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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 24, 1934

BOARD OF EDITORS

JoHN A. STEVENSON F. G. BRicKWEDDE

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

H. T. WENSEL Haroup Morrison

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

EK. A. GOLDMAN W. W. RuBEY

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

AGNES CHASE J. R. SWANTON

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

R. E. Gipson ee

CHEMICAL SOCIETY eer et EAS

- 7 x?

LAS

é ‘om -

. \"

PUBLISHED MONTHLY RQ Af. x

. See 4 weer

BY THE * Swe

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450 AuNnaip St.

AT MENnasHA, WISCONSIN

ERRATA

Vol. 24, 1934

Page 304. The statement following the legend for Fig. 8, ‘‘External edge of sheath

inadvertently omitted,”’ applies to Fig. 6 rather than Fig. 8.

Page 400, line 17: for ‘‘Trinemam”’ read ‘‘Trinema.”’

Jo OHN A. Sareeanks

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

otf pia

» Se" 5

aot Monson:

: ENTOMOLOGICAL, SOCIETY

W. w. Russy

Bes pti GICAL SOCIETY

As 5 R. Swanron

. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Gipson»

‘CHEMICAL socrarr

ig te) cuss.

450 AHNAIP Sr. $ . SIONAL, MUS= —

7 /ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENC!

—

eee i"

ar ‘Mewasua, Wisconsin

Bhat oe

ay 4 Pah |

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences oy

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 24 JANUARY 15, 1934 No; I

CHEMISTRY.—The ammoniation of waste sulfite liquor and its pos-

sible utilization as a fertilizer material.:| Max Puiuuips, M. J.

Goss, B. E. Brown, and F. R. Reip, Bureau of Chemistry and

Soils.

The preparation of paper pulp by the sulfite process consists es-

sentially in heating wood, under pressure, with an aqueous solution

of calcium bisulfite and sulfurous acid. This operation converts the

lignin into so-called lignin sulfonic acids, which are soluble in water,

and leaves the cellulose in a more or less pure state. The spent liquors

containing the lignin sulfonic acids, commonly referred to as ‘“‘waste

sulfite liquor,’ are generally discarded, and the disposal of this ma-

terial aggravates seriously the river pollution problem. It is estimated

that in this country alone approximately 1,500,000 tons of lignin are

annually discharged from the various pulp-wood mills.

Although the problem of utilization of waste sulfite liquor is one

upon which considerable research work has been done by many

chemists, in this country and abroad, it is still largely unsolved. At-

tempts have been made to utilize this liquor in connection with the

preparation of binding materials, adhesives, sizing and tanning ma-

terials, dyes, and as a fertilizer, but without much success. A review

of the literature on the utilization of waste sulfite liquor is given in a

bulletin by Johnsen and Hovey (1). Of the more recent publications

on the utilization of waste sulfite liquor as a fertilizer may be men-

tioned that of Bokorny (2), and that of Gorbing (8). Bokorny ap-

plied to the soil some waste sulfite liquor from which the sugars had

been removed by fermentation with yeast, and obtained increased

yields of wheat, peas, and potatoes. Gérbing, however, failed to con-

firm the findings of Bokorny.

_ 1 Contribution no. 230 from the Color and Farm Waste and the Soil Fertility Di-

visions, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. Received October 16, 1933.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

In this paper a preliminary report is made on some experiments on

the ammoniation of waste sulfite liquor. In view of the relatively

large amounts of organic matter, chiefly lignin, present in waste sul-

fite liquor, and in view of the known chemical properties of lignin, it

seemed worth while to attempt to ammoniate this material in the

hope of thus obtaining a nitrogenous product having the nitrogen

chemically bound to the organic material. The results thus far ob-

tained indicate that it is possible to obtain a product containing as

much as 10 per cent nitrogen, of which only a negligible amount is

present in the form of ammonium salts.

For the ammoniation experiments a batch of fresh waste sulfite

liquor was obtained from a paper pulp mill.” A portion of this was

evaporated to dryness, dried at 105°C., and analyzed by the standard

A.O. A.C. methods (4). The following results were obtained:

Total P2O;—None

Total N—0.04 per cent

Total K,O—0.15 per cent

A second portion of the waste sulfite liquor was neutralized with

ammonia, evaporated to dryness, and dried at 105°C. (A). The total

nitrogen content of this amounted to 2.60 per cent. In all the subse-

quent ammoniation experiments, this material (A) was used. The am-

moniation was carried out in two steel bombs which revolved in an

oil bath provided with thermostatic control. A full description of the

apparatus has been given elsewhere (5). Into each bomb 50 g. of the

dry material and 300 g. aqueous ammonia (28 per cent NH;) were

placed. In each experiment, the reaction products from the two

bombs were combined, evaporated to dryness on the steam bath, and

dried at 105°C. Two series of experiments were conducted, one at

200°C. and the other at 220°C., in which the time of heating was.

varied. The dried products obtained varied in color from dark brown

to black. The analyses of these products are recorded in Tables 1 and

2. (The total nitrogen and ammoniacal nitrogen were determined by

the standard A.O. A.C. methods [loc. cit.].)

A more detailed report of the ammoniation process, together with

additional data, will be published later. Attention is, however, called

to the relatively high nitrogen content of the preparations and to the

low, almost negligible percentages of ammoniacal nitrogen.

2 The sulfite liquor used in our experiments was kindly supplied by the Brown

Company of Berlin, New Hampshire.

JANUARY 15, 1934 PHILLIPS: AMMONIATION

TABLE 1.—AMMONIATION OF Dry RESIDUE OF SULFITE LIQuOR aT 200°C.

100 g. of the dry residue of neutralized sulfite liquor (A) and 600 cc. Aq. NH; were

used for each experiment.

Time of Total N in Ammoniacal N

Experiment Heating Dry Product in Dry Product

No. (Hours) (per cent) (per cent)

il 4 7.30 ez

Pd 8 8.32 0.36

3 12 8.83 0.20

4 16 8.56 0.22

5 20 9.07 0.19

TABLE 2.—AMMONIATION OF Dry RESIDUE OF SULFITE LIQUOR aT 220°C.

100 g. of the dry residue of neutralized sulfite liquor (A) and 600 cc. Aq. NH; were

used for each experiment.

Time of | Total N in Ammoniacal N

Experiment Heating Dry Product in Dry Product

Oo. (Hours) (per cent) (per cent)

1 4 8.82 OP33

2 8 9.56 0.20

3 12 9.95 0.13

4 16 9.92 ORNS

5 20 10.55 0.09

FERTILIZER VALUE OF AMMONIATED MATERIAL

After ammoniation of the waste sulfite liquor is effected the chief

problem is how to utilize the product to most economical advantage.

A natural query is, “‘Does it possess any value as a fertilizer ma-

terial?’’ On the basis of nitrogen content, running as high as 10.5 per

cent, the ammoniated sulfite lignin rates with fish scrap, tankage and

cottonseed meal, which have been found to be valuable fertilizer

materials. Just how available the nitrogen in the ammoniated product

is to plants as compared with some of the regular nitrogenous fer-

tilizer materials can best be determined by. vegetative tests under

greenhouse or field conditions. Accordingly, preliminary tests were

made in the Soil Fertility Greenhouse at Arlington Farm to determine

this point. In making the greenhouse tests, 1-gallon glazed pots were

used. The soil used, designated Norfolk loamy fine sand, was ob-

tained in nearby Virginia and possessed a pH of 4.8. Both limed and

unlimed soil tests were made. Millet was used as the test crop.

In making the preliminary vegetative tests 5 samples of the dry

residue of ammoniated waste sulfite liquor ranging in nitrogen con-

tent from 2.6 to 9.07 per cent were mixed with commercial super-

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

phosphate and muriate of potash on a 4—12—4 basis.? These 5 mixtures

were compared with (1) a mixture containing only superphosphate

and muriate of potash, an 0-12—4 mixture; (2) a 4-12—4 mixture with

dried blood as the source of nitrogen; and (3) a 4-12—4 mixture with

nitrogen derived equally from sodium nitrate and ammonium sul-

phate.

Additional tests included liming the soil to reduce the soil acidity

to a pH of 6.8 from an original of 4.8 and replanting one of the series

without further fertilizer treatment to determine how much, if any,

residual effect may be expected from the ammoniated material.

The results of these preliminary tests show that while a much bet-

ter growth of millet was obtained with the ammoniated material as

a source of nitrogen in the 4-12—4 mixture than with the 0-12—4 mix-

ture, in no case was the response equal to that obtained with either

dried blood or the mixture of sodium nitrate and ammonium sulphate.

Expressing the results of the pot tests relatively, with the 0—-12—4 at

100, the ammoniated material is 128.7; dried blood, 187.2; and the

inorganic salts, 193.6. The oven dried weights in grams, average of.

5 sets, were as follows: 0-12—4 mixture, 22.13 grams; 4-12—4 (am-

moniated sulphite lignin as source of N), 28.48; dried blood mixture,

41.42; and inorganic salts mixture, 42.84.

Liming the soil provided better growing conditions for the millet

test crop, but whether increased growth was due to change of pH

or to an increase in the availability of the ammoniated material, or

perhaps to both of these factors, was not determined in these tests.

To do so would have required the inclusion of an 0-12—4 treatment on

limed soil. However, the growth of millet on the limed soil failed to

equal that produced with either dried blood or the inorganic salts on

unlimed soil.

One of the pot tests of the ammoniated material (8.32 per cent N).

was replanted to millet without further fertilizer treatment, with re-

sults expressed relatively as follows: 0-12—-4 mixture, 100; 4-12-4 .

mixture, ammoniated material as a source of nitrogen, 77.7; dried

blood mixture, 60; and inorganic salts mixture 44, thus indicating the

possibility that the nitrogen in the ammoniated material is made

available over a longer growing period than that in either the dried

blood or the inorganic salts. The oven dried weights of the millet

3 Four per cent nitrogen (N); 12 per cent phosphoric acid (P:0;); 4 per cent potash

(K,O). Rate of fertilizer application, 2000 pounds to the acre.

4 These figures represent the relative weights of oven dried plant material obtained

from an average of 5 tests.

JANUARY 15, 1934 PHILLIPS: AMMONIATION 5)

plants in the replanted series were as follows: 0-12—4 mixture, 12.15

grams; ammoniated mixture, 9.45; dried blood mixture, 7.30; and

inorganic salts mixture, 5.35 grams.

The relatively better showing of the 0—-12—4 mixture in the re-

planted series was probably due to the greater residues of phosphoric

acid and potash; the soil used being particularly responsive to the

former fertilizer element. The influence of the mixtures containing

nitrogen, on account of heavier growth, was no doubt to remove more

phosphoric acid and potash than did the plants grown without added

nitrogen materials. When replanted without additional treatment the

presumably greater residues of phosphoric acid and potash in the

0—12—4 pots probably induced a greater growth than occurred in the

pots to which the nitrogen materials also were added. This state-

ment may apply equally to the result obtained in the replanted series

with ammoniated waste sulfite liquor, which produced a better yield

of millet than either the dried blood or inorganic salts mixture.

In experimental work now in progress, the effect of varying residues

of phosphoric acid and potash is practically being taken care of by

replenishing these plant food constituents, thus making the response

largely one dependent upon the residual nitrogen supply.

Before final evaluation of the ammoniated material as a fertilizer,

it will be necessary to conduct other tests by employing different soils

and crop plants and by using the ammoniated sulfite liquor as a

partial rather than as an entire source of nitrogen. It will also be es-

sential to determine its value as a conditioning material in mixed

fertilizers and as a soil mulch, and its relative effectiveness under

field conditions on prominent soil types. Finally, it is interesting to

note that notwithstanding the chemical nature of the original ma-

terial before ammoniation, the resulting product showed up fairly

well as a fertilizer material in comparison with standard nitrogen

carriers.

LITERATURE CITED

1. JOHNSEN, B. and Hovey, R.W. Utilization of waste sulfite liquor. Canadian Dept.

of Interior, Forestry Branch Bull. 66.

. Boxorny, T. Weitere Diingungsversuche mit entzuckerter Sulfitablauge. Mitt. deut.

Landw. Ges. 34: 6.1919. Ibid. 35: 202. 1920.

. GorBina, J. Ueber die Verwertung von Zellstoffablaugen zu Diingezwecken. Papier

HabrikanG 25° 573, Oday Odile 71927.

