harry Jonn McNicnouas, Physicist, Bureau of Standards, was

elected to membership in recognition of his work in optics, colorimetry,

reflectometry and spectrophotometry.

Tuomas P. PENDLETON, Chief Engineer, Aerotopograph Corporation of

America, Washington, D. C., was elected to membership in recognition of his

research and contributions to stereophotogrammetry as applied to photo-

topographic surveying and mapping.

JAMES LEE PETERS, Assistant in Birds, Museum of Comparative Zodlogy,

Cambridge, Mass, was elected to membership in recognition of his contribu-

tions to systematic ornithology.

Dr. JosrPH H. Ros, Professor of Biochemistry, George Washington Uni-

versity, was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to

biochemistry and in particular his researches on the chemistry of blood.

Dr. F. D. Rossrnt, Associate Scientist, Bureau of Standards, was elected

to membership in recognition of his contributions to chemical thermody-

namics.

KNowLes Ryerson, Principal Horticulturist in Charge, Division of For-

eign Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, was elected to membership

in recognition of his contributions to tropical and sub-tropical horticulture

and in particular his services as head of the plant introduction work of the

U. 8. Department of Agriculture.

Dr. C. L. SHear, Principal Pathologist in Charge, Division of Mycology

and Disease Survey, Bureau of Plant Industry, was elected to membership in

recognition of his contributions to mycology and plant pathology.

Dr. A. H. Stane, Senior Materials Engineer, Bureau of Standards, was

elected to membership in recognition of his work in determining the strength

and other properties of engineering materials.

Dr. GrorGE TUNNELL, Petrologist, Geophysical Laboratory, was elected

to membership in recognition of his work on the phase-relations in systems

containing iron oxide and copper oxide.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held on

January 19, 1932, elected the following officers for the ensuing year: President:

J. N. B. Hewirt, Bureau of American Ethnology; Vice-pressident: Mat-

THEW W. STIRLING, Bureau of American Ethnology; Secretary: FRANK H. H.

Roserts Jr., Bureau of American Ethnology; Treasurer: HENRY B. CoLuins

Jr., U.S. National Museum: Representative of the Anthropological Society to

serve as one of vice-presidents of the Washington Academy of Sciences: N. M.

Jupp, U. S. National Museum; Members of the Board of Managers: BrrREN

BONNERJEA, Catholic University; Gzorcr S. Duncan, American University;

HERBERT W. Kriscer, U. 8. National Museum; Frank M. Serzuer, U. 8.

National Museum; Witut1am Duncan Strrone, Bureau of American Eth-

nology.

MARCH 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 151

The following is a report of the membership and activities of the Society

since the last annual meeting, held January 20, 1931.

Membership.

MaresTMe riers 1: ots, manned sa A) OEE 4 ee 4

NCEE ICHINIDETS (2 te Aare et Ls OS a A 56

ASSOC LEWINeMINErS: : ORR e ares. BA AT ae. 6

EManorays MeNIbeTS: . Arne Oss SORE ae 23

WoerespOndime Me HeTrsise Ieee mes ee ii ae 2 22

LECT] B2 yj ES RR 2 OS ec ea a 111

Wecerseatclinriner Veal :'s.; Se eursae Reeee Parr eat tie eS 5

ASSOCIale. sete... 2 1

PNGUIVIE™. Jokers Seis. - 3

GEER eee Sate |. 1

Presiemed ACHVe! wee fk me rere ine © mes ee au ae 1

New Members, /activensprth tet ee cs. Sinden es 2

Financial Statement.

Funds invested in Perpetual Building Asso-

GINO, (Rete Mists nenss else Taye AeN givke wrete oh $1057 .93

21 Shares Washington Sanitary Improvement

COOMA ICISIN GB OV2 4 eve es peCiy, HEEnr gs er rm rae ey SOR Sa Maer 210 .00

2 Shares Washington Sanitary Housing Co.,

cSTLGLUh)6°3 He 5p reales OL ie prms nee i Oe 200 .00

OePorON Moe Ie eine a traci eae etic a Pe eS oes 245 .75

TOT (et Me ny oe Me ene fe ee er $1713 .68

JESUS (Dee ola Oe ee Re ae su eet are, at ar ae 5.80

ING tis alancese) fe She ee ee $1707 .88

Papers presented before regular meetings of the Society were as follows:

January 20, 1931. Two Small Pueblo Ruins in the Zuri Region, by FRANK

H. H. Roperts Jr., archeologist, Bureau of American Ethnology.

February 17, 1931. Archeological Explorations on St. Lawrence Island,

Alaska, by HENRY B. Couns JR., assistant curator of ethnology U. S8.

National Museum.

March 17, 1931. The Mound-Builder Cultures of the Upper Mississippi

Valley, by FRANK M. SEerz_eEr, assistant curator of archeology, U.S. National

Museum.

April 21, 1931. An Archeological Reconnaissance of the Hawaiian Islands,

by W. M. WALKER, associate anthropologist, Bureau of American Ethnology.

October 20, 1931. Prehistoric Peoples of the Middle Missouri Valley,

by Wm. Duncan Strong, ethnologist of the Bureau of American Ethnology.

November 17, 1931. The Cultural Background of the Present Situation in

India, by BrrEN BoNNERJEA, Professor of Bengali and Hindustani, Foreign

Mission School at Catholic University.

December 15, 1931. The Indians of the North Pacific Coast, by EDWARD

Sapir, professor in anthropology, Yale University. This talk was the first in

a series of five special lectures relating to the Indian tribes of western North

America. The remaining four lectures were scheduled for the first part of 1932.

All of the meetings, with the exception of that held December 15, were in

Room 42-43 of the new U.S. National Museum. The meeting of December

15th was held in the large auditorium of the same building. In accordance

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 6

with the custom of several year’s standing all of the meetings held in January,

February, March and April took place at 4:45 P.M. Beginning with the

October meeting the time was changed to 8:00 P.M. The wisdom in this

step was shown by the increase in attendance. Where the afternoon meet-

ings had an average of 25, the evening gatherings passed the 50 mark. The

special lecture by Dr. Sarre had an attendance of 160.

The Society was unfortunate in its loss by death of five members. Dr.

GrorceE A. Dorsey, associate member, died March 29, 1931. Mr. Victor

J. Evans, an active member, died February 1, 1931. Dr. Gzrorcr M. Koser,

life member, died on April 24, 1931. Mrs. Louisr Simpson, active member,

died in March 1931. Dr, Herman F. C. TEN Kats, active member, died

February 4, 1931.

FraNK H. H. Roserts Jr., Secretary.

@Obituary

General GusTAVE AUGUSTE FERRIE£ (born Nov. 19, 1868) died in Paris on

Feb. 16, 1932, following an operation for appendicitis. He was Inspector

General of the Military Telegraphic Service of France, Member of the In-

stitute of the Academy of Sciences, and Commander of the Legion of Honor.

He visited Washington in 1927, when he was President of the International

Radio Congress held in this city.

Several institutions in Washington, notably the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic

Survey and the U.S. Naval Observatory, have been closely associated with

Gen. FERRIE in international codperative work of a scientific character. This

was especially the case in 1926, when they codperated with him in the world

longitude determinations, planned and executed under the direction of Gen.

Frrrif£, which were designed to test the Wegener hypothesis.

Dr. FERDINAND CANnvu, paleontologist of Versailles, France, and known in

the United States especially for the series of monographs on fossil and recent

bryozoa published by the United States National Museum, died suddenly

February 12, at his home, age, 69 years. Asa teacher of science in the Paris

schools, he became an authority on meteorology and paleogeography. Later

he took up the study of the bryozoa and became the leading specialist in this

field. In 1912 began the joint studies with R. 8. BassLER upon American

fossil bryozoa which have continued uninterruptedly until the present and

have made the National collections of these organisms one of the largest

extant.

cafited societic

Ee)

les. will | appear on this page:

Anhce

: OFFICERS ¢ OF

ce sical Laboratory.

CHARLI ns THOM, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils,

| . AVERS, ¢ |

rs P m pity +c @

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\ Lg oe

* oe >

ee uote CONTENTS

OrIGINAL PAPERS aig “« ae

ascoude —The genus Sanchezia in sei E. C. LEONARD. «++. ie ;

¥ THE AGADRAY 5 0's. aatsa «4 fagtien scnp optics Mckee RRs aoa men

Anthropological Goghot Hes AINA tye h ne eae Oe eee CMe

OBITUARY: GUSTAVE Avstaiis ne roa thet a

thls Sows ides hy Tsorepa Indet o

Aux:

AprRIL 4, 1932 No. 7

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OF THE

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VoL. 22 Apri 4, 1932 | No. 7

MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS.—On the application of Appell’s

equations.! MARGARET WHEELER, Washington, D. C. (Com-

municated by EpGar W. Woo.uarp).

Both Lagrange’s equations and Appell’s equations describe the

motion of a body or system of bodies. The latter are the more general

in that they may be applied directly to non-holonomic, as well as

holonomic, systems; a system being holonomic when the number of

degrees of freedom is the same as the least number of distinct coérdi-

nates, and non-holonomic when the number of degrees of freedom is

less than the least number of distinct codrdinates. But this advantage

of Appell’s equations is merely theoretical since Lagrange’s equations

may easily be modified to apply to non-holonomic problems. More-

over, the mathematical difficulties in the application of Appell’s equa-

tions to simple holonomic problems make them less useful. The

question arises as to whether Appell’s equations have any practical

advantages at all. There is one, viz., their application to holonomic

systems with cyclic codrdinates.

Suppose we have a holonomic, dynamic system of n particles whose

motion may be described by k distinct codrdinates represented by q,

fol 2 be Dennen! = >, = E + y2 + a Then La-

grange’s equations may be written:

d /oT oT

iy Heenan

qd, Og .

The “energy of accelerations” is defined as S =

E gel aay a|

Mm;

Il Mas

1 Received January 27, 1932.

153

APR 6 1552

154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 7

and we write Appell’s equations as

os oS’

og. = Q. or Og. = Q.

where S’ includes only the terms in S involving the accelerations.

The Q,’s are determined by computing the virtual work, Q,dq.

Since both Lagrange’s and Appell’s equations apply directly to holo-

nomic systems, we have the identity

as’ d =) ar i

og, diag. i

eh a ey

A cyclic coordinate is defined as one which does not appear explicitly

in 7’; that is, it appears only in its derivatives. Suppose there are 1

cyclic coordinates leaving k — / non-cyclic codrdinates. The condi-

; oT

tion for a cyclic coordinate in 7’ may be stated as eer =O A=h2

...,l). Then the above identity reduces to

ee)

a dt hog.

Let p, represent the momentum of a cyclic codrdinate. Then since

aT as’ ie ifr . heed

Le, SS Phe eel, Lee . OF olonomicec systems a

date Sena ae y Od

will always be

cyclic codrdinate in S’ we define it as one which does not appear ex-

plicitly in S’ and then show that this definition is equivalent to the

definition for a cyclic coordinate in 7’.

Whether or not a codrdinate be cyclic depends upon how the Car-

tesian codrdinates are expressed in terms of the generalized coordinates.

When the Cartesian codrdinates are expressed as rational, algebraic

functions of the generalized codrdinates, it is easily seen by inspection

that a codrdinate will be cyclic in both 7’ and S’ when the relationship

is linear and non-cyclic in both for cases of higher degree. We find

by trial that it is impossible to obtain a cyclic codrdinate in T or S’ for

a logarithmic or exponential function unless the latter be expressed as

a particular trigonometric function. We shall now consider this case.

eee ML Oe tae ar ita ee

integrable since it is identical with — el In order to identify a

APRIL 4, 1932 WHEELER: APPLICATION OF APPELL’S EQUATIONS 155

Let 2 = a sing

Then x = acosg q

& = acosgg — asing @?

It is evident that ¢ and #? will always contain the codrdinates for any

function of this type. Consider the case, however, when

i j— 9d, ong

y = a cosg

z=0

We obtain the following expressions for TJ and S’:

bol

T = 3 [a?q? (sin’'g + cos’g)| = 3 ma?”

S’ = - [a’g? (sin’?g + cos’g)| = § mag?

This is probably the only way in which we may obtain a cyclic co-

ordinate for a trigonometric function; that is, by the combination of

(sine)? and (cosine)? terms. ‘The function above is very simple, but

we find that we obtain a cyclic codrdinate for complex functions pro-

vided the cyclic codrdinate bears the same relationship to z, y, and z.

For example, q: will be cyclic in T and S’ if

i = f(G2,Qs,----5 Qe) SING1

Yi = 9(G2,93,--- +, Me) COSY

a h(Q2,Qs, - oss qi)

Since a codrdinate is cyclic in S’ when it is cyclic in T for all these

representative functions, we conclude that our definitions of a cyclic

codrdinate in 7 and S’ are equivalent.

The greatest advantage of the use of a cyclic codrdinate is found

in the case of ignorable codrdinates, a special type of cyclic codrdinate

obtained when Q,ég, vanishes. This is true when Q, = 0. For a

cyclic codrdinate ath = p, = Q, and p, is constant for an ignorable

156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 7

coérdinate. For Lagrange’s equations Routh has introduced a modi-

fied function by which we may ignore those coérdinates having con-

stant momenta. Routh’s modified function is

M=T,- a DrQr

A=1

where 7’, is a function of the coérdinates and the momenta. Suppose

that all the cyclic codrdinates are ignorable. Then we may substitute

the constant values of the momenta, a, for py.

M=T,- = ah

A=1

Let» =1+1,1+4 2, ...., k, since there are k — 1 non-cyclic coérdi-

nates. Then the equations of motion for the non-cyclic codrdinates

in terms of the modified function are

d (S= ) oM

i\og 7 Og. 5 Q,

Thus we have reduced the number of equations to be solved simui-

taneously from k to k — l.

In Appell’s equations, S’ is a function of all the velocities, accelera-

tions, and non-cyclic codrdinates. We have 2/ equations expressing

p, and p, in terms of the codrdinates, velocities and accelerations.

Therefore, we may express the / cyclic velocities and the / cyclic ac-

celerations in terms of the cyclic momenta and non-cyclic coérdinates,

velocities and accelerations. When we substitute for g¢, and q in

S’, we represent the new function by S;. Then

aS). MS a) Oma ek 1, 27a

Si) tr DER ee Dear

qd, q, r=1 O09, 0”), w= +1, oe

Siegel

Ana,

os a bg Ol

og =o" xeat *0g

ee oo

Og, 3 og om, ae ms

APRIL 4, 1932 WHEELER: APPLICATION OF APPELL’S EQUATIONS

157

l ee =

Define ee 2d.

A=1

asi aN

eG ies

aes 2 oN

Appell’s equations for the non-cyclic codrdinates become DY, =="), wealrc

we call N the modified function for Appell’s equations.

For the cyclic coordinates we obtain two equations for each co-

ordinate.

ap - op (Oh) Ge.

. a) : Be ays Bast

Ua ease op, (s, a 2 P, i.)

a op, the two equations for

each codrdinate

iy >

In Routh’s modified function we have p, while in N we have 7.

We find a distinct advantage here for ignorable codrdinates since

p. = 0 and N, therefore, reduces to 8’. To illustrate the advantage

we may apply this to a free particle in a plane as follows:

x& = 7 cosé

y = 7 sine

TS = |(F? 767]

oa 5 [v2 — Qrr6? + 7262 + 4766]

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 7

We see that 6 is cyclic in both T and S’.. Now suppose the force per-

pendicular to r vanishes so that we may ignore 6. Then by Routh’s

modified function we obtain

d d

4 (2) 2, hoe es,

dé Gey dice) dix ee a eer

mr = a (a constant)

§ = —

mr?

je = ue a2 a

>. 2 sis mr?

i Sp ee oes

i Pas Z mer?

eM Lap OM _ at

or : or mrs

PF a age PT

ie one ap eae

Let F = force along the radius.

: a

Nt = =

mir

We obtain the same equation by using the function N as follows:

Cis) Jae ee "

Sop rind goe mr?o + 2mrrd = 0

(= mre = a

a a 2 ra

mr? mre

m E ora? —s- Arr’? re]

— r- pee ——

2 mrs m2r4 my

APRIL 4, 1932 WHEELER: APPLICATION OF APPELL’S EQUATIONS 159

ON Ws a?

or ee mer

The process is shortened in comparison to Routh’s method since NV =

We may also compare the advantages of Appell’s and Lagrange’s

equations in the case of a cyclic system. A cyclic system in T is

defined as one for which 7’ may be represented approximately by a

homogeneous, quadratic function of the cyclic velocities. In the case

of a free particle in a plane, @ is cyclic and r is non-cyclic in 7, for

T =4m([P + 1°]

If we suppose that 7 is small enough so that 7? may be neglected in

comparison with 776? we obtain T, = 4 mr?6? where T, = cyclic

system in 7’.

Lagrange’s equations for a cyclic system become

For the above system we have

OF. = z

——— 2 —

- mré

— —_—_—— — —— 2 —

ANSE di (mr6) rOQ

To obtain a cyclic system of the same type as above for Appell’s

equations we must neglect any term in S’ containing only *. We find,

if Sx = cyclic system in S’, the following:

So = 3 [Qrr62 + 7262 + 4rr66]

oS’

—+=-—me?=R

os’

— = — (mr) = rO

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

We see that these equations are identical with those obtained by a

cyclic system in Lagrange’s equations. ‘There are two cases in which

the two approximations would be identical; namely, when r is con-

stant and 7 = 7 = 0, or when 7 is constant and very small so that 7

= 0. Since 7 must always be small even though not constant, it

could vary over only a small range so that 7 would have to be small.

However, 7 would not necessarily be of the same order of magnitude

as fT.

Lagrange’s equations, without doubt, have an advantage over

Appell’s equations for obtaining the equations of motion of a system.

But this is only the first step in problems of dynamics. Far more dif-

ficult is the second one—integrating them. Cyclic and ignorable

coordinates aid in the integration by the reduction of the number of

equations to be solved simultaneously, and we have found that they

are as readily recognized in the S’ function asin the 7 function. Fur-

thermore, we have seen that we need to compute only S’, = N in

place of the complete modified function for ignorable codrdinates so

that it is really easier to apply Appell’s equations than Lagrange’s

equations in this case.

For the opportunity to do this work the writer is indebted to a San-

ders Fellowship in Physics at The George Washington University.

BOTANY.—A new species of Adenbdstegia from Death Valley, with

notes on calyx structure in the genus. C. V. Morton, U. 5S.

National Museum. (Communicated by FREDERICK V. COVILLE).

Dr. Frederick V. Coville, botanist of the Death Valley Expedition,

1891, revisited that locality in the interest of the National Geographic

Society in April, and again in September, 1931. Among the plants

of his recent collection is a species of Adenostegia (Scrophulariaceae),

which is here described as new. A revision of this genus was published

in 1918 by Mrs. Roxana Stinchfield Ferris, of Stanford University,? and

most of the specimens in the U. 8. National Herbarium are annotated

by Mrs. Ferris. All species of the genus are there represented, most

of them by material of the type collections. The plant collected by

Dr. Coville may be described as follows:

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived February 5, 19382.

2 “Taxonomy and distribution of Adenostegia,’’? Bull. Torrey Club 45: 399-423, pl.

10-12. 1918.

APRIL 4, 19382 MORTON: A NEW SPECIES OF ADENOSTEGIA 161

Adenostegia eremica Coville & Morton, sp. nov.

Herba annua 20-30 em. alta, valde sed stricte ramosa, ramis brevibus ex

angulo acuto ascendentibus, inferioribus dense purpureo-griseo-puberulis,

supremis plerumque flavido-viridibus; folia ad basin ramorum inferiorum in

lobis nonnullis anguste linearibus valde partita, folia ad basin ramorum su-

periorum trifida, lobis linearibus revolutis, folia ramorum simplicia numerosa

recurva anguste linearia 10-30 mm. longa, apicem ramorum versus minora et

bracteiformia, ca. 1.2 mm. lata, perspicue revoluta, apice glandulam gerentia,

folia omnia dense puberula, pilis minutis apice recurvis hyalinis, ex 2 vel 3

cellulis constatis, 80-240u longis, basi 17—30u latis, apicem versus acuminatis

(raro acutis), hic 4-6y latis; inflorescentia spicata, rhachi haud ramosa,

floribus congestis sessilibus, capitulis 1—8-floris, in ramis inferioribus solitariis

terminalibus, in ramis superioribus plerumque numerosis (usque 9), plus

minusve secundis (propter pedunculos tortiles); pedunculus brevis, 10-15

mm. longus, foliis bracteiformibus numerosis puberulis parvis (2-4 mm.

longis), inferioribus simplicibus linearibus, superioribus trifidis, omnibus

apice glandulam gerentibus instructus; bracteae inferiores basi solum in-

florescentiae, haud cum floribus adspersae, concinne palmatipartitae, plerae-

que in 5 lobis, 2-7 mm. longis, linearibus apice paullo incrassatis glanduli-

feris, interdum 2 lobis extremis semel furcatis divisae, puberulae, apicem

loborum versus pilis granosis brevibus acriter acuminatis 2 vel 3 cellulis,

usque 80u longis, basi valde dilatatis hic usque 56y latis, et pilis glanduliferis

brevissimis, glandula lutea transverse ellipsoidea ca. 17u alta, 35u lata, pedi-

cellis 2 cellulis hyalinis, 20-25y longis adspersis, basin bractearum loborumque

versus pilis hyalinis nec granosis valde elongatis tenuibus usque ad 1090u

longis (plerisque minoribus), apice ca. 7u latis, basi non dilatatis, 17—36y latis

instructae; bracteae superiores, id est, eae flores amplectentes, oblongae, 10-15

mm. longae, 44.5 mm. latae, integrae (vel perraro in 1 vel 2 lobis lateralibus

parvis incisae), vix carinatae saccataeve, apice acutae vel plus minusve ro-

tundatae glandulam dorsalem gerentes, 5-nervatae nervis satis prominentibus,

purpureae vel flavido-virides, ciliatae, pilis hyalinis pluricellularibus interdum

longissimis (usque 2 mm.) basi non dilatatis, intus glabrae, extus puberulae

pilis minutis, etiam scabrae pilis (praecipue in venis) bulbosis granosis satis

numerosis ca. 350u longis, ex ca. 4 cellulis constatis, 2 cellulis inferioribus

valde dilatatis 140-200, latis, cellulis terminalibus acriter acuminatis; lobus

calycis spathiformis ambitu lanceolatus tubulosus antice profunde fissus,

hic 1.5-3 mm. altus hyalinus, postice 10-15 mm. altus 7—9-nervatus, nervis

nonnullis vix prominentibus, apice emarginatus vel bidentatus (dentibus

usque ad 1.5 mm. longis), puberulus et scaber, pilis eis bractearum superiorum

similibus; corolla purpurascens tubulosa basi cylindrica sursum ventricosa

bilabiata, labiis fere aequalibus, postico paullo longiore 15-18 mm. (raro

solum 10 mm.) longo, apice perspicue uncinato stylum amplectente, antico

saccato trilobo lobis brevis rotundatis, lobo medio emarginato, tubo corollae

extus basi glabro, sursum piloso, pilis hyalinis ex ca. 3 cellulis constatis,

granosis, patentibus, ca. 300u longis, 21-25 latis, apice solum acutis; stamina

4 didyma, filamentis liberis in medio corollae insertis dense albido-pilosis,

antheris 2—locularibus, loculo superiore majore, 1.2-1.5 mm. longo, perspicue

ciliato, loculo inferiore divergente minore sed non abortivo ciliato; stylus

glaber apice acriter uncinatus breviter exsertus; ovarium glabrum apice

acutum; capsula membranacea glabra apice acuta ca. 9.5 mm. longa; semina

in capsula ca. 14, oblonga vel obovata, ca. 2 mm. longa, 1 mm. lata, in tota

superficie arcte et perspicue favosa.

one-half natural

imen;

nov. (Type spec

Sp.

)

ADENOSTEGIA EREMICA Coville & Morton

S1zZe

162

APRIL 4, 1932 MORTON: A NEW SPECIES OF ADENOSTEGIA 163

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,530,679, collected near the

crest of the Panamint Mountains, at the head of Death Valley Canyon,

California, altitude about 3,000 meters, September 18, 1931, by Frederick

V. Coville and Arthur F. Gilman (no. 58). Duplicates of this collection have

been presented to the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences and the New York

Botanical Garden.

Additional collections are as follows: (1) Near the crest of the Panamint

Mountains, at the head of Hanaupah Canyon, opposite Thorndyke’s Camp,

California, altitude about 2,800 meters, September 17, 1931, by F. V. Coville

and A. F. Gilman (no. 57); duplicates of this have been sent to Professor W. L.

Jepson, Professor LeRoy Abrams, and the Santa Barbara Museum of

Natural History; (2) Death Valley slope of the divide between Wild Rose

Canyon and Hanaupah Canyon, Death Valley, California, altitude about

2,800 meters, September 15, 1931, by Coville and Gilman (no. 28); a duplicate

of this has been sent to the Gray Herbarium.

A preliminary study of Dr. Coville’s collection from Death Valley brought

to light at once several interesting facts. Mrs. Ferris divides the genus

into six sections. Excluding the sections Anisocheila, Pringlea, and Dicrano-

stegia, which do not concern us, we are left with the three sections Huaden-

ostegia, Kingia, and Chloropyron. ‘These are separated in the key to sections

as follows:

Wane lay MOUSE i 4 atekd sehis atsucee eas Be eSeiw alee. 35 III. Huadenostegia.

Calyx monophyllous

inmonesceneescapitaterny. vases. tis. tus meadkttinane)s de. IV. Kingia.

IimiOnescemee-Spicabens i gee > Sus iis jas: Bods [slot Beata as VI. Chloropyron.

In the first place it may be definitely stated that between Kinga and

Chloropyron there is no difference in the inflorescence, which obviously is

spicate in both cases. A more troublesome question arises with respect to

the structure of the calyx. Dissection of A. kingii shows that the flower

possesses a single calyx lobe of a spathaceous type on the posterior side; this

lobe, which is deeply bidentate at apex, is nearly as long as the corolla and

is sharply cut down anteriorly to a short tub2 scarcely two millimeters high.

Thus the calyx is definitely tubular at base, the anterior portion being very

short and hyaline. Originating directly below and partially surrounding

this calyx is a bract, similar in texture and size but lobed toward the summit.

This, then, is the structure described as ‘‘calyx monophyllous.” It was

surprising therefore to find, on dissecting a flower of A. wrightiz, a species

placed in the section Huadenostegia, identically the same structure, a single

spathaceous calyx lobe partially surrounded at base by a lobed bract. Yet

the outer bract in this case is considered by Mrs. Ferris as a lower calyx lobe

and described as ‘. . . . tip lanceolate or two- to four-toothed.” HExami-

nation of a series of specimens shows, however, that this outer bract is some-

times entire and sometimes (on the same plant) 3-5-lobed, the lobing being

of exactly the same type as in A. kingzz, and consisting of a splitting away

164. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

of the parallel veins as they approach the apex. Each lobe therefore con-

sists of a central vein and a varying amount of surrounding leaf tissue. Since

there are five veins in each bract there can never be more than five lobes;

three appears to be the commonest number.

Other species of the section Huadenostegia were next examined. They

were all found to be of essentially the same structure, the outer bract sur-

rounding the spathaceous calyx being usually entire. The distinctions be-

tween the sections as given by Mrs. Ferris are therefore illusory, the calyx

being monophyllous in all cases. These dissections showed at once that the

section Kingia has no distinctive characters, the species A. kingzi being in

fact exceedingly close to A. wrightit.

The case of the section Chloropyron is also remarkable. In the species

included in this section the upper calyx lobe is not tubular at base but is

very similar to the entire bract inserted on the opposite side just below it.

This structure of the calyx and bract might much more reasonably be re-

garded as “‘diphyllous” than that in any of the sections of the genus, yet the

species constituting this section have been described from the time of Asa

Gray as ‘“monophyllous,” which is undoubtedly true. This circumstance

illustrates the general misunderstanding of the genus by authors.

The genus was first proposed as Adenostegia by Bentham,’ the calyx of his

single species, A. rigida, being described as “‘bifidus.”’ Ten years later Ben-

tham included the genus in his treatment of the Scrophulariaceae for the

Prodromus.*— His description of the calyx reads: “Calyx bipartitus seg-

mentis integris, bracteis 4 incisis suffultus (vel 4-partitus bibracteatus?) .

Bracteae cum calycis laciniis 6, per para imbricatae, 2 exteriores (certe

bracteae) trifidae foliis floralibus similes, 2 intermediae (an bracteae, an

calycis segmenta?) integrae bifidae vel exterioribus consimiles, 2 intimae

(calycis segmenta) acute acuminatae lanceolatae carinatae concavae, 7-8 lin.

longae.”’

However, in the ‘“‘Addenda et Corrigenda’’® Bentham changes the name

of the genus to Cordylanthus Nutt. (Mss.) and describes four species: C.

filifolius Nutt.(=Adenostegia rigida Benth.), C. ramosus Nutt., C. capitatus

Nutt., and C. maritimus Nutt. The description of the calyx of Cordylanthus

is as follows: ‘‘Calyx bipartitus, segmentis complicatis integris vel postico

breviter bifido.”’ Under C. maritimus he says, ‘“‘. . . calycis lobo postico

brevissime bifido.” This latter statement indicates than Bentham did not

consider the calyx of C. maritimus essentially different from that of the other

species.

Asa Gray, however, in his revision of Cordylanthus® separated the genus

into two sections, Adenostegia and Hemistegia, the first said to be ‘

3 Bentham in Lindley, Nat. Syst. ed. II, 445. 1836.

4 Bentham in DC. Prodr. 10: 537. 1846.

5 DC. Prodr. 10: 597. 1846.

6 Proc. Amer. Acad. 7: 383. 1868.

APRIL 4, 1932 MORTON: A NEW SPECIES OF ADENOSTEGIA 165

calyx diphyllous,” the latter ‘‘calyx monophyllous. This imaginary

distinction has been kept up by authors since Gray, including Wettstein,’

who gives a very brief treatment of the genus based wholly on that of Gray’s

Synoptical Flora. In Fig. 48, J. and K, Wettstein gives an illustration of

the flower of ‘‘Cordylanthus Nevinny: [sic!] A. Gr.” This drawing is so inac-

curate that it seems impossible that the artist could have had a specimen of

the species, nevinzz, before him.

Professor Jepson’s descriptions® of the species of this genus indicate that

he regards the calyx as consisting of one lobe only. ‘Thus he describes the

calyx of C. capitatus, “calyx cleft to base anteriorly, 2-nerved, 2-cleft at

apex posteriorly . . .,’ and of C. nevinit, ‘calyx tubular at base or obliquely

cleft or parted on the anterior side nearly to base. . .’? Moreover, his

key departs from all previous keys to the species in not separating the sub-

genera by the character of the calyx being mono- or di-phyllous. On the

other hand, in his key to the genera of Scrophulariaceae he separates Cordy-

lanthus from Castvileia and Orthocarpus as follows: ‘‘Calyx of 2 distinct divi-

sions, or the upper division wanting.’’ It is, of course, impossible ever to

consider the upper division as wanting.

Adenostegia eremica may be distinguished from related species by the follow-

ing key:

Individual flowers bracteolate............ A. ramosa, A. rigida, and others.

Individual flowers not bracteolate

Sterile bracts at base of inflorescence several

Sterile bracts symmetrically parted into comparatively broad lobes.

Inner bracts (i.e. those subtending flowers) entire...... A. eremica.

Inner bracts conspicuously and symmetrically lobed ...A. helleri.

Sterile bracts irregularly parted into filiform lobes; inner bracts

enisrevor imneguiarl ysl obediWere we) . Sub.Pay.. . eyes ches ks ctskets A. wrightii.

Sterile bract at base of inflorescence solitary or absent, irregularly dis-

sected into filiform lobes; inner bracts irregularly lobed. .A. kingii.

The species may be separated also by the following key based on the

pubescence.

Hairs on leaves not glandular, dense, recurved, 80—240u long, 17-30u wide

at base, acuminate at apex, here 4—-6u wide; calyx and subtending bract

scabrous, the hairs bulbous, granular, about 350u long, the two lower

cells dilated 140—200y wide, the two terminal acuminate. ..A. eremica.

Hairs on leaves glandular at least in part; calyx and subtending bract without

scabrous hairs.

Leaves (and whole plant) densely glandular, the glandular hairs with a

4-celled stalk, this about 70u wide at base (tapering to the apex where

7 Wettstein in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. IV. 3b: 98. 1895.

8 W. L. Jepson, Manual of the flowering plants of California. 1925.

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

25u wide), and 240-500u long; terminal yellow gland about 50y

WIdE. se chis/ad Qhy Ae A ee ee A. helleri.

Leaves less conspicuously glandular, the stalk usually 3-celled, not over

354 wide at base, not over 130u long, the terminal gland not over

DOUBWIGE eek? FPS Wg ete ae cee A. kingii and A. wrightii.

BOTANY.—A new Dryopteris from Cuba.1 Cari CHRISTENSEN,

Botanisk Museum, Copenhagen.

Some time ago I received on loan from the U. 8. National Museum,

through Dr. William R. Maxon, several specimens of an interesting

Cuban fern (Dryopteris), with the request that if it proved to be new,

as Dr. Maxon believed, I should describe it, because of my special

interest in the American species of this large genus. I did find it new,

and offer here a description: |

Dryopteris Santae Clarae C. Chr., sp. nov.

Ctenitis, e sectione D. hirta, ab speciebus omnibus hujus sectionis differt:

lamina basin versus sensim angustata (pinnis infimis 3-4 em. longis) ubique

dense glanduloso-pubescente; indusio parvo.

Rhizome oblique or decumbent, densely clothed with linear-lanceolate or

lanceolate, long, acuminate, entire, castaneous scales. Stipe variable in

length, usually 10-12 cm. long, densely crinite by narrow long hair-pointed

scales (about 2 mm. long). Lamina lanceolate, 30-50 em. long, 15-20 em.

broad at middle, narrowed toward both ends, herbaceous, densely glandulose-

pubescent throughout by short pale glands and long articulated pale thin

hairs (the hairs of rachis, costae, and veins rather longer, very soft), bipinnate-

pinnatifid; rachis crinite like the stipe, but the scales much fewer; pinnae 12-

15 pairs, subsessile, alternate, the basal ones 3-4 cm. long, the following ones

(at distances of 5-6 cm.) gradually larger, the middle ones the largest, these

10-11 em. long, 2.5-3 em. wide, lanceolate, acuminate; pinnules in 15-18

pairs, the lower ones short-petiolulate, the upper adnate to costa and de-

current, the largest 2 cm. long, 1 cm. broad at base, deltoid, nearly pinnate

at base (segments deeply pinnatifid), the middle ones 5 mm. broad at base,

tapering toward the acute apex, incised nearly to the midrib into oblique,

oblong, dentate or repand lobes; costae and costules furnished beneath with

a few small, light brown, ovate-lanceolate, sometimes subbullate scales;

veins oblique, not reaching the margin; sori supramedial, a little below the

tip of the vein; indusia small, brown, subpersistent.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,301,333, collected at La

Siguanea, mountains of the Siguanea-Trinidad group, Province of Santa

Clara, Cuba, on shaded perpendicular cliffs, February 14, 1924, by E. L.

Ekman (no. 18462). The following additional specimens, all from the Pro-

vince of Santa Clara, are at hand: Trinidad Mountains, alt. 470—1,050 meters,

Britton & Britton 5101; Britton & Wilson 5298; Jack 7040, 7108, 7238, 7885;

San Blas, alt. 180-240 meters, Jack 6508.

This new species of the group of D. hirta, which is very rich in forms in

Hispaniola and Cuba, differs chiefly from the other West Indian species by

1 Received February 15, 1932.

APRIL 4, 1932 HOWE: MARINE ALGAE 167

its leaf being considerably and gradually narrowed below. From its nearest

relative, D. nemorosa (Willd.) Urban, it differs further in its dense pubescence,

smaller indusia, and few bullate scales, or the scales sometimes wanting.

Like other species of this group, it seems to be local.

BOTAN Y.—Marine algae from the islands of Panay and Negros (Philip-

pines) and Niuafoou (between Samoa and Fijr).! MarsHAuy A.

Howe, New York Botanical Garden. (Communicated by Wi1-

LIAM R. Maxon.)

In April, 1931, Dr. William R. Maxon, Associate Curator, Division

of Plants, of the United States National Museum, sent to the writer

small collections of algae made by Lieut. H. C. Kellers, M. D., of the ~

Medical Corps of the United States Navy, who was attached as sur-

geon to the Naval Eclipse Expeditions of 1929 and 1930. ‘The speci-

mens of algae, though excellent and well preserved with the aid of

alcohol, were evidently incidental to more extensive collections of

insects, reptiles, fishes, birds, amphibians, mammals, mollusks, echino-

derms, corals, and other marine invertebrates, all of much scientific

interest, as indicated in a preliminary way in the annual reports of the

United States National Museum for the years 1930 and 1931.

Scattered references to the algae of the Philippine Islands have

appeared in the earlier phycological literature. Blanco, in the two

editions of his ‘‘Flora de Filipinas,’”’ 1837 and 1845, describes a dozen

or more species of algae, more or less recognizable, using for the most

part previously existing names, without citation of authorities. More

comprehensive was the report of G. von Martens on the algae of ‘‘Die

Preussische Expedition nach Ost-Asien’’? in 1866, in which 75 species

were listed as occurring in the Philippines, including four from fresh-

water.

Dickie,* in a report on the algae of the Expedition of H. M. S.

Challenger, enumerates 47 species from the Philippines.

Piccone? lists 9 species from the island of Ticao and 9 from Luzon

(Cavite). A later paper by the same author® adds 2 species and one

variety to this list.

In 1911, Dr. E. D. Merrill, then botanist of the Bureau of Science

at Manila, forwarded to the present writer for determination a col-

1 Received for publication March 2, 1932.

* Bot. Theil.

8 Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 15: 242-246. 1876.

4 Alghe del viaggio di circumnavigazione della Vettor Pisani, 89, 90. 1886.

> Nuove alghe del viaggio di cireumnavigazione della ‘‘Vettor Pisani.’’ Mem. Reale

Accad. d. Lincei IVa. 6: 53. 1889.

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

lection of 229 numbers of Philippine algae, collected by himself, Dr.

W. R. Shaw, and others. After studying and reporting upon a part

of this collection, the writer, then engaged in a study of the marine

algae of the West Indies and Peru, asked permission to turn the col- |

CuHartomorPHa Ketuersit M. A. Hows, sp. nov. (Type specimen; natural size.)

lection over to Mr. F. S. Collins, who was then working on the algae

of the Philippines as represented in collections made by naturalists of

the United States Fish Commission attached to the 8. 8. Albatross.

APRIL 4, 1932 HOWE: MARINE ALGAE 169

Later, Dr. Merrill sent approximately 300 specimens directly to Mr.

Collins. Mr. Collins, at his death in 1920, left a manuscript on the

Philippine algae that was nearly ready for publication, and this came

into the possession of The New York Botanical Garden with Dr. N. L.

Britton’s purchase of the Collins algal herbarium in 1922 and his

donation of it to the Garden. In October, 1928, this Philippine manu-

script was turned over to Professor William Albert Setchell of the

University of California, who with a Mr. Manza, a Filipino student,

was then preparing to make a special study of the marine algae of the

Philippine Islands. The following list of 21 species from Panay and

Negros islands is to be looked upon as a modest contribution to the

more extended treatise that is to be expected from the University of

California.

I. ALGAE COLLECTED ON PANAY ISLAND, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, BY LIEUT. H. C.

KELLERS, 1929

CHLOROPHYCEAE

ENTEROMORPHA LINGULATA J. Ag.

Chaetomorpha Kellersii M. A. Howe, sp. nov. Ficure I.

Filamentis longis fuscis liberis plus minusve tortis et intricatis, 200-450u

crassis, ad septa vulgo leviter constrictis, allantoideis, cellulis diametro 2—4

(-7)-plo longioribus, brevi-cylindricis aut subclavatis, saepe irregulariter

constrictis vel subtortis, in siccitate saepe valde, interdum alternatim, colla-

bentibus, parietibus modice tenuibus, maximam partem 3-18uw crassis.

A Ch. Lino (O. F. Muell.) Kuetz. in filamentis crassioribus fuscis, cellulis

longioribus polymorphis plus collabentibus; a Ch. torta (Farl.) Yendo fila-

mentis tenuioribus fuscis, cellulis longioribus polymorphis, etc., differt.

CAULERPA CLAVIFERA (Turn.) Ag.

CAULERPA MACRODISCA Decaisne

ACETABULARIA MAJOR Martens

PHAEOPHYCEAE

TURBINARIA CONOIDES (J. Ag.) Kiitz.

PADINA DISTROMATICA Hauck

RHODOPHYCEAE

GALAXAURA FASTIGIATA Decaisne

GELIDIUM RIGIDUM (Vahl) Grev.

EUCHEUMA MURICATUM (S. G. Gmel.) Web.-v. Bosse

GRACILARIA COMPRESSA (Ag.) Grev.

GRACILARIA LICHENOIDES (L.) Grev.

ACANTHOPHORA ORIENTALIS J. Ag.

LITHOPHYLLUM sp., on Gelidiwm rigidum.

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

1I, ALGAE COLLECTED ON NEGROS ISLAND (OCCIDENTAL), PHILIPPINE ISLANDS,

BY LIEUT. H. C. KELLERS, APR. 20, 1929.

PHAEOPHYCEAE

SARGASSUM POLYCYSTUM Ag., var.

SARGASSUM SILIQUOSUM J. Ag.

DictyoTa picHoTtoma (Huds.) Lamour.

PADINA AUSTRALIS Hauck

RHODOPHYCEAE

HyYpNEA MUSCIFORMIS (Wulf.) Lamour.

ACANTHOPHORA ORIENTALIS J. Ag.

SPYRIDIA FILAMENTOSA (Wulf.) Harv.

AMPHIROA FRAGILISSIMA (L.) Lamour.

III. ALGAE COLLECTED ON NIUAFOOU ISLAND, BY LIEUT.

H. C. KELLERS, AUGUST-OCTOBER, 1930

Niuafoou® Island is a partly submerged volcanic crater in the Pacific

Ocean in latitude 15° 33’ 55’’ S. and longitude 175° 37’ 46’’ W., and lying

between Samoa and Fiji. ‘Good Hope Island’ appears as a synonym on

some of the maps. The name given to it by the discoverer, Captain Edwards,

in 1791, is said to have been ‘‘Proby Island.” It has also been nicknamed

‘“Tin-can Island,” from the method of delivering the infrequent mail by throw-

ing it overboard in a sealed can from the visiting steamer. So far as is known

to the writer, no algae have been previously reported from this island.

MYXOPHYCEAE

LYNGBYA MAJUSCULA (Dillw.) Harv.

CHLOROPHYCEAE

SIPHONOCLADUS INFESTANS Setch.

VaLONIA AEGAGROPILA Ag. Sept. 14 and Oct. 12, 1930.

VALONIA FASTIGIATA Harv. Sept. 11 and 17, and Oct. 1 and 12.

PHAEOPHYCEAE

EcTocaRPus sp., near LH. Mitchellae Harv., on Laurencia flerilis.

SARGASSUM ANAPENSE Setch. & Gard. Sept. 29 and Oct. 1.

SARGASSUM CRISTAEFOLIUM Ag. Oct. 1, 2, and 4.

TURBINARIA ORNATA (Turn.) J. Ag.

RHODOPHY CHAE

ACTINOTRICHIA RIGIDA (Lamour.) Decaisne.

LAURENCIA FLEXILIS Setch. Aug. 26, Sept. 17, Oct. 1 and 16.

JANIA CAPILLACEA Harv.

AMPHIROA FRAGILISSIMA (L.) Lamour.

6 Sometimes spelled Niuafoo, Niuafou, and Niuafu.

APRIL 4, 1932 BERRY: A NEW OAK FROM THE MIOCENE 171

PALEOBOTANY.—A new Oak (Quercus perplexa) from the Miocene

of the western United States... Epwarp W. Berry, Johns Hopkins

University.

In 1902 Knowlton described the basal part of a leaf from the Maseall

beds at Van Horn’s ranch in the John Day basin (Grant County),

Oregon, which, because it had an inequilateral base, he mistook for a

leaflet of a compound leaf and named Sapindus oregonianus.”

Only this single type specimen was collected and no other specimens

have ever been referred to in print. Some years ago Messrs. C. P.

Ross and J. Heupgen collected a second specimen from the northwest

corner of Section 19, Township 7 South, Range 46 East, near Richland,

Baker County, Oregon (U.S. Geol. Survey Locality 7515). The latter

came from light colored diatomaceous beds interbedded with Columbia

lavas. It was submitted to the late Dr. Knowlton who identified it as

Sapindus oregonianus. It is undoubtedly identical with the Mascall

leaf to which that name was given, and shows three complete leaves,

which I suppose Knowlton mistook for leaflets.

A glance at the accompanying illustration shows at once that this

is not so, but that the specimen shows the distal portion of a very thick

twig, and that the leaves are alternate in habit. This eliminates

the genus Sapindus from further consideration although the venation

is not very different from that of a number of forms from the western

Miocene which have been referred to that genus.

The next question to decide is what genus these leaves do represent,

and this is not an easy decision. I first looked through the associated

Masceall species. Among these the only form at all similar to what

was called Sapindus oregonianus is one Knowlton called Salix perplexa.*

This is very similar in both form and venation, but tends to be some-

what smaller, more narrowly cuneate at the base, and more nearly

equilateral, although the small leaf shown in Knowlton’s figure 7 is

quite inequilateral. Incidentally his figure 8 belongs to an entirely

different species. It may be noted that one of the leaves of the present

figured specimen is decidedly inequilateral, one is much less so, and

the third is not at all inequilateral, thus showing that this feature is

of no significance.

Knowlton compared his Salix perplexa with the existing Salix

bebbiana of the northern Rocky Mountain region and elsewhere, but

I can not see any such resemblance. ‘The latter is frequently serrate,

1 Received Feburary 8, 1932.

2¥F.H. Know.tton. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 204: 79, p. 15, fig. 3. 1902.

3 F.H. Knowuton. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 204: 31, p. 2, figs. 5-8. 1902.

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 7

the secondaries are fewer and more ascending, and the twigs are pu-

bescent or puberulent. Moreover it has conspicuous stipules, of

which there are no traces in Knowlton’s figure 5, or in the excellent

specimen which is the subject of this note. The latter should cer-

tainly show traces of the stipules if they had ever been present, par-

ticularly as it is a terminal twig.

I am inclined to think that Sapindus oregonianus and Salix perplexa

represent the same botanical Miocene species, but that it is not a

Saliz. It can not be a Sapindus because of the habit, and although

the venation does not preclude such an identification it seems to

me to be more like that in many entire leaves of the genus Quercus,

although in the latter the secondaries are apt to be more widely

spaced.

Figure 1. Quercus perplexa (Knowlton) Berry.

It seems ridiculous to describe a new oak from this region and

horizon when one holds the often expressed conviction that there are

already far more nominal species of Quercus than there were botanical

species, and yet, in dealing with no other parts of the plants than leaves,

I know of no other course, and it is justifiable if it is kept clearly in

mind that all that is being done is recognizing a certain leaf-form

which may have belonged to a botanical species with dimorphic or

polymorphic foliage, like so many existing species in the west, south-

west, and in Mexico. 2

The last mentioned region at the present time also affords justifi-

cation for the assumption that, with the progressive aridity in parts

of the west during the later Tertiary, new species came into existence,

APRIL 4, 1932 BERRY: A NEW OAK FROM THE MIOCENE 173

many of which may have been the ancestors of the existing species of

the Mexican plateau and of the Sierra Madre mountains which border

it. Certainly a considerable number of species of Miocene Quercus

have foliage closely comparable with existing Mexican species, and

this has been pointed out in connection with the printed discussion

of some of them.+

The new species, assuming that it comprises both what has been

ealled Salix perplexa Knowlton and Sapindus oregonianus Knowlton,

takes the specific name of the first of these, which not only has priority

of position, but is fortified by the fact that the name oregoniana has

already been used for a different species in the genus Quercus. The

new species is therefore called Quercus perplexa, and may be redescribed

as follows:

Quercus perplexa (Knowlton) Berry

Fig. 1.

Leaves of variable size, ranging from 2.25 to 5.5 centimeters in length, and

from 1.2 to 2.5 centimeters in maximum width. Outline elliptical-lanceolate

to ovate. Base cuneate, abruptly narrowed to the petiole, and frequently

inequilateral. Apex usually cuspidate. Margins entire, more or less revolute.

This is well shown on the right side of the largest and the left side of the

smallest leaf here figured. Texture coriaceous. Petiole short and very

thick, not over 5 millimeters in length. Midvein very stout and prominent

proximad, conspicuously less so distad. Secondaries about 12 pairs, sub-

parallel, rather straight, sometimes one of the secondaries will be dichoto-

mous from near the base; they all diverge from the midvein at wide angles

and are abruptly camptodrome well within the margins. Tertiaries campto-

drome in the marginal regions, forming open polygonal meshes between the

secondaries.

I have not seen any modern species in which all of the leaves’are exactly

like the fossil, but there are a considerable number of modern species with

polymorphic leaves in which occasional leaves are very similar or identical

with what I have called Quercus perplera. I mention a number of these

below, but do not think that they have anything more than a generic signifi-

cance. For the most part all show considerable variation and tend to have

entire leaves on old trees, and variously toothed margins on young trees or

shoots—environments being apparently the guiding influence. I refer to

species such as wislizent DeCandolle, oblongifolia Torrey, emory: Torrey,

arizonica Sargent, chrysolepis Liebman, and engelmanni Greene. Doubtless

other existing species from farther south could be enumerated.

It seems to me that, from the features shown and the considerations just

mentioned, the present redetermination is abundantly justified.

4 See for example the discussions of Quercus mccanni, Quercus simulata, and Quercus

treleasit in U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 170: 36-37. 1931.

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

ETHNOBOTAN Y—Meaican folk remedies of Chihuahua. RosBrert

M. Zineac, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.

(Communicated by Pauu C. STANDLEY.)

This paper deals with the remedies used by the Mexicans of the lower

and lower middle classes of the State of Chihuahua, in clear distinction

from the primitive Tarahumara Indians, who furnish a few and the

most important of them. While engaged in a study of the material

culture of the T'arahumaras of the southern part of the State of Chihua-

hua, the writer had occasion to observe the prominent place in that

culture occupied by medicinal plants, which will be described in an-

other publication. These Indians collect several plants of such general

esteem by their Mexican neighbors as to be worth the long foot-trip

down from the distant Sierra to the capital city of Chihuahua, a dis-

tance of a hundred and twenty miles.

In general, it is quite apparent from the business of the boticas, that

Mexicans are great believers in medicines; and none of them would

be satisfied with a doctor’s visit if he did not prescribe at least a half

dozen different medicines, none of which does any harm. And so

among the lower classes who can not afford the luxury of medical men

and mixtures from the botica, a great profusion of medicinal herbs are

relied upon, the virtue of which is largely that they, also, do not harm.

These data are not submitted as a contribution to medical knowledge;

but they do involve more than mere curiosities in human behavior.

Many of these medicinal plants show a far-reaching diffusion of

technique in preparation for the identical ailment, rather than local

and chance beliefs. Jatropha as a remedy for scratched eyes was

carried by the Spaniards to the Philippines, where it gained the identi-

cal folk use.

The lore attaching to plants forms an important aspect of primitive

and folk cultures which has not had adequate treatment by: students

of human culture. As Dr. Laufer says: “Cultivated plants are an

essential element in the history of human ecology and civilization,

and their study must be grasped in the sense of a cultural movement.”

This paper is submitted in the thought that, though a meagre ~

catalog of remedial plants, it is a slight addition to our knowledge;

which, like Redfield’s Remedial Plants of Tepoztlan, will eventually

build up a literature very valuable to the ethnobotanist who attacks

the great problem of plants in Mexican culture.

1 Received February 29, 1932.

APRIL 4, 1932 ZINGG: MEXICAN FOLK REMEDIES 175

Nothing could be more simple than gathering the material for such

contributions. The present writer spent three hours in the special

booth for medicinal plants in the public market of the city of Chihua-

hua, buying the different plants and noting on the envelopes containing

them the local names and the uses, as well as the locality and the

method of growing the plants.

For the value and coherence of this material, the reader is indebted

to Mr. Paul C. Standley, of Field Museum of Natural History, who

was generous enough of his wide knowledge of Mexican plants to

identify and arrange these species, for which assistance the writer is

deeply indebted.

Two wide-spread Mexican folk beliefs about animals may be men-

tioned. Injuries to the head, and headache, are thought to be caused

by entrance of air through the ears. The bright feathers of the rare

and magnificent giant woodpecker (Campephilis imperialis) are

thought to be especially valuable as ear-muffs to prevent this. Con-

sequently the Mexicans have practically exterminated this splendid

bird in the Sierra Tarahumara. The well-known Tiger Salamander

(Ambystoma tigrinum), which the Mexicans universally call by its

Aztec name axolote, is common in the Sierra. ‘Tarahumara in its larval

form. In color it is spotted black and yellow, and is aquatic and

has gills. The larval form is able to reproduce for generations and

remains aquatic, though if the water disappears it becomes adult and

terrestial. This ugly, though of course harmless, animal is the object

of a widespread belief among the Mexicans, which the writer en-

countered in Chihuahua and New Mexico. It is thought to be

especially dangerous to women, who are careful about nearing rivers,

and would never sleep near them for fear of the animal entering their

bodies.

There is a very widespread belief in Mexico about a fictitious plant

which they call ‘“‘quiebra muelas,’’—molar-breakers. The belief was

noted in Chihuahua. These plants are supposed to be very corrosive,

and therefore dangerous to carry on the person. Ground up and placed

on an aching tooth or the gums adjacent, they cause the tooth to be

broken up and fall out.

POLY PODIACEAE

1. NOTHOLAENA SINUATA (Sw.) Kaulf.

Calahua del indio. Name is usually calaguala. This fern is esteemed as

an excellent remedy. The decoction is drunk as a treatment of inflammation

and bruises.

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

SELAGINELLACEAE

2. SELAGINELLA SP.

Flor de pera. This “resurrection plant’ is brought by the Tarahumaras

from the Sierra Madre to be sold to the Mexicans, by whom it is appreciated

as a remedy for colic and indigestion.

EQUISETACEAE

3. EQUISETUM HIEMALE L.

Cola de caballo (Horse’s tail). This horsetail or scouring rush is planted

by the Mexicans in gardens near running water. Its decoction is drunk

without sugar as a remedy for pains in the kidneys.

LILIACEAE

4, YUCCA SP.

Flor de palma. The flowers of the yucca plant are dried and brought con-

siderable distances to Chihuahua, where they are sold. Their decoction is

drunk as a remedy for colds. |

AMARYLLIDACEAE

5. AGAVE SP.

Amole. The thickened roots of small agaves are collected by the Tara-

humaras and brought down to the city of Chihuahua, for sale in the herb

market. ‘They are used like soap for washing clothes.

SAURURACEAE

6. ANEMOPSIS CALIFORNICA H. & A.

Hoja de babisa. This plant is grown in Mexican gardens along running

water. The leaves and fleshy roots are boiled and the decoction used as a

wash for sores and boils. It is the yerba mansa of southern California.

JUGLANDACEAE

7. JUGLANS Major (Torr.) Heller

Nogal. From walnut leaves is prepared a beverage that is drunk like tea

with sugar.

POLYGONACEAE

8. ERIOGONUM TENELLUM Torr.

Chuchaca. Mexicans bring this plant from the mountains to Chihuahua,

where it is sold asa remedy. The plant is boiled and its decoction drunk

as a purgative.

AMARANTHACEAE

9. AMARANTHUS PANICULATUS L.

Quelite morado. The decoction is drunk by pregnant women as a remedy

against morning sickness.

LAURACEAE

10. LirskA GLAUCESCENS H. B. K.

Laurel. The leaves of this laurel tree are very fragrant, and when boiled

make a very tasty and refreshing tea, with sugar. The Tarahumaras, who

appreciate it only as a medicine, especially since they do not have sugar,

harvest considerable quantities of the leaves and bring them to Chihuahua,

where they bring a good price.

APRIL 4, 1932 ZINGG: MEXICAN FOLK REMEDIES 177

The Mexicans not only appreciate laurel as a tea, for which they use it

more commonly than the more expensive and less fragrant Asiatic teas, but

they also attribute to laurel medicinal properties. They say that the de-

coction, drunk with sugar, is a remedy helpful for gas in the stomach.

ROSACEAE

11. PRUNUS CAPULI Cav.

Corteza de capulin. The wild cherry is a mountain tree, brought from the

Sierra Madre by the Mexicans for sale. Its bark is boiled and the decoction

drunk as a tea, without sugar, in the treatment of colds.

LEGUMINOSAE

12. Prosopis cHILENSIS (Mol.) Stuntz

Corteza de mezquite. The decoction of mesquite bark is drunk as a purga-

tive and to clarify the urine.

13. ZORNIA DIPHYLLA (L.) Pers.

Hierba de vibora (Rattlesnake weed). This is esteemed by the Mexicans

for colds and fevers. The decoction is drunk by children, though often adults

mix it with their liquor (sofol).

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

14. LARREA TRIDENTATA (DC.) Coville

Wame gobernadora. The characteristic ‘‘creosote bush”’ of the Chihuahuan

desert. The branches are picked from the fields, and saved for their medici-

naluses. They are fried with lard and used hot as a poultice in the treatment

of rheumatism.

RUTACEAE

15. Cirrus LIMONIA Osbeck.

Limon. Lemon peel is ground with the seed of the avocado (Persea

americana Mill.) and used warm as a poultice.

Orange peel is burned in charcoal braziers as a preventive of headache.

16. RuTa CHALEPENSIS L.

Ruda. Grown in Mexican gardens for the use of its decoction for ‘‘air in

the intestines and stomach.’”’ Rue is a European plant.

Ruta graveolens: ‘‘Its odor is very strong, its taste sharp and bitter. Con-

tains a glucoside, rutine, and an essential oil to which it owes its physiological

properties. . . . It exercises locally an irritating action on the skin and

mucous membrane. Used internally it can cause gastro-enteritic accidents

with spasms and convulsions. It is employed as a stimulant to uterine con-

tractions and against hemorrhages. Only indirectly it produces abortions.”’

(Farmacopea Latino-Americana, p. 565.)

EUPHORBIACEAE

17. CROTON MONANTHOGYNUS Michx.

Encimlla. ‘This low herb of the spurge family is cultivated in Mexican

gardens, or the plants are gathered on the plains. It is boiled and ‘‘drunk

with sugar as a cordial, when one cannot drink coffee.”’

18. EUPHORBIA SP.

Hierba de la golondrina. A prostrate herb, gathered from the fields’ and

used by the Mexicans in treatments of boils and ulcers. The decoction is

used as a wash; and then part of the dry leaves are ground up and dusted on

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

the cleaned lesion on the skin. Throughout Mexico and the southwestern

United States similar spurges have high repute as a remedy for rattlesnake

bites.

MALVACEAE

19. MALVA PARVIFLORA L.

Malva. This mallow is commonly planted in gardens by Mexicans, or

bought, its decoction being appreciated by women as a douche.

LOGANIACEAE

20. BUDDLEIA SCORDIOIDES H. B. K.

Escobilla. A pale, woolly shrub with flowers in spherical heads. The

decoction is drunk as a purgative.

APOCYNACEAE

21. MAcROSIPHONIA HYPOLEUCA (Benth.) Muell.

Rosa de San Pedro. The Mexicans bring this plant from the mountains.

It is a small shrub with beautiful, large, white flowers. Its decoction is

esteemed for bathing infected eyes.

CONVOLVULACEAE

22. DICHONDRA ARGENTEA Willd.

Orejuela de rat6n (Mouse’s ear). The plant is a diminutive creeping herb

with silvery, kidney-shaped leaves. The decoction is drunk as a remedy for

jaundice. It is thought also an excellent remedy for ‘‘frights,”’ to which are

attributed many ills among the Mexican folk as well as the Indians.

HY DROPHYLLACEAE

23. NAMA UNDULATUM H. B. K.

Ventosidad. This plant is grown in Mexican gardens for sale as a folk

remedy. Its decoction is drunk for the common digestive disorder of gas

on the stomach. Of its efficacy the herb vender told me that when so taken,

‘“‘then the balloon on the inside goes down.’ The Mexican name for the

plant, ventosidad, means ‘‘windiness”’ or ‘‘gas on the stomach.”

VERBENACEAE

24. Lipp1a BERLANDIERI Schauer.

Orégano. The dry leaves of this aromatic shrub are pulverized and

sprinkled on food as a seasoning. The decoction is drunk as a remedy for

colds.

LABIATAE

25. MENTHA SPICATA L. (Spearmint)

Hierbabuena. The plant is commonly grown in gardens. The decoction

is drunk for indigestion.

“It has stimulating properties; it is an antispasmodic, being generally

administered as an infusion. It is much used in folk medicine in this way.”’

(Farmacopea Latino-Americana, p. 393).

SOLANACEAE

26. SOLANUM ELAEAGNIFOLIUM Cav.

Trompillo. A field weed. The berries are used to curdle milk after boiling,

in the Mexican cheese-making technique. The plant bears the same name

in New Mexico and western Texas, where it is employed for the same purpose.

APRIL 4, 1932 ZINGG: MEXICAN FOLK REMEDIES i79

PLANTAGINACEAE

27. PLANTAGO MAJOR L.

Semilla de llantén. Masorcitadellantén. 'The seeds of plantain are planted

in Mexican gardens because of the medicinal use of the plant, which is com-

monly boiled and its decoction drunk as a remedy for dysentery or diarrhea.

“Semilla de llantén. Mazorquita de llantén. The greater part of these

contain in their seeds inverted sugar emulsion; also a glucoside that can be

crystallized, identical with the aucubine of Aucuba japonica. The whole

plant is used as an astringent, and its juice is employed in folk medicine as

a febrifuge, and against the bites of rattlesnakes (?!). It does not give re-

sults.” (Farmacopea Latino-Americana, p. 432).

COMPOSITAE

28. CHRYSACTINIA MEXICANA Gray

Damiana. Hierba de San Nicoldéds. The Mexican women esteem this

small aromatic shrub, which they boil and drink as a tea in the belief that it

is helpful during pregnancy.

‘“‘Various extracts from this plant have been given to animals, and result

non-tonic and have no physical action(!).. The decoction and tincture of

the plant have been applied to see if the plant had any tonic effects. The

results so far have been nil, but the number of experiments to date has not

been sufficient to prove whether or not it exercises any tonic action.” (Farma-

copea Latino-Americana, p. 454).

29. ARTEMISIA MEXICANA Willd.

Istafiate. This is a common Mexican herb remedy, the decoction being

drunk by children for colic. Adults sometimes drink it in liquor. The

plant has a bitter flavor.

“Tt is used in Mexico as a substitute for true ajenjo (Artemisia Absinthium;

from which absinthe is made) . . . . since it has very similar properties.

It contains an essence and santonine, the latter in the inflorescences to 1.24%.

“The tincture does not produce any action local or general, and is not a

tonic. It retards the action of the gastric juice, and slows up digestion.

“Its essence paralyzes the movements of the frog, leaving its sensibility

intact, however. It appears less poisonous than the essence obtained from

Artemisia Absinthium. 'The plant may be employed as an anthelmintic, and

to modify sensibility. There is a common folk belief that it works as a

stomachic. Insome cases it appears to operate asa light aperitive.’’ (Farma-

copea Latino-Amerciana, pp. 306-7).

30. BRICKELLIA SP.

Peston. Gathered from the fields and saved to boil, the decoction being

used as a purgative.

31. CirsIuM UNDULATUM (Nutt.) Spreng.

Cardo santo. The decoction of this native thistle is used for bathing swell-

ings.

32. DyssopiIAa ACEROSA DC.

Hierba del arriero. This is an aromatic field weed which is dried, and its

decoction drunk as a purgative.

do. FLOURENSIA CERNUA DC.

Hojasén. This plant is a resinous shrub, that is gathered from the fields,

and a small amount of the decoction drunk as a purgative. It is so strong

in action that only a little is taken.

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 7

34. GNAPHALIUM WRricuHtTII Gray

Manzanilla del rio. This is a woolly herb from the Sierra Madre which is

brought to Chihuahua by the Mexicans. It finds a sale, since they think

ite decoction good for colds. It may also be used as a wash for sores and

ulcers.

35. MATRICARIA COURRANTIANA DC.

Manzanilla de Castilla. This small white daisy is a favorite plant in

Mexican gardens, its decoction being used as a hot douche.

M. Chamomilla L. (Compositae). ‘In the markets the heads are found

for sale, with more than 5% of the stalks and foreign substances. . . . The

odor of the plant is aromatic and agreeable, its taste aromatic and sour.

Contains a volatile acid dark blue in color which is soluble in alcohol. It is

a tonic and stimulant to a dose of 16 grains. In large quantity it is an emetic.”’

(Farmacopea Latino-Americana, p. 348).

36. TAGETES ERECTA L.

Flor de muerto. Sempual. The garden marigold is grown in Mexican

gardens for use and sale as a medicine, as well asfor ornament. Its decoction

is thought to be an excellent remedy for diarrhea.

37. TAGETES LUCIDA Cav.

Hierba anis. The decoction of this strong-scented plant is drunk for colic

and wind on the stomach. It is often taken with honey.

“This is one of the most widely used medicinal plants of western Mexico.

The species has a wide distribution. The plants gathered by the country

people are made up in small bundles and dried, and then put away for use.

It is made into a tea, and supposed to have numerous virtues, including ef-

ficacy against scorpion bites, fever, ague, etc.

‘“‘Dr. Palmer says that in Colima it is made into an insect powder. This

is the same plant as the Santa Maria of the Cora Indians.’”’ (Rose: Notes

on the Useful Plants of Mexico, p. 231.)

38. TAGETES MICRANTHA Cav.

Anisillo. A small, weedy, strong-scented herb, whose decoction is drunk

for stomach trouble.

39. ZINNIA GRANDIFLORA Nutt.

Cinco llagas. A weed picked from the fields, a relative of the garden zinnia.

Its decoction is drunk as an astringent for diarrhea.

40. CACALIA DECOMPOSITA Gray

Matarique (Mex.); pi-tcd-wi (Tar.) This is one of the most esteemed

medicinal plants furnished by the Tarahumara Indians of the barrancas to

the Mexicans of Chihuahua. There they consider it a cure for diabetes, and

pay the Indians a good price for it. The plant is listed in the Farmacopea

Latino-Americana, which supplies these data:

“Tt is a plant of a meter in height, flowers in September and October. The

root is aromatic and presents, upon breaking, an abundant zone of yellow

resin. It comes from the mountains of Santa Cruz (Sonora), and Mapula

(Chihuahua).

“The root is employed, since it contains two resins, essential oil, glucoside,

tannic acid, and grease. The hydro-alcoholic preparation of the root acts

to paralyze the motor system of the striated muscles, and the heart; it pro-

duces a light anaesthesia by its local peripheral action.

“The tincture favors scarification of the tissues when applied on ulcers,

wounds, ete., by its antiseptic action owing to a coating that it forms.

APRIL 4, 1932 RATHBUN: A NEW PINNOTHERID CRAB 181

“Given internally, it produces emetic and cathartic effects, and general

retardation, but on occasions its use has caused chloroform accidents of a

grave nature.

‘‘Rheumatic pains, especially of the joints, as well as neuralgic pains are

calmed by its application in loco dolente. ‘The rapid scarification of ulcers

and wounds is favored by washing them with a mixture of the tincture in

water, or by the tincture alone.

‘“‘In the hospital of San Andrés they used the same tincture as a purgative,

but the results were variable; with two doses up to 100 grams chloroformic

accidents occurred involving the heart. With two doses of 30 grams no

purgative effects were obtained, and its use only succeeded in calming indi-

gestion and headache.

“The ordinary preparation is the tincture of the root (one part of the root

to five of aleohol-or an 80% solution). It is administered internally in doses

of 30-100 grams with variable effects. Externally it is applied as a sedative

of pain by rubbing the locum dolentem. Asa vulnerary it is mixed with equal

parts of water.”

This plant, after being pounded and boiled for fifteen minutes, is used by

the Tarahumaras as an internal remedy for colds. Its properties as a vul-

nerary are understood by them, as they wash wounds in its decoction. Its

paralytic effects on the central nervous system are utilized by the Tarahu-

maras, whom I saw using it as a fish poison, in water retained by damming.

The purgative property of the plant is also known to the Tarahumaras.

A bundle of the roots that can be encircled by the thumb and finger is ground

on the metate. This is drunk with plenty of warm water. The Indians say

that it is a very drastic purgative, and that its action must be stopped by

eating cold atole (corn mush).

ZOOLOGY.—A new Pinnotherid crab from the igen Islands.!

Mary J. Ratupun, United States National Museum.

Dr. Charles H. Edmondson of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum has

submitted for report a new form of the curious genus A phanodactylus

described by Tesch.’ :

Aphanodactylus edmondsoni, new species

Compared to A. sibogae Tesch, carapace narrower, 9.6 x 16.2 mm., as

against 6 x 11.25. Fronto-orbital distance greater, 7.6 mm., or more than

4/10 of carapace width of sibogae. Posterior width 8.6 mm., instead of 1-1/2

x fronto-orbital distance. Antennal flagellum not 2 or 3-jointed, but 10-

jointed, terminating in a slender seta. Palp of maxilliped long, overreaching

a little the merus-ischium suture. Merus-ischium narrower than in szbogae;

inner margin of merus nearly straight instead of convex. Merus of ambula-

tory legs 1-3 armed below with a large triangular spine-tipped tooth at distal

third; the tooth of third right leg only is bispinose at tip, apparently an ab-

normality. Merus of last leg has two very small spines on posterior margin.

Carpus of ambulatory legs tapering distally (not narrowed in female of A.

sibogae). Carpus-propodus hairy on both margins, merus hairy below.

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Received February 19, 1982.

2 Decapoda Brachyura Siboga Exped., Mono. XX XIX c}, 1918, p. 283, pl. 18, fig. 2.

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 7

Vine hair borders arm, inner angle of wrist, prehensile margins of fingers; a

small patch at middle of inner surface of palm; long hair on lower margin of

carapace, margin of abdomen and surface of maxilliped; a row of short thin

hair above edge of rostrum.

Type-locality.—Oahu, from worm tube, Nov. 27, 1931. Holotype in

Bishop Museum.

ZOOLOGY .—A new species of Cyclops from the Philippine Islands.'

C. Dwicut Marsu, United States National Museum.

The following description is of the mature female.

Cyclops philippinensis, new species

The first segment of the cephalothorax is considerably longer than the

remaining part.

The abdomen, Fig. 1, is about two-thirds as long as the cephalothorax.

The first segment about equals in length the three following, and its greatest

breadth about equals its length. The second, third, and fourth segments

gradually diminish in length, the fourth being about one-half as long as the

second. ‘The posterior borders of the abdominal segments are very finely

dentate.

The branches of the furca about equal the combined length of the third

and fourth segments. The lateral setae are situated at about two-thirds

the length of the furca. Of the terminal setae, Fig. 3, the first and fourth

are nearly equal in length, the fourth being slightly longer. The third seta

is longer than the second and is somewhat more than four times the length

of the fourth.

The segments of the abdomen and furea are covered with minute pellucid

dots. These dots are arranged in transverse lines on the first segment and

sometimes on the other segments. The dots are not projections from the

surface, and so far as the author knows, are peculiar to this species.

The first antennae, Fig. 2, about equal in length the cephalothorax. They

have seventeen segments and there are no hyaline lamellae on the sixteenth

and seventeenth segments. In the second antennae, Fig. 4, the third and

fourth segments are about equal in length. The lower border of the second

segment of the posterior maxillipede has crenulations, Fig. 5, resembling those

found in C. leuckartz.

The spinous armature of the terminal segments of the exopods of the

swimming feet is represented by the formula 2, 3, 3, 3. In the fourth feet,

Fig. 7, the terminal spines of the third segment of the endopod are nearly equal

in length.

The membrane connecting the bases of the swimming feet has two rounded

processes, each armed with a number of dentations, Figs. 7and 8. Such pro-

1 Received February 9, 1932.

Fig. 1. Cyclops philippinensis: abdomen of female, x 223. Fig. 2. Cyclops philip-

pinensis: first antennae of female, x 223. Fig. 3. Cyclops philippinensis: furca and

furcal setae of female, x 223. Fig. 4. Cyclops philippinensis: second antenna, x 438.

Fig. 5. Cyclops philippinensis: fifth foot, x 488. Fig.6. Cyclops philippinensis: second

segment of posterior maxillipede, x 438. Fig. 7. Cyclops philippinensis: fourth foot,

x 223. Fig. 8. Cyclops philippinensis: connecting membrane of fourth feet, x 438.

APRIL 4, 1932 MARSH: A NEW SPECIES OF CYCLOPS 183

Figs. 1-8. Cyclops philippinensis. For explanation see page 182.

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

jections were reported by Schmeil,? 1892, as found in the fourth feet of C.

oithonoides, but not on feet 1 to 3. He also stated that the processes were

found in C. hyalina and C. dybowskii on all the swimming feet, but that the

processes were more of a semicircular form in these species. It is evident

that the processes in C. philippinensis correspond more closely to those in

C. hyalina and C. dybowski1, for they are distinctly semi-circular in outline.

Sars,? 1918, figures similar projections for the fourth feet of C. crassus. :

The fifth foot, Fig. 5, is two segmented. ‘The second segment is twice as

long as broad: the setae are terminal and the inner seta is longer and stouter

than the outer. The form of the receptaculum seminis could not be clearly

distinguished in the available material.

Length: From 0.9 to 1.0 mm.

This was received from Dr. Stillman Wright and was collected by P. B.

Sivikis, at Manila, Philippine Islands.

This form evidently belongs to genus Mesocyclops Kiefer, and subgenus

Thermocyclops Kiefer. It is most nearly related to C. ovthonoides Sars. The

lack of hyaline membranes on the terminal segments of the first antennae,

the armature of the membrane connecting the bases of the swimming feet,

the form and armature of the fifth feet, and the markings of the abdomen

separate this from any described species.

2 Schmeil, 1892, Deutschlands freilebende Siisswasser-Copepoden-Cyclopidae. Biblio-

theca Zoologica, Vol. 6.

3 Sars, G. O., 1918. An account of the Crustacea of Norway. Vol. VI, Copepoda,

Cyclopoida.

ZOOLOGY .—WNotes on Talorchestia fritzi Stebbing.! CLARENCE R.

SHOEMAKER, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by W. L.

SCHMITT. )

Among some crustacea recently received by the United States

National Museum from Professor Manuel Valerio of San José, Costa

Rica, were six amphipods of the genus Talorchestia, taken on the

Pacific coast of Costa Rica. One of the males is undoubtedly Talor-

chestia fritzi described by Mr. T. R. R. Stebbing? in 1903 from Isla

del Coco, off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. The two remaining males

are somewhat larger and show marked differences in some characters

from 7’. fritz’, but in most they agree completely with it. The greatest

difference appears in the form of the sixth and seventh joints of the

second gnathopods of the male. Fritz Miller? has poited out the

differences in form which take place in some of the characters of sexu-

ally mature males of Orchestia tucurauna. The alteration in the form

of the sixth joint of the second gnathopods and the fusion of the first

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

January 29, 1932.

2 Stebbing, 1903, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. X XVI, p. 925, pl. 60.

3 Fritz Miller, Facts and Arguments for Darwin, London, 1869, pp. 79-80.

APRIL 4, 1932 SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON TALORCHESTIA FRITZI 185

few joints of the flagellum of the second antennae are among the prin-

cipal changes which he noted. In O. tucurauna the young mature

males had an evenly convex palm which, as the animal became older,

acquired a deep emargination near the hinge of the seventh joint,

and the seventh joint developed a corresponding prominence which

exactly fitted into the emargination when the joint was closed against

the palm. In the youngest mature males the joints of the second

antennae were all free, but as maturity advanced the first few joints

became fused.

I have examined the specimen of Talorchestia fritzi which Mr.

Stebbing studied and I find that the young males have the emargina-

tion of the palm and the protuberance on the seventh joint so slight as

to be scarcely noticeable, thus approaching the condition of uniform

convexity described by Miller. I have aiready stated that one of

the males received from Professor Valerio agrees quite well with the

description and figures of 7’. fritzt given by Mr. Stebbing, except that

the second joint of the second antennae is much more prominent and.

the fourth and fifth joints are much more massive. The two remaining

males differ from the preceding specimen and Mr. Stebbing’s speci-

mens as follows. The second joint of the peduncle of the second

antennae is even more prominent and the fourth and fifth joints still

more massive. ‘The first seven or eight joints of the flagellum are fused.

Mr. Stebbing states that none of the flagellum joints are fused, but as

the specimens which he examined had apparently been dried before

they were put into alcohol this point is rather uncertain, though to me

the first three or four joints have the appearance of being fused. The

sixth joint of the second gnathopods is proportionally the same, but

the emargination has become enlarged until it occupies about half the

palm, and the remaining half of the palm has been crowded together

into a high evenly convex prominence having at its junction with the

posterior margin of the sixth joint a groove for the reception of the

extremity of the seventh joint. The protuberance on the inner margin

of the seventh joint has entirely disappeared so that when the joint is

closed against the palm a large opening is formed by the palmar emar-

gination.

These differences, while apparently very marked, are only such as

could readily be due to the larger size and greater age and maturity

of the specimens. I believe, therefore, that these two larger males

are merely more fully developed and matured specimens of Yalor-

chestia fritzi Stedbbing. In the Amphipoda development is frequently

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 7

Fig. 1.—Talorchestia fritzi Stebbing. a, Head, antennae, and gnathopods of fully

developed male. 6, Gnathopod 2, left, inside view of young male. c, Gnathopod 1 of

female. d, Extremity of gnathopod 1 of female much enlarged.

APRIL 4, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 187

accompanied by marked changes in the form of the second gnathopod

of the male.

Although Mr. Stebbing noted the general resemblance in the second

gnathopods of 7. fritzi to those of Orchestva tucurauna he believed that

there was enough difference in other characters to distinguish them

as separate species. It is not possible to determine from Fritz Miiller’s

description or figures whether his species is an Orchestia or a Talor-

chestia, so that with further knowledge of these two species they may

well prove to be one and the same. The first gnathopods of the fe-

males of these specimens from Professor Valerio approach more de-

cidedly a subchelate structure than is shown by Mr. Stebbing in his

figure. I have examined the females which he studied and find that

the specimens show somewhat more of an approach to the subchelate

structure than he has indicated. The dividing line between Orchestra

and Talorchestia is so very hazy that at times it is difficult to decide

into which of these two genera a species should be placed. For the

present 7’. fritzv had best be left in the genus Talorchestva.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

765TH MEETING

The 765th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

17 October 1931 at 8.10 p.m., with President JAcKson in the chair and 33

persons present. ;

FRANK THONE mentioned the observation of a partly albino robin recently

near the National Academy building.

E. P. WALKER commented on Dr. W. M. MAnn’s return with specimens

from British Guiana. He also stated that both the lowland and mountain

forms of gorilla are on exhibition at the Zoological Park.

I. N. Horrman stated that Mr. Dmnty has raised this summer several

rare species of pheasant, including Java peafowl and Elliot pheasant. He has

about 25 species in captivity.

The regular program was as follows:

Watson Davis: Some recent biological expeditions ——The speaker has

record of about 60 biological expeditions of greater or less importance afield

throughout the world in 1931.

FRANK THONE: New books in biology—The speaker exhibited and com-

mented briefly on a considerable number of new books.

S. F. Buaxen, Recording Secretary

766TH MERTING

The 766th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

31 October 1931 at 8.05 p.m., with President Jackson in the chair and 48

persons present. NNew member elected: W. O. Emmry.

The following resolution was adopted:

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

Whereas, the Biological Society of Washington has learned with profound regret

of the death of Dr. J. W. G1pLEy, an ex-president of the society, and Assistant Curator

of Fossil Mammals in the U. S. National Museum, therefore be it

Resolved, That this Society desires to place on record its sorrow at the loss of a valued

member, and its appreciation of his ability as a scientist, and of his character and worth

as a man.

Resolved, further, that this resolution be spread upon the minutes of the society,

and that a copy be transmitted by the Secretary to the bereaved family. .

EK. P. WALKER mentioned the new check list of birds recently issued by the

American Ornithologists’ Union.

The regular program was as follows:

T. S. Paumur: The 49th Annual Meeting of the American Ornithologists’

Union at Detroit, and the recent Audubon Society Meeting.—JosnPH GRINNELL

was reelected president, A. C. Bent and J. H. FLEMING vice-presidents and

W. L. McATsEs£ treasurer of the American Ornithologists’ Union. Mrs.

FLORENCE MErRRIAM BAILEY was awarded the Brewster medal of the Union

for her recently published work ‘‘Birds of New Mexico.”’ The next annual

meeting of the Union is to be at Quebec in October, 1932.

Louis RapcuiFFre: A recent trip through the Upper Mississippi River Wild

Infe and Fish Refuge.—The speaker described a trip up the river from Du-

buque, Iowa to Lake Pepin, Minnesota, with special mention of the effect of

floods, the maintenance of a nine foot channel, and the fish rescue work of

the Bureau of Fisheries.

M. M. Exuts: Biological aspects of the inland river situation (allustrated).—

The speaker outlined the destructive effect on aquatic life of river pollution

through municipal and industrial waste and erosion silt. Acid products

from industrial plants accumulate behind dams and even attack the metal

parts of boats.

KE. A. GotpMaNn, Recording Secretary, Pro Tem.

767TH MEETING

The 767th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

14 November 1931, at 8.10 p.m., with President Jackson in the chair and 68

persons present.

K. P. Waker reported that several silver gulls are setting on eggs in the

Zoological Park and that some nests hold downy young, showing a remarkably

prolonged nesting season.

FRANK THONE exhibited several recently published books, including Dit-

mars’ ‘‘Snakes of the world,’ and Edgerton’s ‘“‘Elephant-lore of the Hindus.”

The regular program was a Symposium on the effects of drought upon plant

and animal life, with the following speakers:

M. B. Warts: Plants —The drought of 1930 was the severest ever known

in this vicinity. It produced little effect upon the early spring flowers, but

its effects became evident in late spring and summer. ‘The steadiness of the

drought resulted in little external injury such as leaf scald and tip burn.

Annuals were more affected than perennials. In 1930 very little sugar corn

was raised in this region, most of it having to be cut for fodder owing to its

poor development. Melons and squashes did fairly well, as did forest trees

and shrubs. The shallow-rooted flowering dogwood suffered most among

native trees. The grass in meadows and pastures suffered severely and

some of it was killed. Peaches throve, apples suffered greatly, and pears

were intermediate. There was a poor development of parasitic and fleshy

APRIL 4, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 189

fungi. In 1931 there was a tremendous development of annual weeds. Tulips

and other bulbous plants and iris did well in 1931, but gladiolus and lilies did

poorly. ‘There was a great corn and tobacco crop in 1931. Peaches, oaks,

and other trees were a couple of weeks late in ripening fruit and coloring

their leaves in 1931, perhaps due to excess of nitrates in the soil resulting from

continued lack of rain.

C. R. Lucas: Fish.—Many game fish, particularly trout, bass, and catfish,

suffered severely from the heating of waters and abnormal sewage conditions

due to drought. Losses were most severe in the central and southern Missis-

sippi River region and in West Virginia. A great deal of work in salvaging

fish from drying waters was carried on by the Bureau of Fisheries. A great

deal of restocking and replacement will be necessary.

W. B. Beuu: Birds and mammals.—Birds and mammals have greater

adaptability and power of locomotion than some of the lower groups and

tend to concentrate in places where water is available in times of drought.

The smaller mammals vary their food to obtain more moisture in such a way

as to do more damage than at other times. The number and size of litters

are reduced. The effects of the drought on waterfowl in Canada depended

greatly on topography. In the southern parts of Alberta and Saskatchewan,

rolling country with depressions containing water, great areas became per-

fectly dry and a tremendous amount of injury was done to young birds by

these conditions, as well as by the fact that farmers carried cultivation into

these drying areas and ruined them as breeding places for birds.

J. A. Hystop: Insects —The effects of drought on insects must be distin-

guished carefully from those of other factors. Species favorably affected by

drought carried over into 1931 in large numbers; those injured in 1930 have in

some cases come back vigorously in 1931. The net result is that 1931 was a

year of exceptional insect injury. Aphids, Oriental fruit moth, and Mexican

bean beetle suffered in 1930 and were scarce in the spring of 1931 but increased

rapidly in the fall. Chinch bug and leafhoppers increased greatly in both

years, as did mosquitoes through the change of streams to puddles. Grass-

hoppers did little damage in the spring of 1930, greater damage in the summer

and fall, and very great damage in 1931 in the Great Plains and Great Basin.

Cutworms and army worms were worse in 1931.

M. K. Brapy: Amphibians.—In general, amphibians breeding in tem-

porary spring ditches or pools suffered greatly, in part through drying up

before metamorphosis, in part due to greater injury done by birds and

other enemies. Species breeding in permanent waters came through much

better. Among closely related forms the effects of the drought were some-

times very different. Species belonging to the Coastal plain suffered most.

The late breeders suffered more in'1930 than in 1931. Swamp tree frog,

leopard frog, green frog, bullfrog, Fowler’s toad, newt, and marbled sala-

mander were not greatly affected by the drought. Spring peeper, Amer-

ican toad, pickerel frog, common tree frog, Jefferson and spotted salamanders

suffered much. ‘The red-backed salamander was greatly reduced in numbers

and the four-toed salamander was nearly exterminated.

Discussed by E. A. Gotpman, Louis Rapcuirrn, EH. P. Watxkmr, I. N.

Horrman, and W. T. Swinete. Mr. Goupman described the effects of

drought as observed in Lower California and Texas, and stated that in his

opinion a continuous drought might exterminate very local species. Mr.

RaDCcuiFFE stated that on account of the concentration of fish life, predators

could cause great damage. Young fish suffered from drying up of the pro-

tective vegetation on borders of water. The influx of salt or brackish waters

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

frequently killed whole populations outright. Mr. Horrman spoke of great

mortality observed among white birch, dogwood, and hemlock in local parks.

768TH MEETING

The 768th meeting was held in the new assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

28 November 1931, at 8.10 p.m., with President JAcKSoN in the chair and 110

persons present. New members elected: E. B. CoamBrruain, R. H. Coun-

MAN, J. K. Doutt, and T. H. Wurtcrort.

FRANK THONE exhibited several new books, including Bentley and Hum-

phreys’ ‘‘Snow crystals.’’

F. C. Lincoun stated that he had received a telephone communication

relating to the presence of downy young in the nest of a Barn Owl in Ohio

during the month.

The regular program was as follows:

T.S. Paumer: Meeting in honor of the anniversary of William Henry Flower

(1831-1899).—F lower was born in Stratford, England, and was from an early

age interested in natural history. He graduated in medicine, was invalided

home from the Crimean War, and became Curator of the Museum of the

Royal College of Surgeons and Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy.

He became Director of the British Museum of Natural History in 1884. He

was very accurate and painstaking in his work and insisted on making knowl-

edge accessible to the people. He was the founder of the modern methods of

museum exhibition.

H. C. Bryant: National parks as sanctuaries for wild life (illustrated).—

The speaker showed plain and color slides of some of the more interesting

animals and plants found in the national parks, and gave figures on the num-

ber of larger mammals. There are about 12000 elk, over 13000 mountain

sheep, 1700 black bear, 250 grizzly bear, 25000 mule deer, 2000 white-tail

deer, and 3000 black-tail deer in western parks. Difficulties in administra-

tion are due mainly to four causes: (1) to migration of animals outside

park limits after severe storms, and subsequent shooting; (2) the spread of

disease from domestic to wild animals, an increasing problem; (3) the naturali-

zation of plants, such as foxtail grass, and animals, such as the opossum in

Sequoia National Park, which do harm to the native fauna and flora; (4) and

to artificial feeding during the winter and at other times, which is of doubtful

value to the herds and to the bears. In conclusion, he showed a reel of animal

life in Yellowstone Park.

I. N. Horrmann: Natural: features in Washington city parks (allustrated).—

The speaker mentioned a number of the more interesting trees found in

Washington parks, and exhibited pictures of park scenery.

769TH MEETING

The 769th meeting was held in the New Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club 12 December 1931 at 8:10 p.m. with President Jackson in the chair and

62 persons present. New members elected: CoraBEL Bien, R. W. HARNED.

T. S. PaumMER mentioned that W. H. FLowrr, about whom he spoke at

the last meeting, was elected a corresponding member of the Biological

Society on 8 February 1884, six weeks before he took the office of Director

of the British Museum.

The regular program was as follows:

HERBERT FRIEDMAN: Social weavers of South Africa (cllustrated).—The

social weaver (Philetairus socius) inhabits the semi-arid plains country of

APRIL 4, 1932 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 191

southern Africa. The members of a whole flock unite in building a com-

munity nest, each pair having a nest inside it on the under side, entered by

a vertical hole. In the region studied, it nests in Acacia trees, and farther

west in aloes. A pigmy falcon sometimes nests in one of the holes, but ap-

pears to live on good terms with the weavers, and the author never found

feathers of the weaver in the stomachs of the falcons. Although the white

settlers usually protect the nests, the natives try to destroy them by burning,

because of their fear of certain snakes which are frequently found on the nests

and sometimes drop down on passers-by. The author described his expe-

riences in bringing back to the American Museum of New York a complete

nest of these birds. The social weaver builds a larger nest in proportion to

its size than any other bird in the world and inhabits it for years. It some-

times reaches fifteen feet or more in diameter.

Horace RicHuarps: Biological studies on the New Jersey coast (illustrated).

—The speaker described his work in the study and collection of lower in-

vertebrates off the New Jersey coast and Delaware Bay, illustrating it with

slides of many of the animals observed.—In discussion, T. S. PALMER pointed

out that whaling was formerly an important industry in Delaware Bay and

off the New Jersey coast, and that a blackfish had actually been caught many

years ago in the Delaware River at Camden, although this record had been

discredited by Dr. True.

S. F..Buaxen, Recording Secretary

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

J. W. GREEN of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie In-

stitution of Washington, arrived at Rio de Janeiro January 3 and left Jan-

uary 28 after making comparisons with magnetic instruments at Vassouras.

EarL Hanson of the same Department is making an extensive magnetic

survey in the northern part of South America. He has already ascended the

Orinoco and crossed over to the Rio Negro river.

A narrative by J. HARLAND PAUt, entitled ‘““The Last Cruise of the Carneqgie’’

has just been published. The scientific work is described in popular style.

The book is dedicated to Capt. J. P. AuLT who was a member of the Academy,

and who lost his life with the vessel.

The Carnegie Institution of Washington lectures on the magnetic field of

the Earth and the Earth’s atmosphere were given on the evenings of March

8, 15, and 22, by Messrs. FLEMING, KENNELLY, and BaRTELs, at the Adminis-

tration Building of the Institution.

Announcement has been made by the Carnegie Institution of Washington

that Messrs. Tuve, Harstap, and Daut of the Department of Terrestrial

Magnetism, using high-voltage tubes, have succeeded in observing and photo-

graphing the paths made by high-speed protons. They have also succeeded

in making preliminary measurements of the distance the protons will travel

in air, thereby obtaining a check on the law which governs their paths.

The fourteenth annual meeting of the American Society of Mammalogists

is to be held in Washington May 3 to 7, 1932, the sessions for the presentation

of papers, discussion, and business to convene at the National Museum. The

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 7

local committee on arrangements consists of Dr. W. M. Mann, Director of the

National Zoological Park; Dr. Remineton KELuLoaa, Assistant Curator of the

Division of Mammals; Ernest P. WALKER, Assistant Director of the National

Zoological Park; and WaLTER C. HENDERSON and Dr. H. H. T. Jackson, of

the Bureau of Biological Survey. According to the plans of this committee, a

combined reception, smoker, and movies will be held on Wednesday evening,

May 4, and the annual dinner on Thursday evening, May 5. On Saturday,

there will be a luncheon at the National Zoological Park, with a tour of the

zoo in the afternoon.

Dr. C. Lewis Gazin, of Pasadena, Calif., recently appointed Assistant

Curator in the Division of Vertebrate Paleontology in the National Museum,

took up his duties March 1. Doctor Gazin is a graduate of the California

Institute of Technology where he also pursued his postgraduate studies.

After leaving college he joined the United States Geological Survey, doing

geological work in California and other western states. He will take over the

duties of the late Dr. J. W. GipLry.

NOTICE TO READERS OF THE JOURNAL

A special committee has been appointed by the president of the Academy

to study the problems of publication of the Journal of the Washington

Academy of Sciences. The chairman is Harvey L. Curtis, Bureau of

Standards, and the other members, C. W. Cooks, E. A. Goupman, H. B.

Humpurey, and R. S. McBripr. The committee is considering first the

fundamental question of the major objectives which are now, or should be,

served by this Journal. The committee desires to determine the wishes of

the membership of the Academy and of others who subscribe for the Journal

as to the relative importance of different parts or functions, the desirable

frequency of publication, and other fundamental matters of policy. The

committee will welcome comments on any phase of Journal policy; these

should be addressed to the chairman by letter at an early date.

ae He

OFFICIAL COMMUNICATIONS

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF MEETINGS

Tuesday, April 5 The Botanical Society

Wednesday, April6 The Washington Society of Engineers

The Medical Society

Thursday, April 7 The Entomological Society

Saturday, April 9 The Philosophical Society

Tuesday, April 12 The Electrical Engineers

Wednesday, April 13 The Geological Society

The Medical Society

Thursday, April14 |The Chemical Society

Saturday, April 16 The Biological Society

The Helminthological Society

Tuesday, April 19 The Anthropological Society

The Historical Society

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: L. H. Apams, Geophysical Laboratory.

Corresponding Secretary: Paut E. Hows, Bureau of Animal Industry.

Recording Secretary: CHARLES THOM, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

CONTENTS —

ORIGINAL PAPERS

Mathematical Physics.—On the application of Appell’s equations. M. ARC

WHEELER. .... iaheticg daa hater oc oO 9

Botany.—A new species of Adenostegia from Death Valley, with notes on ¢

ee a ee C. V. MORN se

Paleobotany.—A new Oak (Quercus 5 aes from the Miocene of tise Ww

United States. Epwarp W. BERRY..............22.e00--eeee ;

Ethnobotany.—Mexican folk remedies of Chihuahua. RosBert M. Zisae..... wy

Zoology.—A new Pinnotherid crab from the Hawaiian pases Mary q. Rar

Makeore: eeerevreeerer eevee eee oeereee ate 69.6 646.2 we 6 2.8 2-6 8) e g.850 4 © od Ue 68 Wes Bee

PROCEEDINGS ees

The Biological Society....... Se take by ee ae Bay a gro (Saas

Screntiric Notus AND NEWS. ...2.052.525. 00... 60 oa a oe = MeL oe

Norick To READERS OF THE JOURNAL................ Geir le ts oon

Vou, 22 | AprIL 19, 1932 No. 8

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JOURNALS, * 199

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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 22 ApRIL 19, 1932 No. 8

PHYSICS.—The determination of the electrical units by mechanical

measurements.| Harvey L. Curtis, Bureau of Standards.

The Philosophical Society entrusts the preparation of most of its

programs to its Committee on Communications. However, it may

be said that the Society as a whole decides on the program for one

meeting per year; for in selecting a president, the Society virtually

determines the subject for the address, the following year, of the retir-

ing president. Custom requires that this address be on a subject to

which the speaker has given thought and attention over a period of

years, and very few presidents have had more than one, or at most

two, lines of endeavor which would make a suitable subject for a

retiring address. Hence a year ago any one of you could have given

the title of tonight’s address. You have selected the subject; I will

supply the treatment.

The electrical units are now a part of the c.g.s. system of units

which form a practically complete and unified system for the measure-

ment of all physical quantities. This system, except as regards

mechanical units, is definitely based on the principle of the conserva-

tion of energy. As this principle was not accepted until the second

quarter of the nineteenth century, a unified system of measurement

has only been possible during the last hundred years. I shall attempt

to show the relationship of the electrical units to the mechanical units,

indicate the principles that can be employed in establishing the elec-

trical units, and to give some of the experimental values that have

been obtained. I will also give some of the historical settings.

In 1832, just one hundred years ago, was announced the first ab-

solute measurement of an electric or magnetic quantity. In that year

1 Received February 25, 1932. Address of the retiring president, delivered before

the Philosophical Society of Washington, January 16, 1932.

193

ner >

194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 8

Harvey L. Curtis

President, Philosophical Society of Washington

1931

APRIL 19, 1932 CURTIS: DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL UNITS 195

Gauss delivered before the Royal Society of Géttingen a paper en-

titled Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris ad mensuram absolutem re-

vocata. In this paper was described a method for determining the

horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field in terms of length,

mass, and time. Gauss called this an absolute measurement, a name

which is still applied when any electric or magnetic quantity is meas-

ered in terms of mechanical units. The method of Gauss is still

used as a means of measuring the earth’s field; in fact, it has been the

most widely used method until the last decade.

Following the work of Gauss, physicists developed absolute methods

for the measurement of various electrical and magnetic quantities.

However, it was not till 1851 that Wilhelm Weber showed that all the

electrical and magnetic units can be derived from the mechanical

units, thus forming a complete system. In this monumental work,

Weber not only showed the possibility of a complete electromagnetic

system of units, but outlined methods for making the measurements

and actually gave some experimental values for the unit of resistance.

This work of Weber’s marks the real beginning of absolute electrical

measurements. It appeared about seven years after the opening of

the first telegraph line, the first commercial application which was

made of electric currents. ‘Telegraph engineers soon began to demand

suitable units by which to make electrical measurements. ‘This de-

mand was an important factor in establishing the units which are

used today. |

In order to obtain a fair perspective, let us consider the state of

electrical measurements and electrical units in the decade between

1850 and 1860. At this time the only source of a continuous electric

current was a primary cell. As the electromotive forces of the differ-

ent kinds of primary cells are all of the same order of magnitude, no

great need was felt for a method of measuring electromotive force.

Results could be stated with sufficient accuracy by stating the number

of cells in the circuit. The current in a circuit was either measured

by a tangent galvanometer or computed by Ohm’s law from the

electromotive force and resistance. Hence the important requirement

was a unit of resistance. During the decade under consideration two

different units were extensively used. The first, proposed by Jacobi,

consisted of a copper wire of a given length and diameter, the expecta-

tion being that any laboratory could construct its own standards.

However, the copper of those days varied greatly in resistivity, so that

laboratories found it necessary to exchange standards, if they were to

be on the same basis.

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 8

The second resistance unit, proposed by Siemens, consisted of a

filament of mercury having a cross-section of 1 sq. mm. and a length

of one meter. This unit was far superior to any that had been pre-

viously proposed, and is the forerunner of our present international

ohm. No need was felt for standards of capacitance or inductance.

The electrical instruments and methods available during the decade

following 1850 were not numerous. The tangent galvanometer was

available at the opening of the decade, and Thompson’s astatic gal-

vanometer became available soon thereafter. These instruments did

not then exhibit the cranky behavior which is the one feature remem-

bered by those in this audience who have used them. There are two

reasons why their early behavior was more satisfactory than that of

later years. In the first place the sensitivity required was not great;

in the second place there were no magnetic disturbances from com-

mercial electrical circuits and electric machinery. At the beginning

of the decade, the Wheatstone bridge was available as a means of com-

paring resistances. This is the one method of that day which still

finds favor in our laboratories.

With this background, let us consider the advances which took place

in the decade beginning with 1860; a decade in which our present sys-

tem of electrical units was founded. In 1861, the British Association

for the Advancement of Science appointed a Committee on Standards

of Electrical Resistance. The Committee in its first report state that

before they decided upon a unit of resistance, it would be necessary

to decide upon a system of units for the measurement of all electrical

quantities. After much discussion and after inviting comments from

the leading physicists of the world, including our own Professor

Henry, the committee decided upon the c.g.s. electromagnetic system

of units as proposed by Weber. At the same time the committee

inaugurated experiments to determine the value which should be

assigned to the new unit of resistance. In 1863 the B.A. unit of

resistance was definitely established as, within experimental error,

equal to one billion c.g.s. electromagnetic units.

The B.A. committee made their unit as near the absolute unit as

could be determined by their experimental apparatus. However,

they did not consider the exact value of the unit nearly as important

as the stability of their standard. They expected their unit to remain

the standard for an indefinite period and discouraged any further

absolute determinations. As a matter of fact, the B.A. unit was

extensively used for a quarter of a century. 3

APRIL 19, 1932 CURTIS: DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL UNITS 197

The B.A. committee gave some attention to the question of a unit of

capacitance, which was of some commercial importance at that time

in connection with submarine cables. However, no decision was

reached. The important contributions of this committee were the

c.g.s. electromagnetic system of electrical units and the B.A. ohm.

During the decade beginning in 1870, there was little progress in

electrical units. Professor Rowland at Baltimore showed in 1878

that the B.A. unit of resistance was in error by more than one per

cent, thus opening the way for the activity that followed.

In the decade that began in 1880, there was a very great increase in

all activities which centered around electrical phenomena. Electric

generators and motors reached a state of perfection where commercial

applications were feasible. Electric lamps passed the experimental

stage and furnished an outlet for the power of the “new-fangled

dynamo.” ‘The telephone became an accepted means of communica-

tion. This activity in the commercial field naturally led to greater

consideration of electrical units. A series of international conferences

was held in Paris, at which names were given to the units, and the

importance of deciding on values that agree with the absolute system

was emphasized. While the values which were adopted for the units

at these conferences were never extensively used, so that the direct

results were small, yet the indirect results were outstanding. An im-

portant result was the stimulation of research on the units.

The next important action in regard to the electrical units was taken

at the Chicago Electrical Congress of 1893, which adopted the Inter-

national Electrical Units, the legal units in all civilized countries to

this day. The International Electrical Units were made more definite

at the London Electrical Conference in 1908, and the recommendations

of this Conference were made effective by the experimental results

obtained at Washington in 1910 by an international committee.

Finally, in 1927, the International Committee on Weights and

Measures, to whom due authority had been given by a treaty signed

by practically all civilized nations, decided that the absolute system

should be adopted as the fundamental system, with material stand-

ards approximating as nearly as possible the value of the theoretical

unit. All the important standardizing laboratories of the world are

now trying to determine the values of their concrete standards in

terms of the absolute units.

It is interesting to observe the two different points of view that are

held concerning units, and how in the electrical field first one and then

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 8

the other has been dominant. One point of view is that, since the

units are part of a system, they should conform as nearly as possible

to their theoretical value. The other point of view is that, since there

is always some experimental error in the value of a derived unit, an

arbitrary value should be selected which approximates the correct

value, then this arbitrary value maintained indefinitely.

Throughout the history of units, there are many interesting ex-

amples of the conflict of these two points of view. In the electrical

field, there has been a shifting from one side to the other. The B. A.

committee stated that the unit which they had selected was near

enough for all practical purposes to the absolute unit, and no farther

absolute determinations would ever need to be made. Twenty years

later, the Paris Electrical Congress went on record as believing that

new values should be established every ten years. Just ten years

after this, the Chicago Congress adopted arbitrary standards. And

now after nearly forty years more, the pendulum is again swinging

back towards absolute units. The underlying causes of these changes

in viewpoint are interesting, but time will not permit a discussion of

them.

The methods which have been evolved for determining the electrical

units of the electromagnetic system from the mechanical units are

based on the magnetic effects of the current. The magnetic intensity,

H, at any point in the neighborhood of an electric circuit, I, can be

represented by the equation known as the Biot-Savart Law. This

equation is

eat f [r x ds]

where ds represents an element of the circuit and (r) is the distance

from ds to the point at which the magnetic field is required. This

integral shows that the computation of the magnetic intensity for a

given current is merely a matter of geometry. Like most geometric

problems, it has been accomplished for only a few forms of circuit.

In some cases the result is very simple. For instance, the magnetic

intensity at the center of a circular loop of radius, R, is

Cag

However, at any other point than the center, the value of H is ex-

pressed as an infinite series. :

H =

APRIL 19, 1932 CURTIS: DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL UNITS 199

The electrical unit that follows most directly from the magnetic

field of a circuit is the unit of inductance. To show the connection,

consider two circuits in one of which there is a varying current having

an instantaneous value 7,, and in the other an induced electromotive

force e, resulting from the variation of 7; Then, by definition, the

mutual inductance between the circuits is given by the equation

d 1,

Also the induced electromotive force is related to the magnetic flux,

go, through the second circuit by the relation

d ¢

Cs =

6 =

Equating and integrating

M art go /1

Hence the mutual inductance is equal to the magnetic flux through the

second circuit caused by unit current in the first circuit. But the

magnetic flux is the integral, over any surface which is bounded by the

second circuit, of the normal component of the magnetic induction.

In the electromagnetic system of units the magnetic induction in a

vacuum is numerically equal to the magnetic intensity. It follows

that ¢. depends upon 7; and certain geometric properties of the two

circuits. Hence the mutual inductance between two circuits in a

vacuum depends only on the geometric properties of the two circuits,

although the underlying phenomena are magnetic.

The mutual inductance, M, between any two filamentary circuits

which are in a vacuum can be computed by means of Neumann’s

integral, which is

Via { ds, ds. cos ¢€

where ds; is an element of one circuit, ds. an element of the second

circuit, « the angle between the directions of the elements, and r the

distance between the elements. While this integral contains nothing

but geometric quantities, yet the evaluation in any practical case is

difficult, and has been accomplished for only a few geometric forms.

Moreover, some of these in any practical size give only a very small

value of mutual inductance. A form important at the present time is

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 8

known as Campbell’s absolute mutual inductor. The primary consists

of a long solenoid with the center portion omitted. The secondary is

a coil of many turns located symmetrically with respect to the solenoid,

and of considerably greater diameter. The diameter of the secondary

is so chosen that its exact value is not important. The important

measurements are the diameter, length, and pitch of the winding on

the solenoid. The National Physical Laboratory of England has

measured three inductors of this type, each designed to have an in-

ductance of about 10,000 microhenrys. Assuming one of these to be

correct, the maximum difference between the measured and computed

values of the other two was 0.1 microhenry, or ten parts in a million.

Hence the Campbell type of mutual inductor can be constructed with

sufficient accuracy to give a very precise value of the computed in-

ductance.

The self inductance of a circuit cannot be expressed by an integral

as simple as Neumann’s integral for mutual inductance. The reason

for this is that in a mutual inductance, the circuit can usually be con-

sidered as concentrated in a filament, whereas in a self inductance,

the finite cross-section of the circuit must be considered. One method

of obtaining a suitable integral for expressing the self inductance of a

circuit is to consider the circuit divided into an infinite number of

filaments of infinitesimal cross-section. Now the position of any two

filaments can be expressed in terms of coordinates which are applicable

to a cross-section, and the mutual inductance between these two

filaments determined by Neumann’s formula. Then the average

value of the mutual inductance between one filament and all the others

can be determined by integration over the cross-sectional area and

dividing by the area. Finally the mutual inductance between the

average filament and all the other filaments of the cross-section can be

determined by again integrating over the cross-sectional area and

dividing by the area. This final average mutual inductance is the self

inductance of the circuit. To express this as an integral let ZL be the

self inductance of a circuit having a cross-section S in which any

elements of the two filaments may be represented by ds; and ds»,

then

1 ds, ds. Cos €

Las fj as} fas fj =

where r is the distance between ds, and ds, and « the angle between

their directions. Again this integral involves only geometrical quan-

APRIL 19, 1932 CURTIS: DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL UNITS 201

tities. However its evaluation is so difficult that there are relatively

few forms for which the self inductance can be computed.

The one form of self inductor for which the self inductance has a

useful value and for which an accurate formula for the self inductance

is known is a single layer solenoid. A solenoid can be accurately

constructed. Also precision measurements can be made of the diam-

eter of the solenoid, the pitch of the winding, and the diameter of the

wire, the three dimensions that are required for computing the in-

ductance. The Bureau of Standards has constructed a solenoid, the in-

ductance of which can, it is believed, be computed with an error of

only a few partsina million. However, no direct check between two

similar solenoids has been made. 2

The inductance of an absolute standard can be computed from meas-

urements of length only, and hence is simpler than any of the other

electrical units. ‘These standards are useful not only for establishing

working standards of inductance, but as a basis for establishing other

electrical units. This latter phase will be discussed as necessity arises.

The electrical unit for which an accurate value is most needed, on

which the most effort has been expended, and for which the results have

been most unsatisfactory, is the ohm. The number of methods which

have been devised for its measurement are numerous. The underlying

principle is much the same in all of them. ‘This principle will first be

stated, then several applications to specific methods given.

The underlying principle may be stated as determining the ratio of

induced electromotive force to current in a circuit where the electro-

motive force and current can be determined in terms of the same

magnetic or electric quantities. Since the same magnetic or electric

quantities are used in determining both the current and electromotive

force, they will disappear in the ratio, leaving the resistance in terms of

mechanical quantities. In order to measure current and electromotive

force in the same quantities, it is necessary to assign a numerical

value to the ratio of the magnetic intensity and magnetic induction of a

vacuum. ‘This value is usually taken as unity, which is equivalent to

stating that the permeability of a vacuum is unity.

The underlying principle of the methods for the aboslute measure-

ment of resistance can be illustrated by one of the methods proposed

by Wilhelm Weber. Consider a coil having N turns, each of area A,

to rotate with an angular velocity, w, around a vertical axis which

passes through a diameter of the coil. The induced electromotive

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 8

force, e, at any instant, ¢t, in a place where the horizontal component of

the magnetic induction of the earth’s field is B, is

p = ih IN Aes. Simecout

The average value, HL, of the electromotive force for a half cycle is,

P 2r

since o = —

_4BN A

ay eS

where 7' is the period. If this coil is provided with a suitable com-

mutator and connected to a tangent galvanometer, the current through

the galvanometer consists of a series of half waves, all the current

being in one direction. ‘The average value of this current when meas-

ured with a tangent galvanometer having n turns of radius 7, at a place

where the magnetic intensity of the earth’s field is H, is

r H

2rn

itt tan 6

where @ is the angular deflection of the galvanometer magnet. If the

resistance Ff of the entire circuit is taken as the ratio of the average

electromotive force to the average current, then, since B and H are

numerically equal,

E ABN Alt SrnNA

lL. Ae tan 6/2. 7 Tr tan

where 7’ is the time of a revolution of the coil. This equation shows

that R is determined in terms of mechanical units. If all the quanti-

ties in the equation are expressed in dimensional units, then [R] =

|L/T], which is responsible for the statement that a resistance is a

velocity.

The above method is not capable of giving results of high accuracy.

It has been introduced solely to illustrate the fundamental principles

involved in any absolute ohm determination, and to show the type of

apparatus used in the earliest experiments.

Another historical method is the combination into a single instru-

ment of the earth inductor and the tangent galvanometer of the pre-

ceding method. A magnetic needle is suspended at the center of a

coil mounted to rotate about a vertical diameter. As the coil rotates,

the magnet is deflected because the earth’s field induces a current in

APRIL 19, 1932 CURTIS: DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL UNITS 203

the coil, which in turn produces a magnetic field at the center of the coil

that is at right angles to the earth’s field. The amount of deflection

depends on the diameter of the coil, its velocity and its resistance.

This method was independently proposed about 1860 by Wilhelm

Weber and by Lord Kelvin. It was first used by Maxwell and his

associates to establish the B. A. ohm. Since then it has been used for

more accurate determinations, but it is not capable of giving results

of the highest precision.

Perhaps the most direct method for the absolute measurement of the

ohm is the one proposed by Lorenz about 1870. This method em-

ploys a form of homopolar generator with air-cored magnets for gen-

erating an electromotive force which is compared with the fall in

potential produced by a current in a resistance. The armature of the

generator consists of a disc mounted to rotate around its axis. The

magnetic field of the generator is produced by a coil, solenoid, or

group of coils which are placed with their axes coinciding with the

axis of the disc. Then as the disc rotates, the same electromotive

force is produced in every radius of the disc. The electromotive

force in each radius is equal to the magnetic flux through the disc

divided by the time of a revolution. But the flux for unit cur-

rent in the coils is equal to the mutual inductance, M, between the

coils and a circle which coincides with the circumference of the disc.

_ Hence the electromotive force E between the center and the circum-

ference of the disc is given by the equation

Bre

where J is the current in the coils and T is the time of a revolution.

This electromotive force is balanced against the drop in potential

over a resistance, FR, in series with the coils. Hence

fos PR

Now the value of M can be computed from measured dimensions of the

coil and disc.

The Lorenz method is considered by many as one of the best that

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 8

has ever been devised. One difficulty with the method is the very

small value of the induced electromotive force, generally, only a few

millivolts. At the National Physical Laboratory a determination in

1914 by F. E. Smith gave a result with a probable error of only three

parts in a hundred thousand.

While it is not the purpose here to discuss all the various methods

that have been proposed and used for absolute ohm determinations,

yet the picture would be so incomplete without a mention of alternat-

ing current methods that one of these methods will be described.

Alternating current measurements have been largely developed since

the days when it was fashionable to make absolute ohm determinations.

Hence, while a number of alternating current methods have been

proposed, only one satisfactory determination has been completed.

This determination was made at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichs-

anstalt of Berlin, although the method was first suggested by Rosa,

a former president of this Society.

The Rosa method employs a self inductance, the value of which

can be computed from its linear dimensions and can be measured by an

alternating current bridge in terms of capacitance and resistance.

The capacitance is then measured in terms of resistance and time by

Maxwell’s method. From these two measurements the resistance of a

resistor can be determined in terms of a self inductance, a time, and

the ratios of two pairs of resistances. The method assumes that

the value of the capacitance is the same when measured by alternating

current as when measured by charging and discharging. This assump-

tion holds only when the capacitor has no absorption, a condition that

can be met only with an air capacitor.

During the past 80 years about 25 determinations of the absolute

value of the ohm have been made. Fortunately it is possible satis-

factorily to compare the results of these determinations. About the

time of the first absolute determinations, Siemens suggested the use

of a mercury column having a cross-section of one sq. mm. and a

length of a meter as a unit of resistance. From that time to this,

results of absolute determination have been expressed in such a manner

that they can be readily reduced to the length of the standard mercury

column. In two of the latest results, the errors connected with the

mercury column appear to be as large as those of the apparatus for the

absolute measurement. In this case, however, an interchange of wire

standards was made about the time of the experimental work, so that

the relative value is known. |

APRIL 19, 1932 CURTIS: DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL UNITS 205

The results of all determinations are shown in Fig. 1. The ab-

scissas are time in years, while the ordinates are length of the standard

mercury column in centimeters. This figure shows that the early

determinations differed from one another by several per cent. ‘There

was a considerable increase in accuracy following 1880. More than

half of the determinations were made between 1880 and 1895. During

the twentieth century there have been but two satisfactory deter-

minations. These show that the length of the standard mercury

107

106

105

RELATIVE /TOTION OF A CON AND MIAGNET,

O OPMPING OF A PIRGNET

LIOTION OF COU INEARTHS SAG T/C _SIELD

104 2d £oraTION THROWS 180°

A Wor’ RormrTIAv

CLMEATOR WITH FUR-CORLD MAGNETS

QQ comwuraTeD GENERATOR

103 HOMOPOLRE GENERATOR

g INDUCTION WA LTUTUAL _INDUCTANCE

COVIIUTATED CURRENTS

@ vsoi0n. cuRRENTS

ACYCLIC CURRENTS

102 INDUCTION IN_A_SLLF _INDUCTANCE

SINUSOIDAL CURRENTS

10/

400

14850 1060 1870 1660 4830 1900 4H10 1920 1950 4940 1950

Figure 1.—Length of a column of mercury having a resistance of one ohm as deter-

mined at various times and by various methods.

column corresponding to an absolute ohm is about 106.245 cm.,

whereas the international ohm specifies a length of 106.300 cm. The

International Committee of Weights and Measures has decided to

abandon the International Ohm in the near future.

The electrical unit which was first determined in terms of mechanical

units and which has been most often so measured is the ampere. In

fact for more than a quarter of a century most measurements of

current were by absolute methods. In 1837, Poulliet devised the

206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 8

tangent galvanometer which permitted a current to be measured in

terms of the deflection of a magnetic needle, the radius of the gal-

vanometer coil, and the horizontal component of the intensity of the

earth’s magnetic field. As Gauss had previously shown that the

intensity of the earth’s magnetic field can be measured in terms of

mechanical units, the tangent galvanometer permits the absolute

measurement of current.

It is difficult for physicists and engineers of today to appreciate

the important part that the tangent galvanometer played in electrical

measurements in the years between 1850 and 1880. The instrument

was simple, rugged, and sufficiently sensitive. There was little

trouble from stray magnetic fields. The value of the horizontal

component of the magnetic intensity of the earth’s field was given in

handbooks with sufficient accuracy for most measurements. Withal

it was a convenient, reliable, and satisfactory instrument. However,

with the advent of the electric generator and systems for the distribu-

tion of electric power, the tangent galvanometer rapidly gave way to

other methods of measuring current. One of the attempts to adapt a

tangent galvanometer to the requirement of measuring large currents

was made at Cornell University. The instrument was called ‘“The

Great Tangent Galvanometer of Cornell.’”’? The coils were two meters

in diameter, made from copper rod nearly 2 cm. in diameter. It was

housed in a non-magnetic building, made mostly of copper. None of

the results obtained with this instrument have been preserved.

In the decade following 1880, the tangent galvanometer lost its

standing as a current-measuring instrument. The two important

electrical standards became the standard resistance and the standard

cell. In commercial and laboratory measurements, a current came to

be measured either by the fall in potential which it produced in a known

resistance, or by the amount of copper or silver deposited from an

electrolytic solution. But to determine initially the electromotive

force of a standard cell, or the amount of silver or copper deposited by

unit current, some type of absolute current-measuring instrument is

necessary. In addition to the tangent and the sine galvanometers,

two types of instrument have been used, the current balance and the

torsion electrodynamometer.

In a current balance, the force of attraction between two coils

through which a current is flowing is balanced against the gravitational

attraction of a known mass. Several arrangements of coils have been

used. In the one proposed by Lord Rayleigh, a coil of moderate size

and relatively few turns is suspended, with its plane horizontal, from

APRIL 19, 1932 CURTIS: DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL UNITS 207

the pan of a balance, flexible leads bringing the current to the coil.

Two much larger coils are supported, one above, the other below the

moving coil, so that their axes coincide with the axis of the suspended

coil and with the distance between the suspended coil and each fixed

coil such that when a current is flowing, the force on the suspended

coil is a maximum. When the coils are in this position of maximum

force, the force of attraction, /, for a current J is

r= nd’)

where : is the radius of the smaller coil, A the radius of each of the

larger coils, and (4) is a known function involving only the ratio of

the two radii. This force is balanced by a mass, m, having a weight

mg, where g is the acceleration of gravity. It follows that

pes, case

Of the quantities on the right hand side of the equation, the mass,

m, can be compared with the standard kilogram, the value of g must

be experimentally determined at the place where the weighings are

made, and the ratio of the radii of the two coils must be evaluated.