Official and tentative methods of analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural

eecmists 1930: 14-27. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Washington,

pa CS AS

5. Puituies, M. The preparation of 2-aminoanthraquinone from phthalic anhydride

and chlorobenzene. Ind. Eng. Chem. 17: 721. 1925.

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACACEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

HYDROLOGY .—The history and development of ground-water hy-

drology.! Oscar Epwarp MeEtnzemr, U.S. Geological Survey.

UTILIZATION OF GROUND WATER

Digging for water is doubtless a very ancient art. Indeed, even some

of the lower animals, such as the coyote, are known to dig down to

water where it occurs not far below the surface. However, in the

early stage of human development, men progressed very little be-

yond the coyote in well digging because they lived near springs or

streams which were convenient for fishing and hunting.

When men began to raise large herds and flocks, the grazing within

reach of natural watering places became inadequate; and the task of

digging wells was taken up seriously, especially in arid and semi-arid

regions. Thus, the patriarch Isaac was very active and successful in

digging wells, as is shown by the twenty-sixth chapter of Genesis,

which reads like a water-supply paper.

When men began to cultivate the soil the need for water supplies

was further increased. Some of the most ancient agriculture was car-

ried on in arid regions by means of irrigation, largely with water —

drawn from wells. Throughout the countries of southern Asia and

northern Africa, ground water has, since ancient times, been exten-

sively utilized for irrigation. It has been estimated that on the penin-

sula of India alone not less than 20,000,000 acres are under irrigation

with water obtained from wells—an acreage comparable with the

total irrigated area in the United States.?

With the growth of cities and the development of industry, the de-

mands for new water supplies increased immensely, and these sup-

plies were in large part obtained from wells. At present about two-

thirds of the public waterworks in the United States derive their

water from wells and these waterworks supply nearly 20,000,000 of our

population. The ground-water developments for industrial purposes

have become numerous and complex, and the requirements have be-

come very exacting as to both quantity and quality of water.

The utilization of the ground water, of course, preceded by long

1 Presidential address delivered before the Geological Society of Washington, Dec.

9, 1931. The term ground water is here used to designate the water in the zone of satura-

tion; that is, the water which supplies springs and wells. The terms underground water,

subterranean water, and phreatic water are also used to designate this water. The term

phreatic is derived from the Greek word meaning a well. It suggests the term phreatology

for the branch of science that is here designated by the awkward term ground-water

hydrology. Published with the permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey.

Received March 28, 1933.

2 Cox, W. G. Artesian wells as a means of water supply. Brisbane, pp. 3-7. 1895.

JANUARY 15, 19834 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 7

ages the scientific study of the natural laws that govern the occur-

rence and movement of this water. However, the problems of utiliza-

tion have furnished the chief urge for scientific study, and most of the

men who have made contributions to ground-water hydrology have

been close to the practical problems of ground-water development.

ORIGIN OF GROUND WATER®

From the dawn of history nearly to the present, the source of the

water that flows from the springs has constituted a puzzling prob-

lem that has been the subject of much speculation and controversy.

Prior to the latter part of the 17th century it was generally assumed

that the water discharged by the springs could not be derived from

the rain, first because the rainfall was believed to be inadequate in

quantity, and secondly, because the earth was believed to be too im-

pervious to permit penetration of the rain water far below the sur-

face. With these. two erroneous postulates lightly assumed, the

philosophers devoted their thought to devising ingenuous hypotheses

to account in some other way for the spring and stream water. Two

main hypotheses were developed: one to the effect that sea water is

conducted through subterranean channels below the mountains and

is then purified and raised to the springs; the other to the effect that

in the cold dark caverns under the mountains the subterranean at-

mosphere and perhaps the earth itself are condensed into the moisture

which feeds the springs.

The sea-water hypothesis gave rise to subsidiary hypotheses to ex-

plain how the sea water is freed from its salt and how it is elevated to

the altitude of the springs. The removal of the salt was ascribed to

processes of either distillation or filtration. The elevation of the water

was by different writers ascribed to processes of vaporization and

3 The following publications give interesting and valuable accounts of the historical

development of the theories on the origin of ground water:

Apams, F. D. The origin of springs and rivers—an historical review. Fennia 50:

No. 1, Helsingfors, Finland, 1928. See also abstract in Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 39: 149-

150. 1928; and note on Rainfall and Runoff in Science. 67: 500-501. 1928.

ALTHAUS, JuLIUS. Thespas of Europe. London, pp. 1-9. 1862.

Haas, Hippotyt. Quellenkunde. Leipzig, 1-10. 1895.

IMBEAUX, Ep. Essai d’hydro-géologie. Paris, pp. 16-18. 1930.

Ker~Hack, Konrap. Lehrbuch der Grundwasser und Quellenkunde. Berlin, pp.

74-85. 1912.

Macmr, Henri. Les Moyens de découvrir les eaux souterraines et de les utiliser.

Paris, pp. 1-21. 1912.

MartTEL, E. A. Nouveau traité des eaux souterraines. Paris, pp. 77-98. 1921.

PARAMELLE, L’AsBk. L’Art de découvrir les sources. 1856. Fourth ed. 1896, pp.

64-112.

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

subsequent condensation, to rock pressure, to suction of the wind, to

pressure exerted on the sea by the wind and waves, or later to capil-

lary action. One curious explanation was that, owing to the curvature

of the earth, the water in the middle of the ocean is actually at a

much higher altitude than the springs and hence furnishes the neces-

sary head.

The Greek philosophers.—We can well be sympathetic with the mis-

conceptions of the old Greek philosophers, who were pioneering in the

vast untrodden fields of thought. It appears to me that in some re-

spects they were not very far from the truth. The Greeks were familiar

with cavernous limestone terranes, and hence they conceived the

subterranean regions to have great open spaces with natural processes

comparable with those on the surface. The writings of Homer (about

1000 B.C.), Thales (about 650 B.C.), and Plato (427-347 B.C.) con-

tain passages which indicate that these ancient philosophers cor-

rectly believed that the spring water is derived from the ocean, but

erroneously postulated that this return flow occurs through sub-

terranean channels. Aristotle (884-822 B.C.) on the other hand, de-

veloped the hypothesis of subterranean condensation which was sug- ~

gested by the condensation of atmospheric water vapor. Quoting from

Adams?:

Aristotle said that the air surrounding the earth is turned into water by

the cold of the heavens and falls as rain. He goes on to say that it is unreason-

able for any one to refuse to admit that the air which penetrates and passes

into the crust of the earth also becomes transformed into water owing to

the cold which it encounters there. Within the earth’s crust it is condensed

in the form of moisture which gathers into drops that run together into little

trickling streams, so that the sources of the rivers as it were drip out of the

earth and unite on its surface into brooks and rivers. The rivers thus flow

from the mountains, because the mountains and high lands are suspended

over the lower country like a saturated sponge. It is on the mountains also

the chief rainfall occurs and the water coming out of the earth unites with

the rain water to produce rivers. The rainfall alone is, he states, quite insuf-

ficient to supply the rivers of the world with water. The ocean into which

the rivers run does not overflow because while some of the water is evapo-

rated, the rest of it changes back into air or into one of the other elements.

The Roman philosophers and Vitruvius—The Roman philosophers

in general followed the Greek ideas, and did not contribute much to

the Greek hypotheses except erroneous details. Seneca (3 B.C.—65

A.D. ?) accepted Aristotle’s condensation hypothesis, while Pliny

(23-79 A.D.) adopted the sea-water concept and attempted to ex-

plain how the water is elevated.

4 Op. cit., p. 4. From Meteorologia, Book I, 13.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 9

The theory now generally accepted that the ground water is for the

most part derived from rain and snow by infiltration from the surface,

was briefly but clearly stated by Marcus Vitruvius, who lived about

the time of Christ. Vitruvius was not a philosopher but an architect.

He produced a work on architecture in ten books, and in conformity

with the importance given by the Romans to water supplies, he de-

voted one of the 10 books to that subject. At the beginning of Book

8, as quoted from the English translation by Givilt,® he stated:

As it is the opinion of physiologists, philosophers, and priests that all

things proceed from water, I thought it necessary, as in the preceding seven

books rules are laid down for buildings, to describe in this the method of

finding water, its different properties according to the varied nature of

places, how it ought to be conducted, and in what manner it should be

judged of; inasmuch as it is of infinite importance for the purposes of life,

for pleasure, and for our daily use.

The mountains, he explained, receive a large amount of rain, which

they allow to percolate through the rock strata to their base, where,

issuing forth, it gives rise to streams.

The writers of the Dark Ages——During the Middle Ages, according

to Adams,° all the philosophers and interpreters of Holy Scripture,

from St. Jerome (340-420 A.D.) down, taught that the springs have

their origin in the ocean. They generally based this assumption on

passages in the Bible such as Ecclesiastes 1, 7: “All the rivers run into

the sea, yet the sea is not full; unto the place from whence the rivers

come thither they return again.’’ These writers stated that the sea

water escapes through holes in the bottom of the ocean, flows into

the bowels of the earth, and thence is elevated to the springs.

The early period of modern times—Bernard Palissy.—Beginning

with the middle of the 16th century numerous publications appeared

which contained discussions of ground water, some of them relating

primarily to this subject. Until near the close of the 17th century the

two old Greek hypotheses chiefly occupied the field, with many fan-

tastic adornments, although the infiltration theory was explained by

a few writers, especially in 1580 by Bernard Palissy’ (1509-1589),

French Huguenot, inventor of enameled pottery, and pioneer paleon-

tologist.

Palissy was reared in poverty and was not educated in Greek or

Latin. He began early to observe nature and he based his theories on

> GivitT, JOSEPH. Architecture, by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, Book 8: 177-200.

Translated from the Latin, 1860.

FOPaciisspps S09:

7 Pauissy, BERNARD. Discours admirable de la nature des eaux et fontaines tant

naturelles qu’artwficrelles. 1580.

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

his own observations. “I have had no other books,” he wrote, ‘‘than

Heaven and Earth, which are open to all.’”’ His discourse on water and

springs was written in French, whereas the philosophic treatises of

that period were generally in Latin. This discourse is in the form of a

fascinating dialogue between ‘“‘Theory”’ and ‘‘Practice.”’

‘“‘When for a long time,’’ says Practice, ‘‘I had closely considered the

cause of the sources of natural fountains and the place whence they might

proceed, at length I became plainly assured that they could proceed from

or be engendered by nothing but the rains.’’ Theory replies: ‘‘ After having

heard your opinion I am compelled to say that you are a great fool. Do you

think me so ignorant that I should put more faith in what you say, than in

so large a number of philosophers who tell us that all waters come from the

sea and return thither? There are none, even to the old men, who do not

hold this theory, and from all time we have believed it. It is a great presump-

tion in you to wish to make us believe a doctrine altogether new, as if you

were the cleverest philosopher.’’ To which Practice replies: ‘If I were not

well assured in my opinion, you would put me to great shame; but I am not

alarmed at your abuse or your fine language; for I am quite certain that I

shall win against you and against all those who are of your opinion, though

they be Aristotle and the best philosophers that ever lived; for I am quite

assured that my opinion is trustworthy.”’

Thus the argument is developed. Theory defends first the sea-

water and then the condensation hypothesis, while Practice, with

clear and valid arguments, shows the absurdities of these hypotheses,

and then presents simple but convincing evidence that the ground

water is derived from rain.

Palissy’s very sympathetic biographer, Henry Morley,® wrote in

1853 as follows of the reception that was given to ee s theory of

ground water:

“By his immediate hearers Palissy’s doctrine was accepted ; and a few men,

who read his books before they passed from obscure fame into unmerited

oblivion, made practical use of his suggestion. But by the body of his country-

men, in his own day, the character of Palissy as a philosopher was not ap-

preciated. He was one or two—now and then even three—centuries in ad-

vance of his own time, so that his own time had not ears to hear him with.

Moreover, France was busy upon other matters, and had no leisure to think

for half a minute about springs of water while there prevailed a more en-

grossing interest in pools of blood.”’

Two great men of the 17th century who rejected or ignored the

teachings of Palissy were the German astronomer Johann Kepler

(1571-1630) and the French philosopher René Descartes (1596—

1650). The hypothesis that the earth functions somewhat like an

animal, or indeed that it is a living being, became current early in the

8 Moruey, Henry. The Life of Bernard Palissy of Saintes. 2 vols., Boston, 1853.

The quotation and translation of dialogue are in 2: 124. 125.