The comparison of the mass with the standard kilogram is compara-

tively simple. The experimental determination of the absolute value

of gravity is exceedingly difficult, so that the value at a given place is

generally found by comparison with that at some place where gravity

has been carefully determined by an absolute method. For more than

thirty years, gravity determinations for all countries of the world have

been referred to Potsdam, Germany, where a very careful absolute

determination was made during the latter part of the nineteenth

century. In comparing gravity at one place with that at another,

appreciable errors may enter. One of the largest sources of possible

error in recent absolute current determinations has been the un-

certainty in the value of gravity.

To determine the ratio of the radius of the small coil to that of one

of the large coils, the two coils are mounted concentrically in a vertical

plane which is parallel to the horizontal component of the earth’s

field. At the common center is suspended a small magnetic needle.

A current is sent through the small coil producing a deflection of the

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 8

magnetic needle. Then a current is sent through the large coil, of

such magnitude and direction that the deflection is reduced to zero.

Knowing the number of turns on each coil, and measuring the ratio

of the currents, the ratio of the radii is given by the equation

Hence measuring the ratio of the radii is reduced to measuring the

ratio of two currents, a comparatively simple process.

One difficulty with this method for the absolute measurement of a

current is the extreme precision required in the weighing. As an

illustration, the suspended coils used by Rosa, Dorsey and Miller all

weighed more than a kilogram. The force caused by a reversal of the

current was about 5 grams. Hence for an accuracy of one in a million

in the current the weighings had to be made to 0.01 mg. For a weight

of a kilogram on the balance beam, this means that the balance must be

sufficiently sensitive to weigh to a part in a hundred million. More-

over, this weighing must be made with current in the suspended coil, |

which produces heating and the accompanying air currents.

A torsion electrodynamometer measures, in terms of mechanical

units, the torque between two coils carrying a current. This method

has often been used, but time prevents a discussion of its principles.

There are two methods by which the result of an absolute current

measurement can be preserved; one by determining the electrochemical

action in an electrolytic cell, the other by comparing the potential

drop produced in a standard resistance with the electromotive force

of a standard cell. ‘The first method has been used since the early

days of measuring electric currents; the second has been employed in

recent absolute determinations. ‘The first is the more useful in com-

paring results over a long period of years; the second is more valuable

for electrical measurements in the laboratory.

Before 1870, the electrolysis of water was frequently used to preserve

the results of absolute electrical measurements; it is most unsatisfactory

for this purpose. In 1873 Kohlrausch suggested the use of the silver

voltameter. Following the Paris Conference of 1881, the silver volt-

ameter was greatly improved and has been extensively employed.

Since that time, the results of all important absolute measurements of

current either have been expressed in terms of the number of milli-

grams of silver deposited by a current of one ampere flowing for one

second or can be reduced to that basis. These results are shown in

Fig. 2. It is interesting to note that the last published result 1s nearly

APRIL 19, 1932 CURTIS: DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL UNITS 209

twenty years old. The value found, 1.11804 mg. of silver per coulomb,

differs by only four parts in a hundred thousand from the value selected

by the London Electrical Congress of 1908 for the value of the inter-

national ampere: viz., 1.11800 mg/coul.

The value of the absolute volt has usually been obtained as the fall

in potential produced by an absolute ampere in an absolute ohm.

No absolute measurement in the electromagnetic system has ever been

attempted. However it is possible to measure a voltage in electro-

static units, and to convert the result into electromagnetic units by

ABSOLUTE

MEASUREMENTS OF CURRENT

1.421 *&

O @ CURRENT BALANCE

~ + ELECTRODYNAMOMETER

: O @ TANGENT GALVANOMETER

A A_ SINE GALVANOMETER

%& = AUTHORS' RESULTS

* = REDUCED RESULTS

PCHICAGO CONGRESS

PARIS CONFERENCE LONDON CONFERENCE

1880 1890 . 1900 1910 1920

Figure 2.—Rate of deposition of silver by a current of one ampere as determined at

various times and by various methods.

means of the experimental constant (usually designated as V, but

sometimes as C) which serves to convert from electrostatic to electro-

magnetic units and vice versa. The method of using an attracted

disc electrometer was suggested by Lord Kelvin, but there are no

important published results. As the attraction between two discs

varies as the square of the potential difference between them, the

method requires the use of relatively high voltages.

The determination of a capacitance in absolute microfarads is

usually accomplished by reference to other absolute electrical units.

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 8

There are three distinct methods of procedure. In the first method a

capacitance is compared with an inductance and at least two resist-

ances; in the second, with a resistance and time; in the third, with an

inductance and the frequency of an alternating current. No discus-

sion of these methods will be attempted. It is sufficient to note that

for most capacitors, the different methods yield different results.

When the dielectric of the capacitor is a vacuum or an un-ionized

gas, then the three methods give identical results. Only capacitors

with such dielectrics are suitable for use in absolute electrical meas-

urements.

The absolute coulomb is determined either as the product of cur-

rent and time, or as the product of capacitance and voltage. The

first is used in connection with an unvarying current, the second with

a varying current. No experimental work has been carried out to

show that the two methods give identical results.

No discussion of absolute measurements is complete which does not

mention the experimental constant V, which determines the ratio of

each unit in the electromagnetic system of units to the corresponding

unit in the electrostatic system. The latest experimental result, by

Rosa and Dorsey, gives a numerical value for V which, within experi-

mental error, is identical with the numerical value of Michelson’s

latest value for the velocity of light. This constant is not only of

practical importance, as already shown, but is fundamental in the

electromagnetic theory of light.

Absolute electrical measurements have for their primary object the

establishment of electrical units which form a part of a complete

system of units for measuring all physical quantities. Methods have

been developed by which this object can be accomplished even with

the extreme accuracy which is demanded at the present time. How-

ever, most absolute measurements of precision are time-consuming,

and require very special equipment. Only the national laboratories

have the men and facilities for this work. Hence, relatively few new

results are to be expected in the immediate future.

In closing I wish to pay tribute to those members and former mem-

bers of this Society who have made important contributions to ab-

solute electrical measurements. Omitting those who are now active in

this field, and who may at any time describe their work to you, one

thinks immediately of Rosa, Dorsey, and Grover as men who have in

recent years made important contributions. In particular, the late

EK. B. Rosa, former president of the Society, did much to advance our

APRIL 19, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 211

knowledge of absolute measurements. However, in choosing a sub-

ject for a presidential address, he was considerate of the Society, and

decided not to bore them with an address on absolute electrical meas-

urements.

CHEMISTRY .—The hydration of the solute ions of the heavier elements.

L. H. Furnt. Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated by

G. N. CoLuins.)

In the first paper? of a proposed series dealing with the hydration of

solute ions it has been shown that an assumed inverse integral system

of hydration derived through the extension of Graham’s Law to

solutions appears to characterize the stable element-ions of the first

quarter of the periodic system as judged by three aspects of solution

phenomena,—electrical conductivity, freezing-point depression and

boiling-point elevation. In the system as therein developed the

weight of the element appeared to be modified incident to ionization;

the respective hydration seemed entirely dependent upon the weight;

the hydrating water molecules were considered as uniting with the

atoms to form molecular ions of solute distinct from the solvent; and

complete ionization was indicated at all concentrations.

In studying the hydration characteristics of the heavier element

ions the most natural suggestion growing out of these previous con-

siderations is to project an analogous system of inverse integral

hydration throughout the periodic system of elements. In accordance

with this suggestion values corresponding to the treatments given for

the lighter elements in Table 1 of the first paper have been worked out

and grouped herewith in Table 1,—each section comprising the elements

of a quarter of the periodic system. As was the case in connection

with the lighter elements of the first quarter, many of the elements

included are not known as stable ions in aqueous solutions. However,

since the assumed hydration appears to be conditioned by weight as

modified by ionization, the full set of values seems desirable as a

reference.

In the above table the assumed hydration in terms of water mole-

cules per ion is given in the fifth column. The calculated weight

values for the unhydrated and hydrated states are given in the third

and seventh columns respectively, while the velocities corresponding

to these weight values are given in the fourth and eighth columns.

1 Received February 24, 1932.

2 The hydration of the solute ions of the lighter elements. This JouRNAL 22: 97-119.

1932.

212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 8

TABLE 1.—WercuHtT, HyDRATION AND VELOCITY VALUES FOR A POSTULATED INVERSE

INTEGRAL HYDRATION SYSTEM AS APPLIED TO THE HEAVIER ELEMENTS

Postulated ‘

AN. E ye Vi Newer ut Water of || Hyder V:

2x A.N. Molecules Hydration Molecule

23 V 46 1475 23 414 460 466

24 Cr 48 1443 PP 396 444 475

25 Mn 50 1414 21 378 428 484

26 Fe 52 1387 20 360 412 494

27 Co 54 1360 19 342 396 502

28 Ni 56 1336 18 324 380 513

29 Cu 58 1313 7 306 364 524

30 Zn 60 1290 16 288 348 536

31 Ga 62 1270 15 270 332 549

32 Ge 64 1250 14 252 316 563

33 As 66 1230 13 234 300 578

34 Se 68 1212 12 216 284 594

35 Br 70 1195 11 198 268 611

36 Kr 72 1178 10 180 252 630

37 Rb 74 1162 9 162 236 651

38 Sr 76 1147 8 144 220 675

39 ae 78 1132 7 126 204 700

40 Zr 80 1118 6 108 188 729

41 Cb 82 1105 5 90 172 763

42 Mo 84 1091 4 72 156 800

43 Ma 86 1078 3 54 140 846

44 Ru 88 1065 2 36 124 899

45 Rh 90 1054 ih 18 108 963

46 Pd 92 1042 0 0 92 1042

46 Pd 92 1042 23 414 506 445

47 Ag 94 1031 22 396 490 452

48 Cd 96 1020 21 378 474 460

49 In 98 1010 20 360 458 467

50 Sn 100 1000 19 342 442 476

51 Sb 102 992 18 324 426 485

52 Te 104 982 17 306 410 494

53 I 106 972 16 288 394 502

54 Xe 108 963 15 270 378 514

55 Cs 110 954 14 252 362 526

56 Ba 112 945 13 234 346 538

57 La 114 936 12 216 330 551

58 Ce 116 929 11 198 314 565

59 Pr 118 922 10 180 298 580

60 Nd 120 914 9 162 282 595

61 Il 122 906 8 144 266 613

62 Sm 124 898 tf 126 250 631

63 Eu 126 891 6 108 234 654

64 Gd 128 884 5 90 218 678

65 Tb 130 878 4 12 202 704

66 Dy 132 871 3 54 186 733

APRIL 19, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 213

TABLE 1.—WetcutT, HypRATION AND VELOCITY VALUES FOR A POSTULATED INVERSE

INTEGRAL HyDRATION SYSTEM AS APPLIED TO THE HEAVIER ELEMENTS—Concluded

Postulated | wol we. | Mol. Wt.

AN. E ee We Vi Number of | Water ty t iiyarated V2

2xA.N Maleculsa Hydration Molecule

67 Ho 134 864 2 36 170 768

68 Er 136 858 1 18 154 806

69 Tm 138 851 0 0 138 851

69 Tm 138 851 23 414 552 426

70 Yb 140 845 ihe 396 536 432

7a iow 142 839 21 378 520 439

12 Hf 144 833 20 360 504 445

BS Ta 146 828 19 342 488 453

74 W 148 822 18 324 472 460

Fy Re 150 817 liv 306 456 468

76 Os 152 811 16 288 440 477

77 Ir 154 806 15 270 424 486

78 125 156 801 14 252 408 495

79 Au 158 796 13 234 392 505

80 Hg 160 790 is 216 376 516

81 EL 162 786 iil 198 360 527

82 Pb 164 781 10 180 344 539

83 Bi 166 776 9 162 328 552

84 Po 168 772 8 144 312 566

85 170 768 a 126 296 581

86 Rn ye 763 6 108 280 598

87 174 758 5 90 264 615

88 Ra 176 754 4 72 248 635

89 Ae 178 750 3 54 232 657

90 Th 180 746 2, 36 216 680

91 Pa 182 741 1 18 200 707

92 U 184 737 0 0 184 | 737

The procedure corresponds precisely with that employed in Table 1

of the previous paper, and represents the extension of Graham’s

Law of the Diffusion of Gases to solute ions considered as of two

potential states (1) hydrated and (2) unhydrated.

In examining evidence for the validity of the system as applied to

the lighter element ions it was indicated that the apparent rate of

decrease in specific molecular electrical conductivity with increasing

concentration was subject to interpretation as an index of the rate at

which the solvent becomes modified by the hydrating solute. The

apparent rate of decrease thus constituted a convenient measure of

hydration, and in the present paper this method of inquiry will be

used exclusively in the examination of evidence for the validity of the

system as applied to the heavier element ions and represented in

Table 1. 7

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 8

With regard to the correspondence of the calculated and observed

bases it may be noted that the concentrations used in the taking of

measurements of electrical conductivity characteristically involve

solutions made up to 1000 cc. rather than the 1000 grams involved in

prediction. In dilute solutions the volume method is practically

identical with the weight method, but in concentrations as great as

1.0 molecular the differences between the two systems are appreciable.

When these differences are enhanced by hydration, particularly with

ions having a high hydration, the amount of free solvent present in a

one-molecular solution based on volume becomes difficult to evaluate

with great precision. Then, again, observed measurements involve

the use of the observed combining weights of the elements. As pre-

viously noted, these depart from the combining weights suggested

under the hydration and weight-change hypotheses, and in the heavier

elements the departure becomes appreciable. It seems desirable to

consider the validity of the suggested hydration before specifically

considering the validity of observed combining weights,—but it will

be apparent that in view of the divergent weight bases represented in

calculated and observed values a further source of discrepancy may

be encountered. In general the use of the volume method for cal-

culating concentration effects a dilution from the concentration cal-

culated on the weight basis, while the use of the observed combining

weights effects a concentration over the calculated basis. There is

thus a tendency for these two factors to compensate each other with

respect to the theoretical bases of calculation,—but under the circum-

stances an approximate agreement between observed and calculated

values is all that may reasonably be anticipated, even were the hydra-

tion values known to be correct.

In examining observed conductivity measurements with reference

to the values suggested in Table 1 we may assume a familiarity with

the general treatments described in connection with the consideration

of the lighter element-ions in the first paper.

Chromic Chloride, CrCl;. The summation weight representing the

solute in a 1.0 molecular solution of chromic chloride, CrCl;, may be

derived from Tables 1 of this and the previous paper, as follows:

Cr = 48, Crt++ = 54, with 19 H.O, mol. wt. hyd. = 396

Cl = 34. Cl-, ==.32, with’ 7 H.O, moliwt, hyd. — los

Cha 34 el = 32, with 7 H.O, mol. wt. hyd. = 158

Cl = 34,Cl- = 32, with 7 H,0, mol. wt. hyd. = 158

Summation wt. = 870

APRIL 19, 1932 FLINT: HYDRATION OF SOLUTE IONS 215

From this value the relative weight of solvent present may be de-

rived as

1000 — 870 = 180, or 138% solvent

Observed values for the specific molecular conductivity of CrCl; are

available as follows: 1.0 mol. conc., 0°C.2 = 45.4, .000244 mol. conc.,

O°C.2 = 229.73, 45.4 = 229.73 = 1977 or 19.77%. The observed

conductivity at .000488 mol. cone. is 214.48 and a higher value than

229.73 is thus indicated for “‘zero’’ concentration. Considering this

fact the order of agreement is such as to constitute evidence in sub-

stantiation of the postulated system of hydration.

Copper Chloride, CuCl,. The summation weight representing the

solute in a 1.0 molecular solution of copper chloride, CuCl:, may be

calculated from Tables 1 of this and the previous paper, as follows:

Cu — 58, Cu**+ = 62, with 15 H.0, mol. wt. hydrated = 332

Ole 34, Cle 32, with 7 H.O, mol. wt. hydrated = 158

Cl. = 34,'Cl- 32, with 7 H.O, mol. wt. hydrated = 158

Summation wt. = 648

From this value the relative weight of solvent present may be de-

rived as

1000 — 648 = 352, or 35.2% solvent

Observed values for the conductivity of CuCl, at 0°C. may be cited as

follows: volume = 1.28, conductivity = 59.3; volume .76, con-

ductivity = 48.22; at zero concentration, conductivity = 165.6 By

interpolation, volume at 1.0 = conductivity at 1.0 mol. cone. = 53.3.

The relative conductivity may be derived as 53.38 + 165 = .3238, or

32.3%. The order of agreement (35.2% as calculated, 32.3% ob-

served) appears to constitute evidence that the Cu*+t+ ion in a solution

of copper chloride hydrates with 15 molecules of water as suggested

by the postulated system.

Strontvum Chloride, SrCl,. The summation weight representing the

solute in a 1.0 molecular solution of strontium chloride, SrCl., may be

calculated from Tables 1 of this and the previous paper, as follows:

3 Int. Crit. Tables, Vol. 6.

* Jones, H. C., Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub. 170, p. 62.

5 Jones, H. C. and Getman, F.H. Am. Chem. Jour. 31: 327. 1904.

6 Jones, H. C. and Bassett, H. P., on the other hand give 120.0 as the value (Carn.

Inst. Wasn. Publ. #180, p.73). The use of this value as a base gives a somewhat higher

figure than 32.3%.

216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 8

Sr = 76, Sr++ = 80, with 6 H,O, mol. wt. hydrated = 188

Cl = 34, Cl- = 32, with 7 H.O, mol. wt. hydrated = 158

Cl = 34, Cl- = 32, with 7 H.O, mol. wt. hydrated =» 158

Summation wt. = 504

From this value the relative amount of solvent present may be de-

rived as

1000 — 504 = 496, or 49.6% solvent

Observed values for the conductivity of SrCl, in aqueous solutions at

0°C., may be cited as follows:’ 1.0 mol. cone. = 71.23; .000488 mol.

conc. = 1383.9. The relative value at 1.0 mol. conc. may be derived as

Thode 27336" 2" 53>) orvis 20%

The order of agreement (by calculation 49.6%, by observation 53.2%)

appears to constitute evidence that the strontium ion, Sr++, hydrates

with 6 molecules of water as predicted by the system being tested.

Cadmium Chloride, CdCl. The summation weight representing the

solute in a 1.0 molecular solution of cadmium chloride, CdCl, may be .

calculated from Tables 1 of this and the previous paper, as follows:

Cd = 96, Cd++ = 100, with 19 H.O, mol. wt. hydrated = 442

Cl 34, Cl- = 32; with 7 H.0, mol. wt. hydrated)= ass

Cl 34, Cl- 32, with 7 H.O, mol. wt. hydrated = 158

Summation wt. = 758

From this value the relative weight of solvent may be derived as

1000 — 758 = 242, or 24.2% solvent

Observed values for the conductivity of aqueous solutions of cadmium

chloride, CdCl, at 18°C., may be cited as follows:3 1.0 mol. cone. =

22.4; .005 mol. cone. = 91. The relative value at 1.0 mol. conc. may

be derived as 22.4 + 91 = .246, or 24.6%. The value at “zero”

concentration would be somewhat higher than 91, yet the order of

agreement (24.2% calculated, 24.6% observed) appears to indicate

that in aqueous solutions of cadmium chloride the cadmium ion, Cd**,

hydrates with 19 water molecules as suggested by the extension of the

hydration system into the third quarter of the periodic system.

There does not appear to be any electrolyte involving a represent-

ative element-ion of the group designated in Table 1, which is hy-

drated and yet soluble to the extent of a 1.0 molecular solution. On

7 Jones, H. C., Carn. Inst. Wash. For 1.0 mol. conc. Pub. *180, p. 64; for .000488

mol. conc. Pub. ¥*170, p. 39.

8 Kohlrausch, F. und Holborn, L. Leitvermégen der Elektrolyte, p. 161.

APRIL 19, 1932 BERRY: A NEW DREPANOLEPIS 217

this account the consideration of the validity of the tabulated values

(except insofar as analogy may be invoked) must be deferred until a

subsequent inquiry into the hydration of the nitrate ion, NO;~, and

other molecular ions. |

The order of agreement noted in the foregoing comparisons appears

to constitute evidence for the assumed hydration of the involved ions.

However, the further extension of the study leads to the suggestion

that not all solute ions are hydrated,—a suggestion which will be

considered in the next paper of this series. ©

PALEOBOTANY.—A new Drepanolepis from Alaska... Epwarp W.

Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

Some years ago I made a preliminary report on a few specimens

collected by F. H. Moffit from the northeast quarter of Quadrangle

601, Chitina valley, Alaska. (U. 8S. Geological Survey localities

7938, 7939, 7940.) One of these is of special interest in that it repre-

sents a type of plant hitherto unknown from North America. It may

be described as follows:

Drepanolepis reniformis n. sp.

Figure 1.

Lax cone or open strobilus of undetermined length, at least 10 centimeters

long and about 1.5 centimeters in diameter. The axis is relatively slender

when account is taken of the size and consistency of the appendages, it being

not over 2 millimeters in diameter as preserved. The appendages are well

spaced and are probably arranged spirally, although this is an assumption

based on analogy which the term cone suggests, since the actual specimens

are approximately two ranked as preserved intherock. ‘The essential portion

of the appendages is borne on relatively stout and usually slightly recurved

peduncles about 1 millimeter in diameter and about 2 millimeters in length,

and consist of a round or elliptical body with a marked concavity on either

side of the base, which usually results in a marked basal sinus in the outline,

which is therefore more or less reniform, and it is this feature which has sug-

gested the specific name. Their length is about 6 millimeters and the maxi-

mum width about 7 millimeters. They are at least 2 millimeters in maximum

thickness, evenly rounded, and consist of two parts—an inner, evenly rounded,

smooth surfaced seed or stone, which is covered with a thick carbonized

exterior like a shell or the ligneous testa of a drupe. This outer covering fits

the interior object closely and appears to be a completely enclosing envelope.

It is flabellately and dichotomously veined, and these veins appear to extend

through its thickness, since they are the same on the inner concave and the

outer convex surfaces (of different specimens). This outer layer fits closely

on the enclosed seed or stone, from which it breaks away in irregular patches.

1 Received March 10, 1932.

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 8

In none of the specimens, of which there are several in the collection, can the

two faces of an individual appendage be seen, but it is my impression that the

covering layer is a complete envelope and is not of the nature of a cone scale.

‘In Nathorst’s account of the Spitzbergen material which he referred to this

genus he adds after seed ‘‘(or sporogonium)’’, but there can be no doubt that

the Alaska material is not a sporogonium, but a seed or drupe. In the Spitz-

bergen material the appendages are interpreted as scales, and the seeds (?)

are smaller than the scales and located near their bases.

Possibly a new genus should be erected for the Alaska material, but in view

of the complete uncertainty regarding its botanical position, and the lack of

Fig. 1.—Drepanolepis reniformis: Photograph of strobilus, natural size, and draw-

ing of a single sporophyll, enlarged.

certainty in the interpretation of the Spitzbergen species as seed-bearing

scales, and of that from Alaska as completely enclosed seeds or drupes, it

seems unwise to suggest a new genus, especially as the Alaska form agrees

with Drepanolepis in general habit and size, in stalked appendages containing

a rounded more or less inflated seed (or drupe) which is wholly or partially

enclosed in a veined envelope.

APRIL 19, 1932 BERRY: A NEW DREPANOLEPIS 219

A great many superficially similar fossil objects have been described from

rocks of Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous ages, such as the various species of

Stenorrhachis Saporta, Schizolepis Braun, etc. Some of these objects appear

to be definitely cycadaceous, others ginkgoalian, and others uncertain. If

the Alaska species has the seeds completely enclosed as suspected, it would

be fascinating to consider it angiospermous, although it should not be for-

gotten that if the whole appendage is a simple seed such a conclusion is not

required. In this connection the material under discussion shows a super-

ficial resemblance to the lower Jurassic genera Caytonia and Gristhorpia in

which Thomas? has worked out the structure, and for which he has proposed

the order Caytoniales, and which he regards as ancient angiosperms.

These two genera differ from the Alaska fossil in having the carpels pin-

nately arranged on a dorsiventral axis, and these carpels contain many seeds.

Indeed, as I understand Thomas’s hypothesis’ of the origin of angiosperms

it would be most difficult to conceive of a single seeded carpel in the early

stages of the evolution of carpellary structure. On the other hand sucha

situation is equally difficult in the classic hypothesis of the origin of carpels,?

or in those advanced in recent years by Vuillemin® or EKames.®

Nathorst described two species of Drepanolepis, Drepanolepis angustior?

based on Carpolithes striolatus Heer® which was found in the middle and upper

Jurassic of Spitzbergen, and Drepanolepis rotundifolia? based on Phyllocladites

rotundifolius Heer! which came from the upper Jurassic and the lower Cre-

taceous of the same region. Probably representing a third species is Phyl-

locladites (?) morrisi Cockerell!! from the Jurassic or Cretaceous Ondai Sair

formation of Mongolia. All of these are based upon specimens preserved as

impressions and hence not showing structural details, and it is perhaps need-

less to say that there is no basis for supposing any relationship to the genus

Phyllocladus which the name might be considered to imply.

In a recent publication” devoted to the Upper Cretaceous floras of Alaska

Hollick describes and figures what he calls a “‘bract, phyllode or stipule’’

under the name of Phyllocladites dubiosus, which may or may not be related

to what I have called Drepanolepis reniformis. It is a single, detached, and

2 THomas, H.S., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London B 213: 299-363. 1925.

3 THomas, H. H., Ann. Bot. 45: 647-672. 1931.

4 VELENOVSKY, J., Vergleichende Morphologie der Pflanzen, Teil 3, 1910.

5 VUILLEMIN, P., Les Anomalies végétales. (Paris, 1926.)

6 Kames, A. J., Am. Jour. Bot. 18: 147-188. 1981.

7 Natuorst, A. G., Kgl. Svenska Vetens.-Akad. Handl., Band 30: No.1, 21, 71, pl. 1.

figs. 16, 17; pl. 3, figs. 33-37. 1897.

§ Heer, O., Fl. Foss. Arct., Band 4: pt. 1. 47. pl. 9, fig. 17 (lower right). 1877.

9 NatHorst, A. G., Op. cit. 43. pl. 6, figs. 24-26. 1897.

10 Heme, O., Op. cit., Band 3: ab. 2. 124. pl. 35. figs. 17, 18. 1874. Idem, Band 4:

50. 1877.

1 CocKERELL, T. D. A., Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 51: 144, tf. 6, pl. 2, figs. 10, 11.

1924.

” Howick, A., U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 159.52. pl. 2, fig.9. 1930.

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 8

apparently a foliaceous organ, veined somewhat like the outer coat in Dre-

panolepis reniformis, but very much larger (about 4 times) and flat, thinner

and more delicately veined. I very much doubt any relationship to either

Drepanolepis, or to what Heer and Cockerell called Phyllocladites.

The question of the age of the Alaska material can not be definitely

settled. The associated remains are specifically undetermined forms

of Sequoia, Podozamites, Pterophyllum and Sagenopteris, together with

scales and broken fish bones. All the plants belong to long-lived

genera the species of which are not precisely determinable, and indicate

an age somewhere between middle Jurassic and middle Cretaceous.

One of the two Podozamites (the larger) appears to be identical with

what Lesquereux called Irites alaskana from the Cape Lisburne region

of Alaska, and which Fontaine referred to Nageiopsis, but which I

decided did not belong to that genus when I revised it in 1911. The

smaller Podozamites is much like the Siberian Jurassic form which

Heer called Podozamites eichwaldi Schimper, but this similarity lacks

precise age significance since similar forms under the same or other

names occur at a number of Mesozoic horizons. As I interpret the

inconclusive evidence as to age it appears more likely to have been

late Jurassic rather than early Cretaceous.

In conclusion it should perhaps be mentioned that Thomas, in the

papers previously cited, regards Sagenopteris as the foliage of the

Caytoniales, and Sagenopteris is associated with the present fructifica-

tions that have been referred to Drepanolepis.

GEOLOGY .—A revision of physical divisions of northern Alabama.!

W. D. Jounston Jr., U.S. Geological Survey. (Communicated

by W. H. BrapD.ey.)

In 1930 I proposed a detailed physiographic division of Northern

Alabama,? based upon Fenneman’s? classification, which covered that

part of the State underlain by Paleozoic sedimentary and older crystal-

line rocks.

Since the publication of the Alabama paper some disagreement with

1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Geol. Survey and the State Geologist

of Alabama. Received March 1, 1932.

2 Jounston, W. D., Jr., Physical divisions of northern Alabama. Alabama Geol.

Survey, Bull. 38, 1930.

3 FENNEMAN, N. M., Physiographic divisions of the United States, (3d ed.), Assoc. Am.

Geographers Annals, 18: no. 4, 1928.

APRIL 19, 1932 JOHNSTON: PHYSICAL DIVISIONS OF ALABAMA 221

the classification used has been voiced by local geographers and Fen-

neman‘ has pointed out that the boundary line between the Interior

Low Plateaus and the Appalachian Plateaus, adopted for Alabama in

JACKSON CO. /;

Fig. 1.—Physical divisions of Northern Alabama.

my former publication, is not in agreement with the stratigraphic

marker used farther north. To meet these criticisms I offer the

revised classification contained in Table 1 and the outline map, Figure 1.

4 Personal communication.

VOL. 22, No. 8

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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PHYSICAL DIVISIONS OF ALABAMA

JOHNSTON

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224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 8

BOTANY .—Arizona plants. (Further additions to the recorded flora

of the state, with notes on the characters and geographical distribution

of these and others species.)' THomas H. KEARNEY and GEORGE

J. Harrison, Bureau of Plant Industry.

A list of flowering plants and ferns believed to be new to the re-

corded flora of Arizona was published recently.2 Collections, mostly

in 1931, by Robert H. Peebles, Harold J. Fulton, and the writers, and

by M. French Gilman,’ have brought to light several additional species,

of which few seem to have been collected previously in Arizona and

none, apparently, to have been recorded in any publication as occurring

in that state. Six of them were not known to occur in the United

States.

Using, with slight modification, the classification of ranges outside

Arizona that was followed in the earlier paper (p. 65), the main geo-

graphical distributions of these 19 further additions to the recorded

flora of Arizona are as follows:

Pacific coast region (Washington to California)... .....2.....seGme i!

California deserts (Colorado, Mojave). ....0°252...... «=aeeeeeeeene 2

Gulf of California region (Lower California, western Sonora)........ 1

Mexico (not confined to the preceding region) and southward....... 8

Kansas or Oklahoma to northern Mexico. . ...203. 2:9 eee 2

Rocky Moumitain. region’: 26... ¢ can 2 skew he ae Pe 1

California, eastern United States, tropics of both hemispheres....... 1

Old-World (mtroduced species) .:..i... 26s .2.... gees => er 3

In the following list, species that so far as the writer knows have not

been recorded previously as occurring in Arizona are indicated by a

single asterisk. Double asterisks indicate that the plant is believed

also to be new to the recorded flora of the United States.

The writers are much indebted to Dr. B. L. Robinson of the Gray

Herbarium, Harvard University, and to Dr. John K. Small of the

New York Botanical Garden for information in regard to the repre-

sentation of these plants in the respective herbaria.

1 Received March 6, 1932.

2 Kearney, Thomas H. Plants new to Arizona. (An annotated list of species added

to the recorded flora of the state or otherwise interesting.) Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 21:

63-80. 1931. In explanation of the words ‘‘recorded flora’’ in this subtitle, it should

be mentioned that no comprehensive list of Arizona plants has ever been published.

If no statement of the occurrence of a given species in Arizona could be found in the

various floras and monographs in which its range is stated, or if the range as given in

these publications does not comprise Arizona, it was assumed to be new to the known

flora of the state.

’ Plants designated by the large numbers (3592 to 8369, inclusive) were collected by

one or more of the first group. Mr. Gilman’s specimens are separately designated.

APRIL 19, 1932 KEARNEY AND HARRISON: ARIZONA PLANTS 225

CYPERACEAE

* ELEOCHARIS CARIBAEA (Rottb.) Blake. Collected on Rye Creek, near

the eastern base of the Mazatzal Mountains, Gila County (no. 8369). There

appears to have been no previous Arizona record of this widely distributed

species, but the fact of its occurrence in southern California and in the south-

eastern United States presupposed its presence in Arizona.

LILIACEAE

CALOCHORTUS FLEXUOSUS Wats. Collected on Rye Creek just east of

the Mazatzal Mountains, Gila County, near the center of the state (no. 7804).

This collection extends the range considerably southward, the localities in

Arizona where this species was previously known to occur being all in the

northern part of the state (Grand Canyon, Peach Springs, Beaver Dam).

CLEISTOYUCCA BREVIFOLIA (Engelm.) Rydb. Several hundred good-sized

“Joshua Trees’’ were observed in “‘bad lands” along the eastern slope of the

Aquarius Mountains, near the border between Mohave and Yavapai counties

(no. 7633). The occurrence of the plant at this locality had previously been

noted by Fred. Gibson of the Boyce Thompson Southwestern Arboretum. It

is not, however, the southeastern limit of the species, M. E. Musgrave and 8.

H. Hastings having found it several years ago at a locality some 30 miles

farther south.

ALLIONIACEAE

BOERHAAVIA MEGAPTERA Standley. This well-marked species, known

previously only from the vicinity of Tucson, was found at Topawa and at

Sells in the Papago Indian Reservation, Pima County (nos. 8027, 8032).

The known range was thus extended about 50 miles westward.

PORTULACACEAE

-*CuayTonra RosEA Rydb. A collection in the Sierra Ancha, Gila County

(no. 7874) marks a considerable southward extension of the known range,

Wyoming to Colorado and Utah.

SILENACEAE

* HERNIARIA CINEREA DC. This inconspicuous little plant, an introduc-

tion from the Old World, was collected near Casa Grande, Pinal County (no.

7518), and had been found previously by C. R. Orcutt at Sentinel, in the

southwestern part of Maricopa County.

SAXIFRAGACEAE

SAXIFRAGA RHOMBOIDEA Greene. Collected in the Mazatzal Mountains

and in the Sierra Ancha, Gila County (nos. 7836, 7873). These localities

extend the known range some 100 miles southward, the San Francisco Peaks

apparently being the only locality in Arizona where the species had been

collected previously.

ROSACEAE

PRUNUS FASCICULATA (Torr.) A. Gray. Collected near Wickenburg, in

the northwestern part of Maricopa County (no. 7521). It is believed that

this locality extends the known range of the ‘‘desert almond” in Arizona con-

siderably southeastward.

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 8

MIMOSACEAE

* VACHELLIA FARNESIANA (L.) Wight & Arnott (Acacia farnesiana Willd.).

The occurrence in Arizona of the “‘huisache’’ seems not to have been recorded,

although it was collected several years ago by David Griffiths at La Osa on

the international boundary just east of the Baboquivari Mountains. Trees,

some of which attain a height of 20 feet, have been found by W. T. Swingle

and R. H. Peebles about 20 miles north of the boundary, at the western base

of the Baboquivari Mountains, Pima County.

MIMOSA LAXIFLORA Benth. The occurrence of this Mexican shrub in

southern Arizona was noted in an earlier paper (Kearney, ibid., p. 70).

Observation during the past season showed it to be abundant near the base

of Quijotoa Mountain, Pima County, (nos. 7971, 8001) where it had been

discovered by J. Arthur Harris several years ago. Some of the plants at that

locality reach a height of more than 6 feet and are very attractive when in

blossom. The flowers, clustered in spikelike racemes, are deep purplish-pink

at first, fading to nearly white, and have a delicate fragrance. The plant

grows on rocky slopes and along ‘‘washes,”’ associated with Anneslia eriophylla,

Senegalia greggit (Acacia greggit), Cercidiopsis microphylla (Parkinsonia

macrophylla), Acalypha pringle:, Jatropha cardiophylla, Simmondsia cali-

fornica, Carnegeia gigantea, and several species of Opuntia.

CAESALPINIACEAE

** GRIMALDIA ABSUS (L.) Britton & Rose (Cassia absus L.). Found at

two stations near ‘“‘Montezuma’s Cave,’ high up on the western slope of the

Baboquivari Mountains, Pima County (Gilman, nos. 212 and 234). At one

of the stations the plants grew on a ridge of decomposed granite. This is

believed to be the first collection of this interesting little annual in Arizona

and in the United States. The species is widely distributed in tropical

America, but there are no specimens in the U. 8. National Herbarium from

farther north in Mexico than southern Sinaloa and the states of Jalisco,

Morelos, and Vera Cruz. If the plant is really adventive from the Old

World, as is supposed, its occurrence in a locality so remote from ordinary

lines of communication as the Baboquivari Mountains is most remarkable.

FABACEAE

SOPHORA ARIZONICA Wats. This handsome shrub, with dark green, some-

what shiny leaves and large Wisteria-colored flowers, was found growing on

rocky hills and along ‘“‘washes’”’ some 20 miles southeast of Kingman, Mohave

County (no. 7623). The species has a restricted distribution and has seldom

been collected, but it was fairly abundant at the locality mentioned. Its

beauty makes it as worthy of cultivation as are some of its better known

congeners.

PAROSELA LUMHOLTzII (Robinson & Fernald) Vail. This well-marked

species, described from specimens obtained by C. V. Hartman at Los Pinitos,

Sonora, has been recorded as occurring in Arizona, having been collected

near Tucson by Herbert Brown, but apparently it is of rare occurrence in the

state. It was collected in 1931 at the base of Baboquivari Peak, Pima County

(Gilman, no. 241).

SPHINCTOSPERMUM CONSTRICTUM (Wats.) Rose. A collection of this plant

on the western slope of the Baboquivari Mountains, Pima County, extends

the known range of the species in Arizona some 40 miles to the west (Gilman,

no. tZ1):

APRIL 19, 1932 KEARNEY AND HARRISON: ARIZONA PLANTS 227

* ASTRAGALUS AGNINUS Jepson (Cystium agninum Rydb.). A handsome

milkvetch with showy, reddish-violet flowers, collected in 1927 near the north

end of the Gila Mountains in Yuma County, where it occurs abundantly in

loose sandy soil (nos. 3592, 5029). This species having been known pre-

viously only from the western edge of the Colorado Desert, in California,

another plant of that region is added to the recorded flora of Arizona. Pro-

fessor Jepson wrote to Dr. W. R. Maxon on November 27, 1931, confirming

the identification and pointing out only two minor differences between the

California and Arizona specimens, the former having the leaflets more deeply

notched at apex and the pods more arcuate. The second difference, as

Professor Jepson suggests, may be due to the more mature condition of the

fruits in the California specimens.

* PHASEOLUS ATROPURPUREUS DC. Collected at a rather high elevation

in Fresnal Canyon on the western slope of the Baboquivari Mountains, Pima

County (Gilman, no. 166). Mr. Gilman describes it as growing in the midst

of shrubs that support the stems, which are several feet long. This appears to

be the first collection in Arizona,* the previously known range of the species

being from southern New Mexico and southern Texas to Mexico and Central

America. Gilman’s specimens are thinner-leafed and less sericeous and have

more obtuse leaflets than most of the Mexican and Central American

specimens. .

EUPHORBIACEAE

CROTON SONORAE Torr. The occurrence of this plant, previously known

only from Mexico, in the western part of Pinal County, Arizona, was recorded

in an earlier publication (Kearney, ibid., p. 72). During the past season it

was collected at Quijotoa and Topawa in the Papago Indian Reservation,

Pima County (nos. 7769, 8006, 8026). At the latter locality it grows abun-

dantly on a rocky hill, the shrubs attaining a height and spread of about 4

feet and having stems one-quarter to one-third inch in diameter at base.

The form collected at Quijotoa has exceptionally narrow leaves.

DITAXIS BRANDEGEI (Millsp.) Rose & Standl. The presence of this species

in the Gila Mountains, Yuma County, was reported in an earlier publication

(Kearney, ibid., p. 72). During the past season a plant 6 feet high was ob-

served at the same locality by Robert H. Peebles (no. 7704). Hence, at its

northern limit the species attains about the maximum height that it reaches

in Lower California and Sonora.°

ACALYPHA PRINGLEI Wats. The discovery of this Mexican shrub at

Quijotoa, Pima County, Arizona, by J. Arthur Harris, was recorded pre-

viously (p. 72). During the past season it was observed growing abundantly

at the same locality, along washes and on low rocky hills (nos. 7999, 8000).

It is conspicuous during the season of summer rains, because of the vivid

green of its foliage. The plants attain a height of only 2 or 3 feet at this

locality, and show considerable variation in the size of the leaves and in length

and color of the staminate inflorescences. The scales of the latter usually

4 Specimens collected by T. E. Wilcox (no. 70) near Ft. Huachuca, Cochise County,

which are presumably the ones listed under P. atropurpureus by Britton and Kearney

(Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 14: 34. 1894) belong to P. macropoides Gray.

5 Standley, Paul C. Trees and Shrubs of Mexico. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 23: 621.

1923.

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 8

are red or reddish. The stamens are white, and the stigmas pale lavender.

Some of the associated species are listed in the note on Mimosa laxiflora.

RHAMNACEAE

COLUBRINA CALIFORNICA Johnston. The collection of this species by

Peebles and Harrison in 1926 in Fish Creek Canyon, Maricopa County

(Kearney, ibid., p. 73) was not the first in Arizona, Gilman having found it

at the same locality several years earlier. His specimens were identified by

J. J. Thornber as ‘‘Colubrina sp.”

MALVACEAE

** ABUTILON THURBERI A. Gray. This species, apparently known pre-

viously only from the type collection by George Thurber at Magdalena,

Sonora, was collected in a canyon on the western side of the Baboquivari

Mountains, Pima County, apparently for the first time in the United States

(Gilman, no. 35). Gilman’s specimen, without fruit, corresponds closely in

vegetative and flower characters with the type in the Gray Herbarium, except

that the stems are nearly glabrous, whereas in the type they are sparsely

villous with long hairs.

HorsFORDIA ALATA (Wats.) A. Gray. The writer, in the earlier paper

mentioned (p. 73), erroneously described the petals as of a ‘‘pale violet blue”

color. R. H. Peebles calls attention to the fact that the color of the fresh

petals is pale purplish-pink, although they become bluish with age.

** ANODA CRENATIFLORA Ortega. The finding, in the Chiricahua Moun-

tains, of flowering specimens identified doubtfully as of this species was re-

ported previously (p. 73). During the past season, mature specimens were

obtained at Tumacacori, in the valley of the Santa Cruz River (no. 8146),

and the characters of the very distinctive fruits remove all doubt as to the

identification. The presence of this species in Arizona and in the United

States, therefore, is definitely established.

Hrsiscus BisEptus Wats. George J. Harrison has noted two characters

distinguishing this Hibiscus from the somewhat similar H. coulteri Harvey,

that seem not to have been recorded previously. One is the persistence of

the fruits after maturity in H. biseptus, whereas in H. coulterz the pedicel

disarticulates at base. The other character is that in H. biseptus the flattened

faces of the seeds are devoid of hairs in the center, the hairless area amounting

to one-third to one-half the surface of the seed, whereas in H. coulterz the hairs

are evenly distributed over the whole surface. Hzbiscus coultert is a much

woodier plant than H. biseptus.

APIACEAE

* FOENICULUM VULGARE L. The common fennel of the Old World,

although naturalized abundantly in California and sparingly so elsewhere in

the United States, seems not to have been reported hitherto as occurring in

Arizona. A form with exceptionally short segments of the leaves was col-

lected in the Mule Mountains near Bisbee, Cochise County (no. 8284).

PYROLACEAE

** CHIMAPHILA DASYSTEMMA Torr. ‘This species, known previously only

from the mountains of Mexico, was found in the Santa Catalina Mountains,

Pima County, at an elevation of about 8,000 feet, growing in clefts of rocks

among yellow pines (no. 8100). It flowers in August in this locality and is

apparently rare, diligent search having discovered only three individuals.

APRIL 19, 1932 KEARNEY AND HARRISON: ARIZONA PLANTS 229

C. dasystemma bears a marked resemblance to C. maculata (L.) Pursh, of the

eastern United States, and is regarded by Standley as not specifically distinct

from the latter. If this view be correct, the range of C. maculata shows a

remarkable interruption, similar to that of Crotalaria sagittalis and Clitoria

mariana (Kearney, ibid., pp. 70 and 71).

APOCYNACEAE

AMSONIA KEARNEYANA Woodson. ‘This species, known so far only from

the western side of the Baboquivari Mountains in Pima County, Arizona,

was regarded by Woodson’ as representing ‘‘a natural hybrid between the

subgenera Sphinctostphon and Articularia.’”’ This conclusion was based

partly upon the deformed fruits and sterile seeds of the only fruiting specimen

available to Woodson when he wrote his description. Specimens since col-

lected by R. H. Peebles (no. 7933) at or near the type locality have, however,

perfectly formed fruits and viable seeds. Mr. Peebles demonstrated this by

a germination test in which about 80 per cent of the seeds sprouted. In view

of this finding, of the exceptional isolation of the habitat, and of the apparent

absence of other species of Amsonia in the Baboquivari region, there seems

to be little to support the hypothesis of hybrid origin.

CUSCUTACEAE

** CUSCUTA TUBERCULATA Brandegee. This very well-marked species of

dodder, known previously only from the southern part of Lower California

and from northwestern Sonora (Pringle) has been discovered recently in

southern Arizona. It occurs rather abundantly along a sandy wash just

north of the Gila River, in Pinal County (no. 8193), and has been collected

also near Sells, Pima County (no. 8038). The Arizona specimens correspond

closely with the type in the herbarium of the University of California, which

was collected by T.S. Brandegee on Santa Margarita Island, Lower California.

In Arizona, and usually in Lower California, the species is parasitic on species

of Boerhaavia.

CONVOLVULACEAE

*[POMAEA HETEROPHYLLA Ortega. The collection near Tombstone,

Cochise County, in 1929, of a plant identified as I. lindheimeri Gray was

reported in an earlier paper (Kearney, ibid., p. 75). Specimens that are

similar, except in having the leaf-lobes narrower and more attenuate at both

ends, were collected in Fresnal Canyon on the western side of the Baboquivari

Mountains, Pima County (Gilman, no. 109). All of the Arizona specimens

have shorter peduncles and shorter and broader sepals than specimens of J.

lindhermerz from Texas and New Mexico. As the species of this group are

defined by House,® the broad bases of the sepals of the Arizona specimens

indicate that they belong to I. heterophylla, although the corolla is longer and

narrower than in most of the Mexican specimens so identified in the U. S.

National Herbarium. J. heterophylla seems not to have been reported pre-

viously as occurring in Arizona. Its range, as given by House, is western

Texas and northern Mexico.

6 Standley, Paul C. Trees and Shrubs of Mexico. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 23: 1090.

1924.

7 Woodson, Robert E., Jr. Studies in the Apocynaceae, III. A monograph of the

genus Amsonia. Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden 15: 379-434. 1928 (p. 416).

® House, Homer D. North American species of the genus IJpomaea. Ann. N. Y.

Acad. Sci. 18: 181-263. 1908.

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 8

HY DROPHYLLACEAE

* HYDROPHYLLUM OCCIDENTALE A. Gray. The collection of this waterleaf

in the Mazatzal Mountains, Gila County (no. 7829), affords apparently the

first record of its occurrence in Arizona and extends the known range of the

see (Washington to California, Nevada, and Utah) considerably to the

southeast.

BORAGINACEAE

* PLAGIOBOTHRYS JONESII Gray. Ivan M. Johnston has identified as of

this species a specimen collected near Sacaton, Pinal County, a few miles

south of the Gila River (no. 7514), and remarks (in letter to T. H. Kearney):

“Known only from at most a score of collections in the eastern part of the

Mojave Desert of California. I do not know of a [previous] collection actually

from Arizona. Your collection is a big and most interesting eastern extension

of this rare and very distinct species.”

MENTHACEAE

* SCUTELLARIA DRUMMONDII Benth. The range of this skullcap, as given

by Leonard? is Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas, and northeastern Mexico.

It occurs also in Arizona, where it was collected along Salt River by Smart,

and near Bisbee by Goodding. A third collection, made recently near

Roosevelt, Gila County (no. 7778), bas been identified by Leonard as S.

drummondit.

SOLANACEAE

SOLANUM DEFLEXUM Greenman. Collections in southern Arizona of a

small-flowered, short-pedicelled form of this chiefly Mexican plant were

reported previously (Kearney, ibid., p. 77). A specimen that is normal in

size of the corolla and length of the pedicels was collected recently at Tumaca-

cori, Santa Cruz County (no. 8147).

** SOLANUM LUMHOLTZIANUM Bartlett. This well-marked species, belong-

ing to the section Androcera (Buffalo burs), was found near Patagonia, Santa

Cruz County (no. 8185). The plant seems to have been known previously

only from the type collection by C. V. Hartman at La Tinaja, Sonora. The

Arizona specimen corresponds closely with the type in the Gray Herbarium

and with Bartlett’s excellent description, except that the corolla is yellow,

not purple, as doubtfully characterized by that author. The narrow, pointed

leaf-lobes and the pubescence are very characteristic. Harrison noted in the

field that the larger spines of the fruit are black with yellow tips, the small

spines of the fruit are greenish white, and the spines on the upper side of the

branches are black at base.

* DATURA STRAMONIUM L. Specimens collected at a roadside near the head

of Tonto Creek, Gila County (no. 8364), afford what is presumably the first

record of occurrence of the common jimson weed in Arizona, unless a specimen

in the U. 8. National Herbarium, with leaves only, collected in the Chiricahua

Mountains by J. C. Blumer (no. 2267), belongs to this species.

SCROPHULARIACHAE

MAURANDYA ACERIFOLIA Pennell. The range of this apparently rare and

very local species has been extended ten miles westward of the type locality

(Fish Creek Canyon, Maricopa County) to Surprise Canyon, just south of the

9 Leonard, Emery C. The North American species of Scutellaria. Contr. U. S.

Nat. Herb. 22: 703-748. 1927 (p. 730).

APRIL 19, 1932 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 231

Salt River (no. 7774). As at the type locality, the plants were growing in

crevices of partly shaded cliffs.

CUCURBITACEAE

* CYCLANTHERA DISSECTA (T. & G.) Arn. This plant, apparently rare in

Arizona, was collected in canyons on the western side of the Baboquivari

Mountains, Pima County (Gilman, no. 198). The only previous collection

in Arizona of which the writer is aware was in the Santa Rita Mountains,

Pima County, by David Griffiths and J. J. Thornber. Gilman’s collection

therefore extends the known range of the species about 45 miles westward.

The recorded distribution of C. dissecta is Kansas to Louisiana, Texas, and

northern Mexico. As the species apparently does not occur in New Mexico,

this seems to be another case of interrupted range.

ASTERACEAE"

ERIGERON PRINGLEI A. Gray. Collected on the rim of Pueblo Canyon in

the Sierra Ancha, Gila County (no. 7884). Apparently this species was

known previously only from the type collection by Pringle on cliffs of Mt.

Wrightson, in the Santa Rita Mountains. In the type collection the lower

leaves are laciniate-pinnatifid, whereas in no. 7884 they are very narrowly

linear-oblanceolate and entire. Otherwise the specimens correspond exactly

and undoubtedly represent the same species.

SENECIO QUERCETORUM Greene. Specimens were obtained on Oak Creek,

Coconino County (no. 7160), and on the rim of Pueblo Canyon, in the Sierra

Ancha, Gila County (no. 7889). Previously known only from two collections

by Rusby, on Oak Creek, the type collection (no. 672), and at an unspecified

locality in Arizona (no. 175), the latter being the type of S. macropus Greenm.

Dr. Greenman, who has referred S. macropus to S. quercetorum, described the

plant as perennial, as Dr. Greene had done, but Fulton’s excellent and com-

plete specimen in the U. 8. National Herbarium (no. 7160) has a root that is

obviously annual or, at most, biennial.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. J. BARTELS, who, as a research associate of the Carnegie Institution of

Washington, has been engaged on the theoretical interpretation of the accu-

mulated observational date at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in

Washington, D. C., having completed his year’s leave of absence from Ger-

many, has returned to his position in the Forstliche Hochschule in Eberswalde.

The thirteenth annual meetings of the American Geophysical Union and

its sections will be held April 28 and 29, 1932, at the National Academy-

Research Council Building, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C.

Meetings of scientific societies will be held in Washington as follows:

National Academy of Sciences, April 25 and 26; American Physical Society,

April 28 to 30; American Section of International Union of Scientific Radio-

telegraphy, April 29; American Meterological Society, May 2.

A bill authorizing an appropriation of $30,000 to defray the expenses of

participation by the United States Government in the Second Polar Year

Program, August 1, 1932, to August 31, 1933, has been passed by Congress

and signed by the President.

10 Identifications and notes communicated by Dr. S. F. Blake.

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 8

E. P. Kiuurp, Associate Curator of Plants, U. S. National Museum, who

left Washington early in February for study in European herbaria, reports

very satisfactory results at Berlin. After a month at the Museum d’ Histoire

Naturelle, Paris, where he now is, Mr. K1uu1P will leave for several weeks’ work

at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the British Museum (Natural

History), returning to Washington earlyin May. The work upon which he is

engaged, aside from completing monographic studies of several large groups,

consists in the identification of extensive series of specimens from the northern

Andean region of South America. This material consists partly of specimens

collected upon at least a dozen major expeditions, and partly of specimens

that have come in during recent years from a large number of institutions and

individuals in South America.

Horace G. Ricuarps has been promoted from Aid to Assistant Curator

in the Division of Mollusks, U. 8S. National Museum.

On Wednesday evening, March 30, in the auditorium of the National

Museum, a lecture under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution on ‘Plant

Records of the Rocks’’ was presented by ALBERT CHARLES SEWARD, D.Sc.,

F.R.S., Master of Downing and Professor of Botany, Cambridge University.

a a2 Pe

N ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND

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VoL. 22 May 4, 1932 No. 9

CHEMISTRY.—Unhydrated solute element ions.!. L. H. Fuint, Bureau

of Plant Industry. (Communicated by G. N. Cou.uins.)

In a consideration of the hydration of some solute element-ions as

comprised in the first two papers of the present series? attention has been

directed to a group of electrolytes whose components behaved rather

consistently as hydrated ions in aqueous solution. For example,

the chlorine ion, Cl-, in solutions of the electrolytes KCl, NaCl,

liCl, MgCl, CaCl,, AlCl, CrCl, CuCl,, SrCl, and CdCl, as involved

in measurements of electrical conductivity, seemed uniformly subject

to characterization as having a hydration of seven water molecules,

all the other ions also having the respective hydration values assigned

them under the initial assumptions regarding hydration designated in

Table 1, and interpreted through the assumption of change in

weight with ionization. At this point we may examine some elec-

trolytes which appear to give rise to unhydrated ions in aqueous

solution.

Hydrochloric Acid, HCl. The relatively high velocity of the hydro-

gen ion, H+, has frequently led to the conclusion that this ion is

characteristically not hydrated. Various measurements of solution

phenomena, moreover, have seemed to corroborate this conclusion.

It will be of interest, therefore, to examine some observed relative

velocities with respect to the assumptions of hydration and weight-

change embodied in Table 1, and the above conclusion.

The ion-conductance of the ions K+ and H+ at 18°C. as cited by

Creighton and Fink’ and derived from observed electrical conductivi-

ties through the use of transference measurements, are as follows:

1 Received March 28, 1932.

* This JouURNAL 22: 97-119 and 211-217, 1932. Herein are given the tables to which

reference is made in this paper.

3 Creighton, H. J. and Fink, C. J. Electrochemistry: ~Waleyand. Sons, Vol..J,_1924,

p. 134.

233

MAY 5 1982

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 9

K+ = 64.5, H+ = 318. Referring now to Table 1 of the first paper

we may derive the assigned value for the velocity of the ion K+, con-

sidered as hydrated, in the following manner:

K = 38, Kt = 40 +3 H.0 (8 X 18) = 40 + 54 = 94 (weight of

hydrated ion, column 7). The velocity value corresponding with

this weight is 1031 (column 8).

We may now consider the above ion-conductance values as relative

velocities, since each ion carries the same charge, and determine the

corresponding relative velocity of the H+ ion on the tabulated scale by

solving for x in the ratio

64.5 : 313 set wag : x

obs. Vel.K+ Obs. Vel.H+ calc. Vel.K+ (hydrated)

2 = a000:

Determining the indicated relative velocity of the H+ ion as 5000 we

note that there is no such figure comprised within the series of column

eight, representing velocities of hydrated ions, but that the figure

corresponds precisely with the figure representing the velocity of the

hydrogen ion, H+, considered as unhydrated, given in column four

and derived as follows:

H= 2, H+ = 4 with no hydration, V, = 5000

The agreement is in substantiation of the above-noted conclusion.

We may now proceed to compare the observed relative specific

molecular conductivity of HCl at 1.0 molecular concentration with

that which would be expected under the assumption that the H+ ion

was not hydrated

H = 2,Ht = 4, with no hydration, ionic wt. = 4

Cle="34 Ole = 32. with 0: tomes myles 158

summation wt. = ie

1000 — 162 = 888, or 83.8% solvent.

Observed specific molecular electrical conductivities of HCl may

be cited as follows: 1.0 mol. = 199.85, ‘“‘0” mol. = 236.92; 199.85 +

236.92 = .844, or 84.4%.

The order of agreement is in further substantiation of the conclusion

that the H+ ion is characteristically not hydrated in aqueous solution.

Rubidium Chloride, RbCl. The summation weight suggested by

Table 1 as representing the solute present in a solution of RbCl

at 1.0 molecular concentration on the weight basis if the rubidium ion,

Rbt, does not hydrate may be calculated as follows:

4 Jones, H. C. Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 180, 1913, p. 80.

MAY 4, 1932 FLINT: UNHYDRATED SOLUTE ELEMENT IONS 235

Rb = 74, Rb+ = 76; with no hydration, ionic wt. — iG

Cl a4 Cl- +) = 32; with: 7 HO; mol. wt! hydrated = 158

108 = mol. wt., anhyd. summation weight = 234

From this value the relative weight of solvent may be derived as

1000 — 234 = 766, or 76.6%.

The relative specific molecular electrical conductivity of RbCl at

1.0 molecular concentration may be derived from observed values at

18°C. as follows:= RbCl at .001 molecular concentration = 130.1;

at 1.0 molecular concentration = 102; 102 + 130.1 = .784, Rel. sp.

mol. conductivity = 78.4%.

The apparent specific molecular conductivity at ‘‘zero”’ concentra-

tion may be presumed to be somewhat higher than that at .001 molec-

ular concentration, with the relative value at 1.0 mol. somewhat

lower. The agreement between the value calculated on the above

basis (76.6%) and the observed value (78.4%) calculated from a some-

what low base, may be considered as evidence that the Rb+ ion in

aqueous solutions of RbCl is not hydrated. —

Caestum Chloride, CsCl. The summation weight suggested by

Table 1 as representing the solute present in a solution of CsCl at 1.0

molecular concentration on the weight basis if the Cst+ ion does not

hydrate may be calculated as follows:

Cs = 110, Cst+ = 112; with no hydration, ionic wt. = 112

OM 34,)Cle 7= "(32> with 7 H.O mol. wt. hydrated = 158

summation wt. AU

From this value the relative weight of solvent may be derived as

1000 — 270 = 7380, or 73.0% solvent.

The relative specific molecular electrical conductivity of CsCl at

1.0 molecular concentration and 18°C. may be derived from observed

values as follows:

CsCl, 1.0 mol. conc. = 98.8, .0005 mol. cone. = 131.05; 98.8 +

131.05 = .754. Relative specific molecular conductivity = 75.4%.

The apparent specific molecular conductivity at ‘‘zero”’ concentra-

tion may be presumed to be somewhat higher than that observed at

.0005 mol. Under the circumstances the order of agreement between

the calculated value (73.0%) and the value as observed (75.4%),

appears to constitute evidence that the Cs+ ion in aqueous solutions of

CsCl is not hydrated.

Although in the electrolytes HCl, RbCl and CsCl the positive ion

> Values cited are from Int. Crit. Tables, Vol. 6, p. 234.

§ Previous citation.

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 9

has been indicated as unhydrated, there appears to be no reason why

the absence of hydration may not characterize the negative ion. On

such an assumption we may examine further as follows:

Potassium Bromide, KBr. The summation weight representing the

solute present in a solution of potassium bromide, KBr, at 1.0 molec-

ular concentration on the weight basis if the bromine ion, Br-, does

not hydrate may be calculated as follows:

K = 38, Kt . = 40, with 3 9:0, mol. wt. hydrated ye

Br = 70, Br- = 68, with no hydration, ionic weight = 63°

summation wt. = iGZ

From this value the relative weight of solvent present may be derived

as 1000 — 162 = 8838, or 83.8% solvent.

The relative specific molecular conductivity of a 1.0 molecular solu-

tion of KBr, may be approximated from observed values at 0°C. as

follows:’7 .5 molecular concentration = 65.82; .000976 molecular con-

centration = 79.23; 65.82 + 79.23 = .831. Relative specific molecular

conductivity at .5 molecular concentration = 83.1%. The corre-

‘sponding value for 1.0 molecular concentration is not given in the

reference cited, and would be somewhat less,—yet the indicated order

of agreement appears to constitute evidence that the Br- ion in

aqueous solutions of KBr is not hydrated.

Potassium Iodide, KI. The summation weight representing the

solute present in a solution of potassium iodide, KI, at 1.0 molecular

concentration on the weight basis if the iodine ion, I-, does not

hydrate may be calculated as follows:

K = 38, K+ = 40, with 3 H.O, mol. wt. hydrated = 94

I = 106, I- = 104, with no hydration, ionic wt. = 104

summation wt. = 108

From this value the relative weight of solvent may be derived as

1000 — 198 = 802, or 80.2% solvent.

The relative specific molecular conductivity of a 1.0 molecular

solution of KI may be derived from observed values at 18°C. as

follows:§ 1.0 molecular concentration = 96.8; .0005 molecular con-

centration = 121.2;96.8 + 121.2 = .799. Relative specific molecular

conductivity = 79.9%.

The agreement between the predicted value (80.2%) and the ob-

served value (79.9%) is of an order to constitute evidence that the

I- ion in aqueous solutions of KI is not hydrated.

7 Jones, H.C. Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 170, 1912, p. 21.

8 Jones, H. C. and Caldwell, B. P. Am. Chem. Journ., May 1901.

MAY 4, 1932 THOM AND PHILLIPS: LIGNIN-LIKE COMPLEXES 237

The consideration of electrical conductivity measurements of

aqueous solutions of HCl, RbCl, CsCl, KBr, and KI suggests that

there may be hydrated ions in association with unhydrated ions, and

that the unhydrated state may characterize either the positively-

charged or the negatively-charged component.

It will now be of interest to note that a similar examination of the

relative specific molecular conductivities of the electrolytes cadmium

bromide, CdBr., and cadmium iodide, CdlI., leads to the con-

clusion that in aqueous solutions of these salts all ions are hy-

drated. Yet we have heretofore noted that in association with

potassium as KBr and KI the ions Br- and I- were indicated as not

hydrated. Under the circumstances it appears that the presence or

absence of the hydration of the Br- and I- ions may be a matter of

association. Since by the precepts of the present inquiry hydration

conditions the velocity of an ion it follows that we have come into

variance with the Kohlrausch Law of the Independent Migration of

Solute Ions, which holds velocity as independent of association.

In connection with the consideration of the hydration charac-

teristics of Inorganic and organic molecular ions in subsequent papers

of this series it will be of interest to note from time to time further

evidence that association may condition the presence or absence of

hydration. Within the limits of a specified state, hydrated or unhy-

drated, the Law of Kohlrausch has been shown in this and in the fore-

going papers to be applicable in substantial measure to concentrated

solutions. Yet with the accession of additional evidence that the two

states, hydrated and unhydrated, may characterize the ions of the

same elements in different electrolytes, it would appear that the law

would fail as a correct description of velocity relationships.

CHEMISTRY.—Lignin-like complexes in fungi.1 CHaRtEs THOM

and Max Puruuies, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

Recent papers dealing with the decomposition of plant residues

(Waksman and associates)? point to the lignins as decomposing more

slowly than other plant constituents, hence as tending to accumulate

as a result of the rotting of plant materials. The abundance of these

lignin-like complexes in soil organic matter is noted as confirmatory

evidence. The accumulation of the remains of soil microérganisms is

also indicated as one source of these slowly decomposing substances.

1 Received April 1, 1932.

2 Summarized with bibliographic notes by Waksman, 8. A. Principles of Soil Micro-

biology. Ed.2. Chapter 24. 1932.

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 9

Additional information as to lignin-supplying organisms becomes’

therefore of interest.

Every field student of the fungi is familiar with the abundance of

black and brown (dematiaceous) species upon the surfaces of decaying

vegetation. They give a dirty black brown color to plant remains in

the field and the fence corner during the moist portions of the year.

Many of them are less familiar with the fact that these organisms

predominate only in the presence of air and light. They are not com-

monly found actively vegetating entirely below the surface of the soil.

In connection with our studies of decaying crop residues, certain

analyses have been made in the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, which

may be worthy of record.

Four of these species common on the soil and on decomposing plant

remains, were grown upon Czapek’s solution which presents sucrose as

the only source of carbon. These were incubated until thick masses

of dark mycelium were developed. The cultures were then filtered

through sintered glass Jena crucibles, washed with water, dried at 105°C.

The dry material was extracted with a 1:1 alcohol-benzene solution,

dried and analyzed for lignin by the fuming hydrochloric acid method

(J. Assoc. Off. Agric. Chemists 15; 124. 1932). The percentage of

lignin was calculated on the oven-dry (105°C.) material.

The results of the analyses have been tabulated as follows:

Species Per cent Lignin

lls SA Cher E GE, Sores cere opes twee Ho et aia ysltels aoe le Ried viebiae eee ea fea ae 17.25

(2) Bi DUCOGCUNE SP. gM v0 DR oR is ye Fs eel ee Oe We be ee Ser ee 20.30

(8) Sclerotinia libertiana (with sclerotia present)...............22+ee0ee 7.85

(4) Cladosporzdmisplay ac ceeel.. BOO. ssa OE, 29 .27

The amount of lignin found was sufficiently striking to suggest the

analysis of certain bracket fungi.

Species Per cent Lignin

Hydnunt caput-urst: (pure White) i052 ot. css. cca cee os oe te eee dee 2.65

Polyporus sulphireus (sulphuryellow)!. 24.0003 506) aft) hind oe ee 3.40

Trametes pint (deep brow): 782 27 ss oe poppe eek < heresiee < ona 54.08

Fomes tgniarvus (almostblack)i. 22.0.3. lines Shee te ae se 0 eee 36.95

There is a marked contrast between the pure white Hydnum and

the sulphur yellow Polyporus on the one side and the deep brown

Trametes and almost. black Fomes, on the other. Confirmatory

analyses of other cultures and samples support the view that the dark

brown, leathery, black and carbonaceous masses produced by whole

groups of fungi are high in organic complexes of a lignin-like character,

whereas the colorless or light colored fungi have little lignin-supplying

power.

MAY 4, 1932 RATHBUN: NEW SPECIES OF FOSSIL RANINIDAE 239

A possible relationship to soil organic matter might be suggested by

the predominance of black and brown molds on vegetation decaying

at and just above the surface of the soil as such decomposition occurs

under natural or so-called “virgin” soil conditions. Brown and black

forms produce very little growth in material plowed under, hence play

little part where clean cultivation involves covering all crop residues

with several inches of earth.

CONCLUSION

In the analyses reported (a), the brown walled molds such as Clado-

sporium and Alternaria contain high percentages of lignin-like sub-

stances (such as 17.25 to 29.27% in dry matter) upon culture media

presenting sucrose as a sole source of carbon. (b) Brown walled

bracket fungi such as Trametes pint and Fomes igniarius contain even

higher percentages of these “‘lignins.’’ (c) The light colored bracket

fungi showed correspondingly little lignin-like substance.

PALEONTOLOGY .—New species of fossil Raninidae from Oregon.1

Mary J. Ratusun, U.S. National Museum.

From time to time Dr. Hubert G. Schenck of Stanford University

has given to the National Museum various crustaceans from the

Tertiary of Oregon. Among them are four new Raninidae which are

here described and will be incorporated in Schenck’s report on the

region.

Raninoides oregonensis, new species

Seemingly related to R. eugenensis Rathbun? from the Oligocene of Lane

County. Anterior portion of carapace lacking. Carapace broadest at

anterior #, broader than in eugenensis, but like that species, convex from

side to side and sloping gradually downward on the median line from the

anterior to the posterior end. Surface covered with minute granules not

visible to the naked eye and with the tips rubbed off, appearing like punctae.

A lateral spine near anterior fifth and directed obliquely forward is broken off

near base. Length (estimated) 38, greatest width behind spines 32, posterior

width 16 mm.

Type-locality—Near Dallas, Polk County, Oregon; limestone formation,

Eocene. Cat. No. 371922, U.S. N. M.

Lyreidus alseanus, new species

The specimen, encased in a nodule, was originally longer and flatter than

at present. The carapace is cracked across the widest part and again across

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Received February 25, 1932.

2 Bull. 1388, U.S. Nat. Mus., 1926, p. 96, pl. 24, fig. 4.

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 9

the front half, the broken edges overlapping each other and at the middle

pushed upward. There is also a longitudinal break at the left of the median

line. Front narrow, widening a little at extremity; at the left 2 rounded

lobes separated by a subrectangular sinus and succeeded by a rounded sinus,

Fig. 1. (Left) Raninoides oregonensis. Dorsal view of carapace of holotype, showing

lateral spine, x 1-1/2.

Fig. 2. (Right) Raninoides oregonensis. Same specimen from the right side, showing

part of lower surface, x 1-1/2.

Fig. 3. (Left) Lyreidus alseanus. Dorsal view of an inner layer of carapace of holo-

type, cracked and out of shape, x nearly 2.

Fig. 4. (Right) Lyreidus alseanus. Lower side of upper layer of carapace of same

specimen, x nearly 2.

all of which occupy half or nearly half the front. Carapace widening rapidly

from rostrum to lateral angle, in front of which on the right side there is a

small knoblike tooth, longer than broad, curving forward and away from the

antero-lateral margin; just outside this tooth is the impression of another.

May 4, 1932 RATHBUN: NEW SPECIES OF FOSSIL RANINIDAE 241

Fig. 5. (Left) Humorphocorystes schencki. Dorsal view of carapace of holotype

showing antero-lateral spine, x 1-1/2.

Fig. 6. (Right) Eumorphocorystes schencki. Left profile of same carapace, x 1-1/2.

Fig. 7. (Left) Humorphocorystes leucosiae. Dorsal view of carapace of holotype

showing origin of lateral spine and portion of right arm, x 2.

Fig.8. (Right) Humorphocorystes leucosiae. Left side of holotype showing chela and

fragments of legs, x 2.

242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 9

Behind the lateral spine the angle of the carapace is rounded and the post-

lateral margins are blunt and converge rapidly toward the posterior end.

Exposed dorsal surface with some fine granulation near antero-lateral border;

this is, however, not the true outer layer which is shown in the opposing half

of the nodule (Fig. 4); its under surface is exposed and is covered with large,

smooth, almost contiguous granules, which in the reverse or upper layer must

appear as so many pits. At the lateral angle on what is the true right side

there is a tooth pointing directly outward; this is a stout, blunt tooth similar

to the one described above but straighter; one or two of the teeth or spines

indicated may belong to the carpus of the cheliped.

Apparent length of carapace 24.6, width 23.7 mm.

Type-locality—Tuffaceous sandstone on S. side of Alsea Bay about +4

mile E. of B.M. 12, and { mile E. of Waldport, Lincoln Co., Oregon; Sec.

20, T. 13 S., R. 11 W. Lower Oligocene. Sept. 14, 1926. Hubert G.

Schenck. Cat. No. 371901, U. S. N. M.

Eumorphocorystes schencki, new species

Two carapaces, very convex from front to back, more so from side to side.

Shape, broad oval, width 40 mm., length about 45. Front narrow, about

% as wide as carapace excluding spines; details obscure. A spine at anterior

third of lateral margin or about 15 mm. behind margin of front; spine 6.7 mm.

long, tapering to a slender point and directed well outward. Behind the

spines the side margins are parallel along the middle third. Posterior margin

somewhat wider than anterior, and slightly convex. Surface covered with

large round pits, irregularly disposed, rarely in contact. A blunt, longitud-

inal, median carina the length of the carapace, becoming widest between the

crescentic, branchio-cardiac grooves.

Type-locality—Washington County, Oregon, near center of section 3, T.

2N., R.5 W., Beaver Creek road, Gales Creek to Timber, 3 miles 8. of Timber.

Keasey formation, “‘Cardiwm weaverz” zone, Oligocene, Holman *27. John

T. Holman and H. G. Schenck collectors, 1931. Cat. No. 371921, U.S. N. M.

Eumorphocorystes (?) leucosiae, new species

Carapace subglobular, little longer than broad, posterior margin + as

wide as carapace, subtruncate, a little concave at middle; front about ¢

as wide as carapace; middle third of lateral margins subparallel. Surface

covered with small pits, interspaces rough with fine granules; two longitudinal

furrows through middle of carapace, near together at posterior third, diverg-

ing at either end, more so anteriorly; intermediate surface convex; branchial

regions swollen. Lateral spine indicated at anterior third of lateral margin.

Left chela uncovered, palm elongate, widening distally, half as wide as

superior length, bluntly carinate above and armed with four spines below.

Fingers strongly deflexed, tips crossing, prehensile edges wavy, meeting,

outer edges carinate, carinae set off by a furrow. Fragment of arm rough

like carapace.

Approximate length of type carapace 28.6, width 23 mm. A larger speci-

men is 30.3 x 26.2 mm.

Has much the appearance of a Leucosiid.

Type-locality.— Polk County, Oregon, center of E. line of N. W. quarter of

Section 21, T. 6 S., R. 6 W.; very prominent cut in bank on E. side of Mill

Creek, visible from road from Buell to Sheridan. Formation probably Keasey,

“Cardium weaverz”’ zone, Oligocene. Holman #1. John T. Holman collec-

tor, 1931. Cat. No. 371902, U.S. N. M.

MAY 4, 1932 COBB: NEMATOSIS OF A GRASS 243

ZOOLOGY.—Nematosis of a grass of the genus Cyanodon caused by a

new nema of the genus Tylenchus Bast.1 N. A. Coss, Bureau

of Plant Industry.

Tylenchus? tumefaciens ©. SP- 42°77 7" BGC? Ratt Ee ade ior seee

The posterior swelling of the oesophagus in this species seems to be somewhat

set off from the intestine. The reflexed portion of the ovary contains the ova

in about three ranges or rows, and appears one-third as wide as the correspond-

ing portion of the body, and has a length about twice as great as that of the neck.

At the blind end of the ovary

' there is a special single cell,

: taking up the full width,

' and having a distinct, clear,

spherical nucleus, nearly one-

third as wide as the cell.

The nucleus contains a fairly

Fig. 1.—Cyanodon, presum- granular spherical nucleolus

ably transvalensis Davy, Half as wide as the nucleus it-

showing galls. One particular self. The immediately ad-

gall amounted, practically, to jacent ova differ in having

a smooth swelling ononeside larger granular nuclei with

of the zig-zag rachis of the somewhat larger but similar

inflorescence. There arose nucleoli. In this reflexed por-

near the top, the remains of @ tion of the ovary the ova as

glume, the residue of which they pass cephalad increase

had taken part in the forma- 7. ana

tion of the gall. The gall was Slightly in size, but do not ex-

very hard and tough, and the hibit much detail in struc-

wall relatively thick. The ture. Passing around the flex-

interior, nevertheless, was ure, the ova slowly begin to

mushy, consisting mainly of change in structure, and by

nemas, of which there were the time they are opposite

about eight adults, about the blind end of the ovary,

eight hundred larvae, andone the nuclei begin to show

thousand eggs in various chromosomes:

stages of development. It

would appear that each fe- The large transverse vulva

e sales could Moredace. aboagt spans: othe ventral fourth, or

X2 i galla four hundred aude even the third of the body,

and is so massive that some-

times the part of the body behind is bent dorsad at an obtuse angle. The acute

tail is nearly straight, slightly convex-conoid; it may be even slightly dor-

sally arcuate. Anus tnconspicuous. The massive uterus, occupying most of

the corresponding body cavity, usually contains but one egg. The spherical

spermatozoa, packed in the uterus so as to be more or less polyhedral, are

about one-fourth as wide as the body of the female; they are finally granular

1 Received April 1, 1932.

2 The genus name T'ylenchus is used here instead of a recently discovered prior

synonym because of the author’s confidence that if and when the attention of the Inter-

national Commission on Zoological Nomenclature is called to the matter it will decide

that far greater confusion and inconvenience will be caused by following the rule of

priority in this case than in not following it, and will abrogate the rule, as it has power

to do in such cases.

244

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 9

and contain a nucleus half as wide as themselves, which is more granular,

and which contains a distinct, highly refractive, spherical, structureless-

looking nucleolus about one-third to one-fourth as wide as the nucleus itself.

Notwithstanding the size

Si GOES CSE TG) ASR

SOG

BNR Ses Sy

SCs SA

ANN

CBG

ROS

Eas

WORT eN

\ Pe

waa s <

<0)

S 2)

ee)

.) SO cy

Cy Qy

eo)

SAS

)

ASKS

Hes

cc a acenN

EIS Bee ARES SA oe

3:08 BREUOR ak co

ae ere

Y S Vay AYA « ’

B60 Cee a S

TER DIELS Recut

XB SEER COS SERS

Fig. 2.—A gall from the tis-

sues of the base of a leaf

sheath. A _ portion of the

sheath tissue pulled away

nearly intact. The inner tis-

sues of the sheath had pro-

duced the wall of the tumor.

The mushy interior was very

distinct from the wall, and oc-

cupied a distinct cavity, in

which the nemas lay loose,

free to move about. The nine

adult nemas and the numer-

ous eggs and larvae shown

were taken from another gall

of the same size. Thus the pic-

ture shows a gall and a corre-

sponding nemic population.

the grass dying off in patches.

Africa.

of the sperms, a fertilized female may contain

hundreds of them. The matured ova are rather

coarsely granular, are pressed one against another

in the ovary and sometimes appear wider than

they are long, and in some parts apparently are

packed more densely than double file. Ad the vulva

the body of the female suddenly diminishes in diame-

ter, so that in passing one-half body length caudad

the diameter diminishes fifty per cent.

The transverse striae of the cuticle, measured

just behind the vulva, are one micron apart.

The inconspicuous, posterior, bulbous half of

the spear, which accords with conditions found

in some other species of Tylenchus, suggests

that published illustrations and descriptions

of a considerable number of Tylenchi may ulti-

mately have to be revised for the reason that

the more obvious anterior half of the spear has

been inadvertently described as if it were the

entire organ. Sometimes the posterior portion of

the onchium of a Triplonch may, even in life,

be very inconspicuous and become nearly invisi-

ble when mounted in glycerine or glycerine jelly,—

still more so in balsam. Under such deceptive

conditions the real length of the spear is some-

times indicated by the length of the contractile

fibers passing from the labial framework to the

tribulbous base of the spear, as in the present

case. See Fig. 3.

ES Bits: ste VAD saok Buled BM o.oo de «ee

1.1 2.0/ (2.6 3.2 2.6 ~

The vas deferens and ejaculatory duct occupy the

greater portion of the body cavity toward the

posterior extremity of the male. The testis is

strongly developed and at its bent blind end is

slightly expanded, measuring there about one-half

the corresponding body diameter. At first the

primary spermatocytes contain large subspherical

nuclei with distinct nucleoli, the nuclei being

one-fifth to one-sixth as wide as the correspond-

ing portion of the body.

Habitat: Found in small galls on the above-

ground parts of the grass Cyanodon sp.?,—pre-

sumably C. transvalensis. (Fide A. 8. Hitch-

cock). The plants are killed by the parasite,

Sent by Dr. Potgetier, from Pretoria, South

Diagnosis. Tylenchus tumefaciens n. sp. Tylenchus Bastian, formed and

dimensioned as indicated in the formulae,

illustrations and italicized text.

MAY 4, 1932 COBB: NEMATOSIS OF A GRASS 245

This nematosis? has recently come to notice in a number of Bradley

grass lawns in Johannesburg and Pretoria. It seems probable that it

occurs widely. Usually it is first noticed in small patches. A close

examination of a diseased plant discloses greenish or reddish lumps

up to the size of a canary

seed, occurring on the stems

and leaves,—less often in

the inflorescence. Breaking

these tiny galls, one discov-

ers with a magnifying glass

that the interior of the gall

is inhabited by nemas, the

cause of the disease. An in-

festation of one Pretoria

lawn was traced to another

lawn, from which some

planting grass had been

taken.

The tiny galls, or tumors,

on the grass are so incon-

spicuous that they might

easily escape notice and the |

disease be unwittingly PASAY \

spread. Once present, the * 7/59 aes” X10 as gi sal brs

disease accumulates, and Fig. 3.—Lateral and ventral views of the tail

after a year or more patches end of the same male specimen of Tylenchus tume-

; faciens n. sp. Below, head of the same, dorsal

of ailing grass become ap- view. The upper small figure is of a spermatocyte

parent. The pest is be- whose nucleus shows chromosomes. Of the two

lieved to have been present middle figures, the upper is a front view of the

im ctorin ton come years. head, showing the four submedian papillae and

the two duplex amphids, while immediately below

The abandonment of one jg an optical section at the base of the lip region,

variety of lawn grass! is each magnified about fifteen hundred diameters.

probably due to this disease.

Precautions. 1. Prompt burning off of diseased patches after spray-

ing with inflammable liquid,—i.e. kill the tops, not the roots. 2. A-

voidance of seed and cuttings from infested areas. 3. Unusually

careful inspection of grass cuttings used as sets. 4. Recleaning of

suspected grass seed.

3 Abstract from South African Gardening and Country Life 15, Jan., 1925.

4 Variety ‘‘Red Quick Grass,’’ presumahkly a species of Cyanodon. N. A. C.

246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 9

ZOOLOGY.—The life in the ocean from a biochemical point of view.

Pau. 8S. Gautsorr, United States Bureau of Fisheries.

For many years the interest of zoologists engaged in a study of

marine life centered around morphological and taxonomic problems.

Numerous expeditions organized by every civilized country of the

world have collected an enormous amount of zoological and botanical

material and have accumulated many data concerning the distribution

of animals and plants in relation to the physical and chemical condi-

tions in the sea. Many efforts were made to take a census of the total

population of the ocean and to determine its fertility. For that pur-

pose thousands of samples of plankton and of the forms living on the

bottom were collected and studied. The reports of these investiga-

tions fill thousands of pages and are at present available for further

scientific analysis. Unfortunately in many instances when attempts

were made to correlate the biological data with physical and chemical

observations, the results were conflicting and difficult to interpret.

It seems that quite often the broader problems of oceanic biology

were buried under the vast material accumulated by the expeditions,

and that the scientific research was not in proportion to the effort and

money spent.

During the last ten years there has been a revival of interest in

oceanographical research in this country, which culminated in the

establishment of a number of new institutions for the study of the

ocean. The question naturally arises as to what are the outstanding

problems in modern oceanography which justify both the expenditure

of large sums of money and of human effort. It is quite obvious that

the continuation of purely taxonomic and descriptive investigations

so extensively carried out since the time of the Challenger’s expedition

will not help in unravelling the complicated relations that exist between

the inhabitants of the sea and their environment; neither will they

determine the factors that control their propagation and distribution

in the ocean.

One of the main results of previous studies was a recognition of the

fact that the population of the sea is subject to regular cyclic changes.

Certain forms appear during definite seasons, reach the maximum of

their abundance, then decline and give place to another group of forms,

which pass through a similar cycle. Inasmuch as these changes are

1 Received February 9, 1932. Third paper in a symposium, Major problems” of

modern oceanographic research, at the meeting of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, at Pasadena, Calif., June 17, 1931.

MAY 4, 1932 ' GALTSOFF: THE LIFE IN THE OCEAN 247

very pronounced in planktonic forms, like diatoms or dinoflagellates,

most of the investigations concerning the periodicity of life cycles refer

to these organisms. However, cyclic changes occur also in nektonic

and benthonic forms. Many speculative theories were advanced to

explain this phenomenon. Real progress was made during the last

decade by the investigators of the Plymouth Station (England) who

have demonstrated that cyclic changes are accompanied by profound

changes in the chemical composition of sea water, and that the decrease

or increase in the amount of various salts (phosphates, nitrates, sili-

cates) can be correlated with the abundance or scarcity of various

planktonic forms. Thus the morphological and taxonomic investiga-

tions in oceanography gradually give place to physiological and bio- -

chemical research.

The propagation of organisms in the ocean is dependent on the

presence of various elements which are necessary for the building up of

their bodies. Lack of a necessary element or its presence in a state

not available for a given organism becomes a factor preventing its

growth and propagation. ‘Thus, the minimum concentration of any

substance indispensable for a given organism becomes a factor limiting

the propagation of this particular species. ‘This principle established

by Liebig and known as the “‘law of a minimum”’ is applicable both to

land and marine forms. ,

There exists a great variety of physical and chemical factors that

may interfere with the growth of living forms or check their propaga-

tion. On the other hand a temporary absence of limiting factors may

result in an extremely rapid propagation of the organism which, in

a short time, may fill up all the space available for its growth. Such

a phenomenon, quite common in unicellular and planktonic forms, has

been very appropriately called by Vernadsky ‘‘an explosion of life.’’

It is often observed in fresh water ponds or in enclosed bays. The

best example of it in the sea is found in a sudden propagation of a

diatom Aulacodiscus kettont along the Copalis beach in the state of

Washington, where under certain conditions described by Becking and

others? it develops in a nearly pure culture. As a result of this rapid

development a large amount of phosphates, nitrates, silicates, and

other salts, are withdrawn from the sea water, accumulated in the bodies

of the diatoms and deposited in a thick layer on the bottom. The

process continues for several days, then ceases, to recur again after a

? Becking, L. B., Tolman, C. F., McMillin, H. C., Field, J., and Hashimoto, Tadaichi.

Economic Geoloee 22: 356-368. 1927.

248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 9

period of inactivity which may last for several weeks. The develop-

ment of Aulacodiscus is a good example of a dynamic equilibrium that

exists between the living organism and the surrounding medium.

The diatom withdraws from the solution and accumulates in its body

several elements that were present in the water, producing considera-

ble change in the chemical composition of the latter which, in turn,

becomes a factor limiting its further growth and propagation. There

is no doubt that every organism behaves in a similar way differing

only in the velocity and type of chemical reactions involved in its

activity.

The biochemical réle of organisms in the ocean can be understood

by comparing the chemical composition of sea water with that of the

TABLE I.—TuHeE AverAGE ComposiITION oF SEA WaTER (AccorpDING To W. I.

VERNADSKY)

Elements Per cent Elements Per cent

O 85.80 Fe 1:5. Xe

isi 10.67 Ag EE 10

Cl 2.07 RB n X 107* (mn 107)

Na 1.14 Ar 5 Xx 105

Mg 1.4 X 107% I n XX 10 Gira)

S 9 X 10°? F aN AS

Ca 5 x 10= B pte Gels (a

K 4 A Cu n X 10° @ = Bare)

C a0) oe LO Li 6 < 10 (8 bss)

Br 2° ><? Au 12 1G

N 1.6 X 10-° As | > Om |

Rb 15) KA07* Th 1.x 104

Si n X 107 @-— 3%) Zn n X 107 Gm tea)

Ra nl eit

living matter. In this attempt we meet with an unexpected difficulty.

Our knowledge of the chemical composition of sea water is very inade-

quate. Most of the analyses deal with the salts that are found in

relatively large concentrations, and neglect the elements occurring

in very small amounts. Yet, as it will be shown later, the physiological

role of the latter may be of great importance, and their presence in the

water may be prerequisite for the propagation and development of

certain forms. The most complete summary of the present state of

our knowledge of the chemical composition of the sea water is given

by Vernadsky? in Table I.

3 Vernadsky, W. Rev. Gen.d. Sc. Pures et Appliques, 35: 5-13. 1924. La Geochimie.

1924. Libr. F. Alcan. Paris.

May 4, 1932 GALTSOFF: THE LIFE IN THE OCEAN 249

An examination of Table I shows that our knowledge of the composi-

tion of the sea water is far from being complete, and that for a number

of elements the quantitative data are only approximate. The table

does not contain data for Al, Pb, Ti, Sr, and V which were found in

certain marine organisms and probably occur also in sea water. On

the other hand, one must bear in mind that the investigations of

Atkins, Nathanson, Harvey and others have demonstrated that the

concentrations of nitrates, phosphates, and silicates, do not remain

constant, but are subject to considerable fluctuations, depending on

the activity of the organisms. ‘Thus, the old conception of the con-

stancy of the chemical composition of sea water, established by Forch-

hammer in 1850-1860, and up to present time generally accepted in

oceanographical literature, should be considered with certain reserva-

tions. We know that not only does the salinity (i.e. the total amount

of salts in solution) vary in different localities, but that there exist

considerable fluctuations in the proportion of certain salts. Although

the absolute figures may appear insignificant (for instance the phos-

phate content of the water in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel varies

from a few to forty milligrams per cubic meter), they may have a

strong effect on the population of the sea.

A comparison between the chemical constituents of the sea water

and those of the living matter convinces us that many of the elements

that occur in the sea in a highly dispersed state are accumulated in the

bodies of the living forms. Unfortunately, whereas the chemical

composition of the sea water is not well known, our knowledge of the

chemical composition of the living matter is even more fragmentary.

According to Vinogradov? less than one-half of one percent of all the

living species have been subjected to elementary chemical analysis,

which in most of the cases dealt with only a few elements. Analyses

of the whole body of the organisms are also nearly absent, the chemical

data usually referring to the composition of the separate organs, skele-

ton, or blood.

Excepting the well known work of Biitschli® and a general review of

Aron’ the information regarding the chemical composition of various

organisms is available mainly from the mineralogical literature and

refers almost exclusively to the skeletons and shells. The most impor-

4 Vinogradov, A. ‘‘Priroda’”’ No. 3, pp. 230-254. 1931.

* Biitschli, O. Zool. Anz. 30: 784. 1906. K. Gesell. Wiss. Géttingen, Math-Physik.

Kl. 6, Band 6. 1908.

® Aron, H. Oppenheimer Handbuck d. Biochemie, I, p. 62. 1909.

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 9

tant contributions are those of Cayeux,’ Samoilov,? Vernadsky and

Clarke and Wheeler.? These investigations closely connect the prob-

lems of marine biology with geology and mineralogy, and stress the

role of living forms in the origin of various minerals of sedimentary

rocks.

A survey of available literature on the subject reveals that the same

elements that are found in the sea water occur also in the organisms,

although in entirely different concentrations. Some of them as for

instance calcium, sulphur, potassium, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, iron,

phosphorus, iodine, fluorine, boron, copper, zinc, manganese, vana-

dium, lead, and titanium are concentrated in the living matter while

others, as for example sodium, chlorine, bromine, magnesium, occur in

it in concentrations approximately equal to that in the sea water.

TABLE II.—AccuMULATION OF ELEMENTS BY LIVING MATTER

Elements Concentration Times

S 100

P 1000

Si 1000

K 10

Fe 100

Zn 10,000

Cu 100

I 100

As 100

B 10

F 10

Vernadsky gives estimates (Table 2) of the minimum concentration

of various elements in the bodies of marine forms, as compared with

their concentration in the sea water. The figures do not refer to any

particular organism but are the averages for the living matter in

general.

Although it is known that Al, Mn, Pb, Ti, and V are accumulated

by the organisms, it is impossible at present to express their concentra-

tions in definite figures.

Marine plants and animals can be grouped on the basis of the ele-

7 Cayeux, L. Introduction al étude pétriographique des roches sédimentaires. Paris.

1916.

8Samoilov, J. Mineral. Magazine 18: 87. 1917. Comp. Rend. d. XIII, Congr.

Geolog. Intern. 1924. Centr., of Mineral. 19,594. 1924.

° Clarke, F. W., and Wheeler, W.G. Proc. Nat. Acad. Se. 1, p. 262. 1915. U.S.

Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 124. 1922.

MAY 4, 1932 GALTSOFF: THE LIFE IN THE OCEAN 251

ments that are accumulated by their bodies. The space of this paper

does not permit us to give a complete list of them, and we have to

restrict our discussion to a few outstanding examples. We begin

with the accumulation of caletum. According to Clarke” the annual

deposition of calcium in the sea amounts to 1400 million tons. The

greatest réle in the process of withdrawing lime from solution and

depositing it on the bottom should be attributed not to the vertebrates,

corals, molluscs or other larger organisms with calcareous skeleton,

but to the smallest Protozoa belonging to the group of Coccolitho-

phoridae. ‘Their importance in the deposition of calctum was sug-

gested by Lohman," who found that everv twenty-four hours one-third

of the population of these forms dies and sinks to the bottom, where it

takes part in the formation of calcareous deposits.

The skeletons of marine organisms accumulating calcium are built

either of calcium carbonate (aragonite and calcite CaCO;; dolomite,

CaCO;MgCO;) or calcium phosphate (8Ca3;(PO.),CaCO) and apatite

(CaF)CasP;0,. A study of the chemical composition of shells of

Brachiopods and Echinoderms by Clarke and Wheeler (1915, 1922)

reveals an interesting fact that there exists considerable difference in

the composition of the skeleton of various forms belonging to the same

class. According to their work, the Brachiopods fall into two distinct

groups; the shells of one consisting mainly of calcium carbonate with

little organic matter, while the shells of the other group are formed

mainly of calcium phosphate with much organic matter. The first

group is represented by species of Terebratula, Crania, Waldheimia,

and others, while the second group comprises Lingula, Discinisca,

and Glottidia. The two groups are physiologically quite dissimilar,

the chemical reactions involved in building the shells being of two

different orders. Such a distinction, said Clarke, ‘‘ought to be signifi-

cant to biologists and it is for them to determine what it means.”

Unfortunately, the biologists know very little about the reactions

involved in building of shells and the significance of the difference just

described is not understood.

Evidence that difference in the chemical composition of animals can

be correlated with their habitat, and possibly with the temperature of

the water in which they live, is found in another paper of Clarke and

Kamm” dealing with the analyses of Echinoderm shells. Different

species of starfishes show, according to this paper, a progressive enrich-

10 Clarke, F. W. Data of Geochemistry. 1924. Washington.

11 Lohmann, H. Intern. Rev. Ges. Hydrol. 1: 309-323. 1908.

12 Clarke, F. W., and Kamm, R. M. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 3: 401. 1917.

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 9

ment in magnesia following an increase in the temperature of their

habitat. In the specimens from high latitudes or from deep water the

proportion of magnesium carbonate ranges from 7 to 10 percent, while

those from tropical waters contain from 11 to over 14 percent. We

have at present no explanation to offer for the existence of such

differences. These examples show very plainly that even within one

taxonomic group the organisms differ from each other not only morpho- .

logically but also in the chemical composition of their bodies.

The cycle of silicon and the accumulation of this element by diatoms,

radiolaria, and siliceous sponges is another oceanographical problem

which attracted a great deal of attention. The rédle of the diatoms in

the life of the ocean is well known to everybody acquainted with

oceanographical problems. However, the question concerning the

source of silicon, which is used by diatoms for building their tests

remains unsolved. Murray has expressed a view that the amount of

silicon found in solution in the sea water is insufficient to supply the

demands of the diatoms and that the latter obtain this element by

splitting the clay particles suspended in water. Later on (Murray and

Irvine’), he was able to show experimentally that Navicula can live in

water containing no silicon in solution, but only in suspension. ‘These

findings were corroborated by Vernadsky™ who observed the formation

of aluminum hydrates in the culture of Nitzchia grown together with

the unidentified bacteria in a medium which contained silicon only in a

form of suspended clay particles. It is known that the minerals, like

mica, epidote, nephelene and others, transform into kaolin without

changing their kaolin nucleus which has the following composition—

H,AlS8i,0;H.O. The kaolin nucleus is a very stable chemical com-

pound which withstands heating up to 1000°C., but can be split by

treatment with concentrated H.SO, at 100°C. Yet it is apparently

decomposed by the action of the organisms. The question is still

open whether this is due to the activity of the diatoms or should be

attributed to the bacteria that were grown in the diatom cultures.

We may briefly mention other organisms which are accumulators

of various elements. It is a well known fact that iodine, which occurs

in the sea in minute amounts, is accumulated by algae, gorgonacea,

and sponges. In the latter it is found in the form of an albuminoid

(Css6Hs7Il NyS.0.). The amount of iodine in these organisms varies

13 Murray, J., and Irvine, R. Proc. R. Soc. Edinb. 18: 245. 1891.

14 Vernadsky, W. Comptes. Rend. Acad. Sci., Paris, 450-452. 1922. Rev. Gen.

d. Sc. Pures et Appliques, 34: 42. 1923.

MAY 4, 1932 GALTSOFF: THE LIFE IN THE OCEAN 253

from 1.7 percent of dry substance (Gorgonia acerosa) to 7.8 in Gorgonia

clavellina. Small amounts of iodine were observed in various molluscs

and fishes. The physiological significance of this element in the

metabolism of these forms is unknown.

The presence of copper in the bodies of marine invertebrates has been

an object of numerous investigations. It is well known that copper

enters into the composition of a respiratory pigment, haemocyanin,

which in several forms (lobster, shrimps, crawfish and others) plays

the rdle of haemoglobin. Copper was found also in a Coelenterate,

Anthea cereus (2.35 mg. per 100 gr. wet weight); in Echinoderms,

Stichopus regalis, (2.83 mg.), Asterias rubens, (2.45 mg.); in various

molluses, and in sardines, herring and salmon.

In the lamellibranchs that can accumulate copper in considerable

amounts the metal occurs not as a protein compound but in a simpler

form. It has been known for many years that in certain sections

of the Atlantic coast, and around the British Isles, the oysters become

green. The green pigment was associated with an increase in their

copper content. It was thought that the pigment might be haemo-

cyanin or at least similar to haemocyanin in chemical composition.

Recent investigations by Galtsoff and Whipple have shown that the

green pigment of oysters is not haemocyanin or copper proteinate of

any kind. It passes through a collodion membrane which holds back

congo red and is not precipitated by sodium sulphate. Although its

chemical nature remains undetermined, it has been found that the

pigment exists in a highly dissociated state and is of a small molecular

size.

The amount of copper accumulated by oysters is very variable.

According to the determinations of Galtsoff and Whipple the copper

content in normal oysters from Cape Cod varies from 0.16 to 0.24 mg.

per oyster or from 8.21 to 13.77 mg. per 100 grams of dry weight. The

amount of copper concentrated in green oysters from Long Island

Sound varied from 1.24 to 5.12 mg. per oyster or from 121.71 to 271.91

mg. per 100 grams of dry weight. On the average there was about 2.5

mg. of pure copper in every green oyster. Knowing the copper content

of green oysters and the extent of oyster beds affected by greening,

it is possible to estimate the amount of copper which oysters withdraw

annually from the water. There are at least 10,000 acres of oyster

bottoms in Long Island Sound which produce green oysters. Assum-

ing that oysters become green in one year, and that there are one

18 Galtsoff, P. S., and Whipple, D. V. Bull. Bur. Fisheries, 46: 489-508. 1931.

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 9

thousand bushels to each acre of ground, and that three hundred

oysters make up one bushel, we arrive at the conclusion that the

oysters of Long Island Sound deposit in their bodies about 7.5 metric

tons of pure copper annually. )

Space does not permit us to discuss the accumulation and possible

role of strontium, found in the Radiolaria; barium, which was dis-

covered as crystals of barium sulphate in the protoplasm of Xeno-

phyophora; vanadium, discovered in the blood of Ascidians in which

it apparently plays a réle in the respiratory exchange of gases; and

other elements (Zn, Mn, K, 8, Fe, P, Al, ete.) which are accumulated

by various forms.

After the death of the organism the accumulated material is de-

posited on the bottom and enters into new reactions resulting in the

formation of various minerals found in the sedimentary rocks. Here

the field of biology ends and we enter into realm of geology and

mineralogy. Although the boundary line is indistinct, and the

processes of accumulation of elements in living matter and their

further role in the formation of minerals on the bottom of the sea are

but the different phases of one cycle, we shall not trespass in this field,

foreign to biologists, but return to the living organisms and consider

how their lives may be affected by slight changes in the chemical

composition of the sea water. This field of research scarcely has been

touched by scientific investigations and our knowledge is therefore ~

very limited. Interesting progress along this line was made, however,

by recent work on oysters. |

These molluscs inhabit the inshore waters where the environment

is subject to periodical changes caused by the tides. Due to the

discharge of river waters the salinity of the inshore area fluctuates

quite widely. Consequently, the organisms living in this environment

must adapt themselves to considerable fluctuations in osmotic pressure

and to changes in the chemical composition of the water concurrent

with the different stages of tide. It has been found by Prytherch"

that the copper content of the water in Long Island Sound fluctuates

between 0.1 part per million at high water and about 0.5 part per

million at low tide. The increase in copper at low tide is due to the

discharge of fresh water by the rivers. On the other hand, it has been

observed in laboratory experiments that copper salts have a peculiar

effect on oyster larvae, inducing their attachment to the substratum

and initiating their metamorphosis. Under experimental conditions

16 Prytherch, H. F. Science, 73: 429-431. 1981.

MAY 4, 1932 GALTSOFF: THE LIFE IN THE OCEAN 7 2595

the full grown larvae responded to copper treatment very readily and

with great precision. By employing this method it was possible for

the first time to obtain a complete photographic record of their

behavior during setting and metamorphosis. That the peculiar effect

was due to copper, but not to other elements which are brought in by

rivers, was corroborated by numerous experiments with various salts

of Fe, Pb, Zn, Mn, St, Ba, Al, Ni, Co, which gave no positive results.

The anions are apparently not involved in this reaction because differ-

ent copper salts (carbonates, sulphates and chlorides) had exactly the

same effect.

The results of the laboratory experiments were corroborated by

field observation. Prytherch observed the intensity of setting of

oyster larvae by counting at brief intervals the number of larvae

attached to a plate that had been placed in the bay. The intensity of

setting increases with the increase in copper content of the water, the

latter reaching its maximum at low tide. The two curves run parallel

and are undoubtedly significant. These observations explain the

peculiarity in the distribution of the natural oyster beds which occur

mainly in the mouths of rivers. Apparently the river water, having a

higher copper content, supplies the necessary stimulus that initiates

the “‘setting’’ reaction of the full grown oyster larvae. The result is

that the best setting areas are found on bottoms affected by fresh

water. We are, however, ignorant as to the biochemical reaction

involved in this phenomenon. It is extremely interesting that the

organism reacts in a very distinct manner to slight fluctuations in the

content of this metal, ranging only from 0.1 to 0.5 part per million.

Greater concentrations of copper ions are distinctly injurious to the

larvae causing the disintegration of their tissues and death. We are

dealing here with an extremely well adjusted and sensitive mechanism

which responds to slight changes in the environment.

The fluctuation in the concentration of other elements due to tidal

changes may also have a pronounced effect on the activity of the

organism. Hopkins, working in the Gulf of Mexico, has noticed

considerable fluctuations in the potassium salts. Also in his work on

the chemical sensitivity of the oyster!” he found that the potassium ion

has greater stimulating power in comparison with other metals. It is

quite probable that fluctuations in the chemical composition of the

environment may have a profound effect on all marine forms, and

that they greatly influence their feeding, growth, and propagation.

17 Hopkins A. E. Journ. Exp. Zool. 61: 138-29. 1932.

256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 9

Further research along this line, which is now under way, will probably

throw more light on the relation between the organism and its environ-

ment. It is quite permissible to suppose that eventually the explana-

tion of so-called lunar cycles in the behavior of various marine forms

will be found in the periodical chemical changes which occur in the

environment and in the organisms themselves.

So far we have been dealing with the inorganic constituents of sea

water. But sea water contains also various products of metabolism

given off by the organisms. Although they occur only periodically

and cannot be regarded as constituents of the sea water, yet some of

them play an important réle in propagation of marine forms by stimu-

lating the shedding of their eggs and sperm. The chemical composi-

tion of these substances is wholly unknown but one of their typical

characteristics is the specificity of their action. The presence of these

specific agents has been demonstrated by the experiments with

Nereis (Lillie and Justi’), sea urchins (Fox!’), and both edible and

pearl oysters (Galstoff?°). The latter experiments have shown that

the female oysters discharge a certain substance which has a specific

effect on the males of the same species causing an immediate discharge

of sperm. The substance is soluble in sea water and withstands

boiling for ten minutes. The sperm discharged by the males contains

an active principle which initiates in a female a complex reaction

consisting of rhythmical contractions of the adductor muscle, con-

traction of the mantle, and discharge of eggs. The specific agent of

sperm suspension is insoluble in sea water and is very unstable, being

destroyed by heating for fifteen minutes at 60°C. This active principle

of the sperm is effective only under definite thermic conditions. In

the Ostrea virginica, the reaction occurs only if the temperature of the

water is above 20°C. The specificity of the reaction was established

by experiments with various molluses, Mytilus, Mya and with different

species of oysters (O. cucullata, virginica and sandwichensis). In case

of O. virginica and O. cucullata, it has been found by the author that

the males can be induced to spawn only by the eggs or egg water of

the same species and fail to respénd to the addition of foreign eggs.

It is interesting that in spite of this specificity, the reaction can be

provoked also by an increase in temperature. The author’s latest

experiments, carried out in 1931, show that ripe males and females of

O. virginica can be induced to spawn by taking them from water of

19°C. and keeping them at a temperature above 24.5°C. Below

18 Lillie, F. R., and Just, E. E. Biol. Bull. 24: 147-159. 1913.

19 Fox, M. Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc. Biol. Sc. 1: 71-74. 1924.

20 Galtsoff, P.S. Proc. Nat. Acad. Se. 16: 555-559. 1930.

MAY 4, 1932 HILDEBRAND: A NEW CYPRINOID 257

24.5°C. the temperature alone is insufficient to induce spawning of

the female, which, however, readily responds to the addition of sperm.

From these observations an inference can be made that sperm plays

the réle of a ‘‘key”’ that unlocks a certain mechanism which in turn

initiates in the female a chain of reactions and that the same results

can be obtained also by a physical factor (increase in temperature).

The reaction is, however, highly specific in the sense that under certain

temperature conditions (between 20 and 24.5°C.) it appears to be pro-

voked only by the sperm of the same species.

There is no doubt that the sexual reactions just described fall in

the category of chemical stimulations, which play an important rdéle

in the life of marine organisms, especially of the sedentary forms like —

the oyster which possess no organs of vision, but have a well developed

chemical sense, and are able to detect slight concentrations of various

substances.

The few examples discussed in the present paper show very clearly

that many problems of oceanic biology can be studied from a biochemi-

cal point of view. We may look upon an organism in the sea as part

of a complex chemical cycle in which a given form is only one of the

links in a long chain of cyclic reactions; or we may study it with the

purpose of understanding the factors controlling its propagation,

development, functioning of its body and peculiarities of its behavior.

In all cases we are dealing with biochemical problems which can be

attacked by an experimental method. We know that marine forms

play a definite rdle in the chemical cycles of various elements occur-

ring in sea water, and that on the other hand they are very delicately

adjusted to their particular habitats. It is our hope that an under-

standing of their work and of the mechanism of their adjustment can

be reached through biochemical and physiological studies which open

up new fields of research and should lead to the solution of problems

which the descriptive methods, so generally used in oceanography,

were unable to solve.

ZOOLOGY .—On a new Cyprinoid from South Dakota. SaMuEL F.

HILDEBRAND, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. (Communicated by

Wapo L. ScHMITT.)

An apparently undescribed species of the genus Hybognathus occurs

among a lot of cyprinoids submitted for identification by Dr. E. P.

Churchill of the University of South Dakota. The writer takes pleas-

1 Published by permission of the U. 8S. Commissioner of Fisheries. Received March

29, 1932.

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 9

es a

———— es

Fig. 1. Hybognathus churchilli. Total length, 71 mm. Drawn from the type by

Louella E. Cable of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.

MAY 4, 1932 HILDEBRAND: A NEW. CYPRINOID 259

ure in naming this fish for Doctor Churchill who collected the speci-

mens and who has made an extensive study of the fishes of South

Dakota.

Hybognathus churchilli sp. nov.

Type No. 92248 U. S. National Museum; length 71 mm.; Cheyenne River,

Sh Ds

Description of the type-——Body very elongate and slender, not strongly

compressed, about three-fourths as broad as deep at origin of dorsal, the

greatest depth contained in length to base of caudal 5.2 times; the peduncle

compressed, its depth 2.3 in head; head low and rather broad, 4.1 in length

of body to base of caudal, its depth at middle of eyes 2.3 in its length to bony

margin of opercle; interorbital moderately convex, 3.5 in head; eye small,

5.6 in head; snout moderately conical, projecting about half an eye’s diameter

beyond the mouth, its length 3.7 in head; mouth slightly oblique, the gape

reaching almost opposite posterior nostril; scales small and thin, especially

reduced in advance of dorsal, 41 oblique rows running upward and backward

between upper anterior angle of gill opening and base of caudal, 6 complete

rows between origin of dorsal and lateral line, 4 between origin of anal and

lateral line, 20 oblique rows crossing the back in advance of dorsal; dorsal with

8 branched rays the longest rays a little shorter than head, none of them pro-

duced, the fin having no high lobe anteriorly, its origin slightly nearer tip

of snout than base of caudal; the caudal deeply forked, the lobes pointed

and of nearly equal length; anal with 8 branched rays, a little lower than dor-

sal, its origin below tips of the longest rays of the dorsal when deflexed; ven-

tral fins smaller than the pectorals, inserted slightly behind the vertical from

origin of dorsal; pectoral fins failing to reach base of ventrals by a distance

equal to length of snout, 1.3 in head.

Color after preservation in formalin slightly brownish above, with dusky

punctulations, paler below and without punctulations (the sides no doubt are

silvery in life, although this no longer is evident) ; a dusky vertebral streak in

advance of dorsal; a slight indication of a dusky lateral band; the fins un-

marked. (Fig. 1.)

Variations—The variations within the species, as far as shown by 10

paratypes, are not pronounced. The following proportions and counts give

the range within the specimens at hand: Head 3.9 to 4.25; depth 4.9 to 5.6

in standard length; eye 5.0 to 5.75; snout 3.1 to 4.0; interorbital 2.7 to 3.5;

depth of head at middle of eye 2.0 to 2.4; caudal peduncle 2.2 to 2.7 in head.

D. 8; A. 7 or 8; scales 18 to 21 before dorsal, sometimes crowded, irregular and

difficult to enumerate, 40 to 44 in lateral series, 6 complete rows above the

lateral line and 4 below it, counted respectively at origin of dorsal and of

anal. Pharyngeal teeth in 3 specimens examined 0,4-4,0, compressed and

slightly hooked at tips. Peritoneum jet black; intestine long and coiled.

Origin of dorsal usually equidistant from tip of snout and base of caudal,

occasionally slightly nearer the snout; the anterior rays of the dorsal some-

times somewhat produced, seldom sufficiently to make the fin faleate; ventral

fins inserted under or slightly behind vertical from origin of dorsal.

Relationship.—The present species apparently is more slender than others

260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 9

of the genus, and the scales are small, being especially reduced in advance of

dorsal. Comparing the present species with H. nuchalis, the other common

local species, it is evident that the body is more slender (the range in depth

in 7 specimens of nuchalis being 4.36 to 4.9); the eye is smaller, a difference

which is most evident when specimens of the same size are compared, for

example, in 3 specimens of churchiilz all about 80 mm. long the eye is contained

in the head respectively 5.5, 5.5 and 5.28 times, whereas in nuchalis in 3 speci-

mens of about the same length the eye is contained in the head respectively

4.4, 3.85 and 4.3 times. The scales, especially in advance of the dorsal are

larger, the range in 7 specimens of nuchalis being 14 to 15 in advance of

dorsal, 35 to 38 in a lateral series, and 5 above the lateral line and 4 below it,

counted respectively at the origin of the dorsal and origin of anal. The

snout projects a little more strongly beyond the mouth in churchilli and the

anterior rays of the dorsal are rather shorter, not forming a definite lobe.

The specimens of the present species were compared with 7 type specimens

of H. argyritis, recorded from the upper Missouri basin, and originally de-

scribed from the Milk River. The present species differs from that species

also in the more slender body and smaller scales. In argyritis the snout

projects beyond the mouth even more strongly than in H. churchilli.

Specimens of Hybognathus churchilli studied.—a. Seven specimens (in-

cluding the type), ranging in length from 62 to 105 mm., from the Cheyenne

River, near the mouth of Cherry Creek, taken July 15, 1928. b. Three

specimens, ranging in length from 63 to 65 mm., from the White River near

the town of White River, taken June 18, 1928. ec. One specimen, 78 mm.

long, from Bad River near Midland, taken July 16, 1928. The specimens

were all collected by Dr. E. P. Churchill, who informs the writer that the

Cheyenne and White Rivers are shallow, swift alkaline streams with little

vegetation, whereas the Bad River is not alkaline, is sluggish and supports

considerable vegetation. Hybognathus nuchalis also was taken in these rivers.

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_Zoology.—Nematosis of a grass of the genus Cyanodon ‘caused by a1

ter the genus. Tylenchus Bast. N. A. dae ie eee ous |

i eS Zoology.—The life” in the ocean from a biochemical point of

a Ma ume NAM GML me he

Bes, OU | GET "This Jounsas is indeved in the Taternaional Indes to ae

” ay. : sa ;

ee NPA 19, 1992 No.-10

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GEOPHYSICS.—The solution and colloidal dispersion of minerals in

water... P. G. Nurrine, U. 8. Geological Survey.

During ordinary weathering, parts of decomposed rocks go into

solution and into suspension in water solutions that are usually either

very dilute and abundant or else nearly saturated and scanty. Little

is known of the details of what goes on but there are indications that

the same parent rock may yield a number of different types of clays

and soils under different conditions and degrees of weathering and it

seemed worth while to attack the problem in the laboratory. The

clay material of a decomposed granite has been converted into a

bleaching clay and a commercial bleaching clay into a plastic ball clay

by water treatment alone. The experiments leading to these results

and some of the theory will be briefly summarized in this paper.

Since a clay suspension in water is most stable at the isoelectric

point, it follows that the isoelectric condition is most favorable for

particles leaving the parent solid and going into suspension. The

amphoteric oxides (of Fe, Al and Si), of which most detrital rocks are

chiefly composed, will therefore disperse most readily in pure water

or in water carrying these same materials in solution. In the absence

of chemical reaction, solution ordinarily occurs most readily in pure

water and is only slightly affected by materials other than alkalies in

suspension or solution. Although suspensions and solutions of the

same material shade into each other as molecular dimensions are

approached, neither appear to have any influence on the concentration

of the other aside from the very slight one indicated by kinetic theory.

A clay put in 4 to 10 times its weight of distilled water in a pyrex

glass and kept at 80°C. will reach half saturation in about one or two

hours, at room temperature in about 24 hours. The usual program

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received

April 8, 1932.

: 261

MAY 2 0 1932

262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

was to heat on a steam bath (75-80°C.) for 20 hours, then filter through

the clay itself. Room temperature saturation is usually about 2/3 the

concentration reached at 80°C. The clear filtrate, showing no scat-

tered light in a strong beam, may be concentrated to about a hundredth

of its volume before precipitation begins. A hot clear filtrate may be

cooled without any precipitation. But if a solution is boiled down in

contact with the clay, its concentration is not increased on evaporation,

indicating that the solution is saturated. Solutions of clays and rocks

therefore are saturated at low concentration but these saturated solu-

tions are capable of high supersaturation if evaporation takes place

away from contact with the dissolved material.

The chief materials studied were decomposed granites from the

District of Columbia, diabase from Virginia, two commercial bleaching

clays, weathered dunite from Webster, N. C., two bentonites and a

number of silica gels used as comparison standards. The objective

was to find the effect of long continued treatment with pure water,

TABLE 1.—PROPERTIES OF STABLE SILICA SOLS.

Parts per million

(oncentration jevae Ee iar be wek es ee bays tage Heme Lae Re te 2000 6000 16000

Dia VIR 2 WiRRE GOs Giinet none ty. eye taki pl ee ee tte og em 58 25 15

Solulthtty. Eg WOOO en tka ein sedate eas sees eae Re eee 150 225 300

malitrresidaes. ee Me fe MOPAR tek. Cod LAP Ee eee ee AN en) ee 100 100 100

and incidentally to find limits of concentration, the nature of the

material dissolved and in suspension, surface activation and the rela-

tion, if any, between dissolved and suspended matter.

A freshly made silica gel, stabilized and washed free from salt, goes

over into a sol on standing two or three weeks. This sol gradually

settles into three stable layers containing approximately 2, 6, and 16

grams per liter of silica in solution and suspension, any excess silica

settling out as a floc. Samples removed with a pipette gave the data

(taken in 1926) given in Table 1. Weight of solids was taken after

heating to about 200°C. Dialysis was through a 60 cm.? collodion

membrane for two weeks. ‘The solubilities are of the ignited (800°C.)

residues and showed no decrease on repetition of the test. Decided

differences between the three stable sols are indicated. Impurities

(salts, etc.) were less than 2 parts per million. The presence of acids

or of acid or neutral salts in the water appears to have but little effect

on the solubility but the presence of alkalies or of strongly basic salts

has a large effect. The addition of sodium chloride precipitated all

but 100 parts per million of silica in each experiment.

MAY 19, 1932 NUTTING: DISPERSION OF MINERALS IN WATER 263

An interesting relation was found between the amount of solids left

in suspension and the salt (NaCl) concentration, namely

CEO es

CG ay

in which C is the silica and s the salt concentration in grams per liter,

and the constant k is 0.30. The maximum concentration of silica,

C,, is either 2, 6, or 16 grams per liter according to the sol used, while

the minimum concentration C.. obtained with excess salt is 0.10 gram

per liter for all these sols. Half the maximum concentration of silica

is given by the addition of 2.50, 2.37, and 2.33 grams per liter of salt

to the three sols.

Silica gel, granulated, gave a solubility at 75° of about 300 parts per

million, at room temperature about 180 parts per million. Three

samples were of my own preparation, one was commercial (Patrick).

In concentrating the solutions (50 cc. in a platinum dish), precipita-

tion began only at concentrations in the neighborhood of 16 grams per

liter, which appears to be the upper limit of supersaturation. The

stable suspension of this concentration mentioned above began to

precipitate at once on boiling down.

Decomposed granite from the District of Columbia, high in iron

but containing free quartz grains, was dried and put through a 150

mesh (0.10 mm.) sieve. This showed an initial saturation of 73

parts per million and a decrease to 50 parts per million in the fourth

wash and 35 parts per million in the eighth. Some of the clay from

the fourth wash was kept at 75°C. for two weeks when it gave 54

parts per million. Several solutions of this granite were concentrated

in Pyrex vessels, then filtered through paper (S & §, 589, blue ribbon).