JANUARY 15, 19834 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 11

17th century and had adherents as late as the 19th century. Kepler

adopted this hypothesis and expressed the opinion that the earth, like

a huge animal, takes in the water of the ocean, digests and assimi-

lates it, and discharges the products of these physiological processes

through springs. Descartes taught that the sea water finds its way

into the depths of the earth through underground channels and is

there vaporized by the heat of the earth’s interior; furthermore that

the vapor rises through caverns, is condensed at higher levels, and

thus supplies the springs.°

The age of Perrault, Mariotté, and Halley—A new epoch in the

history of hydrology began in the latter part of the 17th century

through the work of Pierre Perrault (1608-1680) and Edmé Mariotté

(1620-1684) and other French physicists, and of the English as-

tronomer Edmund Halley (1656-1742). These men put hydrology for

the first time on a quantitative basis. Perrault made measurements

of the rainfall during three years; and he roughly estimated the area

of the drainage basin of the Seine River above a point in Burgundy

and of the run-off from this same basin. Thus he computed that the

quantity of water that fell on the basin as rain or snow was about

six times the quantity discharged by the river. Crude as was his work,

he nevertheless demonstrated the fallacy of the age-old assumption

of the inadequacy of the rainfall to account for the discharge of

springs and streams. Mariotté computed the discharge of the Seine

at Paris by measuring its width, depth, and velocity at approximately

its mean stage, making the velocity measurements by the float

method. He essentially verified Perrault’s results. About the same

time Halley made crude tests of evaporation, and demonstrated that

the evaporation from the sea is sufficient to account for all the water

supplied to the springs and streams, thus removing the need for

Plato’s Tartaros or any other mysterious subterranean channel to

conduct the water from the ocean to the springs.

The relative credit that should be given to Perrault and Mariotté

has been a question of considerable disagreement. A number of

writers have stated that Perrault opposed the infiltration theory.

Fortunately we have in the U. S. Geological Survey library a copy of

the 1678 edition of his treatise on the origin of springs," first published

in 1674. If I read this text correctly Perrault did not argue against the

pe Retunacn, op. cit., pp. 76, 77; MARTEL, op. cit., p. 78; PARAMELLE, op. cit.,

Pat De L’origine des fontaines, Paris, 1678. The name of the author does not appear

in this volume but it is evidently Perrault’s treatise. See also the previously cited note

by Adams in Science, 67: 500-501. 1928.

12. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

infiltration theory, but rather explained that, whereas Vitruvius and

Palissy believed that ground-water recharge occurs chiefly from rain ~

and snow on the mountains, he himself held that the rain feeds the

streams directly, and that the seepage from the streams on the lower

slopes supplies the ground water, which eventually returns to the sur-

face in the lowlands.

Mariotté, who discovered Mariotté’s law of gases, also known as

Boyle’s law, probably deserves more than any other man the dis-

tinction of being regarded as the founder of ground-water hydrology,

perhaps I should say of the entire science of hydrology. In his publica-

tions, which appeared after his death in 1684, he defended vigorously

the infiltration theory and created much of the modern thought on

the subject." According to the brief digest of his works by Keilhack,”

he maintained that the water derived from rain and snow penetrates

into the pores of the earth and accumulates in wells; that this water

percolates downward till it reaches impermeable rock and thence

percolates laterally; and that it is sufficient in quantity to supply the

springs. He demonstrated that the rain water penetrates into the

earth, and used for this purpose the cellar of the Paris Observatory,

the percolation through the cover of which compared with the amount

of rainfall. He also showed that the flow of springs increases in rainy

weather and diminishes in times of drought, and explained that the

more constant springs are supplied from larger underground reser-

VoIrs.

The ground-water literature near the close of the 17th century,

throughout the 18th century, and in the early part of the 19th cen-

tury, was largely devoted to the defense of the old hypotheses as

against the infiltration theory. Nevertheless, the infiltration theory

gradually but irresistibly gained ground and eventually became al-

most universally accepted among scientists, while the old hypotheses -

became more and more shadowy until they lurked only in obscure

haunts like emaciated ghosts.

Modern defenders of the condensation hypothesis.—A rather comical

revival of the condensation hypothesis of Aristotle was presented in

1877 by the German geologist Volger! before a meeting of the Society

11 Mariotr&, Epm&. T'raites du mouvement des eaux et des autres corps fluides,

1686. According to Keilhack, the complete works of Mariotté were published in

Leyden in 1717.

12 KEILHACK, op. cit., pp. 80, 81.

13 VoLcER, Orro. Die wissenschaftliche Losung der Wasser—insbesondere der quel-

lenfrage, mit Rricksicht auf die Versorgung der Stddte. Ver. Deutscher Ing. Zeitschr.,

Berlin. 21: 482-502. 1877.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 13

of German Engineers, in which he took the extreme attitude that no

ground water is derived from rain. Some of his statements were ap-

proximately as follows:

No ground water is derived from rain water. No scientific doctrine is more

unfounded and more fallacious than the doctrine in regard to the origin of

spring water from rain water. ... Even the strongest rain wets the earth

only superficially, penetrates only a little into the uppermost crust and re-

mains suspended therein. ... After eight days of the most severe rainy

weather the ground at the depth of one-half meter will not show the slightest

trace of penetration by water. . . . If the ground were permeable to water, in

the manner indicated by the prevalent doctrine in regard to springs, could

we see before our eyes a river flow from the heights of the mountains to the

sea? Even if the river were ever so richly supplied with water, would it not

in its course have to lose its water if the water percolated into the ground?

Would not every sea have to sink beneath the surface? Would not the same

have to happen to the ocean in spite of its great volume of water? ... The

sea of air extends into the earth to unknown depths, perhaps to the center.

The atmosphere, that is, the globe of the gaseous constituent of the aggre-

gate earth, consists therefore not alone of the sea of air that lies above the

land and water surfaces. The latter is rather only a slight appendage of the

real atmosphere, the vapor-globe, which exists in the ground and in the whole

earth. ... One can say, in general, that all the rocks which constitute the

earth, as far as we know them, take up a larger volume of air than their

own bulk, so that the ground on which we stand thereby contains so much

air that it is just as though the ground were entirely absent and the whole

space which it occupies were filled with air.

This paper contained so many exaggerated and erroneous state-

ments that it is surprising that it should have received much atten-

tion. On the contrary, however, it gave rise to numerous papers—

some of them supporting the condensation theory, some opposing it,

and some taking an intermediate attitude. Although this revived con-

densation theory never gained much support, it has persisted to the

present. In 1921, Ototzky,“ the well-known Russian hydrologist,

stated that the theory of infiltration has no solid scientific basis, and

that infiltration of atmospheric precipitation occurs to a considerable

depth only in exceptional circumstances and in restricted areas. He

mentioned condensation as an important factor in ground-water re-

charge.

The scientific basis of the infiltration theory.—lIn spite of these ap-

parent flarebacks, the infiltration theory has become firmly estab-

lished. The work done in the United States alone has, it seems to me,

conclusively demonstrated that the ground water is derived mainly

from rain and snow. The demonstration consists of abundant care-

44 OrorzKy, P. Underground water and meteorological factors. Roy. Meteorologi-

cal Soc. Quart. Jour., pp. 47-54, 1921. (Translated from the French by L. D. Sawyer.)

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

fully analyzed and substantiated data as to the seepage losses from

streams, the downward penetration of the rain and snow water

through the soil and subsoil, the rise of the water table in response to

the flow of influent streams and in response to rainfall and melting

snow, the slope of the water table from the demonstrated intake

areas to the areas of ground-water discharge, the relation of the quan-

tity of ground-water discharge in any area to the mean annual pre-

cipitation and to the permeability of the intake materials, and the

fluctuation of discharge with fluctuations in precipitation.

The evidence that has been least conclusive is that regarding rain-

fall penetration, whether derived from lysimeter tests or from mois-

ture determinations of soil borings. Negative conclusions regarding

rainfall penetration have been reached, partly because inadequate

methods were used and partly because it was not fully appreciated

that, in spite of many negative results, there may be great recharge in

certain localities of permeable material by confluence of rain water in

periods of exceptionally heavy precipitation. We now have evidence

that soil moisture may be moving downward to the water table, in

large aggregate amounts, without any of it dripping into an ordinary

lysimeter and without a large increase at any time in the moisture

content of the material below the “root zone.’’ A group of investiga-

tors in the U. 8. Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, the U. 8. Geo-

logical Survey, and the California Division of Water Resources are

now engaged in critical studies of rainfall penetration, and are, I

believe, placing this subject on a sounder scientific basis than it has

hitherto had. |

Before leaving the subject of the origin of the ground water, refer-

ence should be made to the theory of juvenile water, which was de-

veloped by Edward Suess,” and the theory of connate water, which

in this country was developed chiefly by Alfred C. Lane. These —

theories supplement rather than conflict with the infiltration theory,

and they can not properly be regarded as having any real relation to

the old condensation and sea-water hypotheses.

THE RISE OF GEOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION

TO GROUND WATER

Geology affords the framework on which ground-water hydrology

is built; more accurately, it describes the rock formations that make

up the great and intricate systems of natural waterworks, the func-

16 Sunss, Epwarp. Uber heisse Quellen. Gesell. deutsch. Naturf. und Aertze

Vortr. pp. 1838-150. 1902.

JANUARY 15, 1984 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 15

tioning of which forms the essential part of the subject of ground-

water hydrology. Therefore, although earnest attempts were made

by Vitruvius and others to give useful information as to the water-

bearing properties of different rocks, the subject of ground-water

hydrology could not be far developed until the fundamental princi-

ples of geology were established near the close of the 18th century.

One of the first men to apply geology, in the modern sense, to the

problems of ground water was William Smith’ (1769-1839), who has

been called the Father of English Geology. Although Smith was

deeply interested in geology for its own sake, he was even more inter-

ested in the fact that as a civil engineer he was able to apply his

knowledge of the new science to engineering problems and to the de-

velopment of mineral and water resources. Although he never wrote

a treatise on any phase of the subject of ground water, he was greatly

interested in the application of geology to ground-water problems.

His notes show that he was interested in wells and springs, not only

because they furnished clues as to the stratigraphy and structure, but

also because of their value in determining the ground-water condi-

tions.

Of special interest is Smith’s development of a water supply for

Scarborough, described in a paper published in 1827, because of its

thoroughly modern attitude in regard to the conservation of ground

water. Obtaining his clues from an old flowing well, he located a water-

bearing sandstone, worked out its boundaries and structure, esti-

mated its yield per foot of drawdown, and then built a subsurface

dam whereby the water was impounded in the sandstone during the

wet winter season and withdrawn through a pipe by gravity in the

summer. In regard to this project Smith wrote with much enthusiasm:

This reservoir, wholly unseen, made at my suggestion in the hills at a

trifling expense, to pen up in the rocks 5,000 hogsheads of water, is by far

the most curious and perhaps the most useful practical hint hitherto deduced

from Geology. So far, I think I was never in my life more usefully employed.

GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY IN EUROPE IN THE 19TH CENTURY

In the first half of the 19th century, the French engineers, geolo-

gists, and drillers took the lead in the study of ground water, largely

because there was intense interest in the artesian conditions and the

great activity in drilling artesian wells during that period in France.

About the middle of the century there appeared a number of publica-

tions, chiefly in France, based on extensive research in different

16 SHEPPARD, THomas. William Smith, his maps and memoirs, Hull, 1920.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 24, No. 1

phases of the subject of ground water, and it should perhaps be con-

sidered that ground-water hydrology, as a branch of science, had its

beginning at this time. I refer especially to the work of the following

men: The engineer Eugéne Belgrand (1810-1878), who in the first of

his many works, published in 1846, made the fundamental distinc-

tion between permeable and impermeable formations as applied to

eround water;!’ the German chemist Karl Gustav Bischof (1792-—

1870), the results of whose work on ground water are given in his

text-book of chemical and physical geology published about 1847;

Jules Dupuit!® (1804-1866), whose work?’ on the movement of ground

water was published in 1848; the Abbé Paramelle?° (1790-1875),

whose treatise on ground water was published in 1856; Jean Dumas”

(1800-1884 ?), whose ‘‘La science des fontaines” was published in

1857; the hydraulic engineer Henri Darcy" (1803-1858), often called

the founder of the science of hydrology, the first results of whose ex-

periments on the laws of flow of ground water were published in 1856

in a work with the modest title ‘Les fontaines publiques de la ville de

Dijon’’; and Henri Bazin, who was associated with Darcy but active

into the present century.