One gave 4500 parts per million after filtering. Others boiled down in

the flask with the clay to a tenth the original volume showed no increase

in concentration. The solubility of this clay appears to steadily

decrease. After 9 washes a small sample (15 grams in 1500 cc.) was

put in a large excess of water in an attempt to reach an end point.

After 3 weeks in 3 changes of water, (equivalent to more than 50

ordinary washes) the solubility reached was 32 parts per million, but

6 days were required to reach saturation. On the other hand the

Virginia diabase clay showed a constant solubility of 47 parts per million

from the start through 6 washes, appearing to have already reached

equilibrium by natural leaching.

A yellow decomposition product derived from dunite, that had been

264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

partly altered to serpentine, from Webster, N. C., dropped in solubility

from 325 parts per million in the first wash to 50 parts per million in

the fifth and thereafter decreased only slightly. This same material

was given an acid treatment to remove bases (chiefly iron and mag-

nesium) leaving a white nearly pure silica which had the solubility of

silica gel, 290 parts per million.

A bleaching clay from near Death Valley also high in magnesium

showed an abrupt drop from an initial solubility of 250 to less than

100 parts per million, decreasing to about 90 parts per million in the

fifth wash. The well known “Floridin” bleaching clay shows a more

gradual decrease between about the same limits. Both these bleaching

clays, on continued washing with pure water, became highly plastic

like ball clays and lost most of their bleaching power. A yellow de-

composed granite from the District of Columbia, the Virginia diabase

and the North Carolina dunite all were converted into bleaching clays

better than the average commercial grade by the water leaching alone.

Doubtless it would be possible to leach them further to ball clays.

In fact, the excessively leached granite mentioned above appears to be

approaching this stage.

All of this evidence supports a view expressed in previous papers,

that bleaching clays are partly leached decomposed igneous rocks,

part way on the path toward inactive clays. The partial leaching

results in open bonds on actively adsorbing surfaces where complete

leaching would result in the exchange of all exchangeable bases for H

and OH and lead eventually in some clays to recrystallization as

kaolin.

All the materials studied settled clear after the first wash but all

the natural minerals worked with tend to remain indefinitely in sus-

pension after several washes. Previous natural leaching has been such

as to leave some soluble material (organic acids, salts, or organic sili-

cates) which prevented an approach to the isoelectric point; hence

the rapid clear settling in the first wash.

Many of the residues from the various clay solutions were analyzed

by C. S. Howard and showed nearly pure SiO, in every one after the

first few washes. Silica gel and acid treated clays of course give SiO,

alone. Even the granite and dunite solutions gave negative tests for

iron and aluminum, both of which come off readily in acid. However,

when water removes silica from ferric- and alumino-silicates, it does

not leave iron and alumina in suspension as might be expected. Fur-

ther, the open bonded surfaces which are the seat of the selective

adsorbing (bleaching) power may be on any one of three oxides Fe,Os,

Al,O3, or SiO. (or even MgO) or on combinations of these. Open

MAY 19, 1932 NUTTING: DISPERSION OF MINERALS IN WATER 265

bonded pure SiO, surfaces, as in silica gel or acid treated clays, are

excellent adsorbents for solvent vapors but only fair bleaching agents

for hydrocarbon oils. The best bleach known is a compound silicate,

naturally weathered.

Most residues of clay solutions show organic matter which persists

through extended leaching but is removable between 150°C. and 800°C.

on ignition. An organic silicate is indicated by its behavior but

further work will be required to identify it. The solution from a

silica gel, removed with a pipette, does not show it, while the same

a ae le

200

Bee

OSannae

CSE

Pit

Te cvaeee eobe 2 UNE Aig a

Wash

100

PP.

Socusivity OF Hers

Figure 1.—Solubility of clays.

solution put through filter paper does. The odor suggests furfural

which is plausible since this is readily formed from cellulose and from

pentosans by simple dehydration.

Active silica is known to attack loosely held organic radicals and

this suggests a new (third) theory for the origin of petroleum, namely,

that active silica and silicates laid down and intermingled with decay-

ing vegetation form soluble organic silicates which are later transported

and decomposed, setting free hydrocarbons. Experiments are under

way to reproduce this cycle in the laboratory. Much indirect evidence

266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

has already been accumulated and the theory appears simple and

plausible from a chemical standpoint. Some silicified woods fuse to

a viscous glassy paste below 800°C. when ignited. Silica gel is not

even softened at that temperature.

Amorphous silica, even when freshly dennitenl from solution with-

out heating, may have a very low solubility approaching that of

quartz. Oat hulls contain 7 per cent silica in a beautiful very fine

grill near the surface but this silica is nearly insoluble even in hot water,

although it must have been brought up from the soil in cold solution.

Of two samples of silica sinter deposited by two Yellowstone geysers

(supplied by Dr. E. T. Allen), one showed only the solubility of quartz,

the other that of silica gel (180 parts per million). Both were white,

very porous, and each had a refractive index below 1.45, and neither

was birefringent. In other experiments on the silicification of wood,

the deposited silica has a low solubility as though retained by the

lignin.

The solubility of the silica of clays and of many other minerals is a

minimum in pure water and is increased by even traces of acid or

alkali in the water. A yellow clay, rich in iron, that had reached a

solubility of 85 parts per million was treated with water containing

1:500 HCl. The solution showed 102 parts per million of silica which

had apparently been released by removal of some of the bases (pre-

viously associated with silica) over the grain surfaces. Silica thus

released has a solubility approaching that of silica gel. Slight alka-

linity of solvent water likewise gives enhanced solubility of silica, even

of that firmly associated with bases.

As a test of reversibility, clay having a fixed solubility of 35 parts per

million was put in a saturated solution (300 parts per million) of silica

and kept at 80°C. for 24 hours. The clay actually removed more than

half the silica in solution, presumably as an adsorbed layer on the clay

particles.

Summary.—Saturated solutions of many ordinary clays and decom-

posed rocks in pure water after repeated washing range in concentration

from 30 to 100 parts per million.

Saturation at 80°C. is roughly a half greater than at 25°C. in

concentration.

Saturation is approached in 10 hours at 80°C. and in 400 hours at

25°C. Bound and slowly circulating water in clays is commonly

nearly saturated.

True rock solutions free from particles in suspension may be con-

centrated to several thousand parts per million without precipitation.

Mechanical disintegration into suspensions is favored near the

MAY 19, 1932 JOHNSTON: GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT 267

isoelectric point, a condition approached only after several washings

of a raw clay or decomposed rock in pure water.

Organic matter is commonly associated with silica as soluble sili-

cates which may be transported and decomposed elsewhere into silica

and hydrocarbons.

Many decomposed igneous rocks may be converted into bleaching

clays by the action of water alone but the high quality of the best

bleaching clays depends to some extent on the composition of the

original rock.

Many bleaching clays may be converted into plastic ball clays by

the action of water alone.

GEOLOGY .—Geothermal gradient at Grass Valley, California: W.

D. Jounston, Jr., U. 8S. Geological Survey. (Communicated

by W. H. BRADLEY.)

During the field seasons 1930 and 1931 the writer was engaged in

studying the underground geology of the gold quartz mines at Grass

Valley, California,? where the mine workings have attained a maximum

vertical depth of 3,700 feet beneath the surface.

In the course a underground mapping at the Empire-Star Mine,

temperature measurements were taken on twenty-one different levels.

These temperature observations were made in air or in standing water,

usually on the drift face, and always outside the path of air circulation.

From three to six observations were made on each level, and the tem-

perature given in the following table is an average for the level. The

value for the North Star 9,000 level is a rock temperature, obtained by

averaging the readings of three maximum thermometers, which had

remained for twenty-four hours in a bore hole 4 feet deep near an

advancing face.

The temperature data were adjusted by a method adopted several

years ago by C. E. Van Orstrand which consists in adjusting a series

of straight lines from the shallowest depth at which a temperature test

is made to a number of gradually increasing depths as shown in the

last column of Table 1.

The equation to be adjusted each time is

i — Oo ba

1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Geol. Survey. Received March 25,

19382.

2 Lindgren, Waldemar. The gold quartz veins of Nevada City and Grass Valley dis-

tricts, Californa. U.S. Geol. Survey, Annual Report 17: Part 2, 1-263. 1896.

268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

TEMPERATURE FAHRENHEIT

TWA SSVUD- dNal yf

NVZW IWANNY G@3AN3S80

“AAYND JYNLVYAdW3l-H1d4dd

o® rs

m9 3

mm — "

LD o>

os er

= ou

m m =

ih 3

2 ae on

aires 3

ene

=f oe ™

> 23 8

(a) en

Z x ih

ml 9 s

W ® 3

W S °

[— ri Me

[— tw =

2) Ie

> w a

Ee 3 6

Figure 1.—Depth-temperature curve at the Empire-Star Mine, Grass Valley, California.

MAY 19, 1932 JOHNSTON: GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT 269

TABLE 1.—TEMPERATURE GRADIENT AT THE EMPIRE-STAR Minz, Grass VALLEY,

Nevapa County, CALIFORNIA

Observed

pocation of temp. Depth? temper | 0-980 Ft. | 0-3400 Ft.

Q, Q Cc

g E g Constants

Seek pera TOMO ko: RRO ukoe

Empire 1100] 0.0) 0/12. 4/54. 4/54. 2/0. 2/54.6/—0.2 elvan.

Pennsylvania 1000} 45.7] 15012.9)55.355.1/-+0.2)55.4/—0.1|/ @ = ee

New York Hill 600] 94.5) 310/13. 1/55.6)56.0/—0. 456. 3/—0.7/|, 4 = 1686

North Star 1900| 114.3] 375|13.6/56. 4/56. 3/+0. 1/56.6/—0.2/’,, — +0 18

Pennsylvania 1400} 128.0) 420/13. 5/56. 3/56. 7/—0. 4/56. 8/—0.5]| r. = +0.11

Pennsylvania 1700} 192.0] 630/14. 3/57. 7/57.9|—0.2/57.9|—0.2/| 7» = +0.00017

Empire 2700| 207.3} 680/14. 7/58. 5/58. 2/-+0. 3/58. 2/+0.3 0-2100 ft.

Pennsylvania 2100] 256.0} 840/15. 1/59.1/59.1| 0.0|59.1) 0.0] -g = 54.30

Empire 3000| 257.5) 845/15. 3/59. 5/59. 2/+0.3/59.1/+0.4|| b = 0.00569

Pennsylvania 2400} 292.6] 960/15.5/59.9/59.9] 0.0/59.7|+0.2/|1/6 = 175.8

Empire 3400] 298.7) 980/15. 5/59. 9160. 0|—0. 1|59.8|+0.1]) " = 0-2!

Empire 3800| 377. 9|1240/16. 6/61. 8/61. 5|-+0. 3/61. 2/+0.6|| ., — +09 Qo009

Empire 4200| 432.8/1420/17. 2/62. 9/62. 6|-+0. 3/62. 1/+0.8 Pra,

Empire 4600| 496. 8|1630|17. 4/63. 3/63. 8|—0. 5/63. 2/-+0.1 ;

Empire 5000| 559. 3/1835|17. 9[64. 3|65.1/—0.8/64.3| 0.0) ¢ = 5°02...

Empire 5400) 640. 1/2100|19. 066. 2/66. 6/—0.4/65.7|-+0.5//1/5 = 186.1

Empire 5800| 719.3/2360/19. 5/67. 1168.2/—1.1167.1] 0.0]] r = +0.25

Empire 6200} 795. 5|2610|20. 2/68. 3/69.7/—1.4/68.4/—0.1]| 72 = +£0.10

Empire 7000) 951.0'3120|21.6/70. 8/72. 7|—1.9/71.1/—0.3)|_7% = +0-00007

North Star 8700|1005. 8/3300'22. 0/71. 6/73. 7|—2. 1|72.0|—0.4 0-3400 ft.

North Star 9000) 1036. 3|3400|22. 4/72. 3/74. 3|—2.0|72.5|—0.2|| a = 54.63

b= 0.00527

1/b = 189.8

rf = +0.26

Ta = +£0.09

ry = +£0.00005

* Observations made in 1930-31. Most of the observations were made in air or standing water outside of the

path of air circulation.

® Depth below Empire 1100 level, altitude 2200 ft., which is taken as the temperature datum. This is about

300 ft. below the surface of the ground.

° Constants have been determined by the method of least squares from the equation y = a + bz.

in which

y = temperature at depth zx.

a = computed annual mean temperature just beneath the

surface of the earth.

6 = gradient in degrees Fahrenheit per foot.

1/b = reciprocal gradient in feet per degree Fahrenheit.

r = probable error of observation y, weight unity.

Yay Yo = probable error of a and b.

All of the computations in this paper were carried out by Mr. H.

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

Cecil Spicer, Assistant in the Physical Laboratory of the Geological

Survey.

The depth-temperature curve (see Fig. 1) is slightly concave toward

the depth axis. This is clearly shown in the following values of the

reciprocal gradients taken from Table 1.

From 300 to 1280 feet, 1°F. for every 168.6 feet.

From 300 to 2400 feet, 1°F. for every 175.8 feet.

From 300 to 3420 feet, 1°F. for every 186.1 feet.

From 300 to 3700 feet, 1°F. for every 189.8 feet.

As the rock temperature on the 9000 level of the North Star mine is

only 72.3°F., underground temperature offers no hindrance to mining

operations.

TABLE 2—TEMPERATURE OF DEEP MINES

3 ae

BE |ea/B3

cs $3 a 100 to 1000 ft. 100 ft. to greatest depth

Sa | 23| S30

Oo MSG

Fahr. | Feet | Fahr. a b 1/b r a b 1/b *r

Grass Valley, Calif...| 54.47)3700) 72.3/54. of 00593/168.6

0.18 54. 63/0. 00569 189.8/0. 26

Mother Lode, Calif.®..)...... AOU) Boe is ete ae Nees 64.39)0.00520)192. 3/1. 73

Calumet, Mich.°......| 44.6 |5367| 89.7|42.47/0.01009) 99.1)/0.65/43. 44/0. 00852)117.4/1.31

ie BM, add alele ote SOTO) GOO]. . Seah. cot wie pets eile ea a fen ie 7

Minas Geraes, Brazil®.|...... GIAO WIS ST). SP ice elec aeee do erence 0.00801)124.8)....

Johannesburg, S.

SETA. ns ore ba NMOS oe TODA ee Ol. rs i scck ee tice else. ate ake 0.00495/202.1)....

? 300+ ft.

>’ Knopf, Adolph. Mother Lode system of Calif. U.S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 157: 22-23. 1929. Gradient

recalculated from Knopf’s data by H. Cecil Spicer.

4 Ingersoll, L. A. Geothermal gradient determinations in the Lake Superior copper mines (abstr.). Physical

Review, 39: No. 5, 869-70. 1932.

In Figure 1 the observed surface mean annual temperature at Grass

Valley and Nevada City are shown. The mean annual temperature

for Nevada City,’ six miles north of the mine, obtained over a period

of 39 years, is 52.6°, agreeing with the calculated subsurface tempera-

ture within 1°. The mean annual temperature near the mine at

Grass Valley,’ however, taken over a period of only 22 years is 60.3° or

7° higher than the calculated subsurface temperature.

The thermal gradient at Grass Valley, as shown in Table 2, is in

3 U.S. Weather Bureau. Climatological Data, 17: No. 13, 88-99. 1930.

MAY 19, 1932 ALICATA: A NEW TREMATODE 271

close agreement with the thermal gradient on the Mother Lode.‘ It

slightly exceeds the gradient in the Rand, 8. Africa, and is much less

than the gradient in the Michigan copper mines and in the St. John

del Rey mine, Brazil.

4Knopf, Adolph. Mother lode system of California. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.

Paper 157: 22-23. 1929. Knopf gives a gradient of 1°F. for 150 feet. His data have

been recalculated by the method of least squares by H. C. Spicer, who obtained a recip-

rocal gradient of 192.3 feet per degree Fahrenheit from observations between the depths

of 1575 and 4200 feet. Knopf’s values for the Central Eureka and the Kennedy mines

apparently are based on an assumed value of the mean annual temperature y of the air.

ZOOLOGY.—A new trematode, Acanthatrium eptesici, from the brown

bat: JosmEPpH E. Axnicata, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Com-

municated by BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ.)

Three flukes representing a new species of trematode belonging to

the family Lecithodendridae Odhner, 1910, and to the genus Acantha-

trium Faust, 1919, were collected by the writer in November, 1931,

from the intestine of the brown bat, Eptesicus fuscus, captured in

Washington, D. C. The new species is described in this paper.

Acanthatrium eptesici, new species

Figs. 1 and 2.

Specific diagnosis.—Acanthatrium: Body rounded, flattened dorso-

ventrally, from 702u to 1.2 mm. long by 468 to 764y wide in middle of body.

Cuticular spines absent. Oral sucker subterminal, 98 to 114u long by 98 to

114y wide; acetabulum 72 to 98u long by 80 to 98u wide. Prepharynx absent;

pharynx 38 to 45u long by 49 to 53u wide; esophagus 34 to 76u long. In-

testinal ceca short, simple, extending to anterior margins of testes. Excretory

bladder V-shaped. Testes ovoid to pyriform, located on same zone as

acetabulum, and transverse in position; right testis 121 to 281lu long by 129 to

205u wide; left testis 121 to 258u long by 91 to 1974 wide. Seminal vesicle

long and coiled; prostate cells numerous, forming a mass 121 to 327y long by

186 to 358u wide. The entire mass is enclosed in a delicate sac-like mem-

brane. Genital pore somewhat anterior to acetabulum and anterior to zone

of testes. Genital atrium slightly anterior to genital pore, and lined with

one group of long, narrow spines. Ovary ovoid, regular or lobed, the largest

axis transverse, oblique or longitudinal in position. Vitellaria composed of

large follicles which may extend from about level of pharynx to anterior

margins of testes. Uterus long and arranged for the most part transversely,

occupying posterior half of body length and terminating in a moderately

developed metraterm. Eggs oval, 20 to 30p long by 15y wide, with yellowish

brown, thin shell.

Host.—Eptesicus fuscus.

Location.—Small intestine.

Distribution.—United States (Washington, D. C.).

Type specimen.—U.8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 30135; paratypes No. 30136.

Acanthatrium eptesici differs from the other two species of the genus,

namely A. sphaerula (Looss, 1896) Faust, 1919, and A. nycteridis Faust, 1919,

1 Received March 16, 1932.

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

(Ss

ete ne ze P :

. 2° LT ea set I .

PN el ated Vietctiv’ Mit ery s ‘

oxy Ch Le .

wot eet Wem at ey riot =

Sa ee eh eS eee : Ze

he ees — fn ae Ra y J ’ - a, Xe

2" Oe bares! a “alae eae srs ame

. e ee re pOLs ; . oo * ped,

SS E 30 a LP - Fs 7a ‘

= Mes oy rns

tS a, Se amas.

’ are m9

Pex) te die vets

eset 4

EES

calc * PI.Y

-f2

: @

DP rQ

WUSSS

Ck ty

ret Ky

Bes

OO caeN

ReAINaeol

aa rAd aes, Y

Fig. 1.—Acanthatrium eptesici, Alicata. Ventral view.

as follows: The genital atrium in A. sphaerula has spines distributed over its

entire wall and the genital pore opens at the right side of the prostate gland

mass, whereas in A. eptesic: the spines are limited to a semicircular area of

MAY 19, 1932

ALICATA: A NEW TREMATODE

273

the anterior wall of the genital sinus, and the genital pore opens in the median

line at the anterior end of the prostate gland mass.

The ovary in A.sphaerula

is triangular and deeply lobed, and extends anterior to the right testis and

prostate gland mass. In A. eptesic: the ovary

is more or less ovoid in outline, entire or

slightly lobed, extending along the posterior

portion of right testis and posterior to the

prostate gland mass. The acetabulum in

A. sphaerula is posterior to the zone of the

testes and prostate gland mass, while in A.

eptesict the acetabulum is on the same zone

with the testes and prostate gland mass.

A. nycteridis differs from A. eptesici in

having the spines of the genital atrium ar-

ranged in three separate groups, as illus-

trated by Faust (1919). Two specimens

collected by the writer from the brown bat

and identified as A. nycteridis show this char-

acteristic arrangement of spines (Fig. 3). In

254

Fig. 2.—Acanthatrium eptesici,

showing arrangement of spines in

the genital atrium. Ventral view.

Fig. 3.—Acanthatrium nycteridis, showing arrangement of spines in the genital

atrium. Ventral view.

274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

this species the spines vary from 15 to 22u in length by 7 to 11u wide at the

base. A. eptesict has long narrow spines, 11 to 22u long and about 2 to 4u

wide at the base and arranged in a single group (Fig. 2). The acetabulum in

A. nycteridis is post-testicular, while in A. eptesicz it is located in the testicular

zone.

Bhalerao (1926) collected some trematodes from a bat which he believed

to be morphologically identical with A. nycteridis. However, since the

uterine coils were arranged transversely and measurements of the body and

suckers were somewhat larger than those reported by Faust (1919), he

proposed a new variety, A. nycteridis plicati?. Since measurements are the

main differences and the arrangement of spines on the genital atrium are

presumably like A. nycteridis, differentiation of this variety from A. eptesici

is the same as for A. nycteridis.

THE GENUS ACANTHATRIUM

Faust (1919), characterized the genus Acanthatrium as having the testes

pre-acetabular in the same zone as the genital pore, and the vitellaria anterior

to the intestinal ceca. These characters may hold true for A. sphaerula and

A. nycteridis, but do not hold true in all cases for A. eptesici, which has the

testes in the acetabular zone; moreover, the vitellaria of the latter species

may or may not extend posterior to the intestinal ceca. It is, therefore,

essential that the diagnostic features of the genus Acanthatrium be modified

as follows: Lecithodendriinae; small flukes, spherical to pyriform in shape,

with a genital atrium lined with spines; prostate cells numerous; testes in

acetabular or pre-acetabular zones; vitellaria anterior or posterior to intestinal

ceca; excretory system, according to Faust (1919), with four groups of flame

cells for each half of the body, each group containing three flame cells. Para-

sites of the intestine of bats. Type species: A. nycteridis Faust, 1919.

LITERATURE CITED

Bhalerao, G. D.

1926—The intestinal parasites of the bat, Nyctinomus plicatus, with a list of the

trematodes hitherto recorded from Burma. J. Burma Research Soc., Rangoon,

15: pt. 3, Feb., 181-195, pl. 2, figs. 1-5.

Faust, E. C.

1919.—A new trematode, Acanthatrium nycteridis, nov. gen., nov. spec., from the

little brown bat. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc., Menasha, Wis., 38: (3), July, 209-215,

fig. 1, pl. 20.

Looss, A.

1896.—Recherches sur le faune parasitaire de l’Egypte. Mém. de l'Institut égypt.,

le Caire, 3: 1-252, pls. 1-16, figs. 1-193.

ZOOLOGY.—A new squirrel from Honduras.! E. A. GOLDMAN, Bio-

logical Survey.

The veteran collector of specimens and student of the natural history

of Costa Rica, Mr. C. F. Underwood, has recently transferred his

activities to the interior of Honduras. Among the mammals obtained

1 Received April 12, 1932.

MAY 19, 1932 GOLDMAN: A NEW SQUIRREL 279

is a squirrel which appears to have remained undescribed until the

present time.

Sciurus boothiae underwoodi subsp. nov.

Underwood’s Squirrel

Type.—From Monte Redondo, about 30 miles northwest of Tegucigalpa,

Honduras (altitude 5,100 feet). No. 250219, &@ adult, U. 8S. National

Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by C. F. Underwood,

December 8, 1931. Original number 644.

Distribution.—Known only from the type locality in the mountains of

central Honduras.

General characters.—Approaching Sciurus boothiae boothiae of northern

Honduras, but upper parts much paler, the general color grayer, less blackish,

and lacking the rufescent suffusion present in boothiae. Contrasting strongly

with S. b. annalium from “Honduras” in white under parts, sharply defined

laterally, instead of gray, passing gradually into color of sides. Somewhat

similar to S. variegatoides variegatoides of Salvador above, but under parts

white instead of tawny. General coloration suggesting that of S. goldmani

of Chiapas, Mexico, but markedly distinctive in detail, as follows: Post-

- auricular spots buffy instead of white; feet dark ochraceous buffy or black

instead of gray; dark ochraceous buff lateral line normally present (absent in

goldmanz) ; tail more extensively white.

Color.—Type: Upper parts in general light buff, moderately overlaid with

black; outer sides of limbs and feet ochraceous buff mixed with black; under

parts, including inner sides of forearms and thighs nearly pure white; a broad

ochraceous buff lateral line sharply separating abdominal area from general

tone of upper parts; ears narrowly edged with black, the tufts scanty and

indistinctly tawny; post-auricular spots extending up over median posterior

basal part of ears, ochraceous buff; feet edged along inner sides with ochra-

ceous buff; tail above conspicuously overlaid with silvery white, the long

white tips of hairs partially concealing a subterminal black zone, below

annulated, the hairs ochraceous buff at base, interrupted by a narrow black

band, followed by another ochraceous buff band and a subterminal black zone,

the white tips forming a distinct margin. In one specimen the feet are black

and there is no ochraceous buff lateral line separating white of abdomen from

general color of sides.

Skull.—About like those of S. b. boothiae and S. v. variegatoides, but broader

between orbits.

Measurements.—Type: Head and body, 241 mm.; tail vertebrae, 272;

hind foot, 60. Average of four adult topotypes: 240 (225-250); 285 (275-

300); 62 (60-65). Skull (type): Greatest length, 59.6; condylobasal length,

55.7; zygomatic breadth, 34.2; interorbital breadth, 21.3; length of nasals,

19.4; maxillary toothrow, 11.7.

Remarks.—Sciurus boothiae underwood: is a well-marked form, but it

approaches typical boothiae so closely in the more essential characters that

assignment to subspecific status seems fully warranted. Points of agreement

of boothiae with squirrels currently recognized as S. variegatoides, S. mana-

guensis, S. goldmani, S. adolphei, and S. yucatanensis strongly suggest that

all are representatives of a single very variable and widely ranging species.

Additional specimens are needed, however, from many regions to fill gaps in

known ranges and establish more exact relationships.

Specimens examined.—Six, from the type locality.

276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

246TH MEETING

The 246th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club on Thursday, February 18, 1932. About 100 persons were

present. President Apams called the meeting to order at 8:20 and introduced

as speaker of the evening, Doctor N. A. Coss of the Bureau of Plant In-

dustry, Retiring President of the Academy, who delivered an address on

Science as illustrated in the personnel and achievements of the Academy and its

eighteen affiliated societies.

The speaker emphasized the responsibility of the scientists of Washington

to develop an interest in the broad problems in which science touches the

general welfare as well as in the technical researches of their separate fields.

The address will be published in this JouRNAL.

247TH MEETING

The 247th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club on Thursday, March 17, 1932. About 75 persons were present.

President ADAMS called the meeting to order at 8:20 and introduced Doctor

W. H. Loneuery, Professor of Zodlogy at Goucher College, and Executive Offi-

cer, Tortugas Laboratory, Carnegie Institution, who delivered an illustrated

address on, The law of organic evolution and its place among the laws of kinetic

systems.

The author’s abstract follows:—It is possible to determine very accurately,

when known species of animals and plants received their accepted scientific

names. The date when each was first collected for scientific study may not

be fixed so precisely, though patient inquiry gives a fair approximation to fact.

But dates of naming depend on time of finding; and time of finding similarly

depends upon where species are. Moreover, the geographical distribution of

species is an effect of the very play of forces by which they were originally

made. Clearly, therefore, there is a possibility of getting new light upon

evolution through analysis of the statistical data of taxonomy and distribution.

Upon inquiry it appears that, on the average, species of the smallest genera

in natural groups which are collected with discrimination of material in the

field get their names sooner than others, and that in other generic sizes the

species enjoy no advantage one over another in the respect mentioned. In

respect to finding, species of larger genera tend to come to light earlier, those

of smaller genera later, though this way of putting the matter does not tell

quite the whole story. When the detailed results of the two analyses are

compared and further inquiry is made concerning the relation between time

of finding and area occupied, it is ascertainable that the species of large genera

occupy large, and those of small genera small average ranges.

This is a fact of utmost importance. It seems impossible to explain it

except by assuming that the many widespread (or able) species in the large

genera are descendants of able ancestral species which have had much success

in increasing the number of species of their general sort in the world, and that

the few and weak species of small genera are similarly the descendants of weak

ancestors which have had correspondingly small success in the production of

new kinds. But to say that this is the explanation of the correlation between

size of genus and average specific range within it is to affirm that evolution is a

MAY 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 207

fact, and that its process is Darwinian in principle. Variation, inheritance

and natural selection—with isolation, as may be shown also—unite in bringing

it to pass. The data of taxonomy and distribution establish the fact of

evolution and identify the factors concerned in it.

More still may be learned from consideration of the numerical relations of

genera and species. Evolution is not only a fact and Darwinian in principle

but occurs according to law. Still more, its law may be written in as definite

mathematical form as the laws of the “exact”’ sciences, and is one of a natural

group, of which the gas laws are most familiarly known.

Why this should be so may be stated briefly: The laws of gases express the

result of random action upon one another of their active units, the molecules.

It is as unnecessary and unprofitable, however, to limit the application of

kinetic theory to systems composed of such units as it would be to apply our

knowledge of falling bodies exclusively to those falling from rest. Within the

field of an amplified kinetic theory fall possible systems whose units (always

active and acting upon others at random) may be incapable of reproduction

and variation, or capable of either alone or of the two together.

All four suggested sorts of kinetic systems exist. Normal gases are

examples of the first. Their laws are the gas laws so-called. Glowing gases

compose the second group. Their units are atoms, capable of variation in

state, but incapable of reproduction. The exercise of their power of variabil-

ity is limited by the pressure in the system. The master law of such systems

is the law of distribution of energy in the line spectrum. If it had been the

first of gas-laws to be fully worked out, the elementary laws of gases might

have been derived from it by inspection.

Simple populations (populations composed of a single sort of organism)

are the third kind of system contemplated. Their units, the individual

organisms, have by definition no power of variation, but do have the power of

reproduction, limited in its exercise by the ‘‘pressure”’ prevailing in the

system. The master law of such systems is the law of population growth

expressed graphically by the logistic curve. There are also secondary laws

of simple populations, corollaries of the law of growth, which are structurally

the same as the laws of gases.!

Compound or species populations, second-order populations, such as all the

individuals of all the species of each great natural group of organisms compose,

are the most complex of the systems here considered. Their units (species)

reproduce and vary at the same time that they react with one another at

haphazard. The master law of these systems is a law of differentiation, or

of evolution, the law which the data of taxonomy and distribution affirm to

exist. Their lesser laws include a law of growth according to the logistic

curve and laws structurally like, or homologous with, the gas laws.

It is not suggested that in these several systems the action of unit upon

unit is precisely the same in kind. Let the action be, for example, after an

order capable of schematic representation as the result of mechanical impact

between ideally elastic spheres of molecular proportions and pressure may be

measured in millimetres of mercury. Let it be more subtle, as it is in the

organic systems, and it may be measured in terms of failure to maintain an

ideal rate of increase in the absence of checks.

The one method of measurement is as valid as the other, and a kinetic

theory of simple and second-order populations as completely justified as a

kinetic theory of gases, normal or glowing. The two, in fact, are so closely

akin that by omitting the specific and non-essential one statement may be

1 Longley, W.H. Science, 75: 248-250, Feb. 26, 1932.

278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

made to cover both and the portion of biology which deals with species in their

genera and ranges can be exhibited as an integral part of physics.

CHARLES TuHom, Recording Secretary.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

1019TH MEETING

The 1019th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, March 14, 1931, President Curtis presiding.

Program: W. F. Watts: The geographical distribution of magnetic dis-

turbances (illustrated).—The reduction and discussion, in the Department of

Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, of the

magnetic records obtained by the two MacMillan Arctic expeditions of

1921-1922 and 1923-1924 afforded an opportunity for comparing the effects

of magnetic disturbances in polar regions with other points on the earth’s

surface. In addition to MacMillan’s two Arctic stations at Bowdoin

Harbor on the southwest coast of Baffin Island and Refuge Harbor on the

northwest coast of Greenland, the records of the following stations were used

in the discussion: Sodankyla, Sitka, Cheltenham, Tucson, Vieques, Honolulu,

Antipolo, Huancayo, Vassouras, and Watheroo. The two magnetic storms

of March 14, 1922, and January 29, 1924, were selected, and comparisons were

made by computing for each hour of each storm the excess energy of the

magnetic field per cubic centimer (AH) due to the disturbance, as represented

by the equation

AE = (X,AX + Y.AY + Z,AZ)/(4r) + [(AX)? + (AY)? + (AZ)?]/(87)

As a check use was made also of the expression

ARR = | (AX)? te (AN )* (Ane

which represents the change in space of the total-intensity vector. The

numerical mean values of AE and AR for the durations of the storm and the

auroral-frequency numbers of the stations as taken from Fritz’s curves, when

plotted in relation to magnetic latitude, indicate a close relation between the

auroral frequency and the distribution of magnetic disturbances. On comput-

ing algebraic, instead of numerical means of the hourly values of A#, it is

found that the average excess energy produced by these storms is positive for

the stations within the auroral zone but negative for all the other stations.

Evidences are presented to show that different types of magnetic disturbance

are propagated around the earth with different velocities. Possible causes of

magnetic disturbances are briefly considered. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. GisH and HUMPHREYS.

H. C. Dickinson: Scientific automobilza (illustrated).—Among the questions

often asked by scientists and those who are interested in motor vehicle de-

sign and operation from the scientific side are some which merit particular

attention.

Some of the scientific as well as the practical aspects of the following

subjects were discussed.

The engine and complete power-plant in relation to performance and

efficiency of the vehicle, including the process of ‘‘free wheeling.”’

The steering mechanism, its mechanics and geometry and its relationship

to safety of operation.

Brakes, of various types, their capacity, limitations and safe use as related

to roads and road-surfaces.

Motor fuels, in relation to starting, satisfactory operation, vapor lock, fuel

knock, fuel dopes and premium fuels and fuel economy.

MAY 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 279

Lubrication, types of lubricating oils and their relationship to safe lubrica-

tion and proper operation. 3

Anti-freeze compounds, of three general classes, and their relative merits

and demerits.

Spark plugs.

Fuel pumps.

Headlighting and some of the obscure points involved in the method of

highway lighting. (Auwthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. ApaMs, GisH, HAWKESWORTH, and WHITE.

1020TH MEETING

The 1020th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, March 28, 1931, President Curtis, presiding.

Program: J. W. GREEN and L. H. Apams: The effect of pressure on the mag-

netic inversion point in iron and other materials (illustrated).—This codperative

investigation by L. H. Apams and J. W. GREEN, of the Geophysical Labora-

tory and Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, respectively, both of the

Carnegie Institution of Washington, was undertaken principally because of

its bearing on the earth’s magnetic field and its relation to the problem of the

central iron-cores. The object was to determine whether or not the tem-

perature at which iron and other ferromagnetic substances pass from the

magnetic to the non-magnetic state is affected by an increase of pressure.

The specimens of the materials under investigation were made up as the

core of a miniature transformer or induction-unit, and placed in an electrically

heated pressure-bomb. A six-volt alternating-current was supplied to the

primary of the transformer and the output from the secondary was amplified,

rectified, and carried to a direct-reading galvanometer.

The temperature of the inversion-point, indicated by the galvanometer

reading dropping to zero, was measured by means of platinum-platinrhodium

thermocouples.

Five ferromagnetic metals were used in the investigations, namely, iron,

nickel, nickel-steel, magnetite, and meteoric iron. The pressure medium was

carbon-dioxide and determinations were made at pressures up to 2,000 atmos-

pheres for iron and magnetite, 2,200 atmospheres for nickel, 2,600 atmos-

pheres for nickel-steel, and, in the case of meteoric iron, 3,600 atmospheres.

The results indicate that pressure has practically no effect on the inversion-

point, although the possibility of a slight decrease is not excluded as there was

a slight tendency toward depression, especially in the case of nickel-steel and

meteoric iron.

On the whole, it seems a fair inference that the pressure-coefficient of the

magnetic inversion-point remains zero or negative even at the high pressures

in the earth’s interior and that consequently the permeability of the nickel-

iron core of the earth is not significantly higher than that of ordinary rocks.

(Authors’ abstract.)

The paper was presented by J. W. GREEN and was discussed by Messrs.

ADAMS, BRICKWEDDE, GIBSON, GisH, Heck, HumpHreys, and TuCcKERMAN.

R. F. Menu: Radiography with gamma rays (illustrated).—The studies

carried out at the Naval Research Laboratory during the last two years upon

the use of gamma rays from radium or radon for the inspection of metallic

objects (castings, welds, etc.) for defects were described. The physical

characteristics of gamma rays which distinguish the radiographic results

obtained from those of X-rays were pointed out and briefly discussed. An

experimentally determined exposure curve relating thickness to exposure time

(milligram-hours) serves to determine the length of exposure for any given

280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

object. The application of the method to two large castings in Naval vessels

was described and illustrated. The definition and sensitivity obtained is

entirely satisfactory, even up to 7” of steel. Radiographs have been prepared

of thicknesses over 10’, but the requirement of radium or of exposure time

becomes very great. Research now under way indicates the successful de-

velopment of faster films, which will mean that the exposure times now

necessary will be greatly diminished or (which amounts to the same thing)

lesser quantities of radium will be required. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. BRICKWEDDE, HAWKESWORTH, and TuCcKERMAN.

Informal communication: L. B. TuckerRMAN: Inelastic impact of three

perfectly elastic and perfectly smooth spheres.

Discussed by GIBSON.

1021sT MEETING

The 1021st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, April 11, 1931, President Curtis presiding.

Program: A. B. Lewis, E. L. Haun, and F. L. CoLwEuu: Some properties of

foreign and domestic micas (illustrated).—A number of samples of mica,

fairly representative of the major sources of the world’s supply of mica, have

been tested for their dielectric constant, power factor, dielectric strength,

and ability to withstand elevated temperatures. Average values are given

for the dielectric constant and power factor at radio frequencies, and for the

_ deviations from these average values which must be expected in commercial

lots of mica. It is shown that stains and inclusions seriously affect the power

factor of a sample, but have much less effect on the dielectric strength. Most

of the samples were unaffected by exposure to temperatures up to 600°C.,

but above that temperature only the phlogopites can be said to have success-

fully withstood the elevated temperatures. On the basis of these data it was

not possible to distinguish between micas of like commercial grades obtained

from different geographical localities. (Authors’ abstract.)

The paper was presented by A. B. Lewis and discussed by Messrs. SILSBEE,

BRoOMBACHER, Piaccott, HUMPHREYS and CuRTIS.

Empert A. LeLacueur: Tidal phenomena in Long Island Sound (il-

lustrated). (Published in this JouRNAL 21: 239.)

Discussed by Messrs. HumpHrReYs, MArRMmrR, and CurRTIS.

1022ND MEETING

The 1022nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, April 25, 1931, President Curtis presiding.

Program: W.J. Perers and J. W. Green: A photographic method of chang-

ing the ratio of ordinate-scale to abscissa-scale (illustrated).—This method is

proposed for the purpose of reproducing magnetograms or other continuous

photographie records made at different observatories on the same scales as

regards both time and value of magnetic or other recorded element with all

the minutiae of detail. Two photographic exposures are made, one of the

photographic record, the second of the resulting negative. In both exposures

the sensitized paper is inclined at predetermined angles which depend upon the

magnifications required of the abscissae and ordinates, respectively, and upon

the condition that the respective scales be uniform throughout the final

positive. Theoretically there is no limit to the choice of ratio desired between

the scale of ordinate and the scale of abscissa. Practically the limit is fixed by

the depth of focus available, and the smallest stop usable, or by the number of

repetitions of the operation of two exposures. Experiments were made in

which the final ordinates were made about three times as long as the original

MAY 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 281

with respect to the abscissae in the one operation of two exposures. (Authors’

abstract.)

The paper was presented by W. J. Prermers and discussed by Messrs.

Briaes and TucKERMAN.

CuHaRLes Birrincer: Color (illustrated).—The technique of painting

changeable pictures which are perfectly normal in day-light or ordinary

artificial light, is done by using pigment mixtures which have a subjective

similarity but an objective difference.

The reason our organs of sight do not detect this objective difference is

due to the fact that the eye is not an analytical receptor, that is, the eye does

not examine the component parts of the sensation but accepts it as a unit.

When pictures containing these pigments are illuminated by light con-

taining a few adjacent wave-lengths, a different brightness relation takes

place; when the pictures are illuminated by dichroic or trichroic light, a hue

difference as well as a relative brightness difference takes place. In this way a

new picture can be made to take the place of the one seen in white light.

A fleeting after-image was demonstrated by means of a Bidwell rotating

disk. A red light was made to turn green when seen through the open seg-

ment. A change in frequency, brightness ratios, or observer may weaken the

effect or cause the appearance of other phases of the complete after-image.

None of the attempts at explaining the entire phenomenon is generally

accepted. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. LAMBERT, CRITTENDEN, WRIGHT and Mraaurs.

1023RD MEETING

The 1023rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, May 9, 1931, President Curtis presiding.

Program: H. L. Drypnn: Motion pictures of the flow of air and of the travel

of sound waves (Japanese highspeed movies).—The films which were exhibited

were taken in the laboratories of the Aeronautical Research Institute of Tokyo

Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan, by Professor T. Suhara and his assistants

under the general supervision of Baron C. Shiba, the director of the institute.

The films were presented to Dr. George K. Burgess, the director of the Bureau

of Standards, by Baron Shiba. These pictures, commonly known as the

Baron Shiba pictures, have attracted world-wide attention, some of them havy-

ing been made at the amazing speed of 40,000 pictures per second.

The motion of air may be made visible in two ways. The first is by the use

of floating bodies, such as balloons, particles of dust, or smoke-clouds. The

motion of these objects represents the motion of the air only insofar as the

weight, size, and temperature of the particles do not produce differences. We

may also in a sense see the motion of air in another way, namely, by means of

the changes in density produced by the motion. The changes in density

deflect rays of light from a straight line. Everyone has in this manner “‘seen”’

the air rising from a hot body such as the radiator of an automobile. One

may also stand in the wind with a long thin plate such as a saw-blade and,

sighting along the edge toward some bright object, see the ‘‘waterfall’’ over

the edge. In the pictures shown there were examples of both methods.

Three reels dealt with the flow of air made visible by smoke. The smoke

itself is rather interesting. Studies in this country have been made either by

the use of titanium tetrachloride, the smoke of the smoke-screen or smoke-

bomb and incidentally highly corrosive, or by the use of tobacco-smoke.

Professor Suhara used an incense-smoke, the smoke from sénko, a substance

commonly burned in Japan when visiting tombs.

282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

The air-flow was produced by a suction fan at one end of a long box with

glass side walls, the box being about 7 feet long, 2 feet deep, and 1-1/2 inches

wide, i.e. between the glass walls. The glass walls were vertical and the

models were placed horizontally between them. Upstream from the model

was placed a vertical pipe with a number of small holes from which the smoke

issued. The speed of the air was about 7 miles per hour and the pictures were

taken with a commercial high-speed camera at the rate of 120 per second.

The smoke-particles therefore moved about 1 inch between exposures and the

separate particles were not seen, the smoke-streams appearing as white lines.

The field of view covered by the camera was roughly 1 foot square. The

flow about a flat plate, a triangular prism, a circular cylinder at rest and

rotating, a semi-circular barrier and an elliptic cylinder were illustrated by

the first film. The second film showed the flow around various airfoil sections

used for airplane wings, and the third film showed the flow through various

types of orifices, nozzles, and valves.

The fourth film showed some pictures of the travel of sound-waves, taken

at a rate of 40,000 pictures per second, the sound-waves being made visible

by their effect in deflecting rays of light from a straight line.

The camera is very ingenious. A single strip of film about 12 feet long is

secured along the inner surface of a drum about 4 feet in diameter, which is

rotated at about 3750 r.p.m. The heart of the mechanism is a revolving

mirror in the shape of a frustrum of a regular polygonal pyramid of 180 sides

which is rotated at approximately 14,000 r.p.m. The image is formed on the

film by a fixed lens. Light after passing through the lens is reflected from

each of the 180 mirrors in turn to the film, the relative speeds of the film-drum

and rotating mirror being such that the image is stationary with respect to the

film. The pictures taken by the camera are about 1/7-inch square and about

1,000 can be taken on a strip of film. Ata rate of 40,000 per second, pictures

can be taken continuously for about 1/40 second. The small pictures are

enlarged to standard size.

The film showed the travel of sound-waves set up by an electric spark in

enclosures of various shapes, circular, triangular, and elliptical. (Author’s

abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Curtis, HumpHrReys, and TucKERMAN.

Informal communication: W. J. Humpureys: The vibration of stretched

wires exposed to strong air-currents.

Discussed by Messrs. HAWKESWoRTH, TUCKERMAN, and DRYDEN.

G. R. Wart, Recording Secretary.

1024TH MEETING

The 1024th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, May 23 1931, President Curtis presiding.

Program: C. Moon: Problems in the measurement of the length of a single

layer solenoid with an accuracy of one part in a million (illustrated).

Discussed by Messrs. Hern, TuckKERMAN, Dryprn, Jupson, KSsANDA,

L. H. Apams, and GisH.

P. R. Herz: The prospective of modern physics.—The most striking feature

of modern physics both from its strangeness and its ubiquity, is the radical

change in the nature of the concepts dealt with, a change away from material-

ism and toward the insubstantial. Matter has become a form of energy;

atoms are vibration in something the nature of which is not yet clear. Nothing

remains but shadows of former realities.

And these shadows are vague and ill defined. Heisenberg’s uncertainty

principle asserts that we can know accurately only about half of all measurable

MAY 19, 1952 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 283

quantities, and that an attempt to improve the precision of our knowledge

of this half automatically interferes with our obtaining a like knowledge of the

other half.

Even space and time have become blended, as Minkowski tells us. This

involves the introduction of hypergeometry into the realms of physics, a

thing utterly taboo not more than forty years ago.

And Dirac has called into question the fundamental character of our

number concept, suggesting that the really fundamental things of Nature are

incapable of expression numerically, and that numerical relations begin to

appear only when we reach combinations of these fundamentals of a certain

degree of complexity.

The remarkable thing about all this is that it is possible to cut more closely

to Nature’s lines by means of these shadowy concepts than was possible under

the older materialistic régime. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. HuMPpHREYS, HAWKESWORTH, WHITE and TUCKER-

MAN.

L. V. Jupson, Corresponding Secretary.

1025TH MEETING

The 1025th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, October 10, 1931, President Curtis presiding.

Program: F. B.S1nsBne: Composite coil instruments for precise a.c. measure-

ments (illustrated).—This paper describes a new type of electrodynamic

instrument adapted for use in measuring alternating current, voltage, and

power at the frequencies used in power circuits. Both the fixed and moving

coils are formed of separate windings insulated from each other. One set of

windings carries the alternating currents to be measured, while the other set

carries direct current supplied by a 12-volt storage battery. The direct

currents can be set by suitable control rheostats to that one of a series of

definite values at which the torque produced by them is approximately equal

and opposite to the a.c. torque. Any unbalanced difference in torques causes

a deflection of the moving coil which is read by the location of a line of light

on the instrument scale. The value of the direct current is obtained by

comparing the drop in a known resistance with the voltage of a standard

cell.

In this way the bulk of the quantity under measurement is referred directly

to the standard cell and the errors in scale reading, spring fatigue, self-heating,

etc., affect only a small part (2 per cent of full scale value) of the total indica-

tion. The use of an astatic double system greatly reduces the effect of the

earth’s magnetic field and at the same time can be used to compensate for the

otherwise large effects of mutual inductance between the a.c. and the d.c.

windings. Instruments of this type can readily be designed to have a preci-

sion of reading equivalent to that of an ordinary instrument with 1500 scale-

divisions and still have a period of 3.5 seconds, and an accuracy approaching

0.01 per cent. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. HAwkKESWoRTH, TUCKERMAN, GIBSON, and WHITE.

W. P. Waits: The insulation of thermels and other points of thermel tech-

nique (illustrated).—Shortly after its introduction the highly sensitive copper-

constantan or iron-constantan thermel (thermoelectric thermometer) gave

results of outstanding precision in calorimetry. But most of these were for

short periods, and measurements with thermels over periods of an hour or

more were found to show slight errors which were so frequent that they almost

came to be regarded as normal. After a good many years an attempt was

made to investigate the sources of these errors with a view to removing them.

284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

There is every indication of success in this attempt, and if these indications are

confirmed, the precision which can be relied upon will have been increased

some ten-fold.

Greater precision in the comparison temperature, which is always needed

for reading single temperatures with thermels of any description, has ap-

parently been obtained, although this part of the investigation is not com-

pleted. Error from inhomogeneity of the wires has, by suitably locating the

proper point for the temperature gradient, been reduced to 0.0001° in reading

with an ice bath, and to a fraction of that when the comparison body is near

the temperature of the other end of the thermel.

The very highest insulation, 50,000 megohms or more, is desirable or

necessary. It can be obtained by drying out the thermel itself at about 120°,

preferably by means of air, repeatedly pumped out, and then sealing the end

of the glass inclosure where the leads emerge. ‘Two sealing compounds which

do not show surface leakage even in a saturated atmosphere and which will

remain dry under ordinary conditions, are picein and resin with 6 per cent of

albolene.

A convenient arrangement of the terminals outside this seal has been

devised, which allows ready reversal both of the two halves of the thermel

and of the connecting cable, thus detecting some of the very unlikely errors

now remaining, should they occur. (Awthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. KracreK, STIMSON, and BRICKWEDDE.

A. B. Lewis: A clock-controlled constant-frequency generator (illustrated).—

A synchronous motor generator set is described in which the motor is forced to

rotate in synchronism with signals from a standard clock circuit. This result

is obtained by first running a specially wound motor synchronously from a

3-phase commercial power line. The field of this synchronous motor is then

electrically rotated about the motor frame by an amount which exactly com-

pensates for the departure of the frequency of the commercial power from true

60 cycles. This rotation of the motor field is produced by a rotary synchro-

scope, which is in turn controlled by thyratron tubes, the grids of which are

excited by a clock-driven tuning fork. The output of the generator is used to

operate cycle counters, synchronous timers, or other light synchronous

machinery.

The possibilities and limitations of the machine are discussed and data

are given to indicate the accuracy (+ 0.004 sec.) which may be expected from

the machine when used as a timing device. Safety devices are described which

shut down the machine should it for any reason fall out of synchronism with

the clock signals or hunt excessively. The machine has an ultimate load

capacity of 4 kw and can take a suddenly applied load of 2 kw without serious

hunting. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. L. H. ADAMS, WHITE, KSANDA, SILSBEE, and GIBSON.

1026TH MEETING

The 1026th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, October 24, 1931, President Curtis presiding.

The program was the occasion of the first Joseph Henry Lecture, in memory

of the first President of the Philosophical Society of Washington.

The lecture of the evening, Certain aspects of Henry’s experiments on

electromagnetic induction, was delivered by JosppH S. Amzs, President of

Johns Hopkins University. (Published in this JouRNAL 21: 493).

1027TH MEETING

The 1027th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, November 7, 1931, President Curtis presiding.

MAY 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 285

Program: C.S. Barrett: Imperfection in crystals (illustrated).—The X-ray

reflecting power of a crystal depends on its perfection. If a rather perfect

crystal be rendered imperfect at its surface by grinding, the X-ray reflection

from these surfaces is much more intense than from interior points. This may

be shown by the nature of the spots on a Laue photograph. If a quartz plate

be oscillated piezo-electrically, an unusual distribution of reflecting power

results. A study of this distribution shows that the reflecting power of a

given atomic plane varies greatly from point to point in the crystal, while at a

given point in the crystal the reflecting powers of different planes are affected

differently. This phenomenon differs from that resulting from grinding the

surfaces. Experiments indicate that the phenomenon in oscillating quartz

is due to strain gradients, and that it affords a new means of analysis of

modes of vibrations of quartz oscillators and resonators, and of inhomogenous

strains in other suitable crystalline materials. (Avuthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. HAWKESWORTH and KRACEK.

S. B. Henpricks: Group motions in solid molecular and ionic compounds

(illustrated).—Crystal structure determinations for sodium nitrate and

ammonium nitrate indicate that the nitrate groups are rotating in these solids

before the melting points are reached. The excitation of group rotation is

accompanied by abnormal changes in such properties as the specific volume,

the heat capacity, and the crystal structure. In the case of sodium nitrate

the setting in of the rotation is gradual while in ammonium nitrate it occurs at

polymorphic transition points.

Group rotation occurs in the ammonium and substituted ammonium

halides, and probably in the hydrogen halides. It is also to be observed in a

number of molecular compounds such as hydrogen, methane, and ethane.

(Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Barrett, L. H. Apams, Curtis, Kracrex, and

HAWKESWORTH.

L. B. TuckmRMAN, in an informal communication, called attention to

Arthur Eddington’s article, On the value of the cosmical constant. The following

is an abstract of his remarks:

Many years ago Ernst Mach pointed out that in a thoroughgoing theory of

relativity the mass of any particle would represent, not a property of its own,

but its interaction with all the other particles in the Universe. Einstein, as

well as others, has emphasized this viewpoint but no explicit expression of it

has previously been embodied in any of the forms of the general theory of

relativity.

In a recent number of the Proceedings of the Royal Society (Series A, Vol.

133, No. A822, pp. 605-615) Eddington, by an argument based on relativity

considerations, identifies the mass term 27m c a/h in Dirac’s wave equation

of an electron with ~/ N/R where N is the number of electrons in the universe,

and F is the radius of the Einstein world.

This in connection with the Einstein equations enables him to calculate

the number of electrons in the universe, the radius of the universe and in

consequence the nebular red shift in terms of quantities which can be measured

in the laboratory. He finds for the number of electrons in the universe

ar? e4

hes 4G°M?m?

286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10.

and for the nebular red shift expressed as a speed of recession v per unit

distance d

vy 2 GMmie

qt /3 ret

where e = the charge of an electron, m = the mass of an electron, M = the

mass of a proton, G = the constant of gravitation, and c = the velocity of

light.

The value of the red shift calculated from the laboratory data on G, M, n

and ¢ gives

7 = 528 km per second per megaparsec

while the value found from astronomical observations ranges from 430 to 530

km per second per megaparsec according to different observers.

It seems probable that this contribution of Eddington’s will prove to be

one of the foundation stones of the coming synthesis of the theory of the

physical universe.

1028TH MEETING

The 1028th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, November 21, 1931, President Curtis presiding.

Program: N. H. Heck: Background and history of investigation of strong

earthquake motions (illustrated).—While instruments to record strong earth-

quake motions were developed in China as early as 146 A.D., and while a

number of seismologists have been interested in this problem, it is only recently

that, as a result of investigations in Japan and in the United States, such

measurements have become a factor in the design of buildings and structures

to resist earthquakes.

The importance of the problem has steadily increased as regions subject to

severe earthquakes have become centers of population with the resulting

congestion of buildings, large and small, containing large numbers of people

and valuable property and records. Other structures such as bridges, dams,

and water supply systems are of almost equal importance. Engineers

through investigations of earthquake effects and by testing models on shaking

platforms have erected buildings intended to resist earthquakes but feel

great need for actual observations of earthquake intensity.

Prominent civil engineers visiting Japan at the time of the World Engineer-

ing Congress in 1929 became interested in this problem and the last Congress

made an appropriation to the Coast and Geodetic Survey to develop instru-

ments and make measurements of strong earthquake movements. ‘The in-

struments described have included a starting device, a three-component

accelerometer, and two types of automatic recorders. On account of paper

cost the record must be started by the earthquake. Through effective co-

operation, the starting device has been developed by the Massachusetts Insti-

tute of Technology, the accelerometer by the Bureau of Standards, and the

recorders by the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The instruments have not yet

been tested by an earthquake but have been severely tested on shaking plat-

forms. They give excellent promise of giving the desired results when in-

stalled in earthquake regions. (Author’s abstract.)

FRANK WENNER: Development of accelerometers at the Bureau of Standards

(illustrated).—In the design of buildings, bridges, etc., to have the maximum

MAY 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 287

resistance to earthquake shocks consistent with reasonable cost, the structural

engineer needs fairly definite information concerning the probable ground

movements in order to predict the forces to which various parts of the struc-

tures may be subjected. Presumably the ground movement within the

destructive area of major earthquakes, while decidedly irregular, is for the

most part back and forth about an equilibrium position, and so may be con-

sidered as a series of superimposed, damped harmonic motions of various

periods. According to the experience of the Japanese, it is those components

of the motions having periods of from one to three seconds which are mainly

responsible for the destruction of property. The only known means of

obtaining records of these movements is by means of a seismometer, and it

seems generally to be assumed that a seismometer should have a period

approximately the same as that of the components of the ground movement

considered most significant. However, a seismometer having a period of

from one to three seconds would give neither reasonably accurate records of

the accelerations, of the velocities, nor of the displacements associated with

ground movements having periods within this range, and consequently would

give little if any data of value to the structural engineer. If the period of the

instrument were rather long, 10 seconds or more, reasonably accurate records

of the displacements would be obtained, but on account of the irregularity of

the movements such records would scarcely serve for a determination of the

forces transmitted to structures. On the other hand, a very short period

instrument gives directly the accelerations, which must be known if the

forces are to be calculated. The instrument shown here, which is one of three

constituting a set—one for each of the three perpendicular components of the

ground movement—has a period of one-tenth second and is so damped that it

gives reasonably accurate records of all accelerations which either remain

constant for 0.04 second or more, or have periods of 0.15 second or more.

With the photographic recording paper at a distance of 50 cm. from the

mirror the displacement on the record is approximately 2.5 cm. for an accelera-

tion of one-tenth gravity. The instrument is 12—-1/2 cm. high and has a

mass slightly in excess of 1500 grams. The steady mass of approximately

4 grams is supported by quadrifilar suspensions and has a reduced length of

approximately one cm. The paper was illustrated by diagrams and a table

showing the relations between accelerations of different periods and the

corresponding displacements. These will be reproduced in a paper to be

published shortly in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America.

(Author’s abstract.)

M. W. Bravunuicu: The contact accelerometer as a starting device for use

with a strong earthquake accelerometer (illustrated, read by H. E. McComs).—

The instrument consists essentially of a steady mass of about 200 grams

mounted as an inverted pendulum on thin, steel springs and free to oscillate

in one plane. The steady mass is held away from its natural position of rest

by a micrometer screw, the contact between screw point and steady mass

being in a closed electrical circuit. When the accelerations reach or exceed a

certain predetermined value the contact is broken due to the inertia of the

mass and a relay is operated which in turn closes or opens other circuits which

may start the accelerometer recorder. This particular type has the advantage

over other mechanically operating types in that it is free from friction. It is

recommended that six of these accelerometers be used in series, orienting them

in different directions and in the vertical in order to insure operation of at

least one component regardless of the direction of the initial impulse. Tests

indicate that one of the instruments will get a recorder into operation in less

than 0.19 second after the impulse. (Author’s abstract.)

288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10.

D. L. Parkuurst: Automatic electric recorders (illustrated).—The auto-

matic electric recorder operates continuously. The drum carries photographic

paper but there is no recording until the electric light is turned on by the

starting accelerometer as described elsewhere. At the same time as the light,

a time recording mechanism and a warning signal must be switched on. The

recorder operates for half an hour and then stops automatically. Since many

strong earthquakes have a single shock, arrangement is made to turn off the

light after a few minutes, the record not resuming unless another earthquake

occurs.

Cost is saved by making the recording drum from a commercial aluminum

cooking kettle. :

There are two driving motors, one an induction motor driven from the

110-volt lighting circuit and the other a direct current motor driven from a

dry cell to operate in case the line current is cut off through the earthquake.

Change from a.c. to d.c. and back is made without change of speed of drum.

The needed gear reduction is accomplished by adding a third motor which

runs idle and which is so built as to give the needed reduction.

Practically all the details are standard commercial articles and this reduces

the cost, an important matter since the number of installations is consider-

able. (Author’s abstract.)

H. E. McComs: An automatic-starting recorder with motor-clock drive for

use with accelerometers (illustrated).—A motor-clock-driven recorder has been

developed for use in connection with the registration of records made by an

earthquake accelerometer. It consists essentially of a commercial motor

clock, equipped with ball governor, which drives a drum at the desired pe-

ripheral speed for about 20 minutes. Lamp and cylindrical lens are provided

for use in photographic registration. The device is automatically started by

means of suitable trigger devices operated by means of a Braunlich contact

accelerometer. The recorder is well adapted for shaking table tests and has

been used in testing accelerometers of different types. (Author’s abstract.)

After presentation of the above papers there were discussions by Messrs.

Heck, WricHt, WENNER, L. H. Apams, BLAK#, and CurTIS.

W. J. Humpureys in an informal communication, White lightning and red

lightning, stated that it is reported that white lightning starts more fires than

red lightning and discussed the reasons why this should be true.

G. R. Wart, Recording Secretary.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

480TH MEETING

The 480th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, October 28, 1931, President

MBEINZER presiding.

Program: Puiuip B. Kine: Permian limestone reefs in the Van Horn region

of Texas.—In the van Horn region of west Texas, Permian rocks make up the

greater part of the mountain crests, and in places extend nearly if not quite

to their bases. The combined thickness of the various partial sections of the

series exposed in the different ranges is about 7000 feet. The series overlies

all the older formations of the region, including rocks of Pennsylvanian age,

with great unconformity. Deposition throughout the epoch was nearly

continuous and undisturbed by diastrophism or incursions of clastic sediments.

Uniform conditions persisted throughout long periods of time, so that there

is an unusual development of different lithologic and faunal facies. Changes

between facies are abrupt both laterally and vertically, giving rise, seemingly,

to a variety of formations and faunas in each vertical section.

MAY 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 289

Recent work by J. B. Knight and the writer leads to the conclusion that

the controlling factor in the changes of facies was the persistent growth of

long limestone reef barriers. In Sierra Diablo and the Baylor Mountains,

where the chief studies were made, such reefs extend through a stratigraphic

section 3000 feet thick and have been traced for a linear distance of 30 miles.

The reefs are preserved as massive limestones and dolomites with irregular

original dips, which contain a fauna of massive algae, sponges, bryozoa, and

corals, as well as crinoids with large columns, and thick-shelled brachiopods.

To the northeast the reef beds interfinger in a short distance with black lime-

stones and siliceous shales containing ramose and frond-like bryozoa, thinly

shelled and spinose brachiopods, and a locally developed rich molluscan fauna;

these strata were probably deposited in the open sea. On the opposite or

southwestern side, the reef limestones merge into thinly bedded dolomites

abounding in fusulinids, which in turn give place to limestones and marls with

a restricted fauna characterized by the abundance of a relatively few species

of gastropods and brachiopods. The beds behind the reefs are considered to

be of lagoonal origin.

These abrupt lateral changes from one facies to another are particularly

confusing in stratigraphic work because the lagoonal faunas are so conserva-

tive that they have often been assigned to a Pennsylvanian age, whereas the

open sea faunas, even near the base of the Permian have a decidedly Guada-

lupian aspect. Future attempts to classify the Permian must recognize the

profound influences of facies on the faunas, and a search must be made for

fossils of limited vertical and wide horizontal range. The most promising

groups for purposes of classification now appear to be the ammonoids and

the fusulinids. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. GOLDMAN, Capps, and FERGUSON.

F. C. Cauxins: Petrography of drill cuttings from saline pe ae

Discussed by Mr. GILuu.y.

RoBERT VAN V. ANDERSON: Geology in the coast ranges of Western Algeria.—

The Atlas ranges and intervening plateaus of northern Algeria represent a

somewhat elevated, wrinkled and in part broken, less stable fringe, some two

hundred miles wide, along the more stable continental mass farther south.

Of this fringe the Tell Atlas, or Mediterranean Coastal ranges, occupying a

belt about fifty to seventy-five miles wide on the north, form a zone of greater

instability, in which a larger amount and the latest accretions of deformation

have taken place. The rocks are mainly Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary

marine sediments, with scattered outcrops of more ancient strata, the latter

appearing especially adjacent to the coast.

The whole French north African continental border was uplifted in the

post-Eocene Alpine revolution, but portions of the Tell Atlas belt were later

subjected to repeated submergence beneath the sea, reemergence and folding.

The Miocene-Pliocene marine section comprises a thickness of over ten

thousand feet. The principal epochs of emergence and deformation in the

later Tertiary were after the early Miocene, to a lesser extent after the late

Miocene, and again during and after the Pliocene. The present structural

and topographic forms in the coastal ranges of western Algeria are essentially

of Quaternary origin and modification. The superficial crustal movements

in these coast ranges have been to a considerable extent in the nature of local

warping and compressional folding, with faults more in the nature of read-

justments than as primary structural forms. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Stosr, Hess, Hewett, GoLDMAN, ALDEN, ATWOOD,

and STEPHENSON.

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, no. 10.

481sT MEETING

The 481st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November 11, 1931,

President MrINzER presiding.

Informal Communications: H. D. Miser reported the rediscovery of

mercury ores recently near Murfreesboro, Pike County, Arkansas. The ore

occurs in cracks in sandstone but does not impregnate it. The ore iscinnabar

with minor amounts of native mercury, quartz, and dickite.

C. 8. Ross.—Associated with the cinnabar in Pike County, Arkansas, is

the clay mineral dickite of the kaolin group. Dickite is always of hydro-

thermal origin and its association with the mercury ores throws light on their

origin.

Discussed by Hess.

R. C. WE tts reported the discovery of the new element number 87. This

element belongs to the alkali group and was extracted from the mineral

samarskite by Dr. Rapisch of Cornell Uiversity.

Regular Program: F. E. Matrues.—Walter Penck’s concept of the “Primary

Peneplain (Primarriimpf).”’

Discussed by Messrs. Mrinzier, MmRTIE, and Capps.

JAMES M. Hiuu: A problem of beryllium ores —Within the last three years,

or since 1928, there has developed a limited market for commercial beryl as

distinct from gem material. The commercial beryl should contain not less

than eight to ten per cent BeO, and at the present time is quoted at about

- $50.00 a ton. This demand arises from the discovery that a small quantity

of beryllium added to aluminum and aluminum-magnesia alloys gives a sur-

prising strength and corrosion resistance to the resulting metal. It appears

that these beryllium-aluminum alloys will have a wide use in airplane con-

struction and in several other industries where lightness and great strength

are required. The chief markets are in Germany and the United States. In

this country the Beryllium Development Corporation has acquired practically

all of the patent rights covering the production of chemical beryllia (BeO) as

well as the patents covering the various alloys. This company has expended

considerable money in research work during the past three years and is now

endeavoring to obtain a supply of beryl.

So far as I know, beryl occurs only in pegmatite lenses and the chief pro-

duction in the past has come from the New England and Piedmont states in

the east and the Black Hills in the central part of the United States. There

are some properties in the Union of South Africa worked primarily for gem

beryl that are producing and shipping commercial beryl to both Germany

and the United States. It was my privilege to examine several pegmatite

deposits in the far west during 1929 with a view to obtaining a commercial

supply of beryl and it seems reasonable to believe that several of these de-

posits can produce. Probably no one mine can supply more than a few tons

of beryl a day at best, and in most of them the production will be of the order

of a few tons a week or month.

My examinations showed that besides the beryl crystals, which can be

hand sorted, there is in some deposits as much as sixty per cent of the total

BeO content of the rock in the form of very finely divided beryl mixed with

quartz and feldspar. Such material could not be hand sorted and wet con-

centration methods are impossible because all of the minerals have approxi-

mately the same specific gravity. In some experimental work I did, looking

for a method of separation of the material, I was able to recover fifty to

seventy-five per cent of this fine beryl in a flotation concentrate that contained

from ten to as much as twelve per cent BeO. All of my work so far has been

MAY 19, 1932 OBITUARY 291

on a laboratory scale and there are many kinks in the metallurgy which will

have to be ironed out in commercial practice. I believe that to obtain an

adequate supply of beryl it will be necessary to operate a considerable number

of mines on a relatively small scale at each place and that surely some form

of metallurgy will have to be used in order to get as much of the beryl content

of the ore as possible. Most of these deposits will have to be operated for

either quartz, feldspar or mica, and the beryl will be a valuable by-product.

I have seen no deposits as yet which I believe can be operated for bery] alone.

(Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. STEIGER, SCHALLER, SCHAIRER, R. C. WELLS, and

HEss.

G. R. MANSFIELD: Further developments in the geology of southeastern Idaho.—

Areal geologic maps (on the scale of 1:62,500) of the Ammon and Paradise

Valley quadrangles, the latest for which field work has been completed in

south-eastern Idaho, were exhibited together with adjoining published maps

on the same scale. The northwest extension into these quadrangles of forma-

tions and structures observed in the previously mapped areas was noted and

the relation of Tertiary beds and lavas to earlier formations and structures was

pointed out. The general relations of the Bannock overthrust were discussed

and a number of windows at distances ranging from 9 to 25 miles back from

the front of the upper fault block were described. Comparison was made

with the Turner Valley area in southern Alberta, Canada, where, according to

Moore and Link, an anticlinal structure in Upper Cretaceous beds and con-

taining deep-lying, oil-producing Madison limestone has been shown by

drilling to be overthrust at depth on beds of Upper Cretaceous sandstone.

The interpretation offered by these authors for this area is that of a low angle

thrust plane or sole accompanied by steeper subsidiary longitudinal faults.

This interpretation is thought to add confirmatory evidence to the similar

interpretation earlier made by the writer for the Bannock overthrust in

southeastern Idaho. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Huss, Butts, Kinc, Parker, Miser, Hewett and

GILLULY.

C. H. Dans, J. F. ScHarrer, Secretaries.

Obituary

The death in Washington on April 12, 1932, of Louris Acricota BaAuvEr,

the original Director and, since 1930, Director Emeritus of the Department

of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, removes

from science an internationally recognised authority in the field of his special

interest. Almost solely on account of his enthusiasm and organizing ability,

the systematic magnetic survey of the whole Earth, both on land and on the

oceans, has been accomplished within the past twenty-five years. This

survey established an empirical basis for theoretical discussions of the origin

and behavior of the Earth’s magnetic field which would otherwise have long

remained impossible. While the recognition accorded Dr. Bauer rests largely

on this monumental achievement, he was also among the foremost in the

discussion of not only terrestrial magnetism but of other related geophysical

problems, as is evidenced by the long list of titles with which he is accredited.

Born of German-American parentage on January 26, 1865, in Cincinnati,

Ohio, Dr. Bauer received from the University of Cincinnati the degrees of

Civil Engineer (1888) and Master of Science (1894). After a short experience

as computer in the Coast and Geodetic Survey under Mendenhall and

292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 10

Schott, his interest in terrestrial magnetism was aroused and he entered

the University of Berlin. ‘There he came under the influence of the men whose

names are inseparably connected with the progress of geophysical science of

that period. The subject of his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy obtained in January 1895 at Berlin was indicated in the title,

Beitraige zur Kenntniss des Wesens der Sdkular Variation des Erdmagnetismus.

On his return to America he served successively on the faculties of the

universities of Chicago and Cincinnati. When the Division of Terrestrial

Magnetism was established at the Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1899 he was

made Inspector of Magnetic Work and Chief of Division. In 1904 he became

Director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institu-

tion of Washington, founded as the result of his efforts. During the following

twenty-five years the carrying out of this ambitious project was vigorously

prosecuted under his able and zealous leadership. Its work has already

splendidly realized his vision.

Dr. C. Dwicut Mars, a retired research worker of the Bureau of Animal

Industry, died unexpectedly on April 23, 1932. -He was born in Hadley,

Massachusetts, December 20, 1855. He graduated from Amherst College

in 1877, and was awarded the degree of doctor of philosophy by the Univer-

sity of Chicago in 1904. After graduation, Dr. Marsh spent about a year

at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Mass., and then entered

- the teaching profession. He was professor of biology at Ripon College, Wis-

consin, for 20 years, serving also as dean of the college during the latter

part of this period. He was responsible for the development of the Wisconsin

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work relates to the study of plankton life in fresh-water lakes and to the dis-

covery of the effects of poisonous plants on animals.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 22 JUNE 4, 1932 No. 11

ENGINEERING.—The work of Joseph Henry in relation to applied

science and engineering.:| ARTHUR E. KENNELLY.2 (Communi-

cated by L. B. TucKERMAN.)

The pioneer work of Joseph Henry in physics, and especially in its

department of electromagnetics, has justly claimed the principal at-

tention of his biographers and students. Certain aspects of Henry’s

work in the physics of electromagnetic induction were the theme of

that fine presentation last year by President J. 8S. Ames of the Johns

Hopkins University, in the first Joseph Henry lecture of this series.

Henry also accomplished, however, so much in applied physics, that

without detracting in the least from his fame as a pure scientist and

researcher in basic physics, it seems proper to consider, at this time,

his achievements in relation to applied science and engineering.

As it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between basic and applied

science, when considering the manifold occupations and accomplish-

ments of a scientific pioneer like Henry, we may be permitted to con-

sider as basic those scientific studies directed to the development of a

field of knowledge per se; and as applied science or engineering, those

studies directed to utilities, as well as to the field itself. So inter-

woven, however, are basic and applied science, and especially in phys-

ics, that the distinction between them may sometimes be reduced to

mere differences in the attitude of the researcher’s mind. One and

the same piece of scientific research may be regarded as either basic,

or applied, or both, according as the researcher directed his mind to

the field of knowledge itself, or to its utilization, or to both.

1 An address, the second Joseph Henry lecture, delivered before the Philosophical

Society of Washington on April 23, 1932. Received April 25, 1932.

2 Professor Emeritus of Electrical Engineering, Harvard University and the Massa-

chusetts Institute of Technology.

293

294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

Henry’s accomplishments in applied science are notable in the fol-

lowing fields:

I. Civil Engineering.

Surveying and Geodetics.

II. Electrical Engineering.

(a) Lifting electromagnets.

(b)- Electromagnetic telegraphy.

(d) Lightning protection.

(e) Electroballistics.

III. Mechanical Engineering.

(f) Building stone tests.

IV. Acoustical Engineering.

(g) In buildings.

(Ah) In fog-signalling.

V. Illumination Engineering.

(7) In light-house development.

VI. Meteorological Engineering.

(7) Forecasting from telegraph bulletins.

It may be noted that among the 148 publications appearing in the

Inst of Professor Henry’s Scientific Papers, printed in the Annual Re-

port of the Smithsonian Institution for 1878 and the Bulletin of the

Philosophical Society of Washington, Vol. II, nearly forty relate to

scientific applications.

SURVEYING AND GEODETICS

In 1825, New York State appointed commissioners to survey the

route for a state road from the Hudson River to Lake Erie, a distance

of over 500 km. Henry was appointed an engineer on this survey.

The route he followed was from Kingston, near West Point, on the

Hudson, to Portland Harbor on Lake Erie. He acquitted himself so

well in this survey, that an effort was made to have him appointed

permanently as state engineer. In 1829, he read a paper,’ published

in the Transactions of the Albany Institute, which is a topographical

report covering a considerable part of the state of New York, giving

tables of distances and elevations along various routes. His paper

gives a clear description of the topography of the country along these

routes. It states:

“The elevations in Table No. 1, between the Hudson River and Bath,

are from the survey of William Morell, Esq. The remaining elevations of

this Table, as well as those in No. 2, are from the personal survey of the

writer of this article.”

3 Topographical sketch of the State of New York designed chiefly to show the general ele-

vations and depressions of its surface. Bibliography 8, I: 8-36. Trans. Albany Inst.,

I: 87-112. The bibliography is at the end of the paper.

JUNE 4, 1932 KENNELLY: WORK OF JOSEPH HENRY 295

These levelling surveys had to be carried over some very difficult

stretches of country, including sections of what was, at that time,

primeval forest. Henry seems to have taken so much interest in this

work that it may have been a matter of good fortune for both basic

and applied science, when he was diverted from the profession of en-

gineering by the vacancy of the Chair of Mathematics and Natural

Philosophy in the Albany Academy.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The Traction or Sustaining Electromagnet

Sturgeon, in England, had announced, in 1825, the production of

the first horse-shoe electromagnet. It consisted of a bar of soft iron

bent into horse-shoe form, insulated on its surface by a coat of varnish,

Figure 1.—Sturgeon’s electromagnet.

and with bare copper wire wound over it in separate spires. When a

voltaic current was passed through the copper wire, the horseshoe

became magnetized, and would lift an iron rod laid across its poles.

The laws controlling the force of attraction between the electro-

magnet and its soft iron keeper, or armature, are complicated and were

not worked out in detail for practical applications until many years

later. They involve a combination of electric current in the electric

wire circuit and of magnetic current or flux in the magnetic circuit.

Henry, experimenting with electromagnets at Albany, N. Y. in

the years 1828-1831, succeeded in establishing certain fundamental

principles, as to the conditions in both the electric and magnetic cir-

cuits, for securing the maximum attractive force from a given horse-

shoe electromagnet. At the same time, he greatly improved the wind-

ing on the magnet by using insulated wire in many close turns. At

that time, of course, there were no instruments for measuring electric

296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

current. He made a series of electromagnetic measurements with

three controlled elements; viz:

(a) the number and the size of the voltaic cells in the exciting circuit of the

electromagnet, .

(b) the length of extra copper wire introduced into this circuit,

Under these controlled variations, he measured the attractive force,

in pounds weight, exerted by the magnet.

In codperation with Dr. Ten Eyck, he showed, from a number of

such measurements, that the greatest attractive force or lifting power

could be obtained from a horseshoe electromagnet by the use of a

“quantity battery” together with a “quantity winding” on the mag-

net, provided that the battery and magnet

were close together and connected by short

lengths of wire. That is, the battery should

have only one cell and its plates should be of

large surface. The magnet windings should be

connected in parallel. On the other hand, when

the battery and magnet were far apart and had

to be connected by a long wire, the best arrange-

ment for attractive force on the armature was

to use an “‘intensity battery” and an “intensity

magnet,” i.e. the cells of the battery should be

connected in series, and also the windings of the

magnet. He points out that this combination

has a bearing upon the problem of an electromagnetic telegraph. If,

however, an intensity magnet has to be used, with all its turns in series,

then for best tractive effort an intensity battery should be placed in the

circuit, whether the connecting wires between them are short or long.

All of these principles, enunciated by Henry, more than a hundred

years ago, are still fundamentally correct. The terminology, however,

has been greatly changed, partly through the widespread knowledge of

Ohm’s law (I = #/R) of current in an electric circuit. Dr. Ohm had

already published, in Berlin, his essay containing that law® in 1827,

but the publication received very little attention, and did not find its

way into text books on physics until some twenty years later. It did

not come into electrical applications until after 1840, in the early de-

Figure 2.—Henry’s in-

tensity electromagnet.

4 Bibliography 8, I: 37-53. Silliman’s Am. Jour. Sci. 19: 400-408. Jan. 1831.

5 Die galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet. Georg Simon Ohm, Professor of

Physics at Munich, Berlin 1827.

JUNE 4, 1932 KENNELLY: WORK OF JOSEPH HENRY 297

velopment of telegraphy, and after instruments had been produced

for measuring electromotive force, resistance, and current. The

above mentioned results which Henry published in 1831, were far in

advance of the knowledge in electromagnetics at that time.

In one set of measurements he describes his electromagnet as made

of a cylindrical bar of soft iron 1/4 inch (0.64 cm.) in diameter, wound

with about 8 feet (2.4 m.) of insulated winding with perhaps 100 turns.

When this winding was excited by one copper-zine voltaic cell with

plates of 28 sq. in. (180 sq. em.) immersed in dilute acid, the weight

lifted by the magnet was 43 lbs. (2 kg.). When a length of 1060 feet

(320 m.) of copper bell wire 0.045 inch (1.14 mm.) in diameter was

inserted in the circuit between voltaic cell and magnet, the lifting power

of the magnet fell to about half an ounce (14 gm.) The resistance of

the length of copper specified would today be about 8.8 ohms; but at

that date, when high-conductivity copper

was not in demand, it may readily have

been nearly 20 ohms.

With an intensity battery of 25 zinc-

copper cells in series and with the same

active area of plate surface in each cell as

before, the magnet lifted 8 ounces (227

gm.), with the whole length (320 m.) of

copper wire inserted in the circuit; so that

changing from 1 cell to 25 cells, increased

the lift from 14 gm. to 227 gm., with the

whole length of wire included. Short cir-

cuiting the long copper wire, or connecting — Figure 3.—Henry’s electro-

the 25-cell series battery to the magnet magnet with group coils, for

terminals, gave no increase in lifting Conpcougn erp mareeries Or

) in parallel.

power. Indeed the lifting power observed

was somewhat less (7 oz. or 198 gm.). It will be remembered, how-

ever, that the plain zinc-copper battery of those days was subject

to marked polarization and variation of electromotive force, while in

action. The effect of changing the battery from one cell to 25 in

series, increased the lift from 14 gm. to 227 gm., with the long wire

im circuit; but with the long wire cut out, the lift fell from 2,000 gm.

to 227 gm. This was the first published demonstration of the im-

portance of using a series-connected, or intensity battery, to increase

the tractive power of an electromagnet of many turns through a con-

siderable length of external circuit.

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

Discussing the remarkable power of the intensity battery to over-

come the effect of inserting the 320 meters of extra copper wire in the

circuit, Henry remarks:

“On a little consideration, however, the above result does not appear so

extraordinary as at first sight, since a current from a trough possesses more

‘projectile force’ to use Prof. Hare’s expression, and approximates somewhat

in intensity to the electricity from the common machine. May it not bea

fact that the galvanic fluid, in order to produce its greatest magnetic effect,

should move with a small velocity ...? ... From these experiments it is

evident that in forming the coil we may either use one very long wire, or

several shorter ones as the circumstances may require; in the first case our

galvanic combinations must consist of a number of plates so as to give

‘projectile force’, in the second it must be formed of a single pair.”

Here Henry uses the term ‘‘projectile force’ to designate what we

call today electromotive force and “velocity of magnetic fluid” for

Figure 4.—Henry’s frame for testing strength of electromagnet.

what we now call current strength. He is evidently not far from a

conception of Ohm’s law, which had already been formulated mathe-

matically by Ohm four years before. By the term ‘“‘trough”’ in the

above quoted passage, Henry evidently means a series-connected

battery, with the elements arranged in the form of a trough. Also

by the term ‘common machine’’ he doubtless refers to either the

frictional or the induction electric machine, which were the only

electric generators known, prior to Volta’s discovery, in 1800, of the

voltaic pile.

In the same publication, Henry goes on to describe the construction

of a larger electromagnet, a model of which, kindly loaned to us by the

Smithsonian Institution from its museum, is shown here this evening.

JUNE 4, 1932 KENNELLY: WORK OF JOSEPH HENRY 299

The magnet had a winding of 9 coils of insulated copper wire arranged

to be connected either in series or in parallel combinations. The total

weight of the magnet was 21 pounds (9.5 kg.). It was excited by

one zinc-copper dilute acid cell with concentric plates. The effects

were tried of various winding combinations on the sustaining power of

the magnet. The maximum was reached at 750 pounds (340 kg.),

when all the windings were connected in parallel, or as a ‘‘quantity”’

winding. The magnet thus lifted more than 35 times its own weight,

with the aid of a single exciting cell, a very remarkable achievement

for the year 1831.

In a communication to Silliman’s American Journal of Science®

in April 1831, Henry describes a yet larger horseshoe electromagnet,

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Figure 5.—Henry’s bell-signal electromagnet.

constructed for Yale University. It weighed 594 pounds (27 kg.) with-

out its multiple-coil winding. Excited with a single zinc-copper dilute

acid cell, it supported a weight of 2063 pounds (937 kg.).

Electromagnets for raising and carrying masses of iron are in fairly

extended engineering use at the present day, and Henry’s pioneering

work at the Albany Academy from 1827 to 1832 clearly pointed the

way to that electrical application.

The electromagnetic bell signaling instrument here shown, from the

Smithsonian Museum collection of Henry apparatus, is a replica of an

apparatus made and used by Henry, in 1832, for sending audible elec-

tromagnetic signals through a wire more than a mile in length. This

apparatus is not referred to in Henry’s paper of 1831, but appears in

Henry’s statement to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-

& An account of a large electromagnet, made for the laboratory of Yale College. Bib-

liography 8, I: 50-53.

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

tution for 1857, together with testimony to show that the instrument

was exhibited in 1832, at the Albany Academy.’

“I arranged around one of the upper rooms in the Albany Academy a

wire of more than a mile in length, through which I was enabled to make

signals by sounding a bell. (Fig. 7.)* The mechanical arrangement for

effecting this object was simply a steel bar, permanently magnetized, of

about ten inches in length, supported on a pivot, and placed with the north

end between the two arms of a horse-shoe magnet. When the latter was

excited by the current, the end of the bar thus placed was attracted by one

arm of the horse-shoe and repelled by the other, and was thus caused to

move in a horizontal plane and its further extremity to strike a bell suitably

adjusted.”

* Here Fig. 5.

Figure 6.—Henry’s voltaic battery for speedy change of connections between series

and parallel.

The original Henry instrument is kept in the Palmer Laboratory

Museum at Princeton, where Henry set it up, and is reported on good

authority to have been used as a signalling device, in his house, on the

Princeton University campus, operated by electric current from his

laboratory, probably in the basement of Nassau Hall.

Henry declared that he never in his life filed an application for a

patent of invention. In this technical sense, therefore, he was not

an inventor; but in a broad sense of the term, he was undoubtedly a

great inventor; because in making researches in basic science—his

selected field of work—he often indicates through his writings that he

realized from time to time possible applications for his discoveries,

while leaving to others the tasks of introducing them into industrial

7 Statement in relation to the history of the electro-magnetic telegraph. Smithsonian

Annual Report for 1857, pp. 90-106. Bibliography 8, II: 420-437.

JUNE 4, 1932 KENNELLY: WORK OF JOSEPH HENRY 301

service. He always admitted that Morse was the inventor of the

electric telegraph bearing that name, but Henry has recorded the fol-

lowing claims :8

“From a careful investigation of the history of electromagnetism in its

connection with the telegraph, the following facts may be established:

(1) Previous to my investigations, the means of developing magnetism

in soft iron were imperfectly understood, and the electro-magnet which

then existed was inapplicable to the transmission of power to a distance.

(2) I was the first to prove by actual experiment that in order to develop

magnetic power at a distance a galvanic battery of ‘intensity’ must be

employed to project the current through the long conductor and that a

magnet surrounded by many turns of one long wire must be used to receive

the current.

Ea a

™ ven 32

5 ae v

Fateh,

ees T sete

Ere

a eatin

‘*

: ed

Figure 7.—Plan view of battery.

(3) I was the first to actually magnetize a piece of iron at a distance, and

to call attention to the fact of the application of my experiments to the

telegraph.

(4) I was the first to actually sound a bell at a distance by means of

the electro-magnet.

(5) The principles I had developed were applied by Dr. Gale to render

Morse’s machine effective at a distance.”’

There can be no doubt that Henry’s electromagnetic researches

found abundant application in the magnetic telegraph.

Voltaic-Battery Mechanism for Series-Parallel Connections

Henry published in 1835, an illustrated description of a machine

which he designed and constructed at Princeton for swiftly changing

§ Bibliography 8, II: 435-436.

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

a voltaic battery of 88 cells, from series to parallel combinations, so

that they might be, in the extreme cases, either all in series or all in

parallel. The various pairs of plates were held in a rigid wooden

frame, and each plate had a little metallic cup fastened to it for

holding a small quantity of mercury. Metallic bars of suitable size

and shape, served to connect the cells in series or in parallel.

The same plan in essentials, is very generally employed today with

storage-battery installations for charging them in parallel and dis-

charging them in various series combinations for high-tension service.

Figure 8.—Henry’s voltaic cell and connectors.

Henry’s apparatus was thus a pioneer form of voltaic-battery engineer-

Ing design.

Electromagnetic Engine or Early Form of Electric Motor

On the table, is the replica of Henry’s early form of reciprocating

motor driven by voltaic-battery power. ‘This replica is also loaned by

the Smithsonian Museum. The original is preserved with the Henry

apparatus at Princeton University.

The little engine is described by Henry in a letter to the Editor of

® Description of a galvanic battery for producing electricity of different intensities.

Bibliography 8, I: 80-86. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., 5: 217-222. Jan. 1835.

JUNE 4, 1932 KENNELLY: WORK OF JOSEPH HENRY 303

Silliman’s American Journal of Science!® published in July 1831, in

the following terms:

“Sir: I have lately succeeded in producing motion in a little machine by

a power, which, I believe, has never before been applied in mechanics—

by magnetic attraction and repulsion.

Not much importance, however, is attached to the invention since the

article, in its present state, can only be considered a philosophical toy;

although, in the progress of discovery and invention, it is not impossible

that the same principle, or some modification of it on a more extended scale

may hereafter be applied to some useful purpose. But without reference

to the practical utility, and only viewed as a new effect produced by one of

the most mysterious agents of nature, you will not, perhaps, think the fol-

lowing account of it unworthy of a place in the Journal of Science.”

The apparatus consists of a pair of vertical permanent magnets,

which, in modern parlance, are the field magnets of the little machine.

Figure 9.—Henry’s electromotor device.

As described in the paper, their north poles are uppermost. A soft

iron bar, pivoted about a horizontal axis, and wound with insulated

wire, is free to oscillate over a certain range under the magnetic forces

of the upright permanent magnets. This oscillatory electromagnet

corresponds to the armature of a modern direct-current motor. At the

free ends of the rocking armature are stiff projecting copper wires,

arranged to dip into mercury cups at each end in such a manner that

the current from a voltaic cell is caused to reverse the magnetization

of the rocker bar near the end of each stroke, and so reverse the mag-

netic forces on the rocket bar. In this rocking commutator, we have

the precursor of the rotating commutator of the modern motor.

Henry thus produced what was probably the first electric motor

device using a commutator, although in the progress of the art, its

10 On a reciprocating motion produced by magnetic attraction and repulsion. Bibliog-

raphy 8, I: 54-57.

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

reciprocating motion had to be converted into rotary motion, before

practical success was attained with motors.

Lightning Protection

Henry was a close observer of atmospheric electric phenomena, and

contributed a number of articles to the literature of the subject at

different times. He also, however, formulated a set of rules or direc-

tions! to be followed for the protection of houses from lightning. These

rules would probably be regarded as good engineering specifications

against lightning damage at the present date.

Electro-ballistics

In 1848, Henry communicated to the American Philosophical

Society, a paper” On a new method of determining the velocity of projec-

tiles. He describes a chronograph drum, revolving at a uniform speed

of at least 10 turns per second, so as to permit of high-speed ballistic

records upon its surface. ‘Two copper wire screens are placed succes-

sively in the path of the projectile whose speed is to be measured. The

projectile cuts the wire in the screens so as to interrupt a voltaic cir-

cuit through each, at the instant of its passage. These circuit in-

terruptions are automatically recorded on the surface of the drum,

either by the deflection of magnetic needles, or by electric sparks punc-

turing a sheet of ruled paper on the drum. The sparks are caused by

induction coils.

The method and system, as described, constitute an electrical-

engineering invention in ballistics.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Testing of Building Materials

In August 1855, Henry read a paper before the American Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science, On the mode of testing building

materials. The President of the United States had appointed a com-

mission of five persons in 1851, “to examine the marbles which were

offered for the extension of the United States Capitol’ at Washington.

Another commission of three persons was appointed in 1854, to repeat

and extend some of the experiments. Henry was a member of both

commissions and evidently took upon himself a large share of the ex-

perimental work.

Small cubical blocks of the marbles to be compared were tested in a

11 Construction of lightning rods. Bibliography 8, II: 398-402, 1859. Also On the

protection of houses from lightning. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., June 20, 1845.

12 Bibliography 8, I: 212-215. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 3: 165-167. May, 1843.

JUNE 4, 1932 KENNELLY: WORK OF JOSEPH HENRY 305

press for resistance to crushing. A long series of tests, made in this

manner, brought out some remarkable and unexpected results. It

was shown that when the crushing stress was exerted on the blocks

with thin sheets of lead inserted between the press plates and the

pressed block surfaces, the blocks gave way at about half of the pres-

sure they could sustain when the lead sheets were not used. The

account is, in effect, an engineer’s report.

ACOUSTICAL ENGINEERING IN BUILDINGS

In the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science for August 1856, Vol. X, pp. 119-135, Henry pub-

lished a remarkable paper, On acoustics applied to public buildings.

He states that Prof. Bache and he had directed attention to the sub-

ject of acoustics as applied to buildings, when the President of the

United States had referred to them the plans for the construction of

rooms in the new wings of the Capitol at Washington. They visited,

with this object, the principal halls and churches in Philadelphia,

New York and Boston. ‘The final plans of the new rooms were ap-

proved and successfully built.

They also had designs prepared for the new lecture hall of the

Smithsonian Institution, and incorporated into them various acous-

tic principles their researches had brought out. ‘These researches are

most interestingly described in the paper. Henry, in this research,

was an acoustical engineer, with his aim directed on improving the

acoustic properties of the lecture hall. He was, however, also a

pioneer investigator of interior acoustics, considered as a basic science.

He says (p. 419):

“These researches might be much extended; they open a field of investi-

gation equally interesting to the lover of abstract science and to the practical

builder.”

In this passage is revealed that remarkable duality of Henry’s

mind which appears again and again in his writings. He studies a

subject for a utilitarian purpose as an engineer, and enriches its basic

science, while at another time he studies a new field as a physicist, and

Suggests intuitively to the reader where practical applications are

likely to be found. He was par excellence a combination of physicist

and engineer.

The acoustic properties of the Smithsonian lecture hall appear to

have been very satisfactory, and to have endorsed the special acoustic

features introduced into its construction.

13 Bibliography 8, II: 403-421.

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

FOG-SIGNAL ACOUSTICS

Congress established the U. 8. Lighthouse Board in 1852, with Henry

as one of its members. Later, as chairman of its Committee on Experi-

ments, he directed, in 1865, a series of acoustic researches on fog sig-

nals, that were not only of basic scientific importance, but also of

great engineering value. He showed experimentally that beyond

relatively short distances, artificial sound reflectors were of no avail.

To eliminate the personal equation in acoustic observations of this

kind, he describes an artificial ear or “‘phonometer,”’ for making feeble

sound waves perceptible to the eye.

These researches of Henry appeared as unsigned reports of the Light-

House Board, but were subsequently included in his published papers.

These reports contain comparisons of the acoustic ranges attained,

under normal atmospheric conditions, by steam whistles, trumpets,

and sirens. Such comparisons were made over short ranges by phonom-

eter, and over long ranges by ear, on small vessels making explora-

tory trips for purposes of the test. They are acoustic-engineering

reports of great interest. ‘They were made at various times from 1865

to 1877.

In the course of these tests, Henry closely investigated the abnormal

conditions of the appearance of fog signals at shorter and longer

ranges, with their concurrent disappearance over a certain interme-

diate range, or belt of silence. ‘These occasional but practically im-

portant acoustic anomalies, were referred to by Henry in two presi-

dential addresses before your Society, one! on December 11th, 1872,

when Dr. Tyndall was present, and the other!*—his last address to

you—on November 24th, 1877.

ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING

Light-House Development

In the Report of the Light-House Board for 1875, pp. 86-103,

Henry points out that in 1852, when the Board'* commenced its opera-

tions, sperm oil was the fuel generally employed. The steadily rising

cost of sperm oil made it desirable to find some less expensive sub-

stitute. A series of experiments was commenced with lard oil, which

14 Remarks on some abnormal phenomena of sound. Smithsonian Report 1878, pp.

490-496.

15 The method of scientific investigation and its application to some abnormal phenomena

of sound. Bull. Phil. Soc. Washington, 2: 162-174.

16 Bibliography 8, II: 477-510.

JUNE 4, 1932 KENNELLY: WORK OF JOSEPH HENRY 307

was then much cheaper, but not regarded as capable of use in powerful

lamps.

Commencing with a pair of small conical lamps having “‘single-rope,”’

as distinguished from tubular wicks, one burning sperm oil and the

other lard oil, the two commenced nearly at equality of candlepower,

- by photometer; but after burning for three hours the lard-oil lamp fell

to about one-fifth of the photometric power of the sperm-oil lamp.

On analyzing the reasons for the falling off in candlepower of the lard-

oil flame, Henry was led to the conclusion that the capillary flow or

liquidity of the lard oil in the wick is relatively defective. This,

however, was found to be affected by the temperature of the oil, so that

by raising the temperature of the lard oil to about 250°F. the liquidity

of the lard oil became greater than that of the sperm oil. When,

therefore, the conditions of oil feeding through the wick of a large

burner raised the temperature sufficiently, the lard oil should be

capable of competing on favorable terms.

After further preliminary trials with larger tubular-wick burners,

the experiment was carried to Cape Ann, Massachustts. Here were

two twin light-houses, only 275 meters apart. One of these was

operated with sperm oil, as usual, and the other with lard oil, each lamp

being so trimmed as to exhibit its greatest capacity.

“Tt was found by photometric trial that the lamp supplied with lard oil

exceeded in intensity of light that of the one furnished with sperm oil.

The experiment was continued for several months, and the relative volume

of the two materials carefully observed. The quantity of sperm oil burned

during the continuance of the experiment was to that of lard oil as 100 is to

104.”’

A long series of photometric measurements at Boston is then de-

scribed, with the substitution of the Bunsen grease-spot photometer

head for the earlier Rumford shadow comparator. An improved pho-

tometer for measuring the candlepowers of burners using different oils,

was also set up at the Smithsonian Institution.

As a result of improvements in lamp mechanism, as well as in the

substitution of lard oil for sperm oil in all of the light-houses of the

United States, a great reduction was effected by 1866, in the annual

cost of light-house oil.

This published account of light-house research is a fine engineering

report, containing many basic scientific suggestions of great interest.

Later on, the price of lard oil began to rise and a new series of researches

was undertaken leading to the introduction of mineral oil, which was

attended at first by a number of special difficulties.

308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

METEOROLOGICAL ENGINEERING

Applications of Telegraphy

In our daily contact with the service of the Weather Bureau, which

displays coastal storm warnings in advance of expected heavy gales,

and furnishes daily weather forecasts, with maps, showing the prin- -

cipal meteorological conditions, at a given hour each day, over the

North American Continent, it is hard for us to realize the correspond-

ing conditions that existed, say, in 1845, before Henry left Princeton,

and when there was no way of foretelling the approach of a coming

big storm, except such as could be guessed by any single observer at

one spot, and before the general laws of revolving storms had been

arrived at.

Henry devoted much time to the study of meteorology, which evi-

dently exerted a fascination for him throughout his life. The first

page of his published papers gives abstracts of his first known scien-

tific contributions (Proceedings of the Albany Institute in 1825 and

-1826)—communications dealing respectively with Chemical and me-

chanical effects of steam and Refrigeration by rarefaction of air. Among

his published papers are 38 that bear by title upon meteorology. Ac-

cording to the account by his biographer, W. B. Taylor, read before

this Society October 26th, 1878, Henry’s last feeble utterance on his

dying day, May 13th, 1878 was a meteorological!” enquiry.

Henry’s early studies of weather, when he was at Albany, convinced

him of the importance of securing simultaneous observations of baro-

metric pressure, air temperature and humidity, wind velocity, cloud

conditions and precipitation, at as many different stations as possible.

In 1849, while the telegraph system of the country was only a few years

old, it was organized with the aid of voluntary observers into a net-

work by which a weather map could be made up each day at the

Smithsonian Institution. Henry urged that every telegraph operator,

coming on duty at a certain morning hour, should open with a definite

meteorological message. This plan manifested its utility, but placed

too heavy a burden on the Institution. In 1870, a meteorological

office was established by the Government under the Signal Office of

the War Department. This office was finally transferred to the

Weather Bureau, created in 1891, under the Department of Agricul-

ture. The early development of the Weather Bureau, was thus a

telegraph-engineering development due to Henry’s persistent labors in

meteorology.

17 Bibliography 2c. Smithsonian Coll., 21: 360.

JUNE 4, 1932 KENNELLY: WORK OF JOSEPH HENRY 309

CONCLUSIONS

From what has been above excerpted from Henry’s writings, it

will be seen that this many-minded man, who made so many notable

contributions to basic science, also contributed much to applied

science.

When, therefore, it is justly claimed for Joseph Henry that he was a

scientist-discoverer, writer, organizer, and administrator, it can be

confidently added that he was also an inventor and engineer.

JOSEPH HENRY BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Biographical memoir of Joseph Henry. Prepared on behalf of the Board of Regents

of the Smithsonian Institution by Prof. AsA Gray, Smithsonian Institution Re-

port 1878. Washington. Government Printing Office, 1879. pp. 143-177.

Includes list of Prof. J. Henry's publications, pp. 17-177. Also a report to the Board of Regents,

pp. 7-124, by S F. Baird, later appointed secretary to succeed Joseph Henry. In the early pages

of this report, attention is paid to Henry’s work.

2. Memorial of Joseph Henry. Smithsonian Misc. Collection, 1881. No. 356. Vol.

21 of the series. Contains memorial addresses.

2a. Obituary memoir on Joseph Henry. Prof. JosepH LovERING, Vice-Pres. of the Am.

Academy of Arts and Sciences. Smithsonian Misc. Collection 21: 427-439.

2b. Henry as a discoverer. Memorial address by AtFrED M. Mayrr. Smithsonian

Mise. Collection 21: 475-593. ;

2c. A memoir of Joseph Henry. Asketch of his scientific work by WILLIAM B. TAyuor.

Read before the Phil. Society of Washington, Oct. 26, 1878. pp. 230-368. Phila.

1879.

2d. A memoir of Joseph Henry. Stmon NEwcoms, Washington 1880. Smithsonian

Mise. Collection 21: 441-473.

3. Joseph Henry. Unsigned memoir in new series Vol. VI. Am. Academy of Arts and

Sciences 1878-79, pp. 356-369.

4. A memorial of Joseph Henry. Published by Order of Congress, Washington Gov.

Printing Office 1880, p. 527.

5. Annual address before the Philosophical Society of Washington. JosEPH HENRY,

President. From the Society’s Bulletin, 1878, pp. 162-174.

. Notes on the life and character of Joseph Henry. James C. Wetuine. Read before

the Philosophical Society of Washington, Oct. 26, 1878.

7. Addresses at the unveiling of the Joseph Henry statue at Washington, D. C., April 19,

1882. Chief Justice Waite and President Noau Porter of Yale College.

Washington 1884.

8. Scientific writings of Joseph Henry. Vols. I and II. Smithsonian Institution

Publication, 1886.

9. Joseph Henry. Encyclopedia Britannica. Article by S. F. Barrp.

10. Joseph Henry and the magnetic telegraph. An address delivered at Princeton Col-

lege, June 16, 1885, by Epwarp L. Dickinson. Chas. Scribner’s Sons, 1885.

11. Smithsonian Institution 1846-1896. City of Washington, 1897.

12. Joseph Henry’s experiments in the Albany Academy 1827-32, interpreted in the light

of the present day. BANCROFT GHERARDI, 1917. 12 pp. (Reprinted from the 13th

Report of the Director of the N. Y. State Museum for 1916.)

13. The modern electric age in relation to Faraday’s discovery of electromagnetic induction.

A. E. KENNELLY. Nature, Aug. 29, 19381.

14. Joseph Henry. W. F. Maar. Review of Modern Physics 3, No. 4: 464-495.

Oct. 1931.

for)

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

15. Joseph Henry. Epira W. Stone. Scientific Monthly 33: 213-236, Sept. 1931.

16. The work of Faraday and Henry. F.C. Brown. Scientific Monthly 33: 473-480,

Nov. 1931.

17. Certain aspects of Henry’s experiments on electromagnetic induction. President

JosepH S. Ames, Johns Hopkins University. This JourNAL, 21: 493. Science,

Jan. 22, 1932. 75: 87-92. First Henry Lecture, Oct. 24, 1931.

18. Lectures on natural philosophy by Professor Henry. Notes of Wm. J. Gisson.

Feb. 28, 1844, Princeton.

GEOLOGY .—Tentative correlation of American glacial chronology with

the marine tume scale... C. WytHE Cooks, U.S. Geological Survey.

When the great ice sheets crept down from the north during the

Pleistocene epoch and covered Canada and parts of the northern States

of the Union, they brought with them boulders and other spoil torn

from the land across which they had pushed.. At the southern end of

each sheet, where the ice melted as rapidly as that behind advanced,

great piles of débris accumulated in the form of terminal moraines or

was swept onward by gushing rivers. Whenever the ice melted faster

than it advanced, the ice front retreated northward and the ground

beneath it was once more exposed to the weather. Soil formed, vege-

tation grew, and animals that had been driven away by the advance

of the ice returned to graze, browse, or hunt.

After many years of intensive study of the glacial deposits, geologists

have unravelled the tangled thread of Pleistocene history and have

woven from it a brilliant tapestry depicting the interesting events of

the Ice Age. They recognize a whole series of invasions of the ice

each of which is separated from the preceding and succeeding invasions

by long intervals of more or less complete deglaciation. Although

there is not complete agreement among glacial geologists as to the

details of what happened during the Pleistocene, most of them think

that there were five principal periods of glaciation and that the last,

the Wisconsin glacial stage, was marked by four separate advances of

the ice. Altogether, therefore, there were at least eight glacial stages

or substages and seven interglacial stages or substages.

While these battles between the forces of summer and winter were

cutting their sears on the land, what was happening to the sea? Every

ton of ice that was piled upon the land during the glacial stages came

ultimately from the sea and was returned to it when it melted. Thus

the level of the sea fell or rose as the continental ice caps waxed and

waned. The comparatively short glacial stages were times of low

water in the sea. During the much longer interglacial stages the

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received

April 18, 1932.

JUNE 4, 1932 COOKE: AMERICAN GLACIAL CHRONOLOGY oll

oceans overflowed their basins and flooded the low margins of the

continents. ‘The marks made by the sea on the continents during the

glacial stages are now submerged, but the abandoned strand lines of

the interglacial stages, flanking marine terraces, now stand above sea

level. Eight such high strand lines have been detected along the

Atlantic coast of the United States and in many other parts of the

world.

The problem of correlating the glacial deposits with the marine

Pleistocene terraces and strand lines is difficult of direct attack be-

cause the glacial deposits are best developed inland, far from the coast-

al terraces. Field studies in New Jersey and on Long Island, where

TABLE 1.—TEnNTATIVE AGE OF PLEISTOCENE TERRACES

Approximate alti-

tude of strand line

Name of terrace Glacial and interglacial stages

Feet Meters

270 82 Brandywihe = .-.4... 6). 4: Pre-Nebraskan warm stage

Nebraskan glacial stage

215 66 Wola ve. neces. Aftonian interglacial stage

Kansan glacial stage

170 52 Sanderland ). 0.27527 Yarmouth interglacial stage

Illinoian glacial stage

100 30 Waconnicome 2224 oI2 : Sangamon interglacial stage

Iowan glacial stage

70 21 Penholoway 2 £.45 2/4... Peorian interglacial stage

lst Wisconsin glacial substage

42 13 Papo ee ss iia fae Ne 1st Wisconsin interglacial substage

2nd Wisconsin glacial substage

25 8 Pamlicos 5c 2 gj actts: 2nd Wisconsin interglacial substage

3rd Wisconsin glacial substage

12 4 Princéss(Anne ws. 1008 3rd Wisconsin interglacial substage

4th Wisconsin glacial substage

late Wisconsin moraines cut across several terraces, may yield defi-

nite evidence as to the relative ages of the later members of the two

series, but the earlier glacial deposits are not completely represented

there.

An indirect method of arriving at tentative correlations of the two

types of deposits is to compare the sequence of glacial stages with the

sequence of strand lines and terraces. The latest Pleistocene strand

line should correspond to the latest interglacial stage and each suc-

cessively older strand should fit into its corresponding place in the

glacial chronology. An attempt to do this was made in 1930? but the

2C. Wythe Cooke. Pleistocene seashores. This JourNAL 20: 389-395. 1930; Cor-

relation of coastal terraces. Jour. Geology 38: 577-589. 1930.

312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

result was defective because the complete sequence of terraces and

strand lines was then unknown. In order to make the two time scales

fit it was necessary to recognize only two glacial substages within the

Wisconsin although it was known that the Wisconsin is susceptible of

division into four. A new attempt, shown in Table 1, utilizes the

complete series of glacial stages and substages as well as all the Pleis-

tocene strand lines now recognized by students of terraces. The

two scales dovetail perfectly. There is no change from the 1930 cor-

relation in the assignment of the older strand lines to a place in the

glacial chronology, but additional terraces (the Talbot with a strand

line at 42 feet, and the Princess Anne,’ with a strand line at 12 feet)

are inserted into the Wisconsin.

It can scarcely be expected that the tentative correlation here pro-

posed will prove to be final or that it will soon receive general accept-

ance. It is merely offered as an improvement over that of 1930,

which was admittedly highly speculative.

3 In 1931 (this JouRNAL 21: 513) I expressed doubt as to the validity of the Princess

Anne terrace. On further investigation the terrace seems to be recognizable.

ZOOLOGY .—A new coati from Nicaragua.! E. A. GoLpMAN, Biologi-

cal Survey.

Among mammals collected in eastern Nicaragua by Dr. Charles W.

Richmond, many years ago, is a coati which seems to represent a

subspecies that has been overlooked. General comparisons indicate

marked contrast with its nearest congeners in color. The new form

may be known by the following description:

Nasua narica richmondi subsp. nov.

Nicaragua Coati

Type.—From Escondido River, 50 miles above Bluefields, Nicaragua.

No. 51331, & adult, U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection),

collected by Charles W. Richmond, November 19, 1892. Original number

158.

Distribution Humid tropical forested region of eastern Nicaragua, and

probably adjoining parts of eastern Honduras, passing farther west into

Nasua narica bullata.

General characters—A large extremely dark-colored subspecies—darkest

of the North American members of the group, with small teeth. Most closely

allied to Nasua narica bullata of western Costa Rica, but still darker, black or

very dark brownish black predominating over most of body, except where

relieved by strongly contrasting white markings; cranial characters distinc-

tive. Similar to N. n. narica and N. n. yucatanica of Mexico, but much

darker colored than either and differing from both in combination of cranial

characters. |

1 Received April 13, 1932.

JUNE 4, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 313

Color.—Type: General color of upper parts very dark brownish black,

unmodified over top of head and on posterior part of back, rump, and thighs,

but finely flecked with light buff across anterior part of back, the flecking

involving only extreme tips of hairs, changing gradually to tawny between

shoulders; outer sides of forearms overlaid with silvery white, the long white

tips of hairs here contrasting strongly with the dark general body tone; under

parts in general very dark brownish black, pure along median line of abdomen,

dark brown mixed with white on chest, under side of neck and inner sides of

forearms; white facial markings as usual in the group, but light lines between

eyes narrow and inconspicuous; ears broadly edged with white; feet deep

glossy black; tail very dark brownish black with scarcely a trace of annula-

tions discernible.

Skull.—Similar to that of N. n. bullata, but more slender; rostrum and in-

terorbital region narrower; teeth, especially the molars, and posterior pre-

molars smaller; audital bullae large and fully inflated asin bullata. Approach-

ing that of N. n. narica, but larger; audital bullae relatively larger, more fully

inflated; dentition similar, but posterior premolars smaller. Compared with

that of N. n. yucatanica the skull differs in decidedly larger general size, and

relatively larger, more inflated bullae.

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 1,190 mm.; tail vertebrae, 630; hind

foot, 109. Skull (type): Occipitonasal length, 132.9; condylobasal length,

129.8; zygomatic breadth, 75.2; interorbital breadth, 28.5; crown length of

three large posterior cheek teeth (posterior premolar and molars), 21.8; crown

width of posterior premolar, 7.1.

Remarks.—The very dark coloration of Nasua narica richmondi is a char-

acter shared in common with the regional representatives of several other

groups of mammals. In cranial characters richmond is somewhat interme-

diate between the larger more robust subspecies, NV. n. bullata, and the smaller

slenderer form, NV. n. yucatanica.

Specimens examined.—Two, from Nicaragua as follows: Escondido River

(50 miles above Bluefields), 1, (type); Segovia River, 1.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

482ND MEETING

The 482nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, November 25, 1931,

President Mrrinzer presiding.

Program: Marius R. CaMpsBEu: The alluvial fan of Potomac River—The

great deposit of gravel on the peninsula which projects southward between

the Potomac and Patuxent rivers and to which the name Brandywine was

given by William B. Clark, instead of being a marine deposit as has heretofore

been supposed, is a great alluvial fan built of gravel and sand brought down

by the Potomac River. The distinctive material is fossiliferous chert which

is not available for transportation by any other river in this region. This

chert was traced from Anacostia to Point Lookout, Md., and thence across

the Potomac River to Warsaw and Rappahannock, Va. and as far south as

Urbana on the Rappahannock River. The area covered is at least 70 miles

long and 40 miles wide in the widest part. It was deposited when the Rappa-

hannock River had a course different from that which it has at present and

when sea level was approximately 100 feet higher than it is today. (Author’s

abstract.)

Discussed by Miss Bascom and Mr. STose.

314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

G. F. Loueuuin and A. H. Koscumann: Dissected pediments in the Mag-

dalena district, New Mexico.—The Magdalena district, New Mexico, is in the

southeast part of the Basin and Range Province. It includes the north end

of the Magdalena Range and Granite Mountain, which consist of tilted and

faulted sedimentary rocks of Carboniferous age and volcanic rocks of Tertiary

age on a pre-Cambrian basement. ‘The lava flows originally extended across

the present valleys and over the Magdalena Range, but the earliest stages of

erosion swept the volcanic cover from the main range, completely in the

northern part, but only partly south of the town of Kelly.

The Magdalena Range and Granite Mountain are bounded on the east

and on the west by extensive plains, which have been found to be pediments

covered by a veneer of alluvium. The foot-hills and lower slopes of the range

include many flat and gently westward sloping spurs and benches which are

interpreted to be remnants of older, dissected pediments. Some of them are

still capped by patches of alluvium or remnants of old landslides. The more

abundant and better defined benches are grouped at six different levels.

Others at still higher levels may also represent old pediments, but are too few

to be convincing.

The uplift of the range was accompanied by extensive faulting, and the

present valleys are in areas of the down-warped and down-faulted volcanic

formations that were most readily eroded; but no appreciable amount of

faulting has taken place recently enough to account for any of the better

defined benches.

The dissection of the pediments is attributed to the general lowering of the

Magdalena Plain, due to the tapping of its drainage lines by San Lorenzo and

La Jenze Creeks, which are tributary to the Rio Grande. The development

of the different stages of erosion, marked by the rock benches and the high

and low alluvium, is believed to be related to the varying rates at which these

streams cut their ways downward through the volcanic flows and tuffs that

lie east and northeast of the Magdalena Range; but, owing to insufficient

information regarding the history of the Rio Grande Valley, definite correla-

tion must await further study. (Authors’ abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. ATwoop, ParkER, Hunt, HEwert, and LOUGHLIN.

E. T. ALLEN: CGeysers.—Geysers are by no means as well known as is gener-

ally supposed. Such important characteristics as: (1) an intermittent rise

and fall of the water level in many geysers, (2) an intermittent discharge in

many, (3) common association with a surface layer of superheated water, and

(4) the frequent occurrence of a maximum temperature before the bottom of

the geyser well is reached remain either undescribed or little known.

The original theory of geyser action proposed by Bunsen and Descloizeaux

left out of account an influx of colder water after every eruption which alone

can explain periodicity (Lang). Bunsen and Descloizeaux’s principal con-

tention that temperatures at every depth in the geyser well increase steadily

with time between eruptions is not supported by their data (Thorkelsson).

It is difficult if not impossible to reconcile the facts with the Bunsen and

Descloizeaux theory; only by the assumption of a side chamber connected

with the geyser well by a narrow channel, a chamber in which geyser action

originates, can this be done.

Data from the Yellowstone Park were presented in support of Lang’s

hypothesis, that a geyser may become extinct through steam leakage in the

side chamber. On the assumption that the heat supply of geysers is trans-

ported by jets of magmatic steam through seams in the rock, the life of a

geyser might be ended by a diversion of a local supply to other quarters by

the gouging out of new passages by the solvent action of hot water.

JUNE 4, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY old

The erratic variations in geyser behavior are certainly not due to seasonal

changes, but so far they remain entirely unexplained. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Matruis, JOHNSTON, RuBEY, ALDEN, and FENNER.

483RD MEETING

The 483rd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, December 9, 1931, Vice-

President F. L. H&ss presiding.

Program: O. E. Mrtnzmr delivered his presidential address: History and

development of ground water hydrology.

39TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 39th annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the adjourn-

ment of the 483rd regular meeting, President O. E. Mr1nzmr presiding. The

annual report of the secretaries was read. The treasurer presented his annual

report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1,357.02 on December 6,

1931. The auditing committee reported that the books of the treasurer were

correct.

The results of balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows:

President: F. E. Marruers; Vice Presidents: F. L. Hess and H. G. FERGUSON;

Secretaries: J. F. ScoHatrER and W. H. Brapury; Treasurer: C. WYTHE

CooxEr; Members-at-Large of the Council: FRANK ReEvss, T. B. Nouan, E.

P. Henperson, F. G. WELLs, and C. E. Ressmr; Nominee as Vice President

of the Washington Academy of Sciences representing the Geological Society:

O. E. MEINZER.

C. H. Dang, J. F. Scuarrer, Secretaries.

484TH MEETING

The 484th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January 27, 1932, Presi-

dent MaTrues presiding.

Program: Cuas. B. Hunt: The junction of three orogenic types in New

Mexico.—Three orogenic types are represented in an elongate belt of country

lying midway between Albuquerque and Mt. Taylor, New Mexico. The

exposed rocks are of Upper Cretaceous age and consist of the Mancos and

Mesaverde formations which intertongue. The main body of the Mancos

underlies the Mesaverde and is underlain by the Dakota (?) sandstone.

Three physiographic provinces, the Colorado Plateau, the Southern Rocky

Mountains, and the Basin and Range, each with a distinctive type of struc-

tural deformation, come together in this area.

The southeast border of the Colorado Plateau consists of little faulted and

gently folded strata. The Nacimiento Mountains of the Southern Rocky

mountains are an anticlinal uplift, asymmetric in cross section with the steep

flank to the west. A reverse fault has been reported along the west flank.

The uplifting probably ended in the Miocene. The Rio Grande valley

belongs to the Basin and Range province and consists of blocks separated

by faults having parallel trends. So far as known all the faults are normal.

The major faults attain a maximum displacement of 3500 feet. The few

exposures of striae found on the fault faces indicate vertical rather than

horizontal movements. The major faults produce a stepdown to the west,

and most of the fracture surfaces dip west as low as 45°. The strata dip east

generally between 10° and 20°. Locally the dip increases to nearly 40°. The

structural level of the Colorado Plateau is considerably higher than the Basin

and Range which has been dropped down by faulting and monoclinal folding.

316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

The deformation of the Basin and Range province in this area ended in the

Miocene and therefore is probably contemporaneous with the uplifting of the

Nacimiento Mountains.

The dominant regional fold of the Rio Grande valley at Albuquerque in the

Basin and Range province is an anticline which is the southward continuation

of the Nacimiento anticline. It was a growing uplift during the middle

Tertiary as was the uplift of the Nacimiento Mountains. The anticline in the

valley collapsed by means of block faulting during the process of uplifting.

Both the faulting and the uplifting ceased in the Miocene. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Kinc, Hewett, Parker, Ll. A. SmirH, REssER, and

MATTHES.

W. T. ScuHauuer: The crystal cavities of the New Jersey zeolite region —The

regular crystal cavities associated with zeolitic rock in the trap rock quarries

in and near Paterson are evidence of the former existence of crystals of

minerals, now dissolved away.

The geological features indicate that the trap rock lava flowed into a Trias-

sic lake rich in glauberite, a sulphate of sodium and calcium. These constitu-

ents, dissolved by the heated waters and mixed with the molten rock, crystal-

lized out in the lava as anhydrite whose later solution formed rectangular

cavities, and as glauberite, which formed rhombic cavities. Some of the

lamellar cavities may be due to lamellar calcite crystals, which crystal habit,

tabular parallel to the base, is the high temperature crystal form of calcite.

Anhydrite has been found in the trap rock in rectangular crystals, partly

changed to gypsum and to thaumasite and partial and complete removal of

these alteration products has formed rectangular cavities. Infiltration pseu-

domorphs of quartz in some of the rhombic cavities have yielded cores

bounded by crystal faces whose angular values are those of glauberite.

Babingtonite, which has been suggested as the original mineral of the

cavities, does not agree in its crystallography and cleavages with the shapes

of the cavities. Moreover, its period of formation is much later than the

minerals forming the cavities. (Author’s abstract.)

ParRKER D. Trask: Relation of calcium carbonate content of sediments to

salinity of the surface water.—Salinity appears to be an important factor in

the deposition of calcium carbonate in marine sediments. A statistical study

of 3,000 samples from all parts of the world shows that temperature and depth

of water being constant, the carbonate content of the deposits varies with the

salinity of the surface water. Sediments accumulating in regions in which

the surface salinity is less than 34 parts per thousand, as a rule contain little

carbonate and those forming in areas in which the salinity is greater than 35

parts per thousand generally contain considerable carbonate. The critical

salinity is about 35 parts per thousand. This relation holds for both near-

shore and pelagic sediments, but pelagic deposits for given salinities contain

more carbonate than do near-shore sediments.

Temperature and depth of water appear also to influence the deposition of

carbonate, but the effect of surface temperature and of depths less than 1500

fathoms seems to be less than that of salinity. In pelagic areas, depths

greater than 1500 fathoms probably affect the carbonate content slightly more

than does salinity.

Carbonate deposition almost certainly is influenced to a considerable

extent by the activity of living organisms, but this phase of the problem was

not investigated particularly. However, if organisms are the dominant factor

JUNE 4, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ) aed

in carbonate deposition, it seems evident from the data compiled that their

activity to some, and perhaps to a considerable, extent depends on salinity,

especially on variations between 34.5 and 35.5 parts per thousand.

The chief geologic interpretations of the data presented in this paper are

(1) that if a recent marine sediment contains less than 2 per cent CaCO; the

chances favor its having been deposited in brackish water or in a region of

subnormal salinity; and (2) that if a sediment has more than 50 per cent

carbonate, that is, if it is a limestone-forming deposit, it probably accumulated

in water having a salinity greater than normal. These generalizations indicate

probabilities in the sense of mathematical odds. That is, if 100 random

samples were chosen, considerably more than 50 of them would accord with

the generalization expressed. However, not all of the hundred samples would

agree with it; because salinity is only one of several factors affecting the

accumulation of carbonate, and in any individual environment it is possible

for other factors to mask the influence of salinity.

If carbonate deposition in the geologic past was governed by the same

conditions as at present, climate in some places may have played an important

part in the deposition of carbonate. For example, in some epicontinental

seas whether or not the deposits would be calcareous might depend to a con-

siderable extent upon whether the loss of water by evaporation was greater

or less than the addition of water by rainfall or from land. That is, alterna-

tions between limestone and shale or between calcareous and non-calcareous

shale in some places may have been caused more by changes in climate than

by shifts of strandline. This hypothesis is not presented as indicating the

general rule, but as only one of the factors to be considered in the interpreta-

tion of the conditions of deposition of sediments of past geologic age. (Auth-

or’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. R. C. WELLS, VISCHER, SCHAIRER, PARKER, BRAM-

LETTE, WOODRING, RUBEY.

485TH MEETING

The 485th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 10, 1932,

President MaTruss presiding.

Program: W. D. Jounston, Jr.: Structure of the Grass Valley batholith,

California.—A small granodiorite batholith—5 miles long and 4 to 2 miles

wide—on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains offers unusual

opportunity for structural study by means of the extensive mine workings

which penetrate the intrusion to a vertical depth of 3700 feet below the sur-

face and follow vein fractures underground for over two miles along the strike.

Lindgren, Howe, and Knaebel have described the Grass Valley gold quartz

deposits and considered the structural relations as a whole.

With the exception of the Idaho-Maryland group which are localized by

the serpentine-diabase contact in the host rocks, the veins are roughly parallel

with the margins of the batholith and the principal veins dip into the grano-

diorite at an average angle of 35 degrees. A second set of veins, less in number

and in gold values, form a conjugated system with the former. All measur-

able displacements on the veins are thrusts. Together the two series of veins

define the planes of maximum shear resulting from compressive stresses

operating along a horizontal axis normal to the long axis of the batholith.

318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 11

A series of almost vertical fractures, locally called ‘‘crossings” of approxi-

mately the same age as the vein fractures strike in the northeast quadrant,

transverse to the long axis of the batholith. Many of these fractures are

occupied by acidic and basic dikes.

In the mechanical conception of igneous intrusives developed by Cloos the

veins occupy marginal thrusts and the conjugated back-dipping shear plane

and the ‘“‘crossings” are tension or qg cracks.

If the original mechanical system be viewed by means of a strain ellipsoid

the axis of maximum pressure lies in a horizontal plane normal to the long

axis of the batholith, the intermediate pressure axis is horizontal and parallel

with the long axis of the batholith and the axis of minimum pressure is vertical.

Prior to quartz mineralization the vertical tension cracks were closed and

subsequent relief from compressive stresses was upward, resulting in the open-

ing of the vein fractures for the deposition of quartz. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. FrERGuson, Ray, HEwert, and L. H. Smita.

W.H. Brapuey: Hrosion surfaces on the north flank of the Uinta Mountains.

—Long remnants of the Bishop erosion surface capped by the Bishop con-

glomerate extend northward from the north flank of the Uinta Range. ‘This

surface which rises from an elevation of about 7,300 feet out in the basin to

nearly 13,000 feet near the crest of the range is interpreted as a pediment

formed under an arid or semi-arid climate by the lateral corrasion of a group

of graded streams controlled by a common base level. The Bishop conglom-

erate is interpreted as a deposit formed in response to a shift in climate to-

ward greater aridity than prevailed while the underlying surface was being

cut.

About 400 to 500 feet below the remnants of the Bishop pediment are

remnants of another pediment formed in essentially the same manner. ‘This

is the Browns Park pediment or surface, remnants of which are covered by

the Browns Park formation at the east end of the Uinta Range. The Browns

Park and Bishop surfaces were formerly thought to be equivalent, but the

Bishop surface has now been traced eastward and correlated with the nearly

level top of Cold Spring Mountain which in turn lies about 500 feet above an

undisturbed remnant of the Browns Park surface. Thus the Bishop conglo-

merate is older than the Browns Park formation whose age is now regarded

as late Miocene or early Pliocene.

After the deposition of the Browns Park formation the east end of the Uinta

Range collapsed. Into this graben the Green River was diverted, probably

by a combination of piracy and warping. It then flowed on the uppermost

beds of the Browns Park formation and apparently was soon thereafter cap-

tured by the headward erosion of a tributary to Pot Creek which drains

Summit Valley. This capture diverted it so as to flow across the main Uinta

Range along the site of Lodore Canyon. Heretofore the course of the Green

River through Lodore Canyon has been regarded as superposed from the

Browns Park formation. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. MATTHEsS, SEARS, and ALDEN.

Huaeu §. Spence (Mines Branch, Department of Mines of Canada):

Pitchblende deposits at Great Bear Lake, Canada.

Discussed by Mr. Hess.

486TH MEETING

The 486th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, February 24, 1932, Presi-

dent F. E. Marruss presiding.

Informal communications: Mr. D. F. Hewett read a letter from Chester

JUNE 4, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 319

Washburne who suggested the generalization that normal fault surfaces are

concave toward the downthrown side (the active side) in regions of igneous

activity and concave toward the upthrown side (the active side) in regions

remote from igneous activity.

Discussed by Messrs. A. Krrru, J. C. Ray, and P. J. SHENON.

Program: N. H. Darton: Some Algonkian strata in Arizona and adjoining

regions.—The purpose of this paper is to show that most of the strata of the

Apache group of central Arizona are unconformably overlain by sediments

containing fossils of Middle and Upper Cambrian age and are very closely

similar to the Unkar and Chuar groups of the Grand Canyon. The strati-

graphic succession in the two regions is, however, somewhat dissimilar.

The Dripping Spring quartzite and associated shale and conglomerates and

the overlying Mescal limestone which constitute a large part of the Apache

group have all the striking characteristics of the Shinumo quartzite, Bass

limestone, and red Hakatai shales, of the Unkar group as exposed in the Grand

Canyon. The peculiar intrusive diabase sills conspicuous in both areas are

remarkably alike. They are all pre-Cambrian and have caused the develop-

ment of crysotile bodies in certain impure members of both the Mescal and

Bass limestones which they invade. These two formations contain a large

amount of algal material, which according to recent observations by Resser

and Stoyanow also occurs in abundance in some members of the Chuar group.

The Mescal limestone, which is an important ore carrier in the Old Dominion

Copper Mine at Globe, is overlain in many places by a thin flow of vesicular

basalt similar to those in the Chuar group. This is overlain unconformably

by sandstone with local conglomerate containing fragments of the old lava.

This overlying sandstone, which is the Troy or top formation of the Apache

group, has yielded Cambrian fossils which will soon be described by Dr.

Stoyanow of the University of Arizona. He has found them not only in the

upper member in which I discovered the Abrigo fauna some years ago, but

also in the lower beds where in places they are of Middle Cambrian age. The

relations of these sandstones vary in different parts of the region but to the

southeast they have been traced into the Bolsa quarztite which underlies the

Martin (Devonian) limestone. It is now proposed to limit the application of

the term Apache group to the Mescal and underlying strata.

The Millican formation in the region about Van Horn, Texas, with its dia-

base intrusions, algal limestones, red shale, and quartzites is somewhat

similar to the Apache group. The Lanoria quartzite in Franklin Mountains

near Hl Paso with its diabase intrusions also presents features of resemblance

and similarity of history to the exposures in Arizona. The Mazatzal and

some other quartzites in Arizona and New Mexico are probably earlier.

(Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Ressnr, Hewett, and Kina.

Ernst Croos: Is the Sierra Nevada batholith a batholith?—A structural

survey of the Sierra Nevada batholith, between Mono Lake and the Mother

Lode, was carried out in 1930-1931. The methods applied were those described

by Hans Cloos, Robert Balk and others.

The Sierra Nevada intrusive body was found to be a composite mass, of

which the components show their own structural individuality. The first

intrusions took place along tectonic or stratigraphic boundaries; the follow-

ing ones preferred the boundary between previous intrusions and the wall

rock. ‘The contacts usually dip steeply, generally wnder the batholith, but

near Mariposa, the inward dip is only 30 to 40 degrees. A very intense flow

structure follows the contacts, closing to an arch or dome in the center. The

320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 11

dome shape is believed to be caused by retardation of the semiliquid magma

during its rise along the contacts. Joint fans were formed at a later stage,

indicating the continuance of the upward movement during consolidation of

the magma. Marginal thrusts along the contacts effected an upward elonga-

tion of the margins. Thrusts, following the Mother Lode Zone were formed

in a similar way and indicate a close relationship between the Mother Lode

structure and the batholithic intrusion.

No signs of differentiation in the present magma chamber were found. All

partial intrusions show clear contacts and a pure composition from one con-

tact to the other. Differentiation of these magmas must have taken place

in greater depths. No assimilation contacts, signs of convection currents, or

traces of sinking blocks were observed.

To judge from the available data, the Sierra Nevada batholith does not

seem to be a true batholith, in the sense of Suess or Daly. A succession of

intrusions, beginning in the area of the Mother Lode Zone, opened and gradu-

ally widened a gap. ‘The first intrusions preferred stratigraphic or tectonic

boundaries. Those following took advanage of the boundaries between

previous intrusions and the wall rock.

The regions of uniform internal structure grew gradually with increasing

rigidity. The schlieren dome is overlapped by an arch of flow lines. The

latter is overlapped by joint fans. As the rigidity increased, regional joints

became more and more important, until finally the whole area between

the eastern fault and the Mother Lode reacted as one block. (Author’s

abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Marruss, FerGuson, and Cioos.

J. F. Scoarrer and W. H. Bravery, Secretaries.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

At the dinner of the National Academy of Sciences on April 26, the Mary

Clark Thompson Medal was presented to Dr. Davip Wuirts, U.S. Geological

Survey, the presentation address being made by Professor Wriu1aM B. Scort,

of Princeton University.

The John Price Wetherill Medal has been awarded by the Franklin Insti-

tute to Dr. FRANK WENNER of the Bureau of Standards ‘‘in consideration of

his ingenious design of a recording teleseismograph of superior performance.”’

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JOURNAL

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VoL. 22 JUNE 19, 1932 No. 12

PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION.—Some aspects of the classifi-

cation of professional and scientific positions.: Wm. H. Mc-

REYNOLDS, Personnel Classification Board. (Communicated by

Hueu L. DRYDEN.)

In 1923 Congress passed an act to provide for the classification of

civilian positions in the Government service in the District of Colum-

bia on the basis of their duties and responsibilities and for the alloca-

tion of such positions to the appropriate levels of the compensation

schedules prescribed in the act. The law defines the general stand-

ards by which positions are to be evaluated. An administrative

agency, the Personnel Classification Board, is charged with measuring

individual positions in terms of these standards and allocating them

to their proper places in the classification plan.

The Classification Act groups related types of work, across organiza-

tional lines, in broad divisions known as “‘services.’”’ Positions now

under the Classification Act of 1923 are grouped in five services: The

Professional and Scientific Service; the Subprofessional Service; the

Clerical, Administrative, and Fiscal Service; the Custodial Service; and

the Clerical-Mechanical Service. The Professional and Scientific

Service contains somewhat over 5,000 departmental positions allo-

cated in nine grades or zones of difficulty and responsibility, with

salaries ranging from $2000 to $9000 and above.

The variety of professional, scientific, and technical positions in

the Government service is surprising, invariably so to one not familiar

with the service as a whole. These positions embrace practically

every branch of subject matter covered by university curricula and,

moreover, many branches peculiar to the public service. In addition

1 Received April 26, 1932. This paper, which was originally presented before the

scientific group of the Department of Agriculture, is believed to be of interest to mem-

bers of the Academy.

321

322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

to this wide scope of subject matter, the professional and scientific

positions are as a group characterized by a considerable variety of

functional applications of the same subject matter. For example, in

one of the agricultural sciences we may note functions of research,

regulation, or demonstration and extension; and in engineering we may

observe project-investigation, design, construction, inspection, test-

ing, research, and operation, as well as administration and regulation.

In view of the variety and scope of professional and technical po-

sitions, it is clear that without certain principles of classification to

guide us in evaluating and interpreting the facts about individual po-

sitions as they are presented to us from day to day, we could not even

closely approach the goal of allocating these positions uniformly in

the various grades. The basic principle of the Classification Act

seems very simple. It is that all positions are to be classified or allo-

cated on the basis of the importance and difficulty of their duties and

responsibilities. Yet there is a corollary to this that is occasionally

misunderstood, even today. That corollary has to do with the rela-

tionship of the qualifications of the present incumbent of a position to

the allocation of that position.

Confusion on this score always arises when a grade allocation is

thought of, not as an appraisal of the position occupied by an em-

ployee, but as an appraisal of the employee himself. It is easy to see

why some professional and scientific workers might accept this as the

orthodox idea, because of the emphasis placed by scientific individuals

and societies upon the qualifications, standing, and accomplishment of

the individual, the actual position occupied being regarded as merely

one item of evidence pointing toward the achievement of the em ployee.

Following the same line of thought, it would be natural, then, to think

that the purpose of an allocation is to recognize the employee’s achieve-

ments over a long period of years and his present standing in his pro-

fession, without analyzing closely the tasks or the responsibilities of the

employee in the Government service at the time the allocation is being

considered. The emphasis, however, should be in the other direction.

The allocation is a recognition of the current tasks and responsibilities

of the employee, and if it has so happened that these tasks and responsi-

bilities have been assigned to him or have gradually developed because

of his professional standing and ability, then in a certain sense it rec-

ognizes him also; but the allocation is an appraisal of the position, not

of the employee. We sometimes speak in everyday parlance of a

P-5? chemist, or a P-6 engineer, but what we mean is that here is a

2 This is a symbol representing grade 5 of the Professional and Scientific Service.

Grade 1 is the lowest grade of this service and grade 9 the highest.

JUNE 19, 1932 MCREYNOLDS: CLASSIFICATION OF POSITIONS 323

chemist who is occupying a P-5 position or an engineer who has a

position of P-6 level. Asa matter of fact, it is readily conceivable that

a chemist who has P-5 qualifications may be assigned to a P-3 po-

sition, because, for instance, no other assignment is available. He

would then be a P-5 chemist on a P-3 position and would consequently

receive a salary within the P-3 range. Considering the matter

broadly, two things have to coincide in order for an employee to

receive a salary within the range of a particular grade. First, (this

is the item which is occasionally lost sight of) he must be assigned to

work of that grade; and second, he must possess at least the minimum

qualifications for that grade. Obviously a college graduate assigned

to simple clerical work would not receive a P-1 salary. This illustrates

the familiar statement that the Classification Act provides for a clas-

sification of positions and not for a classification of the employees

occupying them.

In order to appreciate the significance of this statement, it is neces-

sary to realize that in personnel administration—not only in the Gov-

ernment service, but generally—a sharp distinction is made between a

position and anemployee. A position is composed of one or more tasks

or assignments that are to be performed by a single individual. It

comes into existence through the action, authorization, or permission

of the head of the department or establishment in which it is located.

It may be occupied or vacant. It is characterized by its duties and

responsibilities, and so long as these criteria remain the same, the po-

sition remains the same regardless of the fact that it may be occupied

by different employees at different times. A position often exists be-

fore it is occupied by any one and it does not necessarily cease to exist

when its incumbent is separated from it. When its duties and re-

sponsibilities materially change regardless of the cause of that change,

it is a different position, calling perhaps for a different classification

or allocation. Such a change may take place because of a division or

merger of two or more positions, or because of a gradual development

of the position caused by the growth of the employee himself. In this

last situation the change generally takes place so imperceptibly that

it is necessary to emphasize that the former position has been trans-

formed into another one of different characteristics, the former one

usually, but not necessarily, being regarded as having disappeared.

One of the considerations aiding in the classification of a position is

the qualifications required of any incumbent,for.the performance of..

the duties and the discharge of the responsibilities involved. Quali-

fication requirements are inferences drawn abstractly from the informa-

JUN 20 1932

324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 12

tion as to the duties and responsibilities, and to state them is one

method of indicating how difficult or complex these duties and re-

sponsibilities are. Simple duties require little training and experience.

Difficult duties require longer training and experience and demonstra-

tion of definite attainments. Statements of minimum qualifications

to be required of any future incumbent of a given class of positions are

particularly enlightening in considering the allocation of newly-created

positions or vacancies. Their value lies in the fact that they have a

generic significance, not a significance dependent solely on the quali-

fications of one person.

The difficulty is that many persons confuse the concept of qualifica-

tions required for a position—whoever the incumbent may be—with

the actual qualifications possessed by some particular incumbent.

Sometimes the incumbent possesses less than the required qualifica-

tions. That may be a mistake in assignment, but the allocation of

the position should not be lowered so long as it is a fact that he is

doing the work upon which the allocation was granted. Sometimes

he possesses more than the required qualifications; but the allocation

of the position should not be raised unless and until the duties and

responsibilities of the position have substantially increased—a phe-

nomenon which may be due to these higher qualifications or to any

one of a number of other causes.

The fact is that duties actually performed and responsibilities ac-

tually exercised are the characteristics that serve as the basis of classi-

cation; qualifications that incumbents may happen to possess or lack

do not determine the classification of their positions, although such

possession or lack may be the reason why the duties and responsibili-

ties are such as they are.

It is according to these principles that a position and its incumbent

are regarded as separate and distinct for classification purposes, al-

though, at the same time, it is recognized that one may have a strong

influence on the other. In that part of the administrative organiza-

tion of the Government which deals with central personnel manage-

ment, there is a separation of function and authority along these same

lines. It is the department and the Civil Service Commission that

have the authority to appraise the employee and to designate him

as eligible for a position of a particular grade. In a certain sense such

action would be a classification of the employee and not of the position.

With that decision the Board has nothing to do. It is its authority

to appraise the position. Its jurisdiction is to see whether the position

in question is composed of tasks or assignments of the requisite im-

JUNE 19, 1932 MCREYNOLDS: CLASSIFICATION OF POSITIONS 325

portance, difficulty, and responsibility to characterize it as properly

belonging in the grade recommended by the department; if so, the

Board approves that grade; if not, the Board determines the grade

which in its judgment is the correct one.

As was mentioned a moment ago, although the Personnel Classifi-

cation Board is required to appraise positions and not the qualifica-

tions of their incumbents, it is easily apparent that the qualifications

an employee may possess or lack can, and many times do, influence

the character of the duties and responsibilities he is authorized or

permitted to assume. In no type of work is this more frequent than

in the field of scientific research. In administrative positions the

responsibilities and the duties usually are somewhat more closely

defined. There is not, as arule, so large an opportunity for the growth

of the position. In fact, some administrative positions are so cir-

cumscribed by law or administrative regulation as to render their basic

characteristics only slightly responsive to the personal accomplish-

ments of the incumbent. In the higher-grade research positions,

however, it is almost invariably true that as a scientist develops, his

position is allowed to develop with him, towards the final situation

where the limits of its duties and responsibilities coincide with the

limits of his own capabilities.

This leads us to another phase of classification that holds consider-

able interest for the professional and scientific group. That is the

relationship between the allocation of administrative or operating

positions and the allocation of research positions.

In view of the direct benefits of research to progress in the industrial

and agricultural arts, it is, of course, true that national governments,

in this country and elsewhere, recognize the advantages of research

as a public function and encourage and foster it through appropria-

tions from the public treasury. So we find, in the structure of our own

Government, positions having the conduct of research as their main

objective. These range from the junior positions with responsibility

only for certain routine tests or determinations to the positions having

as their main characteristic the rendering of service of unquestioned

authoritativeness in a given branch of science and the maintenance of

the Government’s prestige in that branch.

As between pure and applied science and as among the various

branches of science, no distinctions were manifested in the definition

of the grades in the Classification Act. There was no indication that

Congress intended to discriminate, for example, between work having

as its immediate result the direct alleviation of human disease and

326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

suffering, and work the immediate result of which might be, for the

time being, only an extension of the boundaries of knowledge. As a

matter of fact it would have been unwise, even if it had been practical,

for Congress to attempt such a distinction, for the history of science is

replete with instances where research for knowledge for its own sake

has paved the way for outstanding benefits to the people.

As between research and administration, however, the original

Classification Act of 1923 drew specific parallels in the fourth and fifth

grades of the Professional and Scientific Service, which consisted of

but seven grades at that time. These parallels indicated clearly that

up to and including the P-5 grade, which then carried a salary range of

$5200 to $6000, individual scientific research was intended to go hand

in hand with administration of professional and scientific organiza-

tions. After that, the Classification Act indicated, administration

was to proceed alone except for the company of exceptional consulta-

tion service to the head of a department. Accordingly, during the

first few years of classification administration, P-5 was generally re-

garded as the ceiling for individual research. The Board made a few,

but relatively very few, allocations of individual research positions to

grades higher than the old P-5.

Under the Welch Act, in 1928, an extra grade was added to the pro-

fessional levels within the Board’s allocating authority, and under the

operation of that Act there was to a certain extent a reappraisal of

positions from P-4 onward, with an upward shifting of values. These

changes in the upper levels had as one of their specific effects the libera-

lizing of standards of allocation for research positions. Since that

time, P-7, carrying a salary range of $6500 to $7500, has been generally

regarded as available for the allocation of research positions that are

sufficiently unique and outstanding from a national or international

standpoint to warrant special recognition. This, it may be added, is

the foundation for the language used by the Board in defining grade

P-7 in the classification bill recommended last year to Congress as a

result of the field survey. The terms of the definition of P-7 in this

bill specifically place on a parity the three functions of research, prac-

tice, and administration in professional, scientific or technical work.

It is, of course, already a familiar fact that in certain organization

units within a bureau, it is not unusual—in fact, in some places, rather

common—to have research positions in a division allocated in the same

grade as the head of the division. This comes about in those instances

where the individual research work concerned is of such a nature that

supervision and review in the customary sense do not exist and that

JUNE 19, 1932 BERRY: A NEW PALM O27

the research worker is, as to the technical aspects of his work, virtually

independent of the organization structure.

Generally speaking, it is the consensus of opinion in the professional

and scientific group that the road of advancement open to the inde-

pendent worker—the specialist in pure research—should be as long

as that which is provided for the worker in applied science or for the

official charged with the responsibility for administrative or operating

activities. Although there may be differences of judgment as to what

in individual research work constitutes a parity with a certain set of

administrative responsibilities, and therefore differences of judgment as

to how far the idea should be applied, no one can quarrel very much

with the spirit of the principle itself.

The Classification Act and its amendments have recognized this

principle almost in full measure, even though legislation has not yet

been amended to the point of recognizing that individual research

workers in any one of the more outstanding bureaus of the Govern-

ment may be allocated to the same grade as the head of that bureau.

It may thus be said that except as to the highest grade to which the

Board is authorized to allocate positions, i.e., P-8, the assumption of

administrative responsibility is not a prerequisite for any grade. I

think it will be agreed that this relationship in the Government Ser-

vice between the allocation of individual research positions and the

allocation of administrative positions is certainly as favorable to the

individual research worker as is the corresponding relation in the

large corporations of private industry between the salaries of its scien-

tists and those of its highest executives.

PALEOBOTANY.—A new Palm from the upper Eocene of Ecuador.

EpWwARrD W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

The specimen which it is the purpose of the present note to describe

was sent to me by Dr. George Sheppard of Guayaquil, Ecuador, and

was collected from the upper Eocene of the Ancon district, Santa

Elena peninsula, Ecuador. It is splendidly preserved as a calcifica-

tion, and is undoubtedly a new species of palm fruit, and appears to

belong in the genus Astrocaryum Meyer. It may be described as

follows:

Astrocaryum sheppardi n. sp. Berry

Big. T,

Nut fairly large for this genus, elongated, slightly asymmetric, pointed at

both ends—less sharply so proximad. Length 7.5 centimeters. Maximum

1 Received April 12, 1932.

328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 12

diameter 3.93 centimeters. Minimum diameter 3.65 centimeters. This

slight departure from a circular cross section may be natural or it may be

due to a slight amount of deformation during fossilization. Germinating

pores three in number, round, about 6.25 millimeters in diameter, situated

unusually high above the base—the distance ranging from 3.1 to 3.4 centi-

meters, slightly higher on the more inflated side of the fruit. The contours are

rather more straight below the pores and more inflated and rounded above

them. The surface is corrugated by irregular disconnected (interrupted)

longitudinal ribbing, which is more pronounced proximad.

The identification of palm fruits, either fossil or recent is about as baffling

as is the identification of palm wood, not because the fruits are not character-

Figure 1.—(a) Astrocaryum sheppardi from the inflated side.—(6) Equatorial profile.

—(c) View of side showing two of the germinating pores.

istic, but because specimens of the fruits of recent species are not available in

collections nor are they particularly well described by systematic botanists

even when known and often they remain unknown. Ordinarily paleobotan-

ists evade this difficulty by referring fossil palm fruits to the purely form

genus Palmocarpon, proposed by Lesquereux in 1878, and now containing up-

wards of thirty nominal species from different parts of the world. About

half of these are from the Eocene of the United States. Others come from

Panama, the Antilles, Ecuador, and Peru. They obviously have slight

systematic value unless they show definite resemblances to existing genera.

The genus Astrocaryum, to which the present species from Ecuador is

referred, includes stemless to tall feather palms and contains about thirty

existing species. These are exclusively American and range from southern

Mexico to eastern Peru, reaching their maximum development in the rain

JUNE 19, 1932 MUESEBECK: BASSUS FABRICIUS 329

forests of the Amazon basin, although they are also found in the Brazilian

Campos. They are not especially coastal types but their fruits are common in

the beach drift of both coasts of tropical America, occurring on the beaches of

the Pacific coast as far south as Punta Parinas, and here derived in all prob-

ability from the Guayas estuary by the action of small inshore counter cur-

rents, although it is conceivable that they might occasionally be brought

down to the sea from the head waters of the Tumbes or Chira Rivers. How-

ever, their occurrence along the north Peruvian desert coast associated with

unfilled and hence floatable nuts of the Ivory palm would indicate that the

former origin was the more likely.

No other fossil species of Astrocaryum are known tome. A few years ago

I described specimens of fruits from the Oligocene of Peru which I referred to

that genus,? but subsequent collections proved them to belong to the related

genus Attalea H. B. K.,? which has about as many existing species and a

somewhat similar geographical distribution. The fruits of the latter, how-

ever lack germinating pores and hence can be readily discriminated from the

fruits of A strocaryum when the material is well preserved.

The geological section on the Santa Elena peninsula of western Ecua-

dor is much like that so thoroughly described by Olsson and Iddings

in the northwestern coastal region of Peru, and the older Tertiary of

the two regions has already yielded a number of identical fossil fruits.

This number is likely to be much increased by more detailed collecting

in the Ecuadorian region.

2 Berry, E. W., U.S. Nat. Museum Proc. 70: Art.3. 1926.

3 Berry, E. W., Pan Amer. Geologist, 51: 242, figs.4-10. 1929.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Four new North American species of Bassus Fabri-

cius (Hymenoptera, Braconidae), with notes on the genotype.}

C. F. W. Mursgeseck, Bureau of Entomology. (Communicated

by Harotp Morrison.)

In my treatment of the Nearctic Braconinae? I briefly summarized

the situation concerning the status of the names Bassus Fabr. and

Microdus Nees. The two being isogenotypic and Bassus the older

name, Microdus must be suppressed. The continued European usage

of Microdus for this group in the Braconidae and of Bassus for an

ichneumonid genus evidently is due to a disregard of first genotype fixa-

tion, and to the acceptance of Westwood’s designation (1840)? of

Bassus laetatorius Fabr. as type of Bassus, no notice being taken of the

designation of Ichneumon calculator Fabr. by Curtis* in 1825.

1 Received April 26, 1932.

2 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 69: Art. 16, 1927, 73 pp.

3 Intr. Mod. Class. Ins. 2: 59. Gen. Syn. 1840.

2 Brit hmt 2s fo... Leo:

330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 12

BASSUS CALCULATOR Fabricius

Ichneumon calculator Fabricius, Suppl. Entom. System., 1798, p. 225.

Bassus calculator Fabricius, Syst. Piez., 1804, p. 98.

Since this species was only very briefly characterized by Fabricius, and

since subsequent descriptions by other authors apparently have been based

merely on material identified as calculator and not on the type, which is in

the Natural History Museum at Kiel, Germany, the following notes taken

from the type specimen are included here:

A female specimen labeled ‘‘21 calculator.’”’ Agrees with the characteriza-

tion of Bassus in my paper on the Braconinae to which reference has already

been made.

Length, about 6mm. Face not rostriform, broad, smooth; antennae miss-

ing; temples narrow, receding; frons immargined; ocelli small; mesoscutum

polished; notauli sharply impressed; scutellar furrow rather broad, with

several foveae within; scutellum smooth; propodeum convex, closely rugulose;

mesopleural furrow curved, foveolate; metapleura mostly smooth; areolet

(second cubital cell) triangular, sessile; nervulus very slightly postfurcal;

mediella a little shorter than lower abscissa of basella; subdiscoidella not dis-

tinct; abdomen scarcely as long as head and thorax combined; first tergite

broadening gradually behind, longer than broad, shallowly but distinctly

‘striate, without prominent longitudinal keels; a little faint longitudinal

sculpture at base of second; remainder of dorsum of abdomen smooth and

shining; ovipositor sheaths very nearly as long as body. Head black; thorax

black, with pronotum, mesoscutum, scutellum, and mesopleura anteriorly,

red; abdomen black; anterior and middle legs yellowish, their coxae piceous;

posterior legs blackish, base of tibia yellow; wings weakly infumated, with a

hyaline area across discocubital cell and extending into second discoidal.

Bassus petiolatus, new species

Closely resembling californicus Mues., but distinguishable by the more

rostriform face, weakly sculptured propodeum, mostly reddish or reddish

yellow abdomen, and more slender legs.

Female.—Length, 5 mm. Head strongly produced below; malar space

nearly as long as eye and nearly vertical; clypeus long, less than one and one-

half times as broad as long; a low ridge on frons between antennae and below

median ocellus; temples narrow; ocell-ocular line not quite twice diameter of

a lateral ocellus and shorter than postocellar line; labial palpus very slender,

third segment nearly half as long as second; antennae 32-segmented, a little

shorter than the body.

Thorax with notauli sharply impressed, finely punctate; mesonotal lobes

and scutellum smooth; scutellar furrow foveate; propodeum strongly convex,

without carinae, punctate, nearly smooth medially; sides of pronotum, and

mesopleura, polished; mesopleural furrow long, nearly complete, finely foveo-

late; metapleurum punctate; radial cell on wing margin only about one-third

as long as stigma; areolet minute, long-petiolate; mediella about equal to

lower abscissa of basella; posterior tibia unusually slender on basal half,

scarcely thicker at middle than at base, but distinctly enlarged apically; longer

calcarium of posterior tibia hardly more than one-third as long as metatarsus.

Abdomen narrower than thorax; first tergite more than one and one-half

times as long as broad at apex, without longitudinal keels, and smooth and

JUNE 19, 1932 MUESEBECK: BASSUS FABRICIUS ool

shining except for a little faint reticulation medially; remainder of abdomen

polished, second tergite longer than third and with a very weakly indicated

curved transverse impression at middle; ovipositor sheaths slightly longer

than body.

Head and thorax black; abdomen reddish yellow, with first tergite more or

less blackish; wings uniformly infumated; legs mostly yellowish; coxae black

or blackish; posterior tibia mostly infuscated, with a pale yellow streak on inner

side just before middle; middle and hind tarsi blackish.

Male.—Essentially like the female; antennae of allotype also 32-segmented;

posterior coxae red.

Type-locality—Alamogordo, New Mexico.

Type, allotype, and 10 paratypes in Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-

delphia, 11 paratypes in U.S. Nat. Museum (No. 44081, U.S. N. M.).

Eight females and fifteen males collected in April and May, 1902. The

paratypes exhibit some color variation, pronotum and mesonotum sometimes

becoming more or less testaceous, abdomen occasionally dark reddish rather

than reddish yellow, and, rarely, all coxae brownish yellow.

Bassus parvus, new species

Most similar to annulipes (Cress.), but differing especially in the black

coxae, the lack of longitudinal carinae on propodeum, shorter antennae,

strongly oblique areolet of anterior wing, more compact abdomen, and smaller

size.

Female.—Length, 2.4 mm. Head, as seen from in front, very short and

broad, malar space short and very strongly inclined inwardly; eyes large; face

much broader than long; third segment of labial palpus minute, scarcely

discernible; antennae about as long as body, 25-segmented; temples swollen

opposite middle of eyes; entire head polished.

Thorax a little narrower than head; mesonotum smooth and shining;

notauli weakly impressed, punctate posteriorly, scarcely distinct anteriorly;

propodeum punctate-rugulose without distinct carinae; mesopleurum pol-

ished, its furrow straight, indistinctly punctate; metapleurum shining,

rugulose behind; posterior coxae polished; areolet of anterior wing minute,

strongly petiolate, and oblique; second intercubitus very weak; mediella

distinctly longer than lower abscissa of basella.

Abdomen about as wide as thorax and scarcely longer; first tergite a little

longer than broad, closely longitudinally striate, without distinct keels;

remainder of abdomen polished; second tergite with a shallow transverse

curved impressed line near middle; ovipositor sheaths slender, about one and

one-half times as long as abdomen.

Black; palpi piceous; all coxae black; all trochanters and femora brownish

black; anterior and middle tibiae brownish; hind tibia blackish on apical half,

yellowish basally, with an incomplete dark annulus a little beyond base;

wings hyaline; stigma and veins dark brown.

Male.—Like the female in essential characters; antennae likewise 25-seg-

mented.

Type-locality.— Palo Alto, California.

Type.—No. 44082, U.S. N. M.

Three females and one male reared in the Bureau of Entomology by J. M.

Miller (Hopkins 18244c), from an undetermined host infesting Cupressus

macrocarpa.

332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

Bassus reticulatus, new species

Very similar to perforator (Prov.), but separable by its coarsely rugoso-

reticulate propodeum, shorter antennae, which are usually 20 to 22 segmented,

and longer ovipositor sheaths, which are fully as long as the body.

Female.—Length, 4 mm. Head rostriform, malar space nearly equal to

eye height, nearly vertical; third segment of labial palpus about half as long

as second; frons smooth, immargined; antennae but little longer than head and

thorax combined, not tapering apically, 21-segmented in type.

Thorax deeper than wide; notauli wanting; mesonotum vertical in front;

scutellum immargined; propodeum coarsely rugoso-reticulate, with a sharply

defined median longitudinal impression from base to apex; posterior lateral

angles of propodeum prominent, and the posterior declivity rather abrupt;

side of pronotum faintly reticulate; mesopleurum smooth, its longitudinal

furrow smooth; metapleurum minutely punctate or granular and subopaque;

areolet triangular, moderately large, short-petiolate; radial cell on wing

margin more than half as long as stigma; mediella about equal to lower

abscissa of basella; posterior femora and tibiae short and stout.

Abdomen about as wide as thorax and slightly longer; first tergite large,

about as broad at apex as long, entirely finely striato-granular, with two

prominent longitudinal keels on basal half; second and third tergites trans-

verse, subequal, closely granular and subopaque, each provided with a com-

plete transverse groove at middle that is crossed by numerous longitudinal

raised lines; second suture foveolate; third and following tergites smooth.

Honey-yellow; antennae, mesosternum, and propodeum except at apex,

blackish; wings slightly brownish; legs mostly reddish yellow; trochanters,

bases of anterior and middle femora, middle and posterior tibiae near base and

at apex, and all tarsi, brownish black; second and third abdominal tergites

with indefinite blackish markings laterally.

Male.—Antennae 22-segmented; otherwise like the type.

Type-locality— Southern Illinois.

Type.—No. 44083, U.S. N. M.

Three females and one male collected by Charles Robertson. The antennae

of both paratypes are 20-segmented and the thorax of one is entirely yellow.

Bassus brevicauda, new species

Most closely resembles discolor (Cresson), but differs especially in its

shorter ovipositor and entirely black head and thorax.

Female.—Length, 3 mm. Head viewed from in front much broader than

long, not rostriform; malar space less than half eye-height; antennae as long

as body, slender, 35-segmented; third segment of labial palpus short but dis-

tinct; frons polished, immargined; ocell-ocular line slightly longer than posto-

cellar line.

Thorax rather stout; mesoscutum weakly punctate; notauli sharply im-

pressed throughout; scutellum smooth; propodeum mostly horizontal, with

only a very short posterior declivity, entirely closely rugulose but without

carinae; mesopleura mostly smooth; mesopleural furrow long and distinctly

foveolate; metapleura shagreened, opaque; posterior coxae faintly shagreened

and subopaque outwardly; areolet of fore wing small, triangular, subpetiolate;

radial cell on wing margin less than half as long as stigma; mediella slightly

shorter than lower abscissa of basella.

Abdomen scarcely longer than thorax, broadening gradually to apex of

third segment; first tergite completely uniformly granular and opaque, without

JUNE 19, 1932 SCHMITT: PASIPHAEA 333

dorsal keels; second and third tergites much broader than long, sculptured

like the first but more weakly, the third smooth at apex; fourth and following

tergites polished; ovipositor sheaths not longer than abdomen, ovipositor

decurved at apex.

Black; palpi pale; legs including all coxae testaceous; posterior tibia pale

yellowish, broadly black at apex and with an incomplete blackish annulus

near base; middle tibia weakly infuscated at apex and near base; all tarsi

more or less blackish; wings uniformly brownish; second and most of third

abdominal tergites reddish yellow; the following also reddish yellow laterally,

except the last which is entirely blackish; venter of abdomen testaceous.

Type-locality.—Jefferson County, W. Va.

Type.—No. 44084, U.S. N. M.

Host.— Coleophora maliorella Riley.

Two females reared in June and July, respectively, 1931, by Edwin Gould.

ZOOLOGY.—A new species of Pasiphaea from the Straits of Magellan.:

Wa.po L. Scumitt, United States National Museum.

In the course of a brief review of the species of Pasiphaea, I thought

that the doubts that have been raised from time to time regarding the

true identity of Pasiphaea acutifrons Doflein and Balss, Mitteil. Nat.

Mus. Hamburg, vol. 29, pt. 2, p. 27, fig. 1, should be settled by recourse

to the original material. Through the kindness of Dr. A. Panning of

the Zoologische Staatsinstitut and Zoologische Museum, Hamburg,

Germany the specimens were entrusted to me for study. I find they

represent an undescribed species.

Pasiphaea dofleini, new species

Pasiphaea acutifrons Doflein and Balss, Mitteil. Nat. Mus., Hamburg, vol.

29> pt. 2, p. 27, ie. t. (Not P. acutifrons Bate.)

A new species of Pasiphaea with very slightly emarginate telson, and non-

carinated carapace and abdomen.

The compressed carapace is very little less than half the length of the

abdomen and without a trace of a mid-dorsal carina, except as the back of the

gastric tooth itself may be called a short carina; the tip of that tooth falls short

of the frontal margin. The branchiostegal spine is situated before the angle

of the sinus and near the anterior margin of the carapace but does not seem

to project beyond it; the branchiostegal sinus is quite shallow.

The acicle inclusive of the spine is nearly half the length of the carapace

and exceeds the antennular peduncle by about half the length of the last

segment; the latter is about as long as the second and the visible portion of the

first, before the eyes, taken together; the second joint is about twice as long

as the visible portion of the first; the basal joint of the antenna carries a well

developed spine beneath.

The meral joints of the first pair of legs are unarmed on their inferior

margins, as are the ischia; the meral joints of the second legs have seven

spines below in the type, but from an inspection of other specimens it appears

that the count may vary from seven to ten; the basal joints, and the carpi

of the second pair of legs are furnished at the infero-distal angle with a sharp

1 Received May 7, 1932. Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian

Institution.

334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

spine; the carpus of the first legs is acute and may be somewhat produced,

but does not approach the spine-like process of the second carpus either in

size or length. The distal margin of the first or basal joint of the antennular

peduncle, the end of the antennal peduncle, and of the carpus of the second

pair of legs all attain about the same level; the first carpi, though approxi-

mately subequal to the second, reach a little farther forward, as do the first

meral joints. These relative forward extensions vary in some of the speci-

mens; in one, a specimen smaller than the one taken as the type, the meri of

the second legs attain the level of the distal margin of basal joint of the

antennule and those of the first legs reach a little in advance of this point.

In the type specimen the palm of the second legs is shorter than the fingers,

palm 4 mm. long; longer, fixed or immovable finger 53 mm. long; the cheiae

of the first pair are missing. In the first pair of legs of a smaller specimen the

fingers are subequal and a little shorter than the palm, 3.2 mm. as compared

to 4 mm. for the palm.

Approximate measurements of the type-—Carapace 15.2 mm. long; abdomen

inclusive of telson, 71 mm.; sixth abdominal somite, 8 mm.; telson, 7 mm.

The type is in the Hamburg Museum.

Type locality—Punta Arenas, now Magelhanes, Chile.

Remarks.—This species is at once differentiated from P. acutifrons Bate

and from P. faxoni Rathbun with which de Man thought it might prove

identical, by the sharp longitudinal carination of the carapace, the more or less

Fig. 1.—Pasiphaea dofleini.—Outline of carapace of type.

carinated abdomen, and the shape of the extremity of the telson which in the

first named is distinctly forked and in P. faxonz forms a not very deep, yet a

decided inverted V.

P. forceps Milne Edwards, from the Straits of Magellan, though resembling

P. dofleini in its non-carinated carapace, is sharply differentiated by its deeply

cleft telson.

From the species with which the present species might be considered

to have something in common, P. kaiwiensis Rathbun and P. n. sp.? (hilarula)

de Man, because of the very slightly emarginate telson and non-carinated

carapace behind the gastric tooth itself, P. dofleini may be distinguished by

the armature of the meral joints of the first and second legs. In the first named

the merus of the first pair of legs is armed with two small spines below and

that of the second with fourteen spines; in de Man’s “n. sp.?” for which he

proposed the name hilarula if sustained as a distinct species, the first merus

carries a single small spinule at about the middle of the ventral margin, and

the second merus three well developed spines.

_ P. emarginata Rathbun, whose telson exhibits a comparatively shallow

/\-shaped notch, has the carapace quite sharply carinated for the greater

JUNE 19, 1932 BARTSCH: COCHLOSTYLA 3930

part of its length and is armed with six to nine spines on the first merus, and

seventeen to eighteen on the second. These spines are not all of the same

size, a few are quite small, and appear with increase in size of the specimen

and age to become more or less obsolescent and disappear, for in one fairly

large specimen I could count but four spines on the first merus and eight on

the second.

MALACOLOGY.—The tree snails of the genus Cochlostyla of Mindoro

Province, Philippine Islands... Paut Bartscu, United States

National Museum.

Recent sendings of splendid collections of land shells made by Sr.

Pedro de Mesa in Mindoro Province, Philippine Islands, have made it

necessary to subject the Cochlostylas of the region to a critical study.

This has been done, and the results are embodied in a fully illustrated

monograph upon the group, submitted to the United States National

Museum for publication. It seems, however, that an accumulation

of manuscript will hold up its publication for some time, and since Mr.

de Mesa is anxious to distribute the material, which he has collected,

it appears best to publish a brief diagnosis of the new things discovered

in this genus. I am therefore listing all the members of the genus so

far known from the region, giving the distribution of each. A new

subgenus and the new species and subspecies are tersely differentiated

and their type with its United States National Museum number

designated.

CocHLOSTYLA (CoRASIA) AEGROTA Reeve. Mindoro.

(oo geben (CALOCOCHLEA) MELANOCHEILA Grateloup. Eastern Min-

oro.

Cochlostyla (Calocochlea) perpallida, new species. This species resembles

in size and hydrophanous marking Cochlostyla melanocheila, but the ground

color of the nuclear whorls, aperture and peristome are white; the aperture

and columella are also more oblique. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313568; Tubu-

kala near San Teodora, northeastern Mindoro.

COocHLOSTYLA (CALOCOCHLEA) ROISSYANA Ferussac. This species breaks

up into a number of geographic races, some of which are new. They are:

Cochlostyla (Calocochlea) roissyana roissyana Ferussac. Northeastern

Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Calocochlea) roissyana bartschi Clench. Anduyanan, Paluan,

northwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Calocochlea) roissyana subatra Pilsbry. Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Calocochlea) roissyana lutea Pfeiffer. Ilin Island, off southern

Mindoro.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

May 10, 1932.

336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

Cochlostyla (Calocochlea) roissyana cavitala, new subspecies. This race

differs from Cochlostyla (Calocochlea) roissyana bartschi Clench in being

uniformly lighter colored. Type: U. S. N. M. No. 313589; Mt. Calavite

near Paluan, northwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Calocochlea) roissyana manlaysa, new subspecies. This race

is distinguished from typical rozssyana Ferussac by its much paler color.

Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313614; east shore of Mansalay Bay, eastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Calocochlea) roissyana laymansa, new subspecies. This race,

specimens of which I collected on the west shore of Mansalay Bay, eastern

Mindoro, can readily be distinguished by its pale greenish plum color. Type:

U.S. N. M. No. 255958.

CocHLOSTYLA (CALOCOCHLEA) GERTRUDIS Mollendorff, Kobelt and Winter.

Bongabon, southeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Halocochlea) lillianae, new subgenus and species. Shell

helicoid, periphery angulated, curve between summit and periphery of last

whorl equalling that of base between periphery and umbilicus; peristome

expanded and reflected; columella very oblique and excavated. There is

_ scarcely any calcareous material in the shell, which is thin and diaphanous,

and of very pale yellowish olive green color, with a dark chestnut brown

columellar area. Jype: U.S. N. M. No. 255825; Mt. Halcon.

CocHLOSTYLA (HELICOSTYLA) FULGENS FULGENS Sowerby. Northeastern

Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Helicostyla) fulgens johnsoni, new subspecies. This sub-

species is readily distinguished from the other two by its more elevated spire.

It has the dark base and variable bands of typical Cochlostyla ( Helicostyla)

fulgens fulgens. Type: U. S. N. M. No. 21779; Sitio Pamulon, Mansalay

Bay, southeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Helicostyla) fulgens sapolana, new subspecies. This sub-

species is distinguished from typical Cochlostyla (Helicostyla) fulgens fulgens

by its lacking the dark olivaceous yellow base. Here it is only a trifle more

yellow than the spire. Type: U.S.N.M. No. 313574; Mt. Sapol, northeastern

Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (HELICOSTYLA) DIMERA Jonas. Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (COCHLOSTYLA) HYDROPHANA HYDROPHANA Sowerby.

Medio Island, Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Cochlostyla) hydrophana veroderoana, new subspecies. This

subspecies is readily distinguished from typical Cochlostyla (Cochlostyla)

hydrophana hydrophana by its much more elevated form. Type: U.S. N. M.

No. 313619; Verodero, Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (COCHLODRYAS) FLORIDA FLORIDA Broderip. Northeastern

Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (COCHLODRYAS) FLORIDA FUSCOLABIATA Mollendorff, Kobelt

and Winter. Mindoro.

JUNE 19, 1932 BARTSCH: COCHLOSTYLA Oot

Cochlostyla (Cochlodryas) florida aureola, new subspecies. This race in

shape reminds one of Cochlostyla (Cochlodryas) florida signa, but can at once

be differentiated from this by its golden yellow periostracum. Type: U.S.

N. M. No. 313610; obtained by the U. S. Exploring Expedition, probably at

the southern tip of Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Cochlodryas) florida signa, new subspecies. This subspecies

is differentiated from all the others by its exceedingly thin shell and pale

olivaceous waxy coloration. Type: U. 8. N. M. No. 313611, west shore of

Mansalay Bay, southeastern Mindoro.

CocHLOsTYLA (COCHLODRYAS) FLORIDA HELICOIDES Pfeiffer. North-

eastern Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (COCHLODRYAS) ORBITULA Sowerby. Northeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Cochlodryas) mateoi, new name for HELIx TENERA Sowerby,

1841, Proc. Zool. Soc., p. 102, in part, not HeLtrix TENERA Gmelin, 1791, Linn.

Syst. Nat., ed. 13, vol. 1, pt. 6, p. 3653. The dark banded shell. North-

eastern Mindoro. |

Cochlostyla (Cochlodryas) mateoi sibolonensis, new subspecies. This can

readily be distinguished from typical Cochlostyla (Cochlodryas) mateo by its

very thin shell and broad form, as well as paler coloration. Type: U.S. N.

M. No. 313629; Sibolon Island off southeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Cochlodryas) fastidiosa, new name for HELIX TENERA Sow-

erby, 1841, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 102, in part, not HELIX TENERA

Gmelin Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 13, 1791, vol. 1, pt. 6, p. 3653. The pale shells.

Northeastern Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (COCHLODRYAS) DECORA Adams and Reeve. Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (COLUMPLICA) CEPOIDES Lea. Lubang Island.

CocHLOSTYLA (HELICOBULINUS) TURBO Pfeiffer. Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Orthostylus) euconica, new species. Shell broadly conic,

periostracum varying from grayish brown to wood brown. Where the

periostracum is removed, the early whorls are flesh colored, the succeeding

turns becoming gradually darker until the last is chestnut brown between

summit and periphery and bright dark chestnut brown on base. Aperture

bluish white; peristome edged with brown; columella pinkish. Type:

U.S. N. M. No. 313637; Calapan, Mindoro. It has 5.7 whorls, and meas-

ures: Length, 50.3 mm.; greater diameter, 39.2 mm.; lesser diameter, 34 mm.

CocHLOSTYLA (HYPSELOSTYLUS) CINCINNIFORMIS CINCINNIFORMIS Sow-

erby. Lubang Island.

CocHLOSTYLA (HYPSELOSTYLUS) CINCINNIFORMIS ULTIMA Clench. Aparico,

Golo Island.

CocHLOSTYLA (HYPSELOSTYLUS) CINCINNIFORMIS DEMESANA_ Clench.

Aparico, Golo Island.

338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

Cochlostyla (Hypselostylus) cincinniformis menagei, new subspecies.

This subspecies is distinguished from the others by its much more vivid

coloration, the light areas being much more intensely white and the dark

areas equally intensely dark, but the dark areas are not as broad as in typical

Cochlostyla (Hypselostylus) cincinniformis cincinniformis; consequently the

shell as a whole appears paler than in the typical race. Type: U.S. N. M.

No. 313578; collected by the Menage Expedition in northeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Hypselostylus) cincinniformis guntingana, new subspecies.

The yellow or orange coloration of the light areas in this subspecies will dis-

tinguish it from the rest. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313574; Gunting Mountain,

Looe Bay, Lubang Island.

Cochlostyla (Hypselostylus) cincinniformis cabrasensis, new subspecies.

This subspecies is distinguished from the rest by having the brown bands much

brighter and the light ones intensely bluish white. Type: U.S. N. M. No.

313639; Cabras Island. |

CocHLOSTYLA (HYPSELOSTYLUS) CINCINNIFORMIS LUBANENSIS Clench and

Archer. Binacas, Lubang Island.

CocHLOsTYLa (Eupoxus) sJonasi Pfeiffer. Mindoro.

CocHLosTyYLa (Eupoxus) BuscuI Pfeiffer. Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (EUDOXUS) SIMPLEX Jonas. Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (EUDOXUS) ALBINA Grateloup. Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Eudoxus) canonizadoi, new species. This species suggests

very strongly Cochlostyla (Cochlodryas) halichlora Semper from Luzon, but

it is in every way much smaller. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313722; 5 whorls;

measures: Length, 27.3 mm.; greater diameter, 27.9 mm.; lesser diameter,

22.5 mm.; Sibolon Island, south of Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (PROCHILUS) VIRGATA Jay. This is a most interesting

mutating species, which I have fully discussed in my monograph and some of

whose forms have been described as: BuLIMUS PORRACEUS Jay, BULIMUS

LABRELLA Grateloup, BuLimus pryas Broderip, BULIMUS syLVANUS Bro-

derip, BuLImMuS CALOBAPTUS Jonas, BULIMUS CUYOENSIS Reeve, in part,

COCHLOSTYLA SYLVANOIDES Semper, CocCHLOSTYLA VIRGATA PULCHRIOR

Pilsbry, COCHLOSTYLA VIRGATA ALAMPE Mollendorff. Northeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Prochilus) cerina, new species. The medium-size and yellow

color will distinguish this species from all others of the subgenus. Type:

U.S. N. M. No. 313672; Bulalacao, southeastern Mindoro.

COcCHLOSTYLA (PROCHILUS) PARTULOIDES Broderip. Northeastern Min-

doro.

CoOcHLOSTYLA (PROCHILUS) CUYOENSIS CONTRACTA Mollendorff. Mindoro

Cochlostyla (Prochilus) cuyoensis subpallida, new subspecies. ‘This sub-

species differs from Cochlostyla (Prochilus) cuyoensis contracta Mollendorff

in its exceedingly thin shell which permits all of the interior to be seen by

JUNE 19, 1932 BARTSCH: COCHLOSTYLA 339

transmitted light, and in lacking the decided color bands. Type: U.S. N.M.

No. 313671; Caluya Island, off southeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Prochilus) fictilis fulva, new subspecies. This subspecies

differs from all the others known by being yellowish but in having a remnant

of the basal columellar dark area. This is based upon Mollendorff, Kobelt

and Winter’s description and figure of Cochlostyla (Prochilus) fictilis larvatus,

1914, Semper’s Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen, vol. X, p. 332, in part,

pl. 76, figs. 11, 12. Southeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Prochilus) fictilis ambulonensis, new subspecies. This sub-

species is rather large and has the white band at the summit of the whorls

reduced toa minimum. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313600; Ambulon Island off

southwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Prochilus) fictilis marmorosa, new subspecies. This is

similar to Cochlostyla (Prochilus) fictilis ambulonensis, but is much smaller

and brighter colored. The light band at the summit is also much broader.

Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313741; Ilin Island, off southwestern Mindoro. Its

geographic position is intermediate between that of Cochlostyla (Prochilus)

fictilis ambulonensis and Cochlostyla (Prochilus) fictilis cagurana and so is its

color scheme.

Cochlostyla (Prochilus) fictilis cagurana, new subspecies. ‘This subspecies

is easily distinguished from the other Mindoro fictzlzs by its dark coloration

and very broad light band at the summit. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313598;

Caguray, southwestern Mindoro.

COCHLOSTYLA (CHRYSALLIS) CHRYSALIDIFORMIS CHRYSALIDIFORMIS Sow-

erby. Northeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) chrysalidiformis macra, new subspecies. The

extreme slenderness of this subspecies will distingush it from all the others.

Type: U.S. N. M. No. 382969, Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) chrysalidiformis villosa, new subspecies. This

subspecies in shape and sculpture resembles most nearly typical Cochlostyla

(Chrysallis) chrysalidiformis chrysalidiformis, but it is a little more rough

and lacks the dark color band at the summit and the dark edge to the lip.

It differs from Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) chrysalidiformis enodosa by its larger

size, more elongate form and stronger sculpture. Type: U. S. N. M. No.

315858; Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) chrysalidiformis rarior, new subspecies. The

subspecies is remarkable for the extreme thinness of its shell. Type: U.S. N.

M. No. 313644; Calawagan, Paluan, northwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) chrysalidiformis enodosa, new subspecies. This

subspecies is nearest related to Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) chrysalidiformis

villosa, from which it can be easily distinguished by its more ovate form and

much more less strongly developed sculpture. Type: U. S. N. M. No.

382970; southwestern Mindoro.

340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) chrysalidiformis fuscata, new subspecies. This

differs from all the other subspecies by its regularly conic spire and by having

the parietal wall brown. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 382971; Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) jayi, new name for BuLimus usTuLaTus Jay,

1839, Cat. Shells, 2d ed., p. 119, pl. 6, fig. 1; not BuLimus ustuLATus Sow-

erby, 1833, Conchological Illustrations, figure 42.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) jayi jayi, new name. Northeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) jayi perpusilla, new subspecies. This subspecies

differs from typical Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) jayi gayi in being much smaller.

Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313685; Calawagan, Paluan, northwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) jayi camorongana, new subspecies. In this sub-

species the ground color is blackish brown, while in the others it is bright

chestnut brown. Type: U. 8S. N. M. No. 313620; Camorong, Abra de

Ilog, northern Mindoro. |

CocHLOSTLYA (CHRYSALLIS) LICHENIFER LICHENIFER Morch. Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) lichenifer avittata, new subspecies. This differs

from typical Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) lichenifer lichenifer by lacking the periph-

eral brown band. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 382972 is from Mt. Halcon.

CocHLOSTYLA (CHRYSALLIS) ELECTRICA ELECTRICA Reeve. Puerta

Galera, northeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) electrica mangarina, new subspecies. This sub-

species differs from typical Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) electrica electrica in being

more globose and in having the axial fulguration slanting retractively. It

differs from Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) electrica bulalacaoana in being more

globose and in having a less strong periostracum. Type: U.S. N. M. No.

382973; Sitio Brucaan, Mangarin, southwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) electrica bulalacaoana, new subspecies. This

subspecies differs from Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) electrica mangarina in being

less globose and in having a much stronger periostracum. Type: U.S. N. M.

No. 382974; Bo. de Cora, Bulacao, southeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) palliobasis, new species. This species is most

conspicuously distinguished from all the other Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) by

having the basal half pale buff, contrasted with the chestnut coloration of the

upper part of the last whorl. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313653; Pinagbayan,

Paluan, Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) pettiti, new name for BuLIMUS CAILLIAUDI Pettit,

December, 1850, Journ. Conchyl., vol. 1, p. 404, pl. 13, fig. 3, not BuLimus

CAILLIAUDI Pfeiffer, August, 1850, Zeitschr. Malakozo. p. 86.

CocHLOSTYLA (CHRYSALLIS) ROLLEI ROLLEI Mollendorff. North base of

Mt. Halecon, Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) rollei osborni, new subspecies. This subspecies

differs from typical Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) rolle: rollec in having the shell

JUNE 19, 1932 BARTSCH: COCHLOSTYLA 341

much more ovate and the axial bands much broader. Type: U.S. N.M. No.

300823; Lake Naujan, Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) rollei vexator, new subspecies. This subspecies is

ever so much smaller than typical Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) rollec rollet. Type:

U.S. N. M. No. 104348; Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) rollei niger, new subspecies. This subspecies

differs from the other three in being ever so much darker and in having the

spiral sculpture more pronounced. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313721; Mayabig,

Baco, Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) albolabris, new species. This species is most

nearly related to Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) rollet from which it differs in having

the peristome white and the aperture proportionately larger. It is also

much smaller. There are two races before me which may be called:

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) albolabris albolabris, new subspecies. In this

the shell is of elongate-ovate shape. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 104347; Min-

doro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) albolabris robusta, new subspecies. In this the

shell is not elongate-ovate but ovate. Type: U. S. N. M. No. 104346;

Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (CHRYSALLIS) ANTONI ANTONI Semper. Northeastern

Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) antoni macilenta, new subspecies. ‘This subspecies

ean readily be distinguished from Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) antont antoni by

its much more slender form. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313551; Sitio Boncaan,

Mangarin, southwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) roseolabra, new species. Shell varying from

elongate conic to brcadly ovate. General color yellowish buff or wood

brown. Interior of aperture bluish white or bluish white with a purplish

tinge; peristome pale or bright rose colored. There are two subspecies before

me:

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) roseolabra roseolabra, new subspecies. In this

the general color of the shell is yellowish buff, while the expanded peristome

is pale rose colored. Type: U. 8S. N. M. No. 3138677; Calawagan, north-

western Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) roseolabra rosea, new subspecies. In this the

general color scheme is wood brown. ‘The periostome is much more intensely

rose colored. Type: U. 8. N. M. No. 133680; interior from Abra de Ilog,

northern Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (CHRYSALLIS) ASPERSA ASPERSA Grateloup. Northeastern

Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) aspersa lunai, new subspecies. This is the largest

subspecies, suggesting in size Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) rollei, from which it

342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 12

can be at once distinguished by its dark apex. Type: U. S. N. M. No.

313702; Calamintao, Mamburo, Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrsyallis) aspersa juani, new subspecies. This is the smallest

of the short based subspecies. Jype: U. 8. N. M. No. 313708; Camorong,

Abra de Ilog, northern Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (CHRYSALLIS) ASPERSA MINDOROENSIS Broderip. Dulugan,

Puerto Galera, northeastern Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (CHRYSALLIS) ASPERSA MELANOGASTER Morch. Mt. Sapol

northeastern Mindoro.

CocHLOSTYLA (CHRYSALLIS) ASPERSA WAGNERI Grateloup. About Lake

Naujan, eastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) aspersa edgari, new subspecies This is the large,

elongate-ovate race with rather protracted base about the east slope of Mt.

Halecon. The axial bands of brown and buff are distinct and rather broad, and

not interrupted at the periphery. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313712.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) aspersa binuangana, new subspecies. This sub-

species is very dark colored and of ovate form. It suggests Cochlostyla

(Chrysallis) aspersa melanogaster but lacks the dark basal coloration. Type:

U.S. N. M. No. 313713; Binuanga, Paluan, northwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) aspersa ilogana, new subspecies. This subspecies

is readily distinguished from Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) aspersa edgari by its

much more regular elongate-ovate form and from Cochlostyla (Chrysallis)

aspersa calavitana by its much greater size. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313706;

Camorong, Abra de Ilog, northern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) aspersa calavitana, new subspecies. This sub-

species can readily be distinguished from the other members of the group

with protracted base by its exceedingly small size. Type: U.S. N. M. No.

313714; Mt. Calavite near Paluan, northwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps, new species. In this species the shell

varies from elongate-ovate to elongate-conic. The nuclear whorls are flesh

colored. Postnuclear whorls marked by axial bands and fulgurations of

yellow or greenish yellow. Interior of aperture bluish white; peristome

varying from white to brown in the different subspecies. Distribution appar-

ently all over Mindoro, breaking up into a number of subspecies.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps demesai, new subspecies. This sub-

species is much darker than any of the other subspecies. Here the dark

color of the periostome extends within the aperture, a feature not possessed

by the other races. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313552; Calamintao, Mamboro,

northwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps maita, new subspecies. This subspecies

belongs to the ovate-conic group and most nearly resembles Cochlostyla

(Chrysallis) caniceps contracostana, but it is much larger and the peristome

is much darker. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 20351a; southern tip of Mindoro.

JUNE 19, 1932 BARTSCH: COCHLOSTYLA 343

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps contracostana, new subspecies. This

subspecies belongs to the elongate-ovate group and can readily be distin-

guished from Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps demesai by its smaller size and

less brilliant coloration, and from Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps maita

by its smaller size. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313554; Contra Costa, Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps conica, new subspecies. The regularly

conic outline will distinguish this subspecies from all the others. Type:

U. 8S. N. M. No. 313555; southwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps caniceps, new subspecies. In this sub-

species the shell is elongate-conic; the whorls are well rounded. It is nearest

related to Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps minuta, but is much larger than

that subspecies. Type: U.S. N. M. No. 313556; Lake Naujan, Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps minuta, new subspecies. This subspecies

is most nearly related to the typical race Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps

caniceps, but is easily distinguished from it by its smaller size and more shaggy

sculpture. Type: U. 8S. N. M. No. 313560; Mansalay, southeastern Min-

doro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) nigriceps, new species. The members of this

species closely resemble Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) caniceps from which, however,

they can be distinguished at once by their dark nuclear turns.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) nigriceps nigriceps, new subspecies. This sub-

species is nearest related to Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) nigriceps nubifer, from

which it is distinguished by its lesser size. Type: US. N. M. No. 313716;

Lake Naujan, northeastern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) nigriceps nubifer, new subspecies. This sub-

species is nearest related to Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) nigriceps nigriceps, from

which its larger size will readily distinguish it. Type: U. S. N. M. No.

195408; southwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) nigriceps obnubila, new subspecies. This sub-

species is readily distinguished from the other two by having the general

color blackish brown instead of chestnut brown. The hydrophanous cloud-

ings are also lighter and much more pronounced. Type: U.S. N M. No.

313718; Binuangan, Paluan, northwestern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) perturbator, new species. Shell of medium size,

ovate. Early nuclear whorls white, grading slowly into the brown of the

postnuclear turns. Periostracum of the postnuclear whorls moderately

thick, covered by hydrophanous bands, cloudings or fulgurations of oliva-

ceous buff between which the dark ground color shines through. On the last

whorl the periostracum is almost completely hydrophanous. Interior of the

broadly oval aperture pale blue; periostracum and inner lip chocolate brown,

with an iridescent flush. Type: U. 8. N. M. No. 313720; Tara, Abra de

Tlog, northern Mindoro.

Cochlostyla (Chrysallis) corrugata, new species. In this species the nuclear

344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

whorls are flesh colored; the early postnuclear whorls are buff, while the later

ones gradually range to very dark chestnut brown. The postnuclear whorls

are conspicuously marked by brilliant fulgurations of yellowish buff, which are

most pronounced near the summit of the shells. The interior of the aperture

and inner portion of the columella are pale blue, gradually grading to purplish

brown at the edge of the expanded peristome and inner lip. The most dis-

tinctive feature of the shell, however, is the axial corrugations of the last,

and sometimes the penultimate, whorl. Type: U. S. N. M. No. 313740;

San Jose, southwestern Mindoro.

ZOOLOGY.—Metoncholaimus pristiurus (zur Strassen); a nema

suitable for use in laboratory courses in zoology... N. A. Coss,

U. 8. Department of Agriculture.

Zur Strassen, who first proposed the species Metoncholaimus pristiu-

rus, alluded for the most part only to the organs whose forms served

to distinguish it from its nearest allies among the oncholaims. The

present attempt at a more complete understanding of its morphology

adds to our knowledge in a number of ways, especially with regard to

the remarkable demanian system.

At the same time the text and figures have been prepared with par-

ticular reference to requests of school, college and university instruc-

tors in invertebrate zoology, a course suggested by the fact that this

species has been used with some promise of success in the invertebrate

courses of a considerable number of universities.

Unfortunately few if any zoological textbooks treat nemas ade-

quately. It is believed that any progressive and well equipped in-

structor who will study carefully the following descriptions, with the aid

of good living as well as preserved specimens, will find himself all the

better equipped to instruct students concerning the morphology of

the important nemic phylum.

METONCHOLAIMUS PRISTIURUS (Zur Strassen)

[Meta, changed; Oncholaimus, tooth (in the) throat]

FEMALE. Fig. 1.

The cuticle and the body wall. aur a ei Teut ae ae Cy on

The contour of the nema is plain. The thin, transparent, colorless, nearly

naked cuticle, 72, 96, about one micron thick, is traversed by plain transverse

striae; but these are very difficult of resolution except with high powers of the

microscope used skillfully under favorable conditions,—ordinarily they will

1 Through the much appreciated courtesy of the United States Bureau of Fisheries a

considerable part of these investigations was carried out at its Laboratories at Woods

Hole, Mass. Received May 18, 1932.

JUNE 19, 1932 COBB: METONCHOLAIMUS PRISTIURUS 345

not be seen. These striae are not altered on the lateral fields; there are no

longitudinal wings. The subcuticle, 99, usually contains multitudinous

pebbly,—i.e. roundish or slightly elongate,—yellowish pigment granules, 34,

82, 95, one to two microns across, ‘‘paved”’ in longitudinal bands of variable

width;—two broad lateral bands, one on each side of the body, about one-

third as wide as the nema and having narrower submedian bands on each side;

and three narrow ventral bands as well as even narrower dorsal bands. These

bands are better seen after staining over night in seawater-methylene-blue,

which may not only stain them but bring out the fact that the granules along

the edges of the two main lateral bands are of a somewhat different nature

from the rest. Longitudinal striations in the subcuticle, due to the attach-

ment of the musculature, 4, 16, 77, are faintly visible at high magnification in

most regions of the body, especially the more translucent parts. The body

wall, including the cuticle, is about six microns thick.

Ten widely spreading cephalic setae, 26, are arranged on the lateral surface

of the lip region in the usual way, i.e. a pair on each submedian line and one on

each lateral line; the longest of these are one-fourth as long as the correspond-

ing portion of the head is wide, the shorter member of each submedian pair

being about three-fourths as long as the longer. The members of the sub-

median pairs grow so close together as sometimes to appear as one. These

subcylindroid setae are nearly straight and are blunt at the end, where they

seem more or less open, not closed, indicating, probably, that they may also

be connected with some sense in addition to that of touch. There are a few

scattered subcephalic setae near the head, of nearly the same length (ten to

twelve microns) as the cephalic setae, but more slender. On the neck and on

the body there are also a few scattered setae,—very inconspicuous and seldom

seen. There are also a few very short, very inconspicuous setae on the tail,

especially toward its extremity and on the spinneret, 24, 74. There are no

cuticular pores.

The neck and head. The head and neck occupy the anterior 11 to 13 per

cent of the body, i.e. the part in front of the prominent constriction, 13, be-

tween the nearly colorless oesophagus, 12, 36, and the darker intestine, 83, 94.

The slightly conoid neck ends in a subtruncate continuous head, the frontal

mouth opening in which is not depressed. In front the pharynz, 31, 48, 57,

is arched over by the six distinct and separate, flat and thin, fairly well

developed, mobile lips, 28, 49, which are not set off by constriction or in any

other way. Asa rule the lips are not readily counted except when seen from

in front. Toward the margin of the head there is a circlet of six, innervated,

very minute and inconspicuous, forward-facing sensory papillae, 29, 45, one on

each lip. This circlet is about two-thirds as wide as the front of the head.

These papillae also are rather difficult to see except from in front, 45. The

rather simple subregular pharynz, 31, 35, 48, 57, about forty by twenty-three

microns, is somewhat cylindroid anteriorly and vaguely conoid posteriorly.

The posterzor ‘‘chamber,’’ 35, sixteen by nine microns, supports the three

acute onchia, 25, 33, 53, the forward pointing projection of the largest of which

is very readily seen. Taken as a whole the pharyngeal cavity might be

described as somewhat convex-conoid. Its refractive, cuticularized wall is

nearly two microns thick.

Its armature consists of three unequal, conoid, perforated, pointed onchia,

one dorsal, 25, two ventrally submedian, 33, 53. Of these the grooved left

ventral submedian, 27, 53, is much the largest, and reaches two-thirds the dis-

tance to the lips. The other two, e.g. 33, 25, nearly equal in size, reach only

about halfway to the lips. Each onchium is the outlet of a branched and

346 JOURNAL OF

1 pars ect clint,

& a Ss

r a

= .

———

sieistiana,

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thi

Kord : ‘

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THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No, 12

SCL).

ond AE

SDFM. 61

mq sub = mut f

as Ca A -

IeFAL

Fig. 1—Living

Q M. pristiurus.

Drawing, from

favorable speci-

mens,—modified

from examination

of intra-vitam

methylene blue

staining, and, to a

very slight extent,

of carmine stain-

ing. Two views of

the same head, in

glycerine, are

“SC SOMO = =shown, X_ 750.

ord mtu The abbr ey aoa

yep are self-explana-

clint Dirirne CO ace , pars

x ext cl int,’’—ex-

Tie 190 ternal portion of

H “Lill 69 intestinal cell. Food occurs in the intestine

*. . QS from 92 to 101. Most of the features drawn

‘|... . . subcut 7 cam be seen in good specimens with a 4 mm.

objective; some, however, require a good 2 or

... . lz 3 “mm. immersion objective. Cuticularized

__... Mis parts, e.g., of the head, may be favorably

set sum 2 74 viewed in 5-10% KOH solution. Specimens

ays broken and instantly treated with acetic acid

oe) Sp 75 methylene green are useful.

JUNE 19, 1932 COBB: METONCHOLAIMUS PRISTIURUS 347

much elongated unicellular salivary gland, e.g. 43, and dct gl sal, located

along the corresponding sector of the oesophagus and reaching back even to

near the base of the neck, where the corresponding three nuclei, 41, may be

seen, about one body-width in front of the prominent constriction, 13, sepa-

rating the oesophagus from the intestine. Each gland empties through a

perforation, 27, in the corresponding onchium, by means of an inconspicuous

ampulla and a very fine duct,—about one micron across. ‘The distribution of

the salivary glands among the radial contractile fibers of the oesophagus may

be indicated by the granules, one micron or less in diameter, to be seen in

various parts of the glands, e.g. at dct gl sal. In favorable specimens the ducts

of these glands, when filled with this granular secretion, can be followed

throughout the length of the oesophagus, and the glands are then seen to have

numerous short lateral branches, (see from 43 forward). The much larger,

though inconspicuous pigment granules of the oesophagus are scattered through-

out the organ.

The external amphids, 32, 51,—one on each side of the head,—are somewhat

escutcheon shaped, being symmetrical only to a longitudinal line, and are

longer transversely than longitudinally. The anterior border of each amphid

is removed from the anterior extremity of the nema a distance about equal to

the radius of the head. They are much more obvious if looked at dorso-ven-

trally, when they are distinctly seen to be two pocket-like entrances to internal

sensory organs, the internal amphids, located laterad in the back part of the

head. Each of the external amphids is about one-fourth as wide as the corre-

sponding portion of the head and about two-thirds as long as itis wide. Each

outer amphid connects with a sensilla, 54, or receptor, close behind, by means

of an exceedingly narrow and very short (two and a half microns) but strongly

refractive, duct, shown in the figure. The sensilla is one-fifth as wide as the

head and lies opposite the basal part of the pharynx and is connected back-

ward with the central nervous system by a lateral nerve, 55, just beneath the

body wall. The details of the sensilla, 54, are usually difficult to see except

when specially stained. The amphids are held to be chemical sense organs.

The oesophagus, 12, 36, is cylindroid, enlarging very slightly posteriorly;

behind the pharynx it is three-fifths, at the nerve-ring one-half, and finally

two-thirds as wide as the corresponding portion of the neck. The refractive

membranous ‘‘triquetrous” lining of the eosophagus, mainly about one micron

thick, but two microns in the axial parts, is a distinct feature throughout the

organ, and finds mazn optical expression in what appear as two or three closely

approximated refractive, often slightly sinuous, axial elements, and, in the

ordinary closed condition of the oesophagus, seeming to occupy about one-

eighth of its width. The radial musculature of the eosophagus, to be seen

throughout its length, consists of fine strands and is accompanied by only a

slight amount of yellowish granular matter. There are no cuticularized

valves in the oesophagus.

The intestine. ‘The intestine, 83, 94, which becomes at once two-thirds as

wide as the body, is thick-walled and is composed, as is usual in nemas, of a

single layer of cells, 69 and vicinity, here of such a size that about twelve are

required to complete the circumference. The walls of the cells are only

faintly visible except sometimes in the outer colorless part, 1, 76. Usually the

lumen of the intestine, (see just behind cardia, 14) can be seen only faintly,

since the lining of the intestine is not refractive. As the nema bends back

and forth, the food content of the intestine, e.g. at 92, may be seen to move

backward and forward in the lumen. This nema appears to swallow mud

348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

rather indiscriminately, and to extract its nutriment from a variety of organic

material contained in the mud. Large quantities of this food material in the

intestine may interfere with microscopic examination; hence the advisability

of keeping the nemas in clean cool seawater for a day or two before examina-

tion. The cardiac collum, or constriction, 13, between the oesophagus and

intestine, is about two-fifths as wide as the base of the neck, making a very

obvious demarcation between the oesophagus and the intestine. There is a

conoid cardia, 14, about two-fifths as wide as the base of the neck; this is the

very short extension of the oesophagus into the intestine, and is composed of

numerous smaller cells of a distinct kind, having to do, among other things,

with the prevention of regurgitation. Though small, the cardia is a very

important part of the alimentary canal. The outer portion of the intestine,

1, 76, is usually more or less destitute of granules, but the inner and greater

portion of each intestinal cell contains globular yellowish granules, 69, of

variable size, the largest of which are about three microns in diameter, and

the smallest less than one micron. ‘These granules are varied and numerous,

sometimes are even packed close together, and may be so arranged in the cells

as to give rise to a faint, or sometimes a quite distinct, tessellated effect.

The intestine is made up of cells of different kinds,—discharging different

functions. One of these various kinds is readily made out, especially with the

aid of polarized light, namely the cells, as many as one hundred in number or

even more, containing the exceedingly minute birefringent granules. These

cells, 15, 81, 98, when examined by ordinary transmitted light, present a

finer texture internally, and usually are more distinctly yellowish. If a suit-

able specimen be allowed to remain in a concentrated solution of seawater-

methylene-blue a few minutes, a differential staining of the “birefringent”

cells will often occur, but the effect does not last. The “‘birefringent’’ cells are

everywhere less numerous than those that do not contain birefringents, and

there are none of them at all in the posterior part of the intestine. We may

therefore speak of two distinct intestinal regions, one fore, one aft. The

“‘birefringent”’ cells occur in early ovic embryos.

The rather prominent short rectum, 19, the rear part of the intestine, is

somewhat cuticularized, and is about as long as the anal body diameter; from

the somewhat depressed anus, 70, it extends inward and forward at an angle of

about forty-five degrees. Its structure in the female differs somewhat from

that of the male, which appears “‘helical.’’ The anterior and posterior lips of

the anus are of about equal size. Small inconspicuous somewhat pear-shaped

unicellular anal glands can sometimes be seen, lying alongside the rectum with

their narrowed necks directed toward the anus.

Tail and spinneret. The slightly arcuate tazl is first conoid, then cylindroid

in the posterior fourth, where it ends in a somewhat blunt, almost impercep-

tibly swollen, rounded spinneret, 73, armed only with three exceedingly incon-

spicuous setae, two ventrally submedian, 74, and a dorsal one, 24. Though

insignificant in appearance these sensory setae are important. The very

nearly symmetrical spinneret displays internally the three very slightly

swollen ampullae of the three caudal glands, 23. The spinneret valve, or plug, 75,

four microns across, almost at the very end of the tail, stains green with meth-

ylene blue (‘“‘intra vitam’’) while other nearby parts stain blue. This impor-

tant valve is hemispherical posteriorly and tapers anteriorly to a fine contractile

element, shown white in the drawing, fastened in the midst of the three ampul-

lae (23). Itis by the contraction of this minute fiber that the plug or valve is

pulled away from its seat, so as to permit the sticky, non-water soluble,

JUNE 19, 1932 COBB: METONCHOLAIMUS PRISTIURUS 349

cement-like secretion of the three caudal glands to pour outward to be used in

temporarily cementing the nema by the tail to the substratum in a versatile

manner. The spinneret and associated glands are of vital importance to

aquatic nemas; and this apparatus is all but universal among them. The

three elongated ellipsoidal caudal glands, 84, 88, 90,—the remotest of them

ten body-diameters in front of the anus,—are scattered in a loose tandem in

the ventral part of the body cavity. Their ducts, 18, 86, leading to the spin-

neret, can be distinctly seen under some circumstances. Most of the caudal

setae on the female are reduced and inconspicuous.

It is the sticky nature of the secretion of the caudal glands that enables

these nemas to ensconce themselves so securely in the midst of the elements of

the mud in which they live. By its aid they attach themselves to the sub-

stratum, especially in times of danger, and to each other. By means of this

cement, they bind themselves together with mud etc. in almost inextricable

tangles.

The two very thin ribbon-

like lateral cords, 3, 93, of

Metoncholaimus pristiurus,

one on each side, imme-

diately under the cuticle,

are about half as wide as

the body, each cord consist-

ing of three regions,—a me-

dian region composed of a

single broad row of quadrate

cells, and a row, less than

half as wide, on each side of

it. In the anterior part of

the body the quadrate cells

are usually a little longer

than they are broad, in the

posterior part a little shorter

than broad. As_ stated,

these median cells are

flanked by two much nar-

rower longitudinal series of

cells, having the same gen-

eral composition, 1.e. a very

fine protoplasmic network

(meshes two microns to

five microns) in the inter-

Fig. 2—Tail of fe-

male M. pristiurus, X

325; showing the mi-

nute but important

spinneret valve, vlv

spn, and the muscular

strand leading from it

4 pylor’ pase:

i Se Pees © into the midst of the

8) prgmnt ay) = 3 ampullae ote the

ite RI 3 caudal glands; shown

[6 MSC SOM |" J light in the midst of

the spinneret. Note

. the pylorus at pylor.

7 por dar eg

6 det glodl : eit

9 rectum ** - AUS 79

2omse ar 2° _ Suibout 71

agngan MN CUE 72

2 nel msc call...” PNiS

sama \\ set ula z

2¢ set dsl... Nab gon is

sections of which are roundish or somewhat ellipsoidal yellowish granules,

usually not equidiametral. Even without staining, there are also to be

seen, at least in each of the cells composing the central row of the lateral

cord, faint indications of a nucleus; these indications in the living nema con-

sist in an almost entire absence of the reticulation which is to be found else-

where in the cell. These cells of the lateral cord are necessarily very flat;

that is to say, their depth (radially to the nema) is much less than their diam-

eter in either of the other two directions,—i.e. longitudinally to the nema or

tangentially. The division line between the central row of cells and the

narrower ones on the margin is an almost invisible, very thin, somewhat

indirect cell-wall line. Around the outer margins of the two outer rows of

cells the granules are slightly differentiated from the other granules; so that in

350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

seawater-methylene-blue the subcuticular pigment granules on the borders of

the longitudinal bands, already described in connection with the cuticle, may

stain green at a time when the rest of the granules stain blue. This appear-

ance is similar to what is now being described for the unstained nema; so that

the structure of the lateral cords is now shown to be in harmony with that of

the longitudinal bands of subcuticular pigment. In other words, the arrange-

ment of the pigment granules of the cuticle is doubtless in some way correlated

with the arrangement of the cells in the lateral cords beneath. The proto-

plasmic network in the cells of the lateral cords is considerably finer than the

protoplasmic network in the outer part of the cells composing the intestine,

but nevertheless, has the same general appearance. The lacunae among the

strands of the network are of variable size, more or less equidiametral,

though never exactly so;—polygonal, but not regularly so. The lateral cords

are wellsprings of the cuticle.

The granules of the subcuticle, 34, 82, 95, differ from the yellowish gran-

ules contained in the network of the cells of the lateral cord; in the specimen

under examination the granules in the subcuticle (a little under one micron)

are more nearly colorless and are round, whereas those in the lateral cord are

yellowish, and somewhat irregular in size and form.

Renette and excretory pore. The excretory pore, 58, is located about one-

fourth the distance to the nerve-ring on the ventral side of the neck. The

nucleated single renette cell, 68, about four body-widths behind the neck, is a

fusiform, granular, ventrad cell, about twice as long as wide, and nearly two-

thirds as long as the corresponding body diameter; the renette duct, 60, 67,

leads from it, somewhat meanderingly, forward to the excretory pore, and is

readily seen, as a rule,—or at least some of it is. It is a slender tube about

one-twentieth as wide as the neck and ends anteriorly in a small ellipsoidal

ampulla, near 58, nearly one-third as long as the neck is wide, emptying

outward through the ventral excretory pore in the cuticle by means of an ex-

ceedingly narrow duct only three to four microns long. The excretory secre-

tion of this gland, as seen in its duct, and ampulla, is granular, the uniform,

spherical, colorless granules being about one micron in diameter. This

entire apparatus, the renette, is regarded as excretory in function.

Nervous system. An important part of the central nervous system is the

nerve-ring, 38, about ten microns wide, surrounding the oesophagus somewhat

obliquely in front of the middle. It consists of a compact network, or skein,

of exceedingly fine nerve fibers. Before and behind the nerve-ring are scores

of distinct nucleated ganglion cells, 11, 56, etc., mostly bipolar, those in front

being arranged in eight obscure longitudinal groups,—two lateral, one ventral,

one dorsal, and four submedian. The ganglion cells are variously connected

with each other and with the nerve-ring. Placing the nema over night in

seawater-methylene-blue discloses some of the elements of the ventral nerve

leading from the nerve-ring along the ventral line to the tail. Usually about

128 fusiform elements in the ventral series may be disclosed (stained blue)

in this way. These can be proved to be connected with each other. The

same treatment is likely also to reveal the nerve elements entering the bases

of setae, and papillae, especially in the tail of the male. See Fig. 4.

Female organs. From the slightly elevated vulva, 7, which is a transverse

ventral slit of moderate size, the medium sized vagina leads inward and

slightly forward about halfway across the body; the vagina is somewhat

cuticularized and is accompanied by small and very inconspicuous vaginal

glands, 9, fore and aft. About two dozen radiating muscles, 6, occur around the

JUNE 19, 1932 COBB: METONCHOLAIMUS PRISTIURUS 351

vulva, together with an associated complicated nerve plexus. This muscula-

ture is least developed behind the vulva.

The straight uterus, 30, 8, extends forward, and is of such capacity as to

accommodate a maximum of about forty eggs, 10, 39, (i.e., many more than

shown in this drawing) arranged approximately single file,—although this

large number of eggs is rarely seen except toward autumn. Under such cir-

cumstances the oblate eggs, seeming to nearly fill the body cavity in this region,

are more or less ellipsoidal in contour and half a body-width long, and twice

as wide as long. When deposited, or when not crowded in the uterus, the

eggs are ellipsoidal and longer than wide. The shells of the eggs, one and a

half microns thick, are smooth, and the eggs are deposited before segmentation

begins. Naturally, the length of the uterus varies according to the number

of eggs it contains.

The broad reflexed ovary appears more or less cylindroid, and when there

are, say, a dozen eggs in the uterus, the terminus of the ovary, 59, lies about

halfway back to the vulva. The narrow oviduct, 46, 52, leading from the

front end of the ovary back to the uterus, is usually nearly invisible, but when

a ripe ovum, 50, having passed round the bend (flexure) near 46, is being

forced backward through it from the front part of the ovary back to the

uterus, its presence is obvious. It is faintly visible at 52. The ova are

fertilized on first reaching the uterus, and soon after this it is not very un-

common to witness the early stages of the formation (mit, Fig. 1) of the polar

bodies,—which appear later as small spherical bodies just under the eggshell.

A small collection of sperms is seen in the spermathecal region at 61.

The demanian system. In the adult female of Metoncholaimus pristiurus

there is a complicated double system of efferent tubes, the demanzan vessels,

connecting, first, with the posterior part of the intestine through an osmosium,

87, and second, with the posterior end of the uterus by means of a very long

slender efferent duct, 79, 85. These two efferents join at a conspicuous

thirty-two-merous, special glandular gateway,—the wvette, 40,—and empty,

by way of the wvette pore, 62, thence backward and outward through two

separate narrow lateral ducts, 42, having attached to them, along their outer

sides, relatively large and long conspicuous moniliform affluent glands, 64,

seventeen microns wide, each consisting usually of sixy-four somewhat

discoid elements, 66,—occasionally double (?) this number. These discoid

cells of the two moniliform glands are three microns thick and packed with

granules of the order of one micron; the flat ducts, along the inside of the

moniliform glands, lead to two ezit pores, the right hand one shown at 17, five

by seven microns, laterad in the body wall one-half tail-length in front of

the anus. However, the caudad elements of the moniliform glands are

“pyriform,’’ as shown in the illustration,—not discoid. The demanian vessels

elaborate a copious, elastic, sticky, non-water-soluble, nearly colorless secretion,

possibly utilized during agglomeration and copulation, and also mayhap to

protect and preserve the batches of eggs after deposition and during seg-

mentation.

The uvette, 40, is a very striking organ consisting of thirty-two concen-

trically arranged, highly refractive, flask-shaped, glandular elements, all

concentric about a single minute central pore, 62, leading into the large duct

passing backward and dividing to form the two lateral efferent ducts each

accompanied by a sixty-four-fold moniliform gland, as already described.

The connection of the intestine with the demanian system at the osmosium

is not an open one; the nature of the connection with the uterus, however,

appears less certain.

352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

The osmosium, 87, of the enteric efferent is located about one-third the

distance from the anus to the vulva, and may usually be seen on the dorsal

side of the intestine,—being mainly visible on account of the somewhat

greater transparency of its tissues. The narrow uterine efferent duct, wt.

eff., 79, 85, is very difficult to follow throughout its length, and usually can be

seen only i in specially favorable specimens. Its connection with the posterior

end of the uterus is sometimes easy to see,—near 30. Its connection with the

uvette is also nearly always easy to see, ‘and it may be followed thence for-

ward a short distance, but to trace it far is usually a matter of some difficulty.

The thirty-two flask-shaped elements of the uvette have their necks con-

centrated at the pore. The wall of the uterine duct, as previously described,

spreads out over the uvette, and beneath it the thirty-two elements form a

craterlike affair leading to the uvette pore. This pore opens into the some-

what duplex (but really monoluminal) corridor of the caudad part of the

intestinal efferent. This latter efferent may show signs of forking at a dis-

tance in front of the uvette about equal to the corresponding body diameter,

but is seldom, if ever, really bifurcate until behind the uvette.

Or —following the ‘demanian system from the rear toward the uvette:—Where

the moniliform glands approach the uvette, they join to form a two-fold

structure, and the pore of the uvette is placed between the two parts of this

double structure. The structure of the tunic of the demanian system opposite

the uvette presents two sets of exceedingly fine symmetrically arranged

elements,—one sloping 45° right, the other left,—which continue forward.

This ‘‘spiral”’ structure can be seen throughout the duplex portion of the

demanian system now being described, namely that portion in the vicinity

of the uvette.

Sperms, 61, are to be seen at the cephalad end of the uterus 7.e., the sper-

matheca, where the oviduct joins the uterus, sometimes in a mass comprising

scores of sperms, each about one-tenth as wide as the corresponding portion

of the body. They are rather difficult to see except when they are present

in considerable numbers.

MALE. Fig. 3.

The spicula and other male organs. oa aes i. at eae RIS. Gm

The tail of the male is more or less like that ai the female in form, but is

somewhat larger, more arcuate, and far more flexible, even prehensile, as Fig.

2 indicates. It diminishes a little more suddenly in size at the anus, and is

armed with special setae and papillae. The two, equal, colorless, long and

very slender, uniform spzcula, 57, 58, seven times as long as the anal body

diameter, are almost imperceptibly cephalated by expansion. They are

simple and frail looking, their proximal ends lying more or less opposite the

body axis. A long slender, duplex, nucleated retractor muscle, 16, extends

forward from the proximal end of each spiculum to the body-wall in the cor-

responding subdorsal region, near 12; an antagonistic protrusor muscle, of

about equal size ensheaths each spiculum. The small inconspicuous guber-

naculum, 42, lying near the anus, is double and straight. Its two equal parts

are somewhat frail and simple, but are expanded internally so as to be visible.

They are only about half as long as the anal body diameter, and lie against

the tips of the spicula in such a way that their swollen and more visible

proximal ends, 42, lie nearly opposite the axis of the base of the tail.

There is a single inconspicuous preanal ventral papilla, 22, very close to the

anus, 21, but readily seen when searched for. There are about ten small

JUNE 19, 1932 COBB: METONCHOLAIMUS PRISTIURUS 309

Fig. 3—o M. pristiurus,

from balsam specimens;

stain, acid carmen. Com-

pare with Fig. 1. Here the

nuclei are brought out more

distinctly. The renette and

caudal glands may be fol-

lowed throughout. Devel-

opment of the sperms can

be followed; reduction divi-

sion is shown at 2. The

long gland accessory to the

male gonads can be followed

from 23 to 33. One of the

exceedingly slender spicula

is shown, together with its

long duplex, nucleated re-

tractor muscle. The oblique

copulatory muscles of the

male extend forward to near

the vicinity of 74. The

minute but important spin-

neret valve is shown at 20.

ae oesophageal ees

CE ae shown at 28, may be profit-

ae ~- G7 1 67 ably compared with the

= Spmect 69°>-.... Dir fr 68 larger drawings in Fig. 1.

Lst QM 70

ped "pm

: conical supplementary organs, 19,

: on the ventral and subventral pos-

terior two-fifths of the tail. These

are arranged in a sort of ventral

row, but the anterior ones are more

or less staggered; they are somewhat

unequally spaced, being wider apart

posteriorly. They give a serrated

appearance to the ventral contour of

the posterior part of the tail, hence

the specific name, pristiurus (saw-

tailed). There are also about thirty

ventrally submedian short setae, 18,

on the front portion of the tail,

about fifteen on; each subventral

line. These two rows extend forward

to, and around, the anus, forming

there a sort of circlet of inconspic-

uous character. These conical sup-

plements and setae of the male are

special sensory organs; each is supplied with a

minute nerve readily demonstrable with seawater-

methylene-blue (See Fig. 4).

The internal male organs. The two slender,

straight testes, 7, 63, 70, 76, of about equal length,

but the posterior somewhat the longer, are out-

stretched in opposite directions, and extend along

the middle third of the body, each heing about

sixteen body-widths long. The ejaculatory duct,

17, 59, toward the anus, is one-fifth; the vas

deferens, 14, 53, next farther forward and set

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

off from the ejaculatory duct by a distinct constriction, 56, is one-fourth;

and the testes average one-fourth to one-half ;—as wide as the body. There

is a constriction midway in the vas deferens, 37. The blind end of the

anterior testis, 70, directed forward, is about two neck lengths behind the

cardia, while the blind end of the posterior testis, 76, directed backward, is

about five tail- lengths in front of the anus.

Beginning between the renette cell and the cardia (at 23) there is a long,

straight, tapering accessory gland, 51, emptying backward into the beginning

_ of the vas deferens, i.e., at the

ih AE ee point where the two testes join

tiurus, Male x it, 33. This gland, accessory to

25. the gonads, is, no doubt, a re-

duced homologue of the deman-

ian system of the female. A

possible function is the produc-

tion of cement (aseptic?) used in

copulation.

The primary spermatocytes, 69,

near the blind end of the testes

are about forty microns in diam-

eter. About twenty of them

would be required to span the

corresponding body diameter.

Full grown spermatocytes, 4, 36,

occur farther along the testes in

rouleaux, and are two-fifths as

wide as the body of the nema and

one-third as long as wide. Nearly

simultaneous synapses and reduc-

tion divisions of a full grown

sperm are often in progress in

one or the other testis, 2, 3, and the members of the resulting quartet, 2, of

smaller cells,—that is the resulting spermatids,—are somewhat equidiametral

and are about one-fifth as wide as the body.

The three caudal glands, 15, 38, and their three ducts, as at 40, are shown

more clearly when stained, as in the male specimen figured.

goat cdl...

41 COP MSC...

Habitat: Stagnant marine mud, below low tide, often where there is a slight

overgrowth of eelgrass; harbor at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, U. 8. A. at

all seasons. It also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, near Naples, Italy.

This species is subject to autumnal (?) attacks of fungi and bacteria. The

resulting diseases are of a very interesting character, and sometimes give rise

to necrosis of the posterior part of the body. One of the common assailant

cyanophytes(?) gives rise to an extensive aigrette-like appearance.

Examination of the living specimens may very profitably be supplemented

by examination of temporary mounts in lactophenol, 5 per cent solution of

potassium hydrate, and (broken open) in acetic acid-methylene green, as well

as “intra-vitam” in seawater-methyl] blue.

JUNE 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 300

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1029TH MEETING

The 1029th meeting, constituting the 61st annual meeting, was held in the

Cosmos Club Auditorium, December 7, 1931, President Curtis presiding.

The treasurer reported expenditures of $1353.03 for the year, and stated

that the active membership of the society is 240.

The secretaries reported that the following new members were elected

during the year: A. V. Astin, L. E. BarBrow, H. F. Bennert, C. BITTiInGER,

A. Buake, H. E. Burton, L. F. Curtiss, F. T. Davins, I. A. DEnison, 8.

EwInG, I. Hartmann, H. D. HuspBarp, F. HE; Jounston, A. G. McNisn, W.

R. Oscoop, B. L. Pacz, M. F. Prersrs, J. D. PHornrx, W. RamsBere, H. F.

ScHIEFER, G. B. SCHUBAUER, J. SMALL, P. SOLLENBERGER, W. T. SWEENEY,

R. P. Treruz, M. J. West, R. C. WHEELER and J. E. WILLIs.

O. H. Tirrman was transferred to life membership.

The following deaths were reported: F. W. Cuarxks, A. J. Henry, H. L.

Hopexins, F. G. TINGLEY.

During the year the first Joseph Henry lecture in memory of the first

President of the Philosophical Society was given by JosEPH 8S. Amss, President

of Johns Hopkins University.

The following officers were declared elected for the year 1932: President,

L. B. Tuckerman; Vice Presidents, O. 8. ApaAMs and H. L. DryprEn; Corre-

sponding Secretary, F. WENNER; Treasurer, E. W. WooLtarpD; Members-at-large

of the General Committee, N. H. Heck and E. O. HutBurt.

At the conclusion of the business meeting, E. C. CRITTENDEN read a paper

on The Faraday Centenary Celebration in Great Britain.—The Faraday cele-

bration held in Great Britain September 21 to 25 was intended primarily to

mark the hundredth anniversary of the discovery of electromagnetic induc-

tion. Faraday’s diary shows that on August 29, 1831, he observed a transient

electric current in a coil wound on one-half of a ring of iron, when a current

was started or interrupted in another coil wound on the other half of the

ring. During the next few months he carried out and recorded a series of

experiments which established the basic principles governing the creation of

an electromotive force in a circuit by changing the magnetic flux through that

circuit. The diary and much of Faraday’s original apparatus was preserved

at the Royal Institution where this work was done.

The Centenary Celebration was organized jointly by the Royal Institution

and the Institution of Electrical Engineers. It was one of a series of affairs

which filled the whole month of September. The series included an Inter-

national Illumination Congress, a session of the International Commission on

Illumination, the summer meeting of the Institution of Electrical Engineers

and the centenary meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of

Science.

The celebration itself included a number of receptions or ‘“‘conversaziones,”’

dinners and excursions, but the outstanding features of scientific interest

were, first, a lecture by Sir William Bragg in which several of Faraday’s

experiments were repeated with the original apparatus, and, second a very

elaborate exhibition illustrating many branches of Faraday’s experimental

work and the industrial developments which have grown more or less directly

out of them. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Myzrrs and LitTLEHALES.

G. R. Wait, Recording Secretary.

356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 12

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The degree of doctor of science has been awarded to Dr. Lyman JAMES

Brices, assistant director of the Bureau of Standards, by his alma mater,

Michigan State College.

At the recent annual convention of the American Malacological Union

held in Washington, Dr. Paut Bartscu of the National Museum was elected

to the presidency of the union.

The Hillebrand prize of the Washington section of the American Chemical

Society has been awarded to Dr. G. E. F. LunpE tu of the Bureau of Stand-

ards in recognition of the outstanding merit of his book on analytical

chemistry.

Obituary

Dr. NatHan Aucustus Coss, former president of the Academy, died

suddenly in Baltimore on June 4, 1932, at the age of 72. Dr. Cobb was an

authority on nemas, and a paper on this subject prepared shortly before his

death appears in this issue of the Journal.

Born in Spencer, Mass., Dr. Cobb was educated at Worcester Polytechnic

Institute and at the University of Jena in Germany, where he took honors

under Haeckel, Hertwig, Lang, and Stahl. After obtaining his Ph.D. degree,

he returned to teach for nine years in Massachusetts schools. He was then

appointed by the British Association for the Advancement of Science to

conduct work at its Naples zoological station, where he remained for two

years. He then went to New South Wales, where he served in various

capacities in the department of agriculture in that country for thirteen years.

After three years in Hawaii, Dr. Cobb came to Washington to join the U. S.

Department of Agriculture, becoming acting assistant chief of the Bureau of

Plant Industry in 1911.

Dr. Cobb discovered and described about 1000 new species of animals and

plants and was the author of 200 pamphlets and books. He was a member

of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Helminthological Society of Wash-

ington, Botanical Society of Washington, American Society of Parasitologists,

American Microscopical Society, American Association for the Advancement

of Science, Medical Congress of Australia, Hawaiian Entomological Society,

Australian Association for the Advancement of Science, and the New South

Wales Linnean Society.

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: L. H. Apams, Geophysical Laboratory.

Corresponding Secretary: Pau E. Hows, Bureau of Animal Industry.

Recording Secretary: CHARLES THom, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

# ’ 4 ae

Puleonnel Adenisieteatar .—Some aspects of the ‘cimingaien bs

scientific positions. Wa. Hi, McRernotps... vets ee tees eas

Paleobotany. —A new palm from the upper Eocene of

Bana te a ee a eee

Entomology.—Four new North American species of Bassus F

tera, Braconidae), with notes on thegenotype. C.F,W.™

Zoology.—A new species of Pasiphaea from the Straits of }

Se en ee

Malacology. —The tree snails of the genus Cochlostyla of Mindoro E

pine Islands. PavuL Bawrsan:. «Fn 2 xpos bes dodo

Zoology.—Metoncholaimus pristiurus (zur Strassen); a nema suitable fo (

oratory courses in zoology. N. A. Cone, eo eee

" hia

PROCEEDINGS 9 24 yr

ir 6

Philosophical Bociety,...s tvs sate sch ae ad compe ce a

ScrentTIFIC NOTES Anh Nee vhs IR Je Sh ee

OBITUARY: N. A. Oo 5 Ag Se

JuLy 19, 1932 No. 13

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 22 JuLY 19, 1932 No. 13

GEOLOGY .—Siratigraphy and structure of Northwestern Vermont.—I.!

ArtTuur Kerry, U. S. Geological Survey.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

The historic region described in this paper is the north end of the

Appalachian Valley in the United States. This part of the Valley

is called the Champlain Valley and les partly in New York and

partly in New England. In the largest view it is bounded on the east

by the Green Mountains and on the west by the Adirondack Moun-

tains, and at the south it is split by a minor group of mountains—the

-Taconic Range. A large part of the Valley is occupied by Lake Cham-

plain, the surface of which is 100 feet above sea level. The bottom is

below sea level. The Valley passes northward into Canada and curves

northeastward, merging into the St. Lawrence Valley.

The Champlain Valley is 20 miles wide at the latitude of Burlington

and extends southward for 80 miles from the Canadian border to the

Taconic Range. ‘The Valley is there divided by the Range into two

parts; the western one, which is continuous into the Hudson Valley of

New York, and the eastern part, which extends as the Western Valley

of New England nearly to Long Island Sound. This part of the Valley

also has several names for individual sections, such as Rutland Valley,

in Vermont, and Stockbridge Valley, in Massachusetts. The eastern

side of the Champlain Valley is sharply marked by the abrupt rise of

the Green Mountain front, which trends nearly north and south and

is close to the east side of the six quadrangles herein described. The

western side of the Valley is also clearly marked by the bold slopes

of the Adirondack Mountains in New York. Near the south end of

Lake Champlain these mountains come to the shore of the Lake.

1Received June 6, 1932. Published with the permission of the Director, U. 8S. Geo-

logical Survey.

307

JUL 20 1932

358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

STRATIGRAPHY

The Valley and its southern branches are floored by Paleozoic lime-

stone, dolomite, marble, shale, and slate with a few belts of quartzite.

All of these rocks except the quartzite are rather easily eroded and

their surface is well worn down toward sea level. They range from

Lower Cambrian age to Middle Ordovician, the older formations show-

ing mainly in the eastern part of the Valley and the younger ones in

the western part. The west half of the Valley and its extension south-

ward into the Hudson Valley is floored mainly by a few formations of

Ordovician shale and limestone, while the east half is underlain by

many formations of Cambrian limestone, dolomite, marble, and quart-

zite. These two groups are separated by the Champlain overthrust.

The latter formations also underlie nearly all of the Western Valley

of New England. ‘Thus, in a broad way, older and older rocks appear

as one travels from west to east. Asa result of this general progression,

the eastern margin of the Valley and the front of the Green Mountains

are formed by the lowest Cambrian quartzites, and by still lower

formations of the Algonkian. In the heart of the Green Mountains

still lower formations appear in the granites and gneisses of the Archean.

A marked departure from this plan is seen in the Taconic Range.

There, the carbonate rocks which characterize the Valley disappear and

nearly all the formations are of slate. One thin quartzite formation is

present and one very thin limestone formation, which together form

perhaps 5 per cent of the total section. ‘There is one slate formation

of Middle Ordovician age, two of Lower Ordovician age, and seven of

Lower Cambrian age. No Middle or Upper Cambrian is present.

The Lower Cambrian of the Taconic Range lies on or beside the Lower

Cambrian of the valleys, and the two groups have no features in com-

mon except that of age. ‘This is expressed by nature in the fact that

one group makes mountains, while the other forms the valleys. Simi-

larly, most of the Ordovician formations of the Taconic Range differ

widely from the Ordovician of the surrounding valleys.

Other discrepancies of this sort are found in the Champlain Valley,

so that in all one finds three major tracts in the Valley, a fourth in

the Taconic Range, and a fifth in the Green Mountains, which differ

strikingly from one another in the formations present and in their

metamorphic condition. Each of these natural groups is called a

sequence and each is separated from the others by a major fault, as

shown in Fig. 1. These sequences are called Western, Central, Eas-

tern, Taconic, and Green Mountain sequences in order to show where

they are best developed. The Champlain overthrust separates the

309

KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT

suLY 19,1932

SEQUENCES and FAULTS

Northwestern Vermont

Scale of miles

Major overthrusts

Minor thrusts

W Western sequence

Gi Central

Fig. 1.—Sequences and faults in Northwestern Vermont.

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361

KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT

JULY 19, 1932

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JULY 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 363

Western from the Central sequence; the Monkton overthrust is the

boundary between the Central and Eastern sequences; and the Taconic

overthrust separates the Taconic sequence from the others. There

are eight principal Paleozoic formations in the Western sequence;

twelve in the Central sequence; nine in the Eastern sequence; and ten

in the Taconic sequence. The mutual relations of these are shown

in the correlation chart (Table 1). Many of these formations can be

subdivided into members, especially in the Western Sequence where

fossils are numerous.

STRUCTURE

The geologic structures of the Champlain Valley exhibit the fea-

tures which are usually found in the Appalachian Valley, consisting

of long, narrow folds overturned toward the northwest and split by

numerous faults. Other faults (the great overthrusts) mentioned

above are more than usually numerous, and bringing the extremes of

sedimentation together they greatly complicate the structure of the

region. The rock formations have the same north-south trend as the

structures except here and there where they are shoved aside by the

great overthrusts.

Because of differences between the various formations in respect

to ease of erosion, the Valley is very plainly defined from the Moun-

tains, and the weaker formations of the Valley are separated by the

minor ridges of the harder formations, like the Monkton Hills. No

attempt will now be made to discuss the various stages of erosion and

uplift by which the surface has attained its present forms. ‘These

differ only in place but not in kind from those of other New England

States. Those of Massachusetts have been described by the writer

elsewhere. No space will now be given to the glacial history of the

region with its tilting, erosion, and blanketing of the bed rock. At-

tention will be directed solely to structures in which the rocks have

been changed in form, attitude, or composition, and the relation of

these structures to the nature of the rocks involved will be briefly

analyzed.

This region is at one of the great salients of the Appalachian system

where the rocks of the earth’s crust have been pushed farther forward

toward the west than in adjoining regions. The axis of the salient

crosses the Valley and Mountains in the St. Albans district, where the

structures change trend from northerly to northeasterly. Further

south—in the Rutland district—the folds have lagged behind those of

the St. Albans district and even trend to the west of north. This is

364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

the only place in the Appalachian system where such a general trend

is seen. ‘The lag is due to the massive buttress of the pre-Cambrian

rocks in the Adirondack Mountains, which checked the westward

advance of the folds. |

The rocks of this region show the results of extreme compression

and exhibit a great variety of folds, faults, and metamorphism. First

came the group of great overthrusts, the Champlain being earliest,

followed by the Monkton and Hinesburg thrusts, with the Taconic

asa climax. Doubtless a moderate amount of folding took place at this

time, but it cannot be separated from later folding. Each of these

overthrusts was marked by much horizontal movement, but the Taconic

overthrust was far greater than the others. Its roots lie far to the

east in the Green Mountains, nearly 20 miles away. The Taconic

overthrust mass was forced completely over the other thrust masses

and is now to be seen overriding two of them, the Monkton and the

Champlain, at the north end of the Taconic Range. On each over-

thrust there were brought together groups of formations of the same

age but of very different nature and formed originally many miles

apart.

Apparently the overthrusting reached a deadlock, being stopped

by friction and piling up of the masses. The pressure was still being

applied, however, and the rocks were still more folded and masked.

With them were folded the overthrust planes and masses until in

places they were turned upside down, as along the east side of the

Taconic Range. Still further compression split many folds and formed

minor thrusts and faults. Some of these, for instance the Castleton

fault, would in any other region be considered large, and they were

able to slice through the great overthrust masses and dislocate them

into separate blocks. Such results are well seen in the vicinity of

Burlington and Middlebury, where the Champlain overthrust was dis-

located. A far finer example of this secondary dislocation is seen

in the northern part of the Taconic Range, where a dozen secondary

thrust faults have cut the overthrust mass into slices. This is by far

the best exhibition of such structures yet found in the Appalachians or

perhaps in North America.

The process of compression went on until in some sections—notably

near St. Albans—scarcely a vestige of folding remains, all being swal-

lowed up in a succession of slices. The planes of the great overthrusts

dipped originally at low angles toward the east; they still do so i some

places, though they are overturned in others. The lesser faults dip

as a rule less than 45 degrees to the east.

yuLy 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 065

In many places the overthrust masses were raised so high on the

secondary structures that erosion has revealed the underlying rocks

infensters. The largest of these appears a few miles west of Middlebury

and east of Snake Mountain, where the limestones of the Western

sequence are exposed in a tract covering many square miles. This is .

indicated in Fig. 1. Smaller structures of the same sort are found in

the vicinity of Burlington on the same overthrust which is there close

to the water front. Of the same nature, but enormously greater in

scale, is the structure of the region east of the Taconic Range and in-

cluding the western part of the Green Mountains. All of this was

brought above the erosion plane by folding and faulting subsequent

to the Taconic overthrust. The outcrop of this overthrust now forms

an enormous flattened Z, the middle line of which reaches from the

north end of the Taconic Range into Massachusetts, where it turns

back to the northeast.

A far different arrangement is seen west of the Champlain overthrust,

where the Western sequence of formations prevails. Folding is at a

minimum and is expressed mainly by tilting at angles which seldom

are as great as 30 degrees. The tilting was mainly accomplished by

normal faults which trend in a great variety of directions and of which

the throw is commonly small. A very few faults of this kind are known

to cross the Champlain overthrust mto the region of the Central se-

quence. It is possible that more will be found but probably not many.

The rocks of this sequence exhibit practically no metamorphism except

some slaty cleavage near the Champlain overthrust, and the whole

system of structures differs so widely from those on the east side of

the Champlain fault that they obviously belong in different provinces.

Hand in hand with the movements of folding and faulting there was

deformation by metamorphism. This was least in the Western se-

quence so that shales were barely transformed into slates and fossils

were scarcely deformed. At the east, however, the changes were

extreme; no rocks escaped entirely and some were mashed almost

beyond recognition. Granites were mashed to schists in places, and

interbedded quartzites and shales were dissected until they resemble

augen gneiss. Interbedded limestones and dolomites were trans-

formed into strings of blocks of ruptured dolomite, between which

was forced calcite marble. Such metamorphism was accomplished

not only by physical rupture and separation but by chemical recrys-

tallization. The details of this differ widely between marbles, slates,

quartzites, graywackes, and granites. The differences in aspect pro-

duced by these chemical changes are greatest in rocks which originally

366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

contained alumina in the form of clay or feldspar. In such rocks the

development of micas proceeded to great lengths, so that new structure

planes—schistosity—were produced in them, and rocks of different

original composition approach each other closely in appearance. In

these rocks lithologic composition is of little value in fixing their ages,

and phyllites of Ordovician and Algonkian ages may be identical in

appearance.

Between the extremes of metamorphism there are many intermediate

grades. The western margin of readily noticeable metamorphism is

not far west of the Taconic overthrust at the south, and of the Cham-

plain overthrust at the north. ‘The metamorphism is substantially

limited to the region covered by overthrusts and doubtless is due to

the combination of intense lateral pressure with the greatly added

overburden of the overthrust mass. It is because of this intense re-

crystallization of the limestone and dolomite, and the changes of bulk,

color, and pattern that went with it, that this region has the largest

body of fine marble in the United States.

INDIVIDUAL FORMATIONS

The general character of the formations exhibited in this region has

been mentioned briefly in the foregoing general descriptions. The

formations are described according to sequences, all of the formations

in one sequence being treated before considering those of another se-

quence. Each of the sequences, and of the formations contained

therein, is shown in the correlation table. ‘The first sequence de-

scribed is the western one and the others are described in the order from

north to south. On the map and in the correlation table numbers

show all of the formation type localities that are in this region.

The outcrops of rock are very good in some parts of the district, such

as the northern part of the Taconic Range and the upper slopes of the

hills and ridges throughout the region. All of the ledges have been

scraped and polished by the Pleistocene glaciers, and the decomposed

rock has almost everywhere been removed. On the other hand, ex-

posures are very poor in the low ground, most of them being covered

by glacial drift. The lower levels of the Valley are usually filled with

glacial clay deposited in the glacial lakes at various stages. This clay

conceals everything for great areas near Lake Champlain. In the

eastern and higher tracts there are numerous sand plains and terraces

ranging from 200 to 1,600 feet in altitude. These are particularly

clustered around the points where the rivers come out of the moun-

tains, and they cover all kinds of the bed rock, so that in places it is

JuLY 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 367

impossible to tell precisely how the formations connect from side to

side of a delta. In the Green Mountains boulder clay conceals most

of the rock, which only here and there projects through it or is uncovered

by the down-cutting streams. On one kind of glacial deposit or an-

other it is possible to travel many miles continuously without any rock

exposures whatever. This drift blanket is most oppressive in the

country near and north of St. Albans, where stratigraphic changes

are numerous and thrust faults are very common. In tracing the

formations, however, much help is obtained from the characteristic

topography of each formation.

WESTERN SEQUENCE

The sedimentary rocks of this sequence begin with the Upper Cam-

brian and rest directly upon the Archean granite and gneiss. <A de-

tailed description of these formations is not given here because the

writer’s field work has been mainly directed to the highly disturbed

rocks of the other sequences. Some knowledge of them is needed,

however, as a setting for the geology east of the Champlain overthrust.

The first Paleozoic deposit of this sequence is the Potsdam sand-

stone. This is found in many belts around the Adirondack Mountains

and usually makes prominent ridges or mountains. On the east side

of the Adirondacks this formation is a quartzite with a basal conglom-

erate and closely resembles the Lower Cambrian Cheshire quartzite

of the Eastern sequence.

The Potsdam is believed to be of Upper Cambrian age but has so

far yielded no fossils. There is a zone of interbedded quartzite and

dolomite between the Potsdam and the overlying Theresa dolomite of

Upper Cambrian age, which is in favor of an Upper Cambrian age for

the Potsdam beds. The Potsdam is included in Ulrich’s Ozarkian

system, together with the Theresa and Little Falls dolomites.

The Theresa dolomite is a gray massive dolomite with many inter-

bedded layers of sandstone, particularly at the base as already noted.

The formation contains trilobites which establish its age. Above the

dolomite, but included with the formation as a member, is the Hoyt

limestone. This also contains beds of gray dolomite and oolite, and

numerous fossils.

The Little Falls dolomite is similar to the Theresa dolomite in litho-

logic appearance and also has very few fossils. Nodules of black

chert are found in this dolomite and also a remarkable development

of eryptozoon reefs.