Two notable workers in ground water.in a little tater period were

the French geologist Gabriel Auguste Daubrée (1814-1896), and the

German hydrologist Adolph Thiem (1836-1908). Daubrée made a

large and valuable contribution to the subject of the relation of

geologic structure to the occurrence and movement of ground water.

His principal results” were published in three large volumes in 1887.

Thiem was the pioneer of intensive ground-water work in Germany.

He introduced field methods for making tests of the flow of ground

water and applied the laws of flow in developing water supplies. Un-

der his influence Germany became the leading country in supplying

17 BELGRAND, EuGrENre. Etude hydrologique de la partie supérieure du Basin de la

Seine, 1846. For a list of Belgrand’s principal publications, from 1846 to 1882, see

MaGEr, op. cit., pp. 18, 14. For an estimate of his work see also Pocuxrt, LEON.

Htudes sur les sources. 1: 83-5. 1905.

18 For an estimate of the work of Dupuit and Darcy see KnLtupr, HERMANN. Ge-

spannte Wasser. Halle, p. 9. 1928.

19 DupuitT, JULES. Htudes theoriques et pratiques sur le mouvement des eaux cour-

antes, Paris, 1848; also Traité de la conduite et de la distribution des eauz, Paris, 1854.

20 For sketch of Paramelle’s life and estimate of his work see MaGER, op. cit., pp.

9-13.

21 For estimate of Dumas’ work see MarTEL, op. cit., p. 79; KELLER, op. cit., p. 9.

22 DAUBREE, A. Les eaux souterraines a l’ époque erielic et aux epochues anciennes,

3 vols., Paris, 1887. For estimates of Daubrée’s work see Z1TTE.L, K. A., Geschichte

der Geologie und Palaontologie bis Ende des 19 Jahrhunderts, p. 304, 1899. (English

translation by M. M. Ogilvie-Gordon, pp. 200-202, 1901. PocueErt, Of Glky 10s 235

MAGER, op. cit., pp. 18-20.

JANUARY 15, 19384 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY Ly

the cities with ground water.” The results of his work appeared in a

number of papers, the first in 1870.2 Mention should also be made of

the Italian hydrologist, D. Spataro.”°

GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES

IN THE 19TH CENTURY

In the United States not much systematic ground-water work was

done before 1873. In 1856, George G. Shumard made a brief report on

artesian prospects on the Llano Estacado for the Pacific Railway sur-

vey, which was not published until 1892. In 1857, the New Jersey

Geological Survey published the ‘‘Geology of the county of Cape

May,” by George H. Cook, which included a brief discussion of the

artesian conditions. Later reports of the New Jersey Geological Sur-

vey contain considerable information on the artesian waters of the

State by Lewis Woolman and others. In 1859, W. W. Mather pub-

lished a report on certain artesian wells in Ohio. Some early work on

artesian conditions was also done at New Orleans, Charleston, 8. C.,

and in other parts of the country. From 1873 to 1879, in connection

with the Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Thomas C. Chamberlin

made a thorough study of artesian conditions in Wisconsin. His

principal report on the artesian wells was published by the State sur-

vey in 1877; his well-known paper, ‘“‘The requisite and qualifying con-

ditions of artesian flow,’ was published by the U. 8. Geological Sur-

vey in 1885.

In 1881, C. A. White and Samuel Aughey were appointed by the

Secretary of Agriculture as a geological commission to investigate the

artesian prospects of a portion of the Great Plains. Their brief re-

port, published in 1882, contains only meager data and very general

conclusions.

On March 27, 1890, Major J. W. Powell,* Director of the United

States Geological Survey, presented before the Committee on Irriga-

tion of the House of Representatives a remarkably interesting and in-

formative statement on the artesian conditions and prospects in the

arid regions of the United States. This statements shows that con-

siderable ground-water work had already been done and that some

3 For estimate of Thiem’s work see KELLAR, op. cit., pp. 9, 10.

24 THIEM, ApoLpH. Uber die Ergiebigkeit artesische Bohrlécher, Schachtbrunnen,

usw., 1870. For a list of some of Thiem’s later publications see SLicHTER, C. S.

Theoretical investigations of the motion of ground water. U.S. Geol. Survey Nineteenth

Ann. Rept., pt. 2, p. 384, 1898.

2? SpaTaRO, D. Storia dell’acqua e Idrografia sotterranea d’Italia, Milan, 1891.

eS a iar: Major J. W. U.S. Geol. Survey Eleventh Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 260-

; IS9L.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

of the main features of the ground-water conditions of the country

were already understood. Major Powell’s summary shows a master-

ful grasp of the situation and his conclusions have stood the test of

time.

On April 4, 1890, an act was approved which authorized the De-

partment of Agriculture to make investigations to determine the

location for artesian wells west of the 97th meridian and east of the

Rocky Mountains. Colonel Edwin 8. Nettleton, irrigation engineer

of the Department of Interior, was placed in charge of the field work,

Robert Hay was appointed chief field geologist, and a number of

other leading geologists were employed. As Congress directed that a

report must be made immediately after July 1, only 60 days were al-

lowed for making the investigation, and on August 20, 1890, the

Secretary of Agriculture transmitted a voluminous report which con-

tains much loosely-assembled information on the artesian conditions

of the extensive region covered, and numerous records of head and

discharge that have acquired peculiar value in showing the approxi-

mate original artesian conditions. With subsequent appropriations

and extensions of time, the investigation was continued and the re-

sults were published in 1891 and 1892 in several volumes that contain

a large amount of information. One of the geologists of this Survey

was Robert T. Hill, who, I believe, has the distinction of being the

first to recognize, in his report published in 1892, the importance of

the water in the valley fill.

About this time great interest developed in ground water, not only

in the arid regions but also in the more humid sections of the country,

and many ground-water investigations were undertaken, chiefly by

the United States Geological Survey. Thus in the last decade of the

19th century a group of eminent American geologists directed their

attention to ground water and published comprehensive and thor-

oughly sound areal reports on the subject. Let us call the roll of these

geologists in the order in which their first publications on ground

water appeared?’: Robert T. Hill, W J McGee, Israel C. Russell,

Nelson H. Darton, Robert Hay, Grove K. Gilbert, Frank Leverett,

Warren Upham, George H. Eldridge, Wiliam H. Norton, T. Way-

land Vaughn, Edward Orton, 8. W. McCallie, and Willard D. John-

son. The largest part in this early work was taken by Darton. Near

the close of the century notable work was also done on the hydrologic

27 For references to the first and subsequent publications on ground water by these

geologists, see NicHois, J. M. Geologie literature of North America 1785-1918, Pt. 1,

Bibliography. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 746: 1923.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 19

phases of the subject of ground water by three eminent American in-

vestigators: Allen Hazen,?* Franklin H. King,”® and Charles S.

Slichter.*°

GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY IN THE 20TH CENTURY

From the beginning of the 20th century to the present time there

has been increased activity in the study of ground water, with more

workers than in any earlier period, and consequently a rapidly in-

creasing literature and a differentiation of the subject along a num-

ber of specialized lines. This activity may to some extent be judged by

the considerable number of comprehensive treatises that have ap-

peared on the subject, most of them the products of many years of

ground-water investigation by the authors. I do not feel qualified to

select the leaders in this recent period, but I will mention a few repre-

sentative workers, all of whom made substantial contributions.

Among the French my attention has been called especially to the -

work of the following men: Léon Pochet, Edmond Maillet, F.

Diénert, Louis Dollé, Edouard Martel, and Edouard Imbeaux. Both

Pochet*! and Maillet®? published treatises in 1905 on the hydraulics

of ground water. Martel has studied especially the occurrence and

movement of water in cavernous limestone, and has also published

a treatise, already cited, on the general subject of ground water. Im-

beaux since 1886 has published extensively on the subject of ground

water, including a large recent work on “‘hydrogeology,’’ already

cited. Dr. Imbeaux has the distinction of being the Chairman of the

Commission on Underground Waters in the Association of Scientific

Hydrology of the International Union of Geodetics and Geophysics.

Among the ground-water hydrologists of Germany I may mention,

in alphabetical order E. Ebermayer, A. Grund, A. Hertzberg, K.

Keilhack, H. Keller, W. Koehne, O. Luegar, E. Prinz, L. Reuter, M.

Rother, W. Salmon, A. Steuer, G. Thiem, and R. Weyrauch. These

and other German hydrologists have produced a large and valuable

28 Annual Reports of Mass. State Board of Health, 1892 and 1893.

29 Kine, FRANKLIN H. Observations and experiments on the fluctuations in the level

and rate of movement of ground water on the Wis. Agri. Exper. farm. U.S. Weather

Bur. Bull. 5: 1892. Principles and conditions of the movements of ground water. U.S.

Geol. Survey 19th Ann. Rept. Pt. 2, pp. 59-294. 1899.

30 SLICHTER, CHARLES S. Theoretical investigation of the motion of ground water.

U.S. Geol. Survey 19th Ann. Rept. Pt. 2, pp. 295-384. 1899.

31 PocuEet, Lion. LHtudes sur les sources. Hydraulique des nappes aquiféres et des

sources et applications pratiques, 2 vols., Paris, 1905.

82 MarILLeT, Epmonp. Essais d’hydraulique souterraine et fluviale, Paris, 1905.

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

literature on the subject. Among the outstanding productions are the

general treatises by Prinz,*® Keilhack,** and Koehne.*

I am not familiar with the literature of Italy, but the high rank of

that country in ground-water work can in some degree bejudged by the

fact that a bibliography prepared by Michele Gortani* lists about one

thousand publications on the ground-water hydrology of Italy be-

tween 1870 and 19238. Outstanding names are perhaps those of G.

Cuppari and M. Canavari.

Much valuable work has also been done in other European coun-

tries. I may mention in Russia, P. Ototzky and Alexander Lebedief ;

in Austria, Hans Hofer-Heimhalt,?’ P. Forchheimer, O. Smreker, U.

Huber, and Charles Terzaghi; in Holland, Eugéne Dubois, J. Pen-

nink, and J. Versluys; in Belgium, René D’Andrimont; in Switzer-

land, Albert Heim, T. Hug, and Arnold Engler; in Sweden, J. Richert;

in Denmark, Hilmar Odum; and in Spain, Bartotomii Darder Pericas,

who recently published a treatise on investigations of ground water.

The British hydrologists have been active in making areal ground-

water surveys and in developing ground-water supplies but have per-

haps contributed less notably to the science of ground-water hy-

drology. Outstanding names in this field are those of Horace B. Wood-

ward®® and William Whittaker, author of numerous areal ground-

water reports for the Geological Survey of Great Britain. Much

ground-water work has been done in Australia, India, and other parts

of the British Empire; also in other parts of Asia and Africa, in the

Latin American countries, and in the uttermost parts of the earth.

Most of this work has, of course, been descriptive, but some critical

investigations have been made, especially in India. |

Beginning with the 20th century and extending to the present time,

a large amount of ground-water work has been in progress in this

country. Most of it has been done by the staff of the United States

Geological Survey, but much has also been contributed by many

other workers, especially in California. Since 1900 the Geological

Survey has published more than 300 papers, in about 190 volumes,

33 Prinz, E. Handbuch der Hydrologie. Berlin, 1st ed. 1919, 2nd ed. 1923.

Contains bibliography which lists the principal publications of the hydrologists men-

tioned and of other European hydrologists.

34 KeILHACK, K. Op. cit., Ist ed. 1912, 2nd ed. 1917, 3rd in preparation.

3 KonHNE, W. Grundwasserkunde. Stuttgard, 1928.

36 GorTANI, MicHeue. Saggio bibliografico dell’idrologia sotteranea d'Italia dal

1870 al 1923. Giornale di Geologia Pratica, 19: 1924. Contains also introduction

concerning Italian ground-water work.

37 Grundwasser und Quellen, Braunschweig, 1912; 2nd ed., 1920.

38 WoopWARD, Horace B. The geology of water supply. London, 1910.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 21

that relate primarily to ground water. These publications are largely

descriptive and areal, but altogether they unquestionably make a

large contribution to the science of ground-water hydrology.*® To

Walter C. Mendenhall, I believe, belongs the chief credit for begin-

ning systematic quantitative investigation, which has become char-

acteristic of our work in this country.

DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF THE SCIENCE

Investigations of artesian principles—Let us now make a rapid

survey of the development of some of the different branches of ground-

water hydrology. Artesian wells have been in existence since ancient

times, and were of great interest not only because of the spectacular

phenomenon of natural overflow but also because of the wholesome

water which they furnished at a time when most water supplies were

badly polluted. According to Keilhack, the Egyptian oases were sup-

plied by numerous artesian wells as early as 2,000 B.C.; and Keilhack,

like some of the other authorities, believes that Moses learned the art

of well drilling from the Egyptians. The study of artesian water natu-

rally came next in historical development to that of the origin of

springs. Even before the emergence of geology, the basic principles

of artesian pressure were understood. Pioneers in the development

of the hydrostatic theory of artesian pressure were the Italian as-

tronomer and geographer Giovanni Cassini (1625-1712), and the

Italian physician Bernardini Ramazzini, whose best-known publica-

tion appeared in 1691. In the first half of the 19th century, the

French were active, not only in drilling artesian wells and improving

drilling methods, but also in developing the principles of artesian

pressure and in making geologic applications of them in locating

artesian water. During this period the hydrostatic theory became

well established.

Chamberlin’s paper published in 1885 is a clear, accurate, and criti-

cal statement of the general subject of artesian conditions, based

largely on his own field studies. Very modestly he stated that it was

not an exhaustive exposition of the subject and did not contain much

that was original. He did his work so well, however, that the subse-

quent prevailing attitude, at least in this country, was one of compla-

cent assumption that the principles of the subject were completely

39 See Water-Supply Paper 427 for U. S. Geological Survey publications relating

to ground water up to 1918, and the Survey’s list of publications for later papers. Pub-

lications on ground water since 1928 are listed in the semi-annual volumes of Annotated

bibliography of economic geology (prepared under the auspices of the National Re-

search Council)

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

mastered. This attitude was challenged by M. L. Fuller in 1908 in

his paper, “Summary of the controlling factors of artesian flows.’’*°

We now recognize that the hydrology of artesian water is a compli-

cated subject that offers a large field for further investigation. Until

recently attention has been directed mainly toward the static or

structural conditions, with neglect of the hydraulics or dynamics of

artesian water, although Chamberlin recognized what we may per-

haps call the dynamic principle, and, indeed, considered that his

original contribution lay in the recognition of this principle.

Rock pressure was assumed by Thales about 650 B.C., and later

by Pliny, as the agency for elevating the sea water to the levels of the

springs. In modern times rock pressure has been suggested by differ-

ent investigators as a cause of artesian head, and there has been un-

profitable argument between the champions of this theory and the de-

fenders of the orthodox hydrostatic theory. Recent critical interpreta-

tion of the behavior of wells has led us to recognize that the artesian

water supports a part of the load of the overlying rocks and that many

of the water-bearing formations have measurable elasticity ; however,

this concept of rock pressure supplements the hydrostatic theory

without displacing it.”

Development of the principles relating to water tables and pressure-

undicating surfaces——The concepts of the zone of saturation and of

the water table, as the upper, free-water surface of that zone, de-

veloped later than the concept of the artesian basin. In a sense the

early scientific thought on ground water was deficient with respect to

the third dimension. It was generally considered that the water from

the surface percolates downward till it reaches an impermeable bed

and then percolates laterally over the upper surface of that bed to its

outcrop. This concept was amplified by the recognition of artesian

structures in which the water becomes confined between two im-

permeable beds. More recently the concept has been developed, step

by step, of a zone of saturation, with large storage capacity, perform-

ing the functions both of a huge reservoir and of a very intricate sys-

tem of conduits.

The simple concept of the water table has developed rather tardily,

although a good contour map of the water table was published by

Gustave Dumont” in 1856. Gradually we are coming to recognize the

40 FULLER, M.L. U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 319: 1908.

41 MrinzER, O. E. Compressibility and elasticity of artesian aquifers. Econ. Geol.

23: 263-291. 1928.

42 Dumont, Gustave. Les eaux alimentaires de la ville de Liége, 1856.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 23

significance of the form of the water table, with respect to intake,

movement, and discharge of the ground water, with the resulting

sanitary applications; and of its fluctuations in response to devious

processes of accretion and withdrawal of the ground water. We now

recognize that there may be two or more separate zones of satura-

tion above one another, each with a normal water table, and that

where an impermeable body occurs between a zone of saturation and

an overlying zone of aeration there can be no water table or anything

that functions like a water table.

Gradually we are gaining a better concept of the zone of saturation

itself, recognizing that it may include diverse geologic formations,

with all of the intricate stratigraphy and structure that the geologist

recognizes and much more that is beyond the reach of the present

methods of geology but may nevertheless produce pronounced effects

on the behavior of the water. We now recognize that as a result of the

rock structure the water in the zone of saturation 1s everywhere under

a pressure gradient, which is not a simple linear affair, as in ordinary

hydraulics, but is three-dimensional, and that the ground water is

everywhere moving in the direction of the gradient, chiefly along the

strata, either up or down the dip, but also upward or downward

across the strata.

The concept of the pressure-indicating surface, or piezometric sur-

face, has been recognized for a considerable time, and contour maps

of such surfaces have been made for several decades. Recently we

have come to recognize more clearly that these surfaces are function-

ally different from the water table, and that for any zone of satura-

tion, with its single water table, there may be a series of piezometric

surfaces each representing a different ground-water horizon. The

French have distinguished between the niveau des eaux (water table)

and the niveau piezometric; while the Germans have used the term

Grundwasserspiegel (ground-water mirror) to designate the water

table, and have used for the other concept the French term Piezo-

metrisches Niveau, or some German term such as Wasserdruck-

schicht. |

As in most other fields of ground-water hydrology, the foundations

in this field have been laid by the European investigators.*® Appar-

ently, however, the United States has now taken the lead in this line

43 VeatcH, A. C. Fluctuations of the water level in wells, with special reference to

Long Island, N. Y. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 155. 1906. This paper

gives much information and many references relating to the developments of parts of

this subject prior to 1906.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

of investigation. The automatic water-stage recorder is coming to be

our principal instrument of precision in ground-water work. It

promises to make ground-water hydrology a more exact science and

may prove to be of value in the study of geologic structure.

Investigations of the relation between fresh and salt water.—The law

of equilibrium between sea water and fresh ground water under non-

artesian conditions was discovered by the Dutch engineer, Badon

Ghyben, and was announced by him in a paper in the Dutch language

in 1887. It seems to have been independently rediscovered about 1900

by Herzberg, of Berlin. This important subject has been further de-

veloped by a number of Dutch, Belgian, and German investigators al-

ready cited. The principles produced by the European workers were

introduced into American ground-water work by Walter E. Spear and

John S. Brown, and have been effectively applied in the Coastal

Plains of the United States proper and in the Hawaiian Islands, under

both artesian and non-artesian conditions.

Investigations of the movement of ground water.’—About 1843 J.

Poiseuille, in connection with his studies of the circulation of the

blood, discovered the law of flow through capillary tubes—namely,

that the rate of flow is proportional to the hydraulic gradient. In 1856,

Darcy verified this law and demonstrated its application to water

percolating through sand. In the 75 years since Darcy’s results were

published, many laboratory investigations of various phases of the

problem of the flow of liquids and gases through permeable materials

have been made.“ About 1899 King reinvestigated the whole sub-

ject; a little later Slichter tested Darcy’s law with lower hydraulic

gradients than had previously been used, in order to approximate

natural conditions more closely; and in 1923, in the hydrologic labora-

tory of the Geological Survey, tests were made under hydraulic

gradients as low as 5 feet to the mile.‘” The results of the work subse-

quent to that of Poiseuille and Darcy support essentially the correct-

ness of the law known as Darcy’s law.

44 SpmaR, WALTER E. Report on water supply from Long Island sources. Bd. of

New York City Water Supply. 1: 149-157. 1912.

Brown, Joun 8. A study of coastal ground water, with special reference to Con-

necticut. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 537: 1925. Contains bibliography

and digest of American and foreign literature on coastal ground water.

45 For more detailed statement of the development of this subject, with numerous

references to publications, see Mninzer, O. E. Methods of estimating ground-water

supplies. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 638: 126-140. 1931.

46 For review of this subject to close of 19th century by King and bibliography by

Slichter see U. 8S. Geol. Survey, Nineteenth Ann. Rept. Pt. 2.

47 Srrarns, Norau D. Laboratory tests on physical properties of water-bearing ma-

terials. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 596: 152-159. 1927.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 25

The pioneer in developing field methods for measuring the flow of

ground water was Adolph Thiem, whose first paper on the subject was

published in 1879. His method was to dig two test wells approximately

in line with the direction of the movement of the ground water as de-

termined from the slope of the water table, then dose the upper well

with salt and at suitable intervals take samples from the lower well

which he tested for their chloride content. A notable advance was

made by Slichter in 1901 when he devised the electrolytic method.

In 1906 Giinther Thiem,*® son of Adolph Thiem, published his

paper describing the field method for determining permeability and

rate of flow from a pumping test and the resultant drawdown in ob-

servation wells. This method is now used in the United States and is

being further investigated and developed by the Geological Survey.*°

More recently we have developed in this country, chiefly through the

work of David G. Thompson,’ a rating-curve method, by which an

empirical relation is established between head and inflow, in areas in

which ground water is extensively used.

Dye tests were made by Doctor Dionis, in France, in 1882, during

an epidemic of typhoid fever, and since that time frequent use has

been made of dyes, chiefly in sanitary investigations, to trace under-

ground streams, such as occur in limestone.*! In 1921 dye was used by

Charles W. Stiles? and his associates in connection with an investiga-

tion at Fort Caswell, N. C., which involved a minute 3-dimensional

survey of the direction and rate of movement of the ground water in

a sand formation.

Molecular physics vn relation to ground-water hydrology.**—The two

principal forces that control the water in the rocks are gravity and

molecular attraction. Many rocks have only very small interstices,

and in these the molecular forces become effective. Indeed, the influ-

48 ToimnmM, GUNTHER. Hydrologische Methoden, Leipzig, 1906.

49 WENZEL, L. K. Recent investigations of Thiem’s method for determining permea-

bility of water-bearing materials. Amer. Geophysical Union Trans., pp. 313-317. 1932.

50 THompsON, Davip G. Ground-water supplies of the Atlantic City region. N. J.

Dept. of Conservation and Development Bull. 30: 35-88. 1928.

5t For historical development and bibliography of this subject see Doun, R. B.

Use of fluorescein in the study of underground waters. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply

Paper 160: 73-85. 1906.

52 Stites, C. W., Crouurst, H. R., THompson, G. E., and Strarns, N. D. Fz-

perimental bacterial and chemical pollution of wells via ground water, with a report on the

geology and ground-water hydrology of the experimental area at Fort Caswell, N.C. U.S.

Pub. Health Service Hygenic Lab. Bull. 147: 1927.

53 For more detailed statement of the development of this subject, with numerous

references, see Mrrnzer, O. E. The occurrence of ground water in the United States,

with a discussion of principles. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 489: 2-101.

1923.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 24, No. 1

ence of molecular attraction makes the hoch aula of ground water a

quite distinctive subject.

Investigations of capillarity in water-bearing materials were made

about 250 years ago by Perrault, who established the limits of capil-

larity in sand and showed that water absorbed by capillarity can

never form accumulations of free water at higher levels. Since Per-

rault’s time the occurrence and movement of water under molecular

forces in soils and other fine-grained materials have been studied by

many investigators in different countries and for a variety of pur-

poses. Among the distinguished early investigators in this field in the

United States, in the order in which their first important publications

appeared, are Eugene W. Hilgard, 1860; Franklin H. King, 1892; Al-

len Hazen, 1893; and Lyman J. Briggs, 1897. Many other investiga-

tors in this field in both the United States and Europe might be men-

tioned, most of them belonging to the present century. Thus the re-

sults of much critical investigation have become available for the uses

of hydrology. In the hydrologic laboratory of the United States Geo-

logical Survey we are now proceeding with the comprehensive project

of determining the mechanical composition, porosity, moisture equiv-

alent, and permeability of a group of samples from every water-bear-

ing formation in the United States that is amenable to laboratory

methods.

In our quantitative studies of intake, discharge, and safe yield of

ground water, we are vitally concerned with the mechanical composi-

tion and porosity of water-bearing materials, the capillary fringe, the

capillary potential and the laws of capillary movement of water, the

specific retention, the specific yield and other varieties of effective

porosity, and the moisture equivalent, wilting coefficient, and hygro-

scopic coefficient; we are eager to cooperate with the soil physicists

and agricultural engineers in all investigations that involve the mois-

ture properties of fine-textured materials. It appears that the Euro-

pean literature on ground water is somewhat defective in respect to

molecular physics and that the American hydrologists are making a

definite contribution in cultivating this field.