The first beds of the Ordovician are those of the BAcMatihowt

limestone. All of the divisions of the Beekmantown are found in the

068 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

towns of Orwell and Shoreham, immediately northwest of the end of

the Taconic Range. ‘The formation consists chiefly of limestone with

numerous beds of dolomite. Fossils are very numerous in some parts

of the formation, and there are many peculiarities in the lithology in

the limestone layers. Most of the limestones have a bluish color where-

as the dolomites are light or dark gray. Some of these beds are seen

along the Champlain overthrust west and northwest of St. Albans.

The Chazy limestone, which follows the Beekmantown, is also com-

posed mainly of bluish limestone and fine gray dolomite. The dolo-

mite also has lighter colored layers and some which weather with pe-

culiar chamois-colored surfaces. The formation carries many fossils

which serve to distinguish it from the Beekmantown. There is some

uncertainty about the age of some dove-colored limestones which have

been assigned both to the Chazy and to the Beekmantown.

The Sudbury marble, which outcrops in the town of Sudbury at

the northwest end of the Taconic Range, appears to be of Chazy age,

although it has no fossils. It rests upon the Beekmantown and it

underlies limestone of Trenton age, being only separated from the

latter by a heavy bed of gray dolomite. The marble is, for the most

part, snow white but contains also a few cream colored beds of fine

dolomite. It is possible that these three formations belong in the

Central sequence instead of the Western, but this is still in doubt on

account of the prevalence of thrust faults in that district.

The Trenton, which normally follows the Black River, is best de-

veloped in Western New York. In the Schuylerville region of New

York, which joins this region on the southwest, the Trenton is possibly

represented by the upper part of the Normanskill shale which includes

at the top the Ryesdorph conglomerate member, and also by the Snake

Hill formation. The greater part of the Normanskill shale is regarded

as of Chazy age. All of these shales are gray or dark, with interbedded

layers of sandstone and cherty slate, and contain fossils, chiefly grapto-

lites.

The Hyde Manor limestone, occurring near the north end of the

Taconic Range, contains a good brachiopod fauna of Trenton age,

entirely different in aspect from that of the shales of the same age at

the west and southwest. This limestone has a decided blue color and

consists of massive beds interlayered with thin slabby strata. Con-

siderable schistosity is evident in this limestone and it is strongly

folded, which facts support an assignment of the formation to the Cen-

tral sequence. Fossils are rather common, however, which tends in

an opposite direction toward the Western sequence.

JULY 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 069

Lying above the Hyde Manor limestone is the Hortonville slate, a

dark or black slate with portions which are sufficiently altered to be

called phyllite. There are also in the slate a few small seams of

siliceous material giving a local banded appearance. As a rule the

bedding is obscured by the cleavage. ‘This is well exposed around

Hortonville, Vt., and, though unfossiliferous, is correlated with the

Snake Hill formation of New York.

CENTRAL SEQUENCE

The Central sequence is exhibited in two general areas, as shown on

the correlation chart. ‘The lower half of the column is the same for

each area, but the upper half differs materially. Some differences

are due to unconformity and overlap which produced Middle and

Upper Cambrian beds found only in the St. Albans region. Also,

in the St. Albans region there are two Ordovician formations which

doubtless have been eroded from the Burlington region, owing to the

greater depth of erosion there. ‘The section passes from a quartzite at

the base through dolomites and marbles and into slates at the top.

Monkton quartzite—The sequence begins with the Monkton quart-

zite, of Lower Cambrian age. ‘This is seen in Burlington in quarries

and natural exposures, and is one of the best key rocks of the region.

The original thickness of this formation is not known nor what beds

might precede it, because the base is cut off on the Champlain over-

thrust. The formation appears on several faults and folds in the

township of Monkton, 17 miles nearly south of Burlington, from which

the formation is named, but in no place is anything lower than the

Monkton exposed. In that town the Lower Cambrian Cheshire

quartzite is brought in contact with the Monkton on the Monkton

overthrust, which there separates the Central and Eastern sequences.

The Monkton consists very largely of a dense, fine-grained quartzite

whose notable feature is its strong color. Red colors prevail, including

all shades from brick red, brown, and buff, with a few beds of pure

white quartzite. None of these beds is traceable for any considerable

distance. ‘The top of the formation has interbedded layers of a tough,

fine dolomitic marble, also rather highly colored with red or pink.

These beds are of the same composition as those of the overlying

Winooski marble and make a transition between the two formations.

A few Lower Cambrian fossils have been found in the uppermost layers

of the Monkton but are rarely to be seen until the thin slabs of quart-

zite have been exposed to the weather for a considerable period, thus

leaching out a calcareous cement and permitting the interior structures

370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 13

to be exposed. Cross-bedding, ripple marks, and trails of animals

are numerous in the formation, showing that it was produced in shallow

waters.

The Monkton quartzite is eroded very slowly so that it forms moun-

tains or high hills, by which its course may be readily traced. It is

considerably dissected by faults, so that the quartzite forms few con-

tinuous ridges but rather a lot of irregular, elevated tracts. This re-

lation is very well seen around Mt. Philo in Charlotte, 14 miles south

of Burlington. The most notable of the Monkton quartzite mountains

is Snake Mountain, 6 miles northwest of Middlebury, which is a remnant

of the Champlain overthrust plate, lying on Ordovician shale. West

of this lie the low limestones and shales of the Western sequence, while

east of it are other limestones of the same sequence, appearing through

a great fenster in the overthrust. The rigidity of this formation and

its ability to carry on the overthrust plate is well exhibited in this

region.

Winooski marble.—This formation consists of very massive, tough,

_ and thick-bedded dolomite with the basal passage beds already men-

tioned. The formation is marked by the strong reds, browns, and pinks

like those seen in the Monkton. Some layers have these colors strongly

mottled with buff or white in very irregular patterns and have long

been used for ornamental marble. The original quarry was on the

north bank of Winooski River at Burlington, and the principal quarries

are in Swanton, six miles northerly from St. Albans. The mottled

marble there abuts against the Champlain overthrust and forms a

striking contrast with the light marbles of the Chazy and Beekmantown

on the other side of the fault. The beds of the Winooski marble resist

erosion very strongly and outcrop freely, thus furnishing a fine key

rock. ‘There is some interbedding between the Winooski marble and

the overlying gray dolomite of the Mallett. A minor peculiarity of

the Winooski is the series of very thin siliceous seams which project

in wavy lines from the surface of the massive dolomite. Fossils are

extremely rare in this marble but a few have been found. ‘The strongly

mottled beds seem at first glance to be fossiliferous, but probably are

not.

Mallett dolomite-——This dolomite is exposed in the bluffs around

Mallett Bay northwest of Burlington. Excepting the few basal pas-

sage beds the formation consists mainly of massive light or dark gray

dolomite. With this are interbedded seams and layers of dolomitic

sandstone which in the northern part of the region expand to form

quartzite beds as much as 10 feet thick. These are most prominent

rea 951932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT oll

north of St. Albans, and their white reefs stand in relief above the

dark gray dolomite. ‘This is very striking near the Canadian bound-

ary where the quartzite beds are cut off one after another against

the Champlain overthrust. A few fossils of Lower Cambrian age

have been found in this formation, mostly in slabby layers in its upper

part. The dolomite resists erosion, especially in its quartzite beds,

and makes considerable ridges separated by drift-filled valleys.

Parker slate-—This formation is named from its excellent exposures

around the sides of the Parker Cobble and on the old Parker farm. It

there contains large numbers of Lower Cambrian fossils and is the

celebrated locality from which Walcott was able to make his first

analysis of the Taconic system of Emmons and demonstrate the exist-

ence of beds older than the Upper Cambrian. It has long been the

most important Cambrian formation of the region. ‘This formation

is the same as that previously called ‘Colchester’ by the present

author and is renamed because of the poor exposure of the formation

in Colchester and, indeed, anywhere south of Parker Cobble. A full

section of the formation is exposed at Parker Cobble together with

the overlying and underlying formations.

The formation consists mainly of slaty shale which is dark gray or

slightly color banded and which contains considerable original mica.

This mica permits the layers to be split readily and the fossils to be

uncovered. ‘There are also in the formation a few sandy layers and

some lenses a few feet thick of a gray dolomite which weather with a

prominent brick-red surface. A notable feature in the slate appears

about seven miles north of St. Albans in the form of massive, blunt

lenses of blue limestone surrounded by the slate. These have the same

form and relations as the limestone reefs of the Upper Cambrian

Highgate slate.

The formation represents a sharp change in lithology from the

preceding dolomites, and no interbedding has been noted. The top

of the formation, however, is marked by a decided unconformity, by

which the formation is reduced to almost nothing from a maximum

thickness of perhaps 100 feet. The unconformable contact of the

overlying Milton dolomite upon the Parker slate is well exposed a few

yards north of the highway from St. Albans to St. Albans Bay, and also

about one-half mile south of the same highway. At the locality north

of the highway the Milton consists of dolomite conglomerate con-

taining large boulders of dolomite and slabs and pebbles of the fossilif-

erous Parker slate. ‘The fossils both in the pebbles and in the matrix

were determined by Schuchert to be of Lower Cambrian age. South

372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

of the latitude of Burlington there are no known exposures of this

formation. ‘There are numerous localities, however, where it may be

present but concealed by glacial drift.

The slate is a weak formation and is only rarely exposed at the valley

margins. A good exposure of this is seen in a pit for road material

about one mile northwest of Highgate Center, where some 20 feet of

slate containing Lower Cambrian fossils are exposed. Above the

slate and forming the crest of the hill on the east lies the Milton dolo-

mite, there consisting mainly of dolomite conglomerate. Between the

two formations there is a distinct unconformity, on which beds of both

formations are cut out. North and northeast from this locality at

scattered points in the minor valleys there are other outcrops of

slate, probably Parker.

Milton dolomite——The Milton as here defined is characteristically a

dolomite, but it is one of the most variable formations in this region.

It varies in thickness from perhaps 700 feet down to 8 or 10 feet, and

it varies in character from massive gray dolomite, fine and coarse-

grained, thick bedded and slabby, through sandy dolomites and quart-

zites to a coarse dolomite conglomerate. In the upper part of the

formation, and only where it is thick, considerable black chert is found

in the dolomite.

The rocks just mentioned are those which are usually seen in the

Milton, but there is an apparent component of the formation which is

very rarely visible, i.e., a series of slate layers interbedded with the

other rocks. They have thus far been found in full only in the section

below Highgate Falls. At extreme low stages of the River a con-

siderable section is exposed which is not ordinarily visible and in this

are found numerous layers of slate. These slates have the same char-

acteristics as the Parker slate, but a few fossils were found in them,

which are stated by Schuchert to be of Upper Cambrian age, thus

classing them with the Mill River conglomerate. Numerous minor un-

conformities were brought out between the slates and the conglomer-

ates and sandstones of the Milton, which emphasizes clearly their

torrential nature. This general conglomeratic nature is also charac-

teristic of the Milton as here defined in practically all of this area and

is most prominent from the latitude of Milton northward to Canada.

In some places these dolomite conglomerates consist of angular frag-

ments of all the kinds of rock which appear as layers in the formation,

and thus may be properly classified as intraformational. ‘The coarse

basal conglomerates, however, which carry boulders 3 or 4 feet in

diameter, and many rounded fragments of dolomite as well as slabs

of Parker slate, are not intraformational.

JULY 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT ol3

In the original definition of the Milton by the writer the formation

included at the top about 80 feet of conglomerates, some of them dolo-

mite conglomerates and others largely of limestone, with a few feet

of very fossiliferous limestone containing many Upper Cambrian fos-

sils. The general conglomeratic habit of these upper beds was the

same as that of the beds below, and for lack of decisive evidence the

lower part of the formation was also included in the Upper Cambrian.

Since that time Middle Cambrian fossils have been discovered by

Howell in the St. Albans region in the St. Albans slate, which under-

lies the Mill River conglomerate and Highgate slate and overlies the

Milton dolomite. Since the discovery of the Middle Cambrian forma-

tion the author has mapped the region in detail and has continued the

tracing of the Middle Cambrian beds, so that the position of much of

the original Milton beneath the Middle Cambrian is assured. The

upper part of the original Milton seems clearly of Upper Cambrian

age, and it is excluded from the Milton as here defined, and is named

Mill River conglomerate.

Shelburne marble-—This formation consists almost wholly of white

marble of fine and medium grain with a few layers of light colored

dolomite. ‘The formation is exposed for only a few miles north of the

latitude of Burlington, being there faulted out and eroded. Southeast

of Burlington, and particularly in the township of Shelburne, from

which it is named, the formation becomes prominent and occupies

several parallel belts. From this point southward the marble is almost

continuous and is only interrupted for short distances by changes in

the folds. It is represented in the Eastern sequence by a marble

formation of the same character which is almost continuous through

the quarry region of Middlebury, Brandon, Proctor, and Danby. In

all these places the marble is overlain by the Williston limestone, but

between them there is a very important unconformity. In the St.

Albans region between the horizons of the Shelburne and the Williston

there appear the St. Albans slate, the Mill River conglomerate, and

the Highgate slate. The basal contact of the Shelburne with the

Milton dolomite is very seldom seen, but apparently there is a transi-

tion between them.

The Shelburne marble contains no fossils so far as is known, but it

is uniform and is a regular unit in the Lower Cambrian succession of

the eastern part of the Valley. It also occupies the same position

in the Lower Cambrian Eastern sequence. Assignment of the Shel-

burne to the Lower Cambrian is also supported by the presence of

white marble boulders in the conglomerates of the Upper Cambrian

in most of their exposures.

374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 13

St. Albans slate—Muiddle Cambrian fossils were found in this

formation by Howell at the west border of the city of St. Albans, after

a thorough search which was prompted by the statement in the litera-

ture that Middle Cambrian fossils had been found in St. Albans. By

careful work Howell discovered several other localities for the Middle

Cambrian and also for Upper Cambrian fossils in the overlying High-

gate slate. These beds have been traced by the writer into the western

part of the township of Milton. Apparently they are cut out a few

miles south of Highgate Center between the Milton dolomite and

the Highgate slate. There is, however, a fair prospect that they can

be identified in one of the beds of slate which is exposed only at low

water below Highgate Falls. The formation contains only slate,

which is dark gray and locally banded, and is micaceous like the

Parker slate. |

Mill River conglomerate.—This formation is one of the most interest-

ing in this region, although it is one of the smallest. It is seen at

St. Albans resting on the Middle Cambrian slate, and also in fine ex-

- posures at Missisquoi River just below the falls at Highgate Center,

9 miles nearly north of St. Albans. The formation is of Upper Cam-

brian age, and an abundant fauna is secured from some of its limestone

layers. The fossiliferous beds form slabs an inch or two thick which

are very characteristic, and their fragments appear as angular slabs

in the later conglomerates. When the beds were first described by

the writer they were included in the Milton dolomite because each

formation was notably conglomeratic and because no fossils were

known in the lower part of the Milton. The later discovery of the

Middle Cambrian slate compelled the separation of these two forma-

tions, and the name ‘‘Missisquoi”’ was given to the conglomerate as

the only name that seemed available. Unfortunately, it had been

used in another sense for several Cambrian formations east of the

Green Mountains and thus should not be used here. The name Mill

River had already been selected by Howell and the writer for a con-

glomerate three miles southwest of St. Albans, which was later shown

by the writer’s detailed tracing to be the same formation. At the Mill

River section the Middle and Upper Cambrian beds are exposed and

contain fossils.

This formation is characteristically a conglomerate, and the fossil-

iferous limestones are only a small part of the formation. All of the

conglomerate beds contain angular fragments of dolomite, sandstone,

and quartzite, such as are found in the older Milton dolomite. Several

layers also contain fragments and boulders of blue limestone and white

JULY 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 379

marble, many of which exceed 3 feet in diameter. The marble ap-

pears to have been derived from the Shelburne marble, which is the

only rock of the sort which can be older than Upper Cambrian. The

blue limestone boulders resemble some of the limestones of the Ordo-

vician, but they resemble equally well the blue limestones found

in the reef deposits of the Lower Cambrian Parker slate, found a few

miles southwest of Highgate Center. In the original description of

the conglomerates by the writer it was noted that they strongly

resemble tillites. No scratched pebbles have been found in the

formation, however, and that question must remain in abeyance.

The conglomerate outcrops freely and forms low ridges, but it is

doubtless covered in many regions by the glacial drift. Many good

sections, however, fail to show the conglomerate, so that it is not con-

tinuous throughout the region. ‘This conglomerate bears a very strong

resemblance to the Lower Ordovician Corliss conglomerate, which is

quite natural in view of the derivation of the boulders from the same

sources. The Corliss, however, contains pebbles of uppermost Cam-

brian (“‘Saratogan’’) age. The difficulty of separating the two is most

considerable for a few miles from Highgate Falls south to Skeels

Corners, for the Mill River conglomerate together with a part of the

Milton dolomite is repeated by a thrust fault and now lies on top of

the Highgate slate. The thrust fault is well exposed in the gorge at

Highgate Falls. Similarly fine exposures of the formation are seen

from one to two miles west of Georgia Center, resting on the Milton

dolomite.

Highgate slate——This slate rests upon the Mill River conglomerate

in the gorge at Highgate Falls, and is named from that locality. Most

of the formation is exposed between the conglomerate and the thrust

fault above mentioned, and consists in the main of dark gray or black

slate, usually well banded and with pronounced cleavage. Some layers

might properly be called phyllite. The banding is so regular that its

resemblance to glacial varves has already been noted and the glacial

origin of the slate discussed in connection with the underlying conglom-

erates. In addition to the usual banded slate several beds of dolomite

a foot or so thick are found in the lower part of the slate. These are

tightly folded and in places torn apart, thus giving a better idea of the

great deformation of these rocks than is obtained from the slates. In

the upper part of the section in the gorge there are numerous sandy

seams from 1 to 2 feet thick which appear in the slate a few miles to

the south. The highest part of the slate comes in about one-half

mile to the north of the gorge in the outskirts of Highgate Center.

376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

There and at numerous localities up to the Canadian border the slate

is interbedded with thin layers of blue limestone and gray dolomitic

limestone. These give a strongly striped appearance and in a good-

sized ledge are plainly visible at a distance. Strong folding has magni-

fied the apparent size of the formation, which seems to be 500-600

feet thick.

A remarkable phenomenon in the Highgate slate is the development

in many localities of large masses of limestone entirely surrounded by

the slate. They occur usually in the upper part of the formation

above the horizon of limestone layers above mentioned. They are

found from Canada southward nearly to Burlington. They resist

erosion more than the surrounding slates and hence form prominent

points in the landscape, resembling gigantic turtles. The maximum

size so far found is about 200 feet long and 80 feet wide, and they

project from 10 to 20 feet above the general level. Numerous contacts

with the slate have been found and the ends of the limestone bodies

are very blunt and rounded so that they give the effect of having pushed

aside the slates during their growth. The slates pass above and be-

neath the margins of the limestone bodies and can be seen completely

surrounding the small bodies. They occur in clusters as well as indi-

vidually, a relation which is very well seen about two miles northwest

of Georgia Center.

These limestone bodies are, for the most part, made up of massive,

dense blue limestone without any visible structure. In the large

masses, however, there is apt to be a portion of the mass showing a

subdivision of the blue limestone into roughly rounded bodies sepa-

rated by narrow zones of brownish impure limestone and also a second-

ary quartz partly filling the spaces between the limestones. These

rounded areas of blue limestone are the cross sections of columns which

stand nearly vertical and can be seen in solution cavities to extend

down at least 5 feet from the surface. The most notable example is

2 miles west of north from Georgia. It is evident from these expo-

sures that the structure of these limestones is not due to any sedimen-

tary process, but is the result of some reef-building organism. Some

of these reefs appear to have persisted to the end of the Highgate de-

position, for they are directly overlain in places by the Corliss con-

glomerate, and appear to have furnished much local material for the

conglomerate. A good example is also seen 2 miles nearly west of

Georgia Center.

Upper Cambrian fossils were found by Walcott in this formation,

and others were found by the writer in thin limestone seams in High-

JULY 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT old

gate Center. The latter were decided by Walcott to be of Upper

Cambrian age. The formation runs in a continuous belt from the

Canadian border to the latitude of Burlington, where it is cut off by the

Hinesburg overthrust. There is no known contact between the High-

gate and the next younger formation, the Williston limestone. The

two lap past each other for a few miles east of Burlington but they ap-

pear in different folds, so that the exact nature of the contact is undeter-

mined. In and south of that tract, however, the Williston rests upon

the Lower Cambrian Shelburne marble, and the Highgate, Mill River,

and St. Albans formations are absent. Since these formations repre-

sent the Middle and Upper Cambrian, there is a great hiatus between

the Williston and Shelburne formations.

Williston limestone—This formation is named from its exposures

in the western part of the township of Williston about 5 miles south-

east of Burlington. It is cut off at the north in Milton by faulting

and erosion but extends southward to the limits of the Central sequence.

It also appears in the eastern sequence and forms a practically contin-

uous belt in the western part of that sequence southward through

Vermont. It contains fossils in its outcrops in Williston and South

Burlington, and also about a mile west of Brandon in the Central se-

quence which were pronounced by Schuchert to be of Upper Cam-

brian (“Saratogan’’) age.

The formation consists of a thick series of beds of hard gray dolo-

mite and of blue limestone largely altered to marble. The beds are

from a few inches to a few feet thick and are greatly disturbed. The

hard dolomite layers are folded and broken apart into segments, and

the marbles are mashed and squeezed into the gaps and spaces between

the dolomite bodies. It is only in the few layers of dolomite and lime-

stone which are least disturbed that the fossils are found. The Willis-

ton is an important formation but its thickness can only be estimated

roughly on account of the great deformation which it has suffered. It

covers broad areas, however, and is doubtless as much as 500 or 600

feet thick. The contact of the limestone with the Shelburne marble

is a Sharp one and the change in sedimentation is very marked. Prob-

ably half of the Williston consists of dolomite, while the Shelburne

marble has very little. The repeated change from dolomitic to cal-

careous beds in the Williston is in great contrast with the even de-

position in the Shelburne.

Corliss conglomerate—This conglomerate, like the Mill River con-

glomerate, is one of the striking and important formations of this

region. It rests upon the Highgate slate and forms a series of lenticu-

378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

lar deposits between the Highgate and overlying Georgia slate, at

intervals from Canada to their end, five miles south of St. Albans.

There is little difference in appearance between these two conglomerate

formations, but their stratigraphic associations differ widely. The

Mill River contains Upper Cambrian fossils and fossiliferous pebbles

of the Lower and Upper Cambrian. ‘The Corliss contains the same

Cambrian pebbles, and also some of ‘‘Saratogan’’ age which were found

at the Corliss Ledge, 5 miles northeast of St. Albans. These ‘‘Sara-

togan’’ forms show the Corliss to be post-Upper Cambrian, as they are

the same as fossils found in the Williston limestone. ‘The conglomerate

is overlain by the Georgia slate, which contains fossils immediately

above the contact and at a still higher horizon. The ‘‘Saratogan’’

fossils of the Williston limestone and its pebbles in the Corliss con-

glomerate were determined by Schuchert. He also made a prelimi-

nary assignment of the Georgia slate to the post-Beekmantown part

of the Ordovician. On further consideration he now considers the

Georgia slate to be of Beekmantown age. This automatically assigns

- the Corliss conglomerate to the early part of the Beekmantown.

The Corliss conglomerate consists in the main of pebbles and boul-

ders of various limestones, marbles, and dolomites, most of them being

limestone. ‘The thin slabs of fossiliferous Upper Cambrian limestone

derived from the Mill River conglomerate are numerous and conspicu-

ous. Fossiliferous pebbles of Lower Cambrian limestone are occa-

sionally found, and one boulder of blue limestone with apparent cryp-

tozoa lies in the conglomerate at Marye ledge two miles south of St.

Albans. A limestone boulder 60 feet long and about 30 feet wide was

found in the conglomerate 4 miles north of St. Albans. In the same

exposures there were many boulders up to 5 or 6 feet in diameter.

In the original description of this region by the writer the very strong

resemblance of the Mill River and Corliss conglomerates led to their

description as one formation—the ‘‘Swanton conglomerate.” Later

detailed mapping and study showed that there were two conglomerates

and that the Mill River—the older one—was placed by thrust faulting

south of Highgate Center in the position of the Corliss on top of the

Highgate slate, thus causing the confusion of the two.

Georgia slate.—This formation is the youngest known in the sequence

and outcrops continuously from the Canadian border to the northern

part of the township of Georgia, 6 miles southerly from St. Albans.

The formation consists almost wholly of slate of a dark gray color and

is fine-grained. It is strongly cleaved and usually not well banded,

and the structure and thickness of the slate can only here and there

JULY 19, 1932 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 379

be determined. The formation occupies an area which widens to 3

miles at the Canadian boundary. It is probably 1,000 feet or more

in thickness. A very few limestone beds are found in this slate and

in one of them, 4 miles northeast of Highgate Center, were found the

fossils of Beekmantown age already mentioned. The bottom layers

also contain fossils of the same age, near the Canadian border.

The only change from the usual type of slate in the Georgia appears

in its northeastern portions where there are massive and thick bedded

layers occasionally sandy in texture. These have a whitish color on

the weathered surfaces. Most of the slates are very similar to those

of the Highgate and the two can scarcely be separated without fossils.

Where the Highgate contains numerous limestone beds or the lime-

stone reefs the two formations can be distinguished. Wherever the

Corliss conglomerate is found it furnishes a satisfactory means of

drawing the boundary of the Georgia slate. In the wider northern

areas of the slate there are found here and there ledges of the con-

glomerate, some of them of considerable size. The structural rela-

tions of the slate to these conglomerates can not now be determined.

(To be concluded)

BOTANY.—New Central American Asteraceae collected by H. H.

Bartlett. 8. F. Buaxe, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Study of the specimens of Asteraceae (except Eupatorieae) collected

by Prof. H. H. Bartlett in British Honduras and Guatemala during

the 1931 expedition of the Carnegie Institution and the University

of Michigan has brought to light three new species, as well as a new

genus represented by a plant long ago described by Bentham as an

Oliganthes. These are described below, and with them a new A plopap-

pus collected in Tamaulipas by Prof. Bartlett in 1930.

Harleya Blake, gen. nov.

Capitula homogama tubuliflora. Involucri oblongo-turbinati phyllaria

multiseriata gradata sicca cuspidato-acuminata erecta. Receptaculum par-

vum nudum planiusculum leviter alveolatum. Corollae regulares aequales,

tubo cum faucibus infundibuliformi, limbo 5-fido. Antherae base alte sagit-

tatae, auriculis obtusis ecaudatis. Styli rami subulati hirtelli. Achenia

turbinata 4—5-costato-angulata saepius costis 1-5 minoribus praedita inter

costas glandulari-papillosa. Pappus coroniformis cartilagineus crassus ob-

scure crenatus.—Herba perennis subsimplex bipedalis stolonifera, foliis

alternis petiolatis ovalibus vel rhombico-ovalibus penninerviis repando-

1 Received May 20, 1932. Based (in part) upon collections made by an expedition

of the Herbarium and the Museum of Zoology of the University of Michigan collaborat-

ing with the Department of Historical Research of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-

ton in a biological survey of the Maya area.

380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

Fig. 1.—Harleya oxylepis (Benth.) Blake.—a, upper part of plant, X 1/2; b, plant

with runners, X 1/2; c, head, X 3; d, corolla, X 3.5; e, achene, X 9; f, stamens, X 9;

g, style branches, X 6. Fig. 6 from Bartlett 13142; other figures from Bartlett 12042.

JULY 19, 1932 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 381

denticulatis supra glabris subtus dense albido-tomentosis, capitulis medio-

cribus parvis 8—9-floris subsessilibus in cymulas parvas densas brevipeduncu-

latas terminales et e axillis supremis orientes aggregatis, corollis purpureis.

Species typica Oliganthes oyxlepis Benth.

Harleya oxylepis (Benth.) Blake.

Oliganthes oxylepis Benth.; Benth. & Hook. Gen. Pl. 2: 233. 1873; Blake in

Standl. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 23: 1418. 1926.

YucaTANn (or Tabasco): HE. P. Johnson 21 (type coll.: photog. and fragm.

in U.S. Nat Herb., ex herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.).

British Honpuras: Cocquericot, El Cayo District, 16 March 1931,

Bartlett 12042; Tea Kettle, El Cayo District, 12 May 1931, Bartlett 13142.—

The habitat is given as follows: Alluvial soil on river banks, several feet above

water but subject to occasional overflow, only flowering, apparently, if in

good light (Bartlett in litt.).

This interesting plant was briefly diagnosed by Bentham in 1873, in his

discussion of Oliganthes in the Genera Plantarum, in the following words:

“« . . in altera (O. oxylepide, Benth.) ex Yucatan Americae centralis E. P.

Johnson n. 21, capitula 8-flora, pappo plane nullo, folia in hac dentata, in

caeteris integerrima.”’ Dr. H. A. Gleason, in his first revision? of the North

American Vernonieae, retained it in Olcganthes, with the statement that he

had seen no specimens, but in his treatment of the tribe in the North American

Flora (33: 102. 1922) excluded it without otherwise accounting for it.

Some years later, having found a sheet of the type collection among some

specimens sent me for study from the New York Botanical Garden, I pre-

sented a description in Standley’s ‘‘Trees and shrubs of Mexico.’”’ The ex-

cellent specimens collected for Dr. Bartlett agree perfectly with the original

collection and show that the species can not be retained in Oliganthes, but

must be made the type of a new genus most closely related to Struchiwm

(Sparganophorus).

The genus Oliganthes, which has received several synonyms, was originally

described by Cassini (1817 and 1818) and based on a plant (O. triflora Cass.)

said to have been collected in Madagascar by Commerson. Recent authors

have considered the original habitat erroneous, and in both Bentham and

Hooker’s Genera Plantarum and O. Hoffmann’s treatment of the family in

Engler & Prantl’s Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien the genus is reported from

America only. Humbert, however, in his study of the Compositae of Mada-

gascar, mentions not only the original specimen of Commerson but also re-

cent collections by Perrier de la Bathie and Scott Elliot. No specimens of

the Madagascar plant are available to the writer, and it seems necessary for

the present to follow the course of all recent authors and consider the Mada-

gascar species congeneric with the American species currently referred to

the genus. A recent study of these, and of the very closely related and

perhaps not satisfactorily separable current genera Piptocoma Cass. and

Ekmania Gleason, has shown that Oliganthes oxylepis Benth. can not be

2 Bull. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 4: 235. 1906.

382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

retained in Oliganthes. All the true species of Oliganthes are shrubs or trees,

with small or very small heads aggregated in dense terminal corymbiform

panicles. Their pappus is typically double, the outer of numerous usually

persistent squamellae, free or united into a crown, the inner of 2-13 deciduous

often twisted linear paleae; sometimes simple, of squamellae only, these free

and very small or larger and united into a lacerate crown; in one species (O.

condensata) the pappus is sometimes wanting (?). The species of Piptocoma

and EHkmania are also woody, with somewhat larger and more loosely ar-

ranged heads, but with similar pappus.

Oliganthes oxylepis, as contrasted with the true species of the genus, is a

low perennial herb bearing leafy stolons from the lower or sometimes even

from the uppermost axils. The heads are larger and very much less nu-

merous, and the involucre is composed of very numerous cuspidate-acuminate

phyllaries. The short, thick, somewhat turbinate achene is unequally and

subalately 4—5-angled and usually with 1-5 weaker ribs, and obscurely glan-

dular-papillose between the ribs; the thickened, cartilaginous, obscurely

crenulate, annular pappus is 0.3-0.5 mm. high and about a third to a quarter

as long asthe achene. Its herbaceous habit and cartilaginous annular pappus

remove the species very definitely from the Oliganthes group and place it

next to Struchium P. Br. (Sparganophorus Gaertn.), a monotypic genus of

tropical America and Africa. In that genus the tiny corollas are only 3-4-

toothed, the achenes 3—4-angulate-ribbed, and the anther bases acuminate.

It is consequently necessary to place O. oxrylepis in a new genus, which I have

much pleasure in naming Harleya in honor of Prof. Harley Harris Bartlett,

whose labors in various fields of American and foreign botany have been

numerous and fruitful.

Aplopappus bartlettii Blake, sp. nov.

Herba perennis pedalis dense glandulari-pubescens et patenti-pilosa,

rhizomate tenui repente; caules suberecti paullum ramosi dense foliosi; folia

uniformia spathulata sessilia subintegra ca. 3 em. longa 8 mm. lata obtusa

l-nervia utrinque viridia; capitula longe pedunculata mediocria flava radiata

solitaria terminalia et in axillis superioribus; involucri 8 mm. alti gradati

phyllaria linear-lanceolata longe acuminata; radii ca. 19; achenia compressa

10-costata hispidula; pappi straminei setae ca. 20 subequales achenio duplo

longiores. }

Plants 20-30 cm. high, the stems erectish or ascending, scattered on slender

running rootstocks, often short, only 4-10 cm. high, terminated by a single

head and continued by 2 or 3 branches from near the apex, these branches

sometimes similarly terminated and prolonged; pubescence of short hairs

about 0.5 mm. long, tipped with dark glands, and of long white hairs about

2 mm. long, all wide-spreading; leaves 2.5-3.5 cm. long, 4-10 mm. wide, ob-

tuse, apiculate, narrowed to the rounded scarcely or not clasping base, erectish,

pubescent like the stem and ciliate, entire or with one or two small blunt or

acute teeth on each side, 1-nerved and sometimes with an obscure pair of

lateral nerves; peduncles monocephalous, naked, 4-8 cm. long, very slender,

pubescent like the stem; heads about 1.5 em. wide; disk equaling involucre, this

turbinate-hemispheric, 4—5-seriate, not strongly graduate, reflexed in age, the

JULY 19, 1932 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 083

outer phyllaries with herbaceous center and narrow scarious margin, the inner

mainly subscarious, with narrow green midline; rays yellow, fertile, in age

purplish outside, pilose toward tip of tube and on back of limb below, the

tube 3 mm. long, the lamina nearly linear, 3-denticulate, 3—4-nerved, 6.5 mm.

long, 1.3 mm. wide; disk flowers about 50, fertile, yellow, their corollas gla-

brous except for a few short hairs on the teeth, 4.5 mm. long (tube 1.8 mm.,

throat slender-funnelform, 2 mm., teeth ovate, 0.7 mm. long); achenes of

ray and disk similar, obovate-oblong, somewhat compressed, 1.5 mm. long,

rather sparsely hispidulous; pappus 1-seriate, 4.5-5 mm. long, of stiffish es-

sentially equal finely hispidulous bristles; anthers subentire at base, with

short linear-subulate terminal appendages; style branches 0.8 mm. long,

the oblong stigmatic region 0.5 mm. long, the narrowly triangular acuminate

hispidulous appendages 0.3 mm. long.

Mexico: Above La Vegonia near San José, Tamaulipas, alt. 1000 m.,

3 July 1930, Bartlett 10046 (type in herb. Univ. Michigan).

That plant is perplexingly intermediate between Aplopappus and Chrys-

opsis. In appearance and practically all features except the pappus it agrees

with Chrysopsis, particularly with C. pilosa Nutt. The strictly 1—-seriate

pappus, however, makes it necessary to refer it to Aplopappus, where the

only section that can receive it is Isopappus. The two species referred to

that section in the late Dr. H. M. Hall’s monograph of ‘‘Haplopappus” are

both annuals and too different from A. bartletiii to require detailed com-

parison. Chrysopsis pilosa, although very similar in general appearance, is

an annual and has a strongly differentiated outer pappus, broadly obovoid

achenes, and various other distinctive characters.

Wedelia adhaerens Blake, sp. nov.

Herba verisim. erecta dichotome ramosa; caulis dense hamato-hispidulus

sparsissime hispidus; folia remota ovalia vel ovali-ovata acuta basi late

rotundata inconspicue serrulata triplinervia chartacea aspere pubescentia;

capitula parva radiata aurea apice caulis et ramorum ternata sublonge

pedunculata; involucri ca. 3-seriati subaequalis ca. 7.5 mm. longi phyllaria

ovato-lanceolata acuminata hispido-strigosa et strigillosa supra medium

herbacea suberecta; pappus cyathiformis longe stipitatus.

Apparently herbaceous, 0.5 m. high and more; stem slender, 2.5 mm. thick,

densely hispidulous with short mostly spreading hamate hairs and especially

below sparsely hispid with ascending hairs; leaves opposite; petioles 1.2 mm.

long, hamate-hispidulous and rather densely hispid; blades of larger leaves

3-3.5 cm. long, 1.5-2.5 em. wide, remotely and obscurely callous-serrulate

with 4-6 teeth on each side, above dull green, densely and evenly hamate-his-

pidulous with spreading hairs, sparsely tuberculate-hispid with antrorse-curved

hairs, beneath scarcely lighter green but slightly shining, densely hamate-

hispidulous on surface, on veins and veinlets sparsely antrorse-hispid, tripli-

nerved from near base and loosely prominulous-reticulate beneath; upper

leaves and those of branches smaller but otherwise similar, 1—2.3 em. long,

8-13 mm. wide; heads 1.5 em. wide, usually in clusters of 3 at tips of stem and

branches, the peduncles slender, usually naked, pubescent like the stem,

the terminal one about 1 cm. long, the lateral at maturity 2.5-5 cm. long,

sometimes bearing a bract and a secondary head; involucre campanulate,

7.5-9.5 mm. high, about 3-seriate, subequal or slightly graduate, the two

outer series of phyllaries lanceolate to lance-ovate, 1.3-3 mm. wide, densely

hispidulous and less densely tuberculate-hispid with ascending hairs, indurated

384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

and whitish about to middle, the acuminate or acute callous-pointed herbace-

ous tip loosely erectish, pubescent on both faces, the inmost series shorter

and without herbaceous tip; disk 6-7 mm. high, about 4 mm. thick; rays about

6, yellow, pistillate, the tube 2 mm. long, essentially glabrous, the lamina

oval, 3-denticulate, up to 9 mm. long, 5.5 mm. wide, about 13-nerved, hispidu-

lous and gland-dotted dorsally; disk flowers about 12, their corollas yellow,

essentially glabrous except on the hispidulous teeth, 5 mm. long (tube 2 mm.,

throat slender-funnelform, 2.5 mm., teeth broadly ovate, 0.5 mm.); pales

scarious, sometimes purplish, acute or obtusish, sometimes shortly 3-lobed,

hispidulous-ciliolate on margin and keel above; ray achenes obcompressed,

plumpish, obovate, subalate-margined, 1l-ribbed on inner face, mottled,

glabrous except at the slightly hispidulous apex, truncate or emarginate at

apex, 2-calloused at base, 4-4.2 mm. long, 2.3-2.5 mm. wide, their pappus a

ciliolate cup 0.4 mm. high, borne on a usually slender stipe 0.5-0.8 mm.

long, the whole 1-1.2 mm. long, readily detergible at maturity;mature disk

achenes not seen, their pappus (young stage) a lacerate cup 0.7 mm. high,

connate with 2 awns 1—1.3 mm. long.

GuATEMALA: In logwood swamp, Dos Arroyos, Dept. Petén, 15 March

1931, Bartlett 12111 (type no. 1,540,626, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Nearest Wedelia parviceps Blake, and essentially indistinguishable as to

heads and involucre, except for their slightly larger size. In that species,

however, the leaves are ovate to lanceolate, not half as wide as long, the achene

is only about two-thirds as long, and its subsessile or short-stipitate pappus-

cup, including its stipe, is only half as long.

Melanthera parviceps Blake, sp. nov.

Herba opposite ramosa; caulis quadrangularis breviter strigosus; folia

oblongo-triangularia vel lanceolata acuminata basi cuneata crenato-serrata

tenuia utrinque viridia hispidula et hispido-hirsuta, minoribus saepius leviter

hastatis; capitula parva anthesi 3-6 mm. diam. apice caulis ramorumque

irregulariter cymosa-paniculata, pedunculis saepe 2—4-cephalis; involucri ca.

3 mm. alti phyllaria ovata acutiuscula strigosa et ciliata apice breviter her-

bacea; paleae receptaculi brevissime acutatae.

“Fragile herb, 2 m. high, spearmint-scented;” stem bluntly 4-angled, up to

4 mm. thick, purplish, rather sparsely short-strigose; principal internodes

1-1.5 dm. long; leaves opposite; petioles slender, hispid-hirsute, 1-4 em. long,

the larger narrowly cuneate-winged at apex for about 1 em. (passing into the

blade); blades of larger leaves triangular-oblong, about 14 em. long, 4—4.5 cm.

wide, short-cuneate at base, crenate-serrate nearly throughout with about

35 pairs of subequal rounded apiculate teeth about 1 mm. high and about 3

mm. apart, triplinerved, lightly prominulous-reticulate beneath, above dark

green, evenly but not densely hispidulous and hispid-hirsute, beneath scarcely

lighter green, hispidulous on surface, hispid-hirsute on veins and veinlets;

smaller leaves usually slightly hastate at base, more sharply toothed, 7 cm.

long and 3 cm. wide, or smaller; heads usually in 2’s—4’s at apex of stem and

branches, in fruit 5 mm. high, 6-8 mm. thick, the peduncles strigose, 1—4-

headed, mostly 1-5 em. long, the pedicels usually 0.5-2.5 em. long; involucre

2-seriate, subequal, 3-3.5 mm. high, appressed, the phyllaries ovate, acutish,

callous-tipped, strigose, ciliate above; disk in flower about 4 mm. high, 6

mm. thick; flowers about 24, their corollas white, hispidulous on teeth,

3.2 mm. long (tube 0.7 mm., throat campanulate, 1.5 mm., teeth triangular-

ovate, 1 mm. long); pales hispidulous and sometimes purplish above,

shortly and rather bluntly pointed, 4.2 mm. long (the narrowed tip 0.8

guy 19; °1932 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 385

mm. long); achenes plump, lenticular, hispidulous on apex, 2.2 mm. long;

pappus caducous, of 3-4 (or more?) subequal slender hispidulous awns 1.5

mm. long or less. |

British Honpuras: In ravine, Little Mountain Pine Ridge, El Cayo

District, 1 March 1931, Bartlett 11882 (type no. 1,540,623, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Related to Melanthera purpurascens Blake, of Chiapas, but a much larger,

coarser, erect plant, with even smaller heads, usually grouped at tips of

branches, and less pointed pales.

Calea fluviatilis Blake, sp. nov.

Fruticulus pedalis; caules tenues ramulosi foliosi minute hispiduli glabres-

centes; folia angustissime lineari-lanceolata ca. 2.5 em. longa 1.5 mm. lata

coriacea remote calloso-serrulata subglabra glanduloso-adspersa; capitula

discoidea parva 13-flora 3-7 terminalia cymosa, in pedunculis ca. 1 em. longis;

involucri 4-5 mm. alti phyllaria exteriora pauca triangularia supra medium

vel maxima ex parte herbacea glanduloso-adspersa interioribus ovalibus vel

Ovatis subscariosis apice saepe purpurascentibus subglabris aequalia vel

breviora; pappi paleae 20 acheniis hispidulis subduplo longiores.

Undershrub 25 em. high, several-stemmed from a thick woody flattened

caudex 2.5 em. wide; stems erectish, somewhat trichotomously branched, in

age with numerous small branchlets, subterete or subangulate, minutely

hispidulous on the younger parts with erectish hairs, glabrescent; leaves op-

posite; petioles 1 mm. long; blades 1.3-2.8 cm. long, 1-2 mm. wide, acuminate

to each end, obtusely callous-tipped, remotely 2—3-denticulate or serrulate

on each side with low callous teeth, triplinerved, somewhat revolute-margined,

deep green, dotted on both sides with sessile shining yellowish glands, other-

wise glabrous or sparsely and obscurely strigillose beneath; heads about 7

mm. high, 4 mm. thick, in terminal clusters of 3-7, the peduncles very slender,

8-12 mm. long, hispidulous and glandular-dotted; involucre 3—4-seriate, more

or less distinctly graduate, the outermost phyllaries triangular, obtusely

callous-tipped, 3-5 mm. long, 0.7-1 mm. wide, appressed, coriaceous-her-

baceous above middle or nearly throughout, 1-ribbed and with an obscure

pair of nerves, dotted with sessile glands, the others yellowish-brown, usually

purplish-tipped, rounded, several-vittate; corollas yellow, glabrous, somewhat

zygomorphic, 4.8 mm. long (tube 2.2 mm., throat 1-1.2 mm., teeth unequal,

1.2-1.8 mm. long, 2 or 3 being less deeply cleft than the others); pales oblong,

5 mm. long, obtuse, sometimes abruptly and obtusely short-pointed, glabrous,

yellowish, about 3-vittate; achenes blackish, erectish-hirsutulous except to-

ward base, 2 mm. long; pappus paleae about 20, narrowly linear-lanceolate,

acuminate, subequal, hispidulous-ciliolate, 3.5 mm. long.

British HonpuraAs: On stones in Rio Privacion, Mountain Pine Ridge,

El Cayo District, 26 Feb. 1931, Bartlett 11790 (type no. 1,540,622, U.S. Nat.

Herb.).

A member of the subgenus Hucalea, very distinct from any other North

American species in foliar characters.

Liabum dimidium Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex scandens; caulis sordide arachnoideo-tomentosus glabrescens et

praecipue supra pilosus vel pilosulus pilis sordidis patentibus multiloculatis;

folia late ovata petiolata serrulato-denticulata triplinervia supra tenuiter

arachnoidea glabrata subtus albido-tomentosa; capitula 7—-11-flora discoidea

numerosissima, paniculam latam efformantia; involucri ca. 4-seriati 5-6 mm.

386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

alti pappo subduplo brevioris phyllaria ovata ad oblongo-linearia obtusa

vel rotundata ciliata; achenia dense hispidula; pappus albidus 6.5 mm. longus

duplex, exteriore setuloso ca. 1.5 mm. longo.

“Lax scrambling shrub, 6 m. high;’”’ stem (above) subterete, striatulate,

6 mm. thick, rather thinly arachnoid-tomentose, glabrescent, sordid-pilose

or -pilosulous especially in inflorescence; leaves opposite; petioles slender,

1.3-3 em. long, thinly arachnoid, glabrescent; blades of larger leaves 9-12 cm.

long, 6-9.5 cm. wide, relatively thin, acute, at base broadly cuneate or rounded-

cuneate, serrulate-denticulate above the mainly entire base with very slender

teeth about 0.6 mm. long and 3-6 mm. apart, beneath compactly but not

thickly dull-whitish-tomentose; panicles terminating stem and upper branches,

together forming a loose pyramidal panicle about 28 cm. wide and 20-30 cm.

long, thinly arachnoid and rather densely sordid-pilosulous with many-celled

spreading hairs, the heads partly sessile, partly on pedicels up to 4 mm. long;

involucre 4-5-seriate, strongly graduate, the 2-3 outer series of phyllaries

ovate, somewhat fleshy, striate when dry, dull green, obtuse, ciliate and

sparsely sordid-pilosulous, the 2 inner series linear-oblong, about 1 mm. wide,

thinner, not striate, sordid-ciliate, erect; receptacle shallowly alveolate, the

edges of the alveolae minutely hispidulous; corollas yellow, pilosulous on

upper part of tube, 8 mm. long (tube slender-funnelform, 3.3 mm. long,

throat thick-cylindric, 2 mm. long, teeth linear-triangular, 2.7 mm. long,

hispidulous at apex); achenes (not truly mature ?) 1.8 mm. long; pappus yel-

lowish-white, double, the outer setulose, about 1.5 mm. long, scarcely wider

than the inner, the inner of hispidulous bristles bent at apex. 7 mm. long.

GUATEMALA: Tikal, Dept. Petén, 12-15 April 1931, Bartlett 12602 (type

no. 1,540,627, U. S. Nat. Herb.)

A member of the group separated by Rydberg under the generic name Szn-

clairia Hook. & Arn., and related to Liabum polyanthum Klatt and Liabum

brachypus (Rydb.) Blake.? The former has a longer involucre (about 7—9

mm. high), nearly or quite equaling the pappus, and the inner phyllaries are

strongly spreading or reflexed above at maturity. Sinclairia pittiert Rydb.,

the type of which I have studied, is not separable by any real character from

L. polyanthum. Liabum brachypus lacks the sordid spreading hairs of the

new species, and has a somewhat longer involucre (about 7 mm.) and a dense

inflorescence. ‘The specific name of the new species refers to the relative

length of the involucre and the fruiting head.

3 Sinclairia brachypus Rydb. N. Amer. Fl. 34: 299. 1927.

ZOOLOGY.—Two new pocket mice from Arizona.: E, A. GOLDMAN,

Biological Survey.

When Perognathus amplus was described by Osgood in his revision

of the genus (North Amer. Fauna, No. 18, p. 32, Sept. 20, 1900) the

type was unique. Some subsequent efforts to obtain topotypes have

been unsuccessful, owing perhaps to seasonal or cyclic variations in

numbers. Over thirty specimens from various localities in the general

region are, however, regarded as fairly representative. A series from

1 Received June 16, 1932.

mune el 9) 1932 GOLDMAN: TWO POCKET MICE 387

the low, open, desert region of southwestern Arizona presents the

decidedly paler coloration characterizing some of the other mammals

of that area. Specimens from northwestern Arizona, south of the

Grand Canyon, also exhibit a departure from the typical form. The

new geographic races are differentiated as follows:

Perognathus amplus rotundus, subsp. nov.

Gila Pocket Mouse

Type.—From Wellton, Yuma County, Arizona. No. 250470, @ adult,

U.S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), collected by Bernard

Bailey, November 9, 1931. Original No. A4353; X catalogue No. 27029.

Distribution.—Desert region of southwestern Arizona, and probably ad-

joining parts of Sonora.

General characters.—A large, light-colored subspecies, closely allied to

Perognathus amplus amplus, of central Arizona, but ground color of upper

parts a decidedly paler shade of pinkish buff, less obscured by black on face

and along flanks; postauricular spots rather prominent; cranial characters

also distinctive. :

Color.—Type: Upper parts near pale pinkish buff (Ridgway, 1912),

purest on upper surface of muzzle, sides of head, shoulders, flanks and outer

surfaces of thighs, the top of head and back finely lined with black; under

parts, forelimbs and hind feet white; ears pinkish buff externally, except an-

terior fold which is dusky, thinly clothed internally with blackish hairs,

and distinctly edged with white at posterior base; small dusky areas at base

of vibrissae on sides of muzzle (not continued in a narrow line across face as

in typical amplus); tail thinly haired, slightly crested and tufted terminally,

grayish above, whitish below, becoming dusky at tip.

Skull.—Very similar in general to that of P. a. amplus, but more robust;

rostrum and nasals distinctly broader; mastoids broader anteriorly, bulging

upward more prominently along outer border of parietal, but narrower, less

inflated posteriorly; dentition about as in amplus.

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 170 mm.; tail vertebrae, 90; hind

foot, 21. Average of five adult topotypes: 161 (155-165); 86 (82-95); 20.4

(20-21). Skull (type): Occipitonasal length, 24.2; greatest breadth (across

audital bullae at meatus), 15.2; zygomatic breadth (posteriorly), 13.3; inter-

orbital breadth, 5; length of nasals, 9.3; width of nasals (in front of incisors),

2.5; interparietal, 3.2 x 3.4; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 3.6.

Remarks.—The pallid general coloration and most notably the lighter

head of Perognathus amplus rotundus readily distinguishes it externally from

P. a. amplus, and the skull differs markedly from that of the type of the latter.

Intergradation may, however, be assumed.

Specumens examined.—Ten, all from the type locality.

Perognathus amplus pergracilis, subsp. nov.

Hualpai Pocket Mouse

Type.—From Hackberry, Mohave County, Arizona (altitude 3500 feet).

No. 227528, o& young adult, U. 8. National Museum (Biological Survey

collection), collected by E. A. Goldman, September 14, 1917. Original num-

ber 23304.

Distribution.— Desert region of northwestern Arizona, south of the Grand

Canyon.

388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 13

General characters.—Similar to P. a. amplus, but of more slender propor-

tions; ground color of upper parts paler pinkish buff. Differing from P. a.

rotundus in slenderness, and darker general tone of upper parts due to density

of overlying black-tipped hairs, especially on head.

Color.—Type: Ground color of upper parts pale pinkish buff, purest along

lateral line from cheeks to thighs, the head and back moderately and uni-

formly overlaid with black; under parts, forelimbs and hind feet white; ears

pinkish buff externally, except anterior fold which is dusky, thinly clothed

internally with blackish hairs; tail grayish or light brownish above, becoming

darker toward tip, whitish below to small terminal tuft which is dusky all

around.

Skull.—Similar to those of P. a. amplus and P. a. rotundus, but smaller

and relatively narrower in greater dimensions; mastoids and audital bullae

relatively smaller and much less inflated, the mastoids less rounded and pro-

duced posteriorly beyond plane of occiput; interorbital region actually as

well as relatively broader.

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 143 mm.; tail vertebrae, 80; hind

foot, 21. Average of three adults from Little Meadows (west of Kingman,

Arizona): 154 (151-156); 86 (80-90); 21.5 (21-22). Skull (type): Occipi-

tonasal length, 22; greatest breadth (across audital bullae at meatus), 12.8;

zygomatic breadth (posteriorly), 11.7; interorbital breadth, 5.4; length of

nasals, 8.5; width of nasals (in front of incisors), 2.2; interparietal, 2.8 x 3.9;

maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 3.5.

Remarks.—Perognathus amplus pergracilis combines the pale buffy ground

color of P. a. rotundus with the more obscured head and dorsum of P. a.

amplus, due to overlying dusky hairs, and it differs notably from both in

slenderer proportions. |

Specimens examined.—Total number, 16, all from Arizona as follows:

Beal Spring (2 miles from Kingman), 3; Big Sandy Creek, 1; Hackberry (type

locality), 5; Little Meadows (west of Kingman), 3; Peach Springs, Hualpai

Indian Reservation, 3; Signal, 1.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The honorary degree of doctor of science was conferred on Dr. D. J. Mc-

ApaM, JR., of the Bureau of Standards at the commencement exercises of

Washington and Jefferson College on June 4, 1932.

Obituary

Dr. Louis W. Austin, international authority on radio transmission, and

member of the staff of the Bureau of Standards, died in Washington on June

27 at the age of 64.

Dr. AusTIN received the degree of doctor of philosophy at the University

of Strasburg (Germany) in 1893. He served as professor of physics at the

University of Wisconsin and at the Reichsanstalt in Berlin. In 1904 he

came to the Bureau of Standards and began researches in wireless teleg-

raphy. From 1908 to 1923 he served as head of the Naval Research Lab-

oratory, returning to the Bureau of Standards in 1923.

Dr. AUSTIN was a member of the American Physical Society, Washington

Academy of Sciences, Philosophical Society of Washington, American Institute

of Radio Engineers and other scientific organizations. He received the medal

of the American Institute of Radio Engineers in 1927.

Dr. Austin’s researches on radio transmission received wide recognition

and he had only recently been elected to the presidency of the International

Scientific Radio Union.

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Geology. —Stratigraphy and ctraukiee of 4

KEITH

Boteliy.—<Mew Obiitval Adnentean Abeameas RS

‘>i? oF tah ig dp

Bua 555 (55, 55. cary ndragty gop ok ge ey eae

Zoology.—Two new pocket mice from Arizona. ‘EAL Go: DM.

- Sommwmtrre Nores AND NEWS......-cccceceesceesesserscentees

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OBITUARY: L. W. RUB PIW Soi 05. Vive alhe oegtrs Cenphe ean

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 22 Aucust 19, 1932 No. 14

GEOLOGY .—Geothermal gradient of the Mother Lode belt, California.

ADOLPH Knopr, Yale University.

In a paper recently published in this JourNnaL,? W. D. Johnston,

Jr., maintains on the basis of a recalculation by H. C. Spicer, made

according to the method of least squares from the primary data pre-

sented in my report on the Mother Lode system,? that the geothermal

gradient at the Mother Lode is 192.3 feet per degree Fahrenheit in-

stead of 150 feet per degree Fahrenheit as originally given. Unfor-

tunately, however, during the recalculation, two fundamental errors

were made which completely vitiate the final result. In the first

place temperature observations from two mines (the Plymouth and

the Kennedy) situated 10 miles apart were used to compute a gradient,

but this procedure is not permissible, as the gradients at the two mines

are most likely to be different. In the second place it was assumed

that the collars of the shafts of the two mines are at the same altitude.

The collar of the Kennedy shaft is approximately 1430 feet above sea

level, whereas that of the Plymouth is about 1100 feet. This fact

makes the vertical range between the 1600-foot level in the Plymouth

mine and the 4200-foot level in the Kennedy differ by 330 feet from

what Johnston and Spicer thought it to be.

Johnston says that “‘Knopf’s values for the Central Eureka and the

Kennedy mines apparently are based on an assumed value of the mean

annual temperature y of the air.”’ The mean annual temperature,

however, was not assumed, but as stated in Prof. Paper 157, the mean

annual temperature at the collar of the Kennedy mine (58.5°) was

taken from a 10-year series of daily readings at a Weather Bureau

1 Received June 1, 1932.

7W. D. Jounston, JR. Geothermal gradient at Grass Valley, California. This

JOURNAL 22: 267-271. 1932.

3 ApoLtPH Knorr. Mother Lode System of California. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper

157: 22-23. 1929. | :

389

AUG 19 1939

390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

station maintained at the mine. ‘To be able thus to have an accu-

rately determined mean annual temperature at the collar of the shaft

and a temperature determination 4200 feet vertically below is indeed

a fortunate combination, and for this reason the geothermal gradient

of 153 feet per degree Fahrenheit at the Kennedy mine is held to be

entitled to much confidence.

The mean annual temperature at the collar of the Central Eureka

shaft, which is 1610 feet above sea level, was estimated to be approxi-

mately 58° Fahrenheit, by applying a correction of 0.5° on account of

the 180 feet difference in elevation between the Central Eureka and

Kennedy mines. By using this figure a gradient of 160 feet per degree

Fahrenheit was found to obtain at the Central Eureka mine. At the

Plymouth mine no surface temperature records were available, and the

gradient of 145 feet was computed from underground data.

There are therefore three determinations of geothermal gradients

along the 10-mile segment of the Mother Lode in Amador County,

ranging from 145 feet to 160 feet per degree Fahrenheit. In no one

- of the three sets of determinations are there sufficient data to allow

least-square adjustments, and 150 feet per degree Fahrenheit will

serve aS a round number for the geothermal gradient at the Mother

Lode in Amador County.

Johnston has not explained the marked discrepancy between his

value of the geothermal gradient at Grass Valley—190 feet—and that

earlier determined by Lindgren—122 feet. It would appear worth

while for him to show that his data represent a homogeneous set of

data, the only kind suitable for least-square computations. In my

opinion data obtained from levels in different mines, in rocks of differ-

ing conductivities (granodiorite, diabase, and others), in rocks tra-

versed by veins, faults, ‘‘crossings’’ and in places containing standing

water, are very heterogeneous, and mathematical manipulation of such

heterogeneous data is likely to obscure information of geologic

significance.

GEOLOGY.—Geothermal gradient of the Mother Lode belt, California:

A reply... W. D. Jounston, JR., U. 8. Geological Survey. (Com-

municated by W. H. BraDLEy).

In the preceding paper Knopf offers the following objections to the

conclusions contained in a recent paper? of mine:

1 Received June 15, 1932. Published by permission of the Director, U. 8. Geological

Survey.

2W.D. Jounston Jr. Geothermal gradient at Grass Valley, California. This Jour-

NAL 22; 267-271. 19382.

AauGcustT 19, 19382 JOHNSTON: GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT agl

1. ‘‘*** temperature observations from two mines (the Plymouth

and the Kennedy) situated 10 miles apart were used to compute a

gradient, but this procedure is not permissable, as the gradients at the

two mines are most likely to be different.”

2. ‘““*** it was assumed that the collars of the shafts of the two mines

are at the same altitude *** (whereas they) differ by 330 feet.***”’

3. “The mean annual temperature, however, was not assumed, but

*** was taken from a 10-year series of daily readings at a Weather

Bureau station maintained at the mine.”

4. “Johnston has not explained the marked discrepancy between his

value of the geothermal gradient at Grass Valley—190 feet—and that

earlier determined by Lindgren—122 feet.’’

5. “It would appear worth while for him to show that his data repre-

sent a homogeneous set of data, the only kind suitable for least square

computations.”’ ,

These objections will be discussed in the following order—2, 3, 1,

4, and 5. The first three refer to Knopf’s data for the Mother Lode

and the last two to my Grass Valley data.

2. The assumption that the collars of the shafts of the two mines

are at the same level was erroneous. From the corrected elevations

H. C. Spicer has computed the reciprocal gradient to be 160.5 feet per

degree Fahrenheit, as shown in column A of Table 1. This is nearer

Knopf’s value of 150 feet per degree than my previous erroneous value

of 192.3 feet per degree. As the exact elevations of the collars of the

Plymouth and Kennedy shafts are not available, Mr. Spicer has also

computed geothermal constants based upon the maximum error in

the assumed collar elevations of these mines. These values are given

in columns B and C of Table 1. |

3. The observed mean annual temperature of the air is not the mean

annual temperature of the rock surface. Numerous observers have

found that the air temperature just above the ground surface is from

1 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit lower than the temperature just beneath

the ground surface.*4 As shown in Figure 1 in my previous paper, the

observed mean annual temperature at Grass Valley, a record based

upon daily readings during 22 years, is 7 degrees higher than the com-

puted subsurface temperature. Altitude, topographic situation, pre-

3 J. A. McCutcuin. Determination of geothermal gradients in oil fields located on

anticlinal structures in Oklahoma. Bull. Amer. Petroleum Inst. 205: figs. 3-9, pp. 58-

61. 1930.

4A. J. Cartson. Geothermal conditions in oil-producing areas of California. Bull.

Amer. Petroleum Inst. 205: figs. 9-84, pp. 121-139. 1930.

392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

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AuGusT 19,1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 393

vailing wind direction, and numerous other factors’ are responsible

for discrepancies of this kind. When the mean annual temperature of

the air is used in the computation of a geothermal gradient that value

is necessarily an ‘‘assumed value,”’ y.

1. An error is probably introduced by the use of temperature data

from mines 10 miles apart but it is believed to be of lesser magnitude

than the error introduced by the use of the mean annual temperature

of the air as the assumed value y.

4. Lindgren’s* value of 122 feet per degree for the geothermal gradi-

ent at Grass Valley is based upon three sets of temperature readings in

the Idaho-Maryland Mine,—one in the drain tunnel; a second on

level 15, 1,523 feet vertically below the drain tunnel; and a third in a

stope 40 feet above level 16.

My values are based upon 22 sets of readings uniformly distributed

through a vertical range of 3,600 feet. As all the temperature read-

ings lie on a smooth curve with a maximum difference between the

observed and computed values of only +0.8 degrees and a probable

error of +0.26 degrees, the more recent work seems to me to be the

more acceptable.

5. Knopf’s last point questioning the homogeneity of the Grass

Valley data is answered by the distribution of the temperature read-

ings in Figure 1 of my earlier paper. Any marked difference between

the conductivity of diabase and granodiorite or the presence of deep

artesian circulation along the veins or ‘‘crossings’’ would be shown by

an undulation in the depth-temperature curve.

In conclusion it appears that a little more weight should be given to

the value of the Mother Lode geothermal gradient of 160 with a pos-

sible range of +5 feet per degree as computed by the method of least

squares from all of the underground data available than to Knopf’s

value of 150 feet per degree.

5H. M. Firron and C. F. Brooxs. Soil temperatures in the United States. Mo.

Weather Rev. 59: 6-16. 1981.

6 WALDEMAR LINDGREN. Gold-quartz veins of Nevada City and Grass Valley districts,

California. U.S. Geol. Survey, Ann. Rept. 17: Pt. 2, 170-171. 1896.

GEOLOGY —Stratigraphy and structure of Northwestern Vermont.—

II! Artuur Keiru, U. 8. Geological Survey.

EASTERN SEQUENCE

The rocks of this sequence are well seen a few miles north of Middle-

bury and near Brandon, and they can also be followed southward

1 Received June 6, 1982. Published with the permission of the Director, U. S. Geo-

logical Survey. Concluded from Vol. 22, No. 13, p. 357, this JouRNAUL.

394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

from Rutland to Massachusetts. One formation of the Archean and

three formations of the Algonkian are present in this sequence; these

are the granite and granitoid rocks of the Archean, and the graywacke,

marble, and phyllite of the Algonkian. They are confined to the

frontal ranges and hills of the Green Mountains and are seen in most

sections into the Mountains. There is an unconformity between these

formations and the Cheshire quartzite of the Lower Cambrian, so that

in many places the Moosalamoo phyllite is removed and the marble

forms the top of the Algonkian. As the unconformity is followed

northward the phyllite becomes much thicker, but southward the

phyllite, marble, and graywacke all disappear and the Lower Cam-

brian rests directly upon the Archean granite. This unconformity

accordingly is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, in the region.

Nickwaket graywacke—This formation extends in the Green Moun-

tains from the Canadian border for a considerable distance south of

the latitude of Rutland. It invariably forms high ground and moun-

tains, one of which, Nickwaket Mountain, a few miles southeast of

Brandon, gives the formation its name. The formation consists en-

tirely of schistose rocks with a large percentage of graywacke and

feldspathic quartzite. The schists and schistose coarser beds are com-

posed of variable amounts of quartz, muscovite, biotite, and chlorite

with local developments of magnetite. The graywacke beds at the

top of the formation are coarse and in many places conglomeratic,

while at its base there are important conglomerates. ‘These conglomer-

ates have lenticular forms, being not everywhere present, and they

consist of pebbles and boulders of the older rocks, largely quartz, granite

and gneiss. Rarely these boulders are as much as two feet in diameter.

The best development of this conglomerate, a few miles southeast of

Middlebury in the town of Ripton, was described by Dale. ‘The upper

graywacke beds are seen in contact with the overlying marble at

Forestdale.

Forestdale marble——There is a sharp change from the graywacke to

this marble, the latter being mainly calciferous, while the graywacke

contains no calcite. The marble is massive and greatly metamor-

phosed in most localities, with growth of many silicate minerals. It

has colors ranging from white to light gray, buff, and cream mottled,

and weathers usually with a marked reddish-brown surface. ‘There

are considerable differences in the thickness of the marble with a mini-

mum of perhaps 200 feet in the district northeast of Brandon. South-

ward the marble thickens until it is two or three times as thick south-

east of Brandon, and then thins again to the east of Rutland.

AuGustT 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 395

Northward it is fairly continuous to the Canadian border. At Forest-

dale, five miles northeast of Brandon, there is an excellent section

from the upper graywacke conglomerate of the Nickwaket to the basal

conglomerate of the Cambrian.

Usually the marble makes low ground, as is conspicuously the case

in the valley northward from Forestdale and through Silver Lake.

Just below the outlet of Silver Lake there is a very fine section showing

the details of the unconformity between the marble and the basal

conglomerate of the Cambrian. At this point the Lower Cambrian

Cheshire quartzite makes the beautiful Llana Falls.

Moosalamoo phyllite—The phyllite, a fine-grained black rock, con-

sists mainly of quartz and muscovite with a little biotite and dissemi-

nated iron ore. The formation does not change within the region

being described except in thickness, as already stated. It ranges from

nothing at Llana Falls to a probable thickness of 500 feet upon the

south and east slopes of Moosalamoo Mountain, only a mile to the

north. It is pinched out in the general latitude of Middlebury but

goes still farther to the north.

Cheshire quartzite—This formation is continuous from Cheshire in

northwestern Massachusetts to Canada, except for short stretches

of a few miles each where it is cut out by faults. Locally it forms the

steep, high front of the Green Mountains and numerous ledges make

clear its presence. Huge cliffs are formed by the quartzite at many

places, as in Wallingford, 9 miles south of Rutland, or the quartzite

may make the entire face of the mountain in a dip slope, as in Hogback

Mountain, northeast of Middlebury. This mountain has an anti-

clinal structure and the quartzite pitches northward under the younger

dolomites so that the mountain ends abruptly. The lower part of

the formation and the underlying Algonkian formations are shown at

Forestdale, 3 miles northeast of Brandon.

By far the greater part of the formation consists of massive, white,

vitreous quartzite; this is particularly so in the upper beds. In the

middle of the formation thin layers of black slate are interbedded with

the quartzite but are not sufficiently well defined to be a regular sub-

division of the formation. The chief departure in the lithology of

the formation is the basal conglomerate. ‘This is present practically

everywhere and occasionally forms a coarse, massive deposit. The

conglomerate of this sort consists largely of pebbles of quartz, quartzite,

and granite with some additions of marble and slate from the under-

lying formations. Coarse conglomerate of this nature is found 3 miles

southeast of Brandon and resembles strongly the conglomerate at the

396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

base of the Nickwaket graywacke. Doubtless the two were largely

derived from the same source. The formation varies considerably in

thickness and has a probable maximum of about 800 feet in Wallingford.

Rutland dolomite-—This formation consists almost wholly of dolo-

mite. Its color is usually light or dark gray and it has a fine or medium

grain. Most of it is thick bedded though there are a few slabby

layers. In the district about 10 miles northeast of Middlebury, in

the towns of Bristol and Monkton, the bottom of the formation con-

sists of a mottled light buff or pink dolomite marble which rests directly

upon the massive quartzite of the Cheshire. South of that tract the

marble beds disappear and the gray dolomite comes down to the

Cheshire. In many places there is a transition from the Cheshire

quartzite into the dolomite through sandstone and sandy dolomite.

This is particularly clear on the south slope of Blueberry Hill, 3 miles

north of Rutland, where the syncline of Rutland Valley rises to the

north. In the middle of the formation is found a thin horizon of light

colored limestones. ‘These appear just north of Rutland but cannot

- be traced far. Near the top of the formation there is a thick bed of

dolomitic sandstone which makes prominent outcrops near Rutland.

Below this there are 100 feet or more of dark blue, dolomitic limestone.

Fossils were found in this formation in the Rutland Valley by Wolff

and Foerste which showed it to be of Lower Cambrian age. A few

fossils were found by Walcott in the topmost beds of the Cheshire

quartzite, also of Lower Cambrian age.

The strata of this formation, like those of the preceding Cheshire,

are very massive and compact and have acted as a unit to minimize

the folding; thus the syncline of Rutland Valley is one of the few open

synclines in the region. Its western limb is found in Pine Mountain

and its eastern limb, which is locally faulted off, appears along the

front of the Green Mountains. The strata in the middle of the fold

are nearly horizontal. This open fold was thrust westward against

the highly deformed beds of the upper part of the sequence.

Danby formation—This formation is a departure from the usual

carbonate deposits of the Valley. There is a great variety in the beds

of this formation, but they are separated from the other formations

chiefly by the amount of sandstone and quartzite and by their vari-

colored dolomites. ‘The quartzite beds are composed of clean white

sand in separate layers a foot or two thick, interbedded with massive

dolomites, like those of the Rutland, and with transitional strata, like

sandy dolomites and sandstone. In the usual section the quartzite

beds stand out like white reefs above the other layers. Some peculiar

AuGusT 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 397

dolomites also are found with a range of colors, including pink, buff,

and green. ‘These are very fine-grained and tough and together with

the quartzites form ridges. Associated with these beds are thin seams

and layers of greenish slate.

The beds of this formation are considerably folded, as would be

expected from their variable and thin-bedded character. They usually

dip at high angles and exhibit a great variety of small and large folds.

This folding makes it difficult to estimate the thickness, but the forma-

tion is probably in the vicinity of 300 feet thick.

Wallingford dolomite—The boundary between the Wallingford

and Danby formations is not sharp and is marked mainly by the close

of the strong quartzite sedimentation, the variable colors of the dolo-

mite, and the slate beds. It is well exposed in the township of Wal-

lingford, its type locality. The Wallingford dolomite consists mainly

of light and dark gray dolomites like those of the Rutland dolomite.

With these are interstratified thin beds of dolomitic or quartzitic sand-

stone of a light gray color. ‘The formation has no other peculiarities

and is of about the same thickness as the Danby.

Clarendon Springs dolomite—This formation consists wholly of fine-

grained dolomite of a light gray or dove color, and its type locality is

Clarendon Springs, Vt. It differs from the Wallingford dolomite

mainly by the absence of sandstone or quartzite. The formation

grades upward into Shelburne marble without interbedding or other

notable features, and is from 100 to 200 feet thick.

Shelburne marble-—This marble in the Eastern sequence is almost

wholly composed of calcite marble, as it is in the Central sequence.

The grain of the rock is medium in both sequences, but the color is

more variable in the eastern sequence. White with blue mottling

and banding are the common colors in the eastern sequence, and in

some quarries there are found green bands in the white marble. These

features bring out the close folding and flowage patterns in the marble

and add to its value as ornamental stone. The quarries are found at

short intervals through the entire extent of the formation in the

eastern sequence, but they are mainly concentrated around a few cen-

ters, such as Brandon, Proctor, and Dorset, which is in the southern

part of the state. The marble and associated formations are readily

seen in the quarries around Brandon. ‘There is a sharp change, but

no visible unconformity, between the Shelburne and the overlying

Williston limestone. As was noted under the Central sequence, forma-

tions of Middle and Upper Cambrian age are found north of Burlington

in the interval between these two formations.

398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

Williston limestone.—This formation in the Eastern sequence differs

little from its exposures in the Central sequence. Fossils were found

in Brandon which indicated its Upper Cambrian (‘‘Saratogan’’) age,

and very numerous ledges of the formation are to be seen in and

around Brandon. The thickness of the formation appears to vary

considerably in the Eastern sequence. It reaches its maximum thick-

ness in the region around Brandon but thins materially along the

eastern side of the Taconic Range. It is nearly everywhere present, .

however, and its thinning is due to pinching out locally by folding.

It is usually in contact with the overlying Ira slate and the separation

between them is sharp. In some places, for instance 4 miles south of

Brandon, normal sedimentary contacts show a change within a few

inches from deposition of limestone to that of mud.

Ira slate-—This formation is well developed in the town of Ira,

which adjoins West Rutland on the south. The formation consists

entirely of a dark gray or black slate with very little banding or means

of determining bedding, but a few feet of the slate in the lower part

of the formation contains gray, siliceous seams. Secondary quartz

is developed in these beds and they are tightly squeezed and dissected

by folding so that locally the formation resembles a finely banded

gneiss. The sedimentary contact between the slate and underlying

Williston limestone is sharp, as stated under the description of the

limestone. ‘The upper contact of the formation with the West Rutland

marble is equally sharp, with a complete change from muddy sediments

to pure limestone.

At the north end of the main belt of the West Rutland marble the

marble is seen to rest upon the slate in the old True Blue quarry, and

the same situation is seen repeatedly in the northerly areas of the

marble from three to four miles southwest of Brandon. ‘The slate

disappears at the north end of the Taconic Range, but southward it

expands into a belt a mile or two in width. ‘There are no measures of

the thickness of the formation, but it is probable that it is as much as

700 or 800 feet thick.

West Rutland marble-—This formation is best known from its use

as ornamental stone, and West Rutland has long been the principal

center of the marble industry. There is a considerable variation in

the beds of the marble, and different quarries make a specialty of

particular beds. <A long line of quarries, old and new, lies along the

eastern side of the marble belt. Most of these are now worked as

underground mines instead of open-cut quarries. ‘There are also a

few quarries on the western side of the belt. The prevailing colors of

AuGusT 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 399

the marble are white, more or less banded with dark blue, mottled

blue, and light gray. A few beds have a pale green banding, and in

the quarries on the west side of the belt mottled, cream colored marbles

are produced.

In the two northerly areas of the formation between Brandon and

West Rutland the synclines in which the formation lies are shallower

than that at West Rutland and only the lower part of the formation

appears. In these areas the marbles are, in the main, dark blue, and

there is a thin member of blue-banded limestones at the base. ‘This

member also appears in the West Rutland area but it is thinner there

and poorly exposed. These lower limestones contain a brachiopod

fauna and many crinoid stems. The upper marbles, particularly the

bluish or blue-banded ones, have many large maclureas which appear

best on the sawed surface of the stone. These maclureas were the

first fossils found in this region and have always been considered to

be of Chazy age. ‘There are several small areas of this marble along

the east side of the Taconic Range coming in and out against the

Taconic overthrust. These, too, contain fossils and are rather easily

identified.

TACONIC SEQUENCE

The rocks of this sequence are found only in the Taconic Range

and they form a very striking contrast with the beds of the same age

which form the lower ground on the east and west. The sequence

consists almost wholly of slates, but it has also one thin formation of

limestone and one of quartzite. By means of these two formations

in the Lower Cambrian and one of red slate in the Ordovician, the

order and structure of these formations can be disentangled. The lime-

stone (Beebe) contains a good Lower Cambrian fauna, and one of the

slates has Middle Ordovician fossils. Owing to the intense folding

and faulting of this sequence, it has been necessary to follow out indi-

vidual beds wherever they could be recognized. For this purpose the

limestone and quartzite above mentioned were of great service, as

well as a few recognizable beds in the lowest formation—-the Brezee

phyllite. ‘The entire section is exposed south of Stiles Mountain, near

the north end of the Taconic Range.

Brezee phyllite—This formation outcrops around the north and

northwest margins of the Taconic Range and is in contact with the

underlying limestones and marbles at more places than any other

formation. It thus forms the sole along which the Taconic overthrust

block moved in coming to its present position. What normally lies

beneath the Brezee phyllite is not known because of this overthrusting.

400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

The formation consists almost wholly of slate or phyllite of a dark or

bluish-gray color. Much of it is banded with light gray, and its

weathered surfaces are apt to have a brownish or dull greenish-gray

color. Interbedded with the upper part of the phyllite is a thin cal-

careous quartzite, from 5 to 10 feet thick, which can be followed for

considerable distances and is of much help in working out the fault

system. Locally this quartzite passes into a sandy limestone. A

few feet below this quartzite there is a zone of limestone lenses, all of

which are small. The lowest part of the Brezee contains beds of cherty

slate. Most of these are black and they are associated with purple

slate of the kind that is so characteristic of the Lower Cambrian in

the Taconic Range. ‘These cherty beds resemble some of the Ordovician

formations found farther to the southwest, but it is more likely that

they represent a facies of the Cambrian. It is very difficult to make an

estimate of thickness of this formation, but doubtless it exceeds 500 feet.

The formation is named from Brezee Mill Creek, which flows out of

the northeast end of the range.

Stiles phyllite—This formation is rather sharply distinct from the

Brezee phyllite. It is much more uniform in composition than the

Brezee and its principal variations are those due to metamorphism.

The formation consists almost wholly of slate or phyllite, with fairly

numerous thin beds of quartzite. ‘The whole formation, including the

quartzite beds, has a rather plain greenish aspect due to secondary

chlorite. This color is modified on weathered surfaces so as to be-

come a greenish-gray or whitish-gray. Much quartz in thin lenses

and veins appears in this formation, especially in its eastern areas,

where it is most metamorphosed.

The formation occupies a broad band along the east side of the

Taconic Range and curving westward and southwestward around

the end of the Range. Along the east side metamorphism has pro-

ceeded locally to the extent that the rock is a schist composed mainly

of quartz, sericite, and chlorite. The metamorphism is less in going

northward and westward around the end of the range, so that at Stiles

Mountain the phyllite presents a good average of the condition of the

formation. Westward from Stiles Mountain metamorphism is less

and the formation may well be called a slate.

The thickness of this formation, like that of the Brezee, is wholly

a matter of estimate. Each outcrop is full of minor folds and large

folds and faults are noticed. It appears to be perhaps 400 or 500

feet thick at the north, but along the east side of the range it might

AuGusT 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 401

be double that thickness, for it forms important mountains and a belt

of outcrop several miles wide.

Hubbardton slate—There is no very sharp division between this

slate and the Stiles phyllite, but the latter rather gradually merges

up into the slate. The boundary is placed where the small quartzite

layers end, which is also the horizon where the special colors of the

Stiles end. The Hubbardton slate consists mainly of green slate with

a variable amount of the purple slate. In some localities—notably

in the western part of the Range—the purple is more common than

the green in the upper part of the formation. ‘These beds are very

similar to those of the Bull slate which form the chief color horizon

for the purple slates. The Hubbardton slate is named from its oc-

currence in the village of Hubbardton in the north part of the Taconic

Range. It is probably about 300 feet thick, but this, too is only an

estimate.

Barker quartzite—This is one of the key rocks of the Taconic se-

quence, both because it is readily identifiable and because it makes

sharp hills and ridges which plainly mark its position. The quartzite

has a generally light or white color on weathered surfaces, but usually

is more or less green when freshly broken. It varies also in coarseness

from a dense rock with very fine grains of quartz to a coarse quartzite

and locally a fine conglomerate. The coarser facies contain pebbles of

various slates, quartzites, and a little limestone, probably derived from

the older Cambrian formations. Possibly it is the same as the coarse

quartzite and conglomerate of Bird Mountain a few miles east of

Castleton. Barker Hill, for which the quartzite is named, is about

4 miles east of north from Castleton. The quartzite there and in the

nearby Wallace Ledge is approximately 100 feet thick. Also it is

about as thick in Ganson Hill, just north of the village of Hubbardton.

In some places the quartzite thins down until it is barely recognizable.

Bull slate -—This is a comparatively thin formation between the

underlying quartzite and the overlying Beebe limestone. ‘The slate

is usually of a purplish color more or less mixed with green. The

three formations make a distinctive sequence which has helped much

in unravelling the structure of the Taconic Range. The Bull slate is

named for the quarry on Bull Hill, 2 miles north of Castleton. It

is the principal horizon which is worked for the purple and unfading

green slates of the slate industry. The principal development of this

industry is in the region of Fairhaven, Vermont, and Granville, New

York, a few miles to the southwest of Castleton. The slate has a

fine, even grain and smooth texture and the banding is so faint that

402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

as a rule it does not affect the smoothness of the cleavage. There are

only a few sandstone layers in the formation and occasionally a small

bed of limestone appears in the upper part of the slate. No fossils are

known from this formation, but its age is fixed by the fossiliferous

limestone immediately overlying it.

Beebe limestone—This limestone, which is only from 5 to 20 feet

thick, would in most other regions be called a member of the slate

formation; here, however, it is such an exceptional change from the

usual character of the sediments and it is so fossiliferous that it is the

most important formation of the entire Taconic sequence. It is

named for its exposures near Beebe Pond, in Hubbardton, Vt. If

drawn according to scale on the map, it would appear only as a line,

but it is everywhere present at the proper horizon so far as known.

The detailed sequence of formations already mentioned should include

also the Hooker slate above the Beebe as being of equal importance.

The fossils in this limestone were first found by Walcott in his study

of the Taconic System of Emmons, and many collections have been

made by later geologists. Although the formation is small, it commonly

makes an impress upon the topography either as a line of low knolls

or a shelf along the sides of hills made by other formations.

Hooker slate—This formation is a notably black slate with less

cleavage than is usual in this region. So far as is known, no fossils

have yet been found in this formation. It appears, however, to be

more closely associated with the Lower Cambrian formation than with

the Ordovician ones which follow it. It is named from Hooker Hill,

2 miles north of Castleton. ‘The formation in the Taconic Range is

only in contact with the Ordovician Poultney slate in one locality, 6

miles southwest of Brandon, where a shallow syncline contains a little

of the Ordovician formation. Southwest of the detailed area, however,

and in the commercial slate belt around Fairhaven and Granville the

contacts with the Hooker and the Ordovician slates are numerous.

They are distinctly outlined by the numerous quarries in the Lower

Cambrian Bull slate and a similar set of quarries in the Ordovician red

slate. These formations run parallel for miles and the contact shows no

signs whatever of variation. This is all the more remarkable because

at the horizon between the Hooker and the Ordovician slates there is

found in northern Vermont a thick section of Middle and Upper Cam-

brian formations, to say nothing of the Lower Ordovician formations

which outcrop within a few miles to the west or north. Thus a signifi-

cant break in the section appears here with no physical evidence to

indicate it. The formations on both sides are all thin, and even a

auGcustT 19, 19382 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 403

moderate amount of variation of the plane of hiatus would remove

one or more formations.

Poultney slate—This and the overlying Indian River slate are of

Lower Ordovician age as indicated by the graptolites. Graptolites

were first found by Walcott in his early work on the Cambrian, and

have since been found by many geologists. The Poultney slate, the

lowest Ordovician formation, is named for its good exposures in the

town of Poultney at the boundary of New York 7 miles southwest of

Castleton. ‘The formation consists mainly of gray slate which be-

comes lighter or even white on exposure. ‘The most prominent feature

of the formation is white or light gray chert which appears in very

thin seams or in massive beds a foot or so thick. The formation resists

erosion and it outcrops abundantly, making hills of considerable

height. ‘The normal succession of these beds following the Cambrian

is well shown in a shallow syncline in New York just west of Poultney.

Around the sides and end of this syncline can be traced the thin forma-

tions of the Lower Cambrian and Ordovician with perfect regularity.

The fold pitches toward the south so that the youngest formations

come in finally in that direction. The succession is almost equally

clear for the small area of the formation already noted in the north

end of the Range.

Indian River slate—This is a formation which furnishes the well

known red slate of the New York slate industry. It consists mainly

of bright red slate with a few thin seams or layers of fine green quart-

zite; the latter occur only locally. The slate owes its bright red color

to the iron oxide which it contains. It is of such a brilliant red that

it is quarried a mile southwest of Poultney for use in making red paint.

The dust derived from grinding the slate settles in the district sur-

rounding the mill and gives a lurid color to the landscape. The name

for the formation is taken from Indian River, a few miles south of

Granville, New York, where several red slate quarries are located on

the banks of the stream. It overlies conformably the Poultney slate,

and is also conformable beneath an unnamed black slate.

Black slate—The formation which overlies the Indian River slate

has not yet received a name. It consists almost entirely of black

or dark slate and thus contrasts strongly with the two preceding forma-

tions. These three Ordovician formations make a sequence which

is as distinctive as the underlying Lower Cambrian sequence. ‘The

whole section—Lower Cambrian and Ordovician—is repeated over

and over again in the Granville region. The principal feature which

distinguishes this slate is the presence therein of numerous grapto-

lites. These and the graptolites in the Poultney slate are assigned by

404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

Ruedemann to the Normanskill horizon of the Albany, New York

region.

GREEN MOUNTAIN SEQUENCE

General features—The rocks of this sequence do not enter the

quadrangles herein discussed and in which detailed work has been

done. They lie to the east of the main crest of the Green Mountains

in the eastern part of the Rutland quadrangle and are there exposed

in long, narrow belts closely paralleling the western front of the Green

Mountains. They are even more metamorphosed than rocks of the

same age and character which appear in the Taconic Range. It is

for comparison with the latter rocks that the Green Mountain forma-

tions are described. This is essential to an understanding of the

Taconic overthrust in this region. The rocks of the Taconic Range,

as already stated, are thrust from the east across the rocks of the east

half of the Champlain Valley and into their present position. The

sole of the overthrust passes upward into the air along the east side

of the Taconic Range and does not come down again until far to the

east in the middle of the Green Mountains. There, rocks of the same

sort as those of the Taconic Range are found resting on the Plymouth

marble, which is correlated with the Rutland dolomite of the Eastern

sequence. ‘The Plymouth marble rests upon the Cheshire quartzite

and the latter upon the Algonkian formations of the Eastern sequence.

These Algonkian and Lower Cambrian beds are repeated in parallel

synclines which bridge across the anticlinorium of the Green Moun-

tains in the northern part of the Rutland quadrangle. Southward

from West Bridgewater, which is in the latitude of Rutland and about

18 miles to the east, the Plymouth marble forms a deep, narrow

valley with a general southerly trend, bordered on the west by the

Cheshire quartzite and on the east by the overlying Lower Cambrian

schists. ‘These are terminated a few miles east of West Bridgewater

by a fault which extends far to the north and south. South of Ludlow,

Vt. the Lower Cambrian formations are cut out along this fault, but

they reappear still farther south and form the Stamford Valley for a

few miles north of North Adams, Mass. The great fault there passes

under the foot of Hoosac Mountain and thence far to the south in

Massachusetts. This fault is the root of the Taconic overthrust as

now delineated in the Taconic Range, and the two parts of it are barely

one mile apart in Mt. Greylock and Hoosac Mountain. This part

of the fault has recently been determined and mapped by Prindle in

Massachusetts and for some distance north of Bennington, Vermont,

while the northern part of the fault in the Taconic Range was first

AuGcusT 19, 1932 KEITH: STRATIGRAPHY OF VERMONT 405

proved and announced by the present writer in 1912. ‘Theentire length

of the fault in Vermont and Massachusetts has been examined by the

writer. The following brief description of the rocks of the Green Moun-

tain sequence will serve to show their parallelism with those of the

Taconic Range.

Pre-Cambrian rocks——Formations of this age continue eastward

from the Champlain Valley across the Green Mountains and differ

little from place to place. In the latitude of Rutland the uppermost

Algonkian formation—Moosalamoo phyllite—is not present, but

farther north it comes in beneath the basal unconformity of the

Cambrian. ‘The description of the Algonkian formations of this sec-

tion is practically the same as for the Eastern sequence.

Cheshire quartzite—This Lower Cambrian formation consists mainly

of quartzite, but it is thinner and more thinly bedded than the same

quartzite of the Eastern sequence. The basal conglomerate of the

formation is well shown, particularly in Sherburne, 12 miles north-

east of Rutland, and there is the same central division of thin beds,

now schists, parting the quartzites. A similar thinning and a similar

subdivision may be seen in Stamford Mountain along the Massachu-

setts border.

Plymouth marble-——Exposures of this formation are few, as it is

easily soluble and underlies the deep valley which bisects the Green

Mountains in this region. The formation is composed chiefly of

dolomitic marble which is grey or darkly mottled. In the town of

Plymouth limestone conglomerates appear in the formation, some of

which have been used for ornamental stone known commercially as

“Plymouth breccia.’”’ The marble is much folded and in places

probably faulted so that its true thickness is unknown. This forma-

tion is much thinner than the Rutland dolomite of the Eastern sequence

with which it is correlated.

Albite schist—Overlying the marble is a fairly thick body of dark

schist or phyllite. Most of this consists of sericite and quartz sprinkled

with iron oxide dust, but in many places it is speckled with secondary

crystals of albite. Locally these predominate and give a pepper and

salt appearance to the rock. ‘There appears to be repetition of these

schists with the marble, but it seems more probable that this is due to

folding or faulting than to original deposition.

Pinney Hollow schist of Perry—This formation was recently de-

scribed by Perry as overlying the albite schist. Theexposures in Pinney

Hollow in the town of Plymouth appear to be traversed by faults so

that the section there is not certain. In West Bridgewater, a few

miles to the north, an excellent section of the formation is exposed

406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

which might well have been taken as the type locality. The formation

is uniform throughout and consists almost entirely of chloritic, musco-

vite schist. This has a pale greenish color when fresh and on the

weathered outcrops becomes greenish or whitish-grey with many

rusty colored beds. Thin quartzite layers are found in the schist in

many places and there is much secondary quartz in the lenses and veins.

This formation is the precise duplicate of the Stiles phyllite of the

Taconic sequence and like the latter forms high ground or mountains.

Quartzite—Overlying the Pinney Hollow schist is a thin formation

of quartzite of a dark bluish color but which weathers light gray

or white on exposure. No name has been given to this formation for

it has not been worked out in detail.

Ottauquechee phyllite of Perry.a—This formation of Perry’s marks an

abrupt change from the preceding quartzite and green schist. It

consists almost wholly of dark colored or black phyllite in which bedding

is rarely seen. The formation is probably rather thick and similar

in bulk to the Pinney Hollow schist of Perry. It appears to be

terminated at the top by a fault, so that the nature of the formations

immediately following is not evident here. Not far to the east—in the

central part of the State—other Cambrian formations are reported,

and above them several formations of phyllite and limestone in which

Ordovician fossils have been found. ‘Thus far, detailed work has not

progressed so far that the relations of these groups can be stated.

GEOLOGY.—Notes on the Puerco and Torrejon formations, San Juan

Basin, New Mexico.: C. H. Dang, U. 8. Geological Survey.

During the summer of 1928 the writer was engaged in mapping

for the U. 8. Geological Survey the coal beds of the Upper Cretaceous

Fruitland and Mesaverde formations in the southern part of the San

Juan Basin, New Mexico. Plane table mapping was carried only to

the top of the Ojo Alamo sandstone (which is in the opinion of the

writer the uppermost Cretaceous formation of the region), but a

reconnaissance map was made of the area to the north, where the over-

lying Puerco and Torrejon formations of Eocene age are exposed. ‘The

base of the still higher Wasatch formation was also sketched. (Figure

1.) Although the field study was thus limited, it seems worthwhile to

correct some errors in the literature on the stratigraphy of the Puerco

and Torrejon formations and point out that the Puerco formation

may be present along the Rio Puerco, although the distinctive verte-

1 Received May 31, 1932. Published by permission of the Director of the U. 8.

Geological Survey.

AuGUST 19, 1932 DANE: PUERCO AND TORREJON FORMATIONS 407

brate fauna by which alone it is recognized has not yet been found

there.

The history of the names Puerco and Torrejon has been traced in

detail by Gardner? and Bauer? and summarized by Reeside.4 The

name Puerco was applied by Cope® to the series of beds on the Rio

Puerco which are now supposed to include both the Puerco and the

overlying Torrejon formations. Although he collected no fossils from

these beds at the type locality, numerous vertebrate fossils were sub-

sequently collected for him in the region west of the Puerco River

Explanation

R.9 W. Wasatch formation

Puerco. and Torrejon

formations

Ojo Alamo sandstone

Cretaceous rocks below

Ul the Ojo Alamo paces

Fig. 1.—Geologic map showing distribution of Ojo Alamo sandstone and Puerco and

Torrejon fomations between Escavada Wash and Rio Puerco, New Mexico.

from what he believed to be the equivalent of his Puerco beds. He de-

scribed these fossils as the Puerco fauna. Wortman® later recognized

two distinct vertebrate faunas in collections made near Arroyo Torre-

jon and farther west. For the beds yielding the younger fossils he

2J. H. Garpner. The Puerco and Torrejon formations of the Nacimiento group.

Jour. Geology. 18: 702-812. 1910.

$C. M. Bauer. Stratigraphy of a part of the Chaco River Valley. U.S. Geol. Sur-

vey Prof. Paper 98: 276-277. 1916.

4J. B. Reesipe, Jr. Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of the western part

of the San Juan Basin. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 134: 35. 1924.

5H}. D. Corr. Report on the geology of that part of northwestern New Mexico examined

during the field season of 1874. Chief Eng. Ann. Rept. for 1875, pt. 2, appendix G 1.

1008-1017. 1875.

6 Cited by H. F. OsBorN and CuHarues Earue. Fossil Mammals of the Puerco beds,

collection of 1892. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 7: 2. 1895.

408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

proposed the name Torrejon,’ from exposures near the head of Arroyo

Torrejon, and retained the name Puerco for the lower beds. His

definitions have been since generally accepted. Gardner® used the

term Nacimiento group (from the town of that name on the Puerco

River, now known as Cuba) to include the two formations. This name

has not been widely used.

The Puerco and Torrejon formations are so similar in lithology that

no separation between them has been made on this basis, although the

faunas are so different that vertebrate paleontologists believe that

they are separated by an important hiatus. The stratigraphic po-

sition of the hiatus has not been discovered. ‘The vertebrate remains

are found in thin fossiliferous horizons separated by much greater

thicknesses of barren beds. As defined by its fauna the Puerco forma-

tion is now known only for a distance of 35 miles along its outcrop

from the head of the West Fork of Gallego Arroyo southeastward to

Escavada Wash. Since it is defined only by its fauna and no fossils

have yet been found east of Escavada Wash, it is uncertain whether

it is really present east of that locality. Reeside® preferred as a

working hypothesis to consider that the Puerco formation is restricted

practically to its present known area of outcrop and was overlapped

elsewhere by the Torrejon formation. He based this suggestion on the

demonstrated overlap of upper Torrejon over lower Torrejon north of

San Juan River, from which the inference was logically drawn that the

overlap might be progressive and the lower Torrejon have overlapped

the Puerco beds to the north. If the disappearance of the Puerco

fauna to the north were to be explained thus, it seemed likely to Ree-

side that a similar overlap might explain the non-discovery of the

Puerco fauna east of its known extent. Some support for this sugges-

tion existed in the supposed thinness of the barren zone beneath Torre-

jon fossils on Arroyo Torrejon and the Rio Puerco, and the failure of

careful search to disclose Puerco fossils near the Rio Puerco. The

supposed thinness of the barren zone in this eastern area was based

upon the sections given by Gardner” which have been subsequently

modified and interpreted both by Sinclair and Granger™ and by Ree-

side.”

7 Cited by W. D. Marruew. A revision of the Puerco fauna. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.

Bull. 9: 260. 1897.

SJ. Ho GARDNER. | Op. cit. fla:

° J. B. Ressipez, Jr. op. cit. 35-36.

10 J. H. GARDNER. op. cit. 717-723.

11W. J. Sincuarr and WauLTER GRANGER. Paleocene deposits of San Juan Basin,

New Mexico. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 33: 308. 1914.

12 J.B. Reesipe, Jr. og. cit. Pl: 2.

AuGusT 19, 1932 DANE: PUERCO AND TORREJON FORMATIONS 409

But the sections given by Gardner for the Arroyo Torrejon and Rio

Puerco areas are certainly much too thin. As shown by his map,

photograph, and sections, he interpreted the Ojo Alamo sandstone in

the vicinity of the Rio Puerco as a sandstone in the lower part of the

Puerco formation, and he included in the Puerco the beds below the

Ojo Alamo and down to the Lewis shale. ‘These beds are now known

to inelude Kirtland shale, Fruitland formation, and Pictured Cliffs

sandstone. If from the Rio Puerco section given by Gardner 281

feet of beds at the top which are probably to be referred to the Wasatch

and 179 feet of Ojo Alamo and older Cretaceous beds at the base are

excluded there remains 379 feet for the combined thickness of the

Puerco and Torrejon formations. The thickness of the Puerco and

Torrejon formations at this place however, is actually more than 630

feet as is shown by the section in Table 1.

Gardner correlated the fourth member above the base in his Rio

Puerco section (now known to be Ojo Alamo sandstone) with the third

member above the base in his Arroyo Torrejon section, a 30 foot tan

colored sandstone, and stated that this is a very persistent horizon

marker and was traced continuously from the Nacimiento Mountains

to the Arroyo Torrejon and beyond. ‘This 30-foot tan-colored sand-

stone is quite surely Ojo Alamo and the 80 feet of shale below it is

Kirtland shale. Accordingly Gardner’s Arroyo Torrejon section al-

lows only 240 feet for the combined thickness of the Puerco and Torre-

jon formations. An estimate by the writer, based on known contact

elevations and locations and a minimum allowance for dip of 1 foot

per 100 horizontally, gives a thickness, believed to be conservative,

of 700 feet for the combined Puerco and Torrejon formations in the

vicinity of Arroyo Torrejon. This does not seem excessive compared

with the incomplete section of 570 feet of Puerco and Torrejon meas-

ured at the head of Ojo Alamo Arroyo, in T. 24 N., R. 11 W., by C. M.

Bauer and J. B. Reeside, Jr.

Sinclair and Granger" in correlating their sections with the sections

published by Gardner state that ‘‘In the Arroyo Torrejon section of

Gardner the full thickness of the Puerco is certainly not exposed. Of

the 210 feet referred by him to that formation 100 feet is now known to

belong to the Torrejon because Torrejon fossils in abundance are found

at the point indicated in the section, 100 feet below his Puerco-Torre-

jon contact.’’ The point indicated in the section is just above the 30-

foot tan-colored sandstone which is most probably the Ojo Alamo sand-

13 J.B. Reesipe, Jr. op. cit. 67.

14W. J. Stncuarr and WALTER GRANGER. op. cit. 308.

410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

stone. Furthermore, on the same page they speak of ‘‘the discovery

of Torrejon fossils immediately above the 30 foot bed of sandstone

(third member above the base in the Arroyo Torrejon section).’”’ If

these correlations were accepted, the Puerco would be missing from

TABLE 1—SEcTION OF PUERCO (?) AND TORREJON FORMATIONS, EXPOSED IN THE FRONT

or Cuspa MEsa, IN THE NORTHEASTERN Part oF T. 20 N., R. 2 W.

MEASURED BY C. B. Hunt.

Feet Inches

Wasatch formation:

Sandstone and conglomerate

Puerco (?) and Torrejon formations:

Sandstone,vargillaceous GAM x oo § 455.555 chen pct, | EG edo yee ee

Seedeinee omen cae ag ere ee

Sandstone, crotiivecaue: (ea in iw) er ace gray Paes ON ee

Clay, in siveer satiate light and very dark gray bands. . 5. Cae ae

Sandstone, gray, massive and cross, bedded. .....)...<..0..4 +4) ape eee

Clay, in alternating light and very dark gray bands................... 29

Sandstone, tan, cross bedded.. eer. eee Oe tee

Clay, sandy, gray, with some Bands of ana gray Widleye Ly SH

Sandstone, gray, cross bedded. eats 18

Clay, in eis ae bands of omnele fishies ight nail en ideate

gray. wee dep ve te we Fleece nese soe or

Sandstone, g gray, cross Mpedteds Se

Clay, in alternating bands of ea face very sane ane a, . 36

Sandstone, gray, cross bedded. Sees saan mest!

Sandstone, with spheroidal satioee sae of dae reg ov: (?) Bere

lal, more than a foot im “diameter... 2.5... 02%)... ee a

Sandatohe’ gray, cross bedded. ose f, Diet ae sO

Clay, in alternating light and ddinelc gray eset a3 . 70

Sandstone, fine grained, light gray, with dark manganiferous (2) ¢ con-

cretions. Ae PIN her lis

Clay, in pieeenerinte light anti Hani gray eee wee A

Sandstone, fine grained, light gray. ome ks

Clay, in slienmenine light and Gale gray Seance: eiaee eh the jee .. 26

Coal. us bu hegbieus + di! ound) 40 Rothe ba ne 2

Clay, panded ene el feat gray.. Laces te te ene nt’

Shale, dark carbonaceous, not a nersiaieat pedi esate Rie): 0 6

Coal, a bed locally as much as one foot thick aad caneineme for joes

quarters of amile....... vs pie aise a's Goa 8

Clay, dark gray iene some enter ae Dendee at 18

Sandstone, fine grained light gray, of variable thickness. eee

Clay, light and dark in alternating bands.. ve aol lat pen ees

Concealed for the most part but probably iadled ae. =. alg ea

Thickness ‘of Puerco (?):and. Torrejom.. 2 .)..08) 5625.2 eee 2

Ojo Alamo sandstone:

Sandstone and conglomerate

Arroyo Torrejon eastward. It appears, however, that Sinclair and

Granger were misled by the erroneously thin section given by Gardner

into believing that the lower fossil horizon, 100 feet below the upper

one, would fall just above the 30 foot sandstone (now recognized to be

AuGusT 19, 1932 RATHBUN: FOSSIL PINNOTHERIDS 411

the Ojo Alamo). However, they further state that the two Torrejon

fossil horizons are exactly 100 feet apart and that both horizons were

traced from the East Fork of Arroyo Torrejon to the west branch of

Kimbetoh Arroyo. Inasmuch as the Arroyo Torrejon collecting lo-

calities located on their sketch map and described in their text are in

the face of the cliff capped by the basal sandstone of the Wasatch it

appears most likely to the writer that both Torrejon horizons are

actually well above the Ojo Alamo sandstone.

Accordingly the writer believes that in the Arroyo Torrejon section

there are probably 450 feet of beds below the lowest Torrejon fossils,

in which quite possibly there are beds equivalent to the Puerco beds

farther west. Because the combined thickness of beds of Puerco and

Torrejon lithology along the Rio Puerco is less than 100 feet thinner

than the probable thickness of the Puerco and Torrejon formations on

Arroyo Torrejon, it further appears that an equivalent of the Puerco

formation may also be present along the Rio Puerco.

PALEONTOLOGY .—Fossil Pinnotherids from the California Miocene.

Mary J. Ratusun, U. 8. National Museum.

Mr. E. W. Galliher of the Hopkins Marine Station has sent to the

National Museum a number of specimens of Pinnotherid crabs from

the type locality of the Monterey formation at Pacific Grove, as follows:

Specimens 1-5, from the top of hill with elevation of 610 feet about

1 mile W. of N. of Loma Alta and stratigraphically 700 feet approxi-

mately above the base of the type section of the Monterey formation.

Specimens 6-9, 11, 12, from the top of Loma Alta (northerly peak)

and stratigraphically about 1000-1300 feet above the base of the type

section.

The specimens are embedded in Monterey shale of a pinkish cream

color. The most abundant species, Pinnixa gallthert, varies in color

from ochraceous buff to raw sienna; Parapinnixa miocenica, from ecru

drab to bistre; while the single specimen of Pinnixa montereyensis is

mummy brown.

Pinnixa galliheri, new species

Carapace in shape akin to P. faba,? the anterior margin advanced at mid-

dle, lateral margins arcuate, continuous with the antero-lateral curve; length

a little more than 2/3 of width; greatest width a little in advance of middle;

surface finely and closely pitted or reticulate. Gastric region defined; meso-

gastric almost an equilateral triangle, a pit at each angle, a groove extending

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Received May 7, 1932.

2M. J. Ratusun. A recent species, Alaska to San Pedro, California. Bull. U.S.

Nat. Mus., 97: 142, pl. 31, figs. 1-4, and synonymy. 1918.

Fig. 1.—Pinniza galliheri, No. 4, holotype, dorsal view showing half of outer surface,

x3. Fig. 2.—Pinniza galliheri, No. 12, dorsal view for legs, x 3. Fig. 3.—Pinniza gal-

ltheri, No. 11, ventral view for abdomen, x3. Fig. 4.—Pinniza galliheri, No. 6, ventral

view for outline of carapace, x3. Fig. 5.—Pinniza galliheri, No. 5a, largest specimen,

dorsal view, x 3.

Fig. 6.—Parapinnixa miocenica, No. 9, dorsal view, x 3. Fig. 7.—Parapinniza

miocenica, No. la, ventral view, outer layer preserved, x 3. Fig. 8.—Parapinnixa

miocenica, No. 3, ventral view for sternum and abdomen, x 3. Fig. 9.—Parapinniza

miocenica, No. 1b, holotype, dorsal view (inner surface), x 3. Fig. 10.—Parapinniza

miocenica, No. 5b, dorsal view, dark-colored, x 3. Fig. 11.—Pinnixa montereyensis,

No. 8, holotype, ventral view, showing shape of abdominal cavity of o, x 3.

412

AuGusT 19, 1932 BERRY: FOSSIL STIPULES 413

from its anterior end to the margin of the front. Cardiac region faintly

outlined.

Chelipeds stouter than legs, fingers nearly as long as palms, upper margin

of dactylus strongly curved. Ambulatory legs increasing in length from the

first to the third, fourth leg much the smallest; meropodites narrow, the first

one recurved, 5 times as long as wide, the second straight, equally wide, 6

times as long as wide, the third wider, nearly a fourth longer than the second,

its length 4.4 times its greatest width; carpus-propodus as long as merus, pro-

podus tapering distally. Fourth leg very feeble, reaching if extended about

to end of merus of third pair; carpus, propodus and dactylus subequal in

length, dactylus with straight margins. Sternum irregularly punctate.

Male abdomen gradually narrowing distally, terminal segment broadly

rounded.

Measurements.—Length of carapace 7.8, width 11.8 mm.

Specimens.—Nos. 2, 4 (holotype), 5a, 6, 7, 11, 12.

Pinnixa montereyensis, new species

Only the ventral surface of the single specimen is exposed. Carapace of

o narrow, approximately 8 mm. long and 10 wide. Posterior margin nearly

straight, anterior and lateral bortlers forming a single arch. Abdomen taper-

ing gradually to the terminal segment where it widens, the segment having

arcuate sides, projecting laterally and ending in a shallow median point, as

in P. transversalis.2 Of the ambulatory legs, the third is longest, second

next, first and fourth subequal; a terminal spine above on the merus of the

first leg.

Specimen.—No. 8, holotype.

Parapinnixa miocenica, new species

General shape of carapace similar to that of the Recent P. nitida (Locking-

ton)* from the Gulf of California. Carapace nearly twice as wide as long,

widest in anterior half, anterior margin nearly transverse, antero-lateral angles

broadly arcuate; surface, so far as exposed, very finely punctate; a deep pit

at the posterior corners of the mesogastric region. Chelipeds strong; carpus

with arcuate outer line; movable finger longer than palm. First ambulatory

leg long and strong; merus widening from proximal to distal end; propodus

diminishing gradually to distal end, about 24 times as long on upper margin

as its proximal width. Male abdomen occupying 3 the width of proximal

end of sternum and gradually tapering; tip unknown.

Measurements.—Estimated length of carapace 5.2, width 9 mm.

Specimens.—la, 1b (holotype), 3, 5b, 9.

3 op. cit., p. 182, fig. 76.

Sop evt.,.p-108,, fig. 58a.

PALEOBOTAN Y.—Fossil stipules of Platanus... EKEpwarp W. BERRY,

Johns Hopkins University.

The presence of stipules in connection or association with fossil

leaves is always an item of especial interest, since they are exceedingly

rare as fossils. ‘This is possibly due to the fact that so often they

attain their best development on spring shoots which last are less

1 Received June 2, 1932.

414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

likely to become fossilized than deciduous leaves. It might be ex-

pected that fugaceous stipules would frequently be preserved in spite

of their sometimes delicate nature, and possibly many of not especially

characteristic form have been passed by, but as a matter of fact very

few have been recorded, and in many years experience in handling

large quantities of fossil leaves I do not recall having found detached

stipules except in the case of Salix? and the present instance.

Many years ago the late Lester F. Ward gathered together all of

the references to stipular-like lobes or appendages in the ‘genus Pla-

Fig. 1—Fossil stipule in the genus Platanus, probably referable to Platanus dissecta

Lesquereux. Figs. 2, 3, 4—Examples of stipules of Platanus occidentalis Linné.

tanus, and in several papers® advocated the idea that in this genus the

modern type of stipules had been derived from ancestral basal lobes of

the leaf lamina. None of Ward’s examples are, however, like the

modern type, such as is the specimen which is the subject of the pres-

ent note.

2. W. Berry. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 154: 242, pl. 52, fig. 6; pl. 64, fig. 9.

1929.

3L. F. Warp. U.S. Nat. Mus. Proc. 11: 39-42, pl. 17-22. 1888; Am. Nat., Sept.

1890: 797-810, pl. 28.

AuGusT 19, 1932 BERRY: FOSSIL STIPULES 415

In earlier years I collected many specimens of Platanus occidentalis

which illustrated Ward’s hypothesis, and at that time made large

collections which seemed to show a parallel ancestry for the stipules

in the genus Liriodendron.t If this assumption is true, the origin of

stipules in Liriodendron must have taken place during Upper Cre-

taceous time because what appear to be stipules of the normal mod-

ern type are found in the Atane beds of western Greenland.* §

The fossil Platanus stipule comes from the upper Miocene Latah

formation outcropping in a cut of theS. P. & 8S. Ry. at Spokane, Wash-

ington, and was collected by E. E. Alexander. It comprises the speci-

men shown in Figure 1 and a part of its counterpart, and may be de-

scribed as follows: Reniform in general outline with five principal

lobes, of which the uppermost is the largest. Lobes conical, pointed.

Sinuses shallow, in no case extending as much as half way to the point

of attachment, the two upper narrow, the two lower wide and scarcely

perceptible. Margin with a few irregularly spaced tiny serrate teeth.

Length about 4.25 centimeters. Maximum width about 2.25 centi-

meters. ‘Texture firm. Veins well marked.

There are minor differences only between the fossil and some of the

modern form of stipules in our common eastern Platanus occidentalis.

Others have either less extended or more extended lobes. The vena-

tion of the fossil differs in but a single feature from that of the recent

forms and this is that the midvein of the superior lobe is a branch of

the midvein of the second lobe, a feature which I have not seen in

modern stipules of Platanus although it may well occur in certain

cases, and is a feature of no great significance in any event, as may be

seen by the variation in the primary or secondary nature of the mid-

veins of the inferior lobes.

The normal stipules in both the California Platanus racemosa Nuttall

and our eastern Platanus occidentalis Linné may be entire or dentate,

and on especially vigorous shoots of saplings and from cut stumps are

frequently as large or larger than the fossil. The modern, and pre-

sumably the fossil stipules, are normally united laterally to form a

perfoliate affair attached by a basal tube which surrounds the shoot

above the insertion of their respective leaves. Five or six of the

principal veins extend in a parallel manner to the base of this tube.

Rarely are the two members of a stipular pair exactly alike in outline,

and one member of the pair is usually considerably smaller than the

other.

4K. W. Berry. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 28:. Sept. 1901.

5Q. Heer. FI. Foss. Arct. 6: part 2: 90, pl. 28, fig. 8. 1882.

§ H.W. Berry. Torreya3: 129, fig.4. 1903.

416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

The question of the particular leaf species to. which the fossil stipule

belongs can be settled with some degree of certainty. Three nominal

species of Platanus have been recorded from the Latah formation.

These are the common and widespread Platanus dissecta Lesquereux,

the somewhat protean Platanus aspera Newberry, and Platanus ap-

pendiculata Lesquereux. ‘The last is of somewhat doubtful identity

in the Latah and was based upon a single incomplete specimen with a

perfoliate basal lobe. ‘The present fossil stipule could not possibly

have belonged to Platanus appendiculata unless it is conceded that it

had both basal lobes and normal stipules at the base of the petiole,

which is possible but not probable. The character of the dentition of

the fossil stipule would seem to me to exclude Platanus aspera from

consideration, thus leaving Platanus dissecta, which is the commonest

Miocene and the commonest Latah species, as the probable parent.

I have seen no modern stipule precisely like the fossil, but have

figured three stipules of Platanus occidentalis and it will be seen that,

although not identical, there is much less difference between the fossil

stipule and Figure 2 of occidentalis than there is between Figure 2 and

the extreme dentate forms of occidentalis shown in Figures 3 and 4.

It is at least clear that the modern type of stipule in this genus

was in existence as early as the late Miocene, and that the stipules

have undergone but slight and certainly no essential change since

Miocene time.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

487TH MEETING

The 487th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 9, 1932, President

F. E. MAtTruss presiding.

Program: G. F. Loucuuin: The results of recent geologic work at Cripple

Creek, Colorado.—The speaker confined his remarks mainly to the structural

development of the denuded Cripple Creek volcano, which was formed by

the explosive eruption of phonolitic and related material through pre-Cam-

brian granites, schist, and gneiss. ‘The principal causal factors were the

settling of the fragmental material in the crater and intermittent regional

compression. Settling was first illustrated by the local explosion pipe known

as the Cresson ‘‘blowout,”’ which has an elliptical form and tapers downward

into two “roots” that have an easterly alignment.

The main crater was developed along a complex network of fissure zones,

the principal one trending east and southeast. Exposures in the deeper mine

workings show that it also tapers downward with increasingly elongate form

and probably separates into several roots. Settling developed steeply dipping

fissure systems normal and parallel to the walls of the elongate parts, and also

AuGustT 19, 19382 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 417

gently dipping fissures or “‘flats.’”’ Regional compression developed minor

shear zones in and around the volcanic mass, many of which coincided in the

general direction with the fissures due to settling. The more profound of

these shear zones determined the courses of dikes and ore deposits, which,

especially in the shallower part of the mass, spread along the “‘flats.’’

(Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mr. L. H. Smiru.

SIDNEY Paige: The origin of the Vredefort dome.—In a recent publication!

Hall and Mollengraaff describe and discuss a remarkable, perhaps unique,

geologic structure. The Vredefort granite, a circular mass about 40 kilo-

meters in diameter is surrounded by a girdle of overturned, metamorphosed,

sedimentary and igneous rocks. The inversion of the sediments involves not

less than 10,000 meters of strata and the metamorphism affects in places as

much as 3000 meters of strata. Basic rocks invade the peripheral sediments in

sill-like masses and also are found cutting the granite parallel to the contact

and in places normal to it.

The authors conclude that the Vredefort granite is not intrusive into the

sediments that surround it, but is the ancient floor upon which the sediments

were laid down, and that the structure as observed today is due to centrip-

etal pressure the nature and cause of which is frankly admitted to be unex-

plained. The authors are the first to admit that many facts of observation

are open to divergent interpretations. ‘There are many such aspects of the

problem that cannot be discussed here, or even mentioned, but are apparent

on a careful study of the monograph and which the writer hopes to consider

at another time.

The writer believes that the facts presented by Hall and Mollengraaff

support the following thesis:—(1) That the ancient floor of granite and schist

upon which the Witwatersrand beds were laid down was invaded by a later

granite; that the invaded floor was heated to a point where plasticity pre-

vailed and the invaded floor and the invading granite acted essentially as a

relatively stiff magma; that the circularity of the intrusion was due to this

fact alone; that the vertical upward movement of the re-melted, invaded, floor

created a great distensional dome; that continued upward movement brought

about faulting at a late stage, along radii of the dome in the zone of fracture

and that ultimately these faults extended to the base of the sedimentary col-

umn; that low angle concentric shears developed; that in view of these struc-

tures the magma collapsed laterally which was the direct cause of the over-

turned structures observed today. (2) That the Vredefort domical structure

is but one of a number of anticlinal structures, viz;—the Johannesburgh,

Ventersdoorp and Heidleberg anticlines, all causally related; that the related

anticlines are equally due to forces acting vertically upward, and producing

distension of the crust; and that the lack of overturning except at Vredefort

is to be explained by the fact that at other places the basement floors were not

invaded or re-heated to any substantial degree; that the motivating force of all

these uplifts was zsostatically related to the enormous downwarp of the Bush-

veldt complex, immediately to the north; that the broad picture suggests that

an immense crustal downwarp in one area resulted in subterranean transfers

of material, re-heating of an ancient basement, invasion of the basement, dis-

tension of the crust by vertical uplift on a grand scale, with local violent

1 Harz, A. L., and MottenGrAaFF. The Vredefort Mountain Land in the Southern

vaal and the Northern Orange Free State. Ver. K. Akad. van Wetenschappen Amsterdam

(Tweede Sectie) Deel 24: No. 3. 1925.

418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 14

compression of a thick series of sedimentary rocks owing to their displacement

by an essentially igneous mass. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. JoHNSTON and RUBEY.

D. F. Hewett: The habitat of manganese minerals.

Discussed by Messrs. Hess, L. H. Smira, Loveuury, C. 8. Ross, and

SCHAIRER.

488TH MEETING

The 488th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 23, 1932, President

F. E. MatTrues presiding.

Informal communications: Mr. F. L. Huss described the occurrence of

hydrocarbons in samples of pegmatites from Parry Sound, Ontario, Canada.