Investigations of discharge of ground water—Ground water is dis-

charged by two processes: the hydraulic process, or discharge through

springs; and the less conspicuous but equally important process of

evaporation—both evaporation directly from the soil and transpira-

tion of plants in areas having a shallow water table.**

*4 For more detailed historical statement and references to the literature regarding

discharge of ground water by transpiration see Mrinzmr, O. E. Plants as indicators

of ground water. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 577. 1927.

JANUARY 15, 19834 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 27

The complex subject of the geologic and hydraulic conditions that

produce springs was one of the first fields of ground-water hydrology

to receive attention and has been given much study. Fluctuations in

the flow of springs and of streams at low stages was given critical

study about the beginning of this century by Maillet, with the pur-

pose of developing methods of forecasting their flow. He mentions a

number of investigators of this subject, dating back to 1863. The sub-

ject has also received some attention in this country, by Arthur C.

Veatch and others. On account of the drought of 1930, new interest

has recently been developed in this subject, and considerable investi-

gation has been started, especially as to the relation of the water

table to the discharge of springs and to the ground-water run-off.

The subject of the discharge of ground water by transpiration of

plants and evaporation from the soil has until recently not received

much attention either in Europe or in the United States, for the reason

that these processes are not readily discerned in humid regions. One

of the most curious defects of the early ground-water literature in this

country is its silence on this subject. Even the geologists who worked

in the arid West took with them the inadequate ideas acquired in the

humid regions and failed at first to appreciate the magnitude of the

ground-water resources of the arid regions because they did not under-

stand the significance of ground-water discharge by transpiration and

soil evaporation.

These processes are, however, conspicuous when once discerned in

arid regions. When we consider the vast development of ground-

water supplies in southern Asia and northern Africa in very ancient

times, we must believe that knowledge of this subject, especially as

to the significance of native plants as indicators of ground water, is

also very ancient. Moses spent a large part of his life in stock-raising

in a desert country, where he doubtless had numerous problems of

water supply and abundant opportunity to observe the relation of the

native vegetation to the occurrence of ground water. Later he was suc-

cessful in the tremendous undertaking of furnishing water supplies in

this desert country to a great host of people, doubtless because of his

first-hand knowledge of ground-water conditions, including the sig-

nificance of desert plants as indicators of ground water. Vitruvius

had a knowledge of plant indicators and evaporation phenomena

which he may have acquired by observations in arid regions. In his

work on architecture he gave a list of plants that indicate ground

water and endeavored to specify the conditions under which they may

be regarded as reliable indicators. He also explained the process of

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 24, No. 1

alkali accumulation by evaporation of ground water. Similar state-

ments in regard to plant indicators are found in the writings of Pliny,

who apparently quoted Vitruvius, and in those of Cassiodorus, in the

sixth century, who obtained his ideas largely from an ‘‘aquilege,”’ or

professional water finder, who came to Rome from the arid regions of

Africa. ‘‘Because of the great aridity of the terranes of his country,”

~ wrote Cassiodorus, ‘‘the art of discovering springs is there cultivated

with the greatest care.”’

Vitruvius and the other Roman writers who have been mentioned

discussed also less tangible methods of locating ground water, such as

color and dampness of the soil, mists rising from the ground early in

the morning, and sponges becoming moist when placed in shallow

holes in the ground. Obviously these methods border closely on divin-

ing, or water-witching, and it is greatly to the credit of Vitruvius,

Pliny, and Cassiodorus that none of them recognized divining or any

other magical method for locating ground water. Although the means

suggested by Vitruvius as aids in finding water may not have had

much value, yet they were serious efforts to discover practicable

methods at a time when the science of geology was still a complete

blank.

That plants in general, and especially forest trees, draw upon the

ground-water supply has been recognized by numerous authorities in

recent times. Most of these have, however, not been much concerned

as to whether the plants withdraw water from the zone of saturation

or merely absorb the soil moisture before it reaches the water table,

and they have not distinguished between different species in this re-

spect. The relation of specific plant species to the water table was

recognized by F. Amy in 1861, Frederick V. Coville in 1893, and the

Danish ecologist Eugen Warming in 1895. The subject of plant indica-

tors was treated at length by Henri Mager® in 1912, and references to

plants that depend on ground water are found in many publications

relating to arid regions.

In the last 25 years the geologists and hydraulic engineers who have

worked on ground-water problems in the western part of the United

States have given considerable study to evaporation of ground water

and to the native plants that habitually feed on ground water, the

depths to which the plants of each species will send their roots to

reach ground water, and the quality of the water that they indicate.

Tank experiments of the rate of discharge of ground water by capil-

53 Macer, HENRI, Op. cit., pp. 310-319.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 29

lary rise and subsequent evaporation were made by Slichter in 1905,

Charles H. Lee in 1910, R. B. Sleight, in 1916, and other investiga-

tors more recently. In 1912 Lee* published the results of his investi-

gations in Owens Valley, Calif., in which he made tank experiments

of the rates of discharge of salt grass with different depths to the water

table, and applied these rates to a map which he made of the salt-

grass area showing depths to the water table. Since that time a num-

ber of investigations have been made in which areas of ground-water

discharge have been mapped and rates of discharge have been ap-

plied thereto.

Daily fluctuations of the water table were observed by King in his

experiments at Madison, Wis., in 1888, and he recognized their sig-

nificance in recording the discharge of ground water through vege-

tation. The method was successfully applied by G. E. P. Smith, in

Arizona, by the use of water-stage recorders on wells in 1917, in tracts

of cottonwood and mesquite, and later also in tracts of salt grass and

alkali sacaton. Smith also developed the theory of upward percola-

tion and showed that the daily vegetal discharge could be computed

from the rate of rise of the water table at the nocturnal mid-stage if

the specific yield were known. More recently Walter N. White,*’ in

his work in Escalante Valley, Utah, devised methods of evaluating the

daily fluctuations in terms of quantity of water discharged, and de-

veloped the method of computing ground-water discharge from the

dry weight of the principal phreatophytes.

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE CHEMISTRY OF GROUND WATER

I will not attempt to sketch the development of our knowledge of

the mineral composition and chemical reactions of the ground water

and of their relation to the occurrence, movement, head, and tempera-

ture of this water. Much good work has been done in this field, which

involves chemistry, physics, and geology; but much remains to be

done. Fortunately, we now have a chemical laboratory in the United

States Geological Survey, devoted entirely to the investigation of the

natural waters, in which, under the direction of W. D. Collins, are

analyzed samples of water from practically all water-bearing forma-

tions in the United States, collected by the geologists who are in-

vestigating these formations.

6 Ler, C. H. An intensive study of the water resources of a part of Owens Valley,

Calif. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 294: 53-60. 1912.

°7 WHITE, WatteR N. A method of estimating ground-water supplies based on dis-

charge by plants and evaporation from soil; results of investigations in Escalante Valley,

Utah. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 659: 1-105. 1932. This paper con-

tains a statement of the work of King and Smith.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

The subject of the physiological effects of the natural waters is

closely related to, rather than a part of ground-water hydrology. The

subject is inherently so obscure that it lends itself to further befogging

by pseudo-scientists. However, there is here probably a field for

genuine research; at least, this is suggested by the discovery of the

function of iodine in preventing goiter and the recent discovery by

- Margaret Smith®® and her associates of the relation of fluorine to the

puzzling affliction of mottled teeth.

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE BIOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY

OF GROUND WATER

Considerable study has been given to the subject of living organ-

isms in ground water, but less to the hydrologic conditions under

which these organisms exist. Work on the occurrence, viability, and

movement of bacteria in ground water has both sanitary and scien-

tific significance, but is difficult because it must be done under aseptic

conditions. Bacteria are introduced into wells by the drilling proc-

esses, and therefore great caution must be exercised in drawing con-

clusions as to the origin of bacteria delivered by wells, even when the

samples are taken by the most approved methods. The Fort Caswell

investigation, by Stiles and his colaborers, was exceptionally valuable

because of the clear evidence that it produced of the viability and

movement of Bacterium coli in a bed of water-bearing sand, under

rigid bacteriological control and under definitely determined hydro-

logic conditions. However, the results have only limited application,

and further work must be done before broad generalizations can

safely be made.

STATUS AND PROSPECTS OF GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY

It is evident, from the foregoing sketch of the history and develop-

ment of ground-water hydrology, that although much effective work

has in the aggregate been done in this branch of science, it is still in a

formative condition, with relatively few workers, and with an im-

pressive front of problems that are fairly begging for investigation.

The main stimulus and support of ground-water hydrology has al-

ways been the human need for water supplies, and the glory of

ground-water work has been that human betterment, through the de-

velopment of more abundant, convenient, and wholesome water sup-

plies, has followed close in the wake of our work. However, this

58 Smiru, M. C., Lantz, E. M., and Smita, H. V. The cause of mottled enamel, a

defect of human teeth. Univ. of Arizona Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 32. 1931.

JANUARY 15, 1934 MEINZER: GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY ol

utilitarian urge has become so extreme that at present in this coun-

try practically all funds available for ground-water work must be used

in applying our knowledge to specific ground-water surveys or water-

supply problems, with virtually no opportunity for research work ex-

cept as it is carried on inadequately and almost surreptitiously in con-

nection with these utilitarian projects. We are constantly compelled

to follow the wasteful course of applying the little that we now know

instead of being able to devote a reasonable part of our efforts to the

fundamental task of developing the basic principles of the science so

that in the future we will have something more worth while to apply.

What is primarily needed at present is not more money for ground-

water work but a more rational use of the money that is spent.

The term hydrology has never come into such general use as might

be expected in view of the magnitude and importance of the subject

that it covers. This fact is in itself not of much consequence, but it is,

I suspect, indicative of a real weakness that has pervaded the science,

particularly in so far as it applies to the ground water. Certainly

ground-water hydrology has suffered from the fact that the workers

in the subject have largely been in two groups, inadequately corre-

lated; namely, geologists, who have devoted their attention to the

structure of the water-bearing formations without sufficient under-

standing of the laws of physics that govern the behavior of the water

in them; and hydraulic engineers and physicists, who have studied

the laws of fluid mechanics without sufficient knowledge of geology to

apply their results effectively. It is doubtless desirable that we should

continue to draw our recruits partly from the university departments

of geology and partly from the schools of engineering, with smaller

numbers from the departments of physics and chemistry. Moreover,

it is evident that as the subject of ground-water hydrology develops,

specialization within the subject will become increasingly necessary.

However, to obtain the best results it is imperative that we recognize

more largely that although hydrology is built on geology, physics and

chemistry, it has a distinctive technique and subject matter, much as

we recognize that the science of geology, although it is built on

physics, chemistry, and biology, has its distinctive technique and sub-

ject matter.

While we recognize that ground-water hydrology is largely built on

geology, we should also recognize that, conversely, a properly de-

veloped science of ground-water hydrology will be a substantial aid

to geology, because the materials of geology are to a considerable ex-

tent the product of ground water. Geologists encounter many prob-

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

lems that involve ground-water hydrology, but frequently, because of

the lack of a background in the subject, they are incompetent to deal

effectively with these problems. The proximate reasons for this lack

are obviously to be found in the textbooks of geology, most of which

treat ground water only in a rudimentary if not amateurish manner,

and in the university departments of geology, most of which have

paid almost no attention to the subject. The more fundamental reason

is doubtless to be found in the lack of organized subject matter that

ground-water hydrology has had to offer. Courses devoted largely

to ground-water hydrology are at present given at Harvard and in a

few of the other universities. With the progress that is being made

in the development of the subject, I believe it is safe to predict that

before long no department of geology that undertakes to train gradu-

ate students will be considered complete unless it offers a course in

ground-water hydrology, not merely as a branch of economic geology

but as a part of the foundation upon which the training of a geologist

must be built.

BOTAN Y.—AHawaiian algae collected by Dr. Paul C. Galtsoff.! Mar-

SHALL A. Howes, New York Botanical Garden. (Communicated

by Wiut1amM R. Maxon.)