The partly dried oil or hydrocarbon occurred in cracks in feldspar crystals

and some of the globules bore minute crystals of pyrite and quartz. A much

harder hydrocarbon, nearly pure carbon, called thucholite appears to have

replaced uranonite. ,

P. F. SHENON described some platinum placer concentrates from Waldo,

Oregon which contained small rings. These rings proved upon spectral

analyses to be fragments of tungsten filaments from electric light bulbs.

W. D. Jounston, Jr. showed tables and graphs of geothermal data and the

adjusted geothermal gradient of Grass Valley, Cal. He compared this

gradient with that observed in other deep mines.

Discussed by G. 8. Rick and W. H. Brap ey.

H. 8. Lapp: The Melanesian Continent.—The hundreds of islands which

are concentrated in the southwest quarter of the Pacific Ocean may be divided

into two groups, the oceanic and the continental. The latter, showing plu-

tonic and metamorphic rocks in addition to the volcanic rocks and limestone

which characterize the oceanic islands, all lie within a line drawn from Yap

southeastward through Turk, New Ireland, the Solomon Islands, and Fiji

to Tonga, thence southwestward through the Kermadecs to include New Zea-

land and certain of its outlying islands. Fossiliferous Paleozoic and Meso-

zoic rocks have a wide and somewhat systematic distribution within the area

thus outlined, indicating that large parts of it have been above the ocean

depths for much of geologic time.

The distribution of the ares and fore-deeps suggests that this area, whose

boundaries roughly coincide with those of Melanesia, was built up originally

as a series of folded mountains. There is much evidence however, particu-

larly from Fiji, Tonga, and New Zealand, to support the hypothesis that block

faulting, with the extrusion of volcanic material along some of the major fault

planes, was initiated prior to the Miocene and is largely responsible for the

present distribution of land and sea. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mr. Marrues.

C. W. Wricut: The 1931 Glacier Bay expedition.—The writer showed the

present positions of the glaciers and extent of the ice cap within the Glacier

Bay region, S. E. Alaska, and also the outline of the ice field at the time he

and his brother, F. E. Wright, mapped the area 25 years ago. The tidewater

glaciers have all receded, some of them several miles up the inlets, and cer-

tain of those that were at tidewater in 1906 are now a mile or more back on

the land, due in part to the recession but largely to the advancing delta de-

posits. At the Rendu Glacier, with a drainage area of 30 square miles, it was

estimated that 70 million cubic feet of material are being deposited at the

delta each year, which has advanced over 3,300 feet in 25 years.

AuGustT 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 419

It was also estimated that the rate of ablation of the entire Glacier Bay

ice cap, covering 500 square miles, has averaged from 20 to 25 feet per year

more than the snow fall. During the past 25 years the ice plateaus, the sur-

face of which was at 1,000 to 1,200 feet altitude, are now but 500 feet above

sea level, and many of them will be gone within a decade or two owing to the

more rapid rate of melting at the lower levels.

The discovery of two buried forests at different levels in the same gravel

bank and another at tidewater with tree trunks rooted in undisturbed beds of

top soil indicates definitely that there have been several periods when the

Glacier Bay area was covered with luxuriant forests. In view of these facts,

the writer referred to the reason for the present recession and past advances of

the Glacier Bay ice cap as a fight for supremacy between the sun rays, which

are melting down the surface of the ice, and the snow fall, which is respon-

sible for its existence.

Glacier Bay borders the Pacific Ocean where the storms come from the

south and southwest. As the area of perpetual snow is diminishing within the

Glacier Bay area, the cold atmospheric conditions necessary for abundant

snow fall are therefore lessening, and many of the storm clouds now pass over

the Glacier Bay area and precipitate their moisture along the coast range 150

miles to the southeast where the areas of perpetual snow are increasing in

size and colder atmospheric conditions prevail. That this is so is evident from

the advance of the Taku, a Coast Range glacier, the face of which during the

past 25 years has pushed forward about two miles, a half-mile of which has

been added during the past two years.

Other causes such as the earthquake in 1899 and the effect of the Japan

current and the local high tides have aided somewhat the recession in Glacier

Bay, but these affect only a small portion of the ice cap fringe and the main

cause of recession must be the sun rays which attack the entire surface.

The reasons for the several changes from the long periods of recession ex-

tending over several centuries to even longer periods of advance are not so

clear. The recession usually continues until the glaciers have receded far

up the mountain valleys and the exposed land areas have been overgrown by

dense forests. These forests may have had their effect in helping to retain

and protect the snow fall from the sun’s rays at the lower elevations, thus

giving a chance for the area of perpetual snow to increase, and gradually to

alter the local atmospheric conditions so as to encourage more abundant snow

fall and thus start a new cycle of glacial advance. The writer does not believe

that the ice recession in Glacier Bay is connected with any general climatic

cycle but that it is a local phenomenon recurring every few thousand years

due to changes in local atmospheric conditions. (Awuthor’s abstract.)

Harry FIELDING Rep: Glacier Bay 40 years ago.—The speaker showed

lantern slides of the glaciers of Glacier Bay in 1890 and 1892 and contrasted

them with others made last summer. They showed enormous changes, three

of them, the Muir, the Grand Pacific, and the Johns Hopkins having retreated

about ten miles. The many old forests buried under thick deposits of gravels

show that at no very long time ago the glaciers were markedly smaller than

they are now; and that the great advance of 150 years ago was of short dura-

tion. (Author’s abstract.)

Mr. WricHt’s and Mr. Rein’s papers were discussed together by Messrs.

W. O. Fre.tp, BurcHARD, Capps, CoTtswortH, and MATTHES.

J. F. Scoarrer and W. H. Bravp ey, Secretaries.

’

420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 14

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Under the provisions of the Economy Act, E. O. ULRicu, M. R. CAMPBELL,

and F. C. ScorapDER of the Geological Survey were retired June 30.

By order of the President the following members of the Academy are

exempted from the retirement provisions of the Act: WaLTrrR Hoven,

National Museum; Witi1am J. Humpureys, Weather Bureau; CHARLEs F.

Marvin, Weather Bureau; Timotay W. Stanton, Geological Survey (tem-

porary extension); LEONARD STEJNEGER, National Museum; C. Davip

Waitt, Geological Survey.

@Obituary

Dr. Grorcs K. Burasss, director of the Bureau of Standards, past presi-

dent of the Washington Academy of Sciences, died of cerebral hemorrhage on

July 2, 19382. He was born in Newton, Mass., Jan. 4, 1874. After graduat-

ing from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he studied at the Sor-

bonne in Paris. There he redetermined the value of the Newtonian constant

of gravitation, receiving his doctorate in 1901 with highest honors. Dr.

BurceEss entered the Bureau of Standards in 1903 and by his ability and

application advanced steadily from assistant physicist to director of the

Bureau. His first work was in the field of pyrometry. In 1913 he become

chief of the metallurgical division. He was appointed director on April 21,

1923.

Dr. BurGsEss was chairman of the National Research Council, a member of

the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, of the National Academy

of Sciences and of the Washington Academy of Sciences. He was the United

States delegate to the seventh International Conference on Weights and

Measures in Paris in 1927 and to the world Engineering Congress in Tokio in

1929; president of the National Conference on Weights and Measures;

member of the Foreign Service and Engineering Commissions; director of

the American Standards Association; honorary member of the American

Foundrymen’s Association; member of the American Institute of Mining and

Metallurgic Engineers; past president of the American Society of Steel Treat-

ing, and the American Society for Testing Materials; member of the American

Commission on the Annual Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants;

member of the Optical Society of America, the American Physical Society,

Philosophical Society of Washington, and the American Institute of Metals;

fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; honorary

member of the Japanese Society of Mechanical Engineers; chairman of the

Federal Specifications Board, the National Screw Thread Commission, and

the Federal Fire Council.

Dr. CHARLES WALLACE RICHMOND, associate curator of birds, U. S.

National Museum, died in Washington May 19, 1932. Dr. RicamMonp was

born in Kenosha, Wisconsin, Dec. 31, 1868. He became a page in the House

of Representatives in 1881, joined the Geological Survey in exploration in

Montana in 1888, and became ornithological clerk in the division of economic

ornithology and mammalogy in the Department of Agriculture on his return.

In 1894 he was appointed assistant curator of birds at the U. 8. National

Museum and in 1918 associate curator. He was a recognized authority on

problems of ornithology.

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Paleobotany.—Fossil stipules c of Platanus. Epwarp W. Berry......... aie

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 22 SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 No. 15

BOTANY.—A species of Pythiogeton isolated from decaying leaf-

sheaths of the common cat-tail.1. CHARLES DRECHSLER, Bureau of

Plant Industry.

Late in October 1931, some specimens of the common cat-tail (Typha

latifolia L.) collected in marshes near Port Clinton, Ohio, were sub-

mitted to me as being illustrative of a disease through which the cat-

tail stands in that neighborhood had been damaged so severely that

the loss of thousands of muskrats from lack of winter food was being

anticipated. The trouble affecting the plants was apparently of the

type usually referred to as foot-rot, being evidenced in every case

chiefly in extensive watersoaking, brownish discoloration and eventual

decay of the basal portions of the fleshy clasping leaf-sheaths. An

assortment of fungi, including nearly a dozen species of Pythium,

were isolated from the affected tissues. Among these, a certain form

very similar to the one previously described by me (12) as Pythiuwm

helicoides, if, indeed, not identical with it, made its appearance es-

pecially frequently, thereby suggesting that the similarity of the injury

to that which I have frequently observed in Wisconsin on leaves and

petioles of the white water-lilies (Nymphaea odorata Ait. and N.

tuberosa Paine) attacked by an undoubted member of the helicoides

series, may perhaps not be altogether accidental. Any more definite

opinion as to parasitic relationships will require specimens of diseased

cat-tails collected, needless to say, éarlier in the season, showing

fresh lesions on vegetatively vigorous plants. In the meantime, it

may not be inappropriate to direct attention to another fungus in the

assortment of pure cultures obtained, because of interest attaching to

it as a member of probably the most critical genus in the Pythiaceae.

The genus in question is Pythiogeton, erected by von Minden (20)

in 1916 to include three aquatic fungi growing on submerged decaying

1 Received June 6, 1932.

421

SEP 21 1939

422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 15

plant substrata, and described by him as Pythiogeton utriforme,

Pythiogeton transversum and Pythiogeton ramosum, the last-mentioned

being regarded by its author as of somewhat doubtful independence.

A feature common to all of these forms was the production of a charac-

teristically elongated utriform sporangium attached at its upper end

to the supporting hypha, its axis therefore not coinciding with but

rather directed transversely to that of the latter. In spite of its

obviously striking aspect, von Minden did not consider the asym-

metrical sporangium as in itself making necessary a genus distinct

from Pythvum, for, as he soundly reasoned, not only were subspherical

sporangia and sporangia intermediate in shape between the subspherical

and utriform types present in his fungi, but the genus Pythium already

embraced a variety of sporangial types to which another might be

added without much violence. At the time rather little was known

concerning the occurrence of lobulate sporangia in Pythiwm, so that

grounds were then lacking for an obvious but evidently somewhat

specious analogy that might later have suggested itself between the

utriform sporangia on the one hand and the individual digitate swollen

sporangial elements of such forms as Pythium arrhenomanes Drechsl.

in which these elements often attain comparable, if not equal dimen-

sions, on the other. A most distinctive feature of Pythiogeton von

Minden recognized in the sequence of events intimately related to the

production of zoospores: the discharge of the sporangial contents

through an evacuation tube into a tubular or elongated vesicle, the

accumulation of these contents in the distal portion of the vesicle, the

disintegration of the vesicle membrane, and the subsequent fashioning

of the zoospores from the protoplasmic mass, now naked and directly

in contact with the surrounding water. Although von Minden did not

succeed in isolating and cultivating in pure culture any of the three

species of Pythiogeton described by him, he was able with some degree

of certainty to relate sexual structures to Pythiogeton utriforme and

Pythiogeton transversum. The extraordinary thickness of oospore wall

shown by him in his figures of both these species is assuredly absent

from any species of Pythium hitherto described, as is also the polygonal

shape of the mature oogonium depicted by him for Pythiogeton trans-

versum. Among additional features mentioned by von Minden as

setting Pythiogeton apart from Pythium, were the occurrence of a long

evacuation tube; the helicoid involvement of the hypha supporting

one sexual organ by the hypha bearing the other, present in Pythiogeton

transversum; and the absence in Pythiogeton utriforme, at least, of any

contraction of the oogonial contents preliminary to the formation of the

oospore wall.

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 423

Except for the recent citation by Ito and Nagai (15) of Pythiogeton

ramosum among the fungi isolated by them from rice seeds and rice

seedlings in Japan, and a brief discussion by Sparrow (23) of a fungus

which he found in three localities in North America and identified

likewise as Pythiogeton ramosum, the literature since the appearance of

von Minden’s paper seems to present no first-hand information con-

cerning any member of the genus under consideration. In various

general accounts dealing at second hand with the taxonomy of the

Phycomycetes, Pythiogeton has been adopted as a valid genus distinct

from Pythvum, though the grounds for the distinction have not always

been those which von Minden apparently considered most decisive.

Meanwhile additional information concerning many species of Pythium

then known has come to light, and a considerable number of new

species have been described, so that the meaning of the latter genus

has in some respects been modified or extended. In a treatment of

the species of Pythiogeton isolated from the common ecat-tail, some

consideration may therefore well be given to the more recent changes

in our understanding of allied genera.

In his discussion of the taxonomic position of Pythiogeton, von Min-

den stated that his species showed similarity to Pythium in the de-

velopment and vegetative habit of their mycelia. As this investi-

gator was working entirely with water cultures, it may be inferred that

his comparison applies primarily to the extramatrical submersed

portions of mycelium that can be readily taken up from such cultures

and conveniently examined. When cultivated in liquid media, as,

for example, decoctions of lima beans, of maize meal, or of yeast, the

fungus isolated from leaves of cat-tail likewise shows a general sim-

ilarity to the more delicate species of Pythiwm, the wider and longer

axial hyphae being nearly straight or smoothly fluxuous in course,

the shorter lateral branches borne on them being of more irregular

course and giving off at much shorter intervals, branches of inferior

lengths. As among species of Pythiwm, each of the hyphal elements

in the actively growing portions of mycelium, appears usually, though

not constantly, to be smaller in diameter than the element from which

it originates, the diameter at the base being, however, sustained well

toward the termination with scarcely any diminution. Perhaps the

branches are rather more frequently inserted at angles approaching a

right angle than in most species of Pythium, among which a more

forward orientation is usually apparent, yet the difference is certainly

not very marked when some of the more exceptional members of the

latter genus are considered. With respect to the contents of the

424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

mycelium, a general similarity with species of Pythium is again

evident, the protoplasmic material here also showing a condition

median between the rather diaphanous, sappy composition apparent in

species of Aphanomyces and the very substantial densely granular

composition common to species of Phytophthora. |

When the fungus under consideration is grown on soft artificial gel

substrata, such as can be prepared by adding to suitable decoctions

agar-agar in the proportion of one part in a hundred, the vegetative

habit is not markedly different from that resulting from growth in a

liquid medium. Appressoria in the form of terminal clavate disten-

sions, and very similar therefore to those produced by many species of

Pythium, make their appearance in large numbers on surfaces where

the mycelium comes in contact with a solid body, as, for example, on

the under side of a petri-dish culture (Fig. 1, A; Fig. 2,G). However

on harder agar media containing two parts of agar-agar in a hundred,

the hyphae frequently show a somewhat moniliform shape with ex-

pansions and constrictions succeeding each other at short intervals.

Appressoria are less definitely differentiated, possibly for the reason

that the expansions in themselves may represent modifications in the

nature of appressoria, perhaps enabling the filaments to thrust their

way through substrata too resistant for filaments of more uniform

width. Because of its reduced luxuriance, growth on the harder and

drier media presents a characteristic frail appearance, which is borne

out also by the meager aerial mycelium present usually as a very

scanty arachnoid fleece overlying the surface of the substratum and

extending up the wall of the container for distances of 5 to 10 mm. or

more. A somewhat increased development of aerial mycelium has

often been noted when the fungus was grown in mixed culture with a

species of Alternaria congenial to it, provisionally identified as A.

tenuis Nees, the increase being attributable apparently to the constant

presence of minute droplets of water supplied through guttation by the

intermixed organism. In actively growing condition, the mycelium,

like that of Phycomycetes generally, is continuous, septa, of course,

later making their appearance with the progressive evacuation of

protoplasmic contents, to set off living from emptied portions, so that

in the end cross-walls are usually present in moderate abundance.

Similarities in mycelial habit between the fungus under considera-

tion and the more delicate of the fungi assignable to Pythium, as, for

example, Pythiwm acanthicum Drechsl. are thus fairly obvious. Yet

the general aspect of the former, at least under some conditions of

growth, impresses one as being alien to Pythiwm, though it must be

SEPTEMBER 19, 19382 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 425

Fig. 1.—Pythiogeton autossytum, x91. A.—Vegetative mycelium bearing numerous

appressoria. B.—Temporary bursiform sporangia borne on irrigated mycelium, some,

a, being clustered in a dense, almost opaque mass, and others, b, being found in open

arrangement. C.—Subspherical sporangia produced in string-bean agar. Photographed

by Marguerite 8S. Wilcox.

426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

admitted that the latter genus is not characterized by a degree of

uniformity in mycelial habit such as prevails in more closely integrated

genera like Phytophthora or Aphanomyces, the family resemblance in

certain of the more aberrant types referable to it, often being not imme-

diately obvious. As might be expected the American fungus exhibits

a manner of branching unmistakably similar to that expressed in von

Minden’s figures of Pythiogeton utriforme, Pythiogeton transversum and

Pythiogeton ramosum. Some doubt, however, attaches to the relative

coarseness of the several plants. Von Minden’s values for the di-

ameter of the hyphae of Pythiogeton utriforme, 2.5 to 3.5u, which it is

to be inferred hold for Pythiogeton transversum and also for the vege-

tative filaments of Pythiogeton ramosum, might be interpreted as

indicating a generally more delicate mycelium than that of the

fungus isolated from decaying cat-tail tissues, with living hyphae

measuring up to 7u in diameter. Indeed, a specific difference may

actually be present here. Yet it must be considered that von Min-

den’s measurements were in all probability carried out mainly on

extramatrical hyphae immersed in water containing practically no

nutriment, rather than on filaments developed within a solid sub-

stratum or in a liquid pabulum. Butler’s (7) figures of his Pythiuwm

diacarpum suggest that similar conditions may have had their effect

in the production of the unusually slender extramatrical hyphae

described for that fungus, even though growth characteristics inherent

in the species are to be given primary importance.

When a vigorously growing mycelium of the species of Pythzogeton

from Ohio is transferred to distilled water, production of temporary

sporangia usually begins within a day, and in the course of an addi-

tional day or two results in a very copious display of these bodies

(Fig. 1, B; Fig. 2, A-F). Many of the sporangia are borne in the

manner held typical by von Minden for his Pythiogeton transversum,

that is, they arise as intercalary structures a short distance from the

end of the supporting filament. On attaining definitive size such

sporangia are delimited by the insertion of two septa, so that the distal

portion of filament, from which the protoplasmic contents have in

most cases been withdrawn earlier, appears finally as an empty ap-

pendage. As in Pythiogeton transversum, this appendage is of variable

length, but on the whole would seem considerably shorter than the

appendages shown in von Minden’s illustrations. In other cases the

sporangium is intercalary, but remote from the tip of the supporting

hypha, so that after the appearance of the delimiting septa, it lies

between two elements of which both are filled with protoplasm. In

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 427

Fig. 2.—Pythiogeton autossytum, drawn with aid of the camera lucida, x 460. A-F.—

Temporary bursiform sporangia showing differences in shape and in relationship to

mycelium. F.—A group of appressoria formed in contact with the base of a petri dish

containing an agar plate culture.

428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

some instances of this kind the sporangium may nevertheless bear the

usual short appendage (Fig. 2, F), which evidently must have origin-

ated earlier as a short branch of the parent filament.

The various intercalary relationships mentioned may be made out

most frequently when the sporangia are not of the largest and when

optical conditions are especially favorable. In more luxuriant prep-

arations several days after transfer to water, when temporary sporangia

of greater dimensions are present in abundance, a terminal attachment

of these structures, corresponding to the type of attachment von

Minden described as distinctive for Pythiogeton transversum, is much

more frequently apparent than an intercalary relationship. It may

be suspected, however, that optical difficulties arising from the thick-

ness of such luxuriant mycelial mats, and from poor visibility of the

short, empty appendages when not seen attached in profile and after

exposure to increasing action of contaminating bacteria, have a con-

siderable part in bringing about this effect.

As in the congeneric forms described by von Minden, the tem-

_porary sporangium of the American fungus is typically a body that in

its shape and its mycelial relationship may be compared to an elon-

gated pouch usually somewhat wider below than at its upper end, at

which latter it is attached in such manner that its free lower part is

directed at an oblique or a right angle to the axis of the supporting

stalk. Variations of different sorts are usually abundantly repre-

sented. Through shortening of the bursiform structure along its own

axis, a merely ventricose shape may result (Fig. 3, A). In prepara-

tions very favorable for the production of sporangia, two bursiform

parts are often fused into a single large bilobate reproductive body

(Fig. 4, L; Fig. 5, A). And at least occasionally an elongated terminal

sporangium may be borne with its axis coinciding with that of the

supporting filament (Fig. 2, A), so that a symmetrical relationship

approximating that found in various species of Pythium is brought

about.

With respect to size the temporary sporangia show a relatively high

degree of variability. As might be expected, the vigor and the mass

of the mycelium employed as well as such environmental factors as

temperature and freedom from food materials, are reflected in the

dimensions and number of these structures. Older preparations in

which the mycelium has been in large measure exhausted are apt to

show an increasing proportion of smaller sporangia. Frequently

improper irrigation or excessive development of some contaminating

organisms appears to encourage the production in large numbers of

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 429

Scale — =

10 20 30 40 50 ee

9 10 =~20 30 40 5

ons

Fig. 3.—Pythiogeton autossytum, drawn with aid of the camera lucida x 460. A.—A

bursiform sporangium immediately after discharge of contents. B.—A submerged bur-

siform sporangium together with its discharged contents, 10 minutes after dehiscence.

C.—A bursiform sporangium, a, with discharged contents in a later stage of zoospore

development, being present partly as individualized spores, b-f, almost already to swim

away, and partly as a mass, g, provided with some cilia but still without definite

cleavage. D.—An empty sporangial envelope and a second sporangium developing

within it. E, a-b.—Motile zoospores. F, a-j7.—Zoospores after rounding up. G, a-e.—

Empty zoospore envelopes each with open evacuation tube, evidencing repetitional

development. H, a-e.—Zoospores germinating by one or more germ tubes.

430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

Scale in w

het

Fig. 4.—Pythiogeton autossytum, drawn with aid of the camera lucida, x 460. A-D.—

Subspherical sporangia newly formed in a string-bean agar plate culture. HE, F.—Sub-

spherical sporangia in a 65-day old culture, showing a large central vacuole in each.

G, H.—Empty sporangial envelopes evacuated when pieces of a 65-day old agar plate

culture were irrigated. I-K.—Empty envelopes of bursiform sporangia. L.—Empty

envelope of a bilobate sporangium.

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 431

intergrades between typical temporary sporangia and typical resting

sporangia. As neither the undersized nor the intergrading bodies

attain to proportionately great numbers until several days after vig-

orous mycelia have been transferred to water, the sporangia already

present in impressive abundance during the period from the thirty-

sixth to the fourth-eighth hour after such transfer provide an exhibit

perhaps as representative of the morphology of the species as any that

could be selected. Using material of this description measurements

of 100 sporangia chosen at random (25 being thus chosen in each of

four separate preparations) yielded values for length distributable in

groups covering ranges of 10u as follows: 31—40un, 2; 41-50u, 1; 51-60u,

6; 61—70p, 3; 71-80u, 19; 81-90u, 16; 91-100pn, 17; 101—110pn, 15;

111-120p, 9; 121-130», 6; 151-160yn, 3; 161-170u, 1; 171-180, 1;

181-190., 1. The same sporangia gave measurements for greatest

diameter with the following frequency distribution: 21ly, 1; 24u, 1;

25u, 1s 29n, 2; 30z, 1B dlp, = d2u, = ddu, 3; d4u, 2; don, 2; 36un, as

d7u, 4; 88u, 3; 39u, 6; 40y, 5; 41u, 5; 42u, 5; 43u, 6; 44yu, 5; 45n, 5;

46u, 1; 47u, 3; 48y, 6; 49p, 5; 50u, 2; Sly, 1; 52y, 3; 53yn, 2; S4y, 4;

55u, 1; 58u, 1; 59u, 1; 62u, 1. From the two sets of values averages

of 96u and of 42u were computed for length of temporary sporangium

and greatest diameter of temporary sporangium respectively. It may

hardly be necessary to state that more extreme dimensions than those

encountered among the 100 structures chosen at random, came under

observation. Thus the empty sporangium shown in Figure 5, G,

which it may be presumed gave rise to only a single zoospore, was found

to measure 16u in length and 13y in diameter. The broadest tem-

porary sporangium seen was found to measure 68y in diameter at its

widest zone; while the longest sporangium encountered, the bilobate

specimen shown in Figure 5, A, measured 226y along its curved longi-

tudinal axis. Even without attributing excessive importance to such

more extreme expressions of size, the temporary sporangia manifestly

do not show sufficient uniformity with respect to dimensions or shape

to justify much elaboration of metric data. Yet on the other hand the

greatest values obtained for length and diameter are so much smaller

than the corresponding values given by von Minden for the largest

of only four sporangia of Pythzogeton transversum, chosen by him ap-

parently at random, namely 299u and 79u respectively, that identity

of the two forms would seem rather definitely out of question. For

reasons of taxonomy it is to be regretted that von Minden did not give

measurements, however approximate, of the sporangia of Pythiogeton

utriforme and Pythiogeton ramosum, nor any statement as to the.

432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

dimensional ranges represented in them in comparison with those of

Pythvogeton transversum. Such measurements, it is true, have been

supplied by Sparrow for the form which he identified as Pythiogeton

ramosum. In view of the very unhappy status of many of the com-

posite specific characterizations to be encountered in mycological

literature, more particularly in the literature concerning the submerse

and amphibious Phycomycetes, it might, however, be well not to

combine Sparrow’s measurements with the descriptive details given

by von Minden until further information favoring combination is

brought to light.

At the time the sporangia of Pythiogeton attain full size, their con-

tents appear to consist of densely granular material with some vacu-

oles, mostly rather small and inconspicuous, interspersed here and there.

The development leading to the production of zoospores, entails a

reorganization with the result that during somewhat later stages

vacuoles of variable sizes are no longer much in evidence, but instead

the densely granular material reveals imbedded in it structures meas-

uring nearly uniformly about 2, or slightly more across that give the

impression of being more refractive than ordinary vacuoles. The

number of these structures present is proportional to the size of the

reproductive body, the smaller sporangia containing often less than a

dozen, whereas the largest ones contain a hundred or even more.

They show some correspondence in size, number and distribution to

the nuclei as made visible in material stained with Delafield’s haema-

toxylin, though this correspondence may be altogether fortuitous, and

lacking in significance. ‘The assertion of identity here would in any

case encounter the same sort of difficulty as the identification of the

refringent body (the “‘helle Fleck’? of DeBary) in the living mature

oospore of species of Pythiwm, with the single large oospore nucleus

appearing in stained material—an identification suggested by the

findings of Trow (24) on Pythium ultimum Trow, and of Edson (14)

on Pythium aphanidermatum (Eds.) Fitzp., even though these findings

took apparently no cognizance of DeBary’s (2, 4) remarks on the pre-

valence of the ‘“‘helle Fleck’? as a morphological feature. Whatever

may be the explanation of the characteristic lacunulose appearance,

this appearance at about the time the evacuation tube is being put

forth, yields to one marked by the coalescence of increasingly extensive

longitudinally elongated vacuoles. The ensuing vacuolization, if on

the whole somewhat less extensive than that occurring in sporangia

of species of Pythiwm preparatory to dehiscence, nevertheless takes

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 433

Scale in yw

fo}

Fig. 5.—Pythiogeton autossytum, drawn with aid of the camera lucida, x 460. A.—A

bilobate sporangium of approximately maximum length. B-D.—Sporangial envelopes

containing some encysted zoospores formed from contents retained in cases of incom-

plete discharge. E, F.—Empty sporangia, each showing internal proliferation of a sec-

ondary sporangium. G.—Empty envelope and evacuation tube of a sporangium of ap-

proximately minimum dimensions.

434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

very much the same course, and would seem to be representative of

quite similar development.

While protoplasmic reorganization is thus being effected, the evacua-

tion tube reaches definitive length and develops at its apex a hyaline

cap of the same sort as that regularly found throughout the genus

Pythwum. The distal portion of the tube is without marked modifica-

tion below the hyaline cap, not being expanded as, for example, in the

form which evidently DeBary (2) and after him Ward (27) discussed

under the name Pythium gracile, and for which the binomial Pythium

complens Fisch. is probably more appropriate than any other. When

the hyaline cap yields the sporangial contents stream out with great

rapidity, and collect, as von Minden so well described, in an irregu-

larly elongated mass in front of the orifice. In the fungus under con-

sideration the mass of discharged protoplasm was not frequently seen

to be protruded as directly forward as von Minden’s figures indicate,

but very generally was observed to be folded, buckled or compressed

into a bizarre shape (Fig. 3, A), the irregularity of which became more

pronounced as the amount of material concerned became larger. In

at least those instances in which the extruded mass is submerged in

water, further development proceeds in the manner set forth by von

Minden. ‘The vesicle wall derived from the inflation of the hyaline

cap soon disintegrates except often for a more persistent tubular proxi-

mal part, corresponding evidently to the urn-shaped structure de-

scribed by Butler for his Pythiwm diacarpum, which may sometimes

be made out several hours or even a day later as a diaphanous extension

of the empty evacuation tube. The naked mass thus exposed directly

to the water very soon reveals cleavage furrows, and in about 10

minutes is converted into an aggregation of fairly well separated in-

dividual portions (Fig. 3, B). In the course of about 15 or 20 addi-

tional minutes, these portions develop cilia that become increasingly

active (Fig. 3, C, b-f), until finally the separate protoplasts swim away

as motile zoospores.

The fully fashioned zoospore (Fig. 3, E) is of the shape usually

designated as reniform: its length exceeds its width by about one-half;

the forward end is somewhat pointed, the rear broadly rounded; and

the side bearing the well defined longitudinal groove in which the

cilia have their origin is noticeably flattened, the thickness measured

in a plane from grooved to opposite side being somewhat smaller than

the width measured at right angles to this plane. Of the two cilia

the anterior one seems the more active, as the posterior organ can

sometimes be seen extended nearly straight backward in an apparently

passive manner. The zoospores come to rest within a few hours

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 435

(Fig. 3, F), unlike those of Pythiogeton utriforme, which von Minden

found to remain motile for more than 24 hours. Their average

diameter after rounding up, of approximately 15y entitles them to

be reckoned among the largest zoospores produced in the Pythiaceae.

Germination occurs usually through the production of a single germ

tube (Fig. 3, H, b-e), two or three tubes being less frequent (Fig. 3,

H, a), and four relatively rare. Repetitional diplanetism undoubtedly

occurs with some frequency, as is evidenced by the presence in irri-

gated preparations of empty cyst envelopes, each supplied with an

open evacuation tube (Fig. 3, G). The small diameter of the latter

structure indicates that evacuation must be, like discharge of the

ordinary sporangia of the fungus, and like evacuation of zoospores of

species of Pythium undergoing similar repetitional development, by

continued streaming, rather than by immediate bodily escape of an

integrated motile spore as in species of Phytophthora. It is often to be

observed that zoospores are more inclined to come to rest, and there-

fore accumulate in much larger numbers beneath heavy mycelial mats

than in open water. ‘This behavior, expressive perhaps of some ob-

scure adaptation to conditions prevailing in the natural habitat,

stands in contrast with such different behavior as is revealed, for ex-

ample, in the zoospores of Pythium salpingophorum Drechsl. which

after coming to rest often float individually but in countless numbers

on the surface of the water, or in the zoospores of Pythiwm butleri

Subr., which in especially prolific preparations, are to be found floating

on the surface of the water in agglutinated masses visible collectively

to the naked eye as supernatent scum, each mass consisting of hundreds

and sometimes of thousands of individuals. Frequently, as in other

Pythiaceous fungi, sporangial discharge is frustrated in greater or

smaller measure, the protoplasmic material retained within the enve-

lope nevertheless then ordinarily undergoing the same development as

the material discharged. Because the evacuation tube is usually, if

not always, too narrow to permit the imprisoned motile zoospores to

escape, these finally encyst within the sporangium, sometimes in num-

bers up to a dozen or ascore (Fig. 5, B-D).

The sequence of events described above is, as has been mentioned,

that regularly observed to be associated with zoospore formation when

the mass of protoplasm happens to be largely or wholly submerged in

water, as is usually the case when washed mycelium is employed.

When, however, the protoplasmic mass is more nearly superficial, as, for

example, in preparations of carefully moistened pieces of agar culture,

an event often intervenes which may be of more than minor significance

in relation to the essential nature of the reproductive mechanism here

436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

concerned. Very soon after the sporangial contents have completed

their passage through the evacuation tube, the entire discharged mass

suddenly disappears from view, the disappearance being marked by a

violent recoil of the tube. Manifestly the body of protoplasm is shot

away and that with considerable force. A search over an area several

millimeters in diameter failed in every instance to discover the pro-

jected mass, and it would seem possible therefore that projection

ranges somewhat of the same order as those prevalent among certain

of the Entomophthoraceae might be represented here. Owing to the

suddenness with which the throwing is accomplished, it has been im-

possible to observe directly either in what the mechanism here opera-

tive may consist, or in what manner it is set off, or again in what wise it

engages the discharged sporangial contents. Appearances, however,

indicate the vesicle membrane as the effective mechanism. ‘The mush-

rooming and buckling of the protoplasmic column as it thrusts against

the distal part of the vesicle gives the impression that the latter is

exerting some backward pressure against its continued inflation. The

stretched membrane of the elongated vesicle might then conceivably

constitute an element comparable as a mechanical contrivance with

the drawn rubber band of a toy catapult.

Several circumstances favor the view that the shooting away of the

protoplasmic mass represents not only a normal event in the asexual

reproduction of the fungus under consideration, but the very event in

relation to which the peculiarities attending zoospore formation in the

genus find plausible explanation. Thus the elongated shape of the

vesicle, so markedly different from the spherical shape prevalent in

other genera of Oomycetes, appears as an intelligible functional adapta-

tion when the vesicle membrane is considered as a casting device,

for obviously a pouch-like element stretched mainly in one direction

would be more efficient in such capacity than one stretched outward

uniformly in all directions. The conversion of the vesicle membrane

to a mechanical function would almost necessarily preclude continua-

tion of a protective function, for even if the membrane were not se-

riously torn on snapping the mass into the air, it could hardly escape

being badly ruptured on striking at the end of its flight. The note-

worthy feature that zoospores are regularly formed from the proto-

plasmic mass in an entirely naked condition could therefore be inter-

preted as a further adaptation consequent to the abandonment by the

vesicle membrane of a protective in favor of a mechanical function.

Like Pythium diacarpum, Pythiogeton utriforme, Pythrogeton transver-

sum and Pythiogeton ramosum, the fungus under discussion frequently

SEPTEMBER 19, 19382 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 437

shows proliferation of a secondary sporangium within the empty enve-

lope of a primary one (Fig. 3, D; Fig. 5, E, F). The evacuation tube

of the secondary sporangium usually finds its way through that of the

primary one, though instances in which the wall of the primary spo-

rangium or its evacuation tube is perforated to permit egress are not of

rare occurrence. Such perforation is, of course, somewhat more fre-

quent when the evacuation tube of the primary sporangium is of con-

siderable length.

In this connection it may be pointed out that von Minden’s assertion

to the effect that evacuation tubes comparable in length with the tubes

produced by his three species of Pythzogeton, did not occur in the genus

Pythium, would seem to stand in need of revision. In some species of

Pythium with mostly filamentous sporangia, as, for example, Pythiwm

complens, evacuation tubes measuring 0.6 mm. or more, are readily

encountered. To be sure when Pythium complens is cultivated under

aquatic conditions, so that the sporangium, except for scattered dis-

crete itobulations, consist of outwardly undifferentiated filaments, the

evacuation tube below the expanded terminal part is not easily distin-

guished as a special element. When, however, the same fungus is

first cultivated on relatively dry substrata like the agar media usually

employed, so that in the course of time massive lobulate complexes

are formed, and subsequently aquatic conditions are provided through |

suitable irrigation, the evacuation tubes then produced, which naturally

are clearly differentiated from the massive complexes from which they

arise, often inciude among shorter ones, many measuring between 100

and 500 nin length. Evacuation tubes of comparable lengths are to be

seen in abundance in irrigated preparations of Pythium periplocum

Drechsl., having their origins here also in massive lobulate complexes.

Although a relatively bulky sporangial body may be regarded as one

of the requirements for the production of a markedly long evacuation

tube, it is not to be assumed that the length of the latter structure is

determined solely by the mass of underlying living material. The

evacuation tubes shown in von Minden’s figures of his species of Pythio-

geton are certainly not remarkable for length. In preparations of

Pythium complens and Pythium periplocum short as well as long tubes

are to be found. ‘The essential utility of the evacuation tube in the

Pythiaceae generally, through which, in large part, length and in some

species position of origin are governed, is perhaps best revealed when

forms are considered in which the structure in question is regularly

absent.

Among such Pythiaceous forms are to be numbered all the known

438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

members of the genus Phytophthora. In these plants the sporangia

never give rise to any well-defined cylindrical outgrowth by way of

which the zoospores, fully fashioned, are allowed to escape, the distal

protrusion occurring occasionally in the parasite described by me (13)

under the name Phytophthora megasperma representing perhaps as close

an approach to such an outgrowth as the genus provides. The refrac-

tive, often somewhat expanded cap surmounting the evacuation tube in

species of Pythium, and through the yielding of which the contents are

enabled to pass out of the sporangium, here finds its homologue in the

gelatinized apical portion of the sporangial wall itself. Where, as in

some species, this gelatinized part is relatively thick and of small ex-

tent, it protrudes from the sporangium as a definite papilla; where, on

the other hand, it is of greater extent and not markedly thickened, the

outward contour is not locally modified. In any case the zoospores are

regularly fashioned within the sporangium to be liberated from the

aperture left by the yielding of sessile papilla or homologous non-

protruding apical part. In the laboratory, as has been pointed out

_ earlier (11), zoosporangia of such amphibious species as Phytophthora

citrophthora (Sm. and Sm.) Leon. and Phytophthora erythroseptica

Pethyb. are, on the whole, produced in much greater number and

zoospore production is subject to fewer mishaps when mycelium, in-

stead of being flooded under excessive water, is kept rather sparingly

irrigated. The uncounted number of sporangia then often brought

forth very promptly, are readily seen to be localized, for the most part,

in the layer in which air and water are both intimately available.

This positional relationship is made possible evidently by the elonga-

tion of the very slender sporangiferous extramatrical hyphae to such

lengths as the circumstances may require. In other words, associated

with the absence of an evacuation tube, and the consequent necessity

of having the sporangium at the very outset placed in a position where

the requirements for water and air are alike provided, the slender

hyphae keep on growing out until the necessary combination of condi-

tions are encountered, their small diameter, usually measuring about

2 yw, permitting of such lengthening with obvious economy of material.

The more nearly spherical, thick-walled resting sporangia or chlamydo-

spores produced in addition to the ellipsoidal sporangia in such species

as Phytophthora parasitica Dastur, though evidently morphologically

homologous, betray their distinctive character not only by positive

adaptation for delayed germination expressed in shape and in thick-

ness of wall, but also by habitual maladjustment for immediate ger-

mination implied in deeply submerged position, in intramatrical origin

and in frequently intercalary hyphal relationship.

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 439

Pythium anandrum Drechsl. presents in its sporangium and spo-

rangiferous hyphae remarkable similarity to the genus Phytophthora.

The sporangium of this fungus is similarly ellipsoidal, and dehiscence

whenever observed has been found to be effected by means of a well

defined, entirely sessile, apical papilla, though in some cases an apical

outgrowth was found suggesting an evacuation tube in appearance.

As zoospore formation takes place in a sessile vesicle, and therefore in

immediate proximity to the sporangium, the circumstances under

which it proceeds is determined here hardly less definitely by the posi-

tion of the sporangium than in species of Phytophthora; and as might

be expected, the sporangium is similarly borne terminally on a slender,

mostly unbranched, extramatrical hypha often several millimeters in

length.

A condition more or less transitional with respect to the importance

of the sporangiferous hyphae between that found in Pythiwm anandrum

on the one hand, and that prevailing among the generality of conge-

neric species with subspherical sporangia on the other, would seem to be

represented in the members of the helicoides series described by me

earlier, Pythium helicoides, Pythium oedochilum, Pythium polytylum and

Pythium palingenes. In these species the sporangium, ovoid, obovoid,

ellipsoidal or subspherical in shape, is again, for the most part, borne

terminally on a delicate extramatrical hypha, simple or only sparingly

branching, and of variable, often very considerable length. Dehis-

cence is effected here often through the yielding of a hyaline cap sur-

mounting an apical evacuation tube so short that a sessile papilla is

closely approximated, but in other instances an evacuation tube of

greater length is produced mostly from the apex of the sporangium, but

also, especially after frustration of an apical tube, from any other part.

Presumably the sporangiferous hypha functions here in the same way

as in Phytophthora or in Pythium anandrum, though apparently not

always with equal finality. Entirely similar relationships naturally

are associated with sporangial development in the Pythiwm proliferum

of Dissmann (9) and the Pythiomorpha gonapodioides of Kanouse (16),

both evidently to be included in the helicoides series; and would seem to

obtain also in some congeneric species of less certain immediate affini-

ties, as, for example, the Pythiwm proliferum of DeBary, of Butler and

of Matthews (19), andthe Pythium undulatum of Petersen (22) and of

Dissmann.

In the generality of species of Pythiwm with subspherical sporangia,

the latter structures are borne in a more promiscuous manner, occuring

rather indiscriminately as intercalary, laterally intercalary, lateral or

440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

terminal bodies on hyphae not differentiated from the vegetative fila-

ments either in diameter or in frequency of branching. Under condi-

tions suitable for immediate production of zoospores, no precise posi-

tional relationship to water and air prevails. In the absence of such

conditions, just as in the case of Pythiuwm complens already referred to,

sporangia may nevertheless be formed in quantity. In either case,

zoospore production entails the development of an evacuation tube,

indeterminate with regard to place of origin, to direction, and within

the limits imposed by the size of the sporangium, to length. Obviously,

the function of seeking out a suitable locus for zoospore formation

presumes a certain degree of adaptability, whether the element per-

forming this function is a sporangiferous hypha or an evacuation tube.

With respect to their relationships to supporting hyphae and evacua-

tion tubes the temporary sporangia produced by the American species

of Pythiogeton under consideration invite comparison with the spo-

rangia of such species as Pythiwm helicoides in some particulars, and

with those of such forms as Pythiwm complens in others. ‘The spo-

rangiferous filaments are for the most part narrow, though because of

the small diameter of many of the intramatrical hyphae, their degree

of differentiation is not pronounced. In length these filaments show

considerable variation, yet, nevertheless, so do also the evacuation

tubes (Fig. 4, G-L; Fig. 5). In some instances the evacuation tube

grows to a length of several hundred microns, manifestly without

encountering conditions permitting it to function. Under such cir-

cumstances, a septum may be inserted some distance from the spo-

rangium, while the proximal part puts forth a lateral branch through

which evacuation subsequently takes place. Indeed, as is shown in

Figure 3, C, a second branching of the evacuation tube may occur

before the final element has occasion to fulfil its function; or the later

branch or branches may be produced without any septum making its

appearance anywhere in the parent evacuation hypha (Fig. 5, B, C).

In the proliferation of a secondary sporangium within or from within

a primary one, the fungus isolated from leaves of cat-tail, like the three

species described by von Minden and like Pythiwm diacarpum, shares a

feature exhibited also in the various groups of the Pythiaceae, in which,

as has been set forth, the sporangia are frequently, if not regularly,

terminal on slender filaments, and discharge always or at least in large

part, by means of an apical papilla or an apical evacuation tube. As

proliferation enables a number of sporangia to be produced in place of

one, often at a considerable distance from the vegetative mycelium

in which the frequently long sporangiferous hypha has its origin, an

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 441

economy of material in addition to that accruing from the slenderness

of the hypha is made possible. DeBary in his discussion (8) of Pyth-

tum proliferum, early pointed out that proliferation of a secondary

sporangium within or from within an evacuated primary one, was

essentially similar to the production of a second sporangium either

immediately beneath the basal septum setting off the first, or at some

distance on a prolongation of the supporting hypha. Butler later dis-

cussed more fully the similarity between subsporangial branching and

proliferation, stating that subsporangial branching “‘is especially to be

expected where growth is vigorous, but conditions are not such as to

favor zoospore formation.’’ Now one of the chief differences between

a terrestrial and an aquatic habitat is that in the former, conditions

suitable for mycelial growth and for production of sporangia are natu-

rally much less frequently concomitant with conditions suitable for

zoospore formation, in which process sporangial dehiscence is necessa-

rily entailed, than in the latter. Therefore, if allowance is made for the

developmental adaptation appropriate for this lack of concomitance,

and for an additional adaptation in ready detachability of sporangia—an

adaptation for dispersal by such atmospheric agencies as wind or mov-

ing rain water—it becomes apparent that a nested or serial arrange-

ment of sporangial envelopes on a single axial filament constitutes the

aquatic counterpart of the spicate arrangement revealed by the more

nearly terrestrial or even foliicolous forms, as, for example, Phytoph-

thora infestans (Mont.) DeBary and the species usually designated as

Phytophthora cactorum (Cohn and Leb.) Schroet.

When the fungus from decaying cat-tail tissue is cultivated on agar

substrata some temporary sporangia of typical bursiform shape may

be produced, these making their appearance most often on the surface

of the culture, and there preferably in places where small quantities of

free liquid water, as, for example, droplets of water of condensation,

are available. Ordinarily, however, the reproductive bodies pro-

duced within and on the surface of substantially dry substrata or mod-

erately hard agar media, or, for that matter, in liquid media containing

plenty of food material in which a mycelium has been left growing un-

disturbed for a week or more, are of approximately spherical shape

(Fig. 1, C; Fig. 4, A-D). They exhibit the various kinds of attachment

shown by the temporary sporangia, though, as might be expected, they

are more often borne on relatively short hyphal branches. With

regard to size they show, especially when formed in large numbers, an

approach to uniformity that may be held to indicate some degree of

representativeness of the morphology of the species. Measurements

442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

of the diameter of 100 of the spherical bodies, produced on string-bean

agar (decoction of 500 grams green pods of Phaseolus vulgaris L., 20

grams agar-agar, with water sufficient to make up to 1 liter) and se-

lected at random 15 days after planting yielded values expressed to the

nearest micron as follows: 32y, 1; 33y, 3; 34u, 4; 35y, 1; 36n, 6; 37n, 9;

38, 10; 39u, 10; 40u, 11; 41u, 10; 42u, 8; 43, 5; 44u, 8; 45u, 2; 46u, 6;

48 u, 2;49u, 2; 50u, 1; 51y, 1. From these values an average of 40.4

was computed.

Although the typically bursiform sporangia, as also the typically

subspherical structures, can sometimes be found with very little ad-

mixture of one another, the two kinds of reproductive bodies more often

appear side by side in variable proportions. Ordinarily, too, inter-

gradations of all sorts can be observed. Therefore little doubt can be

entertained that the two types of bodies are homologous structures.

They are, for the most part, also similar in function, for when the

subspherical bodies are put in water within several weeks or often

even within two or three months after being formed, zoospores are

produced following developmental processes entirely similar to those

described for the bursiform bodies. The two types differ, however,

with respect to longevity, since the bursiform sporangia can not very

readily be kept alive for a period of more than two or three weeks,

whereas the globose bodies frequently show after three months a

vitality little impaired except for an increasing tendency from zoospore

formation toward vegetative germination. A parallelism to the bodies

concerned in the asexual reproduction of the fungus I described in an

earlier paper (10) as Plectospira gemmifera is easily recognizable. For

manifestly the bursiform sporangia, like the complexes of inflated

elements in the Saprolegniaceous fungus, are essentially short-lived

structures generally formed under conditions suitable for immediate

production of zoospores; whereas the subspherical bodies are long-lived

structures generally formed under conditions little suitable for imme-

diate production of zoospores.

As the subspherical sporangium becomes older, a central vacuole or

reserve globule becomes larger and larger, until after several months

the granular protoplasm is reduced to a relatively thin parietal layer

(Fig. 4, E, F). It appears probable that some increase in thickness of

the enveloping wall also takes place, as after evacuation, the empty

membrane of an older sporangium (Fig. 4, G, H) shows somewhat less

relaxation than that of a younger one. Whether the responsibility of

conserving the fungus during unfavorable periods devolves entirely

upon the globose sporangia is not known, though certainly oospores

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 443

have not hitherto been found in any cultures either mixed or pure, in

spite of the varied substrata and the varied cultural conditions that

have been brought into play.

The persistent failure of the fungus under consideration to form sex-

ual organs may perhaps indicate a difference of taxonomic import sep-

arating it from Pythiogeton utriforme and Pythiogeton transversum.

However, among aquatic fungi including those of indubitably homo-

thallic nature, strains to be recognized as unquestionably conspecific,

nevertheless often show marked differences in regard to the readiness

with which the sexual reproductive stage can be induced. Nor is it to

be forgotten that von Minden harbored misgivings concerning the

actual association of the two sorts of sexual apparatus observed by him

in gross cultures with the sporangium-bearing species to which he some-

what provisionally assigned them. Indeed, some misgivings might

even be entertained concerning the sexual character of the structures

which von Minden presented as oogonium, antheridium and oospore

of Pythiogeton utriforme. For the fusion of oospore wall with oogonial

wall necessarily brings into the question the morphological separate-

ness of the two; the antheridium as figured shows neither the shape

nor the relative size usual for male organs; and the ripe oospore be-

sides being surrounded by a wall which in respect to thickness is most

extraordinary, would not seem to reveal in its contents any type of

organization recognized as distinctive of oospores. However these dis-

turbing considerations are far from being decisive. ‘The unusually

thick oospore wall, the massiveness of which would be elsewhere, and

perhaps even here is interpretable as the result of gelatinous swelling

accompanying degeneration of the contained protoplast, is at any rate

found also in the unambiguously sexual apparatus attributed to the

congeneric Pythiogeton transversum. In Pythium complens and even

more in Pythium salpingophorum and Pythium papillatum Matth. (18),

the oogonial envelope is extensively fused with the oospore wall; yet in

spite of such fusion, and in spite moreover, of the absence of any anthe-

ridia in Pythvwm papillatum and the usual absence of male organs in

Pythium salpingophorum, the presence of authentic oospores or of

homologous parthenospores in these species is sufficiently attested

in an internal organization revealing unmistakably a central reserve

globule, a parietal protoplasmic layer and an imbedded refringent body,

in addition to an external wall of moderate, not excessive, thickness.

It may be noted in this connection that the fusion of oogonial and

oospore walls apparent in the three fungi last mentioned, while not as

thoroughgoing as in the sexual apparatus ascribed to Pythiogeton utri-

444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

forme, nevertheless abates very considerably the foreignness to the

genus Pythiwm which von Minden imputed to this feature. Similarly

the involvement of the filament bearing one of the sexual organs by the

filament bearing the other is certainly no longer unknown among

species of Pythium. Indeed such involvement might very probably

have been discovered in the latter genus much earlier, but for optical

difficulties, which today, with transparent artificial substrata and

greatly improved equipment, can at least in some instances be more

successfully overcome. ‘Thus in favorable preparations of the fungus

described by Braun (5) under the binomial Pythiuwm complectens, but

which almost certainly must have been the same as that from which

DeBary earlier drew at least one of the figures (3: pl. 5, fig. 4) illustrat-

ing the sexual apparatus of his Pythiwm vexans, the antheridial branch

can be seen to pass around the oogonial stalk usually to the extent of a

half turn, or of awhole turn. In Pythiwm pervilum Drechsl. branching

prolongations of the antheridial hypha are often wrapped for several

turns about the oogonial hypha. Recently Vanterpool and Truscott

(26) described a fungus under the binomial Pythiwm volutum, the

antheridial hyphae of which are stated to coil commonly around the

oogonial stalk, or less frequently around an adjacent hypha. To be

sure in these various species, the involvement found would seem

scarcely comparable with that described and figured for Pythiogeton

transversum, being neither constant in occurrence, nor especially regular

in a geometrical sense. In Pythiwm helicoides, however, involvement

of the oogonial hypha by a filamentous element having a close mycelial

relationship to one of the male organs is both regular in occurrence and

of conspicuous geometrical symmetry; and similar helicoid inwrapment

occurs, though with less constancy, in all the immediately related

species of which I have seen any sexual apparatus at all. It is not

improbable, therefore, that when the mycelial relationships of the sex-

ual organs of the fungus discussed by Kanouse under the name Pythio-

morpha gonapodioides are better known, the same sort of coiling will be

recognized among the morphological features of that form. In that

event Kniep’s (17) characterization of the antheridial branches found

in Pythiomorpha together presumably with those of Pythrogeton as

“den Oogonstiel oft spiralig umschlingende Schlauche,’’—a characteri-

zation to be explained most plausibly perhaps as the result of a misun-

derstanding of Kanouse’s statement that ‘The antheridial branch

winds about the oogonium,’’—would receive factual confirmation to the

extent to which Kanouse’s fungus might be held to be representative of

Pythiomorpha.

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 445

For such representativeness neither the original application nor most

subsequent usage offers much support. The irregular intramatrical

hyphae and the emission of ready-fashioned zoospores from the sporan-

gia, ascribed by Petersen to the fungus on which the genus in question

was based, points rather definitely to a species of Phytophthora with a

proliferating habit. Because of the same considerations, supported

besides by additional similarity suggested in the application of the an-

theridium near the base of the oogonium, von Minden’s account of his

Pythtomorpha gonapodiordes likewise indicates, and with even greater

probability, a proliferous species of Phytophthora. Similarly prolife-

rous species of Phytophthora would seem to be represented also in the

fungi newly described by Ito and Nagai under the binomials Pythio-

morpha miyabeana and Pythtomorpha oryzae, the ostensibly intercalary

“gemmae”’ of which show unmistakable general resemblance to the pro-

miscuously vegetatively proliferous bodies apparently interpretable as

sporangia of frustrated development, that are often formed terminally

on extramatrical hyphae in various species of Phytophthora, as, for

example, in notable abundance in the American pink-rot fungus to

which reference was made in an earlier paper (11) as Phytophthora

erythroseptica, and which later was described by Tucker (25) as an

independent species under the binomial Phytophthora drechslerv.

Owing to the absence of sexual structures, and to the somewhat incon-

stant and often rather rudimentary development of the evacuation

tube, the immediate affinities of Pythiwm undulatum which Apinis (1)

transferred to Pythiomorpha remain much more conjectural. If it

be assumed—what there is much reason to doubt—that the Pythi-

aceous plants dealt with by the several authors under the specific term

undulatum were, indeed, all conspecific, articulation with such more

exceptional proliferous types as Pythiwm anandrum, or Pythium pro-

liferum or even Pythium megalacanthum may be as well within the

realm of possibility as membership in the helicoides series or in Phytoph-

thora. In any case it is apparent that representatives of at least

two groups of Pythiaceous fungi, separated by very obvious differences

in their more distinctive antheridial relationships and in oospore

structure, have been assigned to Pythtomorpha; and of the two only the

one less frequently, and apparently also less correctly, thus assigned

would conform to the characterization by Kniep relative to the coiling

of antheridial filaments in the manner illustrated presumptively in

Pythiogeton transversum. It is to be noted, moreover, that in all

species of Pythiuwm in which involvement has been observed, the anthe-

ridial branch winds about the oogonial hypha, whereas in Pythiogeton

446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

transversum, according to von Minden’s account, the reverse condition

is the one more abundantly represented, the prevailing relationship

being therefore more comparable to that occurring in various species of

Aphanomyces, as, for example, in A. camptostylus Drechsl., in A. clado-

gamus Drechsl., and in the form from pansy roots which Meurs (21)

designated, though evidently somewhat unhappily, as A. euteiches

Pb a2:

Although appearance of the antheridium at a very early stage in the

development of the oogonium, held by von Minden to be a distinctive

feature of the genus Pythiogeton, is not frequent among species of Pyth-

vum, approximately equally early development of the male organs is to

be observed in the two species described by me (12) under the names

Pythium polymastum and Pythium mastophorum. Early appearance

of the antheridium is to be noticed also in cultures of the closely related

fungus that Buisman (6) and later Diddens (8) found occurring on

flax roots in Holland and discussed under the binomial Pythiwm

megalacanthum.

Evidently then some of the features which von Minden considered as

distinguishing Pythiogeton from Pythium are in reality not altogether

foreign to the latter genus. Yet after making allowance for the similar-

ities to one or another of the various series of forms included in Pythium,

the fungi assigned to Pythiogeton present in common such a degree of

distinctiveness that continued maintenance of the separate genus for

them seems altogether appropriate. However, disposition of the fun-

gus isolated from decaying cat-tail material to a place within this genus

is In some degree, a matter of conjecture. The uncertainty surround-

ing such disposition is due mainly to the fact that von Minden directed

his attention more to features pertaining to the genus than to the pecu-

liarities marking each of the several species. Indeed, it is probable

that in the water cultures employed by him the sort of peculiarities

that contribute largely to the individuality of a species may not have

been well expressed. The problematical taxonomic import attaching

to the greater width of the vegetative hyphae found in cultures of the

present fungus, and to the absence of a sexual stage, has already been

discussed. Significant differences from the description of Pythiogeton

utriforme can perhaps be read into the frequent production of an inter-

calary sporangium a very short distance from the tip of the supporting

hypha, as well as into the much shorter period of motility of the

zoospores, though ordinarily such details would not impress one as

especially decisive. The smaller dimensions of the sporangium and the

inferior length of the distal hyphal appendage, when an appendage is

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 DRECHSLER: A SPECIES OF PYTHIOGETON 447

present, would seem to indicate somewhat more definitely that the fun-

gus under consideration is not to be identified as Pythiogeton transver-

sum. Even when sporangia are borneindense arrangement or in heaped

masses (Fig. 1, B, a), no conspicuous branching of stout sporangiferous

hyphae, such as was set forth in von Minden’s description of Pythio-

geton ramosum, is to be observed. ‘The sporangia of Sparrow’s Pythio-

geton ramosum, generally measuring, according to the description of

that author, 60y in length and 20u in greatest transverse diameter, are

evidently considerably smaller than those of the fungus in question;

and similar inferiority in size is to be inferred with respect to the sub-

spherical sporangia of Pythium diacarpum which Butler described

as having a diameter of about 30u. That the fungus in question is

different from any of the forms originally described as species of Pythio-

geton or presumed to be referable to that genus certainly can not be at

all strongly asserted. Yet, on the other hand, to assert an identity

with any one of these forms would be even more difficult, as such asser-

tion would entail outright contradiction of some part of the very

limited body of diagnostic detail contained in the descriptions. The

fungus is therefore described here, somewhat reluctantly, as a new

species.

Pythiogeton autossytum sp. nov.

Intramatrical mycelium composed of hyphae branching mostly at rather

wide angles and at moderate intervals, measuring 1.6 to 7.0u in diameter,

each element maintaining usually a nearly uniform width from origin to tip,

the wider axial hyphae of straightforward course, the shorter branches

usually with somewhat abrupt changes in direction, and often bearing ap-

presscria in groups of 5 to 10 or more; the individual appressorium distended

clavate, mostly 10 to 13y in diameter and 20 to 30yu in length, after functional

frustration often growing out into irregular processes of somewhat crescentic

parts. Under aquatic condition extramatrical mycelium rather meager.

Aerial mycelium on dry substrata generally meager, arachnoid, yet often

spreading rather extensively over surfaces of adjacent bodies.

Sporangium terminal or intercalary, when intercalary mostly borne only a

short distance from the tip of the supporting filament, the distal element

mostly 3 to 30u in length remaining as an empty appendage; when produced

under conditions suitable for zoospore production sometimes subspherical or

ellipsoidal, but more often markedly ventricose, utriform, or bursiform, with

the expanded part free and its axis directed athwart the axis of supporting

hypha, or occasionally bilocular as through fusion of two parts, either of

which may be subspherical or bursiform; measuring 16 to 226u, mostly 50 to

150u (average 96u) in length and 13 to 68u, mostly 30 to 54u (average 42y)

in greatest diameter; when formed under conditions unsuitable for zoospore

formation, mostly subspherical measuring usually 32 to 5ly (average 40.4)

in diameter. Evacuation tube arising often from position opposite attach-

ment of supporting filament and directed in approximate alignment with

that filament, but at other times originating from other positions; measuring

er ata es So ee ee ee EE eee

448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 15

mostly 3.5 to 7.0u (average between 5.5 and 6.0) in diameter, and 5 to 300u

in length; in cases of frustration often becoming septate, and discharging

from a branch. Zoospores formed up to approximately 100 from a single

sporangium, broadly reniform, the longitudinal furrow bearing the two cilia

well-marked, the forward end more pointed than the rounded rear end, meas-

uring mostly 18 to 20u in length and 11 to 13y in width in motile state; after

rounding up measuring mostly 13 to 17u (average 15u) in diameter; germinat-

ing individually by the production of 1 to 4 delicate germ tubes, or giving

rise to a secondary zoospore after proliferating an evacuation tube approxi-

mately 2u in diameter, and 2 to 27y in length.

Isolated from dying and decaying leaves of Typha latifolia L. collected near

Port Clinton, Ohio, October, 1931.

Mycelium ramosum, hyphis 1.6—7.0u crassis. Zoosporangia terminalia

et intercalaria globosa vel ellipsoidea plerumque 31—5ly (media cire. 40u)

diam., aut saepe elongato-ovoidea et in hyphis transverse et inaequaliter

disposita, interdum biloba, 16—226u saepius 50—150u (media cire. 96u)

longa, 13—68y saepius 30—54u (media cire. 42u) lata. Zoosporae majuscu-

lae, maturitate plerumque 13—17y diam. Oogonia et oosporae ignotae.

Hab. in foliis morientibus Typhae latifoliae, Port Clinton, Ohio.

LITERATURE CITED

. AprInis, A. Untersuchungen wiber die in Lettland gefundenen Saprolegniaceen nebst

Bemerkungen viber einige andere Wasserpilze. Acta Horti Botanici Universitatis

Latviensis 4: 201-241. 1929.

2. Bary, A. DE. Untersuchungen viber die Peronosporeen und Saprolegnieen und die

Grundlagen eines natiirlichen Systems der Pilze. Abhandl. Senckenb. Naturf.

Gesell. 12: 225-370. 1881.

3. Bary, A. DE. Zur Kenntnis der Peronosporeen. Bot. Zeit. 39: 521-530, 537-544,

553-563, 569-578, 585-595, 601-609, 617-625. 1881.

4. Bary, A. DE. Vergleichende Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze Mycetozoen und

Bacterien. 558 p. Leipzig, 1884.

5. Braun, H. Geranium stemrot caused by Pythium complectens n. sp. Jour. Agr.

Research 29: 399-419. 1924.

6. BuisMAN, C. J. Root rots caused by Phycomycetes. Meded. Phytopath. Lab. ‘‘Willie

Commelin Scholten” Baarn 11: 1-51. 1927.

7. Butter, E. J. An account of the genus Pythium and some Chytridiaceae. India

Dept. Agr. Mem., Bot. Ser. 1: 1-161. 1907.

8. DippEens, H. A. Onderzoekingen over den vlasbrand, veroorzaakt door Pythium meg-

alacanthum de Bary. 127 p. Baarn, 1931.

9. Dissmann, E. Vergleichende Studies zur Biologie und Systematik zweier Pythium-

Arten. Archiv fiir Protistenkunde 60: 142-192. 1927.

10. DrecusteR, C. The beet water mold and several related root parasites. Jour. Agr.

Research 38: 309-361. 1929.

11. DrecusuER, C. Repetitional diplanetism in the genus Phytophthora. Jour. Agr.

Research 40: 557-573. 1930.

12. DrecHsLER, C. Some new species of Pythium. This JouRNAL 20: 398-418. 1930.

13. DrecustEeR, C. A crown-rot of hollyhocks caused by Phytophthora megasperma n.

sp. This JoURNAL 21: 513-526. 1981.

14. Epson, H. A. Rheosporangium aphanidermatum, a new genus and species of fungus

parasitic on sugar beets and radishes. Jour. Agr. Research 4: 279-292. 1915.

15. Ivo, S. and Nagar, M. On the rot-disease of the seeds and seedlings of rice plant caused

by some aquatic fungi. Jour. Fac. Agr. Hokkaido Imp. Univ. 32: 45-69. 1931.

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16. Kanousrt, B. B. Physiology and Morphology of Pythiomorpha gonapodioides.

Bot. Gaz. 79: 196-206. 1925.

17. Knrep,H. Die Sexualitdt der niederen Pflanzen. 544 p. Jena, 1928.

18. MatrHews, V. D. Nowakowskiella and a new species of Pythium. Jour. Elisha

Mitchell Sci. Soc. 48: 229-232. 1928.

19. Matruews, V. D. Studies on the genus Pythium. 136 p. Chapel Hill, 1931.

20. MinpEen, M. von. Bettrdége zur Biologie und Systematik einheimischer submerser

Phycomyceten. Mykologische Untersuchungen und Berichte von Dr. Richard Falck

1: 146-255. 1916.

21. Meurs, A. Wortelrot, veroorzaakt door schimmels uit de geslachten Pythium Prings-

heim en Aphanomyces de Bary. 95 p. Baarn, 1928.

22. PeTersEeN, H. E. An account of Danish freshwater Phycomycetes. Ann. Mycol.

8: 494-560. 1910.

23. Sparrow, F. K., Jr. Observations on the aquatic fungi of Cold Spring Harbor. My-

cologia 24: 268-303. 1982.

24. Trow, A. H. Observations on the biology and cytology of Pythium ultimum, n. sp.

Ann. Bot. 15: 269-312. 1901.

25. Tucker, C. M. Taxonomy of the genus Phytophthora de Bary. Missouri Agr.

Exp. Stat. Research Bull. 153. 208 p. 1931.

26. VANTERPOOL, T. C. and Truscott, J. H. L. Studies on browning root rot of cereals

II. Some parasitic species of Pythium and their relation to the disease. Canad.

Jour. Research 6: 68-98. 1932.

27. Warp, H.M. Observations on the genus Pythium (Pringsh.). Quart. Jour. Micros.

Sei. 23: 485-515. 1883.

ENTOMOLOGY .—Strategus simson L. and related West Indian

species (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae).1 Epwarp A. CHAPIN, Bureau

of Entomology. (Communicated by HARoLD Morrison.)

In connection with a taxonomic study of the Cuban Dynastinae, all

available material of the supposed species Strategus titanus (Fab.) was

examined. This “‘species’’ is found on various islands of the West

Indies, the 163 specimens at hand coming from Jamaica, Cuba, Santo

Domingo, Navassa, Porto Rico, and St. Croix. Each of the four major

islands of this list supports a form which differs consistently from the

others in certain external characteristics and in the conformation of the

aedeagus. A single specimen from Navassa, the only one seen, ap-

pears to be identical with specimens of similar development from Santo

Domingo, and a few specimens from St. Croix are like corresponding

individuals from Porto Rico. One specimen, a female, from near Jean

Rabal, Haiti, certainly belongs to the Cuban species and not to the

native; its presence in Haiti is evidence of the shifting of species by

commerce or by some natural agency.

Up to the present, five names have been proposed in this group.

These are given below in chronological order of their publication and

an effort has been made to apply them to one or another of the species

recognized here as distinct. |

1 Received June 8, 1932.

450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 15

Scarabaeus simson L., 1758.—This species was based solely on the works

relating to the Jamaican fauna of Sloane? and of Browne, in which works the

insect is passably figured. There can be no argument against the acceptance

of this name for the Jamaican species.

Scarabaeus eurytus Fab., 1775.—This name is said to be based on a female

specimen from the Hunter Collection and is accompanied by a description

too inadequate to insure recognition. The type specimen, now at Glasgow,

has been reexamined, and is a small male. The species is considered by

R. A. Staig, 1931, as a synonym of S. titanus Fab.

Scarabaeus titanus Fab., 1775.—For some reason not evident to the present

writer, Fabricius transferred the Linnean name, S. szmson, to an Indian

(East or West ?) species said to be related to S. acteon L. and established

the new name titanus for the Jamaican species, citing the volumes of Drury

and Sloane. As Drury had already adopted the Linnean name in his work,

and as the Sloane citation by Fabricius is identical with the Sloane citation

by Linnaeus 1758, and as Drury’s figure evidently refers to the Jamaican

species, this Fabrician name must drop into synonymy under S. s¢mson L.

Scarabaeus aenobarbus Fab., 1775.—Again it appears impossible to identify

this species from the description. The type is in the Hunter collection and in

1792 Fabricius himself merged this species with S. ewrytus Fab. Olivier has

included Jamaican specimens under this name and it appears that he con-

sidered Fabricius’s specimen a small male of S. st¢mson L. An examination

of the type has been made by R. A. Staig, 1931, and he places this name in the

synonymy of S. tetanus Fab.

Scarabaeus ajax Oliv., 1789.—The locality whence came the type of this

species was not known to Olivier but an examination of his published figure

leaves no doubt in the writer’s mind that Olivier was dealing with the Cuban

form. The development of the anterior thoracic horn as portrayed is typical

of this species only.

Thus there are two names, szmson and ajax, available for two of the four

species now before the writer, and these four may be distinguished in the

following manner.

KEY TO MALES

1. Posterior margin of sixth: abdominal sternite set with multiple rows of

long, gently curved, contiguous hairs; lateral lobes of aedeagus each

without angular prominence on outer margin near apex (Figures

De 10) o ORLO. TIC, ot LGIN cuss a fear, ee ae ee barbigerus n. sp.

Posterior margin of sixth sternite set with a single, or at most a double,

row of long, straight hairs, which are spaced by at least their own

diameters; lateral lobes of aedeagus each with a more or less well

developed angular prominence on outer margin near apex........ 2

2. Discal portion of elytra without ocellate punctures; in specimens of major

development the anterior median horn widened and rather deeply

forked at apex, and the posterior lateral horns long and slender

(aedeagus asim Pigure 1) Wamaicas... aeeseice ee simson L.

? For complete citations, see under respective species below.

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 CHAPIN: STRATEGUS SIMSON 451

Discal portion of elytra with more or less regular rows of ocellate punc-

tures; anterior median horn never strongly widened or deeply forked

at apex, posterior lateral horns never long and slender............ 3

3. Lateral margin of each lobe of aedeagus extended near apex in a spiniform

process (Figures 2, 3); males of major development not seen, possibly

absent; anterior median horn of pronotum slender; Santo Domingo,

I VENTGISSE Lg: ne RRR Gatiie Aria LER oe ra ee | ee ae ne laterispinus n. sp.

Lateral margin of each lobe of aedeagus not extended in a spiniform

process (Figure 4); males of major development frequent; anterior

median horn of pronotum usually stout and parallel-sided; Cuba

fuimoauced on_Santo Damingo)i.. $252). 50... 0.5 Sie. ee ajax Oliv.

KEY TO FEMALES

1. Disecal portion of elytra without ocellate punctures (pygidium as in

JP TGA TIR® . 70))5) Ss Se eae Rae oe i easement RO ar on simson L.

Discal portion of elytra with at least two, sometimes with several, in-

comprare rows of ocellate-pumctures. 6... ol ee ee 2

2. Pygidium not strongly protuberant at middle (Figure 10) and not over-

hanging the apical margin of the sclerite, its apical portion sparsely

[SESE BRUNE 0 beh ae a corte te fea eae ty Paeeat Want aA cele barbigerus n. sp.

Pygidium strongly protuberant at middle (Figures 8, 9), overhanging the

apical margin of the sclerite, its entire surface densely punctured or

SOMNOUIINE (8. ek al Oh ee a laterispinus n. sp. and ajax Oliv.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

The four species described below have the following characteristics in

common.

Size large to very large, from 24 to 42 mm. (exclusive of horn), form robust,

sides subparallel, apical half of elytra broadly rounded, color castaneous to

piceous-black, vestiture of pygidium and underparts ferrugineous. Head

subtriangular, apex of clypeus truncate and reflexed in male, minutely bi-

dentate in female, clypeofrontal suture bearing two small, widely separated

tubercles. Pronotum polished, finely margined and finely to coarsely sculp-

tured just inside marginal bead, with an anterior median excavation which,

in the male, is bounded posterolaterally by two more or less well-developed

horns or bosses, anterior margin of male prolonged at middle in a horn, the

apex of which is usually notched. -Elytra dull, alutaceous. Propygidium

with a median series of coarse stridulatory ridges. Pygidium of male strongly

convex, of female from nearly vertical to strongly convex. Posterior margin

of sixth sternite of male broadly truncate to emarginate. Anterior tibia

quadri- (rarely tri-) dentate, anterior tarsus about as long as anterior tibia.

Middle and posterior tibiae each with two well-developed oblique setigerous

ridges, apex of middle tibia with two nearly equal acutely triangular digita-

ee, posterior tibia with three unequal digitations, the middle always the

smallest.

In the descriptions which follow, it is to be understood that there is ne

definite line of demarcation between major and minor forms in the male sex.

In each case, the extremes of variation have been described.

STRATEGUS SIMSON (Linnaeus)

Scarabaeus major niger tricornis Sloane, 1725, Voyage Jamaica, Vol. 2, p.

205, Pl. 237, Figs. 4, 5.

Fig. 1.—Apical view of aedeagus of S. simson (L.), Jamaica.—Fig. 2.—Apical view

of aedeagus of S. laterispinus n. sp., Santo Domingo.—Fig. 3.—Apical view of aedeagus

of S. laterispinus n. sp., Navassa I.—Fig. 4.—Apical view of aedeagus of S. ajax (Oliv.),

Cuba.—Figure 5.—Apical view of aedeagus of S. barbigerus n. sp., Porto Rico.—Figure

6.—Apical view of aedeagus of S. barbigerus n. sp., St. Croix.—Figure 7.—Profile of

pygidium of female of S. simson (L.), Jamaica.—Figure 8.—Profile of pygidium of

female of S. ajax (Oliv.), Cuba.—Figure 9.—Profile of pygidium of female of S. lateri-

spinus, n. sp., Santo Domingo.—Figure 10.—Profile of pygidium of female of S. barbi-

gerus n. sp., Porto Rico.

452

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 CHAPIN: STRATEGUS SIMSON 453

Scarabaeus 4 Browne, 1756, History Jamaica, p. 428, Pl. 48, Fig. 6 (work

not seen, citation taken from Linnaeus 1758).

Scarabaeus simson Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, p. 345 (above works

cited).

Scarabaeus simson Drury, 1770, Illust. Ins., Vol. 1, Pl. 36, Figs. 3, 4.

Scarabaeus titanus Fabricius, 1775, Syst. Ent., Vol. 1, p. 10 (cites Sloane,

and Drury).

Scarabaeus aenobarbus Fabricius, 1775, Syst. Ent., Vol. 1, p. 10.

Scarabaeus eurytus Fabricius, 1787, Mant. Ins., Vol. 1, p. 5.

Scarabaeus aenoburbns Fabricius, 1787, Mant. Ins., Vol. 1, p. 6 (misprint).

Scarabaeus 4 (Scarabaeus simson on plate), Browne, 1789, History Jamaica,

p. 428, Pl. 48, Fig. 6 (apparently identical with Browne, 1756, except for

addition of Linnaean name on plate).

Scarabaeus titanus Olivier, 1789, Ent., Vol. 1, Pt. 3, p. 26, Pl. 5, Fig. 38.

Strategus titanus Burmeister, 1847, Handb. Ent., Vol. 5, p. 136 (pars).

Scarabaeus titanus Staig, 1931, Fabrician Types Ins. Hunter Colln., Coleopt.,

Pt. 1, pp. 80-83, PI. 24.

Pronotum. Male, major development: Anterior horn about twice as long

as diameter of head across eyes, rectangular in cross section near base, upper

lateral margins finely but distinctly beaded, dorsal surface with but a faint

trace of median carina, sides divergent anteriorly so that extreme apex is

about twice as wide as narrowest part, apex deeply, triangularly notched, the

points on either side of the emargination acute. Posterior lateral horns

elongate, compressed, each nearly as long as anterior horn, with sides con-

vergent to the rounded apex. Pronotal surface shining, impunctate. Male,

minor development: Anterior horn conical, about one-third as long as di-

ameter of head across eyes, extreme apex with a small triangular notch.

Posterior lateral horns reduced to low bosses, each finely and rather densely

punctured. Female: Anterior horn reduced to a minute tubercle placed

about twice its diameter behind the anterior margin of the pronotum, pos-

terior lateral horns absent; behind the tubercle a circular depression whose

diameter is from one-fourth to one-third the greatest diameter of the pro-

notum; surface of the depression, anterior third of pronotum, and flanks

coarsely sculptured, rest of surface finely and rather sparsely punctured.

Elytra. Lateral margin finely beaded, sutural margin broader and set off

from dise of elytron by a deep, crenulated groove. Surface minutely and

moderately closely punctured, with a few coarser punctures scattered over the

surface. No trace of longitudinal rows of punctures on dise but with two or

three partial rows of ocellate punctures on basal half below humerus.

Pygidium. Male: Strongly convex, basal third moderately densely clad

with long hairs, apical margin at middle with a thickened lip which is simi-

larly hairy. Surface sparsely and rather coarsely punctured. Female:

Vestiture similar to that of male, ccntour less convex, surface more coarsely

punctured. At sides, broadly and shallowly depressed along apical margin.

Figure 7.

Last sternite. Male: Surface impunctate, apex broadly truncate, margin

set with a single, and across truncature with a double, row of stiff hairs.

Female: Surface strongly sculptured basally, finely and very sparsely

punctured apically, apex not truncate, margin set with hairs as in male.

Aedeagus, Figure 1.

Type locality.— Jamaica.

454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 15

Apparently a common species on the island. Thirteen males and twenty-

five females from the following localities have been seen: Mandeville, Man-

chester; Balaclava, St. Elizabeth; Bazon Hill, Trelauney; Kingston; Bath;

Port Antonio; Cuna Cuna; Arntally; Snug Harbor, Montego Bay. Among

the individuals examined, males of major development are fairly common.

Possibly of economic interest in connection with the banana industry, as

specimens occasionally enter this country on bunches of the fruit.

STRATEGUS AJAX (Olivier)

Scarabaeus ajax Olivier, 1789, Ent., Vol. 1, Pt. 3, p. 27, Pl. 2, Fig. 10.

Strategus titanus Burmeister, 1847, Handb. Ent., Vol. 5, p. 136 (pars).

Pronotum. Male, major development: Anterior horn stout, a little longer

than diameter of head across eyes, rectangular in cross section throughout

most of its length, upper lateral margins acute, lower lateral margins in-

distinctly beaded, dorsal surface usually with a well defined though not acute

carina, sides nearly parallel, apex with a shallow, triangular notch, the points

on either side of the emargination subacute. Posterior lateral horns reduced

to low compressed pyramidal bosses, acute at apices, with anterior (vertical)

margins acute, posterior (horizontal) margins rounded and joined across

dise in an even are, which occasionally is slightly produced on the median

line. Pronotal surface smooth, finely and sparsely punctured except in the

excavation. Male, minor development: Anterior horn conical, about half as

long as the diameter of an eye, extreme apex minutely notched. Posterior

lateral horns effaced. Pronotal surface distinctly and moderately densely

punctured. Female: Similar in development to that of S. s¢mson (L.).

Elytra. Lateral and sutural margins much as in S. simson (L.) but with

the subsutural groove less deep and more distinctly crenulated. Surface

with a mixture of very minute and fine punctures, with five or six partial

longitudinal rows of ocellate punctures on dise and with as many more below

humerus.

Pygidium. Similar to that of S. szmson (L.) except that in the female it is

more evenly and strongly convex. Figure 8.

Last sternite. Male: Surface with a few fine, scattered punctures and

with some slight sculpturing at sides near base, apex broadly, transversely

emarginate, margin with vestiture as in S. simson (L.). Female: As in

S. simson (L.).

Aedeagus, Figure 4.

Type locality—Unknown but apparently Cuba.

A common species over the island, associated at least occasionally with

Agave fourcroydes Lem. Thirty males and thirty-seven females have been

examined, coming from the following localities: Cuba: Pinar del Rio City;

Havana—Santiago de las Vegas, Havana City; Santa Clara—Cayamas,

Cienfuegos; Camaguey—Nuevitas, Baragua, Estrella, Jaronu; Oriente—

Santiago de Cuba, Baracoa, Guantanamo. Santo Domingo: Haiti—Jean

Rabal.

Strategus laterispinus n. sp.

Pronotum. Male, major development: No specimen at all comparable

in development to major forms of S. stmson (L.) and S. ajax (Oliv.) seen.

Anterior horn about half as long as diameter of head across eyes, rectangular

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 CHAPIN: STRATEGUS SIMSON 455

in cross section, upper Jateral margins and dorsal carina subacute, lower

lateral margins not sharply defined, sides parallel, apex with small triangular

notch, points on either side of emargination blunt. Posterior lateral horns

very low, each arising to a compressed, subacute apex. Pronotal surface

finely, evenly, and sparsely punctured except in the excavation, which is im-

punctate but usually with more or less coarse sculpture in its anterolateral

regions. Male, minor development: Anterior horn conical, about as long

as the diameter of an eye, evenly rounded from side to side above, subentire

at apex. Posterior lateral horns almost effaced. Punctation and sculpture as

above. Female: Anterior horn virtually absent, visible as a minute tubercle

on only an occasional specimen. Anterior half of circular depression more

coarsely sculptured than posterior, sides of pronotum likewise more coarsely

sculptured than usual, surface otherwise finely and sparsely punctured.

Elytra. Much as in S. ajax (Oliv.) but with ocellate punctures more

densely placed, the rows reaching almost onto the subapical callosities and

with the subsutural groove finer and less deep.

Pygidium. Male: Strongly convex, basal fourth densely clad with long

hairs, apical margin at middle with thickened lip which is sparsely clad with

hair. Surface not polished, finely and rather indefinitely punctured, rather

coarsely sculptured at sides. Female: Strongly convex, almost as in the

male, coarsely punctured or sculptured over entire surface. Lateral de-

pressions deep and moderately broad. Vestiture asin male. Figure 9.

Last sternite. As in the corresponding sexes of S. ajax (Oliv.).

Aedeagus, Figures 2, 3.

Type locality.—Santo Domingo: Haiti, Manville.

Type and five paratypes in the American Museum of Natural History,

seven paratypes in the U. S. National Museum, Cat., No. 44111.

Type, a male from Manville, June 10, 1922, paratypes from Haiti: Man-

ae ; Republica Dominicana—Puerto Plata, Sanchez, San Francisco; Navassa

sland.

Strategus barbigerus n. sp.

Strategus titanus Smyth, 1920, Journ. Dept. Agr. Porto Rico, Vol. 4, pp. 7-21,

Pl. 3. (err. det.).

Pronotum. Male, major development: Anterior horn about as long as

diameter of head across eyes, rectangular in cross section near base, upper

lateral margins subacute, dorsal carina absent, dorsal surface conspicuously

punctured, sides divergent anteriorly so that extreme apex is half again as

wide as narrowest part, apex deeply, triangularly notched, points on either

side of notch subacute. Posterior lateral horns short, obtuse, compressed,

margins not acute, extreme apices right angled. Pronotal surface, including

excavation, finely and sparsely punctured. Male, minor development:

Anterior horn short, stout, conical, apex minutely notched, posterior lateral

horns effaced, pronotal surface, including excavation, coarsely sculptured

generally over anterior half, posterior half minutely and sparsely punctured.

Female: Anterior horn reduced virtually to extinction, anterior half of

pronotum, including the circular depression, coarsely sculptured, the sculptur-

ing invading the posterior half in the lateral thirds, rest of pronotum finely

and sparsely punctured.

Elytra. Lateral and sutural margins as in the preceding species except

that the subsutural groove is crenulate only toward dise, simple toward

suture. Surface finely and sparsely punctured, with five or six partial rows

of ocellate punctures on disc and with three strong rows and many irregularly

placed ocellate punctures below humerus.

456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

Pygidium. Male: Strongly convex, basal fifth and apical thickened mar-

gin moderately densely set with long hairs. Surface smooth and impunctate

except along margins, where it is moderately coarsely sculptured. Female:

Nearly vertical, sculptured as in S. laterispinus n. sp.. Figure 10.

Last sternite. Male: Surface impunctate, apex broadly truncate or very

feebly emarginate, margin set with multiple rows of densely placed, slightly

waved hairs, which are mostly directed away from the median line. Female:

As in S. simson (L.).

Aedeagus, Figures 5, 6.

Type locality.—Porto Rico: Aguirre.

Type and twenty-four paratypes in the U. 8. National Museum, Cat, No.

44112, twenty paratypes in American Museum of Natural History.

Type: Amale from Aguirre, July 20, 1911, J.S. Orme (P. R. Sugar Growers

Assn., No. 116-1911), paratypes: Porto Rico—Aguirre, Aibonito, Caguas,

Coamo Springs, Guanica, Isolina, Mayaguez, Ponce, San Juan, Santurce,

Santa Isabel, and from Porto Rico without definite locality; St. Croix—

Christiansted; St. John. Specimens, probably of this species, have been

reported from Vieques Island. |

Under certain conditions, this species becomes an important enemy of sugar

cane. For a detailed study of life history and economic status, see Smyth’s

paper cited above.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

489TH MEETING

The 489th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 13, President

MATTHES presiding.

Informal communication: WiLnBpuR Netson (University of Virginia) re-

ported the discovery of a coarse conglomerate about 800 feet thick, the lower

120 feet of which contains pebbles and boulders, both angular and rounded,

and from 2 to 12 inches in diameter, imbedded in a metamorphosed sediment,

now composed of feldspar, blue quartz, and mica. The lower 120 feet of

these metamorphosed sediments, which lie next to the Lovingston quartz-

monzonite, have the appearance of an augen gneiss, or a mylonite.

Above the lower 120 feet, there occurs 285 feet of conglomerate full of

pebbles from 2 to 6 inches in diameter which become more scattered toward

the top. Above this middle section of the formation is 345 feet of conglomer-

ate containing pebbles from 1 to 4 inches in diameter. ‘This upper part of

the conglomerate grades into a mica gneiss, which is correlated with the Lynch-

burg gneiss. The Lynchburg gneiss occupies a belt about one mile wide at

this point, and as it has dips of over 70 degrees entirely across its outcrop, its

exposed thickness is approximately 5,000 feet. The conglomerate and

Lynchburg gneiss have a strike of N. 30 degrees E., and dips from 70 to 80

degrees to the northwest. They are slightly overturned. The boulders and

pebbles in the basal 120 feet of the conglomerate are of quartz, granite, and a

fine-grained siliceous gneiss. These pebbles and boulders occur in clusters in

SEPTEMBER 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 457

which the pebbles are generally from 1 to 2 feet apart. The clusters are

separated by 4 or 5 feet of almost barren conglomerate.

Some of the boulders are long and narrow—approximately 2 x 6 inches,—

where seen on the weathered cross-section of the vertical beds.

On the north side of Rockfish River at the base of the conglomerate, the

Lovingston quartz-monzonite outcrops, whereas on the south side of the river

an amphibolite dike crops out, which occupies the place of contact between .

the Lovingston quartz-monzonite and the conglomerate. Also near the mid-

dle part of the conglomerate is a 75 foot off-shoot of this amphibolite dike.

There are no amphibolite pebbles in this conglomerate, or pebbles of grano-

diorite, or of Catoctin schist.

This 800 foot conglomerate is named the Rockfish conglomerate, from its

type locality on Rockfish River, and is considered to lie at the base of the

Lynchburg gneiss of which it is the basal conglomerate. It is probable that

further work will show that the Rockfish conglomerate extends to the south

in the Lynchburg area and to the north into the edge of Albemarle County.

Program: EK. H. Watson of Bryn Mawr College: The petrology of San

Carlos Mountains, Tamaulipas, Mexico.

Discussed by Messrs. KrrrH, GoLtpMAN, Stanton, Kine, Mitton, and

HEWETT.

ARTHUR KEITH: Stratigraphy and structure in western Vermont.

Discussed by Messrs. Kine, Butts, REsser, and PRINDLE.

490TH MEETING

The 490th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 27, Vice-President

Hess presiding.

Program: G. A. Cooper: A new accent in paleontologya—The recent rise

of stratigraphic paleontology has been accompanied by a waning interest in

morphological paleontology. But on the wave of stratigraphic paleontology

has come a renewed activity in the study of all groups of invertebrate fossils.

This renewed activity has brought with it a flood of new generic names,

many of which are poorly defined. The logical check on this flood of names is

sound morphological study, in which the complete anatomy of the hard parts

of the fossils is considered. Such a study is necessarily based on excellent

specimens or very well prepared fossils.

As a basis for such morphological studies chemical and physical methods for

the preparation of fossils have been developed which permit the investigator

to obtain all points of shell anatomy. When fossils are silicified their internal

structure may be obtained by etching away the calcareous matrix in dilute

acid. To obtain the muscle-marks and internal septa the shell may be sof-

tened by burning and then picked away so as to reveal the internal mold.

The dental engine facilitates the preparation of internal characters.

By obtaining complete interiors and emphasizing the total morphology of

brachiopod shells internal changes due to age may be traced, and perplexing

homeomorphs detected. In the brachiopods the internal characters give a

sound basis for classification, the conservative structures of the dorsal valve

defining the families and the variable ventral interior and external ornamenta-

tion defining the genera. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mr. Wooprina.

M. N. BRaMLETTE: Origin of the Monterey siliceous rocks of California.

Discussed by Messrs. Hess, MANSFIELD, GOLDMAN, ANDERSON, MILTON,

Rusey, Lapp, Misrr, Kine, C. 8. Ross, Bripcr, and K. E. Lowman.

458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

491SsT MEETING

The 491st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club May 11, Vice-President

Hgss presiding.

Informal communications: Cuas. Butts presented a geologic map of the

Valley of Virginia based largely on field work of his own but which includes

also all available published and unpublished material.

IF’. G. WELLs presented a new physiographic map of Oregon prepared by L.

C. Raymond of Oregon and pointed out some of the physiographic problems

studied in particular by Mr. Raymond.

Program: W. W. Ruszry: Alluvial islands: their origin and effect upon

stream regimen.—Throughout most of their courses in the States of Missouri

and Illinois, the Mississippi, Missouri, and Illinois rivers are not meandering

streams. ‘Their crooked courses are due chiefly to division of the channel by

many large alluvial islands. Yet, inasmuch as these rivers appear to be

neither aggrading nor degrading their channels, the persistence of the islands

raises several questions.

The islands are larger and more numerous near the mouths of tributary

streams. This fact, together with the occurrence in the river of small sand

bars, larger mud flats and “‘willow bars,” and large wooded islands, suggests

that the islands grow up from deposits, dropped by the heavily loaded tribu-

taries and somewhat protected by tree roots. The development of islands at

tributary mouths shifts the site of deposition riverward and thus the main

channel is progressively deflected and the original islands become part of the

flood-plain about the tributary mouths. Examples are numerous in the re-

gion of this crowding of the river channel against the bluffs opposite tributary

mouths.

The effect of the islands upon stream regimen is a problem distinct from

that of their origin. Measurements of the channel dimensions near a group

of the exceptionally stable islands in Illinois River seem to show that the

width and area of the cross-section is perceptibly greater opposite the islands

than immediately upstream and downstream. Similar relations are also

reported in other regions. The increased area of cross-section means a de-

creased velocity opposite the islands. But in a graded stream the transport-

ing power must remain constant, despite this decreased velocity, else island-

growth once started would increase without limit.

The hypothesis is offered that L, the total load transported, may vary as

Pv, the product of the wetted perimeter of the channel and some power of

the velocity. The measurements in Illinois River indicate that this power is

about 44, a value in approximate agreement with the average of 171 deter-

minations made by Gilbert. The hypothesis may be shown to agree qualita-

tively with Kennedy’s Law for the design of non-silting, non-eroding canals.

And, from the expression Pv!> « L and the Chezy formula, the equation,

2/3 |

SGU ae may be derived (where S = slope, X = oo and Q = dis-

charge). This compares fairly well with a simplification of Gilbert’s empirical

equation of general stream equilibrium previously given. If this suggested in-

verse relation between wetted perimeter and velocity in a graded stream should

be found to hold true generally, it would mean that a stream could only be fully

loaded with respect to a particular length of wetted perimeter. Widening

the same stream so as to increase its perimeter, even though the velocity was

somewhat decreased thereby, would increase the total transporting power.

(Author’s abstract.)

SEPTEMBER 19, 1952 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 459

W.S. BurBank: Relation of Cretaceous and early Tertiary igneous intrusion

to structure in Colorado.—Certain effects of the late Cretaceous and early

Tertiary structures of Colorado in controlling the intensity and locus of igne-

ous activity are apparent from an inspection of a geologic map showing the

distribution of igneous masses and the structural trends. The gradual de-

velopment of these structural trends can be traced in certain events of the

historical geology. Some major trends of the Laramide structures coincide

with or are parallel to highland trends of late Mississippian to Permian age,

and further evidence afforded by unconformities and by Paleozoic sedimenta-

tion is believed to show that the outlines of the late Cretaceous and early

Tertiary structures were an inheritance, with some modification, from the

Paleozoic.

The principal areas of igneous activity of late Cretaceous and early Ter-

tiary age coincide in part with the axial trends of the folding and thrusting of

the Laramide revolution, but also equally or even more important centers of

intrusion are entirely transverse to the axes of folding. Study of the develop-

ment of tectonic provinces in the State shows that certain kinds of structures,

which occupy transitional zones between these provinces, have exerted a

dominating control in localizing the transverse zones of igneous activity.

These transverse structural zones are probably fundamental flaws in the

crust resulting from intermittent shear and tension produced by differential

deformation in the bounding provinces. They may perhaps be represented

in more modern and superficial examples by the shearing and tensional de-

formation which Brouwer has shown to occur at the zones between major

geanticlinal provinces of the Netherlands East Indies. Such transverse struc-

tures were shown to be persistent throughout several periods of deformation

in the Tertiary to Recent formations of the East Indies. There is some evi-

dence to suggest that in Colorado conditions were favorable for the incipient

division into tectonic provinces as early as late Paleozoic.

Many of the larger intrusive centers and the more important ore deposits

of the state are situated along or close to this transverse structure. Other

and probably less important factors that have affected igneous activity and

mineralization are the thicknesses of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary

blanket, and the amount of deformation to which the rocks were subjected

preceding and during igneous intrusion. Provinces of very thin or only

moderately thick sedimentary blankets were characterized by complex vol-

canism in late Cretaceous and early Eocene time, and by important intrusion

and ore deposition of early Eocene age, especially in or near the zone of trans-

verse disturbance. On the other hand, geosynclinal provinces of thick sedi-

mentation (15,000 to 20,000 feet or more) that were also affected by strong

compressive deformation, were characterized by weak volcanism in late Cre-

taceous and early Eocene during the period of maximum compression. There

followed a long cycle of intrusion and voleanism which probably did not reach

its climax until late Eocene when compressive forces ceased or became feeble.

The retarding of volcanism by deformation is comparable to such effects as

shown by modern volcanoes of the Netherlands East Indies where deforma-

tion has extinguished voleanic phenomena along the crests of the most ac-

tive geanticlines. The ore deposits are less important in regions of maximum

thickness and deformation of sediments even where the geosyncline crosses

the trend of the transverse igneous belt. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. RuBry, REesspr, and HEWETT.

J. F. Scoarrer and W. H. Brap.ey, Secretaries.

460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 15

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. Witu1am Bowtis, Chief of the Division of Geodesy of the U. 8S. Coast

and Geodetic Survey, has recently been elected Honorary Member of the

State Russian Geographical Society.

RECENTLY ELECTED TO MEMBERSHIP IN THE ACADEMY

HERBERT GROVE Dorsey, Principal Electrical Engineer, U. 8. Coast and

Geodetic Survey. Instructor of physics at Universities of Maine, Florida and

Cornell, research engineer, Western Electric Co., National Cash Register

Co., Hammond Radio Research Lab., and Submarine Signal Co. Author of

numerous articles on magnetism, expansion, electroculture, electric furnaces,

optics, telephony and radio; inventor of several devices including dynamic

loud speaker and fathometer.

Haroup Epcar McComs, Chief, Section of Observatories and Equipment,

Division of Terrestrial Magnetism and Seismology, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic

Survey. Magnetic observer, Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1909; instructor of

physics, University of Nebraska, 1911-1914; magnetic observer, Coast and

Geodetic Survey, 1914. Author of numerous papers on general physics,

terrestrial magnetism and seismology.

WaLTER Forp Rerynoups, Chief, Section of Triangulation, Division of

Geodesy, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Author of various articles and

publications on triangulation surveys in the United States and Alaska.

Geodetic computer, Coast Survey, 1907, United States and Canada Boundary

Commission, 1908-1911; Coast Survey, 1911; Chief Section of Triangulation,

1924. |

CLARENCE HERBERT Swick, Chief, Section of Gravity and Astronomy,

Division of Geodesy, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Author of various

articles and publications on the gravity, astronomical work and longitude

determination of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. Hydrographic and

gravity surveys 1907-1909; geodetic mathematician, 1910, in charge of

editorial work of geodetic publication, 1912; Chief, Section of Gravity and

Astronomy, 1924.

FrankK N. Weipa, Professor of Mathematics, George Washington Univer-

sity. Author of articles relating to mathematical statistics and actuarial

science, also text book on analytic geometry. Head of mathematics and

science depts., St. Albans, 1914-1916; assistant in mathematics, University

of Chicago, 1916-1917, instructor in mathematics, Univ. of lowa, 1917-1924;

assistant professor of mathematics, Montana State College, 1924-1925;

assistant professor of mathematics, Lehigh Univ., 1925-1930; associate

professor of mathematics, George Washington Univ. 1930.

Pau Curnton Wuitney, Chief, Division of Tides and Currents, U. S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey. Author of various feature articles and publica-

tions including Coast Pilots. Engaged in hydrographic surveys 1903-1917;

magnetic observer on first cruise of non-magnetic yacht ‘Galilee’ of the

Carnegie Institution of Washington; Chief, Coast Pilot Section, 1919-1925;

in charge of San Francisco Field Station, 1925-1928; Chief, Division of Tides

and Currents, 1928.

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VoL. 22 OcToBER 19, 1932 No. 16, 17

BIOMETRY.—The growth of mixed populations: Two species competing

for a common food supply... AuFrRED J. LorKa, New York, N. Y.

The general analysis of the growth of mixed populations of any

number of species in mutual interdependence of any kind which has

been given by the writer in prior publications? covers many special

eases. It is of interest to note how it applies to and readily furnishes

the solution of a special case that has since been separately discussed

by Volterra,’ namely that of two species competing for a common food

supply.

Volterra, following in this respect well-established lines familiar

from prior literature,‘ starts out from the supposition that, in the

absence of restraining influences, the rate of growth of a population

would be proportional to the existing population thus

- =rN (1)

resulting in an exponential (Malthusian) law of population growth;

but that the natural limitations of the food supply convert the coeffi-

cient 7 into a diminishing function of NV. In the simplest case this

would be a linear function, so that we should have

Teo rN A — phN) (2)

1 Received August 12, 1932.

2 Among these may be mentioned Physical Review, 1912, 34: 235; Proc. American

Academy Arts and Sciences 55: 137; 1920; American Journal of Hygiene 3: January

Supplement; 1923; Elements of Physical Biology, Baltimore, 1925. This last also con-

tains references to the author’s other publications relative to this subject.

3’ Memorie delia R. Acad. Nazion. dei Lincei 1926 ser 6, vol. 2, part 3, page 5; Lecons

sur la théorie mathématique de la lutte pour la vie, Paris, Gauthiers—Villars, 1931, page 9.

‘See, for example, Lorxa, A. J., Elements of Physical Biology, 1925, page 64.

461

OCT 19 1932

462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

where ph is a constant which I have written as the product of two

constants for reasons that will appear presently. Equation (2) is

simply the Verhulst-Pearl law of population growth, which, as we

know, has been found to fit very acceptably a number of observed

examples of population growth.

Now, when two populations compete for a common food supply,

Volterra writes, essentially,

dN r

oN {1 — ms Ns + & Na)}

dN. :

LN = T

<P = nN: {1 — mM +k ND}

a system of equations that may be regarded as an almost self-evident

extension of the equation (2), except that one may question why the

same constants h, k appear in the two equations. We shall take up

this question later. For the present we shall accept Volterra’s original

setting. He does not solve his equations, but discusses certain funda-

mental properties of the functions defined by them. As a matter of

fact, by the general method set forth in my prior publications, a

solution is readily obtained in series form, and at the same time the

conclusions reached by Volterra drop out very readily, together with

further information which is not found in his discussion.

We will proceed as follows. Volterra’s equations are of the form

Ne + a, N2 + de Ny Ns

| | (4)

os s as Ne J gg Ng? oO

dN,

Equilibria. A stationary state occurs whenever and wee both

vanish together. This defines three possible equilibria (to be more

exact, stationary states) as follows:

a.) N, al) N. = 0 (5)

b.) NGO Wee (6)

Qe2 po k

“1 if

UN =O Ne=eeenee (7)

OCTOBER 19, 1932 LOTKA: GROWTH OF MIXED POPULATIONS 463

If the coefficients a are constants, there are no other equilibria within

real finite values of Ni, N>».

Stability of Equilibrium: 1. At Origin. To determine the nature of

the equilibrium at the origin (V; = 0, N2 = 0) we form the character-

istic equation of the linear terms in equations (4), that is,

Oy —2X 0

—a0) (8)

which gives

(9)

Ag = Ay

Now both a; and az, from the nature of things, are positive quantities,

since the case of real interest is that in which each species is viable

separately under the prevailing conditions. Hence both roots of the

characteristic equation are positive, and the equilibrium at the origin

is unstable.

2. At Second Equilibrium. 'To examine the character of the second

equilibrium, we transform the equations (4) to a new origin by writing

N, =N, (10)

Qr2

we thus obtain

dN Ay a

7 = (« i me) N, + ay Ni + dy Ny "|

t Are

(12)

dns A21 Ar r

aa aa Op Ne = Ns + dunt + des Nate

Q22

And, forming the characteristic equation, we find here

ie _ 2%) a 0

C22

= 0 (13)

pee Ee aah

464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

or, In our original notation,

n(a-2)-) 0

P2 ,

gla —%—XA

= 0 (14)

from which it s seen that the equilibrium is stable if, and only if

S (1 = 2) <0 (15)

1.e., if

Poe pi = 0 (16)

3. At Third Equilibrium. By the same reasoning we find that the

third equilibrium is stable if, and only if

Pi — Pr < 0 (17)

It will be seen that, except in the special® case that p2 = pu, one of

the two equilibria must be stable, the other unstable.

When p>» is not equal to pu, it is, for reasons of symmetry, immaterial

to which of the two coefficients we ascribe the greater value. Let us,

then, write

P2 < pi (18)

~ so that the second equilibrium is the stable one,

; 1

1.€. N, =0 No Sas

Pr k

The general solution of the system of equations (12) can be written

in the form of exponential series

Nz as ie ae + sh2) N, ey Obs e™ + sho) (19)

Numerical example. For the sake of obtaining a visual presentation

of the form of the functions defined by the differential equations (3),

(4), (12), and their series solution (19), several numerical examples

were worked, of which the following is here selected for reproduction

in the accompanying graph Figure 1. The values given to the various

5 This special case, as Volterra has shown, can be integrated in finite terms. It is,

however, of minor interest, since such an exact relation between the coefficients p; and

p2 represents, in concrete cases, an infinitely improbable condition.

OCTOBER 19, 1932 LOTKA: GROWTH OF MIXED POPULATIONS 465

constants in this example were arbitrary, except that in order to es-

tablish some contact with a concrete case, the values of the exponent

\i and the ultimate population N. of the one species were those

actually observed in the human population in the United States.

GROWTH CURVES FOR TWO POPULATIONS

Competing for Common Food Supply

OPULA

PUI Rr

260

240

0 ast =——_-

1700 20 60 6 80 1600 20 40 60 80 1900 20 20 60 80 2000 20 40 60 60 2100 20 2140

TIME

Figure 1.

The following is a table of the numerical values* of the several con-

stants in this example:

h 20 py 1/1,315,153,338

k 10 P2 1/10 X_ 197,273,000

To1 0.10 eT —0.03134

To2 0.03134 de —0.05

Pio — 986,365. Qio 0.0

Po +100,000. Qo 29:70.

Po. +102.85 Qo2 +72.228

Po3 +0.13084 Qos +0.14360

Pos +0.00018325 Qos +0 .00026977

Py 1,706.5 On =MOZe

Px +19.762 Qo +10.306

Pie —3.1083 Qie — 2.5999

P3 —0.19113 Q31 —0.11656

Px» +0.056626 Qos +0.053969

P43 —0.0056759 O13 —0.0069826

P.2o + 491.83 P30 — 24.66 P40 0.1233

§ A considerable number of significant figures has been retained in these constants and

throughout the computations, in order to furnish an arithmetical check on the series

solution (19). This check was obtained by substituting the solution (19) separately in

the left hand member and the right hand member of equations (4) or (12). In the ab-

sence of a special investigation of the conditions of convergence of the series (19) this

arithmetical check is necessary, and was found to be well satisfied within the limits of

the curves shown in Figure 1.

466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 16, 17

It will be seen that one of the two populations, in the circumstances

to which the graph in Fig. 1 relates, at first diminishes, presently turns

the corner, and then increases, approaching a certain straight line

asymptotically; the other population diminishes continually and

approaches zero. Thus one competitor drives the other out com-

pletely. This last point is one of the results given by Volterra’ who,

however, does not give any method for tracing the actual integral

curve in detail.

ISOCLINE DIAGRAM FOR TWO POPULATIONS

COMPETING FOR COMMON FOOD SUPE.

~50. = 50. 20. 10. 6.0

a> Z

SGrenl =

: Po

Another graph, which is particularly instructive, is prepared by

eliminating the independent variable t from the two equations (4),

and writing

Figure 2.

dN, fi (Ni, N:)

dN» Be ip (Ni, N2)

where f, and f, are quadratic functions of Ni and N». The locus of all

(20)

7 A similar conclusion had been previously reached by J. B. S. HALDANE regarding

the competition between two Mendelian phenotypes. Trans. Cambridge Philos. Soc.

23: 39; 1924.

OCTOBER 19, 1932 LOTKA: GROWTH OF MIXED POPULATIONS 467

points at which the integral curves of (20) have a slope s is given by

aN, 1

Ae =" = 5 (21)

jim SIG SW) (22)

This defines the zsoclines as a family of conics, which in point of fact

are, in the present case, hyperbolas. The construction has been car-

ried out with the results shown in Figure 2, which exhibits a number of

INTEGRAL CURVES FOR TWO POPULATIONS

COMPETING FOR COMMON FOOD SUPPLY-

PES)

“74 {|||

SS —— = ~

‘ SSE = IE =

\\ eee)

LZ)

Figure 3.

properties of the isoclines. By their aid a map of the family of integral

curves has been drawn which is reproduced here in Figure 3. A part of

the negative field has been included merely for its geometrical interest ;

it has, of course, no concrete meaning for our present problem.

The following characteristics of this map are _ particularly

noteworthy: :

At the origin of N,, N2 there is an unstable equilibrium characterized by a

stream of integral curves all directed away from the origin (when the time is

taken into consideration). ‘This corresponds to the two positive roots of

the characteristic equation. .

468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 16, 17

There is a second unstable equilibrium at N, = 1 /p,h, No = 0. Here the

integral curves approach, then turn away, avoiding the equilibrium point.

This corresponds to two roots \ of opposite sign, of the characteristic equation.

The third equilibrium at N, = 0, Ne = 1/ pek, is stable, the integral curves

streaming in from all sides. This corresponds to the two negative roots \

of the characteristic equation.

The locus of the centers of the isocline hyperbolas is a parabola. In par-

ticular, the center of the isocline for slope ~ lies at the intersection of the

parabola with the axis of N,; the center of the isocline for slope zero lies at

the intersection of the parabola with the axis of N».

The axes of N,, No themselves are isoclines, the axis of N; corresponding to

slope «, the axis of N2 corresponding to slope zero.

The second isocline for slope ~ is parallel to the second isocline for slope

0, the tangent of their inclination to the horizontal being =

Of the asymptotes of the isocline hyperbolas, one always has the inclination

-§ to the horizontal. The inclination of the other is proportional to the

slope s characteristic of the isocline to which it belongs.

Let us now briefly consider the implications of Volterra’s restriction

that hi = he, andk,; =k». The physical significance of this restriction

is, essentially, that the two species consume one and the same single

food material, or, if they consume a mixed diet, that the proportion of

each ingredient of the diet which they consume is the same for both

species.

Now this is a rather narrow and unrealistic restriction. Moreover,

if we adopt the general method of treating the subject, it is unneces-

sary. The solution applies just as well if hi + h. and ki + ky. Cer-

tain significant differences, however, appear in the result. Instead

of three equilibria in the finite field, there are now four, and one of

these may be such that not only one species survives, but both.

This is more in keeping with the facts of nature, since it is a matter

of the most common knowledge that a great variety of species of

organisms sharing certain sources of food do live together in essentially

stable equilibrium.

It is well known that the Verhulst-Pearl curve of population growth

for a single species has been found to fit very acceptably a number of

observed cases, among them the growth of the human population of

the United States, and also certain laboratory populations of fruit

flies and other organisms. |

It is perhaps hardly to be expected that concrete examples of the

law of growth for two populations here discussed shall be found in

nature. There is better prospect of realizing it in a laboratory popula-

OCTOBER 19, 1932 DRYDEN: COASTAL PLAIN OF MARYLAND 469

tion, though the difficulties of establishing the requisite conditions

will here be considerably greater than in the case of a single popula-

tion. It would be interesting to see the experiment actually made.

But it is possible that the treatment which has here been developed

in the analysis of the growth of multiple populations, may find more

immediate application in the field of economics. For our variables

N, and N, may be conceived as denoting the size or extent of two (or

more) commercial enterprises competing for common sources of supply

and for a common market. It will be recalled that Cournot’s treat-

ment of the problem of competition has been criticized on the ground

that under the conditions of the problem, as analyzed by him, any one

competitor who should possess the slightest advantage over the others,

would ultimately displace them entirely, and hold the field in absolute

monopoly. ‘This criticism, however, is justified only on the assump-

tion that the sources cf supply and the markets are equally accessible,

in their entirety, to all the competitors. In actual fact, with competi-

tors scattered over an area, each has a certain surrounding territory

in which he has an advantage over his competitors. In these circum-

stances the criticism levelled at Cournot falls to the ground.? These

observations are strongly reminiscent of the facts we observed in the

analysis of competition among growing populations, regarding the

effect of varying in some degree at least the composition of the diet

of the competing populations. In the same way two competing com-

mercial firms, though they may sell to the same set of people, will not

sell to their several local zones in identical proportions. That an

application of an analysis similar to that here set forth should present

itself as a possibility in dealing with economic systems is only natural,

since economic competition is, after all, only a special form of the

more general phenomenon of biological competition.

8 Compare H. Hoteiiine, Economic Journal (London) 41: 41; 1929.

GEOLOGY .—Faults and joints in the Coastal Plain of Maryland.!

A. L. Drypsn, Jr., Bryn Mawr College. (Communicated by’

W. H. BraDtLey.)

In the various papers on the Coastal Plain formations of the Middle

Atlantic States one finds but few references to faulting. McGee?

thought the rapid change of topography near the fall-line was the

result of monoclinal folding or faulting. Clark? sought to explain

1 Received July 11, 1932. Published by permission of the State Geologist of

Maryland.

7W JMcGer. U.S. Geol. Survey Seventh Ann. Rept. pp. 616-634. 1888.

3W. B. Cuark, A. B. Bippins, and E. W. Berry. Maryland Geol. Survey, Lower

Cretaceous, pp. 61, 85, 86. 1911.

A70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

Si1727' pu

YP ho LL Len< oo

OS VII De

LZ LA Lo

pate GE A229 4aig/

Foor wolqay so ypoua7

womaz] Ul weppiy }

PUBSUIDIA

es oa ee PPA 220//-- —_ -——

OCTOBER 19, 1932 DRYDEN: COASTAL PLAIN OF MARYLAND 471

certain ‘‘abnormal’’ altitudes of lower Cretaceous strata by faulting.

No direct proof of this faulting was given. ‘Two reports of faulting

in the Coastal Plain of New Jersey, with photographs of fault traces,

are the only acceptable accounts which have come to the writer’s

attention.*®

Faulting in the Coastal Plain of Maryland may easily be overlooked.

First, there are, as yet, no difficulties in correlation which could be

explained by faults of large throw. Faults, then, probably are either

small or absent. Second, faults would have no topographic expression,

nor would their fault planes be distinguishable in the homogeneous,

unconsolidated sands and clays. Clay lenses or indurated layers are

not ordinarily present, but generally where such datum planes are

found, faults are plainly absent. At one exposure, however, an in-

dubitable fault has been observed, and at two other localities move-

ment along joints or cracks is clearly shown. —

At a curve on the Crain Highway 3.3 miles south of the southern

railroad crossing at Upper Marlboro, Prince George’s County, there

is exposed a section of Eocene, Miocene, and Pleistocene beds. Fig-

ure 1A® illustrates the relations found here. There are at least two

lines, lettered a-a and b-b, in this section which may represent faults,

or which may be erosional features, though such erosional irregulari-

ties have not been noted elsewhere within the Eocene deposits. The

line marked c-c, however, undoubtedly represents a fault, along which

the Pleistocene beds are brought sharply against Eocene material.

The direction of dip of the fault plane precludes the possibility that

slumping has given rise to this relationship. The throw on this fault,

however, cannot be more than 15 feet (as is indicated by the thickness

of the Nanjemoy clay) and may be as little.as 1 or 2 feet. The Pleis-

tocene remnant to the right of the fault has been preserved by down-

faulting, as there is none just to the left of the fault.

In a road cut on the steep hill 2 mile east of Newtown, Newtown-

Dentsville road, Charles County, clayey sands of the lower Calvert

formation are exposed. Where the cut had been recently ‘‘dressed”’

by road employees the relations shown in figure 1B were observed.

The “joints” are indicated by bands of red clay about half an inch in

thickness which was apparently derived from the overlying Pleistocene

deposits. In a road cut about 100 yards west of Well’s Corner, near

4H. Ries, H. B. Kummet, and G. N. Knapp. New Jersey Geol. Survey. 6: 16.

1904.

> R. D. Satispury and G. N. Knapp. New Jersey Geol. Survey. 8: 79. 1917.

6 Miss I. M. Hellmer of Bryn Mawr College has kindly drawn the accompanying

figures.

472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

Upper Marlboro, Prince George’s County, the same features are

shown, except that the clay bands are very thin. Such clay bands,

resembling joints or cracks, have been observed in the same beds at

numerous other localities. Their true nature is problematical.

Monroe’ has described ‘‘cracks’’ which may be similar to the ‘‘joints”’

observed here. The joint lines in this area have a polygonal pattern

when seen as traces on a horizontal surface. The polygons bounded

by these structural lines have from three to five or more sides, and

may be | to 6 feet in greatest diameter. ‘The joint lines do not cross.

Moreover, they were found only in sand beds which, however, con-

tain so much admixed clay that a coherent ball can be formed from

the moist material. These structural lines have been traced for about

15 feet vertically. They die out below, and are usually truncated by

erosion surfaces above. They may, of course represent cracks due

to shrinkage resulting from desiccation, but, for want of conclusive

information, their origin remains in doubt.

The foregoing description of small faults and joints seems to have an

interesting relation to the structural history of the region.

It is believed (on evidence to be presented later) that the lower

Calvert and underlying beds in southern Maryland have been differ-

entially warped. The joints and small faults are possibly related

to this movement. The upper Calvert (Plum Point Marls) has been

tilted without differential warping and in its exposure for 15 miles

along the Calvert Cliffs, Calvert County, no small faults nor any of the

joints of the type so common in the lower Calvert were observed.

The faults shown in figure 1A are of Pleistocene or Recent age.

The movement along the joints of the lower Calvert, as illustrated in

figure 1B, may be of Pleistocene age, but at that locality the Pleisto-

cene overlies the Calvert with a sharp, straight-line contact which

shows no sign of disturbance. From the evidence available, therefore,

it seems more probable that the warping and jointing occurred at the end

of lower Calvert time, although the fact that the upper Calvert (Plum

Point Marls) is restricted to eastern Calvert County and does not

extend into the area discussed leaves the upper limit of such dating

open to doubt.

7W.H.Monror. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 16: 214. 1932.

OCTOBER 19, 1932 KNIGHT: HOLOPEA SYMMETRICA HALL 473

PALEONTOLOGY —Holopea symmetrica Hall, genotype of Holopea

Hall.1 J. Brookes Knicut, Yale University. (Communicated

by Joun B. ReEEsipe#, JR.)

In the course of some work on Paleozoic gastropods I have had

occasion to run to earth that frequently cited, but imperfectly known,

genus Holopea Hall. Holopea is imperfectly known in two senses;

that the knowledge we have of it is not derived from studies of the

genotype, so inadequately described and poorly figured by Hall;

and that the limits of the genus are so broadly defined as to include

much that does not belong to it. I have little to offer to mitigate the

latter difficulty except as I am able to clear up the first. The foun-

dations of our knowledge of a genus must be based on the genotype, and

it is with the genotype of Holopea that this paper will deal. This

study will fortunately not alter materially the concept of the genus

employed by modern systematists such as Ulrich, Koken, Cossman or

Perner, but it is to be hoped that it will give a foundation for that

concept that has hitherto been lacking.

The genus Holopea was described by Hall as early as 1847 (1, p.

169) and among the species described at that time was H. symmetrica

Hall. Hall did not designate a genotype nor seemingly did any of the

several authors who discussed the genus before 1889. In 1889, how-

ever, 8. A. Miller named H. symmetrica Hall and H. obliqua Hall as

genosyntypes (2, p. 405) thus narrowing the field for selection, and

Bassler in 1915 (3, p. 625) designated H. symmetrica genoholotype.

Cossman’s designation in 1915 (4, p. 19) of H. paludiniformis Hall

is, of course, invalid.

The holotype of H. symmetrica is deposited in the Hall collection

at the American Museum of Natural History, New York, their cat-

alogue No. 751, and Dr. Chester A. Reeds of that museum has been

good enough to lend me the specimen for study. Contrary to the

condition of most specimens of Holopea it is excellently preserved,

although most of its base and all of the aperture are buried in matrix.