Under date of March 28, 1932, William R. Maxon, Associate Cura-

tor, Division of Plants, United States National Museum, sent to the

writer for study 23 jars of marine algae, collected in the summer of

1930 by Paul C. Galtsoff of the Bureau of Fisheries. Part of the speci-

mens came from Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, and part of them were from the

Pearl and Hermes Reef, which lies in the mid-Pacific Ocean approxi-

mately in North Latitude 27° 45’ to 28° and in West Longitude

175° 45’ to 176°. Most of the latter material was apparently obtained

from a sand or “‘coral” bottom at depths of 2-67 ft. in water of tem-

peratures ranging from 22.7°C. to 27.3°C. The Pearl and Hermes Reef

lies more than 1200 miles northwest of Oahu, and it has been con-

sidered desirable to keep the two localities separated in the following

list. So far as is known to the writer, no algae have hitherto been re-

ported from the Pearl and Hermes Reef. However, a considerable

number of algae, largely of plankton habitat, were collected in 1896

by H. Schauinsland on Laysan, which lies about 300 miles southeast

of the Pearl and Hermes Reef. These were recorded in 1905 by E.

1 Reeeived August 31, 1933.

JANUARY 15, 1934 HOWE: HAWAIIAN ALGAE 33

Lemmermann,’ who listed 461 species and varieties of algae, chiefly

plankton forms, from the Hawaiian Archipelago. These records and

others were brought together by V. MacCaughey in 1918 in a paper

entitled Algae of the Hawaiian Archipelago.®

ALGAE FROM KANEOHE BAY, OAHU, JULY, 1930

CHLOROPH YCEAE

DICTYOSPHAERIA CAVERNOSA (Forssk.) Bégrg.

Dictyosphaeria favulosa (Ag.) Dee.

DIcTYOSPHAERIA VERSLUYSII Web. v. Bosse

This is distinguished from the preceding by having a solid thallus and

by the numerous needle-like processes from the walls into the cell-cavities.

HALIMEDA DISCOIDEA Decaisne

Dredged in 13 ft. of water.

PHAEKOPHYCEAE

HyDROCLATHRUS CLATHRATUS (Bory) M. A. Howe

Hydroclathrus cancellaius Bory.

‘TURBINARIA ORNATA (Turn.) J. Ag.

SARGASSUM ECHINOCARPUM J. Ag.

Sterile and without vesicles, leaves apparently broader (up to 10 mm.)

than in the type and with more cryptostomata.

SARGASSUM POLYPHYLLUM FISSIFOLIUM Grun.

PADINA COMMERSONII Bory

DicTYOTA ACUTILOBA J. Ag.

Attached to Sargassum polyphyllum fissifolvum.

RHODOPHYCEAE

Trichogloea subnuda sp. nov.’

Thallus strongly calcified (caleareous axis 0.75-1.6 mm. in diameter, the

peripheral free layer about 0.2-0.3 mm. thick), 12-20 cm. long or high, ir-

regularly 3-7 times subdichotomous and here and there subpinnate; outer

cells of cortical filaments subglobose and ellipsoid to subpyriform, 9-21y

(mostly 13-18u) broad, the terminal often smaller (10—-12u); cystocarps

2 Die Algenflora der Sandwich-Inseln. Bot. Jahrb. 34: 607-663, pl. 7, 8. 1905.

$ Bot. Gaz. 65: 42-57, 121-149. :

‘ Fronde valde calcarea (axi calcareo 0.75-1.6 mm. lato, strato peripherico ca.

0.2-0.3 mm. crasso), 12-20 em. alta, irregulariter 3-7-plo subdichotoma et passim sub-

pinnata; cellulis filorum corticalium exterioribus subglobosis et ellipsoideis aut sub-

pyriformibus, 9-21u (plerumque 13-18,) latis, apicalibus saepe minoribus (10—-12,);

cystocarpiis subglobosis, 55-90u in diam., involucro valde reducto, plerumque verti-

cillo processuum uni- aut bi-cellularium uno constanti, in maturitate pro parte maxima

ey monoica, antheridiis et procarpiis plerumque late remotis, aut aliquando di-

oica (?).

Specimen typicum in sinu “‘Kaneohe’”’ dicto, insulae ‘‘Oahu’’ hawaiiensis, Jul. 1930,

Paul C. Galtsoff legit. Trichogloea lubrica Butters, Minnesota Bot. Stud. 3: 11-21. pl.

5, 6, 1903. Non Trichogloea lubrica (Harv.) J. Ag.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

ied

1Z€.

Natural si

ial

More than half of the holotype dr

preserved mater

id-

ichogloea subnuda

from flu

Tr.

JANUARY 15, 1934 HOWE: HAWAIIAN ALGAE 30

subglobose, 55—90u in diameter, the involucre very rudimentary, usually re-

duced to a single whorl of mostly unicellular excrescences, commonly con-

cealed at maturity; apparently monoicous, with a somewhat wide separa-

tion of antheridia and procarps, and with a tendency to dioicism. |[F1GuRz 1.|

Type specimen collected in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, by Paul C. Galtsoff,

July, 1930. The holotype is divided between The New York Botanical Garden

and the United States National Museum.

An excellent detailed description of Trzchogloea subnuda, with illustra-

tions, was published, under the name Trichogloea lubrica (Harv.) J. Ag., by

F. K. Butters in 1903.5 This description was based on fluid-preserved ma-

terial, collected by Josephine E. Tilden, June 13, 1900, at Kahuku Point,

Oahu. Dried specimens from the same collection were distributed as No.

419 of her American Algae, under the name Nemalion ramulosum Harv.

Fig. 2.—Trichogloea lubrica. Cotype in the British Museum. Xj.

This name belongs to a ‘‘species inquirenda”’ from New Zealand, the de-

scription of which, “fronde vermiformi compressa (2-3 lineas lata)’’ does

not seem to fit the Hawaiian plant. Miss Tilden describes the color (which is

lacking in Galtsoff’s fluid-preserved specimen) as ‘‘brownish-red.”’

The drawing of specific lines in the genus Trichogloea is a bit difficult.

The color, the size, the degree of calcification, the mode of branching, the

size and form of the cells of the corticating filaments, and the monoicous or

pon Observations on Trichogloea lubrica. Minnesota Bot. Studies. 3: 11-21, pl. 5, 6s

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

dioicous distribution of the sexual cells all seem to be subject to considerable

variation. The most stable characters are found in the cystocarp and more

particularly in the development of the rudimentary pericarp just beneath

it. The writer has enjoyed the privilege of examining the types, or at least

authentic specimens, of all the species that have been referred to the genus.

Trichogloea subnuda differs from all of them, or at least from the two legally

published species, Trichogloea lubrica (Harv.) J. Ag. (type from Ooleva,

Friendly Islands) and T. requieniz (Mont.) Kiitz. (type from the Red Sea),

in the greatly reduced or vestigial character of the rudimentary involucre.

Fig. 3.—Trichogloea requientt. One of two original specimens in

the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Natural size.

This consists commonly of a single verticil or pair of unicellular or two-

celled excrescences or rudimentary bracteal filaments immediately below

the auxiliary stalk-cell of the cystocarp. Rarely there is a one- or two-celled

outgrowth from a lower cell (see Butters, op. cit. f. 11, 13, 15, and 16). These

JANUARY 15, 1934 HOWE: HAWAIIAN ALGAE oO”

reduced bracts are nearly always wholly concealed by the development of

the cystocarp. In Trichogloea lubrica and T. requieniz, the cystocarp is sub-

tended by a usually conspicuous rudimentary involucre, consisting of 3-5

whorls of simple or once or twice furcate filaments.* The cystocarps in these

two species are dome-shaped, cylindric-dome-shaped, subconic, or occasion-

ally subglobose, and 90—140yu in maximum diameter, while those of Tricho-

gloea subnuda are subglobose and 55—90y in diameter. Less stable distinctive

characters of Trichogloea subnuda are found in its heavier calcification and

its more dichotomous branching (compare Ficurss 1, 2, and 3).

Laurencia yamadana sp. nov.’

Frond spreading or reclinate, 5-7 em. (or more?) high or broad, in branch-

ing irregularly 3 or 4 times compounded (or when pressed and dried,

pseudo-tri-quadripinnate), the branches mostly divaricate, the primary

Fig. 4.—Laurencia yamadana. Holotype, left from fluid; right,

same specimen dried. Natural size.

6 See Okamura’s representation of the cystocarp of T. lubrica, Icon. Jap. Alg. 4:

pl. 197, fig. 6. 1923.

7 Fronde effusa aut reclinata, 5-7 cm. (an plus?) alta aut lata, irregulariter 3—4-ties

compositi-ramosa (aut, compressa et exsiccata, pseudo-tri-quadripinnata), ramis

plerumque divaricatis, primariis 2-4 cm. longis, ramulis ultimis clavatis obtusis et

2-3 mm. longis aut plerumque subtereti-turbinatis aut verrucaeformibus et 0.45—0.8 mm.

longis, quoquoverse egredientibus, pro parte maxima spatiis suis longitudinibus

aequalibus separatis; caulibus vel ramis primariis teretibus aut aegre compressa, circa

1-1.3 mm. crassa, cellulis superficialibus angulati-suborbicularibus, 20—45y latis, in

sectione transversali parum altioribus quam latis, denique saepe separantibus, ramu-

lorum ultimorum cellulis superficialibus ovalibus aut subellipticis a superficie visis,

16—40y in diam. max., parietibus crassis, in sectione transversali cellulis valliformibus,

plerumque bis altioribus quam latis, aut in regione apicali ter altioribus; cellularum

medullarium parietibus partes incrassatas non ostendentibus; partes aliae desunt.

Cum Hypnea nidifica J. Ag. consociatam, speciem Laurenciae palisadae Yamadae

affinem, in sinu ‘‘Kaneohe’”’ dicto, insulae ‘‘Oahu”’ hawaiiensis, Jul. 1930, Paul C.

Galtsoff legit.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

2-4 em. long, the ultimate branchlets clavate-obtuse and 2-3 mm. long or

mostly subterete-turbinate or verrucaeform and only 0.45-0.8 mm. long,

emerging in various planes, for the most part separated by spaces equal to

their own length; main axes terete or very slightly flattened, about 1-1.3 mm.

in diameter, their surface cells angulate-suborbicular, 20—45y in diameter,

rather thin-walled, often separating, in transverse section slightly higher

than broad; surface cells of ultimate branchlets often oval or subelliptic

with longer axis transverse, 16—40u in maximum diameter, thick-walled, in

transverse section palisade-like, commonly twice as high as broad, or, in

apical region, thrice as high; walls of medullary cells without lenticular

thickenings; other parts wanting. [FicuRE 4.]

Apparently associated with Hypnea nidifica, near Wilcox wharf, Kaneohe

Bay, Oahu, Paul C. Galtsoff, July, 1930. The holotype is divided between

The New York Botanical Garden and the United States National Museum.

Laurencia yamadana belongs to Yamada’s section Palisadae and is prob-

ably more allied to his Laurencia palisada® of Japan and Formosa than to

his L. antermedia of Japan. It appears to differ from Laurencia palisada in

its less distichous branching and in its shorter, more divaricate, and less

capitate ultimate branchlets.

Hypnea NipiFica J. Ag. Originally described from the Hawaiian Islands.

CHONDRIA TENUISSIMA (Good. & Woodw.) Ag., var. Apices of the ramuli

are occasionally broad and obtuse as in var. zntermedia Grun.

POLYSIPHONIA TONGATENSIS Harv.

ALGAE FROM PEARL AND HERMES REEF

CHLOROPH YCEAE

Microdictyon setchellianum M. A. Howe, nom. nov.

Microdictyon velleyanum, Univ. Calif. Pub. Bot. 14: 561. f. 85-92. 1929.

Not Decaisne, Arch. Mus. Paris. 2: 116. 1841.

In 23 ft. of water, temp. 25.5°C., Pearl and Hermes Reef, Station 31,

Galtsoff, July 23, 1930. Filaments 230-450u broad. Only a few fragments,

attached to a Laurencia.

The name Microdictyon velleyanum Decaisne was manifestly proposed as

a substitute for Velley’s Conferva uwmbilicata from New South Wales. The

circumstance that Decaisne at the same time confused with it a very dif-

ferent plant from the Sandwich Islands does not alter the fact that, so far

as the technicalities of publication are concerned, the name Microdictyon

velleyanum rests solely on Decaisne’s citation of Velley’s description and

illustration of the Australian plant (Trans. Linn. Soc. 5: 169. pl. 7. 1800).