This specimen is shown as Figures 2a-b of this paper.

The holotype serves to show very clearly the general form and the

surface characters of the species though, except by means of prepara-

tion that one does not like to undertake on the sole type specimen of

the species, the critical apertural and umbilical characters may not

be learned from it.

Searching for other specimens which might show the aperture, I

1 Received August 9, 1932.

474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

Figures 1 a-f. Holopea.symmetrica Hall. The T. G. White plesiotype mentioned in

the text. a-e. Various views to show form, ornamentation and apertural characters.

f. Diagrammatic, camera-lucida sketch of polished section. Owing to the re-crystall-

ization of the shell-wall, it was difficult to place accurately the boundaries between shell

and matrix, except in the last half whorl (lower left) where they are placed with some

accuracy. The inner shell boundaries of the other whorls are approximations. The

orientation of the section is very slightly oblique and the umbilicus in the last whorl

therefore appears a little narrower than if the plane of the section had passed through its

center. Yale Peabody Museum No. 13,833.

Figures 2 a-b. Holopea symmetrica Hall. The holotype. Two views to show form

and ornamentation. This specimen is the original of Hall’s illustration, figure 1, plate

37, volume 1, Palaeontology of New York. Amer. Mus. of Natural History, James

Hall Collection, Catalogue No. 751.

All figures X 3. Photographs not retouched

came across T. G. White’s observations on some specimens of unusually

good preservation from the Trenton limestone near Trenton Falls,

N. Y. (5, p. 85). The preservation of these specimens is excellent and

identical in character to that of Hall’s holotype, but they do not, as

OCTOBER 19, 1932 KNIGHT: HOLOPEA SYMMETRICA HALL 475

claimed by White, retain any shell material in its original form nor

any trace of pearly lustre. The shells retain the minutest details of

surface ornamentation but are wholly and rather coarsely recrystal-

lized internally. They do show a sheen, which White seems to have

mistaken for pearly lustre, but this is caused by the contrast of the

translucent, recrystallized shell material with the very dark, finely

crystalline limestone of the matrix. The coarsely crystalline texture

of the shells can be seen in fractures and, even better, in polished

sections. Dr. G. Marshall Kay of Columbia University very kindly

loaned me all of White’s specimens for study and, indeed, presented

me with one of them. ‘These specimens were compared carefully with

the holotype and one of them was removed from the matrix and cleaned

with a needle to expose the base and the aperture. This specimen was

photographed, then casts were made to preserve a record of its form

and finally an axial section was cut. The photographs and a drawing

from the section are reproduced as Figures la-f of this paper.

On the basis of studies of the holotype and the T. G. White speci-

mens, the species is redescribed in the following terms :—

Holopea symmetrica Hall

Holopea symmetrica Hall, 1847, Palaeontology of New York 1: 170; pl. 37, fig. 1. Upper,

crystalline portions of the Trenton limestone at Middleville, New York. White, 1895,

Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 15: 85, Trenton limestone, Trenton Falls, New York. Weller,

1903, Geol. Surv. New Jersey; Paleont. 3: 186, pl. 12, figs. 26, 27, Trenton limestone,

Jacksonburg, New Jersey.

DIMENSIONS oF A, THE Hototyre (Fics. 2 a-b) anp B, a T. G. WHITE PLESIOTYPE

(Fies. 1 a-f)

A B

BL TOEEDN EELS OLE Tel OCCT A fe le ell, 26 | UM 62 6>

WEsENE Db 3 gs 2516 Sines AO Peo mmo, yee 0 mm?

EE MOO METH DO AWOL IG So) 0. ses oles os ec Bs aici oe a ataea ba eS oe 1.02 1.00

aoe: neieht.of body whorl'to totalez: is... ce eee 0.79 0.84

SEL EryTep | Cepia (Es) eerrleas Mia kk a ot es Git (Ais

a. Estimated on the assumption that 2 apical whorls are missing.

b. Estimated on the assumption that 3 apical whorls are missing.

Moderately small, turbinate gastropods with straight sides, evenly and

roundly convex whorl profile and deep sutures; the roundness of the whorl

profile continuing uninterruptedly across the base and into the umbilicus;

aperture sub-circular; apertural margin only in contact with the previous

whorl for a short distance, the ends of the free margins being connected by

a thin, parietal inductura; outer lip oblique in side view and only very slightly

sinuous; inner lip thin, nearly vertical and slightly reflexed; columella nar-

rowly phaneromphalous; ornamentation, very fine growth lines superimposed

on irregular and indistinct transverse undulations. The nucleus has not

been observed.

476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

It is curious to note that Hall, in his original description, states

that the height is much greater than the breadth whereas both the

holotype and even Hall’s very poor original figure show the height to

be only very slightly greater than the breadth. Obviously his state-

ment was founded on a cursory inspection and not on measurements.

The apparent relative height of a gastropod shell is very deceptive.

It is unfortunate indeed that the shell structure of none of the

specimens is preserved, for if it were it seems very probable that it

would show an internal nacreous layer and confirm the conclusion

arrived at on other grounds, that the genus should be placed with the

Trocho-turbinidae of Koken, an admittedly composite group of family

rank used for fossil Trochids and Turbinids which cannot be further

distinguished in the light of present knowledge. I would, for the

present, include in the Trocho-turbinidae, the Trochonematidae

Zittel in which family Holopea is placed by Koken and Perner (6,

p. 213), by Cossman (4, p. 19) and by Ulrich (7, p. 1064). There

appears to be no justification for placing Holopea in the Littorinidae

as is done by Perner (8, p. 313) and in Zittel’s Textbook.

In addition to those curators of collections whose kindness in lend-

ing me specimens has been acknowledged in the text, I am indebted

to Dr. Ray S. Bassler of the United States National Museum for

checking certain references not available to me.

REFERENCES CITED

1. Haut, J. Palaeontology of New York. 1. 1847.

2. Miuuer, 8. A. North American Geology and Palaeontology. 1889.

3. Basser, R. 8. Bibliographic index of American Ordovician and Silurian fossils.

Bull. 92, U. S. Nat’l. Museum. 1915.

4. Cossman, M. Lssais de Paléoconchologie comparée. 10. 1915.

5. WuitE, T.G. The faunas of the upper Ordovician strata at Trenton Falls, Oneida Co.,

N.Y. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 15: 71 et seg. 1895.

6. Koken, E. and Perner, J. Die Gastropoden des baltischen Untersilurs. Mem. de

l’Acad. des Sciences de Russie. 8th ser. 37, No.1. 1925.

7. Uuricu, E. O. and Scorietp, W. H. The lower Silurian Gastropoda of Minnesota.

Geology of Minnesota 3, pt. 2 of the final report. 1897.

8. PERNER, J., in BARRANDE. Systéme Silurien du centre de la Bohéme. pt. 1, vol. 4,

Gastéropodes, Tome 2. 1907.

BOTANY.—Mosses of Northern Guatemala and British Honduras.

Epwin B. Bartram, Bushkill, Pa.

The mosses listed below were collected by Professor H. H. Bartlett

during the early months of 1931 in the El Cayo region of western

1 Received July 8, 1932. This paper is based (in part) upon collections made in a

biological survey of the Maya area conducted by the University of Michigan in collab-

oration with the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

OCTOBER 19, 1932 BARTRAM: MOSSES 477

British Honduras and in the Petén district of Guatemala.? The list

is an especially interesting one as it is the first record of the mosses

from an area that has been a bryological blank on the map of Central

America. In a general way the species show a close and very natural

relation to those known from the State of Vera Cruz and the Yucatan

peninsula but there are also suggestive connections with well known

species from the Antilles and northern South America that tend to

emphasize the interlocking distribution of the mosses of all the regions

bordering the Caribbean Sea. :

In the following list the numbers followed by the symbol B.H. are

from the Mountain Pine Ridge in the vicinity of El Cayo, British

Honduras while the collections from the limestone areas in the vicinity

of Uaxactun, Petén district, Guatemala, are followed by the symbol P.

FISSIDENTACEAE

FISSIDENS RETICULOSUS Schp. 12553 P. in part.

FIssIDENS LEPTOPODUS Card. 12155 P.; 12545 P.; 12553 P., in part; 12643 P.

While these collections deviate in several minor particulars from the type

collection of F. leptopodus Card. the differences do not seem to be important

enough to warrant the creation of a new species. The Guatemalan plants

are generally more freely branched with up to 25 or 30 pairs of leaves; the

leaves are less crispate, rather more bluntly pointed and the border of the

duplicate blades, in the upper leaves, narrower and less distinct but these

characters are all subject to some variation within reasonable limits. Evi-

dently the species should be placed in the Section Semzlimbidiwm rather than

in Crenularia.

FISSIDENS GARBERI Sull. & Lesq. 12485 P.

DICRANACEAE

Campylopus (Palinocraspis) Bartletti sp. nov.

Sterilis. Caespites densi. Caulis ad 7 cm. longus, simplex vel parce ramosus,

dense tomentosus. Folia 6 mm. longa, sicca erecto-appressa, humida patula,

oblongo-lanceolata, concava, in pilum hyalinum denticulatum producta;

marginibus planis, superne serrata; costa basi 375u, dorso sulcata, superne

serrulata, breviter excurrente; auriculis distinctis; cellulis suprabasilaribus

quadratis ad 25y latis, marginalibus haud linearibus, cellulis laminae ovalis

vel rhomboidalibus.

Robust plants in dense tufts or mats, bright yellowish green, slightly glossy.

Stems procumbent, up to 7 cm. long, flexuose, simple or dichotomously

branched above, densely reddish tomentose throughout. Leaves uniformly

spaced, erect when dry, widely spreading when moist, about 6 mm. long,

deeply concave, oblong-lanceolate, gradually narrowed to a slender

2 Cf. Hartey Harris Bartuett. A biological survey of the Mayaarea. Bull. Torrey

Bot. Club 59: 7-20. 1932.

478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

| eet

ma)

on — u ’

1 SO Le =i: ant U u ee =< ’

= Sa Re page RS 7 at kt, WITTE .

ir. et ay aT a a ps pa a

r Pry Ea 2 8) 7 os

OUT AWBUABALE ARLE ne ahamar mane

gooey

SS .

RSS

AAR LERARBERS

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——e

LAS

Figure 1—A-G. Campylopus Bartletti Bartr. sp. nov.—A—dry plant xX 1.—B—

moist plant X 1.—C—leaf * 14.—D—apex of leaf * 80.—H—one side of leaf base X 160.

—F—upper leaf cells and margin X 440.—G—part of cross-section of costa x 440.

H. Leucobryum albidum forma subulifolium, modified leaf X 80.

point; margin erect, coarsely serrate near the apex, entire below; costa about

375u wide below, occupying more than half of the leaf base, excurrent in a

hyaline, denticulate point about 1 mm. long in the upper leaves, ribbed on

the back and slightly serrulate near the apex, in cross-section showing a

median row of large cells with a narrow stereid band on the ventral side and

a wider band on the dorsal side; alar cells conspicuous, extending to the costa,

usually with reddish walls, cells of the leaf base, just above the alar group,

quadrate or short rectangular, up to 25u wide, smaller but not elongate

OCTOBER 19, 1932 BARTRAM: MOSSES 479

toward the margins, gradually becoming smaller and oval-rhomboidal up-

ward, upper cells oval-rhomboidal, 6-74 wide by 2-3 times as long, distinct

to the base of the hyaline point. Inflorescense and fruit unknown.

Type: Pine Ridge, Duck Run, El Cayo District, British Honduras, H. H.

Bartlett no. 12973, April 24, 1931.

A very handsome and unique species that naturally suggests a comparison

with Campylopus Richard: Brid. on account of the costal structure and hya-

line leaf tips. In’C. Bartletti the color, habit, and particularly the large

quadrate basal cells not at all narrowed toward the margins and the shorter

cells of the upper leaf blade are strikingly distinct and it is very evident

that the two species have little in common. The basal areolation of C.

savannarum (C.M.) Mitt. is quite similar but the leaves of this species lack

the conspicuous hyaline tips.

It is a privilege to be able to associate Prof. Bartlett’s name with such an

unusual plant from an area that, heretofore, has been practically unknown

bryologically.

HoLoMITRIUM CALYCINUM (Hedw.) Mitt. 11691 B.H.

LEUCOLOMA CRUGERIANUM (C.M.) Jaeg. 11708 B.H.; 11721 B.H.; 11735

BTL:

LEUCOBRYACEAE

OcTOBLEPHARUM ALBIDUM Hedw. 11228 B.H.; 11692 B.H.; 12297 P.

OcTOBLEPHARUM CYLINDRICUM Schp. ec. fr. 12972 B.H.

Mr. Williams credits this species to Jamaica? on the basis of a single, rather

dubious specimen. The collection from British Honduras is in perfect fruiting

condition and confirms the occurrence of the species in North America without

any question.

OcTOBLEPHARUM PULVINATUM (D. &. M.) Mitt. 12030 B.H.; 12610 P.

OcTOBLEPHARUM MITTENII Jaeg. 11641 B.A.

In addition to the differences previously mentioned‘ this species will be

distinguished from O. erectifolium Mitt. by the lamina cells of the leaf base

in two layers. The upper part of the leaf, when viewed from either surface,

shows a distinct median line, 2-4 cells wide, due to the thickening of the leaf

in this area.

LEUCOBRYUM ALBIDUM (Brid.) Lindb. 11634 B.H.

LEUCOBRYUM ALBIDUM (Brid.) Lindb. forma subulifolium. 11690 B.H.; 12729

P. Folia superiora subulata congesta.

These two collections represent a peculiar form with the upper leaves subu-

late and densely crowded. Collections from Mexico and Costa Rica show

plants with a similar tendency but not nearly so conspicuous as in 11690

3N.A. Flora 15, part 2: 161. 1913.

4 Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 26, part 3: 72. 1928.

480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

where the modified upper leaves, which probably serve the purpose of vegetative

reproduction, are abundant enough to give the tufts a peculiar silky appear-

ance entirely foreign to the typical plants. The plants bearing these apical

clusters of modified leaves are in no way different from the normal plants with

which they are associated and evidently represent only a minor variant.

CALYMPERACEAE

SYRRHOPODON INCOMPLETUS Schwaegr. 12031 B.H.; 12085 B.H.; 12250 P.;

12488 P.

CALYMPERES LONCHOPHYLLUM Schwaegr. 11738 B.H.; 12441 P.; 12472 P.;

12636 P.

As far as I know this species has never been actually recorded from Central

America. Prof. Bartlett’s collections are ample and generally well fruited

so that it would appear that the species is not at all uncommon in this area.

The plants in the above collections show the leaves uniformly without teniolae

and rather shorter than average plants from the Antilles and Venezuela but

the consistently short stems, less than 5 mm., indicate that they should be

referred here rather than to C. Levyanum Besch.

POTTIACEAE

BARBULA CRUGERI Sond. 12543 P.

DESMATODON GARBERI Lesq. & James. 12541 P.

FUNARIACEAE

FUNARIA CALVESCENS Schwaegr. 11851 B.H.

BRYACEAE

Bryum ANpDIcOLA Hook. 11898a B.H.

RHODOBRYUM BEYRICHIANUM (Hsch.) Par. 12604 P.; 12636 P.

ORTHOTRICHACEAE

MACROMITRIUM MUCRONIFOLIUM (Hook. & Grev.) Schwaegr. 12315 P.

MACROMITRIUM PENTASTICHUM C.M. 11692a B.H.; 11693 B.A.

MAcCROMITRIUM CIRRHOSUM (Hedw.) Brid. 11734 B.H.

ScHLOTHEIMIA Mouriana C.M. 13047 B.H.

HELICOPHYLLACEAE

HELICOPHYLLUM TORQUATUM (Hook.) Brid. 13136 B.H.

RHACOPILACEAE

RHACOPILUM TOMENTOSUM (Hedw.) Brid. 12251 P. » 12516 Ps ai2zosomre.

12714 P.; 12716 Pe 127308 12749

OCTOBER 19, 1932 BARTRAM: MOSSES 481

LEUCODONTACEAE

LEUCODONTOPSIS FLORIDANA (Aust.) E. G. Britt. 12044 B.H.; 13094 B.H.

PSEUDOCRYPHAEA FLAGELLIFERA (Brid.) E. G. Britt. 12493c P.

PTEROBRYACEAE

ORTHOSTICHOPSIS TETRAGONA (Hedw.) Broth. 11736 B.H.; 12324 P.;

12442 P.

PIREELLA CYMBIFOLIA (Sull.) Card. 12472a P.; 12498a P.

No. 12493a shows the following sporophyte characters: seta reddish,

erect, flexuose, 8-10 mm. long, smooth; capsule erect, ovoid-cylindric, brown,

2-2.25 mm. long by 0.5 mm. wide, slightly narrowed at the mouth; spores

brownish, papillose, 22—25u in diameter; peristome, lid and calyptra not seen

(capsules all old and deoperculate).

PIREELLA PACHYCLADA (Ren. & Card.) Card. 12265 P.; 12486 P.

These collections seem to agree perfectly with the description of the type

collection from Yucatan. The following sporophyte characters are taken

from several fruiting plants found in no. 12486: seta erect, reddish, flexuose,

smooth, 4-5 mm. long; capsule erect, oblong-cylindric, up to 2.5 mm. long

by 0.35 mm. wide, brownish, slightly narrowed above (capsules old and de-

operculate).

Upon comparing this species with P. Mariae (Card.), of Costa Rica, it

will be noticed that, in addition to the differences in vegetative characters,

the size and shape of the respective capsules are thoroughly distinctive and

that the setae of P. pachyclada are smooth throughout.

METEORIACEAE

PAPILLARIA NIGRESCENS (Hedw.) Jaeg. 12482 P.; 12498 P., in part ; 13046

Bone W3047a BH.

METEORIOPSIS PATULA (Hedw.) Broth. 12484 P.; 12670 P.; 12671 P.;

12728 P.

NECKERACEAE

NECKEROPSIS UNDULATA (Palis.) Broth. 12265a P.; 12493b P.

NECKEROPSIS DISTICHA (Hedw.) Fleisch. 12452 P.; 13146 B.H.

HOOKERIACEAE

CALLICOSTELLA PALLIDA (Hsch.) Jaeg. 11845 B.H. in part; 12597 P. in part;

12598 (P- 1 2616" Fim: part:

FABRONIACHAE

HELICODONTIUM TENUIROSTRE Schwaegr. 13135 B.H.

482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

THUIDIACEAE

HAPLOCLADIUM MICROPHYLLUM (Hedw.) Broth. 12616 P.

THUIDIUM INVOLVENS (Hedw.) Mitt. 12251 P.; 12255 P.; 12259 P.; 12260 P.;

12480 P. in part; 12498 P. in part; 12597 P.

SEMATOPHYLLACEHAE

RHAPHIDORRHYNCHIUM SUBSIMPLEX (Hedw.) Broth. 11739 B.A.

SEMATOPHYLLUM CAESPITOSUM (Hedw.) Mitt. 13150 P.

SEMATOPHYLLUM LOXENSE (Hook.) Mitt. 11845 B.H.; 11846 B.H.; 11847

Ba.

TAXITHELIUM PLANUM (Brid.) Mitt. 11739 B.H. in part; 12252 P. in part;

12272 P. in part; 12490 P. in part; 12452 P. in part; 12516 P. in part;

12597 P. in part; 12598 P. in part; 12616 P. in part; 12729 P. in part.

HYPNACEAE

VESICULARIA AMPHIBOLA (Spr.) Broth. 12597 P. in part.

MICROTHAMNIUM THELISTEGUM (C.M.) Mitt. 11720 B.H.; 12252 P.; 12255

P. in part; 12258 P.; 12259 P. in part; 12272 P.; 12314. Pi ,i246Ge

12498'P. > 12499 Ps; 12517 P.; 125389 PP. 12718 PA ieee

ZOOLOGY .—The male of the nematode species, Neotylenchus abulbo-

sus, Sterner, and its sexual dimorphism.! G. STEINER and

Epna M. Bunurer, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The male of the species Neotylenchus abulbosus Steiner? was not

known until recently, when a single specimen was found among nu-

merous larvae and females parasitizing a diseased carrot grown in

Sweden and intercepted at the port of Philadelphia by the Plant

Quarantine and Control Administration inspectors. The shape and

general structure of this single specimen seem to exclude any other

relationship than that with the aforementioned species.

This male is slightly smaller and more slender than the average

females. The annulation of the cuticle is extremely faint; only on the

bursa is it more evident (Fig. 1, B). In general, this male somewhat

resembles that of Tylenchus dipsact, just as there is also a resemblance

between the mutual females. The front of the head end shows the 8

sectors typical of the female; likewise, the esophagus has no bulb.

The most interesting feature, however, is the almost completely van-

ished spear. As depicted in fig. 1, A only the rodlike cuticularized

1 Received July 19, 1932.

2 STEINER, G. Neotylenchus abulbosus, n.g., n.sp. (T'ylenchidae, Nematoda) the

causal agent of a new nematosis of various crop plants. This JoURNAL 21: 536-538. 1931.

OCTOBER 19, 1932 STEINER AND BUHRER: NEOTYLENCHUS ABULBOSUS

supports of the lip region remain of the

whole apparatus as found in the female

and the larva. The shaft of the spear,

the conical point, and also the basal

knobs have faded; the posterior end is

faintly marked by the dim outlines of

protrudor muscles.

This case seems to be analogous to

that of Tylenchus similis where the male

also differs from the female and larva

in the remarkable reduction of the spear.

Perhaps this obliteration indicates that

these males cease to feed in the adult

stage either because they are not func-

tional (in the case of Neotylenchus abul-

bosus (?)) or because they copulate but

once during their life (perhaps in

Tylenchus similis). Both forms are

evidently endoparasites of plants. Two

remarkable larvae of N. abulbosus,

perhaps males of the preadult stage,

were recently found in strawberry plants

from California which were affected

with “‘yellows’”’ or “‘xanthosis’’ and which

often harbor this nema. ‘Their spear

had vanished as in the male specimen

here described, indicating an early loss

or even a complete absence of the spear

also in the larval stages of the male.

As to the copulatory apparatus, the

present male displays a well developed

bursa, reaching from in front of the

spicula to the tail end, which is pointed

and set off (Fig. 1, B). No bursal rays

or ribs were seen. The spicula are re-

markably small but very similar in form

to those of T. dipsact. An extremely

small lineate gubernaculum was also

seen.

rd sup. at

6 sect..-

prise" i

gp oe gl |

rat

al |

=A)

ti \

bey

cee

Sf). ER

fo L |

ele

A,0c i

=O Ip!

apsks

gu My.

sew. =

Fig. 1.—WNeotylenchus abul-

bosus, male. A.—Head end; rd

sup, rodlike supports; 8 sect, 8

sectors of the head; pr msc, pro-

trudor muscles of the spear; op

oe gl, opening of esophageal

gland. B.—Tail end; sp, spicu-

la; gub, gubernaculum; ors.

bursa; trm, setoff portion of

tail. X about 1070.

483

484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

M ee ee

easurements : — Oc 20 Doma e: mm.

It may be remarked that Neotylenchus abulbosus shows a close

resemblance to Hexatylus viviparus of Goodey 1926.34 By corre-

spondence, Dr. Goodey called attention to this similarity, thereby

causing a detailed re-examination of our material and indirectly

the finding of the male specimen. If, as stated in its description,

Hexatylus has a head divided into only 6 sectors and a spear with 6

basal knobs instead of only 3, then Neotylenchus abulbosus and Hexa-

tylus viviparus are different. The male of Hexatylus is not known.

3 GoopEy, T. Hexatylus viviparus gen. et sp. nov., a nematode found in a diseased

potato tuber. Jour. Helminthol. 4: 27-30. 1926.

4GoopEy, T. A further note on Hexatylus viviparus Goodey, 1926. Jour. Helmin-

thol. 4: 183-184. 1926. ;

ZOOLOGY.—Two new cacomistles from Mexico, with remarks on the

genus Jentinkia.! EK. W. Newson, Smithsonian Institution, and

E. A. GoLpMAN, Biological Survey.

The generic name Jentinkia, proposed by Trouessart (Catal. Mamm.,

Viv. Foss [suppl.], 1904, p. 184) has not been generally accepted for the

tropical cacomistles typified by the animal currently recognized as

Bassariscus sumichrastt Saussure. Some of the characters of the

genus have been mentioned by various authors, and the external

features have been dealt with at some length by Pocock, in a discussion

of the Procyonidae (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1921, pp. 389-422).

He says (p. 392): ‘““This Cacomistle is sometimes admitted as a sub-

genus of Bassariscus. I have provisionally quoted it as a distinct

genus, the material available being insufficient to establish the absolute

constancy of the differences in the feet observable between [Bassaris-

cus| astutus and sumichrastt.”’

A study of fourteen skins and skulls of swmichrasti, of ages varying

from very young to quite old, and over one hundred similar specimens

of Bassariscus astutus leads us to agree with Pocock that Jentinkia

should be accorded full generic rank.

Jentinkia compares with Bassariscus as follows:

Jentinkia Bassariscus

Muzzle and feet distinctly blackish; tail Muzzle and feet grayish; tail

with light rings becoming obsolescent with light rings distinct

toward end. throughout its length.

Pelage finer, softer, and more lax. Pelage coarser and stiffer.

1 Received August 22, 1932, revised September 9, 1932.

OCTOBER 19, 1932 | NELSON AND GOLDMAN: TWO NEW CACOMISTLES 485

Ears more broadly and evenly rounded.

Second, third, fourth, and fifth digits of

fore and hind limbs naked on lower

surface behind digital pads, which are

narrower, more elongated.

Claws longer, more strongly curved,

more compressed, non-retractile.

Maxillary portion of zygoma placed far-

ther back, the posterior border in

plane of second upper molars, or point

of contact between these and _ first

upper molars.

Foramen ovale opening more directly

forward.

Cusps in large molariform teeth less

trenchant, more rounded, with lower,

less prominent connecting ridges.

Upper carnassial triangular in outline,

without a postero-internal cusp.

Posterior lobe of upper carnassial and

anterior lobe of lower carnassial more

weakly developed.

Cutting edges of first and second upper

incisors, of permanent series, dis-

tinetly trifid.

Ears more narrowly rounded,

the margins somewhat pro-

duced antero-externally.

Second, third, fourth, and fifth

digits of fore and hind limbs

densely hairy on lower surface

behind and around digital

pads, which are broader, more

rounded.

Claws shorter, straighter, less

compressed, retractile.

Maxillary portion of zygoma

placed farther forward, the

posterior border in plane of

first upper molars.

Foramen ovale opening more

directly downward.

Cusps in larger molariform teeth

more trenchant, with higher,

sharper connecting ridges.

Upper carnassial irregular in

outline, with a prominent pos-

tero-internal cusp.

Posterior lobe of upper carnas-

sial and anterior lobe of lower

carnassial more strongly de-

veloped.

Cutting edges of first and second

upper incisors, of permanent

series, normally smooth.

Jentinkia inhabits the great forests of tropical Middle America, its range

meeting that of Bassariscus along the eastern slopes of the Mexican highlands.

It is much more arboreal in habits than the latter, which is at home along

cliffs and rocky ledges and spends much time upon the ground. The sharp,

curved, non-retractile claws of Jentinkia, adapted for clinging, appear to be

associated with its arboreal life, while those of Bassariscus, with cat-like re-

tractility, are better fitted for progression among rocks.

The genus comprises a single species which is subdivisible into closely

allied geographic races as follows:

Jentinkia sumicrhasti sumichrasti (Saussure)... . Mirador, Vera Cruz, Mexico.

Jentinkia sumichrasti variabilis (Peters)........ Coban, Guatemala.

486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

Jentinkia sumichrasti campechensis, subsp. nov.Apazote, Campeche, Mexico.

Jentinkia sumichrasti notinus (Thomas)........ Boquete, Chiriqui, Panama.

Blassaris| astuta was first described by Lichtenstein (Abhand. Akad. Wis-

sensch. Berlin, 1827, p. 119, 1830) in a discussion of the application of names

of Mexican mammals treated by Hernandez (Rerum Medicarum Novae

Hispaniae Thesaurus, 1651, tract 1 [appendix]). The name appears to be

based primarily upon a specimen collected by Deppe who worked extensively

in southeastern Mexico. Reference was also made to the cacomistle of the

Mexican Indians, currently recognized as Bassariscus astutus, which ranges

as a species throughout the plateau region of Mexico and northward into the

United States. In 1831 Lichtenstein (Isis, vol. 24, p. 513) again described

the animal and assigned it to a ‘“‘Habitat in Mexico.” In response to an in-

quiry Dr. Hermann Pohle has written us that the specimen mentioned was

received from Deppe in 1826 ‘‘aus Mexiko (wahrscheinlich Stadt Mexiko),”

and mounted with the skull inside still exists as number 1081 in the Berlin

Museum. We regard specimens from the vicinity of the Valley of Mexico

as typical.

Bassariscus albipes Elliott (Field Columb. Mus., publ. 87, zool. ser., vol.

-3, p. 258, Dec. 1903) was described from a single specimen obtained “near

Vera Cruz, State of Vera Cruz, Mexico.” The label, however, shows that

the type was taken at Xico, which is near Jalapa, Vera Cruz, on the eastern

slope of the highlands. B. albzpes is identical with typical B. astutus.

Western Mexico is inhabited by a smaller subspecies, here described, to-

gether with a new form of Jentinkia.

Jentinkia sumichrasti campechensis, subsp. nov.

Campeche Cacomistle

Type.—From Apazote (near Yohaltun), central Campeche, Mexico. No.

108291, & adult, U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection),

collected by Nelson and Goldman, January 2, 1901. Original No. 14386; X

catalogue number 10240.

Distribution.—Tropical lowland forests of the Yucatan Peninsula, probably

ranging into northern Guatemala and British Honduras.

General characters.—Very similar to Jentinkia sumichrastc sumichraste of

the mountains of Vera Cruz, but considerably smaller; skull smaller, more

delicate in structure. Similar in color to Jentinkia sumichrasti variabilis

of the mountains of south-central Guatemala, but much smaller.

Color.—Type: Ground color of upper parts in general buffy grayish ex-

tensively overlaid with black, the black-tipped hairs most abundant on head,

nape, and median line of back; sides of head and face, including muzzle all

around blackish, interrupted by dull whitish markings over and under eyes;

under parts and inner surfaces of limbs light ochraceous buff; ears externally

brownish black to the distinct white margins, thinly clothed internally with

whitish hairs; fore and hind feet and toes distinctly blackish; tail with five

gray rings on basal half succeeded by three obsolescent gray rings, alternating

with black rings, becoming clear black above and below toward tip. In other

OCTOBER 19, 1932 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: TWO NEW CACOMISTLES 487

specimens eight or nine gray tail rings vary in distinctness, tending to become

invisible toward the end which is always black. A very young individual is

similar to adults, but the ears are pure white on distal half.

Skull.—Similar to that of J. s. suwmichrasti, but decidedly smaller, less mas-

sive; rostrum more slender; audital bullae relatively smaller; dentition variable

but usually lighter. Differing from that of J. s. varzabilis mainly in much

smaller size.

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 905 mm.; tail vertebrae, 500; hind

foot, 92. An adult male topotype: 863; 474; 87. Two adult females from

La Tuxpefia, Campeche: 891, 880; 459, 455; 82,77. Skull (type): Greatest

length, 90; condylobasal length, 84.7; zygomatic breadth, 59.8; breadth of

rostrum (over root of canine), 17.6; interorbital breadth, 18.5; upper canine-

molariform toothrow (alveoli), 32.8; upper carnassial, crown length (outer

side), 6.7, crown width, 5.2.

Remarks.—Jentinkia sumichrasti campechensis is characterized mainly by

smallsize. Itis an outlying peninsular form, but is contiguous to and doubt-

less intergrades with both J. s. swmichrasti and J. s. variabilis.

Specimens examined.—Total number, 8, as follows:

CaMPECHE: Apazote (type locality), 2; La Tuxpefia, 5.

YucaTan: Buena Vista Xbace, 1.

Bassariscus astutus consitus, subsp. nov.

Michoacan Cacomistle

Type.—From La Salada, 40 miles south of Uruapan, Michoacan, Mexico.

No. 126162, 2 adult, U.S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection),

collected by Nelson and Goldman, March 16, 1903. Original No. 16151.

Distribution.—Central Michoacan and Jalisco, and northward through

the Sierra Madre to southern Sinaloa, passing farther north into Bassariscus

astutus arizonensis. |

General characters.—Closely allied to Bassariscus astutus astutus, of the

' vicinity of the Valley of Mexico, but decidedly smaller; pelage shorter;

general color about the same, but toes of hind feet grayish, mixed with dusky

(usually white in astutus); skull slightly different. Similar in size to B. a.

flavus of Texas; color much grayer, less ochraceous buff; cranial characters

distinctive. Differing from B. a. arizonensis of Arizona, in considerably larger

size, and well-marked cranial details; color similar.

Color.—Type: Ground color of upper parts in general buffy grayish, the

top of head, middle of neck and back overlaid with black, the dark hairs

thinning out along sides and over thighs; rump suffused with pale ochraceous

buff; face, including sides of muzzle and cheeks blackish, relieved by whitish

markings over and under eyes; throat, inner sides of limbs and inguinal region

white; under side of neck, chest, and area across abdomen light buffy; ears

blackish on basal half externally, becoming silvery grayish toward tips, and

thinly clothed with grayish hairs internally; outer sides of forearms mixed

buffy grayish and dusky; fore feet buffy grayish; hind feet grayish above,

mixed with dusky over metatarsus and toes, the soles blackish posteriorly;

tail with eight alternating black and white rings and a black tip.

Skull.—Very much like that of B. a. astutus, but distinctly smaller; brain-

case relatively narrower; rostrum and frontal region high as in astutus; den-

tition about the same. Compared with B. a. flavus the skull is of about the

488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 16, 17

same size but differs in important features as follows: Braincase relatively

narrower, more elongated; frontal region higher, less sloping anteriorly;

rostrum heavier (broader and deeper). Larger than that of B. a. arizonensis,

with a higher but relatively narrower frontal region; zygomata more widely

spreading; braincase relatively narrower, more elongated, instead of rounded

and inflated; rostrum less tapering.

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 755 mm.; tail vertebrae, 380; hind

foot, 78. An adult male topotype: 793; 400; 80. Skull (type): Greatest

length, 82.3; condylobasal length, 78.3; zygomatic breadth, 50.2; breadth of

rostrum (over root of canine), 15; interorbital breadth, 16.2; upper canine-

molariform tooth row (alveoli), 31; upper carnassial, crown length (outer side),

7.2, crown width, 4.8.

Remarks.—B. a. consitus is more closely related to B. a. astutus than to any

of the other known forms, although in size it more nearly approaches B. a.

flavus. The specimens available indicate a range extending down from the

mountains into tropical parts of western Mexico, while typical astutus occupies

the higher plateau region to the east.

Specimens examined.—Total number, 8, as follows:

JaLisco: Ameca, 1; Bolafios, 1; Ocotlan, 2.

~Micuoacan: La Salada (type locality), 3.

SInALOA: Plomosas, 1.

ZOOLOGY.—A new pocket mouse from Southern Arizona.! E. A.

GoLpMAN, Biological Survey.

The descriptions of two new subspecies of Perognathus amplus were

recently published (this JoURNAL 22: 386-388). They were based

on a study, by the writer, of 68 specimens referable to the species,

from 20 localities in Arizona. While the paper was in press 23 addi-

tional examples were received, unexpectedly, from the Tucson region,

in the southeastern part of the State. These present differential

characters that seem to warrant the recognition of still another new

geographic race. ‘The material now available proves that P. amplus,

known originally from a single individual only, ranges throughout

most parts of the Lower Sonoran Zone in Arizona; but the species

has not yet been recorded beyond the borders of the State.

Perognathus amplus taylori, subsp. nov.

Pima Pocket Mouse

Type.—From Santa Rita Range Reserve (near Northeast Station), 35 miles

south of Tucson, Pima County, Arizona (altitude about 4,000 feet). No.

250533, 9 adult, U. S. National Museum (Biological Survey collection),

collected by Walter P. Taylor, August 3, 19380. Original No. 1899.

Distribution.—Desert region of southern Arizona and probably northern

Sonora, east of the range of Perognathus amplus rotundus.

1 Received August 22, 1932.

OCTOBER 19, 1932 GOLDMAN: NEW POCKET MOUSE 489

General characters.—A small, richly colored subspecies, with a delicately

formed skull. Closely allied to Perognathus amplus amplus of central Ari-

zona, but smaller and of slenderer proportions; color about the same;

cranial details, especially the smaller mastoids, distinctive; tail longer than

head and body, slightly crested near end and tufted as in amplus. Distin-

guished from P. a. rotundus of southwestern Arizona, by smaller size,

darker, richer pinkish buffy coloration, and less swollen mastoids. Size

about as in Perognathus amplus pergracilis of northwestern Arizona, south

of the Grand Canyon, but color distinctly darker pinkish buff; skull differ-

ing in detail.

Color.—Type (acquiring fresh pelage): Upper parts near pinkish buff

(Ridgway, 1912), purest on cheeks, shoulders, flanks and outer surfaces of

thighs, the top of head and back finely lined with black; under parts, fore

limbs, and hind feet white; ears pinkish buffy externally, except anterior

fold which is dusky, sparsely clothed internally with blackish hairs, and dis-

tinetly edged with white near posterior base; tail thinly haired, grayish above,

whitish below, becoming brownish or dusky on crest and terminal tuft.

Adults in somewhat worn summer pelages are of a deeper, richer color than

the type, the general tone above between pinkish buff and cinnamon buff.

Skull.—Similar in general to that of P. a. amplus, but decidedly smaller;

mastoids less inflated, the sides more convergent posteriorly (sides more

nearly parallel, owing to lateral expansion posteriorly in the type of

amplus); dentition about the same. Size much smaller than P. a. rotundus,

with mastoids less swollen and not bulging above level of outer borders of

parietals as in that form. Similar in size to P. a. pergracilis, but frontals

broader; interparietal narrower; mastoids and dentition about the same.

Measurements.—Type: ‘Total length, 155 mm.; tail vertebrae, 84; hind

foot, 20. Average of 10 adult topotypes: 140 (123-150); 72 (60-80); 18.7

(17-20). Skull (type): Occipitonasal length, 23.5; greatest breadth (across au-

dital bullae at meatus), 13.7; zygomatic breadth (posteriorly), 12.2; interor-

bital breadth, 5.3; length of nasals, 9.2; width of nasals (in front of incisors),

2.3; interparietal, length, 3, width, 3.2; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 3.4.

Remarks.—Perognathus amplus as a species presents a rather unusual range

of geographic variation in combination of details of form and feature, within

a limited area, even for a member of a group so subject to diversification as

the pocket mice. While the several races are obviously very closely allied

the distinctive characters are quite constant. A specimen from Gila Bend

is somewhat larger and in rather pale color indicates gradation toward P. a.

rotundus. ‘The collector found P. a. taylori inhabiting the ‘‘creosote”’ (Covil-

lea mexicana) type of vegetation cover. .

Specumens examined.—Total number, 27, all from Arizona, as follows:

Casa Grande, Pinal County, 1; Continental (Amado Well, 2 miles south),

4; Gila Bend, Maricopa County, 1; Gunsight, Pima County, 1; Papago Well

(O’Neill Hills, 8 miles east), Pima County, 1; Range Reserve (35 miles south

of Tucson), 19.

490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 16, 17

ANATOMY.—Formatio reticularis and reticulospinal tracts, their

visceral functions and possible relationships to tonicity and clonic

contractions.1. Wiui1aAM F. ALLEN, University of Oregon Medical

School.

It is known from embryology that most of the left over cells of the

brain stem and spinal cord which are not concerned in the formation

of motor root nuclei and purely sensory relay nuclei are utilized in the

production of the formatio reticularis. ‘This is a very old structure

phylogenetically. It is but little differentiated in the lower verte-

brates, where it apparently serves as an effective mechanism which

enables these animals to adapt themselves properly to their various

inside and outside conditions. In the higher vertebrates there is but

little reticular formation in the spinal cord, but considerable in both

the median and lateral portions of the medulla, pons and midbrain,

where for the most part it exists anatomically in its original undiffer-

tiated state. Reticular formation surrounds or partially surrounds

the sensory nuclei of the thalamus, and when considered phylogeneti-

cally the nucleus ruber, substantia nigra and other differentiated

hypothalamic and midbrain nuclei should probably be considered as

specialized derivatives.

Afferent fibers to the formatio reticularis: The hypothalamic nuclei

undoubtedly receive important olfactory, thalamic, basal ganglia,

cerebral, cerebellar and medullary connections. ‘The nucleus ruber

and other midbrain nuclei belonging to this system have similar

connections and should be stimulated by like impulses. Ramén y

Cajal has demonstrated many collaterals from the corticospinal fibers

distributed to the formatio reticularis of the pons and medulla.

Pavlow, Busaceca, Rasmussen and Le Cocq have found many degen-

erated fibers in the formatio reticularis of the pons and medulla re-

sulting from lesions in the colliculi and these degenerated fibers were

not traceable in the spinal cord below the cervical region. Le Cocq

has shown that transecting the spinal cord at the 6th. cervical

vertebra resulted in no chromatolysis in the superior colliculi, while

large lesions in the medulla were followed by many chromatolytic

cells in the motor area of the superior colliculi. Hence the descending

tract from the superior colliculus is to be regarded as tectobulbar

rather than tectospinal. Fibrae fastigiobulbares from the fastigial

nucleus of the cerebellum have been described by Russel, van

Gehuchten, Luna, Allen (1924) and Bernis and Spiegel going to Dei-

ter’s nucleus, where some probably end. A large number, however,

1 Received July 5, 1982.

OCTOBER 19, 1932 ALLEN: FORMATIO RETICULARIS 491

follow the descending vestibular root fibers to be distributed chiefly

to the formatio reticularis of the medulla and the median longitudinal

bundle. Thomas, Probst, Lewandowsky, Wallenberg, van Gehuch-

ten, von Monakow, Luna and the writer (1924) have called attention

to a descending brachium conjunctivum, which leaves the main

brachium conjunctivum immediately after decussation. This tract

for the most part follows dorsally to the median lemniscus and termi-

nates in the reticular formation of the pons and medulla. Attention

is also directed to the possible importance of numerous branches of the

brachium conjunctivum to the hypothalamic region. These fibers

were described by Probst (1901) and confirmed by the writer (1924).

Van Gehuchten and the writer have found numerous branches of the

brachium conjunctivum ending in the formatio reticularis of the mid-

brain and in the oculomotor nuclei. Presumably all of the sensory.

cranial nerve fibers communicate in one way or another with the

reticular formation. The many vestibular connections to the un-

differentiated and differentiated formatio reticularis, described by

Muskens and others, should be of considerable significance. They

are said to arise from the triangular, Deiter’s and Bechterew’s nuclei,

to go by way of the posterior longitudinal bundle, and to be associated

with forced movements. Muskens describes a crossed and an un-

crossed fasciculus vestibulo-mesencephalicus to the interstitial and

posterior commissural nuclei and an uncrossed fasciculus vestibulo-

tegmentalis lateralis (and possibly a medialis) to the tegmentum.

He also describes efferent tracts from the interstitial and posterior

commissural nuclei to the medulla and spinal cord and suggests

possible connections from the corpora striata to the posterior com-

missural nuclei. The writer’s experiments (first paper 1927) indicated

that fibers from the solitary tract and commissural nuclei (terminal

nuclei for the sensory fibers of the VII, IX and X cranial nerves)

do not go directly to the spinal cord, but are relayed by way of the

formatio reticularis.

Efferent fibers from the formatio reticularis: Some of these fibers

obviously synapse with the various motor root nuclei of the brain

stem. According to Kohnstamm, Tschermak, von Bechterew, van

Gehuchten and Papez the descending fibers from the reticular forma-

tion may or may not cross in the medulla. Van Gehuchten, Probst

and Papez have described ventral and lateral reticulospinal tracts

in the spinal cord. The former run in the ventral column and the

latter approximate the gray in the lateral column. The reticulospinal

tracts have received some attention as extra pyramidal tracts on

492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 16, 17

account of their cerebral connections. The course of the rubrospinal

tract in the brain stem and lateral column of the spinal cord is well

known.

Possible functions of the formatio reticularis: All physiologists

agree that the medulla contains centers for altering the rate of the

pulse and the level of blood pressure. Ranson and Billingsley have

located vaso constrictor and vaso dilator points in the medulla not

far from the area postrema. ‘Transecting the spinal cord in the upper

cervical region greatly reduces arterial pressure for some time. Many

investigators including Brown-Séquard, Gad and Marinesco, Kohn-

stamm and others have placed the medullary respiratory center within

the limits of the formatio reticularis. Lumsden has located 3 different

respiratory centers in the medulla and pons, the stimulation of which

affects respiration differently. Spiegel and Enghoff place the respira-

tory center in the rhombencephalon. ‘They state that stimulation or

injury to this center results in the Cheyne-Stoke or Biot type of res-

piration. Other regions such as corpora quadrigemina, nucleus ruber

and tegmentum which may produce an arrest of respiration from

stimulation are considered only as reflex areas.

Many investigators from Karplus and Kreidl to Beattie have empha-

sized the importance of certain hypothalamic nuclei as centers for

visceral and humoral impulses. Beattie thinks this area has both

sympathetic and parasympathetic centers. The following investiga-

tions also demonstrate that lower levels of the formatio reticularis

may have like functions: Spiegel and Démétriades have observed

that intestinal movements caused from vestibular stimulations were

intensified after transecting the midbrain. Ingram, Ranson and

Hannet obtained pupillary dilation from stimulation of the reticular

formation of the mesencephalon and pons. The writer (1931) showed

that the slowed pulse followed by a bigeminal pulse, the rise in blood

pressure and the arrest of respiration caused from stimulation of the

trigeminal nerve by insufflation could readily be evoked when the

brain stem was sectioned below the diencephalon. In addition there

was probably an increased output of adrenalin. The writer’s work

(1927 and 1931) indicates that the respiratory and vascular changes

elicited from stimulation of the cerebral motor cortex and the superior

colliculus are not conducted within the spinal cord by the pyramidal

and rubrospinal tracts or by a ‘‘tectospinal tract’”’ from the colliculus,

but by relays to the reticulospinal tract. It was further demonstrated

(second paper 1927) that the well known rigidity and clonic contrac-

tions elicited from stimulations of the superior colliculus were depend-

OCTOBER 19, 1932 ALLEN: FORMATIO RETICULARIS 493

ent on the integrity of the median portion of the lateral columns of the

spinal cord as well as the ventral columns, a region traversed by the

reticulospinal fibers.

Possible relationships of the formatio reticularis to the cerebellum and

to muscle tone: In Luciani’s classical experiments of removal of

one half of the cerebellum, the second stage was described as one of

marked weakness on the side of the lesion. Ingvar has reported that

destruction of the anterior lobe of the cerebellum results in a tendency

for the animal to fall forward, while obliteration of the posterior lobe

causes the animal to fall backward, and a lesion in one hemisphere is

followed by a tendency to fall to that side. Miller and Laughton

have shown that faradic stimulation of the basal nuclei of the cerebel-

lum of a decerebrate animal (red nucleus intact) increases the tone of

the flexor muscles and decreases the tone of the extensors and is fol-

lowed by a rebound. Several years earlier Bremer obtained similar

results from stimulation of the palaeo-cerebellar cortex. In addition

he obtained an alteration of certain rhythmic movements of progres-

sion which may be present in decerebrate animals. Some unreported

experiments by the writer have shown that injection of a few drops

of sodium citrate into the cortex of the cerebellum evokes rigidity

convulsions produced from faradic or citrate stimulation of the

superior colliculus. It has been demonstrated by Magnus and others

that removal of the cerebellum in a decerebrate rigid animal does not

alter the tone. This, however, does not necessarily mean that the

cerebellum is not concerned with or may not alter muscle tone. In

fact, Sherrington, Loewenthal and Horsley, Bremer, Miller and

Banting have shown that weak faradic stimulation of the cortex of

the vermis (palaeo-cerebellum) in decerebrate rigid animals inhibits

this rigidity.

Concerning the two efferent pathways from the cerebellum to the

formatio reticularis of the brain stem, the brachium conjunctivum

and its main ascending division to the nucleus ruber and thalamus

have generally been associated with muscle tone, but its descending

division and its many endings in the formatio reticularis of the pons

and medulla have apparently been entirely ignored in this connection.

This important descending tract may be intact in many decerebrate

rigid animals. The fastigiobulbar tract has received some consid-

eration as a muscle tone pathway by Bernis and Spiegel and by Miller

and Laughton. The former also called attention to the importance

of fibers in the fastigiobulbar bundle that originate from the cortex of

the vermis.

494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

To the writer the afferent connections to the formatio reticularis

from the cerebrum, colliculi, corpora striata, and especially the

diverse and extensive connections from the cerebellum suggest that

considerable portions of the formatio reticularis function as efferent

centers for tonic impulses. It may be that there are separate areas

for inhibition as well as for augmentation. The usual explanation

of the experiment of Magnus, where the decerebrate rigidity which |

resulted from transection of the brain stem below the nucleus ruber did

not disappear with successive transecting of the medulla caudally

until a level was reached directly below Deiter’s nucleus, is that this

section excluded all of Deiter’s nucleus. On the other hand, it might

be explained that the section below Deiter’s nucleus eliminated all

or practically all of the connections of the formatio reticularis of the

brain stem.

The extensive distribution of the reticular formation through the

brain stem and spinal cord may be used to good advantage in the

“summation” and “‘recruitment’’ phenomena.

SUMMARY

Considerable evidence has accumulated in support of the formatio

reticularis containing the chief visceral effective centers of the brain

stem, which if true, would make the reticulospinal tracts the main

pathways for effective visceral impulses in the spinal cord. There are

also indications that this system may be associated with tonic impulses

and clonic contractions. It is not the intention of the writer to

minimize the importance of the hypothalamic nuclei as visceral motor

centers, but rather to emphasize other equally important visceral

effective areas in the formatio reticularis at lower levels.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AuLEeN, W. F. 1924. Journ. Comp. Neur., XXXVI, 399.

1927. Journ. Comp. Neur., XLII, 393.

1927. Journ. Comp. Neur., XLIII, 451.

1931. Amer. Journ. Physiol., XCVIII, 344.

Burattiz, J. 1932. Can. Med. Assoc. Journ., XXVI, 400.

BECHTEREW, W. von. 1885. Neur. Centrabl., IV, 377.

1894. Die Leitungsbahnen im Gehirn und Riickenmark. Leipzig.

BERNIS und SprEGEL. 1925. Arb. Neur. Inst. Wiener Univ., XXVII, 197.

Bremer, F. 1922. Arch. Intern. de Physiol., XIX, 189.

BROWN-SHQUARD, C. E. 1869. Comp. Rend. Soc. Biol., 64.

Busacca, A. 1921. Folia Neuro-Biol., XII, 165.

DE Kie1yn und Magnus. 1920 Pfliiger’s Arch., CLX XIII, 124.

OCTOBER 19, 1932 ALLEN: FORMATIO RETICULARIS

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GrHucHTeNn, A. vAN. 1900. Jour. de Neur., 129.

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INGRAM, RANSON and HaNnNET. 1931. Amer. Jour. Physiol., XCVIII, 687.

Inevar, S. 1918. Folia Neuro-Biol., XI, 205.

Karpius und Kremu. 1909. Pfliiger’s Arch., CX XIX, 138.

1910. Pfliiger’s Arch., CK XXYV, 401.

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KounstamM, O. 1900. Monatssch. f. Psych. u. Neur., VIII, 261.

LeCoce, J. Unpublished work cited by Allen 1927. |

Lewanpowsky, M. 1896. Arch. f. Physiol., 483.

LoOEWENTHAL and Horstey. 1897. Proc. Roy. Soc,, LXI.

Luciani, L. 1891. Jl cevelletto. Florence.

Lumspen, T. 1922. Journ. Physiol., LXIJJ, 153.

1923. Journ. Physiol., LXIII, 81 and 110.

Luna, E. 1920. Arch. Ital. Anat. Emb., XVII, 317.

Maenus, R. 1916. Pfliger’s Arch., CLXIII, 405.

1924. Ké6rperstellung, Berlin.

MILLER, and Bantine. 1922. Brain, XLV, 104.

MILLER and Laueuton. 1928. Proc. Roy. Soc., B, CIII, 575.

1928. Arch. Neur. Psychiat., XIX, 47.

1909. Arb. Hiranat. Inst. Ziirich, III, 49.

Muskens, L. J. J. 1914. Brain, XXXVI, 352.

1922. Brain, XLV, 454.

1928. Jour. Physiol., LXIV, 303.

Parez, J. W. 1926. Journ. Comp. Neur., XLI, 365.

Paviow, W. 1900. Le Névraxe, I, 59 and 153.

Prosst, M. 1901. Monatssch. Psych. u. Neur., X, 288.

1902. Arch. Psych. u. Nervenkranken, XXV, 692.

RaMON y Casat, 8. 1896. Beitrdége zum Studium der Medulla oblongata.

RANSON and BILuinesLEY. 1916. Amer. Journ. Physiol., XLI, 85.

Rasmussen, A. T. 1922. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med., XX, 104.

Russe, J. 8. R. 1895. Phil. Trans., CLXXXVI, 633.

SHERRINGTON, C.S. 1893. Proc. Roy. Soc., LIII.

1897. Journ. Physiol., XXII, 319.

Sprecet, E. A. 1928. Experimentelle Neurologie. Berlin.

Leipzig.

SPreGEL und DémérTRiaDES. 1924. Monatssch. Ohrenheilkunde, Lary.-Rhin., I, 1.

SPIEGEL und EneHorr. 1925. Zeitsch. Ges. Exp. Med., XLVIJ, 13.

Tuomas, A. 1897. Lecervelet. Paris.

TscHERMAK, A. 1898. Arch. f. Anat., 291.

WALLENBERG, A. 1905. Anat. Anz., XXVI, 145.

496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 16, 17

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Freperick Bates, Chief of the Polarimetric Section of the Bureau of

Standards, has recently returned from a tour of European laboratories. He

was elected President of the International Commission for Uniform Methods

of Sugar Analysis which was reconvened at Amsterdam, Holland, the week of

September 5th, 1932. Approximately 50 delegates were present. Practi-

cally all of the major countries interested in scientific development were

represented. A number of important international agreements on methods

of scientific procedure were obtained and plans laid for much additional

research through international cooperation.

Curtis P. CLauseNn of the Bureau of Entomology, formerly in charge of

research work on parasites of the citrus black fly at Kuala Lumpur, Federated

Malay States, has been transferred to Washington. In his new assignment,

he will coordinate the work of the Bureau and cooperating States on the study,

breeding, importation, and distribution of beneficial insects.

A. 8. Hircucock, custodian of grasses in the U. 8. National Museum, has

been elected a corresponding member of the Argentine Scientific Society.

GrorGe W. LirrLEHALEs, head of the division of research of the Hydro-

graphic Office of the Navy, has been retired from active duty under the

provisions of the economy bill after forty-seven years of service.

Henry S. Wasutnctos, petrologist of the Geophysical Laboratory,

Carnegie Institution of W ashington, has been elected an honorary member

of the Mineralogical Society, London.

The 1932 directory of the Academy and affiliated societies has just come from

the press. Single copies may be purchased from the Treasurer, H. G. AVERs,

Coast and Geodetic Survey, at a cost of 35 cents.

Obituary

Irwin G. Priest, chief of the colorimetry section of the Bureau of Stand-

ards, died suddenly on July 19, 1932. He was born near Loudonville, Ohio,

on January 26, 1886. Graduating in 1907 from the Ohio State University,

he came to the Bureau of Standards as a personal assistant to the director.

In 1913 he was made chief of the colorimetry section. Much of the theory of

interpreting spectrophotometric data in terms of dominant wave-lengths,

purity, and brightness is due to him.

Mr. Priest was a fellow of the American Physical Society and the Ameri-

can Association for the Advancement of Science, a member of the Optical

Society of America, the American Psychological Association, the Washington

Academy of Sciences and the Philosophical Society of Washington. He

served as secretary (1921-24) and president (1928-29) of the Optical Society.

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> ee

. ay

Botany.—Mosses of Northern Guatemala and British Honduras.

CONTENTS

“ ‘Oriana Papers a Ne

Bioniolry. —The creat of mixed ricpuladioeny Two species c 12

monfoodsupply. Atrrep J. LONER oiioin tse jon pe tcaee wae

Geology.—Faults and joints in the Coastal Plainof Maryland. A. L.1 JRYD

Paleontology.—Holopea symmetrica Hall, genotype of Holopea Hall. — 4

Benen eis fda eee pa ae Val eRe ae rene oe

BawEmanyy i, 50 Soph 52 1 GR igo sto Renee oe ee

Zoology.—The male of the nematode species, Neotylenchus abulbosus, Ste

____ its sexual dimorphism. G. STEINER and Epna M. BUBRER.........

EK. W. Netson and E. A. GOLDMEAI 5 eis sos 5. ap bags chee Re

Zoology.—A new pocket mouse from Southern Arizona. E. A. GotpMaN. . ° . ;

Anatomy.—Formatio reticularis and reticulospinal tracts, their visceral fu

and possible relationships to tonicity and clonic contractions. Wi

ALDMMS 505.» 5 sp «av eanlehicnieh sp bush ae Sit eb + thik adie sy ae

Scruntivic NoTES AND NBWS... 206i. 20-5 cesedeecene se ceeeysdupeee teense

OBITUARY: Irwin G. Poe ee

This Journat is indexed inthe International Index to Periodicals 4

NOVEMBER 19,1932 | No. 18, 19

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JOURNAL

OF THE

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Vou. 22 Novemser 19, 1932 No. 18, 19

PALEOBOTANY.—Megaspores ascribed to Selaginellites, from the

Upper Cretaceous coals of Western Greenland.:!. ERNEST LAVON

Miner. (Communicated by H. H. BARTLETT.)

In this paper are described the most outstanding types of mega-

spores recovered from the samples of Upper Cretaceous Greenland

coal, which were collected by Mr. Carl O. Erlanson in 1928. Dr.

C. A. Arnold (1) made a preliminary examination and a brief report

on these coals, and suggested that a more detailed investigation be

undertaken by the writer.

The specimens from which spores were obtained came from two

localities, Patoot on the southeast coast of the Nugsuaks Peninsula

at an elevation of 165 meters and Skansen on the east coast of Disko

Island, two miles inland, at an altitude of 140 meters.

The coal beds of West Greenland range in age, without stratigraphic

break, from Lower Cretaceous to Miocene. The coal layers are

lenticular, varying in thickness from a few inches to several feet, and

are interbedded between sandstone and shale (Ball 2; Béggild 3, 4).

The age of the coal from the localities under consideration appears to

be Upper Cretaceous, since Heer (7, 8) recognized the Patoot series as

having an Upper Cretaceous flora. White and Schuchert (12) give

this series as extending up to about 2,000 feet above sea level. At

Skansen, Seward (10), the most recent paleobotanist to study the

fossil plant beds of Western Greenland, found Cretaceous strata at a

height of 1,900 feet. The collections from Patoot and Skansen were

at about 532 and 460 feet respectively, thus bringing these two locali-

ties well within the boundaries of the Upper Cretaceous.

1 Papers from the Department of Botany of the University of Michigan, No. 395.

Received August 8, 1932.

497

498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 18, 19

TECHNIQUE

The coal was macerated in bulk by soaking it in dilute nitric acid

for a considerable length of time. After this treatment it was washed

in water to remove the acid and then placed into a dilute sodium

hydroxide solution until the maceration was complete. The resulting

brown liquid was washed out and the residue examined under a binoc-

ular microscope.

The isolated plant fragments were treated for a short time in hot

dilute nitric acid and potassium chlorate followed by hot dilute alkali.

This second treatment with the hot acid and alkali helps to clear up

and remove any debris adhering to the surface of the specimens. The

material was transferred from water to 95% alcohol, and then mounted

on a slide in “‘euparal.’’ This method of mounting in “‘euparal’’ is

similar to the formalin glycerine-jelly method mentioned by Harris

(6) and is as follows:

1. Place the material in 95% alcohol for at least 30 minutes.

2. Transfer the specimens to the slide directly from 95% alcohol.

3. Draw off the 95% alcohol with filter paper or some other absorbent

and add several drops of absolute alcohol. Let this stand for about a

minute.

4. Draw off only enough absolute alcohol so that the specimens

still remain moist and add enough ‘‘euparal’”’ to form a thin coating

over them.

5. Arrange the specimens on the slide.

6. Set the slide aside until the ‘‘euparal”’ sets sufficiently to hold

the objects in place. This can be tested by running the point of a

dissecting needle through the “euparal.”’ If it has set, the needle

will leave a white streak. The slide should be placed under cover to

exclude particles of dust.

7. Add a drop or two more of “‘euparal’ and place the cover glass.

This process makes a good permanent mount in which a large

number of small plant fragments can be arranged systematically

without having the specimens drift towards the edges of the coverslip

as it is applied.

THe MEGASPORES

The spores are very variable in size but each type defined shows no

differences in structure. There appears to be a gradual increase in

diameter from the smallest to the largest. Pfeiffer (9) shows that

in the genus Jsoetes the megaspores in general vary between 250 and

900 u, with a much smaller range in the individual species. Variation

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 MINER: MEGASPORES OF SELAGINELLITES 499

in some species amounts to as much as 310 yp, but the average variation

for a species is around 100 yu or less. In the genus Selaginella there

also occurs a great difference in the size of the megaspores within a

species. Inequality in size of spores because of variation in megaspore

number is shown by Duerden (5) to be common in certain species of

Selaginella, and Van Eseltine (11) finds that very often one megaspore

of the tetrad develops at the expense of the other three, which are

then very much dwarfed. Ina study of the megaspores of Selaginella,

I also find a great variation of spore size within a species, the largest

spores sometimes being twice as large as the smallest ones, with many

intergradations.

In Isoetes and Selaginella the spores formed in tetrahedral groups

usually have three commissural ridges (the ‘‘triradiate marks’’) on

their inner face. These ridges extend from the apex of the inner face

to an equatorial ridge which separates the inner and outer faces. In

Selaginella a raised equatorial ring is not always present or evident.

When megaspores are formed from diads instead of tetrads the com-

missural ridges are absent. The surface of the spores may be either

plain, rugose, spinose, tuberculate or reticulate wholly or in part.

The sculpturing and appendages on the surface of the spores provide

good diagnostic features.

Since the structures which bore the fossil spores are unknown it is

impossible to determine accurately relationships to living plants, but

since the markings and structures suggest a very close affinity to the

Selaginellaceae, it seems very appropriate to place them in the form

genus Selaginellites. Selaginellites was first instituted by Zeiller (13)

for specimens from the coal basin of Blanzy, which appeared to differ

from Selaginella in having more than four megaspores in each mega-

sporangium. Zeiller’s distinction does not hold true when considered

in the light of the work of Duerden (5) who finds the megaspore num-

ber per megasporangium ranging from one to 42 for some species of

Selaginella. The name Selaginellites has been restricted to those

species which are known to be heterosporous. The genus Lycopodites

of Brongniart is used in a more comprehensive sense to include all

forms which are not known to be heterosporous, but it seems as

though it should be restricted for those homosporous forms that show

Lycopodium characters. Selaginellites as used here includes those

fossil forms which have Selaginella-like characteristics, i.e., are hetero-

sporous.

The measurements given for the size of the spores should be inter-

preted as the range observed in a few clearly conspecific specimens and

Noy 9 > 4m ty

500 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 18, 19

not as the absolute limits, which can be established only by the exam-

ination of much more material.

Selaginellites erlansonii sp. nov.

Body of exine round, 465-1,000 u in diameter, the mean being 690 uy;

exine reticulate with irregular diaphanous appendages, 17-122 yu in width,

giving the spore a total diameter of 500—-1,155 » with the mean at 790 u;

no commissural ridges or clefts visible-—Skansen, east coast of Disko Island,

Greenland; two miles inland at altitude of 140 meters; Upper Cretaceous.

Figures 1-8. This spore is seemingly quite abundant, but fragments of it

are recovered more often than perfect specimens. The spores are dark brown

or black and very opaque and this may help to account for the apparent lack

of the triradiate markings. In Arnold’s paper (1) this spore type is shown on

Plate III, Figure 2. This species is named in honor of Mr. Carl O. Erlanson,

the collector of the coal from which it was recovered, who was botanist on the

second Greenland Expedition of the University of Michigan.

Selaginellites papillosus sp. nov.

Body of exine round, 648-747 yu in diameter; triradiate clefts extending

about two thirds of the distance to the periphery; exine covered with nu-

merous mamilliform papillae, hemispheric or higher than broad, with apex

rounded.—Skansen, east coast of Disko Island, Greenland; two miles inland

at altitude of 140 meters; Upper Cretaceous. Figure 9. This spore type

was very rare.

Selaginellites arnoldii sp. nov.

Body of exine round, 465-614 uw in diameter, average diameter 570 u;

triradiate marks extending over half the distance to periphery; body invested

with numerous closely set vermiform papillae, 7-21 » wide and 38-70 yu long,

sides parallel, apex rounded.—Skansen, east coast of Disko Island, Green-

land; two miles inland at altitude of 140 meters; Upper Cretaceous. Figures

22-25. Patoot, southeast coast of Nugsuaks Peninsula, Greenland, at 165

meters; Upper Cretaceous. This species was rather uncommon but not rare.

It is figured by Arnold (1) on Plate IV, Figure 6. The spores are very in-

teresting because of the peculiar appendages which invest the exine. The

triradiate markings appear as fine lines.

Selaginellites greenlandicus sp. nov.

Body of exine round, 515-698 u in diameter, the mean about 595 u; trira-

diate clefts reaching half to two-thirds of the distance to the periphery;

covered with finger-like appendages, 17-28 » wide and 17-44 wu long, with

sides nearly parallel, and apex rounded or blunt, usually somewhat distantly

set.—Skansen, east coast of Disko Island, Greenland; two miles inland at

altitude of 140 meters; Upper Cretaceous. Figures 10, 11. This spore was

about equal in abundance to S. arnoldiz.

Selaginellites echinatus sp. nov.

Body of exine round, 349-400 uw in diameter; triradiate clefts extending

about two thirds of the distance to the periphery; exine covered with echi-

nate appendages, tapering to an acute point, straight or somewhat curved.—

Skansen, east coast of Disko Island, Greenland; two miles inland at altitude

of 140 meters; Upper Cretaceous. Figure 6. This form was as rare in the

coal as S. papillosus.

Figs. 1, 2.—Selaginellites erlansonii. Large specimens showing the reticulations

with the irregular diaphanous appendages. X 36. Fig. 3.—S. erlansonii. A small

specimen showing the reticulations with a less conspicuous irregular diaphanous append-

age. X 60. Figs. 4, 5.—S.rotundus. This shows the range in size of the spores, with

the well defined triradiate markings and thick exine. X60. Fig. 6.—S. echinatus. A

perfect specimen, with the triradiate markings. X 60. Figs. 7, 8—S. inornatus. A

large and an average sized spore showing the triradiate marks. X 60. Fig. 9.—S.

papillosus. An excellent specimen showing the triradiate markings. X 60. Figs. 10,

11.—S. greenlandicus. Large specimens showing the characteristic appendages and the

triradiate markings. X 60.

501

ee eo ba.

Fig. 12.—Selaginellites borealis. A small spore in a very wrinkled condition, but

showing the triradiate markings and a portion of the equatorial wing. X 96. Figs. 18,

14,—S. borealis. Excellent specimens showing the spore body and the almost complete

equatorial wing. X66. Fig. 15.—S. borealis. Asomewhat wrinkled specimen showing

the extent of the triradiate marks and a portion of the wing. X66. Fig. 16—S. borealis.

A specimen with the wing missing, but showing the triradiate marks extending beyond

the periphery of the spore body. X 66. Figs. 17, 18.—S. borealis. Specimens showing

only a small portion of the equatorial wing on the radii of the triradiate marks. X 66.

Fig. 19.—S. borealis. A specimen consisting of only the inner face of a spore, showing

the triradiate markings and the inconspicuous reticulations. xX 66. Fig. 20.—S.

borealis. A somewhat wrinkled specimen, from which the equatorial wing has been

broken, showing only the spore body. X 66. Fig. 21.—S. borealis. A specimen some-

what flattened laterally showing the triradiate markings extending a little beyond

the periphery of the spore. X 66.

502

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 MINER: MEGASPORES OF SELAGINELLITES 503

Selaginellites borealis sp. nov.

Body of exine practically round, 265-350 yu in diameter; equatorial wing

50-83 u wide on the radii of the triradiate markings, and 16-50 u in between,

making the total diameter of the spore 332-480 y; triradiate markings ex-

tending to the periphery of the wing; irregular reticulations present but not

conspicuous.—Skansen, east coast of Disko Island, Greenland; two miles

Figs. 22-25.—Selaginellites arnoldii. Excellent specimens showing the peculiar

vermiform papillae which cover the spore. The triradiate marks show as fine black lines

in Figs. 22, 28. xX 110.

inland at altitude of 140 meters; Upper Cretaceous. Figures 13-21.

Patoot, south coast of the Nugsuaks Peninsula, at altitude of 165 meters,

Greenland; Upper Cretaceous. Figure 12. This spore type is figured by

Arnold (1) on Plate IV, Figure 1. It was more abundant in the coal from

Skansen, than in that from Patoot. The exine of this species seems to be

quite thin and delicate as in many instances the spores are very wrinkled

and the wing is broken or missing.

504 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 18, 19

Jawa none oanomT Mnaeteenentr mMRCOTUETEMMAAMMAAMACCORERNOENA NOTSORNGE 2

sonra

‘

Figs. 26, 27, 31.—Selaginellites ariadnae. Specimens showing the tangled and

matted condition of the thread-like appendages. X 97. Fig. 28.—S. ariadnae. A

spore from which part of the appendages were removed so as to show the long thin

appendages, with the broader funnel-form base. X 97. Fig. 29.—S. ariadnae. A

specimen from which the appendages and a portion of the wall were removed so as to

show the triradiate clefts. 97. Fig. 30.—S.ariadnae. A view of the outer face of a

spore showing the distribution, arrangement, and attachment of the appendages. X 97.

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 MINER: MEGASPORES OF SELAGINELLITES 505

Selaginellites inornatus sp. nov.

Body of exine round, 200-664 u in diameter, the mean being 440 u; exine

smooth, 5-18 u thick; triradiate clefts extending a third to a half of the dis-

tance to the periphery, clefts slightly margined.—Skansen, east coast of

Disko Island, Greenland; two miles inland at altitude of 140 meters; Upper

Cretaceous. Figures 7,8. This spore was the next most abundant Selaginel-

lites, but was found generally in a broken or damaged condition.

Selaginellites subrotundus sp. nov.

Body of exine rounded-subdeltoid, 432-698 u in diameter, the average

being near 506 y; exine 30-40 u thick; triradiate clefts with somewhat thick-

ened margins, extending two thirds or more of the distance to the periphery;

exine smooth.—Skansen, east coast of Disko Island, Greenland; two miles

inland at altitude of 140 meters; Upper Cretaceous. Figures 4, 5. Al-

though not as abundant as S. inornatus this spore was generally recovered

in excellent condition. This may be because of its very thick exine. It

resembles the former species very much, but differs in the thicker exine,

larger size, and more deltoid shape.

Selaginellites ariadnae sp. nov.

Body of exine round, 150-316 » in diameter, the mean being 233 uy; trira-

diate clefts extending over half the distance to the periphery; body invested

with 8-15 thread-like appendages, 3-4 u in width, few to several times the

diameter of the spore in length, base broad and funnel-form, apex blunt or

rounded.—Skansen, east coast of Disko Island, Greenland; two miles inland

at altitude of 140 meters; Upper Cretaceous. Figures 26-31. This is the

predominating spore type recovered from the coal. It is usually entangled

by the thread-like appendages, which sometimes completely hide the spore.

It is only after untangling and straightening out the appendages that the real

structure of the spore can be seen. The number of visible appendages de-

pends upon the plane in which the spore was flattened, the fewest number

being on the inner face of the spore.

LITERATURE CITED

1. ARNoLD, C. A. Microfossils from Greenland coal. Papers of the Mich. Acad. Sci.,

Arts and Letters 15: 51-61. 1932.

2. Batt, 8S. H. The mineral resources of Greenland. Medd. Groenland 63: 53-56.

1922.

3. Béeeitp, O. B. Grénland. Handbuch der Regionalen Geologie. 4: No. 2a. 1917.

4. Béaettp, O. B. The geology of Greenland. In ‘‘Greenland,’’ published by the

commission for direction of the geological and geographical investigations in Green-

land, Editors M. Vahl, G. C. Amdrup, L. Bobe, and Ad. 8S. Jensen. 1: 231-247.

Copenhagen and London, 1928.

5. DUERDEN, H. Variatiens in megaspore number in Selaginella. Ann. Bot. 48:

451-457. 1929.

6. Harris, T. M. The Rhaetic flora of Scoresby Sound, East Greenland. Saertryk af

Meddelelser om Grgnland 68: 46-147. 1926.

7. Heer, O. Die fossile flora Grénlands. Flora Fossilis Arctica 6(2): 112. Zurich,

1882.

8. Heer, O. Die fossile Flora Grénlands. Flora Fossilis Arctica 7: 275. Zurich,

1883.

9. PreirFER, Norma E. Monograph cf the Isoetaceae. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 9:

79-232. 1922.

506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 18, 19

10. Sewarp, A. C. The Cretaceous plant-bearing rocks of western Greenland. Phil.

Trans. Roy. Soc. London. B. 215: 57-175. 1927.

11. Van Esevtine, G. P. The allies of Selaginella rupestris in the southeastern United

States. Cont. U. S. Nat. Herb. 20: 149-172. 1918.

12. Witz, D. and C. Scuucurrr. Cretaceous series of the west coast of Greenland.

Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 9: 343-368. 1898.

13. Zernupr, R. Bassin houiller et permien de Blanzy et du Dreusot. Etudes des Gites

Mineraux de la France, Fasc. ii, Flore fossile, pp. 140-150. 1906.

PALEONTOLOGY .—Antillophyllia, a new coral generic name.

THomAS WAYLAND VAUGHAN, Scripps Institution of Oceanography.

The genus Antillophyllia may be defined as follows:

Corallum simple, turbinate, compressed turbinate, bilobate, or sub-cornute

in form; attached at least in the earliest stages, pedicel minute or moderately

large. Externally invested by a more or less complete, detachable epitheca.

Costae distinct, moderately prominent, subequal or equal in size, margins

with very regular, usually transversely compressed dentations. Septa

numerous, with minutely dentate margins, the dentations frequently (if not

always) papilliform in character. Margins of the larger septa divided by a

_ sinus into an inner and outer lobe, the inner very narrow in the constricted

portion of bilobate calices. Septal faces with fine opposed striations, along

whose courses are granulations. The striations are finer on the inner than

on the outer septal lobe. Columella not greatly developed, compressed in

the plane of the greater diameter of the calice, vesicular. Dissepimental

endotheca very abundant; exotheca frequently well developed, sometimes

forming a wall outside of an inner wall which originates by the thickening of

the sides of the septa.

Type species.—A ntillia lonsdaleia Duncan from the Miocene of the Domini-

can Republic.

P. Martin Duncan (1864, p. 28) proposed the name Antillia and

included in it four species, viz., Montlivaltia ponderosa Duncan (not

Milne Edwards and Haime), Antillia dentata Duncan, A. lonsdaleia

Dunean, and A. belobata Duncan. He later added another species,

A. walli (Duncan and Wall, 1865, p. 11). These five species represent

two systematic groups of corals, one of which has coarsely dentate

septal margins, contains the species wrongly identified as Montlivaultia

ponderosa M. Edw. and Haime and Antillia dentata Duncan. It is

related to the mussoid corals. The other group has septa with finely

dentate margins and to it belong A. lonsdaleia, A. bilobata, and A.

walli, all described by Duncan.

There was confusion at the start. Not only did Duncan include

two different genera under Antillia when he first proposed the name,

but he made a double misidentification of species. Comparison of

photographs of the type of Montlivaultia ponderosa M. Edwards and

Haime kindly sent me from the Museum of Natural History in

1 Received August 16, 1932.

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 VAUGHAN: ANTILLOPHYLLIA 507

Paris shows that Duncan’s Montlivaltia ponderosa from the Miocene

of Bowden, Jamaica, is not Montlivaultia ponderosa Milne Edwards

and Haime. I undertook to correct this error by naming the Bowden,

Jamaica, species Antillia gregortz (Vaughan, 1901, p. 6). The speci-

mens from the ‘‘Nivajé Shale,’ Dominican Republic, identified by

Dunean as “Antillia ponderosa’ is, as shown by an examination of the

specimen studied by Duncan, not the same species as the Bowden

“Antillia ponderosa,’ but is Dunecan’s Antillia dentata from the

Dominican Republic. Duncan’s Antillia ponderosa, therefore, in-

cluded two species, neither one of which was Montliaultia ponderosa

M. Edwards and Haime.

J. W. Gregory (1895, p. 266) wrote as follows:

“The inclusion in the list of synonyms of a species which Duncan assigned

to Antillia renders necessary a remark on this genus, and on the value of the

epitheeca in this group. The genus was founded by Duncan in 1864; he

included in it a series of species agreeing in having an essential columella and a

membraniform epitheca. The septa and costae are of two types: in some

species, as in his type-species A. ponderosa, the septa are not lobed and the

costae are coarsely dentate; in other species, such as A lonsdaleia, the septa

are lobed and the costae finely granulate. In his ‘Revision’ (p. 60) he reduces

the genus to a subgenus of Circophyllia, and still bases its value on the

epitheca.

The examination of a considerable series of specimens shows, however,

that the epitheca is so very variable in this group that it does not appear

worthy of even subgeneric value; the characters of the septa and costae seem

much more important. In some specimens the epitheca is present and in

others, quite rudimentary, and all stages can be seen between the two condi-

tions. In this case the genus has to be split up into two. Duncan’s type

goes into Lithophyllia, and the A. lonsdaleza and some others go into Cir-

cophyllia.”’

In 1901 I wrote (Vaughan, 1901, p. 6):

“T am not sure that these two species (Lithophyllia lacera (Pallas) and L.

cubensis (M. Edw. & H.) are really distinct; however, I am sure that Antil-

lia ponderosa Duncan (non-Milne Edwards and Haime) is a distinct species

and does not belong in the synonymy of L. cubensis. As Duncan wrongly

identified the species with Milne Edwards and Haime’s Montlivaultia ponde-

rosa, it has no name. ‘Therefore I propose to call it Antillia gregorzi, nom.

TONS

The type species of Antillia is Antillia gregorii Vaughan, which is,

as has been stated, Duncan’s Antillia ponderosa, not Montliwaultia

ponderosa Milne Edwards and Haime.

Reuss (1860, p. 216, pl. 1, figs. 10-12, pl. 2, fig. 10) described the

genus Syzygophyllia from the eastern Hungarian Miocene. The type

species is S. brevis Reuss (Vaughan, 1919, p. 424). Antillia Duncan,

1864, is asynonym of Syzygophyllia Reuss, 1860.

508 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 18, 19

A few notes will be made on Circophyllia. Filliozat (1914, pp. 96-

97) has said:

“Grace 4 la grande complaisance de M. le Professeur Joubin, j’ai eu depuis

Voccasion d’examiner attentivement au Muséum les échantillons de C7rco-

phyllia truncata de la collection Milne Edwards. Je puis alors constater que la

diagnose des auteurs présentait des lacunes de la plus haute importance et

que mes spécimens de la ferme des Boves, 4 Parnes, décrits sous le nom de

Felixopsammia arcuata |Filliozat, 1910, p. 804, pl. 14, figs. 7-11] devaient

etre identifiés 4 Circophyllia truncata E. H.”’

From Filliozat’s restudy of the type-species of Circophyllia, it is

evident that none of the corals placed in Antillia by Duncan can be

referred to Circophyllia, which is an Eupsammid genus. Duncan’s

Antillia lonsdaleia, A. bilobata, and A. walli are, therefore, without a

proper generic designation. :

I must now confess my own sins. Notwithstanding that it was

known to me that the name Anfillia was invalid, I applied it to species

of corals as follows: Antillia dubia (Duncan) and A. bilobata Duncan

(Vaughan, 1921, p. 115), A. bilobata Duncan (idem, p. 127)7 A.

dominicensis Vaughan (idem, p. 152), A. bilobata Duncan and A.

walli Duncan (idem, p. 157), Antillia dominicensis Vaughan (Vaughan

and Hoffmeister, 1925, p. 324, pl. 3, fig. 9, pl. 4, figs. 1, 2, which are

upside down), and A. sawkinst Vaughan (Vaughan and Hoffmeister,

1926, p. 118, pl. 2, figs. 6, 6a).

I should accept responsibility for the misuse of the name by Hoff-

meister (Vaughan and Hoffmeister, 1926, p. 119, pl. 2, figs. 7, 7a, 8,

8a) in his Antillia bullbrooki and by Faustino (1927, p. 152, pl. 37,

figs. 2, 3) in his designation of Antillia constricta Brueg. A. constricta

does not belong to the mussoid corals.

It is also probable that I misled Yabe and Sugiyama in their use of

the name Antillia.

I shall not undertake a complete revision of the species that have

been confused under Anfillia, but I shall list the American species,

the generic identification of which seems certain, and comments will

be made on a few other species.

The species which belong to Antillia as represented by the type-

species, but which are now referred to Syzygophyllia, because that is

the older name, are as follows:

Syzygophyllia gregorit (Vaughan)

dentata (Duncan)

hayest (Vaughan)

The American Miocene species which have been referred to Antillia

and which are now placed in the genus Antzllophyllia are as follows:

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 VAUGHAN: ANTILLOPHYLLIA 509

Antillophyllia lonsdaleca (Duncan) genotype

bilobata (Duncan)

wall: (Duncan)

dubia (Dunean) (described as Flabellum)

dominicensis (Vaughan)

sawkinsi (Vaughan)

bullbrooki (Hoffmeister)

ponderosa (M. Edw. and H.)

I am in doubt regarding Antillia explanata Pourtalés, a Recent

Barbadian species.

A few Indo-Pacific living species which obviously belong to Antil-

lophyllia are A. geoffroy: (Audouin), A. constricta (Brueg.), A. sinuata

(Gardiner), and A. flabelliformis (Yabe and Sugiyama).

Yabe and Sugiyama (1931) repeated Duncan’s error in their treat-

ment of Antillia, but I have already stated that I may be at least

partly to blame for their confusion. A. constricta Brueg. and A,

flabelluformis Yabe and Sugiyama clearly belong to Antillophyllia, and

A. duncani Yabe and Sugiyama probably does. But Antillia japonica

Yabe and Sugiyama and A. nomaensis Yabe and Sugiyama are mus-

soid corals and do not belong to the same genus as the other species.

The last mentioned two species do not appear to be referable to

Syzygophyllia but look as if they probably represent the young stages

of one or more species of mussoid corals which are compound in the

adult stages.

LITERATURE CITED

Duncan, P. Martin. On the fossil corals of the West Indian Islands, pt. 2. Quart.

Journ. Geol. Soc. London, 20: 20-44, pls. 2-5.

Duncan, P. Martin and Watt, G. P. 1865. <A notice of the geology of Jamaica, espe-

cially with reference to the District of Clarenden; with descriptions of the Cretaceous,

Eocene, and Miocene corals of the Islands. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, 21:

1-15, pls. 1 and 2.

Faustino, L. A. 1927. Recent Madreporaria of the Philippine Islands. Philip. Ids.

Bur. Sci., Mon. 22: 310, pl. 100.

Finiiozat, Marius. 1910. Types nouveaus de polypiers Eocene. Géol. Soc. France

Bull., 4e sér., 10: 801-805, pl. 15.

FintuiozaT, Marius. 1914. Sur le genre Circophyllia Milne Edwards et Haime, 1848.

Geol. Soc. France, C. R., 10: 96-97.

GreGory, J. W. 1895. Contributions to the paleontology and physical geology of the West

Indies. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London. 61: 255-310, pl. 11.

Reuss, A. E. 1860. Die marinen Tertidrschichten Béhmens u. thre Versteinerungen.

Sitz-Ber. Math. Cl. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien 39: 207.

VaucuHan, T. Waytanp. 1901. Some fossil corals from the elevated reefs of Curagao,

Arube and Bonaire. Geol. Reichs Mus., Leiden, Samml., Ser. 2, 2: Hft. 1: 91.

510 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 18, 19

VauGHAN, T. WayLanp. 1919. Fossil corals from Central America, Cuba, and Porto

Rico, with an account of the American Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent coral reefs.

U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 103: 189-524, pls. 68-152.

VauGuHAN, T. WAYLAND and HoFrMEIsTER, J. E. 1925. New species of fossil corals from

the Dominican Republic. Mus. Comp. Zool. Bull. 67: 315-26, pl. 4.

VAUGHAN, T. WAYLAND and HOFFMEISTER, J. E. 1926. Miocene corals from Trinidad.

Carnegie Institution Wash. Publ. 344: 105-34, pl. 7.

VauGHAN, T. WAYLAND and Wooprine, W. P. 1921. Tertiary and Quarternary strati-

graphic paleontology, in Geological reconnaissance of the Dominican Republic. Do-

minican Repub. Geol. Surv., Mem., 1: 89-168.

YasBeE, H., and Suetyama, T. 1931. A study of Recent and semi-fossil corals of Japan.

Tohoku Imp. Univ. Sci. Repts., 2d ser. (Geol.), 14: 119-33, pls. 37-39.

PALEONTOLOGY.—A new species of Lepidocyclina from the Panama

Canal Zone.! THOMAS WAYLAND VAUGHAN, Scripps Institution

of Oceanography, and W. Srorrs Coz, Ohio State University.

The species described below was picked out of material collected by

Prof. R. W. Chaney for the senior author in the Panama Canal Zone,

at a locality formerly known as Bohio Ridge Switch. The locality is

the same as no. 6025 of the Vaughan and MacDonald collections made

in 1911 (See MacDonald, 1919, p. 540, and pl. 154).

Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) pancanalis Vaughan and Cole, n. sp.

Figs. 1-9.

Test small, lenticular, relatively inflated, slope from central area to margin

nearly uniform, without or with a very narrow marginal flange. Outline in

plan subcircular or faintly polygonal. One vaguely hexagonal specimen has

obscure radii at the edge (Fig. 6). The ornamentation is of two intergrading

kinds. On some specimens there are over the center of the test small papillae

which are about 130 u in diameter, as shown on Figures 1-4, 6. On other

specimens the papillae are larger and tend to fuse. The latter kind of orna-

mentation grades into costulation of the apex, such as is represented by Fig-

ure 5. Although four flattish costae, with intervening depressed areas, are

shown on the apex of this specimen, the costulation is indefinite. A specimen

not figured has an apical, central, coarse papilla, with smaller papillae and

faint costules around it. Over the centers of some specimens, Figs. 1 and 2,

there are slight depressions. It seems that no two specimens are exactly

as The foregoing notes are based on seven specimens, six of which are

figured.

The diameter of megalospheric specimens ranges from 1.5 to 2.0 mm. and

the thickness through the center ranges from 0.75 to 1.0 mm. Ratio of diam-

eter to thickness, about two to one.

There are two subequal, small, embryonic chambers which are divided

by a straight wall. The length of the two chambers is about 185 yu; width,

about 145 u; thickness of wall, about 25 uy.

The equatorial chambers are of three intergrading kinds. Most of the

chambers have curved outer and converging inner walls; some of them are

1 Received August 16, 1932.

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 VAUGHAN AND COLE: LEPIDOCYCLINA oll

diamond shaped; those nearest the periphery are nearly hexagonal or of

short spatulate form. The chambers near the center have a transverse

diameter of 35 to 45 uw and a radial diameter of 30 to 40 u; those near the pe-

riphery have a transverse diameter of about 50 uw and a radial diameter of

about 60 uw. Near the center the height is about 30 u. The height increases

very gradually toward the periphery where it is about 55 uj. The chambers

are connected by stolons, the openings for which are about 7 wu in diameter.

They are shown in the vertical illustrated by Figure 8.

The lateral chambers form regular tiers. ‘There are about 10 in a tier on

each side of the equatorial layer over the center. Outward, the number in a

tier regularly decreases toward the periphery where there is only one layer on

each side of the equatorial layer. Just over the embryonic apparatus the

height is about 20 uw and the length about 40 uw. There is increase in size

outward until at the periphery over the central area the height is about 40 u

and the length about 60 uw. A few relatively strong pillars are developed

between the tiers over the center of the test.

The species to which L. pancanalis is most nearly related is L. canellez

Lemoine and R. Douvillé. JL. canellez is usually larger, but the senior author

has specimens of a dwarf variety from Arbol Grande, near Tampico, Mexico.

In L. canellez the ratio of the diameter to thickness is greater, and in perfectly

preserved specimens there is a distinct flange which may be peripherally

thickened. JL. canellez lacks the pillars and the thickened surface papillae

and costulations of LZ. pancanalis. The equatorial chambers of L. caneller

are strikingly regular hexagonal in shape, while those of L. pancanalis are

dominantly of diamond or short-spatulate form.

Co-types and topo-types. The specimens on which the foregoing description

is based and which are here illustrated, have been donated to the U. 8.

National Museum. 'Topotypes, Scripps Institution of Oceanography.

Geologic relations and associated species. The locality at which the type-

specimens were collected has already been stated. The geologic horizon is

given by MacDonald as the upper part of the Culebra formation, but actually

the stratigraphic relations of the bed from which the specimens were collected

is not certainly known. The senior author surmises that the bed does not

belong within, but lies below the Culebra formation.

Associated with L. pancanalis at its type locality are other organisms as

follows (see Vaughan, 1919b, pp. 550-554; 1924, pp. 787, 802):

Camerina panamensis (Cushman)

Heterostegina n. sp. (described in a ms. by D. W. Gravell)

Miogypsina (Miolepidocyclina) panamensis (Cushman)

Lepidocyclina sp., erroneously identified by Cushman as L. chaperz.

In Antigua, L. pancanalis has been found in collections made by W. R.

Forrest at Cocoanut Hall, in the upper stratified beds at Half Moon Bay,

and at southeast point, Long Island. Commonly, associated with L. panca-

nalis at these localities are:

Lepidocyclina parvula Cushman

undosa Cushman

vaughant Cushman

512 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 18, 19

Lepidocyclina (Lepidocyclina) pancanalis Vaughan and Cole, n.sp.

Figs. 1-6.—Surface views, X 12, of six specimens.

Fig. 7.—Vertical section, X 28.

Fig. 8.—A part of a vertical section, X 200, to show the stoloniferous apertures in

the walls of the equatorial chambers. Three pairs of the apertures are represented

by the pairs of white dots.

Fig. 9.—Equatorial section, X 28, to show the embryonic and equatorial chambers.

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 VAUGHAN AND COLE: LEPIDOCYCLINA 513

The horizon in Antigua is in the Antigua formation, but it may be consider-

ably above the base of the formation.

Collateral information on the probable correlation of the Panama exposure

above discussed may be obtained by comparing it with the exposure at

locality 6024 of MacDonald’s report (1919, p. 540). The two are very near

together. At this locality the following species were collected:

In the lower 10 ft. Camerina panamensis (Cushman)

Miogypsina (Miolepidocyclina) panamensis (Cushman)

In the upper 10 ft. Stylophora imperatoris Vaughan?

macdonald: Vaughan?

Acropora panamensis Vaughan?

saludensis Vaughan?

There are two other groups of facts that bear on the stratigraphic position

of the exposure at locality 6025. The first of them is that at MacDonald’s

locality 6026 (1929, p. 541) there is an Antiguan middle Oligocene coral

fauna. A species of Camerina was doubtfully identified as C. panamensis.

In the Panama Canal Zone L. canelle: and L. vaughani occur in association

(Vaughan, 1923, pp. 254, 255), but in Antigua, L. vawghani occurs in associa-

tion with L. pancanalis. Specimens previously reported by the senior

author as L. caneller from Half Moon Bay, have proved in detailed study to

be L. pancanalis. The second group of facts is that Miogypsina cushmant

occurs in the vicinity of Culebra in both the upper part of the Culebra forma-

tion and in the immediately overlying Emperador limestone.

Notwithstanding lack of the desired definiteness in the information given

above, the indications are that the stratigraphic position of the bed exposed

at locality 6025 is about the same as the beds exposed at Half Moon Bay,

Antigua, but below the horizon of Miogypsina cushmani in the upper part

of the Culebra formation as that formation was exposed in Gaillard Cut be-

fore water was let into the Panama Canal. As the beds at Half Moon Bay

occur within the Antigua formation, but apparently not in its basal part, the

stratigraphic position of the bed exposed at locality 6025 in Panama is

Oligocene, perhaps upper rather than middle. The European age equivalent

is probably Chattian.

LITERATURE CITED

MacDonatp. 1919. The sedimentary formations of the Panama Canal Zone, with special

reference to the stratigraphic relations of the fossiliferous beds. U.S. Nat. Mus.

Bull. 103: 525-45, pls. 153, 154.

VAUGHAN, THOMAS WAYLAND. 1919a. Fossil corals from Central America, Cuba, and

Porto Rico, with an account of the American Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent coral

reefs. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 103: 189-524, pls. 68-152.

2 Also in the Emperador limestone which overlies the Culebra formation.

3 Also in the middle Oligocene, Antigua formation at Rifle Butts, Antigua (see

Vaughan, 1919a, pp. 201, 208, 209).

514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 18, 19

VAUGHAN, THoMAS WAYLAND. 19196. The biologic character and geologic correlation of

the sedimentary formations of Panama in their relation to the geologic history of Central

America and the West Indies. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 103: 547-612.

VauGHAN, THoMAS WAYLAND, 1923. Studies of the larger Tertiary foraminifera from

tropical and subtropical America. Nat. Acad. Sci., Proc., 9: no. 7, 253-57.

VauGuaNn, THoMas WAYLAND, 1924. American and European Tertiary larger foramini-

fera. Geol. Soc. Amer., Bull., 35: 785-822, pls. 30-36.

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new species of Rhodnius from Panama (Hemip-

tera: Reduviidae).1 H. G. Barser, Bureau of Entomology.

(Communicated by Harotp Morrison.)

Rhodnius pallescens n. sp.

Color: Pale testaceous, dull, marked with fuscous. Head beneath and

laterally, before the eyes, and a narrow longitudinal stripe behind the eyes

on a line with the ocelli, fuscous; a conspicuous, narrow, median, longitudinal,

pale testaceous line running from extreme apex to base of head, somewhat

widened between the eyes. Antennae with the first segment, a little over

basal half of second, and most of the fourth, except at extreme base and apex,

pale testaceous, often faintly mottled with fuscous; the remainder infuscated.

Rostrum sordid testaceous, faintly mottled with brown. Pronotum con-

spicuously marked with pale testaceous on a fuscous background; lateral

margins and two longitudinal carinae, one on either side of the middle, very

plainly calloused, pale testaceous; the anterior lobe between the two median

carinae with two elongate, oval, unbroken fuscous spots, anteriorly narrowed

and not attaining the depressed anterior margin; just within the anterior

angles a small, subtriangular, fuscous spot, behind which is a broken fascia,

of the same color, occupying the space on each side between the lateral margin

and the median carina; posterior lobe granulose, with many pale testaceous

pustules on a fuscous background; a median, longitudinal, testaceous, slightly

calloused, granulated stripe between the two median carinae, and a broader,

more irregular, non-calloused fascia on each side between the lateral margin

and the median carina. Scutellum pale testaceous, disk with three distinctly

excavated fuscous spots basally, the median one frequently immaculate, the

inclined sides infuscated to beyond the middle. Hemielytra with the surface

for the most part pale testaceous, with the veins concolorous; median or inner

field of the corium with a conspicuous, broad, slightly curved, fuscous stripe;

a much narrower and less conspicuous stripe contiguous to and paralleling

the submedian nervure; sometimes also the claval suture anteriorly, and

extreme apex of corium, infuscated. ‘The membrane pale, sordid testaceous,

with the outer long cell, except along the limiting veins, faintly embrowned,

with pale irrorations through the center, the inner long cell very slightly

embrowned before the middle; the surface posterior to the long cells frequently

irrorated or tinted with brown. ‘The connexivum pale testaceous, each seg-

ment anteriorly at the lateral margin with an elongate, rectangular fascia,

over twice as wide as long and narrowly separated from a more elongate

narrower stripe, partially concealed by the margin of the corium. Pleura

fuscous, granulose, broadly and irregularly striped, and mottled with testa-

ceous. Venter embrowned, with two or three longitudinal series of irregular

1 Received August 15, 1932.

515

: RHODNIUS

BARBER

NOVEMBER 19, 1932

Sp.

Fig. 1.—Rhodnius pallescens n

516. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 18, 19

pale testaceous spots on either side toward the lateral margins. Legs pale

testaceous, mottled with brown, the tibiae apically and the tarsi embrowned.

Head laterally finely and densely granulose; 4.64 mm. long and 1.6 mm.

wide across the eyes; space between the eyes slightly longer than the diameter

of an eye (0.56 mm. to 0.52 mm.); distance from eye .to apex of antenniferous

tubercle (lateral view) 22 to 23 times as long as from the apex of the latter to

the front of the clypeus; antennae as long as head and pronotum together;

basal segment attaining the apex of the lateral lobes; second segment about

seven times as long as first; the relative lengths of the segments as follows:

I 0.48, II 3.20, III 2.40, and IV 1.60 mm.; third and fourth segments sparsely

pilose. Rostrum reaching very nearly to margin of anterior acetabulae;

first and third segments equal to each other, the second segment 4 to 43 times

as long as either of the other two. Pronotum distinctly wider than long

(4 mm. to 3.04 mm.); anterior lobe, on the median dorsal line, 1.04 mm. long,

the posterior lobe 2 mm. long; lateral margins distinctly concavely sinuate

between the lobes; anterior angles prominent, forming somewhat rounded

lobes anteriorly; lateral margins and two median longitudinal carinae

strongly calloused; dorsal surface of posterior lobe elsewhere covered with

conspicuous small, pale, testaceous pustules. Scutellum longer than wide

(2 mm. to 1.76 mm.), disk with three strongly excavated longitudinal areas

basally, the median one attaining the middle of the scutellum; contracted

apical part transversely furrowed, cylindrical, somewhat elevated. Hemie-

lytra not quite reaching apex of abdomen; entire length from base of corium

to apex of membrane 12 mm.; corium along costal margin 8 mm. long; length

of inner cell of membrane 5.6 mm., of outer cell6 mm. Length of body from

posterior margin of pronotum to apex of abdomen 12.16 mm. Connexivum

broadly exposed; diameter of abdomen at third segment 5.6 mm. Pleura

granulose, pustulate.

Length of male 19.84 mm., diameter of pronotum 4 mm., diameter of

abdomen 5.6 mm.; length of female, 21-32 mm.

Type male: La Chorrera, Panama, V, 12, 1912 (collected by August Busck).

Paratypes, males: four with same data as type; one Trinidad River, Panama,

V, 8, 1911 (August Buseck); females: one La Chorrera, Panama, V, 10, 1912;

one Cabima, Panama, V, 28, 1911 (August Busck); one Close’s, Cano Saddle,

Canal Zone, Panama, IX, 1923 (M. F. Close); and two Ancon, Canal Zone,

Panama, VII, 1932 (L. H. Dunn, Gorgas Memorial Laboratory). U.S.N.M.

Cat. No. 44329.

There is very little variation in the series of eleven specimens at hand from

Panama. Rhodnius pallescens is closely related to both prolixius Stal and

pictipes Stal, from either of which it differs especially in its paler coloration

and relative proportion of parts, having a longer and narrower head and

pronotum.

The lower part of Figure 1 shows the posterior view of the genitalia.

Kery To THREE SPECIES OF RHODNIUS

1. First, second, and base of third segment of antenna and legs uniformly

pale chestnut-brown, not mottled or banded with fuscous. Disk

of scutellum with a single basal excavation. Dimensions of parts of

male as follows: head 4.16 mm. long, 1.74 mm. wide across eyes;

apex of head to eyes 2.4 mm.; dorsal diameter of eye 0.56 mm.;

vertex between eyes 0.62 mm.; second segment of rostrum 33 times

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 STEINER: NEMATODE NOMENCLATURE 517

as long as basal; pronotum 2.96 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, anterior lobe

1.04 mm. and posterior lobe 1.92 mm. long; scutellum 1.68 mm. long,

1.6 mm. wide; length of body from posterior margin of pronotum to

apex of abdomen 11.04 mm., diameter at third segment 5.2 mm.

prolixius Stal.

First two segments of the antenna not unicolorous; legs mottled with brown

and the tibiae sometimes banded with fuscous. Disk of the scutellum

PMU IKBE CIE MEV GLOM Greens serge cicsky he fete i cuebater's oe ea won ees 2

2. Antenna with basal segment, apical part of second, and base of third and

fourth segments infuscated; tibiae with two fuscous bands, one

median and one apical. Fuscous spots on segments of connexivum

posteriorly forked. Dimensions of parts of male as follows: head

4.56 mm. long, 1.68 mm. wide across eyes; apex of head to eyes 2.54

mm., dorsal diameter of eye 0.6 mm., vertex between eyes 0.48 mm.;

pronotum 3.36 mm. long, 4.16 mm. wide, anterior lobe 1.2 mm.,

posterior lobe 2.16 mm. long; scutellum 2.08 mm. long, 1.8 mm. wide;

length of body from posterior margin of pronotum to apex of abdomen

11.28 mm. ; diameter at third segment 5.44 mm...........pictipes Stal.

Antenna with apex of second, all of third, and sometimes narrow base and

apex of fourth segment infuscated. Legs pale testaceous, mottled

with brown; tibiae without a median fuscous band but infuscated

at apices. Elongate rectangular spots on segments of connexivum

not posteriorly forked. Dimensions of parts of male as follows:

head 4.64 mm. long, 1.6 mm. wide across eyes; apex of head to eyes

2.8 mm.; dorsal diameter of eye 0.52 mm., vertex between eyes 0.56

mm.; pronotum 3.04 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, anterior lobe 1.04 mm.,

posterior lobe 2 mm. long; scutellum 2 mm. long, 1.76 mm. wide;

length of body from posterior margin of pronotum to apex of abdo-

men 12.16 mm.; diameter at third segment 5.6 mm... .pallescens n. sp.

ZOOLOGY .—Annotations on the nomenclature of some plant parasitic

nematodes.1 G. STEINER, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In a recent paper (Steiner 1931) attention was called to the fact that

the genus Aphelenchus, as previously conceived, contained through

error, some species not possibly belonging to it. The proposition was

therein made to raise to generic rank the group for which Cobb, 1927,

had created the subgeneric term, Pathoaphelenchus.

In 1894, however, Fischer described under the name of Aphelen-

choides kiihnw (Fischer speaks of a subgenus but later in his paper

places “‘nov. gen. et nov. spec.”’ after the name) a form which in our

judgment is Aphelenchus parietinus of Bastian, 1865, and which in

turn is the type of Pathoaphelenchus. Aphelenchoides Fischer 1894,

antedates Pathoaphelenchus Cobb 1927, and therefore replaces it,

with Aphelenchoides parietinus (Bastian) Fischer 1894 as type. Syn-

onyms of this type species are Aphelenchus modestus de Man 1876,

Tylenchus gracilis Cobb 1888 (=Aphelenchus gracilis Cobb 1891, =

1 Received July 19, 1932.

518 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 18, 19

Tylenchus cobbt de Man 1906), Aphelenchus ormerodis Ritzema Bos

1891, and Aphelenchoides ktihnit Fischer 1894.

It may further be noted that Tylenchus gulosus Kiihn 1889 and

Fischer 1894, is a synonym of Tylenchus pratensis de Man 1884. This

adds the following plants to the list of hosts of TJ. pratensis: Beta

vulgaris var. rapa, Brassica campestris, Linum usitatissimum, Pisum

sativum, Vicia villosa, Clematis jackmani, and Hepatica triloba.

LITERATURE CITED

Bastian, H. Cu.

1865. Monograph on the Anguillulidiae or free nematoids, marine, land and fresh-

water; with descriptions of 100 new species. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 25: 73-

179.

Coss, N. A.

1888. Beitrdge zur Anatomie und Ontogenie der Nematoden. Jena Ztschr. Naturw. 23.

Coss, N. A.

1891. Strawberry-bunch. Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales 2: 390-400.

Coss, N. A.

1927. [Aphelenchus retusus, with a proposed division of Aphelenchus]. Jour.

Parasitology 14: 57.

FiscHer, Max.

1894-1901. Uber eine Clematis-Krankheit. Berichte aus dem Physiol. Lab. des

Landw. Inst. Halle 3: 1-11, Heft 11-15.

Kitun, J.

1890. Neuere Erfahrungen auf dem Gebiete der Zuckerriibenkultur. Jahrb. Deut.

Landw.-Ges. fiir 1889, 4: 93-94.

Mav, J. G. DE.

1876. Onderzoekingen over vrij in de Aarde levende Nematoden. Tijdschr. Neder-

land. dierk. Vereen 2: 78-196.

Man, J. G. DE

1884. Die, frei in der reinen Erde und im siissen Wasser lebenden Nematoden der

niederlindischen Fauna. Leiden.

Man, J. G. DE

1906. Observations sur quelques especes de Nématodes terrestres libres de l’ile de Wal-

cheren. Ann. Soc. Roy. Zool. Malacolog. Belgique 41: 156-174.

STEINER, G.

1931. On the status of the nemic genera Aphelenchus Bastian, Pathoaphelenchus

Cobb, Paraphelenchus Micoletzky, Parasitaphelenchus Fuchs, Isonchus Cobb,

and Seinura Fuchs. This JoURNAL 21: 468-475.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1030TH MEETING

The 1030th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, December 19, 1931. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M.

by President TucKERMAN.

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 519

Program: E. O. HutBurt: The temperature of the lower atmosphere-—From

the known amounts of the various gases of the atmosphere from sea-level

to about 20 km, from the observed light-absorption coefficients of the gases

and from the albedo of the Earth’s surface, the temperature of the atmosphere

in radiative equilibrium is calculated on the assumption that the sunlight is

the only source of energy. The sea-level temperature comes out to be about

19° above the observed world-wide average value 287°K, and the temperature

above about 3 km falls many degrees below the observed temperatures.

The temperature gradient in levels from 3 to 6 km is greater than that of

convective equilibrium and hence the atmosphere would not be dynamically

stable if radiation equilibrium prevailed. Therefore air-currents take place

to bring about convective equilibrium. Continuing the calculation it is

found that only when the convective region extends to about 12 km (as is

observed), with radiative equilibrium above 12 km (as is observed), does

the atmosphere satisfy the conditions of dynamic stability and thermal equi-

librium with the received solar energy. For this case the calculated sea-

level temperature is 290°K in good agreement with the observed value 287° K.

Calculation shows that doubling or tripling the amount of the carbon

dioxide of the atmosphere increases the average sea-level temperature by

about 4° and 7° K respectively; halving or reducing to zero the carbon dioxide

decreases the temperature by similar amounts. Such changes in temperature

are about the same as those which occur when the Earth passes from an ice

age to a warm age, or vice versa. Thus the calculation indicates that the

carbon-dioxide theory of the ice ages, originally proposed by Tyndall [Phil.

Mag., 22, 277 (1861)], is a possible theory. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Wuitn, L. H. Apams, HuMpHREYs, CURTIS, and

HAWKESWORTH.

O. R. Wutr: The ozone distribution and the temperature of the upper atmos-

phere.—Experimental evidence and theory combine to indicate that the

ozone of the upper atmosphere is distributed as a fairly sharply defined

layer, and that this is located at a height of roughly 50 kilometers. In work

done recently at the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory by Dr. E. H. Mel-

vin and the author an influence of temperature has been found in the ultra-

violet absorption bands of ozone. In view of the above, a method is pro-

posed for the direct determination of the temperature of the upper atmosphere

at the height of the ozone layer. This comprises a photometric comparison

of the atmospheric ultraviolet ozone absorption in the spectra of stars giving a

satisfactory continuous background in this region, with the same ozone ab-

sorption spectra taken at a series of temperatures in the laboratory. (Awthor’s

abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. HuLBERT and HUMPHREYS.

An informal communication was presented by A. H. Scorr on Dielectric

constant and power factor of fused zinc oxide.

1031sT MEETING

‘

The 1031st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, January 16, 1932. It was called to order at 8:30 P.M. by President

TUCKERMAN.

Program: H. L. Curtis: The determination of the electrical units by me-

chanical measurements. ‘This paper has been printed in full in the pages of this

JOURNAL (22: 193).

020 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 22, No. 18, 19

1032D MEETING

The 1032nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, January 30, 1932. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M.

by President TUCKERMAN.

Program: F. L. Mowuer: Temperature variations of the absorption of

metallic silver—Published work has shown that the sharp transmission band

of silver with its maximum at 3200 AU changes with temperature. A quanti-

tative study of this has been made by the method of photographic densitom-

etry over the temperature range 220°C to —253°C (boiling hydrogen).

The quantity measured is

log J, — log J =

where J, is the incident intensity and J the transmitted intensity and values

are given in common logarithms. For films of chemically deposited silver

and of silver evaporated in vacuum and for films of different thickness, the

change in a between fixed temperatures remains proportional to a. The

change is limited to the wave-length range 3400 AU to 2900 AU with the maxi-

mum effect near 3100 AU. The short wave-length branch of the absorption

curve becomes less steep with increasing temperature and the minimum less

pronounced while the long wave-length branch is unchanged. For one speci-

men the value of a at — 253°C was 0.4; at 220°C, 1.2at 3100 AU. The change

in a@ remains nearly proportional to the temperature change. (Author’s

abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. BRICKWEDDE and TUCKERMAN.

F. G. BRICKWEDDE: A hydrogen isotope of mass 2 and its concentration.—

Last summer Birge and Menzel suggested the possible existence of an isotope

of hydrogen with mass number two (H?) to explain the difference between

the atomic weights of hydrogen as determined chemically and by Aston using

the mass spectrograph when reduced to a common basis. Isotopes of hydro-

gen with mass numbers two and three and helium five are needed to give

regular arrangements of atomic nuclei a completed appearance when extra-

polated to smallest atomic weights.

A calculation of the vapor pressures of pure isotopic crystals of the different

molecular species H'H!, H'H?, H'H$ yield values of the vapor pressure which

are in the ratio of 1:0.387:0.30 at 14°K, the triple point for ordinary hydrogen.

Although a calculation for the liquid state was not possible it did seem

reasonable to believe that heavier isotopic molecules if present should be

rapidly concentrated in a residue of liquid hydrogen evaporated at the triple

point. Samples of hydrogen were prepared in the Cryogenic Laboratory

of the Bureau of Standards from the residue of four to six liters of liquid

evaporated at the normal boiling point and triple point. These samples

were examined with a grating spectrograph by Prof. Harold C. Urey and

Dr. G. M. Murphy at Columbia University for the visible atomic Balmer

Series lines of hydrogen atoms with masses two and three, the wave-lengths

of the new lines being calculated in advance of the measurements. It was

found that the known lines Ha, Hf, Hy, and Hé are accompanied on the short

wave-length side by weak lines agreeing within experimental error (about

0.02AU) with the calculated wave-lengths for an isotope of mass two, the

corresponding H! and H? lines differing in wave-length by between 1 and 2 AU.

The H?a line was resolved into a doublet with a separation agreeing with that

for the known H!a line. The isotopic lines are not as diffuse as the known

H! lines, probably due to a smaller Doppler broadening. The isotopic lines

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY o21

were found in ordinary hydrogen with an intensity of about 1/4000th the

intensity of the H! lines, which yields a value for the ratio of H? to H! atoms

in ordinary hydrogen of 1 to 4000.

The sample prepared from six liters of liquid by evaporation at the normal

boiling point showed no increase in the concentration of the isotope, indicat-

ing that the vapor pressures of the pure isotopic liquids at 20°K are the same.

In one sample prepared from four liters of liquid hydrogen evaporated at the

triple point the concentration of the isotope was increased about 700 per cent.

These increases in concentration which are larger than have been attained

before for any isotope made possible the positive identification of the isotope.

No evidence for H* wasfound. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Urry, MoHuuEerR, HAwkESworRTH, GISH, BLAKE,

CRITTENDEN, CurTIS, GIBSON, and TUCKERMAN.

1033D MEETING

The 1033rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, February 13, 1932. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M.

by President TucKERMAN.

Program: Ross Gunn: The evolutionary origin of the solar system.—A new

account for the formation of the solar system, based on the rotational evolu-

tion of a single parent star, is given which describes the system in some detail

and avoids the major difficulties encountered by earlier investigators. Elec-

tric and magnetic forces acting on the ions of a star’s atmosphere determine

its motion and stability, and permit the angular velocity of the star to increase

until the star breaks into two component stars of comparable mass. The

hot face of each component star which has just emerged from the deep interior

of the parent star loses momentum by radiation more rapidly than the cool

face and kinetic energy and angular momentum are added to the star pair

in such a way as to form a stable binary system. It seems probable that the

mechanism will separate the stellar components to infinity in a great many

cases and two single stars produced. Applying this to the solar system the

Sun is supposed to have divided and lost its companion. While each com-

ponent star was inside the Roche limit of the other, centrifugal and tidal

forces broke off the planets. These in turn broke up for the same reason and

produced the planetary satellites. Tides and tidal couples transferred the

momentum of axial spin of the two component stars to that of orbital momen-

tum, leaving the Sun rotating very slowly. The planets, because of their

small size, largely escaped this process and originally rotated on their axes

with a period approximating the critical period of the parent star. The

birth of the Moon and its relative size compared to the Earth is well explained

by the theory. The account replaces the earlier improbable and ‘‘accidental’”’

theory by a systematic evolutionary process that may be quite common in

the universe. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. WHITE, Heck, HumpHReEys, Hazarp, Curtis, L. H.

ADAMS, STIMPSON, and TUCKERMAN.

L. H. Apams: The solidification of the earth.

Discussed by Messrs. HAwWKESWORTH, WHITE, HEcK, CurTIS, HUMPHREYS,

GIBSON, and TUCKERMAN.

1034TH MEETING

The 1034th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, February 27, 1932. The meeting was called to order at 8:20 P.M.

by Vice President O. S. ADAMs.

522 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 18, 19

Program: R. J. Szecer: The growth of the electron concept in physics.

Discussed by Messrs. Curtis, Hryn, and Gipson.

D. L. Watson: Biological organization as a physico-chemical problem.—

G. N. Lewis has said that ‘‘living creatures are cheats in the game of physics

and chemistry.’”’ From the standpoint of physics the problem of biological

organization is to determine statistically, what is the nature of this cheating.

Organization, in an otherwise random system, can be discerned by (a) it

strikes the attention of the observer and makes the distribution of the parts

easier to apprehend; (6) its nature implies some specific purpose for which the

system may be used. Entropy, as a measure of physical organization, does

not aid in the analysis of complex structures such as used in physical research,

engineering or living matter. It applies only to simpler, quasi-isotropic

systems and measures only the special kind of organization whose purpose

is to perform work on outside systems.

The classical meaning of entropy arises through the Boltzmann formula and

therefore through the probability concept. The probability of a state,

however, is a function of the method of classification applied to the system

and therefore of the means available for observing the possible configurations.

Thus the subjective aspect of our apprehension of organization (mentioned

above) can, in the cases in which we are interested, influence the value of the

probability and (in a sense) the value of something-corresponding-to-the-

entropy. This conclusion is implied in the recent work of G. N. Lewis and

P. W. Bridgman. From this point of view, the Second Law requires merely

that changes take place from easily classified states to less easily classified

states. If entropy measures only one kind of organization, an extension of

the entropy concept or a new measure of organization is necessary for biology.

Organization of biological systems is produced by key structures which we

can call “‘selecting mechanisms.’ These produce a steady warping of the

statistics of the assembly in which they occur. New classifications, unfamiliar

in theoretical physics, are more readily adapted to these ‘‘warped”’ configura-

tions, and this is the nature of the ‘“‘cheating”’ to which Lewis refers. Such

selecting mechanisms can appear spontaneously under suitable physical and

chemical conditions. Intelligence is not necessary. In any case, mechanical

selecting devices having more and more of the characteristics of intelligent

beings are becoming commoner, both in engineering and experimental

psychology. (Auwthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mr. Grsson.

Informal communication: W. J. HumpuHrReys: The colder the air the thinner

the ice.—It is a saying among certain Great Lakes fishermen that ice grows

faster in zero (Fahrenheit) weather than it does when the temperature is

considerably subzero. This, if true, is one of nature’s many paradoxes, one

of her pleasing puzzles which it always is a delight to solve. But is it true?

Evidently the rate of thickening of the ice (at the under surface of course)

is proportional to the rate of loss of heat by the water up through the ice

cover. Under steady conditions this rate in turn is proportional directly

to the thermal conductivity of the ice and the difference in temperature

between its upper and under surfaces, and indirectly to the thickness of the

ice sheet. In other words, it is proportional to the conductivity of the ice

and the temperature gradient through it. Now the conductivity of ice is a

constant, nearly, if we neglect, or take into account and average, the effect

of air bubbles and other irregularities. Also the temperature at the under

surface of the ice is a constant, namely, 32°F. in the case of fresh water. We,

therefore, can say that for any given thickness of the ice, the rate of its further

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 523

growth, under steady conditions, is directly proportional to the extent to

which the temperature of its outer surface is below the freezing point. That

is, it is proportional to 32 — ¢,, in which ¢, is the temperature, as indicated by a

Fahrenheit thermometer, of the upper surface. If, then, this upper surface

always had the temperature of the air above it, there would be no occasion

to explain the paradox in question for there would be no paradox. But this

relation does not always hold and in that fact we have the solution of our

fisherman’s puzzle.

At temperatures around zero Fahrenheit there is not likely to be much fog

drifting over the ice from the open water farther out in the lake, and often

too at such times there is wind enough to keep the surface of the ice swept

clean of snow. On the other hand, when the temperature of the air is con-

siderably lower the “frost smoke,’ produced by the “steaming”’ of the

open, deep water and remaining unevaporated at the low temperature, well

may spread out slowly over the ice and thereby not only decrease the net

loss of heat by radiation, as fogs and clouds always do by the return radiation

they themselves give out, but also decrease it, sometimes very greatly, by

depositing over the ice an insulating sheet of finely powdered snow. Any

substance, even a metal, when finely divided, is a poor conductor of heat,

and snow is one of the poorest. Hence ice covered with a layer of fine snow,

even though that layer be very thin, loses heat to colder air above much more

slowly than it would if bare. Obviously, therefore, under otherwise like

conditions ice increases in thickness much faster when bare than it does when

snow covered.

Ice of any given thickness grows fastest when its surface is coldest; but

this temperature depends in part on the condition of the air above—clear,

cloudy, or foggy—and on the condition of its surface, clean or snow covered.

And the fog blanket and the fine snow cover are most likely to form in relatively

calm and very cold weather, drifted by the gentle movement of the air

that commonly obtains on such occasions over and onto the ice sheet to the

leeward of the remaining open water.

It well may be, therefore, as fishermen tell us, that at certain places, at

least, along the shores of the Great Lakes, more ice is formed occasionally,

perhaps also on the average, when the temperature of the air is around zero

Fahrenheit than there is when that temperature is even 20° to 30° lower,

owing, as explained, to the greater prevalence of clear air and clean ice in the

first case and foggy air and snowy ice in the second.

But here also, as everywhere and always, a few appropriate figures afford a

very necessary check on one’s general or qualitative reasoning. Let the

conditions be:

a. Temperature of the air —18°C., 0°F., approximately,

Thickness of ice, 5, 10, 25, 50 centimeters, respectively.

Snow covering, none.

b. Temperature of the air —29°C., —20°F., roughly.

Thickness of ice, as in cases a.

Snow covering, 1 millimeter.

c. Same as 0 in respect to temperature of air and thickness of ice.

Snow covering, 5 millimeters.

Now since the radiations of snow and ice at these low temperatures are

small; the reflection of sunlight and skylight by snow roughly 90 per cent;

the amount of such radiation absorbed by ice also small, especially since

there is not likely to be much of it to absorb in mid-winter at latitude 47° N.,

say; and the heat conductivity of ice very low, therefore, as a first approxima-

524 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 18, 19

tion, we may assume the temperature of the top surface of the snow, or bare

ice, to be that of the adjacent air. The temperature of the under surface of

the ice is, of course, 0°C. Furthermore, as experiment has shown, the

conductivity of very loose snow may be as low as one three-hundredth that of

ice. Assume it, in the present case, to be one one-hundredth that value, so

that, as a heat insulator, a layer of our fine snow one millimeter deep is the

equivalent of a sheet of ice 100 times as thick—10 centimeters; a 5 millimeter

covering of snow the equivalent of a 50 centimeter sheet of ice; and so on for

other depths and thicknesses.

In case a the difference in temperature between the under and upper sur-

faces of the ice is 18°C., and in cases b and c the difference between the tem-

perature of the under surface of the ice and top surface of the snow 29°C.

Therefore our various temperature gradients, in terms of centigrade degrees

and thicknesses, or equivalent thicknesses, in centimeters, of ice are as given

in the following table.

Temperature Gradients

Thickness of ice, cm. 5 10 | 25 50

Bare 18 18 18 18

Arr 18°C! 5 10 25 50

1 mm. snow 29 29 29 29

Air —29°C. 15 20 35 60

5 mm. snow 29 29 29 29

Air —29°C. 55 60 ie 100

From these gradients it is clear that often bare ice can grow faster when

the temperature of the air is 0°F. than can snow covered ice of the same thick-

ness when the air is much colder, even —20°F. When the thickness of the

ice is 16.3 centimeters (6.4 inches) it grows just as fast in 0°F. weather, if

bare, as it would with a 1 mm. covering of loose snow (conductivity of snow

one one-hundredth that of ice) in weather at —20°F. If thinner, the bare ice

would grow faster than the snow covered at the given temperatures, and if

thicker it would grow slower. If the depth of the snow were 5 mm. the

thickness of the ice would need to be 81.8 centimeters (32.2 inches) for the

rates of growth, under the given conditions, to be the same.

In the first of these cases the rate of increase of thickness is about one

centimeter in 4 hours, the conductivity of ice being 0.005 (transmitting

0.005 calorie per second per square centimeter cross-section when the tem-

perature gradient is 1°C. per centimeter), and in the second case one centi-

meter in 20 hours.

Thus the fisherman’s interesting paradox, the colder the air the thinner

the ice, has become orthodox and lost its fascination. (Author’s abstract.)

1035TH MEETING

The 1035th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, March 12, 1932. The meeting was called to order at 8:18 P.M. by

President TUCKERMAN.

Program: F. K. Harris: Application of the cathode-ray oscillograph.—

The sensitivity of cathode-ray oscillographs and the upper limit of their range

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 525

of usefulness in high-frequency recording were discussed. The application

of the oscillograph to the investigations of transmission-line transients ini-

tiated by lightning, and the use of the oscillograph as a recording wattmeter

were discussed in some detail. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. WENNER, GisH, Curtis, and HUMPHREYS.

P. R. Hryu: Cause or chance? The past third of a century has called

into question and modified or discarded most of the theoretical principles of

physical science which had formerly been regarded as permanently estab-

lished. It has been reserved for the last few years to attack what has always

been regarded as the most fundamental principle of all, for there has come a

change in the scientific attitude toward the law of cause and effect. This

latest skepticism concerns itself principally with the behavior of electrons.

The new philosophy asserts that the future course of an electron is a matter

not for definite prediction, but only of statistical probability.

There is an imposing array of authority on the side of this new and strange

doctrine—Bohr, Heisenberg, Dirac, Jordan, Born, Eddington, and others,

while the opposition can name but one physicist of the same rank—Planck.

Those who have adopted this position have done so because of the increas-

ing difficulty of giving a satisfactory explanation of electronic phenomena in

terms of the classical frame of space-time. It appears that a probability-

interpretation of the equations of wave mechanics avoids all the present

difficulties. On this interpretation, causal laws are replaced by laws of

probability. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. BRICKWEDDE, Horst, HUMPHREYS, and LITTLEHALES.

Informal communications: P. R. Heyt described a method of testing char-

acter of knife-edges by a balance method.

Discussed by Messrs. WENSEL, LITTLEHALES, WHITE, and HUMPHREYS.

H. L. Curtis described a mechanical wave filter for low frequencies.

1036TH MEETING

The 1036th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, March 26, 1932. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M. by

President TucKERMAN.

Program: J.E. Ives: The physicist in public health work.—The important part

played in preventive medicine, and particularly in industrial hygiene, by the

physicist, was emphasized. Medicine is interested in the relation of man to

his physical environment; to radiation, to the temperature, humidity, velocity,

and ionization of the air, and to the dust-content of the air. The physician

determines the intracorporeal quantities such as blood pressure, body tem-

perature, pulse rate, etc., while the physicist determines the extracorporeal

quantities, such as temperature and velocity of the air, and intensity of

radiation (ultraviolet, visible, and infrared).

In industrial hygiene, the illumination, both natural and artificial, of

workshops is of importance, involving the size and location of windows, and

the location of lighting units. Certain intensities of lighting are necessary

to protect the eye, and to promote industrial efficiency.

Ventilation of shops and factories is also of importance from the hygienic

point of view.

In private dwellings, spacing, lighting and air-conditioning call for the

knowledge of the physicist as well as that of the physician. The best size of

room, and height of ceiling, involve problems both for the physiologist and

the physicist.

Radiation has many problems in which both the physicist and the physi-

526 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 18, 19

cian are interested, such as the properties of therapeutic lamps, the trans-

mission of ultraviolet rays by window glass, radiation of infrared rays from

molten iron and glass, and of the less intense infrared radiation from the

ceilings and walls of houses and schoolrooms, and the effect of these radiations

upon the body and the eyes. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. TUCKERMAN, RAMBERG, HAWKESWORTH, BLAKE, and

HEcK.

F.S. Brackett: The division of radiation and organisms of the Smithsonian

Institution.

Discussed by Dr. Ivus.

Informal communication: R. B. KENNARD described an apparatus for

measuring small pressure-differences and small velocities of a gas. The

apparatus consisted essentially of a manometer with means provided for

making accurate readings. ‘The apparatus was placed on exhibition before

the Society.

1037TH MEETING

The 1037th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, April 9, 1932. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M. by

President TuCKERMAN.

Program: R. B. Kennarp.—The interferometer as an instrument for meas-

uring air temperatures near heated surfaces.

Discussed by Messrs. WHITE, TUCKERMAN, and WENSEL.

Wo. F. Rosser: Reference curves for use with thermocouples.—Reference

tables for thermocouples give a relation between electromotive force and

temperature. These tables in conjunction with suitable deviation curves,

serve as a convenient means of interpolating between calibration points and

converting readings of electromotive force to temperature.

It has been found advisable to revise the classic table prepared by Adams

for the standard platinum to platinum-10% rhodium thermocouple to make

it conform to the present temperature scale. Careful study of ten represent-

ative couples, moreover, indicated that the thermocouples of this type used

today do not have exactly the same characteristics as those upon which

Adams’ table was based. The principal change made in Adams’ table for

platinum to platinum-10% rhodium thermocouples was at temperatures

above the gold point (1063°C). The maximum change below 1200°C was

0.5°C, whereas the change at 1500°C was 4°C.

New tables were also prepared for platinum to platinum-13% rhodium

thermocouples and for several couples of base-metal alloys. (Author’s

abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. L. H. Apams and WHITE.

Informal communication: W. P. WuirE discussed his experiences and

difficulties in calibrating thermocouples.

Discussed by Messrs. RonsrR and WENSEL.

C. GOLDENBERG described and gave an explanation of two smoke puffs from

large guns.

1038TH MEETING

The 1038th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, April 23, 1932. The meeting was called to order at 8:30 P.M. by

President TucKERMAN.

Program: Prof. A. E. KENNELLY: The work of Joseph Henry in relation

to applied science and engineering. The Joseph Henry lecture, published in

this JoURNAL 22: 293.

NOVEMBER 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 527

1039TH MEETING

The 1039th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, May 7, 1932. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M. by

President TUCKERMAN.

Program: RicHaRD CouRANT: Alternating electric currents in the earth and

their application.

Discussed by Messrs. HAWKESWORTH, GISH, RAMBERG, GiBson, DANTZzIG,

and TUCKERMAN.

Informal communication: O. H. GisH reported upon the phenomenon of

earth-currents flowing consistently upward towards the top of hills and

mountains. An explanation for this phenomenon was suggested based upon

systematic differences in hydrogen-ion concentration between the top and

bottom of the hills and mountains.

1040TH MEETING

The 1040th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday

evening, May 21, 1932. The meeting was called to order at 8:15 P.M. by

President TUCKERMAN.

The proposed changes in by-laws, recommended at a special business

meeting of the General Committee called by the President on May 5, were

voted upon at this meeting and adopted as follows:

Article I, Sec. 6, after ‘‘Treasurer,’’ first line, insert ‘‘or in his absence or

inability to act, the Acting Treasurer provided for in Article I, Sec. 7.”

Add, Article I, Sec. 7, ‘“The general Committee shall have power to desig-

nate any one of its members except the President, a Vice-President or a

Secretary as Acting Treasurer to serve during the absence of the Treasurer

or his inability to act.”

The purpose of the above amendments is to make it possible, especially

during the present depression, for changes to be made in the Society’s invest-

ments in case of an emergency during the absence or illness of the Treasurer,

who now is the only person having access to the Society’s securities.

Program: H. H. Kimpauu: Solar radiation as a meteorological factor.—

Variations in the Earth’s solar distance cause variations in the intensity of

solar radiation at the outer limit of the Earth’s atmosphere of very nearly 3.5

per cent on each side of the mean, with the maximum early in January and

the minimum early in July.

Variations in solar declination cause seasonal variations in the daily totals

of solar radiation as measured at the surface of the Earth, which are small at

the equator, but increase rapidly with latitude. At Havana, Cuba, latitude

23° 09’N., the average daily amount at the time of the summer solstice is

about double that at the time of the winter solstice; at Washington, D. C.,

latitude 38° 56’N., the corresponding ratio is about 3.5; at Stockholm, Sweden,

latitude 59° 21’N., it is about 20, and at Sloutzk, U.S.8.R., about 40.

Following explosive volcanic eruptions the great quantity of dust thrown

into the atmosphere, some of it to great heights, has diminished the intensity

of the direct rays of the Sun as received at the Earth’s surface from 15 to 25

per cent for periods of several months. Such explosions, with their accom-

panying dust-clouds, occurred in 1883, 1888-1891, 1902, and 1912, and a

slight cooling of the Earth as a whole seems to have followed. On the other

hand, there have been no such eruptions since 1912, or during a period of

nearly 20 years, and Angstrom is of the opinion that on account of the small

amount of dust now present in the stratosphere the temperature of the Earth

should be slightly higher than usual.

528 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 18, 19

For solar constant values it has been claimed that periodicities of from 68

to 8 months exist, with amplitudes of from 0.005 to 0.014 calories, or about

0.3 to 0.7 per cent of the mean value. Also, that there are short-period trends

in values, with an average length of 5 days and an average amplitude of 0.8

percent. To these short-period trends of less than one per cent in magnitude,

have been attributed the major changes in weather. —

A careful study of these various variations in the intensity of solar radia-

tion leads to the conclusion that weather changes are brought about, not by

short-period trends of less than one per cent, but by the many-fold difference

in the intensity of the solar radiation received by the Earth in equatorial and

polar regions. As a result great temperature differences exist between these

regions. Gravity causes the heavy cold air to displace the lighter warm air

at the surface, and a polar-equatorial circulation is set up, turbulent in char-

acter, especially in winter when the temperature difference is most marked.

Well-defined movements of this character are to be found on the weather

maps of the different countries, and examples are shown in this paper in

reproductions of weather maps for the United States. It is to studies of this

turbulent polar-equator movement of air that meteorologists look for im-

provements in weather forecasting, and it is for such studies that the mete-

orological work of the Jubilee International Polar Year 1932-1933 is now being

organized.

As stated by the Chairman of the Commission for the Polar Year, ‘‘The

further that extensions have been made of the dynamical theories of air

interaction in moderate latitudes for practical forecasting purposes, the clearer

has it become that atmospheric processes in the polar regions of both hemi-

spheres play a predominant part. These regions are very often the source

of the surges in the atmosphere whose necessary outcome are the weather

variations at low latitudes. An intimate study, therefore, of the behavior

of the atmosphere in high latitudes has now become a necessity for the exten-

sion in knowledge of weather processes.”’ (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Merwin, Curtis, Humpureys, LItTTLEHALES, GIBSON, and

HAZARD.

W. J. Humenreys: If Greenland’s ice should melt-—If all the ice on Green-

land should melt, so also would the ice on Antarctica and every part of the

world. From recent depth soundings of this ice, and from other evidence,

it seems that the melting of it all would raise the level of the oceans about 150

feet. This would be a calamity of the highest order, since it would mean the

abandonment of many great cities and much rich coastalland. Furthermore,

the melting of the ice would cause profound climatic changes. Storms then,

owing to the relatively small temperature contrast between poles and equator,

would be few and feeble, and mainly pass at much higher latitudes than they

now do. Hence all mid-latitude regions would then be semi-arid to desert.

This disastrous condition, which appears to have been the world’s normal

state through much the greater part of its history, may again be upon us in

only a few thousand years, and will be if the ice continues to melt in the future

as, on the average, it has melted since the maximum advance of the last

glacial sheets, some 30,000 years ago. Of course, the retreat of the ice may

cease at any time and a greater or less advance begin. That often has hap-

pened, and an advance could now be started by certain minor geologic changes.

Presumably a number of suitably installed and properly located gages

would soon tell us definitely how fast the oceans are filling up; how rapidly,

therefore, the ice is melting, and how swiftly the world is passing into its

customary semi-arid and more or less desolate state. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. LirrLEHALES, TUCKERMAN, CurRTIS, DRYDEN, and

WRIGHT.

G. R. Wart, Recording Secretary.

“OFFICIAL COMMUN ICATIONS

is Be THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND

tie AFFILIATED SOCIETIES ~

ScHEDULED MerrtiIncs

Wednesday, N ovember 23 The Geological Society

. The Medical Society

Friday, Raveniber 25 The Geographic Society _

_ Saturday, November 26 The Biological Society

_ Wednesday, November 30 The Medical Society

_ Thursday, December 1 The Entomological Society

Friday, December 2 The Geographic Society

- Saturday, December 3 The Philosophical Society

Annual meeting. Program: F, B. SILSBEE: Super-

. conductivity.

Tuesday, December6 —“ The Botanical Society

Wednesday, December 7 The Washington Society of Engineers

The Medical Society

igeday. Beepthibex 8 The Chemical Society

Friday, December 9 The Geographic Society

- Saturday, December 10 The Biological Society

Tuesday, December 13 The Institute of Electrical gas

Wednesday, December 14 The Geological Society

. The Medical Society

Thursday, December 15 The Academy, jointly with the Philosophical So-

ciety

Program: Pauw R. Heri: Romance or Science? —

Friday, December 16 The Geographic Society

- Saturday, December 17 The Helminthological Society

, rele . The Philosophical Society _

‘

The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the eleventh and twenty-fifth day of each month.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: L. H. Apams, Geopliysical Laboratory.

Corresponding Secretary: Paut E. Howe, Bureau of Animal Industry.

Recording Secretary: CHartes THomM, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

TN See ag eS

oa Paleobiotany iiteudap peel ‘ascribed to Selaginetites, aes ng

joe coals of Western Greenland. Benust Lavon: Muvem. . 72. ¢4

| t Paleontology.—Antillophyllia, a new coral generic name. THO

Panag... dec cr ae a

Bs Paleontology.—A new species of Lepidocyclina from the Panam

Tuomas WAYLAND VauGHAN and W. Brows COE neon

‘ Entomology.—A new species of Rhodnius from Panama (He:

J ag He G. PPR RBE HB, 2). ond hain. k he Sak ney dey ae

a - - Zoology.—Annotations on the nomenclature of some f asit

va G. wai te eimaetaeh ge Pee ays gg ates nw eng, kg tS

PROCEEDINGS

es Aon be 3

This Journal isindsed inthe TatrmationlTndex to

‘

« . fe

YF Oat *

}

‘alle

VoL. 22 DECEMBER 19, 1932 No. 20, 21

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Hues L. DrypEN

CHARLES DRECHSLER

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

inmMoT H. BRADLEY

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

H. T. WENSEL Harotp Morrison

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

BE. A. GOLDMAN

W. W. Rusey

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

AGNEs CHASE

J. R. SWANTON

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

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VoL. 22 DEcEMBER 19, 1932 No. 20, 21

GEOPHYSICS.—On the flow of heat from a rock stratum in which heat

is being generated.. C. E. Van Orstranp, U. 8. Geological

Survey.

Numerous investigators have made the assumption that heat is

developed in certain formations, particularly in oil sands. A possible

test of this hypothesis consists in comparing the theoretical depth-

temperature curves obtained on the basis of a generation of heat in a

single stratum with the observed depth-temperature curves. Stated

geologically, the problem is this:

Let it be assumed for convenience that the earth is a cooling globe

and that the strata are parallel to the horizontal surface of the ground.

After the lapse of several hundreds of millions of years ¢1, heat is

supposed to be developed in one of the thin horizontal layers at a

constant or variable rate for a very long interval of time ¢. It is

required to determine the nature of the depth-temperature curves

after the earth has cooled for ¢t; + ¢ years, during which time heat was

developed in one of the strata for the last ¢ years of the period t, + ¢.

Mathematically, we have to determine the solution for the semi-

infinite solid subject to the conditions :—

i — (2) when t= o and x =o

iat) eo Ca ot =.

(tS ee iO. £ =O

v=0 mee = Ona oO (1)

ae ee Oe NO

iG) a He O° LS

These equations and inequalities state that a permanent heat source,

v = ¢(t), is maintained at a distance x’ from the face of the slab; that

the surface of the slab, x = 0, is maintained at constant tempera-

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. 8. Geological Survey. Received

August 12, 1932. “

529 DEC m.L.39¢9

530 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

ture, v = 0, for all values of the time; and that the temperature dis-

tribution in the slab at the time, t = 0, when heat is first generated

in the slab is, v = f(x). This relation results from the cooling of the

slab from the initial temperature distribution, v= f,(x), through the

time interval ¢,. That is, in the course of ¢, years, the function,

v = fi(x), becomes, v = f(x), which is now the temperature distribu-

tion in the slab at the time? = o.

In addition to satisfying conditions (1), it is necessary to satisfy

the fundamental equation of heat conduction, namely,

(2)

in which « is the coefficient of diffusivity of the rocks above and below

the plane, x = x’, on which the heat is supposed to be concentrated.

To be strictly accurate, the thickness of the heat-generating bed

should be taken into account, but inasmuch as the distances traversed

_by the heat are very great in comparison with the thickness of the

bed, it will suffice for a first approximation to assume that all of the

heat generated in the bed is concentrated on the plane, x = wx’, from

which it flows in both directions.

Various methods of procedure are possible. Let us adopt the

method of heat sources in which sources-of negative intensity (sinks)

in the negative portion of the plane correspond to equal positive

sources in the positive portion of the plane. The solution consists

in performing the summations for all of the sources and sinks from

x=+o tor = —o,

That portion of the solution in which the instantaneous heat sources

and sinks represent the arbitrary temperature distribution, v =

f,(a2), when the earth first began to cool is given by the equation?

= :2)? (A + 2)?

ies wa fm le pn Fas Jo (3)

Now let us assume that the earth cooled from an initial temperature,

vo, then v. = fi(x), and (3) becomes

2 a B?

— — r SSL V xt

v = f(x) = % We \ Be Cae OG (4)

To this equation, calculated for the time interval ¢t,; + ¢, we must

add the rise in temperature due to the single heat source at 7 = wz.

27,. R. IncerRsout and O. J. ZopeL. An introduction to the theory of heat conduction.

(Ginn and Co.) pp. 76-77.

DECEMBER 19, 1952 VAN ORSTRAND: FLOW OF HEAT 531

In order to maintain a constant zero temperature at the surface of

the earth, we must add an equal sink at x = —z’. Hence we have

for the instantaneous source and sink

Yq ae ae

leat we (c —e ) (5)

in which ¢(t) has been replaced by v,, where

Ye = g/pc (6)

is the rise in temperature in 1 ec of rock at the source, density p, specific

heat c, due to the development of q calories of heat per sq. cm. per

sec. on the plane, x = wv’.

The permanent source and sink resulting from (5) is

(GoSse ae (Cae

PR) a eee,

Spa, TIS ra Ia )

To integrate (7), put

Bg? = Aan)? = (a! + x)

we (G Sy) Ab)

then we have

dB dg

Oy = UW SS) = ip — AG a)

( ) 8 ( ) F

Substituting these expressions in the ins ies terms of (7),

-5-[w-o) *-e+0)) —*)@

2 AE

in which the indeterminate form in the upper limit has been put equal

to o,

Making use of the relations,

NaF 1 a n—2 ie 1 0

Cm Wen e is Ch SA r=

532 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 20, 21

and

7 — 2 9 2 = ge

2 {ve dx = Vii awe e€ da

a te (DG plage

IN re AS, va

/ a +e i

Mss Zs, Fe [vee as}

2K Aye

— Vg &

in which the contribution from the source is (9)

= Jee ee

iy 20), are

é =

Ns. 2k

Die 2 (2) ee

fea ae (10)

T Jo

and the same for the sink is

i | Vi = ver Goa x)

SO SS

R/ oe Dik

GQeaye 2 “Ee —¢ |

ae aro wah Vit @ as | (11)

As the numerical value of wu, in the negative portion of the plane is the

same as that of w. in the positive portion of the plane, it follows that

our problem is the same as that of a source at x = 2’ and a perfect

absorber of heat at x = o in the sense that the heat which reaches the

surface of the ground is lost to the system. In their interesting and

DECEMBER 19, 1932 VAN ORSTRAND: FLOW OF HEAT 533

important researches on the diffusion of substances, Stefan? and Rob-

erts-Austen‘ assumed that a plane surface perpendicular to the z-

axis at the origin acts as a perfect reflector in which case that portion

of the curve in the negative part of the plane is considered to be posi-

tive instead of negative.

The required temperature is

V = V1 + Ve (12)

The value of the time required in computing v, from (4) is ¢; + f.

Making the appropriate substitutions in (4) and (9) it is found that all

of the conditions in (1) are satisfied and as each source and sink is an

integral of (2), it follows that the summation of these terms likewise

satisfies (2). Carslaw® gives a solution similar to (12) when the source

¢(t) is at the origin. Wright® discusses the same problem when the

initial temperature of the semi-infinite solid is zero.

Equation (9) holds between the limits x = o and x = x’. Inter-

changing x and x’ in (8) and carrying out the usual integrations, we

have

Vt le eaey ae

Ve = Uy — Uy = = Vq vas ie re vey 4 xt

Petre a(n

K 2K os

Geer te eens = — 6

teed HAS al Ss

2k a | P

Equation (13) is to be used instead of equation (9) between the

limits « = 2’ and z = +o. In the limit, when t = o, equations

(9) and (13) give for the final temperature distribution

Deli Lo OO) — ee (9a)

Ho U ear i SGP! 0) IB I (13a)

3M.J.Sreran. Uber die Diffusion der Fliissigkeiten. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Sitzungs-

ber. 79: 161-214. 1879.

4W. C. Roperts-Austen. On the diffusion of metals. Roy. Soc. London Phil.

Trans. 187A: 383-415. 1896.

5H. S. Carstaw. The conduction of heat. (Macmillan Co. 1921.) p. 178.

6 C, E. Wricut. Note on a problem in ihe conduction of heat. Phil. Mag. 12: 1015-

LOTS? 51931.

034 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 20, 21

S19}oUr (OE JO yydep 4B 9oINOs 4YvoY B 04 oNp oINnyvIeduIA4 UI OSIY—"T “Sy

CO SYTLIW - HLASTS

292AS 182 C= 4979p /

SZO=2 B= ¥%9000=¥

QUAD ,,.0/x 982 1 = 32 =%e

009 / Ui) D5 /SalsOfe) ,0/X/=5

(Q) FOVAWLNID STFAIVIC ~ISAILVATIW IL

ee =p —

DOO OOD) [Es wa as

DECEMBER 19, 1932 VAN ORSTRAND: FLOW OF HEAT 939

c=0.25

14286 X/07 Cent.

pP=28

/Meter=3.28/ Feet

Sag.

K=0,0064

‘

)

DEPTH - METERS Gv

Fig. 2.—Rise in temperature due to a heat source at depth of 1500 meters

ta) \ N

CO FCVAIDLNIO SIFAIYIO ~-FA/NLVATASAWIL

536 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 20, 21

These equations are represented in Figures 1 and 2 by the respective

lines, oa and ab. Inthe latter case, 0v/dx = 0, and heat has ceased to

flow from the source in the direction of increasing values of x. From

(6), (9a), and the relation, x = k/pc, where k is the coefficient of

thermal conductivity, the flow of heat across a plane perpendicular

to the depth axis between x = x’ andzx = ols

that is, in the limiting state, the quantity of heat per unit time per

unit area escaping from the surface of the earth is the same as the

quantity of heat generated per unit time per unit area on the plane,

xz =x’. Inthe case of a bed of thickness n centimeters,

Ou ken,

Ox K

and the temperature at the top of the bed, depth v’, is

_ rb _ ang

Po <n? Oe

From the bottom of the bed, x’ + n, to the point x = +o, the tem-

perature is approximately

_ ang n(n + 1)q

és igual as ee age

Tables 1 and 2 contain the coefficients a of v, in equations (9) and

(13) computed for permanent heat sources at x’ = 300 meters = 984

feet, and xz’ = 1500 meters = 4921 feet, for t = 1000 years, 10,000

years and soon. ‘The products of these coefficients a and v, represent

temperatures on the centigrade scale when gq is expressed in calories

per square centimeter per second. The last digit in the tabulations

may not be correct.

The curves in Figures 1 and 2 show the rise in temperature (v2)

when g = 1 X 10-7 calories per sq. cm. per second, p = 2.8, ¢ =

0.25, and v, = q/pc = 1.4286 x 10-7°C. This value of q is the equiv-

alent of 3.156 calories per year which is a close approximation to the

value of 3.0 calories per year obtained by Richardson and Wells’

7L. T. Ricoarpson and R. C. Weis. The heat of solution of some potash minerals.

This JOURNAL, 21: 243-248. 1931.

DECEMBER 19, 1932

DaBEE Te

DEPTH

Meters

Feet

328

656

738

820

902

984

1066

1148

1230

1312

1640

1968

2297

2625

2953

3281

3609

3937

4265

4593 |

4921

5249

5577

5905

63562

8202

9842

11483

13123 |

14764

16404

18045

19685 |

21325

22966

24606

26247

1,000 years |10,000 years

237

617

749

898

1065

1252

1066

900

753

623

264

VAN ORSTRAND: FLOW OF HEAT

a X 10°

997

2007

2263

2521

2781

3042

2916

2791

2669

2550

2101

1700

1351

1053

806

605

445

251

227

157

106

ral

VALUES OF a.

xz’ = 300 METERS

DEPTH

537

= 984 FEET.

a X 103

Feat 2000-000 Agog). 000

0 0 0

984 4511 4632

1640 4393 4594

3281 4101 4501

4921 3816 4408

6562 3530 4318

8202 3254 4225

9842 2986 4132

11483 2728 4040

13123 2481 3948

14764 2246 3857

16404 2023 3767

18045 1814 3676

19685 1619 3587

21325 1440 3499

22966 1270 3411

24606 1116 3324

26247 976 3237

27887 849 3152

29527 735 3067

31168 633 2984

32808 542 2901

34449 461 2819

36089 393 2738

37730 328 2658

39370 276 2579

42651 192 2428

45932 130 2279

49212 85 2135

65617 7 1498

82021 1 1001

98425 0) 635

114829 382

131233 221

147637 120

164042 61

196850 16

229658 5

262467 2

295275 | 1

538 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

TABLE 2. VALUES OF a. z’ = 1500 METERS = 4921 FEET.

DEPTH coe XS 1053 DEPTH a X 1073

Meters Feet 1,000 years |10,000 years ae Meters Feet pee pes

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

250 820 0 83 1784 500 1640 6356 7347

500 1640 0 243 3594 1000 3281 12721 14696

750 2461 0 580 5458 1500 4921 19104 22046

1006 3281 7 1222 7399 2000 6562 17700 21581

1250 4101 161 2311 9437 2500 8202 16330 21120

1400 4593 623 3229 10715 3000 9842 15000 20660

1500 4921 1253 3962 11592 3500 11483 13719 20201

1550 5085 901 3583 11257 4000 13123 12490 19744

1600 5249 623 3229 10928 4500 14764 11319 19289

1650 5413 415 2900 10603 5000 16404 10211 18837

1700 5577 264 2594 10284 5500 18045 9169 18387

1750 5741 161 2311 9971 6000 19685 8193 17941

1800 5905 94 2051 9663 6500 21325 7287 17497

1900 6234 27 1596 9064 7000 22966 6449 17058

2000 6562 1222 8489 7500 24606 5680 16623

2100 6890 1 919 7936 8000 26247 4977 16192

2200 7218 680 7408 8500 27887 4339 15765

2250 7382 580 7152 9000 29527 3765 15342

2300 7546 493 6902 10000 32808 2789 14510

2500 82()2 246 5962 11000 36089 2024 13699

2600 8530 168 5526 12000 39370 1438 12910

2700 8858 113 5113 13000 42651 1000 12145

2750 9022 92 4915 14000 45932 681 11400

3000 9842 30 4008 15000 49212 454 10683

3250 10663 9 3232 16000 52493 296 9992

3500 11483 2 2575 17000 55774 187 9332

3750 12303 0 2029 18000 59055 117 8694

4000 13123 1579 19000 62336 tl 8083

4500 14764 923 20000 65617 44 7505

5000 16404 514 25000 82021 2 5016

5500 18045 272 30000 98425 0 3185

6000 19685 137 35000 114829 1917

6500 21325 65 40000 131233 1097

7000 22966 29 45000 147637 596

7500 24606 12 50000 164042 303

8000 26247 5 60000 196850 63

9000 29527 if 70000 229658 12

10000 32808 0 80000 262467 4

90000 295275 4

DECEMBER 19, 1932 VAN ORSTRAND: FLOW OF HEAT 539

as a possible value of the annual quantity of heat absorbed in the

potash beds in Texas and New Mexico. For any other value of

Vo, Say v,’, and the same thermal constants, it 1s only necessary to

multiply the ordinates of the curve by v,'/v,._ In the case of absorption

of heat, v2 in (12) is negative.

With increasing depth of source, the curves for short intervals of

time tend to become more and more symmetrical. The maximum

temperature towards which the source constantly approaches is

v,v’/x. These maxima are obviously points on the straight line,

VES 97 [x

For large values of v,, and small intervals of time ¢, the curves show

that the quantities v2. which are to be added to or subtracted from the

depth-temperature curve v, increase rapidly as the source is ap-

proached, showing a marked convexity of the curve towards the depth-

axis, after which they drop less rapidly to a zero value. A large

abnormality of this kind superposed on the depth-temperature curve

v1, Which is practically a straight line, should be capable of detection in

the field; but, with increasing time, regardless of the value of v,, that

portion of the curve over which it is possible to make observations

is also very nearly a straight line, consequently, the final temperature

distribution is the sum or difference of two linear distributions. In

the case, therefore, of long intervals of time, the only evidence of a

heat generating source in approaching an oil-bearing bed or other heat

generating stratum is the large value of the gradient, or the small

value of the reciprocal gradient. The only criterion that can be

applied in this case is the comparison of gradients over the oil-bearing

and the adjacent non-oil-bearing area. With sufficient care in ob-

taining true rock temperatures, the validity or invalidity of the hypo-

thesis should be capable of experimental confirmation. The effect

of the heat generating source would be greatly magnified by erosion

and steeply tilted beds.

I am greatly indebted to my assistant, Mr. H. Cecil Spicer, for the

exceptional care and skill with which he has evaluated equations (9)

and (13) forme. The results are summarized in Tables 1 and 2 and

represented graphically in Figures 1 and 2.

540 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

GEOCHEMISTRY .—Hydrogen-ion concentrations caused by the solu-

tion of silicate minerals... R. EK. Stevens, U. 8. Geological Sur-

vey. (Communicated by R. C. WELLs.)

Hydrogen-ion concentration has been found to be an important

factor in chemical equilibria of all kinds and its applications to biology,

industrial chemistry, agriculture, physiology, bacteriology, and other

fields, have been numerous and of great value.? Its importance in

geochemistry seems obvious but here the influence of hydrogen-ion

concentrations has been little considered. Recently W. R. G. Atkins?

discussed its importance in this field and made a number of prelimi-

nary measurements on rocks and minerals. The hydrogen-ion concen-

tration, or pH, largely determines the composition, and perhaps in

many cases the crystal form, of minerals separating from solution.

Alteration and corrosion are likewise affected by pH. Inorganic re-

actions of all kinds are dependent on hydrogen-ion concentrations;

examples of particular interest to geology are the relations in sulphide

and carbonate equilibria. The coagulation of colloidal material held

in solution may also be caused by change in pH. Alkalinity or acid-

ity, conveniently expressed in terms of pH, plays an important réle in

geochemical changes.

Waters percolating through the earth’s crust become acid or alkaline

owing to materials dissolved from the rocks, and if an abundance of a

certain mineral is encountered equilibrium is established with this

mineral, resulting in a definite equilibrium pH. The effectiveness of

each mineral would be dependent upon its ease of attack and abun-

dance. The earth’s crust is largely composed of silicate minerals and

they would play a major part in maintenance of pH. F. W. Clarke‘

says, ‘In the solid crust of the earth the silicates are by far the most

important constituents. They form at least nine-tenths of the entire

known mass and practically all the rocks except the sandstones, quart-

zites, and carbonates ....”

: Received August 17, 1932. Published by permission of the Director, U. 8. Geologi-

cal Survey. A more extended paper dealing with this subject entitled ‘‘Studies on the

alkalinity of some silicate minerals’’ will be published by the Geological Survey in Pro-

fessional Paper 1765.

2See Cirarx, W. M., The determination of hydrogen ions, p. 549, Williams and

Wilkins, Baltimore. 1928.

3 Atkins, W. R. G. Some geochemical applications of measurements of hydrogen ion-

concentration. Royal Dublin Soc. Sci. Proc. 19: 455-460. 1930.

4CuarKe, F. W. The constitution of the natural silicates. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull.

588: 5. 1914.

5 See for example Bouyroucos, G.J. Rate and extent of solubility of minerals and rocks

under different treatments and conditions. Michigan Agr. Exper. Sta. Tech. Bull. 50.

1921.

DECEMBER 19, 1932 STEVENS: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATIONS 541

That silicate minerals are attacked by water has been shown by

field observations, and laboratory measurements® have revealed, in

a general way, the extent and mechanism of the process. The mineral

does not dissolve as a unit but by hydrolysis the alkali is taken into

solution, leaving colloidal complexes of silica and alumina. The solu-

tions, therefore show a high pH well on the alkaline side. Many of

these minerals give much more alkaline solutions than do the carbon-

ates, calcite and dolomite, although the importance of silicate minerals

as sources of alkali has seldom been considered.

Because the discussion of hydrogen-ion concentrations involves prin-

ciples not as yet broadly applied to geology, it seems wise to explain

these briefly.

Water ionizes to a limited extent to give hydrogen and hydroxyl-

ions thus:

HOH = H+ + OH-

The extent of this reaction is slight but definite, and in pure water the

number of hydrogen-ions would be the same as the number of hydroxy]-

ions. When other substances in the water are present, however, there

is usually more of one than the other of these ions, and use is then

made of the fact, based on the law of mass action, that the product

of the concentration of H+ and OH- is a constant, K,. That is, K,

= [H+] [OH-], where the bracketed quantities represent concentra-

tions or activities. In pure water at 25°C. each ion, H+ and OH-,

is present in a concentration of 1 X 10-7 gram ion per liter, so that

kK, =1X 10-*. By adding acids the hydrogen-ion concentration is

increased and the hydroxyl-ion concentration is decreased proportion-

ately, maintaining the constancy of K,. Strong acids are highly

ionized, giving a large hydrogen-ion concentration, and nitric, sul-

phuric, and hydrochloric are among these. Weak acids, that are

feebly ionized, are acetic and silicic. In like manner alkali increases

the hydroxyl-ion concentration. Alkali and alkaline earth hydroxides

are strong bases while ammonium hydroxide is a typical weak one.

The constancy of K,, makes it possible to express the concentration

of both of these ions by merely stating the hydrogen-ion concentration.

By expressing this in terms of pH, where pH = log oy the fractional

figures for hydrogen-ion concentrations are reduced to simple whole

numbers. As the hydrogen-ion concentration of pure water is 1 xX

10-’, water or neutral solutions are at pH = 7, acid solutions are at pH

less than 7, and alkaline solutions at pH greater than 7.

542 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

The hydrolysis of silicate minerals is simply illustrated by the reac-

tion of water with wollastonite, CaSiO;, shown in the following equa-

tion:

CaSiO; + 2HOH = Ca(OH), + H.Si0;

The silicic acid thus formed has but little effect on pH as it is weakly

ionized and largely precipitated as SiO,. Calcium hydroxide is a

strong base, however, and it is almost completely ionized so that the

dilute solution thus produced is strongly alkaline. Thus wollastonite

was found to generate a high pH (11.17) when acted upon by water.

These measurements of mineral pH are a rough index of the amount

of decomposition taking place and of the relative stability of the

mineral in water. This follows also as a result of the law of mass ac-

tion, for solutions containing a large concentration of hydroxyl-ions

derived from relatively soluble minerals would inhibit further forma-

tion of that ion from the decomposition of more stable minerals and

thus prevent their solution by hydrolysis.

Numerous methods were tried in preparing these solutions of sili-

cates. Owing to the protective action of the colloids of silica and

alumina formed, it was necessary to expose as large a surface as pos-

sible to water and to remove these protective films. Methods con-

sisting of boiling and of churning the water containing finely ground

minerals produced results that were considered too low and that could

not be duplicated. By grinding the mineral to a heavy suspension

with a few drops of water in an agate mortar a maximum pH seemed

to be reached after two minutes of grinding and check determinations

showed close agreement. Furthermore the mineral was so easily

attacked in this way that an acid buffer solution could be quickly

made alkaline, approaching closely the pH obtained when the mineral

was ground in pure water.

The colorimetric determinations were made by grinding the mineral

for two minutes with one drop of water free from carbon dioxide and

one drop of the appropriate indicator solution and comparing the color

produced with that of a standard buffer solution of known pH, con-

taining an equal quantity of the indicator. The quantity of mineral

used had no measurable effect on the results, provided there was suffici-

ent to give a heavy suspension. It was found that the color compari-

son could best be made by drawing the solution by capillarity into glass

tubes of 1 mm. bore, keeping them upright for about a minute to

allow mineral particles to settle as much as possible, and comparing

DECEMBER 19, 1932

Index No.

TABLE 1.

STEVENS: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATIONS

Source

RESULTS OF COLORIMETRIC DETERMINATIONS

Composition

543

re | | RR

Beryl

Genthite

Lepidolite

Philipsite

Stilbite

Muscovite No. 1

Do No.

on ow

Do No. 4

Calamine

Biotite

Pollucite

Anthophyllite

Laumontite

Orthoclase No. 2

Do No. 1

Spodumene

Clinochlore

Albite No. 1

Do No. 2

Wyomingite (Leu-

cite)

Labradorite No. 2

Do No. 1

Margarite

Natrolite

Epidote

Actinolite

Phlogopite

Diopside

Hornblende

Olivine

Thulite

35 | Tale

Connecticut

Mexico

Utah

Philadelphia

Buckfield, Me.

Montana

Mordon, N. 8.

Maine

Deadwood, S.

Dak.

Maine

Chester County,

eae

Wyoming

Chester, Mass.

Roan Mtn.,

Tenn.

Willits, N. C.

Edwards, N. Y.

Be3Al.8isQ013

Ni2Mg28i30; 0° 6H,O

KLi[Al(OH, F)2] Al(SiOs);

(K2,Ca) AloSisO 12 : 43 H,O0

(Naz,Ca) AlSicsOie : 6H:O

H,KAI1;(Si0,)3, Sericite, fine pow-

dery variety

(ZnOH)> S103

(H,K)2(Mg,Fe)2Al, (S104) 3

H2Cs,Al.(Si03)s5

(Mg, Fe)SiO;

H,CaAl.Si,O 4s 2H,O0

KAISi3;08

LiAl(S8i0s3)>2

HsMg;Al.Si301s

NaAI1S8i3;03

KAI(Si03)2 (?)

NaAlSiz0s . 3CaAl.Si.O8 (?)

H.CaAl,Si,Or,

NavAl.$i301 0° 2H,O

Caz (Al 0 OH) (Al, Fe), (S104)

Varies

Ca(Mg, Fe)3(SiOs)4

H.KMg;Al(SiO,)3 (?)

CaMg(S8i03)>

CaMg;3(Si03)4 with NazAl.(S103)4 10.2

—- MgeAl4(SiOg¢)2

(Mg, Fe)2Si0O,

HCa,Al38i3012

544 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

TABLE 1. RESULTS OF COLORIMETRIC DETERMINATIONS—Concluded

je)

fs Source Composition pH

36 | Pyroxene Let Ca(Mg, Fe) (SiO3). 10.2

37 | Tremolite No. 1 eit H2Ca2Mg;(SiO3)s 10.2

38 | Do No. 2 iM Do 10.2

39 | Pectolite oe HNaCaz(SiO3)s3 10.4

40 Prehnite No. 33 H2Ca,Al,8i;0)2 10 2

41 | Do No. 2 Michigan Do 10.4

42 | Do No. 1 AS Do 10.5

43 | Apophyllite No. 1 Ae H,KCa,(SiO;) 3-43 H2O 10.4

44 | Do No. 2 = Do 10.4

45 | Wollastonite - CaSi0; 10.8

46 | Glass No. 106229. SiO. 75.48; Na,sO 15.26; CaO {11.2

9.26

47 | Do No. Igae tt. SiO. 78.40; Na,O 16.17; CaO /11.4

0.21; MgO 5.22

@ Analysis by F. W. Guaze, U.S. Bureau of Standards.

colors against a white background in indirect sunlight. For certainty,

colors were duplicated several times and whenever possible checks

were run using different indicators. The indicators and buffer solu-

tions were selected from Clark’s treatise, ‘The determination of hy-

drogen ions.”’

Colorimetric determinations on representative minerals are given

in Table 1. The results are in good accord with field observations on

the stability of these minerals and a relation to composition may be

seen—the highly basic minerals giving a high pH. ‘Tests on different

samples of the same mineral (see muscovite, orthoclase, albite, labra-

dorite, tremolite, prehnite, and apophyllite) show a rather limited

range of pH for the same mineral and, it is judged, differences are

due to impurities, incipient alteration, possible varieties in the species,

and similar variations inherent in natural products. The alkalinity

found for calamine in particular seems the result of impurities and not

of its true composition. Nevertheless, the results as a whole show a

remarkable gradation of pH between those minerals that are easily

attacked by water and those that are relatively stable.

The determinations on glass might be of interest to glass technolo-

gists. Results on two glasses of known composition are shown at the

end of-Table 1. Glasses tested having a higher content of alkali than

these gave pH figures above 12 and could not be readily measured,

while pyrex glass gave about pH = 8. This pyrex glass and the more

DECEMBER 19, 1932 STEVENS: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATIONS 545

alkaline ones tested represent extremes of durability and show wide

contrast in the test. The results for glass are of interest to mineralo-

gists in that they show the effect of increased alkali content.

A more quantitative study of pH of a selected group of the minerals

was made with the hydrogen electrode. Because the volume of

solution prepared from the minerals was small a microelectrode was

used. A simplified form of the one described by Bodine and Fink‘

was found to give good results. The hydrogen was generated elec-

trolytically from caustic soda solution and passed over copper gauze

at 500°C. before entering the electrode vessel. For the preliminary

measurements a normal calomel half cell served as reference electrode

but in most of the measurements the tenth normal electrode, reeom-

mended by Clark, was used instead. A saturated potassium chloride

TaRuE 2. Errect oF CARBON DIOXIDE ON PH

MATERIAL USED, Guass No. 135

(TWO MINUTE GRINDINGS, NORMAL CALOMEL ELECTRODE USED)

1. GROUND IN AIR

Remperatune 22.2! ). 4.04. oo! DENO: 25°C. 26°C. 28°C.

1B) MGS Sn ee 0.9468 0.9555 0.9491 0.9490

eres ee. te 112 11.36 11.21 11.15

DSTETIES 401 2 URAL ee 23 Maximum deviation 0.13

2. GROUND IN NITROGEN FREE FROM CARBON DIOXIDE

Memperauures sowie. ish. ek 272C. Zine: 27-C. 28°C. 28°C.

IBN Viet ice we es etic dee 0.9660 0.9675 0.9650 0.9680 0.9710

FOIE) a eek eB ee aee ea ee 11.47 11.49 11.46 11.47 11.51

PRVEMAE WE Wee rks yep ss 11.48 Maximum deviation 0.03

bridge connected the two electrodes; a thermometer dipping into the

potassium chloride showed the temperature at which measurements

were made. The e.m.f. of the resulting cell was measured with a Leeds

and Northrup, Type K, potentiometer and from this e.m.f. the pH of

the solution was calculated.

It was expected that the results determined colorimetrically would

be somewhat low, due to the effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and

this was shown electrometrically by preparing the solutions in nitrogen

free from carbon dioxide. A rubber diaphragm was stretched over the

top of the mortar, fastened down with passe-partout, with small holes

for the nitrogen inlet and for insertion of the pestle. The air was

6 Bopinez, J. H. and Finx, D. E. A simple micro vessel with electrode for determining

the hydrogen ion concentration of small amounts of fluid. Jour. Gen. physiol. 7: 735.

1925.

546 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

TABLE 3. TIME OF GRINDING NEEDED TO REACH EQUILIBRIUM

(NORMAL CALOMEL ELECTRODE USED)

(a) ONE MINUTE GRINDING

Glass No. 135 Spodumene

pil aac se Be peas aS

Temmperature: Wiis neh . ear 30°C. 30°C. 30°C. 30°C.

| NF (0 a ae See eee yo 0.9680 0.9685 0.8280 0.8330

JC lc ie, eee eee re me > eee 11.40 11.40 9.08 9.15

IVETALC DEL. bic teks ace epee 11.40 9.11

(6) Two MINUTES GRINDING

MeMperature: 2 )< Puri. Pe tae 27°C. 27°C. . 80°C. 30°C. 30°C.

a, MB cae d, oer 2 2 le att eae 0.9660 0.9675 0.8410 0.8450 0.8430

PERS. Sel ws i eee 11.47 11.49 9.28 9.35 9.32

ANGERS DERM. Seo ok. kote ee 11.48 9.32

Temperabure:ty. tk: ... bak ee 30°C. 30°C. 31°C. 31°C. 31°C.

| Sl) ae ee 1) eee ae 0.9745 0.9760 0.8470 0.8420 0.8430

1) se ee eames <P > ARR 7 11.50 11.53 9.36 9.27 9.29

Averape pH... UU... ae aes 11.51 9.31

TABLE 4. RESULTS OF ELECTROMETRIC MEASUREMENTS

Maximum

Index No. Mineral pay pete acorn devise eee

pH tions average :

Calcite 9.0 9.03 2 0.02 25

(Atkins,

1930)

14 Pollucite 9.0 8.96 Z 0.02 26

17 Orthoclase No. 1 9.2 9.18 3 0.03 28

19 Spodumene 9.2 9.31 6 0.05 30-31

22 Albite No. 2 9.6 9.84 2 0.04 28

ail Natrolite 10.0 10.05 2 0.03 28

37 Tremolite No. 1 10.2 10.50 3 0.02 22

38 Do No. 2 1052 10.172 3 0.06 24

44 Apophyllite No. 2 10.4 10.79 3 0.02 26

45 Wollastonite 10.8 1 (yk IF 3 0.01 24

47 Glass No. 135 11.4 11.49 7 0.04 27-30

* Probably too low. Contained a trace of iron and 1.15 per cent manganese.

DECEMBER 19, 1932 STEVENS: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATIONS 547

swept out and the diaphragm inflated with nitrogen during grinding

of the mineral. One of the more alkaline materials, glass No. 135,

was selected for the test, that the effect might be more pronounced, and

the results in Table 2 show that carbon dioxide lowered the pH figure

by 0.25 pH and caused wide variations. Results where carbon dioxide

was eliminated deviate from the average by only 0.03 pH unit. There-

fore in all subsequent determinations carbon dioxide was eliminated.

The time of grinding could be extended to three minutes without

the solution becoming so thick due to evaporation that measurements

could not be made, and results in Table 3 show the effect of one, two,

and three minute grindings. These results indicate a close approach

to equilibrium in two minutes. All electrometric results were ob-

tained after grinding the mineral in water for two minutes.

Minerals containing oxidizable materials, such as iron, chromium,

and manganese, had to be avoided as they caused low electrometric

readings.

The results of the electrometric measurements on a number of

minerals are given in Table 4. The degree of reproducibility seems

remarkable, no determinations varying from the average by more

than a few hundredths of apH. ‘The result for calcite, CaCO;, checks

closely the colorimetric determination by Atkins, whose work is re-

ferred to early in the text. In general the electrometric and colori-

metric results are in fair agreement, small deviations being accounted

for largely by the action of carbon dioxide.

SUMMARY

By grinding silicates under water, solutions with characteristic and

reproducible pH values have been obtained. The colorimetric and

electrometric results show that silicate minerals, when acted on by

pure water, give highly alkaline solutions, and their importance as

regulators of geochemical changes is indicated. The pH values ob-

tained are a rough index of the weathering qualities of the mineral.

548 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 20, 21

ZOOLOGY .—A new amphipod of the genus Leptocheirus from Chesa-

peake Bay.’ CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER, U.S. National Museum.

(Communicated by W. L. ScHMirt.)

Recently while studying the amphipods of the genus Leptocheirus

contained in the National Museum collection, I noted that specimens

taken in the upper half of Chesapeake Bay by the U. S. Bureau of

Fisheries during its biological survey in 1920 and 1921 belonged to a

new and undescribed species, for which I now propose the name

Leptochetrus plumulosus. The only other species of this genus known

from the eastern coast of America, Leptocheirus pinguis (Stimpson),

is very abundant off the coast of New England and has been recorded

from the Gulf of St. Lawrence south to the mouth of Chesapeake Bay

(37°N., 74°W.), where a single specimen was taken by the Albatross

in 1883. |

L. plumulosus was taken at six localities ranging from the mouth of

the Potomac River northward to the mouth of the Patapsco River, at

depths between 9 and 43 fathoms.

The specific name plumulosus is given in reference to the extremely

feathery appearance of the second joint of the third, fourth, and fifth

peraeopods. |

Description, male.—Head with lateral angle prominent and broadly round-

ing. Eye oval, black and rather small. Antenna 1 shorter than antenna 2,

first joint stouter and longer than second which is stouter and longer than

third, flagellum a little longer than peduncle and composed of about seven-

teen joints, accessory flagellum about equal in length to third peduncular

joint and consisting of four or five joints the last of which is very small.

Antenna 2, fourth joint slightly longer than fifth, flagellum shorter than

peduncle and consisting of about fourteen joints. Mandible with secondary

plate well developed, eight spines in spine-row, molar well developed and

bearing a small accessory tooth at its base opposite the spine row, and also

a plumose seta at its inner corner; palp with first, second, and third joints

increasing slightly in length consecutively. Maxilla 1, inner plate rather

long and bearing a single terminal plumose seta; outer plate with eleven

serrate spine teeth; palp bearing five apical spines and several setae. Maxilla

2 not differing from that of other species of the genus. Maxillipeds about

as figured by Sars for L. pilosus.2. Lower lip with inner and outer lobes well

developed, mandibular processes rather small. Side-plate 1 not produced

forward, margins slightly converging toward the evenly rounding lower bor-

der which is beset with a row of fine plumose setae. Gnathopod 1 robust and

strong; fifth and sixth joints about equal in length; sixth joint widening dis-

tally, palm slightly oblique with a central concavity, defining angle evenly

rounding without defining spine; seventh joint not overlapping palm and

with inside edge bearing a row of fine spinules. The first, second, third,

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

August 30, 1932.

2G. O. Sars. Crustacea of Norway, 1: pl. 197, fig. mp.

DECEMBER 19, 1932 SHOEMAKER: A NEW AMPHIPOD 549

Hy)

> si

(tir ie a \ : .

SSS = =.

SS \)

STL

Fig. 1.—Leptocheirus plumulosus, new species. Male, a, Entire animal. 6, Access-

ory flagellum. c, Lowerlip. d, Sixth and seventh joints of gnathopod1l. e, Gnathopod

lof female. f, Sixth and seventh joints of gnathopod 1 of female. g, Uropod 3, right.

kh, Telson.

900 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 20, 21

Fig. 2.—Leptocheirus plumulosus, new species. Male, a, End of gnathopod 2. b,

Mandible. c, Cutting plates and spine-row of mandible. d, Maxilla1. e, Inner plate

of maxilla 1. jf, End of palp of maxilla1. g, Maxilliped. h, 7, Gnathopod 1 of L. pin-

guis, male. j, k, Gnathopod 1 of L. pinguis, female. 1, Outer ramus of uropod 3 of

L. pinguis showing rudimentary second joint.

DECEMBER 19, 1932 SHOEMAKER: A NEW AMPHIPOD 551

and fourth joints of gnathopod 1 are densely beset with groups, bundles, and

rows of plumose setae which give them a brush-like appearance; and the sixth

joint bears five or six groups of spines on hind margin. Side-plate 2 slightly

expanded distally. Gnathopod 2 about as figured by Sars for L. pilosus, and

having the same armature of plumose setae. Peraeopods 1 and 2 about equal

in size and shape and are proportionally as shown in the figure of the entire

animal. Side-plate 5 with front lobe as deep as side-plate 4. Peraeopod 3

with the expanded rear margin of second joint produced upward and both

front and rear margins bearing a dense row of long plumose setae. Peraeopod

4 with rear margin of second joint less produced upward than 4, front and

rear margins edged with long plumose setae. Peraeopod 5 with rear margin

searcely at all produced upward, and somewhat angular, front and rear mar-

gins densely edged with long plumose setae. Pleon segments 1 and 2 densely

clothed on their lower parts with long, curved, plumose setae. Pleon segment

3 with lateral margin and lower corner evenly rounding and bearing a few

fine spinules. Pleon segments 4 and 5 without dorsal teeth but each bearing

on either side a row of four spinules on an oblique offset of the lateral margin

near the dorsal surface. Uropods 1 and 2 reaching back about the same

distance which pernaps is slightly farther than uropod 3. The spine-like

apical process of uropods 1 and 2 reaches nearly to the middle of the outer

ramus. Uropod 3 with rami short and about equal in length to the peduncle;

the outer ramus bears a terminal group of spines of various lengths, but no

rudimentary second joint could be observed such as is present in L. pinguis.

In uropods 1 and 2 the outer ramus is the shorter, but in uropod 3 it is slightly

the longer. Telson broader than long, almost evenly rounding posteriorly

and bearing about five spinules near either lateral margin.

Length.—Male about 11 mm.; female somewhat less.

Type locality.—Fish Hawk station 8963, Chesapeake Bay, Md.: Bloody

Pt. 99°; Thomas Pt. Light 15°. March 28, 1921, 9 fathoms. (Cat. No.

66075, U. S. N. M.)

In the female the palm of gnathopod 1 is evenly convex and almost trans-

verse with smoothly rounding defining angle which is preceded by a rather

small spine-tooth. In all other characters the female bears a close resem-

blance to the male.

In L. plumulosus antenna | is shorter than antenna 2, a character which

does not agree with Stebbing’s definition of the genus. Neither is there a

second rudimentary joint to the outer ramus of uropod 3,’ but in all other

characters there is such a close agreement with Leptocheirus that I believe

it best to include it in that genus.

In L. pinguis the first gnathopod of the male has the palm oblique and

about straight with a spine-tooth at the narrowly rounding defining angle;

the seventh joint being stout, much curved and the apex only closing against

the defining angle of the palm. Gnathopod 1 of the female of L. pinguzs has

the sixth joint much as in the present species except that it is proportionally

longer and narrower.

3H. W. Sexton. On the Amphipod genus Leptocheirus. Proc. Zool. Soc. London.

2502. 0,191 1,

552 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 20, 21

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY _

492ND MEETING

The 492nd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, October 12, 1932, Presi-

dent F. EK. MarTruss presiding.

Program: P. B. Kina: General structural features of the Cordilleran Province.

—This paper summarizes part of the results of a compilation made for a guide-

book of the International Geological Congress on the structural features of

the United States. The Cordilleran province, in a structural sense, applies to

the area of folded and faulted rocks which lies along the western side of the

central stable region of North America. The most active deformation in the

province was in later Mesozoic and early Cenozoic time, but there was a

complex pre-deformation and post-deformation history. The local geologic

history and the effects produced by the deformation are quite different in

different parts of the province, so that it is divisible into a number of distinct

subdivisions.

(A) Along the west coast is a chain of Coast Ranges, which is a compara-

tively young feature.

- (B) East of the Coast Ranges is a zone of structural features which is

typically developed in the Sierra Nevada. It is characterized by batholiths

of large size, and by a thick metamorphosed stratigraphic succession com-

posed predominantly of clastic and volcanic rocks and ranging in age from

early Paleozoic to Jurassic. This zone was intensely deformed in middle

Mesozoic time, and was made rigid enough to transmit a thrust from the west

to the next zone to the east.

of strong folding and overthrusting, which extends from the northern Rocky

Mountains through the Great Basin into the Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico.

The belt is characterized by great thicknesses of sedimentary rocks, which are

of different ages in different places. In the northern Rockies the thickest

sedimentary rocks are of Algonkian age, in the central Great Basin of early

Paleozoic age, in the eastern Great Basin of later Paleozoic age, and in the

Sierra Madre of Mesozoic age. The belt is characterized by great over-

thrust faults which have moved from west to east, which are of early Tertiary

age along the eastern margin of the belt. The belt directly faces the Great

Plains near the Canadian boundary, and the Gulf Coastal Plain in Mexico,

Between these points, plateaus and outer ranges lie in front.

(D) About midway along the length of the Rocky Mountain belt is the

Colorado Plateau, a broad positive area which has never been greatly de-

formed. It has behaved as a rigid area during the Cordilleran deformation,

and has transmitted the thrust from the west to the Rocky Mountains of

Colorado and Wyoming which lie northeast of it.

(E) The ranges northeast of the Colorado Plateau are for the most part

broad open folds which reveal pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks on their crests.

In Colorado, however, the relations are more complex. Here there is

much more close folding and overthrusting. This is partly because these

ranges have been reelevated on the site of old Paleozoic chains, and because

of the exceptional thicknesses of Paleozoic intermontane deposits laid down

between the earlier ranges.

DECEMBER 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 003

Study of the Cordilleran province suggests that the motivating forces

were compressional forces which originated near the Pacific border, and whose

existence was long continued. Sedimentation has been intimately related

to the compressional movements, but it was an effect rather than a cause.

The character of the sedimentation has strongly influenced the distribution

and character of the later structural features. The diverse units of the Cor-

dilleran province appear to have resulted from the interaction of regions of

different degrees of competency, under the influence of the thrust from the

west. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. SPENCER, C. P. Ross, GILLULY, RESSER, HEWETT,

and RuBEY.

K. E. Louman: Diatoms and their significance in geology.—The value of

diatoms as stratigraphic and ecologic indicators has been greatly neglected by

geologists in the past. Diatoms, having siliceous tests, are well preserved

under most conditions and their abundance, both as to numbers of species and

individuals, makes possible a reasonable understanding of the environmental

conditions obtaining during their deposition. Living diatoms occur in many

types of habitat, marine, brackish, saline, and fresh water bodies containing

unique assemblages varying in quantity from .a few hundred cells per liter to

more than twelve million. They occur nearly pure in diatomites, less so in

diatomaceous shales, clays, mudstones, siltstones, limestones, and calcareous

concretions.

Diatoms occur in rocks of all geologic ages from Jurassic to Recent; older

occurrences being reported but not sufficiently authenticated. Excellent

diatom floras have been obtained from marine Cretaceous, Eocene, Oligocene

(2), Miocene, and Pliocene beds in California as well as from non-marine

Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene beds in Oregon and Nevada. ‘To cite one

example of their value in correlation: The Temblor formation of California,

which has been called Middle Miocene on the evidence of molluscs, contains

the same short-ranged species of diatoms as the Calvert Formation of Mary-

land and Virginia, also called Middle Miocene on molluscan evidence.

(Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. GOLDMAN, Cook, Capps, R.C. WELLS, STEVENSON,

G. R. MANSFIELD, and Lapp.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

ANNUAL OUTING

A special informal field meeting and picnic was held at the Montgomery

Sycamore Island Club on the afternoon of June 6, 1931, attendance about 50.

Through the courtesy of the Club the grounds were reserved for the Society.

Members and their families botanized, played games, bathed in the Potomac

and otherwise amused themselves. About 5 P. M., ice cream was served by

the Society, individuals having furnished their own lunches.

235TH MEETING

The 235th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club on October 6, 1931. President N. E. Stevens presided; 51 members

and guests were present.

The following were elected to membership: Miss Mary A. Brap ey,

Dr. J. A. Faris, Miss Faupa L. JoHNSoN, and Dr. Earu 8S. JOHNSTON.

Reports of summer meetings of interest to botanists:

Miss Mary Bryan.—The Appalachian Trail Conference in the Great

Smoky Mountains.

504 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

C. L. SHpar.—The fungous foray at Ithaca.

K. H. Tooue.—The Sixth International Seed-testing Congress in the

Netherlands.

N. E. Stevens.—The Bartram Memorial Meeting commemorating the

200th anniversary of the first Botanical Garden.

M. C. Merriztu.—Special field meeting of the Botanical Society of

Washington.

Brief Notes and Reviews: Doctor Warre referred to his previous remarks

on lily pods and exhibited pods of Lilium regale illustrating the special organs

for keeping the seed from scattering too soon and for keeping the pod erect.

Program: Wild flowers of the Yosemite Park, a two reel film by A. C.

PILLSBURY, shown by P. L. Ricker.

SPECIAL MEETING

A special meeting was held in Room 43 of the New National Museum on

October 23, 1931. Attendance, about 60, including guests from the Wild

Flower Preservation and from the Biological Societies.

Program: Dr. Jaxon E. LANGE of Denmark.—Comparative studies of European

and American species of mushrooms and toadstools. The speaker had noticed

on a previous trip to the United States that many of the species here were the

same as those found in Europe and that some of the species had been named

by American investigators on small differences. The fact that it is impossible

to make good herbarium specimens of mushrooms and that photographs are

inadequate for identification has lead to confusion between American and

European mycologists. Printed descriptions of species as well as portraits

painted by an artist are of no value for classification. However, colored

drawings done by a mycologist are very useful, identification being easily

made provided enough species have been illustrated. So far only a few

hundred have been drawn by the author. The need for more intensive work

is plainly evident. Attention was called to the wonderful opportunity which

America has in such a program. Being a large country, under one govern-

ment and with a common language makes it possible for America to outstrip

Europe in the study of the fleshy fungi. Colored drawings of a considerable

number of species of mushrooms were exhibited.

NaTHAN R. Smitu, Recording Secretary.

236TH MEETING

The 236th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club on November 3, 1931. President N. E. Stevens presided; about 80

members and guests were present.

Brief notes and reviews: H. B. Humpurey called attention to a Plant Phys-

iology by E. C. Mruumr, recently published by McGraw-Hill Book Company.

N. A. Cops spoke of the JouRNAL of the WASHINGTON ACADEMY as a very

prompt and efficient means of publication for short papers and asked for

suggestions from the Society for improvement of the JouRNAL. ‘The motion

was made and carried that a committee be appointed to make recommenda-

tions and to confer with the editor of the JouRNAL and with Dr. HumpuHrReEy,

the representative of the Society to the Academy. M. B. WaitE remarked

on the unusual growth of annual weeds and the late maturing of peaches

and other plants. He attributed these to an abnormal amount of nitrates

in the soil due to the recent drought.

DECEMBER 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 555

Program: P. H. Dorsrert.—Open air winter forcing of strawberries in

Japan (illustrated). This unique horticultural practice has been developed

locally in Japan during the past twenty-five years with an industry amounting

to $35,000 in 1929 and 1930. Stone-faced beds are built at an angle of 45°

on terraces up the southern slopes of Mount Kunozan, a day’s ride west of

Tokio. This method produces berries five times earlier and plants four to

five times more prolific than can be produced by other methods.

P. H. Dorsett: Interesting features of Chinese “Ching Ma’’.—Abutilon

Theophrasti is a widely distributed weed in this country but in China it is

grown for its fiber and stems. The speaker exhibited samples of rope, fire-

crackers and charcoal made from this plant. These products are being

investigated in the United States as possible sources of a new industry.

CHARLOTTE ELioTtT, Corresponding Secretary.

237TH MEETING

The 237th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club on December 1, 1931. President N. E. Stevens presided; about 105

members and guests were present.

The following were elected to membership: WatreR A. Davipson,

Oscar J. Down, F. W. OLDENBURG, and KENNETH B. RapEr.

Program: N. E. Stevens, Retiring President of the Society.—The fad as a

factor in botanical publications. This address has been published in full in

Science.

Brief Notes and Reviews: Doctor WEtss called attention to the destruction

of elms on East Capitol Street and the Ginkgo and other groups in the grounds

of the Department of Agriculture. He proposed the following resojution:

Wuereas: The National Capitol Park and Planning Commission, in the

furtherance of its efforts to transform the natural beauty of the Department

of Agriculture grounds—a beauty which is derived from the varied contour

and the plantings of stately and historic trees—into something of the general

topographic and vegetational features of an Illinois prairie to be adorned with

four magnificent concrete roadways, has caused the destruction of the famed

Ginkgo Avenue in the Agricultural Department grounds,

BE IT RESOLVED, by the Botanical Society of Washington, that cognizance

be taken of this act of destruction, and that the regret of the members at the

loss of this notable planting of Ginkgo trees and other groups of trees in the

Agricultural grounds, be recorded on the minutes of this, the 237th meeting

of the Society, and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, that we hereby deprecate the failure of the Park

and Planning Commission to realize the possibilities of civic beautification by

preserving, so far as possible, natural objects and conditions.

Moved and seconded, that the resolution be adopted. It was discussed

by M. B. Waits and J. B.S. Norton and then carried.

The meeting then adjourned so that the annual meeting and election of

officers might be held.

ANNUAL MEETING

The 31st annual meeting was held immediately following the adjournment

of the 237th regular meeting on December 1, 1931.

The Recording Secretary reported that during the past year, eight regular

meetings, one buffet dinner with entertainment, one field meeting and picnic

and one special meeting were held. The attendance at the regular meetings

506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

were: January, 102; February, 150; March, 200; April, 41; May, 96; October,

51; November, 80; December, 105. Average, 103. Twenty- four new mem-

bers were elected, two absent members replaced on mailing lists, ten have

resigned or have been placed on the absent list, three deaths have occurred,

leaving an active membership list of 200.

The Corresponding Secretary read the following list of members who had

died during the past three years:

Dr. P. A. YoprR 1867—July 18, 1929.

Biographical sketch in Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 19: 394. 1929.

Dr. W. A. ORTON 1877—January 7, 1930.

Biographical sketch in Phytopathology 21: 1-11. 1931.

Dr. E. G. ARzBERGER 1877-—January 29, 1930.

Biographical sketch in Phytopathology 21: 576. 1931.

Dr. F. J. PrircHarp 1874—January 13, 1931.

Biographical sketch has been submitted for publication in Phyto-

pathology.

Dr. W. J. SPILLMAN esa dge on 1931.

Biographical sketch in U. 8. Dept. Agric. Official Record 10: 218.

1931.

Dr. R. A. OAKLEY 1880-August 6, 1931.

Biographical sketch in Science 74: 195. 1931.

The report of the Treasurer was read. The President appointed JoHN

STEVENSON and W. A. McCusBBIN as an auditing committee.

The following officers were elected by ballot:

President—Dr. J. B. 8. Norton

Vice President—Dr. CHARLES BROOKS

Recording Secretary—NaTHAN R. SMITH

Corresponding Secretary—Dr. CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT

Treasurer—EpiTH CasH

Vice President of the Washington Academy of Sciences—Dr. H. B.

HUMPHREY.

238TH MEETING

The 238th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club on January 5, 1932. President J. B. 8. Norton presided. Attend-

ance about 110.

The following were elected to membership: A. W. SkupERNA, Dr. How-

ARD W. JoHNSON, Dr. RonaLp Bamrorp, and Dr. GLENN A. GREATHOUSE.

Brief Notes and Reviews: Dr. WattE exhibited specimens of Bermuda grass

which is still green, due to the mildness of the winter. He also exhibited

branches cut from peach trees in this locality which showed fewer buds than

in normal years. Reports from Illinois, Indiana and California, also indicate

that fewer buds are laid down this year than normal. This may in part be

due to the heavy crop last year. Dr. CHARLES SWINGLE exhibited a species

of Bryophyllum brought from Madagascar which is still alive outdoors, while

specimens of this plant in California had been killed by the cold. Five min-

ute reports on the New Orleans meetings of the American Association for

the Advancement of Science were given by Dr. N. E. Stevens and Oscar J.

Down.

DECEMBER 19, 1932 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 557

Program: Luz M. Hutcuins.—Phony Peach: Some new departures in a virus

disease. (illustrated). Peach trees affected with this disease have a darker

green color, are more dense and produce much smaller fruit. The disease

has been slowly spreading and has resulted in great losses in certain localities.

Experiments, involving thousands of grafts of roots and scions, to determine

the cause of this disease were discussed. The fact was finally established

that this virus disease is localized in the roots, the trunks and limbs being free

of the infective agent. The means by which this disease is spread has not

yet been determined. Discussed by Dr. Waite, Dr. KELLERMAN, Dr.

TayYLor, and others.

239TH MEETING

The 239th regular meeting was held on February 2, 1932, in the Assembly

Hall of the Cosmos Club, attendance 83.

Dr. M. C. GoLpsworTHy was elected to membership.

Brief notes and reviews: Dr. J. 8. Cooury exhibited a culture of Xylaria

malli which showed phototropium. Dr. Hircucock reported on the exam-

ination of material suspended in the air as caught by air-planes. One half

of the fifty specimens contained seeds of Vasey grass whereas the light fluffy

seeds were not found. Dr. Norton called attention to a host index of rusts

and also to a list of forty-seven species of plants found blooming in December

and January of this winter. Dr. WairTE called attention to a publication

in the Geographical Review dealing with the climates of North America in

which many interesting points are brought out including a map of the cli-

mates. Dr. THONE exhibited the new address book of botanists, a text-

book of botany by Coulter, Barnes, and Cowles and a German treatise,

Arbeiten uber Kalidungung.

Program: M. C. GotpswortHy.—The effect of smelter smoke upon plants.

(illustrated). G. G. Hepccock: Crop plants; Forest vegetation. The data

presented by both speakers will be published later.

SPECIAL MEETING

A special meeting was held on February 16, 1932, in the Auditorium of the

Interior Department; attendance about 160.

Program: E. V. Apspotr.—Travels in Peru.—The talk was illustrated by

lantern slides showing the agriculture, Indian life and scenic beauties of the

country.

Following the talk, several members asked questions of the speaker and

Dr. Hitcucock spoke briefly of his travels through the same region.

NatTHAN R. Situ, Recording Secretary.

558 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

NOTES

Public Health Service officers speak.—The meeting of the New York Elec-

trical Society on the evening of November 16 was devoted mainly to the U. S.

Public Health Service. Among the speakers were Dr. R. E. Dyrr, Surgeon

General Hueu S. Cummine, and Prof. Cart Voretuin. Dr. DyErR’s appear-

ance was his first since he contracted an attack of endemic typhus fever in the

course of his studies of the etiology of that disease. He spoke, appropriately,

on the history of the fight against typhus in this country. Surgeon General

CuMMING devoted most of his address to a description of the new U. S. Na-

tional Institute of Health. He also outlined the combination of laboratory

and field work involved in the attack on certain diseases, such as malaria.

Prof. VoEGTLIN presented the results of his chemical investigation into the

physiology of cancer tissue. In an atmosphere of nitrogen, the albumen of

both cancerous and normal cells breaks down, he said, while in the presence

of oxygen it is restored. Low concentrations of copper and lead inhibit the

growth of cancer tissue; no other metals in the same concentrations affect it.

More Eskimo archaeology.—Two expeditions of the U. 8. National Museum

which have been investigating Eskimo archaeology during the past season

have returned, both reporting gratifying results. Dr. ALES HrpiicKa

brought back much skeletal material and many artifacts, some of them of

real beauty, considering the obdurate materials in which the ancient crafts-

men had to work. These objects give further evidence of the relatively high

culture level of the early immigrants that crossed the strait from Asia.

Mr. James A. Forp, who spent last winter in the Alaskan Arctic, solved

the riddle of the ancient mode of Eskimo burial. It has long been thought

that the ancient Eskimos at Point Barrow buried their dead either in actual

houses or in house-like sepulchres. Mr. Forp discovered that they did

neither. They took the top off a natural knoll, laid down a plank floor on

which they placed their dead, and then replaced the earth, giving the finished

mound a deceptively house-like appearance.

Extra vertebrae in Eskimos.—Supernumerary vertebrae are not uncommon

in man; all races show them. But the percentage among Eskimos seems to

be high. Among some two hundred Eskimo skeletons examined by Dr. T.

D. Stewart at the U. S. National Museum, about twelve per cent had 25

presacral vertebrae, instead of the normal 24. The highest previously re-

ported percentage was 7, among Japanese; Europeans have supernumerary

vertebrae in from 3 to 6 per cent of known cases.

Burbank still getting plant patents. —LuTHER BurBANK, though dead, is the

holder of more patents under the new plant patent law than any living plant

breeder. Recently his seventh plant patent, on a variety of cherry, was

granted, through his executrix, ELIZABETH WATERS BURBANK.

Since the passage of the plant patent law a little more than two years ago,

43 patents on plants have been granted.

DECEMBER 19, 1952 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 559

Corn borer spread retarded.—Due to weather conditions unfavorable for the

flight of adult moths, the spread of the European corn borer was retarded

during the past season, the U. 8. Department of Agriculture has announced.

The corn borer area now includes territory as far west as Wisconsin, and ex-

tends from the corn-growing provinces of Canada on the north to Kentucky,

Virginia, and Maryland on the South.

An ancient ‘‘modern” hawk.—At the meeting of the National Academy of

Sciences in Ann Arbor, on November 15, Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE of the

U. 8. National Museum, with Prof. Erminr C. Case of the University

of Michigan, presented a paper on the skull of a fossil bird from the Badlands of

South Dakota. Although of Oligocene age, the specimen undoubtedly

belongs to the living genus Buteo.

National Museum has “Uralt’”? mammal.—A fragmentary skull of a small

mammal in the U.S. National Museum has been identified as belonging to the

Paleocene genus Anisonchus by Dr. GEORGE GAYLORD Simpson of the Ameri-

can Museum of Natural History, and is assigned by him to a new species,

A. fortunatus.

The new species is happily named, for its discovery was apparently a matter

of sheer luck. A hollow tool, lowered into a deep oil well in Louisiana, acci-

dentally gouged out a core from the wall, and in this material the broken

fossil was found. Thought at first to be Cretaceous in age, its correct date

and identity were determined upon more careful examination.

New National Reservations proposed.—Director Horacrk M. ALBRIGHT, of

the U.S. National Park Service, during his annual summer tour of inspection

made a personal investigation of three proposed new national reservations

which would be administered by the Park Service. One lies in the Badlands

of North Dakota, identified with the name and hunting activities of the late

THEODORE RoosEVELT. A bill sponsored by Senator Nyr and Representa-

tive SINCLAIR proposes to make this area into a national park. The second

proposed new national park would be in the Badlands of South Dakota,

along the main road to the Black Hills. This was formerly a great game

area, and is still notable for its great wealth of fossils. A third park project

is in Wyoming and Nebraska, including Guernsey Lake and historic Fort

Laramie. Besides the proposed new national parks, a thorough discussion

of the mooted question of the acquisition of lands in the Jackson Hole coun-

try, to be offered to the government for park purposes, may be expected during

the coming legislative season.

Hybrid Oysters.—Japanese oysters and the oysters of the American Atlantic

seaboard are sexually quite compatible, Dr. P.S. Gautsorr and R. O. Smita,

of the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, have announced in Science. Sperm from the

males of either species will induce the females of the other species to discharge

their eggs, they found in a series of experiments. Furthermore, viable hybrid

oysters are formed, which in the young stages show no higher mortality rate

than do “‘pure-bred”’ young oysters of either species.

This biological situation does not promise well for the oyster industry of the

Atlantic seaboard, fisheries men point out. There is a desire among some

of the commercial oystermen to plant the Japanese oyster in Atlantic coast

oyster beds. The Japanese species is said to be faster-growing than the

560 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

American, but in the opinion of many is of inferior flavor. Champions of the

native oyster fear that natural hybridization will ruin the American species.

They would like to find legal means to stop the planting of the Japanese oys-

ter, but at present there is no legislation, either state or federal, to help them.

Posters for conservation.—A wild flower poster contest, open to school

children in the District of Columbia, as well as to adults, is announced by the

Wild Flower Preservation Society. Its purpose is to develop interest in the

fate of endangered native species, and at the same time obtain material for

use in a campaign of public education. Winnersin the District contest, which

closes April 15, 1933, will be eligible for a national contest. Particulars may

be obtained by addressing The Wild Flower Preservation Society, 3740

Oliver St., Washington, D. C.

News BRIEFS

Soil scientists from all parts of the United States were in Washington for

the meetings of the American Soil Survey Association, November 15 to 17,

and the American Society of Agronomy, November 17 and 18.

The Washington section of the Society of American Foresters held its second

fall meeting at the Cosmos Club on the evening of November 17. The meet-

ing was addressed by Burt P. K1rKLaAnp, of the U.S. Forest Service.

The National Park Service reports the presence in Yellowstone National

Park of 58 trumpeter swans during the past season. This bird, though still

near extinction, is apparently on the increase in the park area. GEORGE

WriGut, of the National Park Service, is now in Yellowstone studying the

winter status of these swans, and also observing the elk on their winter feed-

ing grounds.

The Geological Society of Washington held its 494th meeting at the Cosmos

Club on November 9. Dr. T. A. Jaaccar, Director of the Hawaiian Volcano

Observatory, spoke on Recent investigations on Pacific volcanology; Dr. C. 8.

-Ross on Genesis of titanium deposits of Nelson County, Virginia, and Mr.

W.H. Monros on Topography and physiography from aerial photographs.

The Pan-American Union announces that the White House Conference on

Child Welfare held here in 1931 has had a great deal of influence in Latin

America. Child Welfare Weeks have been recently held in Venezuela, and

in Colombia one was planned, but circumstances compelled its postponement.

In Argentina, Dr. ARAoz ALFARO, recognized as dean of his profession, gave

a public lecture on the results of the Conference and their possible applica-

tion to Argentina.

The Washington Chapter of the Pan-American Medical Association held

its first winter meeting at the Nicaraguan Legation on November 21.

At the School of Medicine of the George Washington University, a new

society named in honor of THEOLBALD SMITH, WALTER REED and FREDERICK

F. Russe, all former professors of bacteriology in the institution, has been

formed. The Smith-Reed-Russell Society is sponsoring a series of lectures

during the present academic year.

DECEMBER 19, 1932 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 561

PERSONAL ITEMS

At the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences in Ann Arbor, on

November 14, Dr. WaLtterR Hovuau presented a biographical memoir of the

late Dr. Jesse WALTER FEWKES.

Dr. W. W. CosBLentz was a delegate to the International Light Congress

at Copenhagen. He presented a paper on a new standard for ultraviolet

light.

Dr. J. A. FLemtnc has been elected an honorary and corresponding member

of the State Russian Geographical Society.

FRANK T. Daviss, formerly of the Byrd Antarctic Expedition, and now on

furlough at the request of the Meteorological Service of Canada, from the

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-

ton, is in charge of the Polar Year station at Chesterfield Inlet. This station

is the nearest point to the North Magnetic Pole at which continuous records

will be taken during the Polar Year.

W. J. Rooney, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, who was tem-

porarily assigned to the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Polar Year Station at

College, Alaska, to assist in the installation of the atmospheric-electric and

earth-current equipment, has completed his work and returned to Washington.

KX. L. SHERMAN will be in charge of the work during the Polar Year.

Dr. Luis M. Dr Bayz, Chargé d’Affaires of Nicaragua in Washington,

has been made an honorary member of the Association of Military Surgeons

of the United States. His father, a noted surgeon of Nicaragua, was also

made an honorary member of the Association of Military Surgeons a few

years ago.

Dr. L. O. Howarp has returned from his residence in Paris, to resume his

research and writing work here. He has a new book in press, which will be

published in the near future.

@bituary

Captain Ropert LEE Faris, Assistant Director of the U. S. Coast and Geo-

detic Survey, died suddenly at his home on October 5, 1932. He was born at

Caruthersville, Missouri, on January 13, 1868. Graduating from the Uni-

versity of Missouri in 1890, with the degree of Civil Engineer, he served for

a year as an assistant engineer with the Corps of Engineers, U. 8. Army.

He entered the service of the U. 8S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1891. He

was engaged upon the various field operations of the Bureau until, in 1906,

he became inspector of magnetic work and Chief of the Division of Terres-

trial Magnetism, a position he held until 1914, when he became Assistant In-

spector of Hydrography and Topography. The following year he was ap-

pointed Assistant Director. He wrote widely, contributing many articles

and publications relating chiefly to magnetism.

562 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, NO. 20, 21

Captain Faris was appointed a member of the Mississippi River Commis-

sion in 1919, and served until his death. He was a fellow of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science, a member of the Committee

on Navigation and Nautical Instruments of the National Research Council,

the Federal Board of Surveys and Maps, the Washington Academy of Sci-

ences, the Philosophical Society of Washington (President 1921), the Washing-

ton Society of Engineers (President 1921), the American Society of Civil

Engineers, the American Astronomical Society, the American Geophysical

Union, the Society of American Military Engineers, the Geological Society

of Washington, and of the International Association of Navigation Congresses.

He served as Treasurer of the Washington Academy of Sciences from 1918

to 1930.

Barton WARREN EVERMANN, director of the Museum of the California

Academy of Sciences and of the Steinhart Aquarium, San Francisco, died on

September 27, 1932. He was born in Monroe County, Iowa, on October 24,

1853. He matriculated at Butler University, Ind. in 1877. Here he met Dr.

David Starr Jordan in whose classes he began the study of natural history.

From that day until Doctor Jordan’s death in 1931 the two men remained

associated in one way or another in their scientific work. Together they

made many explorations, collected fish in nearly every state in the Union, and

as co-authors they wrote many books and papers. The most important of

these is the monumental work in four volumes, The Fishes of North and

Middle America, published by the U.S. National Museum as Bulletin No. 47

(1896-1900). Another important joint work of Jordan and Evermann is their

semipopular book, American Food and Game Fishes (1902) which has gone

through several editions.

In 1891, Doctor Evermann entered Indiana University, where Doctor

Jordan was then professor of biology. Here he received the B.S. degree in

1886, the A.M. in 1888, the Ph.D. in 1891, and the honorary degree of LL.D.

in 1928.

In 1891 he joined the staff of the Bureau of Fisheries and in 1902 became

Chief of the Division of Statistics and Methods. In 1903 he was appointed

Chief of the Division of Scientific Inquiry, and in 1911, Chief of the Alaska

Division. He was also curator of fishes in the National Museum from 1905-

1914. In 1914 he resigned from the Bureau of Fisheries to become director

of the Museum of the California Academy of Sciences, a position he held at

the time of his death.

Doctor Evermann served on the U. 8. Fur Seal Commission (1892); on

the International Fisheries Commission (1908-09); on the Board of Edu-

cation, Washington, D. C. (1906-10); and lectured at Stanford, Yale, and

Cornell. He was a member of many scientific societies and was the author

of 387 publications.

INDEX TO VOLUME 22

An * denotes the abstract of a paper before the AcApDEmy or an affiliated society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society of Washington.

Biological Society of Washington.

Botanical Society of Washington.

Geological Society of Washington.

Philosophical Society of Washington.

Washington Academy of Sciences:

Proceedings: 150.

Proceedings: 187.

Proceedings: 553.

Proceedings: 37, 288, 313, 416, 456, 552.

Proceedings: 278, 355.

Proceedings: 70, 121, 148, 276.

AUTHOR INDEX

Apams, L. H. *The effect of pressure on

the magnetic inversion point in iron

and other materials. 279.

AuicaTa, JosEPpH E. A new trematode,

Acanthatrium eptesici, from the brown

bat. 271.

ALLEN, E. T. *Geysers. 314.

ALLEN, WiLuIAM F. Formatio reticularis

and reticulospinal tracts, their vis-

ceral functions and possible relation-

ships to tonicity and clonic contrac-

tions. 490.

ANDERSON, RoBERT VAN V. *Geology in

the coast ranges of Western Algeria.

289.

Batt, E. D. New genera and species of

leafhoppers related to Scaphoideus. 9.

BarBER, H.G. Anewspecies of Rhodnius

from Panama (Hemiptera: Reduvii-

dae). 514.

Barrett, C. S.

tals. 285.

BartrRaM, Epwin B. Mosses of Northern

Guatemala and British Honduras.

476.

BartscH, Pauu. A new land shell of the

genus Rhiostoma from Siam. 69.

*Imperfection in crys-

—— The tree snails of the genus Coch-

lostyla of Mindoro Province, Philip-

pine Islands. 335.

Bett, W. B. *Symposium on the effects

of drought upon plant and animal

life. Insects. 189.

Berry, Epwarp W. A new Drepanolepis

from Alaska. 217.

——A new Oak (Quercus perplexa) from

the Miocene of the western United

States. 171.

—— A new palm from the upper Eocene

of Ecuador. 327.

A sterculiaceous fruit from the

lower Eocene (?) of Colorado. 119.

Fossil stipules of Platanus. 418.

Berry, WILLARD. The larger Foramini-

fera of the Talara shale of Northwest-

ernpheruniol.

BITTINGER, CHARLES. *Color. 281.

BuaKE, S. F. New Central American.

Asteraceae collected by H. H. Bart-

lett. 379:

BrapLey, W.H. *Erosion surfaces on the

north flank of the Uinta Mountains.

318.

Brapy, M. K. *Symposium on the effects

of drought upon plant and animal

life. Amphibians. 189.

Braunuicu, M. W. *The contact accel-

erometer as a starting device for use

with a strong earthquake accelerome-

ter. 287.

BRICKWEDDB, F. G.

of mass 2 and its concentration.

Bryant, H.C. *National parks as sanc-

tuaries for wild life. 190.

Bunrer, Epna M. The male of the

nematode species, Neotylenchus abul-

bosus Steiner, and its sexual dimor-

phism. 482.

*A hydrogen isotope

520.

563

564 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

BurspaNnk, W.8. *Relation of Cretaceous

and early Tertiary igneous intrusion

to structure in Colorado. 459.

CaMPBELL, Marius R. *The alluvial fan

of Potomac River. 313.

CuHaPin, Epwarp A. Strategus simson L.

and related West Indian species

(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). 449.

CHRISTENSEN, Cari. A new Dryopteris

from Cuba. 166.

Cioos, Ernst. *Is the Sierra Nevada

batholith a batholith? 319.

Cops, N. A. Metoncholaimus pristiurus

(zur Strassen); a nema suitable for

use in laboratory courses in zoology.

344.

Nematosis of a grass of the genus

Cynodon caused by anew nema of the

genus Tylenchus Bast. 2438.

Cote, W. Storrs. A new species of

Lepidocyclina from the Panama Canal

Zone. 510.

CoLwELL, F. L. *Some properties of

foreign and domestic micas. 280.

Cooks, C.WytHe. Tentative correlation

of American glacial chronology with

the marine time scale. 310.

Coopgrr, G. A. *A new accent in pale-

ontology. 457.

CRITTENDEN, E. C. *The Faraday Cen-

tenary Celebration in Great Britain.

355.

Curtis, Harvey L. The determination

of the electrical units by mechanical

measurements. 193.

DacHNOWSKI-STOKES, A. P. The classi-

fication of peat soils. 50.

Danez, C. H. Notes on the Puerco and

Torrejon formations, San Juan Basin,

New Mexico. 406.

Darton, N. H. *Some Algonkian strata

in Arizona and adjoining regions.

319.

Dickinson, H. C.

bilia. 278.

Dorsett, P. H. *Interesting features

of the Chinese ‘‘Ching-Ma.”’ 555.

*Open air winter forcing of straw-

berries in Japan. 555.

DRECHSLER, CHARLES. A species of Pyth-

vogeton isolated from decaying leaf-

sheaths of the common ecat-tail. 421.

*Scientific automo-

DrypveEn, A. L. Faults and joints in the

Coastal Plain of Maryland. 469.

DrypENn, H. L. *Motion pictures of the

flow of air and of the travel of sound

waves (Japanese highspeed movies).

281.

Exuis, M. M. *Biological aspects of the

inland river situation. 188.

Fuint, L. H. Hydration of the solute ions

of the lighter elements. 97.

— The hydration of the solute ions

of the heavier elements. 211.

—— Unhydrated solute element ions.

233.

FRIEDMAN, HERBERT. “*Social

of South Africa. 190.

GALTSOFF, Paut S. Spawning reactions

of three species of oysters. 65.

The life in the ocean from a bio-

chemical point of view. 246.

GouLpMAN, E. A. A new coati from Nicar-

agua. 312.

A new pocket mouse from southern

Arizona. 488.

A new squirrel from Honduras.

274.

Two new cacomistles from Mexico,

with remarks on the genus Jentinkia.

484.

Two new pocket mice from Arizona.

386.

GREEN, J. W. *A photographic method of

changing the ratio of ordinate-scale

to abscissa-scale. 280.

*The effect of pressure on the mag-

netic inversion point in iron and other

materials. 279.

Gunn, Ross. *The evolutionary origin

of the solar system. 6521.

Hau, E. L. *Some properties of foreign

and domestic micas. 280.

Harris, F. K. *Application of the cath-

ode-ray oscillograph. 524.

HARRISON, GEoRGE J. Arizona plants.

(Further additions to the recorded

flora of the state, with notes on the

characters and geographical distribu-

tion of these and other species).

224.

Heck, N. H. *Background and history

of investigation of strong earthquake

motions. 286.

weavers

DECEMBER 19, 1932

Henpricks, 8. B. *Group motions in solid

molecular and ionic compounds. 285.

Heyu, P. R. *Cause or chance? 525.

*The prospective of modern physics.

282.

Hi, JAMES M.

ores. 290.

HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F. On a new Cy-

prinoid from South Dakota. 257.

HorrMann, I. N. *Natural features in

Washington city parks. 190.

Hopkins, B. 8. The scientific work of

Charles James. 21.

Hower, Marsuatt A. Marine algae from

the islands of Panay and Negros

(Philippines) and Niuafoou (between

Samoa and Fiji). 167.

Humpureys, W. J. *If Greenland’s ice

should melt. 528.

*The colder the air the thinner the

ice. 522.

Hunt, Cuas. B. *The junction of three

orogenic types in New Mexico. 315.

Huppourt, HE. O. *The temperature of

the lower atmosphere. 519.

Hutcuins, Lez M. *Phony Peach: Some

new departures in a virus disease. 557.

Hysuop, J. A. *Symposium on the effects

of drought upon plant and animal

life. Insects. 189.

Ives, J. E. *The physicist in public

health work. 525.

Iver, K. R. N. Synthesis of a humus-

nucleus, an important constituent of

humus in soils, peats, and composts.

41.

Jounston, W. D. Jr: A revision of

physical divisions of northern Ala-

bama. 220.

Geothermal gradient at Grass Val-

ley, California. 267.

Geothermal gradient of the Mother

Lode belt, California: A reply. 390.

*Structure of the Grass Valley

batholith, California. 317.

KEARNEY, THomas H. Arizona plants.

(Further additions to the recorded

flora of the state, with notes on the

characters and geographical distribu-

tion of these and other species). 224.

Kerry, ARTHUR. Stratigraphy and struc-

ture of Northwestern Vermont.—I:

357. II: 393.

*A problem of beryllium

AUTHOR INDEX

565

KENNELLY, ARTHUR E. The work of

Joseph Henry in relation to applied

science and engineering. 293.

Kew, W.8S.W. *Tertiary and Pleistocene

deposits of the San Pedro Hills,

California. 39.

Kiuuip, ExuswortH P. Five new species

of Bomarea from Peru. 59.

KimBaut, H. H. *Solar radiation as a

meteorological factor. 527.

Kine, Puirtip B. *Permian limestone

reefs in the Van Horn region of Texas.

288.

Knieut, J. Brooxsrs. Holopea symmet-

rica Hall, genotype of Holopea Hall.

473.

Knorr, Apotex. Geothermal gradient

of the Mother Lode belt, California.

389.

KoscumMann, A.H. *Dissected pediments

in the Magdalena district, New

Mexico. 314.

Lapp, H.S. *The Melanesian Continent.

418.

LANGE, JAKOB EK. *Comparative studies

of European and American species of

mushrooms and toadstools. 554.

Lronarp, E. C. The genus Sanchezia in

Peru. 125.

Lewis, A. B. *A clock-controlled con-

stant-frequency generator. 284.

*Some properties of foreign and

domestic micas. 280.

Lonetey, W. H. *The law of organic

evolution and its place among the

laws of kinetic systems. 276.

Lotxka, ALFRED J. The growth of mixed

populations: Two species competing

for a common food supply. 461.

Lovuexuuin, G. F. *Dissected pediments

in the Magdalena district, New Mex-

ico. 314.

*The results of recent geologic work

at Cripple Creek, Colorado. 416.

Lucas, C. R. *Symposium on the effects

of drought upon plant and animal

life. Birds and mammals. 189.

MANSFIELD, G. R. *Further develop-

ments in the geology of southeastern

Idaho. 291.

MANSFIELD, WENDELL C. Faunal zones

in the Miocene Choctawhatchee for-

mation of Florida. 84.

566 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

Marmer, H. A. *The determination of

mean sea level. 38.

MarsH, C. Dwicut. A new species of

Cyclops from the Philippine Islands.

182.

Martin, G. W. New species of slime

molds. 88.

McComs, H. E. *An automatic-starting

recorder with motor-clock drive for

use with accelerometers. 288.

McReEynoups, Wm. H. Some aspects of

the classification of professional and

scientific positions. 321.

Mex., R. F. *Radiography with gamma

rays. 279.

MINER, Ernest Lavon. Megaspores

ascribed to Selaginellites, from the

Upper Cretaceous coals of Western

Greenland. 497.

Monater, fF. L. *Temperature variations

of the absorption of metallic silver.

520.

~Morton, C. V. A newspecies of Adenos-

tegia from Death Valley, with notes

on calyx structure in the genus. 160.

A new species of Hymenophyllum

from Peru. 68.

MuersEBEck, C. F. W. Four new North

American species of Bassus Fabricius

(Hymenoptera: Braconidae), with

notes on the genotype. 329.

Neutson, E. W. Two new cacomistles

from Mexico, with remarks on the

genus Jentinkia. 484.

Neuson, Wiupur. *The Rockfish con-

glomerate. 456.

Nouttine, P. G. The solution and colloi-

dal dispersion of minerals in water.

261.

PAIGE, SIDNEY.

fort dome. 417.

PautmeER, T. 8. *Meeting in honor of the

anniversary of William Henry Flower

(1831-1899). 190.

*The 49th Annual Meeting of the

American Ornithologists’ Union at

Detroit, and the recent Audubon

Society Meeting. 188.

ParkuHourst, D. L. *Automatic electric

recorders. 288.

Peters, W. J. *A photographic method

of changing the ratio of ordinate-

_scale to abscissa-scale. 280.

*The origin of the Vrede-

Puiuuips, Max. Lignin-like complexes

in fungi. 237.

Pierce, W.G. *Small folds produced by

slumping in southeastern Montana.

38.

PirtierR, H. Studies in Solanaceae.—I.

The species of Cestrum collected in

Venezuela up to 1930. 25.

Ponton, GERALD M. Faunal zones in the

Miocene Choctawhatchee formation

of Florida. 84.

RapcuiFFeE, Louis. *A_ recent trip

through the Upper Mississippi River

Wild Life and Fish Refuge. 188.

RapER, KENNETH B. The distribution of

Dictyostelium and other slime molds

in soil. 92.

RatHBun, Mary J. A new Pinnotherid

crab from the Hawaiian Islands. 181.

—— A new species of Cancer from the

Pliocene of the Los Angeles basin. 19.

—— Fossil Pinnotherids from the Cali-

fornia Miocene. 411.

New species of fossil Raninidae from

Oregon. 239.

Rep, Harry Fretpine. *Glacier Bay 40

years ago. 419.

RicHarps, Horace. *Biological studies

on the New Jersey coast. 191.

RogEsER, Wm. F. “*Reference curves for

use with thermocouples. 526.

Rusey, W. W. “*Alluvial islands: their

origin and effect upon stream regimen.

458.

ScHALLER, W. T. *The crystal cavities

of the New Jersey zeolite region. 316.

Scoaus, W. New species of Sphingidae

and Saturniidae in the U. S. National

Museum. 187.

Scumitt, Wautpo L. A new species of

Pasiphaea from the Straits of Ma-

gellan. 333.

SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. A new amphi-

pod of the genus Leptocheirus from

Chesapeake Bay. 548.

Notes on Talorchestia fritzi Steb-

bing. 184.

SILsBEE, F. B. *Composite coil instru-

ments for precise a.c. measurements.

283.

Steiner, G. Annotations on the nomen-

clature of some plant parasitic nema-

todes. 517.

DECEMBER 19, 1932

STEINER, G. The male of the nematode

species, Neotylenchus abulbosus

Steiner, and its sexual dimorphism.

482.

Stevens, R. E. Hydrogen-ion concen-

trations caused by the solution of

silicate minerals. 540.

Suyeuiro, J. *Engineering aspects of

earthquake research in Japan. 71.

Tyom, CuHaruss. Lignin-like complexes

in fungi. 237.

The distribution of Dictyostelium

and other slime molds insoil. 92.

Trask, PaRKER D. *Relation of calcium

carbonate content of sediments to

salinity of the surface water. 316.

TucKERMAN, L. B. *On the value of the

cosmical constant. 285.

Van Orstranp, C. E. On the flow of

heat from a rock stratum in which

heat is being generated. 529.

VAUGHAN, THOMAS WayYLANp. A new

species of Lepidocyclina from the

Panama Canal Zone. 510.

— Antillophyllia, a new coral generic

name. 906.

Waite, M. B. *Symposium on the effects

of drought upon plant and animal

life. Plants. 188.

AUTHOR INDEX

567

WAKSMAN, SELMAN A. Synthesis of a

humus-nucleus; an important con-

stituent of humus in soils, peats and

composts. 41.

Watuis, W. F. *The geographical dis-

tribution of magnetic disturbances.

278.

Watson, D. L. *Biological organization

as a physico-chemical problem. 522.

WENNER, FRANK. *Development of

accelerometers at the Bureau of

Standards. 286.

WHEELER, MarGArReET. On the applica-

tion of Appell’s equations. 153.

Waite, W. P. *The insulation of ther-

mels and other points of thermel

technique. 283.

Winsor, CHARLES P. A comparison of cer-

tain symmetrical growth curves. 73.

Wooprine, W. P. *Tertiary and Pleisto-

cene deposits of the San Pedro Hills,

California. 39.

Wricut, C. W. *The 1931 Glacier Bay

expedition. 418.

Wutr, O. R. *The temperature of the

lower atmosphere. 519.

Zinec, Ropert M. Mexican folk reme-

dies of Chihuahua. 174.

SUBJECT INDEX

Anatomy. Formatio reticularis and retic-

ulospinal tracts, their visceral func-

tions and possible relationships to

tonicity and clonic contractions.

WILLIAM F. ALLEN. 490.

Archeology. *Proceedings of the Anthro-

pological Society. Frank H. H.

RoBeErts, JR. 150.

Astronomy. *On the value of the cosmical

constant. L. B. TucKERMAN. 285.

*The evolutionary origin of the solar

system. Ross Gunn. 521.

Biochemistry. *Biological organization

as a physico-chemical problem. D.

L. Watson. 522.

The life in the ocean from a biochemical

point of view. Pau 8S. GALTSOFF.

246.

Biology. “Meeting in honor of the anni-

versary of William Henry Flower

(1831-1899). T. S. Patmer. 190.

* National parks as sanctuaries for wild

life. H.C. Bryant. 190.

*Social weavers of South Africa.

BERT FRIEDMAN. 190.

*Symposium on the effects of drought

upon plant and animal life:

HER-

Amphibians. M. K. Brapy. 189.

Birds and mammals. W. B. BELL.

189.

Fish. C. R. Lucas. 189.

Insects. J. A. Hysuop. 189.

Plants. M. B. Warts. 188.

Biometry. The growth of mixed popula-

tions: Two species competing for a

common food supply. ALFRED J.

LotKka. 461.

Botany. A new Dryopteris from Cuba.

Cart CHRISTENSEN. 166.

A new species of Adenostegia from Death

Valley, with notes on calyx structure

in the genus. C. V. Morton. 160.

A new species of Hymenophyllum from

Peru. C. V. Morton. 63.

Arizona plants. (Further additions to

the recorded flora of the state, with

notes on the characters and geograph-

ical distribution of these and other

species). THomMas H. Kearney and

GEORGE J. HARRISON. 224.

A species of Pythiogeton isolated from

decaying leaf-sheaths of the common

cat-tail. CHARLES DRECHSLER. 421.

*Comparative studies of European and

American species of mushrooms and

toadstools. Jaxkosp E. Lanau. 554.

Five new species of Bomarea from Peru.

EvuswortH P. Kinurp. 59.

*Interesting features of the Chinese

“Ching-Ma.” P. H. Dorsett. 555.

Marine algae from the islands of Panay

and Negros (Philippines) and Niua-

foou (between Samoa and _ Fiji).

MarsHAuu A. Howe. 167.

Mosses of Northern Guatemala and

British Honduras. Epwin B. Bar-

TRAM. 476.

New Central American Asteraceae col-

lected by H. H. Bartlett. (Ss. F.

BLAKE. 379.

New species of slime molds. G. W.

MartTIN. 88.

*Open air winter forcing of strawberries

in Japan. P. H. Dorsett. 555.

*Phony Peach: Some new departures in

a virus disease. Lee M. HutTcuHins.

HDi.

Studies in Solanaceae.—I. The species

of Cestrum collected in Venezuela up

to 1930: Hi. Pirrimngeze:

The distribution of Dictyostelium and

other slime molds in soil. KENNETH

B. Raper and CuHarutEs THom. 92.

The genus Sanchezia in Peru. E. C.

LEONARD. 125.

Chemistry. Lignin-like complexes in

fungi. CHartES THom and Max

PHILLIPS. 237.

568

DECEMBER 19, 1932

Synthesis of a humus-nucleus, an im-

portant constituent of humus in soils,

peats and composts. SELMAN A.

WaxksmMan and K. R. N. Iver. 41.

The hydration of the solute ions of the

lighter elements. L. H. Fuint. 97.

The hydration of the solute ions of the

heavier elements. L.H. Fuint. 211.

The scientific work of Charles James.

B. S. Hopxins. 21.

Unhydrated solute element ions. L. H.

FLINT. 233.

Crystallography. *Group motions in solid

molecular and ionic compounds. S.

B. HENDRICKS. 285.

*Imperfection in crystals. C. S. Bar-

RETT. 285.

Engineering. *Engineering aspects of

earthquake research in Japan. J.

SuYEuHIRO. 71.

*Scientific automobilia. H. C. Dick-

INSON. 278.

*Some properties of foreign and domes-

tic micas. A. B. Lewis, E. L. Hatt,

and F. L. CoLwEuu. 280.

The work of Joseph Henry in relation

to applied science and engineering.

ARTHUR E. KENNELLY. 293.

Entomology. A new species of Rhodnius

from Panama (Hemiptera: Reduvii-

dae). H. G. Barper. 514. -

Four new North American species of

Bassus Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Bra-

conidae), with notes onthe genotype.

C. F. W. MuEsEBECK. 329.

New genera and species of leafhop-

pers related to Scaphoideus. E. D.

Batu. 9.

New species of Sphingidae and Saturnii-

dae in the U. S. National Museum.

W. Scuavus. 137.

Strategus simson L. and related West

Indian species (Coleoptera: Scara-

baeidae). Epwarp A. CHaprn. 449.

*Symposium on the effects of drought

upon plant and animal life. Insects.

J. A. Hystop. 189.

Hihnobotany. Mexican folk remedies of

Chihuahua. RopertM. Zinae. 174.

Evolution. *The law of organic evolution

and its place among the laws of ki-

netic systems. W.H. LONGLEY. 276.

SUBJECT INDEX

569

Geochemistry. Hydrogen-ion concentra-

tions caused by the solution of silicate

minerals. R. E. Stevens. 540.

Geology. *Alluvial islands: their origin

and effect upon stream regimen. W.

W. Ruspey. 458.

*A problem of beryllium ores.

M. Hitu. 290.

A revision of physical divisions of north-

ern Alabama. W. D. Jounston, Jr.

220.

*Dissected pediments in the Magdalena

district, New Mexico. G. F. Loucu-

LIN and A. H. KoscHmMann. 314.

*Hrosion surfaces on the north flank of

the Uinta Mountains. W. H. Brap-

LEY. 318.

Faults and joints in the Coastal Plain of

Maryland. A. L. DrypEn, Jr. 469.

*Further developments in the geology

of southeastern Idaho. G. R. Mans-

FIELD. 291.

Faunal zones in the Miocene Choctaw-

hatchee formation of Florida. WerEn-

DELL C. MANSFIELD and GERALD

M. Ponton. 84.

*Geology in the coast ranges of Western

Algeria. RoBprert vAN V. ANDERSON.

289.

Geothermal gradient at Grass Valley,

California. W. D. JoHNsToN, JR.

267.

Geothermal gradient of the Mother Lode

belt, California. ApoLtepH KNoprF.

389.

Geothermal gradient of the Mother

JAMES

Lode belt, California: A reply. W.

D. Jounston, JR. 390.

*Geysers. E. T. ALLEN. 314.

*Glacier Bay 40 years ago. Harry

FIELDING REerIp. 419.

*Is the Sierra Nevada batholith a batho-

lith? Ernst Croos. 319.

Notes on the Puerco and Torrejon

formations, San Juan Basin, New

Mexico. C.H. Dane. 406.

*Permian limestone reefs in the Van

Horn region of Texas. PuHILip B.

Kine. 288.

*Relation of calcium carbonate content

of sediments to salinity of the surface

water. PARKER D. Trask. 316.

570 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

*Relation of Cretaceous and early

Tertiary igneous intrusion to struc-

ture in Colorado. W. S. BurRBANK.

459.

*Small folds produced by slumping

in southeastern Montana. W. G.

PIERCE. 38.

*Some Algonkian strata in Arizona and

adjoining regions. N. H. Darton.

319.

Stratigraphy and structure of North-

western Vermont. ARTHUR KEITH.

I: 357, IL: 393.

*Structure of the Grass Valley batho-

lith, California. W. D. Joxunston,

Jn. mole

Tentative correlation of American gla-

cial chronology with the marine time

scale. C. WytHE Cooke. 310.

*Tertiary and Pleistocene deposits of

the San Pedro Hills, California.

W. P. Wooprine and W. S. W. Kew.

39.

*The alluvial fan of Potomac River.

Marius R. CAMPBELL. 313.

*The crystal cavities of the New Jersey

zeolite region. W. T. ScHALLER.

316.

*The determination of mean sea level.

H. A. Marmer. 38.

*The junction of three orogenic types in

New Mexico. Cuas. B. Hunt. 315.

*The Melanesian Continent. H. S.

Lapp. 418.

*The 1931 Glacier Bay expedition. C.

W. Wrieut. 418.

*The origin of the Vredefort dome.

SIDNEY Paice. 417.

*The results of recent geologic work at

Cripple Creek, Colorado. G. F.

LouGHuin. 416.

*The Rockfish conglomerate. WILBUR

NELSON. 456.

Geophysics. *Background and _ history

of investigation of strong earthquake

motions. N. H. Hecx. 286.

On the flow of heat from a rock stratum

in which heat is being generated.

C. E. VAN OrsTRAND. 529.

*The geographical distribution of mag-

netic disturbances. W. F. WaALLIs.

278.

The solution and colloidal dispersion of

minerals in water. P. G. Nurtina.

261.

Herpetology. *Symposium on the effects

of drought upon plant and animal

life. Amphibians. M. K. Brapy.

189.

Hydrology. *Symposium on the effects of

drought upon plant and animal life.

188.

Icthyology. On a new Cyprinoid from

‘ South Dakota. Samurext F. Hinps-

BRAND. 257.

*Symposium on the effects of drought

upon plant and animal life. Fish.

CR. Lucas! 189.

Malacology. A new land shell of the

genus Rhiostoma from Siam. Pauvu

BartTscuH. 69.

The tree snails of the genus Cochlostyl«

of Mindoro Province, Philippine Is-

lands. Pau Bartscu. 335.

Mammalogy. A new coati from Nicar-

agua. E. A. Gotpman. 312.

A new pocket mouse from southern

Arizona. EK. A. GoLtpMAN. 488.

A new squirrel from Honduras. E. A.

GOLDMAN. 274.

*Symposium on the effects of drought

upon plant and animal life. Birds

and mammals. W. B. BELu. 189.

Two new cacomistles from Mexico, with

remarks on the genus Jentinkia. E.

W. Neuson and E. A. GoLtpMan. 484.

Two new pocket mice from Arizona.

EK. A. GOLDMAN. 386.

Mathematics. A comparison of cer-

tain symmetrical growth curves.

CHARLES P. WINsSoR. 73.

On the application of Appell’s equa-

tions. MARGARET WHEELER. 153.

Meteorology. *If Greenland’s ice should

melt. W. J. Humpnureys. 528.

*Solar radiation as a meteorological

factor. H. H. Kimpatu. 527.

*The colder the air the thinner the ice.

W. J. HumMpuHReEys. 522.

*The ozone distribution and the tem-

perature of the upper atmosphere.

O. R. Wutr. 519.

*The temperature of the lower atmos-

phere. E. O. Hursurr. 519.

DECEMBER 19, 1932

Miscellaneous. Memorial Resolution on

the Death of Frank Wigglesworth

Clarke. 148.

*The physicist in public health work.

J. EK. Ives. 525.

Necrology. AUSTIN,

388.

Bauer, Louis Aa@ricoua. 291.

BurGess, GEORGE KIMBALL.

CANN, FERDINAND. 152.

Cops, NatHan Avueustus. 356.

EVERMANN, BARTON WARREN. 562.

Faris, Ropert Ler. 561.

FERRIE, GUSTAVE AUGUSTE.

MarsuH, CHARLES Dwieut. 291.

Priest, IRWIN GILLESPIE. 496.

RICHMOND, CHARLES WALLACE. 420.

STRATTON, SAMUEL WESLEY. 20.

Oceanography. The life in the ocean from

a biochemical point of view. Pau.

S. Gautsorr. 246.

Ornithology. *Social weavers of South

Africa. HERBERT FRIEDMAN. 190.

*Symposium on the effects of drought

Louis WINSLOW.

420.

152.

upon plant and animal life. Birds

and mammals. W. B. BEuu. 189.

Paleobotany. A new Drepanolepis from

Alaska. Epwarp W. Berry. 217.

A new Oak (Quercus perplexa) from the

Miocene of the western United States.

Epwarp W. Berry. 171.

A new palm from the upper Eocene of

Ecuador. Epwarp W. Berry. 327.

A sterculiaceous fruit from the lower

Eocene (?) of Colorado. Epwarp

W. Berry. 119.

Fossil stipules of Platanus. Epwarp

W. Berry. 413.

Megaspores ascribed to Selaginellites,

from the Upper Cretaceous coals of

Western Greenland. Ernest LAvoNn

MINER. 497.

Paleontology. *A new accent in paleon-

tology. G. A. CoopEr. 457.

A new species of Cancer from the Plio-

cene of the Los Angeles basin. Mary

J. RatHsun. 19.

A new species of Lepidocyclina from the

Panama Canal Zone. THomas Way-

LAND VAUGHAN, and W. Storrs Cote.

510.

SUBJECT INDEX

571

Antillophyllia,

name.

506.

Fossil Pinnotherids from the California

Miocene. Mary J. Ratusun. 411.

Holopea symmetrica Hall, genotype of

Holopea Hall. J. Brooxes Knicur.

473.

New species of fossil Raninidae from

Oregon. Mary J. RatTHBuN. 239.

The larger Foraminifera of the Talara

shale of northwestern Peru. WIL-

LARD BERRY. 1.

Personnel Administration. Some aspects

of the classification of professional

and scientific positions. Wm. J.

McREYNOLDs. 321.

Physical Chemistry. *Group motions in

solid molecular and ionic compounds.

S. B. Henpricks. 285.

Physical Geography. The classification of

peat soils. A. P: DacHNowskKI-

STOKEs. 50.

Physics. *A_ clock-controlled constant-

frequency generator. A. B. LeEwis.

284.

*A hydrogen isotope of mass 2 and its

concentration. F. G. BricKWEDDE.

520.

*An automatic-starting recorder with

motor-clock drive for use with accel-

erometers. H.E.McComs. 288.

*A photographic method of changing

the ratio of ordinate-scale to abscissa-

scale. W. J. BererRs “and. J. W.

GREEN. 280.

*Application of the cathode-ray oscillo-

a new coral generic

THoMAS WAYLAND VAUGHAN.

graph. F. K. Harris. 524.

*Automatic electric recorders. D. L.

PARKHURST. 288.

*Cause or chance? P. R. Heyl. 525.

*Color. CHARLES BITTINGER. 281.

*Composite coil instruments for precise

a.c. measurements. F. B. SILSBEE.

283.

*Development of accelerometers at the

Bureau of Standards. FRANK WEN-

NER. 286.

*Group motions in solid molecular and

ionic compounds. S. B. HENDRICKS.

285.

572

*Imperfection in crystals. C. 8S. Bar-

RETT. 285.

*Motion pictures of the flow of air and

of the travel of sound waves (Jap-

anese highspeed movies). H. L.

DryDEN. 281.

On the application of Appell’s equa-

tions. MarGARET WHEELER. 153.

*On the value of the cosmical constant.

L. B. TucKERMAN. 285.

*Radiography with gamma rays. R.

F. Menu. 279.

*Reference curves for use with thermo-

couples. Wma. F. Rosser. 526.

*Some properties of foreign and domes-

tic //nileassi Aq, Ba tfimwas,. tis Lb:

Hau, and F. L. Cotweuyu. 280.

*Temperature variations of the absorp-

tion of metallic silver. F. L. MoHLER.

520.

*The contact accelerometer as a starting

device for use with a strong earth-

quake accelerometer. M. W. Braun-

LICH. 287.

The determination of the electrical

units by mechanical measurements.

Harvey L. Curtis. 193.

*The effect of pressure on the magnetic

inversion point in iron and other

materials. J. W. GREEN and L. H.

Apams. 279.

*The Faraday Centenary celebration in

Great Britain. E. C. CritTEnpEn.

395.

*The insulation of thermels and other

points of thermel technique. W. P.

WHITE. 283.

*The prospective of modern physics.

Py. Hey 282.

Scientific notes and news. 20, 40, 72, 191,

231, 320, 356, 388, 420, 460, 496, 558.

Seismology. *An automatic-starting re-

- eorder with motor-clock drive for use

with accelerometers. H.E. McComs.

288.

*Automatic electric recorders. D. L.

PARKHURST. 288.

*Background and history of investiga-

tion of strong earthquake motions.

INS ack 9286!

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 22, No. 20, 21

“Development of accelerometers at the

Bureau of Standards. FRANK WEN-

NER. 286.

*Kngineering aspects

research in Japan.

fale

*The contact accelerometer as a start-

ing device for use with a strong earth-

quake accelerometer. M. W. Braun-

LICH. 287.

Zoology. A new amphipod of the genus

Leptocheirus from Chesapeake Bay.

548.

A new Pinnotherid crab from the Ha-

wailan Islands. Mary J. Ratusun.

181.

A new species of Cyclops from the Philip-

pine Islands. C. Dwicut Marsu.

182.

A new species of Pasiphaea from the

Straits of Magellan. Watpo LL.

ScHMITT. 333.

A new trematode, Acanthatrium eptesici,

from the brown bat. JosepnH E.

AuicaTa. 271.

Annotations on the nomenclature of

some plant parasitic nematodes. G.

STEINER. 517.

Metoncholaimus pristiurus (zur Stras-

sen); a nema suitable for use in

laboratory courses in zoology. N. A.

Cops. 344.

Nematosis of a grass of the genus

Cynodon caused by a new nema of the

genus Tylenchus Bast. N. A. Coss.

243.

Notes on Talorchestia fritzi Stebbing.

CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. 184.

On a new Cyprinoid from South Dakota.

SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND. 257.

Spawning reactions of three species of

oysters. P. S. Gautsorr. 65.

The life in the ocean from a biochemical

point of view. Pauut S. GALTSoFF.

246.

The male of the nematode species,

Neotylenchus abulbosus Steiner, and

its sexual dimorphism. G. STEINER

and Epna M. BuuReR. 482.

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