CAULERPA SERRULATA (Forssk.) J. Ag.

Caulerpa freycinetii Ag.

In 2-4 ft., Sta. 42. -

8 YamaDA, Y. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 16: 196. fig: c and pl. 4. fig. a. 1931.

JANUARY 15, 1934 HOWE: HAWAIIAN ALGAE 39

HALIMEDA CUNEATA Hering.

In 2-4 ft., Sta. 42.

HALIMEDA OPUNTIA (L.) Lamour.

A rather small-segmented form, in 22 ft., Sta. 28.

CoDIUM CORONATUM Setchell

In 10 ft., Sta. 68. Type from Tahiti.

PHAEOPHYCEAE

CoLPOMENIA SINUOSA (Roth) Derb. & Sol., forma.

Attached to Halimeda opuntia in 22 ft., Sta. 28.

HyYDROCLATHRUS CLATHRATUS (Bory) Howe

Hydroclathrus cancellatus Bory

In 2-4 ft., Sta. 42.

TURBINARIA ORNATA (Turn.) J. Ag.

In 2-4 ft., Sta. 42; in 5 ft., Sta. 41.

SARGASSUM PILULIFERUM (Turn.) Ag.

Floating, Sta. 84, Aug. 16; also, in 6 ft., Sta. 38.

Of the four plants collected at Station 38, one is copiously supplied with

the air-vesicles from which the species derived its name, one shows only one

vesicle, and the other two have none. The plants from Station 38 differ from

the floating specimen of Station 84 in their lighter color, in their often more

setaceous leaf-segments and more obscure midribs, and in the somewhat

shorter pedicels of the vesicles. They seem to approach Sargassum setaceum

Yendo,? the type of which, like that of S. piluliferum, is Japanese, but most

of the leaf-segments are distinctly flattened and show an obvious costa. The

vesicles in both the floating and attached forms have occasional crypto-

stomata, a character that Yendo denies to S. piluliferwm and allows to the

upper and median vesicles of his S. setacewm.

SARGASSUM VULGARE LINEARIFOLUM J. Ag. (?)

In 24 ft. of water on coral and sand [probably unattached], Sta. 60. The

specimen agrees very well with Yendo’s figure of this variety (op. cit. pl.

17, f. 5), as represented in Japan.

RHODOPHYCEAE

Laurencia galtsoffii sp. nov.!°

Forming compact cushions 1-2 em. high, branching irregular, for the

most part subdichotomous or somewhat corymbose, the main divisions

® Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo. 2112: 60. pl. 7. figs. 5-7. 1907.

10 Frondibus caespites compactas 1—2 em. altas formantibus, plerumque irregulariter

ramosis, plerumque subdichotomis aut aliquando corymbosis, segmentis principalibus

teretibus aut subteretibus, plerumque 0.45-0.78 mm. crassis; ramulis terminalibus

teretibus truncati-obtusis, 0.4-0.62 mm. crassis, juvenilibus aliquando subturbinatis;

cellulis superficialibus a superficie visis plus minusve hexagonis, in partibus veteribus

oblongis, 35-1104 in diam. max., in sectione transversali suborbicularibus, circa

Type, top from fluid, lower same

material dried. Natural size.

Fig. 5.—Laurencia galtsoffir.

30—52u altis, in partibus junioribus plerumque leviter mammiformi-prominentibus,

parietibus 5—15yu crassis; cellularum medullarium parietibus incrassationibus lenticu-

laribus aut annularibus saepe instructis; partes aliae desunt. ;

In profunditate 3 m. in loco ‘‘Pearl and Hermes Reef” dicto, Oceani Pacifici, Lat.

27°52’35” Bor. Long. 175°47’ Occ., Paul C. Galtsoff legit. Species L. pannosae Zanard.

forsitan affinis est.

JANUARY 15, 1934 HOWE: HAWAIIAN ALGAE 4]

terete or subterete, mostly 0.46 to 0.78 mm. in diameter; terminal branches

cylindric and truncate-obtuse, 0.4—0.62 mm. in diameter, the younger oc-

casionally subturbinate; surface cells more or less hexagonal, becoming ob-

long in older parts, 35-110u in maximum diameter, cell walls 5—15yu thick,

cells rounded and nearly isodiametric in transverse section, about 30-52u

high, usually lightly mammiform-protuberant in younger parts, walls of

medullary cells often with lenticular, arcuate, or somewhat annulate thick-

enings; other parts wanting. [F1cuRE 5.]

On sand and coral bottoms, in ten feet of water, temp. 26.4°C., Pearl and

Hermes Reef, Station 68, Lat. 27° 52’ 35’’ N., Long. 175° 47’ W., Paul C.

Galtsoff, August 2, 1930. The original material, consisting of one clump of

more than one plant, is divided between The New York Botanical Garden

and the United States National Museum.

From Laurencia pannosa Zanard. of Sarawak, which we know only from

original description and figures, L. galtsoffii would appear to differ in its

cylindric rather than verrucaeform ultimate branches and in its more

dichotomous-corymbose branching; from L. nana Howe of the Bahama

Islands (this species also often has lenticular thickenings in the walls of

its medullary cells), in its absence of rhizoidal haptera and its coarser seg-

ments (0.4-0.78 mm. vs. 0.1-0.45 mm.); from L. pygmaea Weber-van Bosse,

of the Chagos Archipelago, in its more dichotomo-corymbose branching

and coarser segments; from L. humilis Setchell & Gardner of Clarion Island,

Revillagigedo Islands, in being much more slender and more freely branched,

in its more polygonal surface cells, and in the usually manifest lenticular

thickenings of the walls of the medullary cells; and from L. corymbosa J.

Ag. of the Cape of Good Hope, in its much smaller size..

Some of the plants grow attached to another species of Laurencia, pos-

sibly a reduced multifarious form of the following Laurencza sp.

LAURENCIA Sp.

Fronds 3—5 cm. high, rather distinctly compressed, subpinnate or here and

there subbipinnate or irregularly branched from a percurrent axis, main axis

1-2 mm. broad; ultimate branchlets verrucaeform to cylindric-clavate;

surface cells mostly hexagonal, 30—45u in diameter, rather thin-walled, often

broader than high in transverse section, those in apical regions usually

mammiform-protuberant; walls of medullary cells apparently without len-

ticular thickenings; stichidia short.

In 23 feet of water, on coral sand, Station 31, July 23. Only five or six

fronds were collected. Some of them are distinctly complanate and very

nearly distichous; others show branching in various planes. The species may

be allied to Laurencia cartilaginea Yamada from Japan and L. tropica

Yamada from the Marianne Islands, but the plants are smaller and simpler

than in either. A. A. Heller’s no. from 2158 Oahu, distributed as Laurencia

pinnatifida, probably represents the same species.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

GONIOLITHON FRUTESCENS Fosl.

In 2-4 ft., Sta. 42.

Porolithon sp. and Lithophyllum sp. occur in small quantity (so far as

shown by specimens obtained) in 5 ft. of water on a bottom of “broken

corals,” at Station 41. More abundant than either of these is a mysterious

compact calcareous crust that shows on decalcification delicate intertangled

short-celled filaments 1—2u broad. No such slender filaments have been re-

ported for the Lithothamnieae, so far as is known to the writer. No repro-

ductive cells have been identified with certainty. Apparently the same thing

occurs in the West Indies. (Compare Howe No. 4592, from Jamaica, which

is a brilliant brick-red when living. )

BOTANY .—WNew plants mainly from western South America.—IV

ELLswortu P. Kiuuip, U. 8. National Museum.

Most of the species described in the present paper are based upon

specimens which I have compared with type or authenticated material

at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the British Museum (Natural

History), the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, the Botanisches

Museum, Berlin, and the Jardin Botanico, Madrid. To the directors

of these institutions I wish to express my appreciation of the many

courtesies extended during the course of these studies.

Pilea ulei Killip, sp. nov.

Herba dioica glaberrima; stipulae minutae, triangulares, caducae; folia si-

milia et subaequalia, ovata vel elliptico-ovata, apice caudato-acuminata, basi

acuta vel subobtusa, serrata, dentibus apiculatis, triplinervia, nervis ad

tertiam partem laminae attingentibus, cystolithis supra linearibus subtus

punctiformibus; inflorescentia 9 cymoso-paniculata, pedunculis et ramis

tenerrimis, achaenis ovatis minutis laevibus.

Plant herbaceous, succulent, 35 em. or more high, glabrous throughout;

stipules minute, triangular, soon deciduous; petioles slender, 1 to 2.5 cm.

long, the lowermost up to 5 cm. long; leaves of a node similar and subequal,

ovate or elliptic-ovate, 5 to 10 cm. long, 1.5 to 3.5 em. wide, caudate-acumi-

nate at apex, acute or rarely subobtuse at base, serrate except at base (teeth

strongly ascending, apiculate), triplinerved (nerves extending to upper third

of blade), thin-membranous when dry, the cystoliths linear on upper sur-

face, punctiform on lower surface; plants dioecious; pistillate inflorescence

diffusely cymose-paniculate, up to 6 cm. long, the peduncle and the branches

very slender, the perianth segments unequal, the largest barely 0.4 mm. long;

achenes ovate, minute, 0.5 to 0.6 mm. long, smooth.

Type in the herbarium of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, col-

lected on moist rocks, Serra do Oratorio, State of Santa Catharina, Brazil,

April, 1889, by E. Ule (no. 1194).

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. For

preceding parts of this series see this JOURNAL. 16: 565-5738. 1926; 19: 191-195. 1929;

21: 347-353. 1931. Received September 16, 1933.

JANUARY 1d, 1934 KILLIP: NEW PLANTS 43

This species apparently is most closely related to the Peruvian P. cztriodora,

differing in having caudate-acuminate, sharply serrate leaves (obtuse or

short-acuminate and crenate-serrate in P. citriodora), bearing linear cysto-

liths on the upper surface and punctiform ones on the lower surface. The

leaves are suggestive of P. rhizobola, of Brazil, but their cystoliths are very

different.

Pouzolzia scaberrima Killip, sp. nov.

Ramuli subquadrangulares, dense villosuli; folia alternata, elliptico-

lanceolata, apice attenuato-acuminata, concoloria, glabra, supra valde

punctato-scabra, subtus laevia; flores in glomerulis axillaribus, sessilibus,

androgyneis; calyx o fere ad basim 4-lobatus; staminia 4; calyx 9 bi-

dentatus, puberulus, stigmate filiforme, caduco; achaenia lateovoidea,

laevia.

Branchlets subquadrangular, densely villosulous; stipules narrowly lance-

linear, 7 to 8 mm. long, about 1.5 mm. wide at base, subulate at apex, pale

at margin, sparingly pilosulous without, glabrescent within; petioles sub-

quadrangular, 1 to 2.5 cm. long, densely villosulous; leaves alternate,

elliptic, lanceolate, 8 to 13 cm. long, 3 to 4 cm. wide, attenuate-acuminate

at apex, rounded at base, symmetrical, entire, 3-nerved (lateral nerves

extending to slightly above middle of blade), reticulate-veined (nerves and

veins pale beneath), concolorous, glabrous, strongly punctate-scabrous

above, smooth beneath; flowers in dense sessile androgynous axillary glom-

erules; staminate flowers about 1.5 mm. wide, 4-lobed nearly to base, the

lobes triangular-acute, apiculate, puberulent, the stamens 4, the filaments

about 0.8 mm. long, the anthers suborbicular; pistillate perianth obscurely

striate, bidentate, puberulent; stigma filiform, soon deciduous; achenes

broadly ovoid, about 1.2 mm. long, subacuminate, smooth, lustrous, light

brown.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 703,919, collected at Santa

Marta, Department of Magdalena, Colombia, in 1898 or 1899, by H. H.

Smith (no. 1436). Duplicates at Berlin, British Museum, Field Museum,

Kew, and New York.

In the general shape of the leaves this species resembles P. obliqua and

P. petiolata. Both of those plants have densely pubescent foliage, not at all

scabrous. In P. obliqua, moreover, the leaves are nearly sessile and strongly

oblique.

Phenax weddellianus Killip, sp. nov.

Planta suffrutescens, caule tenue subquadrangulato; folia parva, ovata

vel ovato-lanceolata, acuta, trinervia, integerrima vel paucidentata, supra

sparse strigillosa, subtus pilosula; flores in glomerulis parvis laxis, andro-

gyneis vel rare unisexualibus; flores o pedicellati, perigonio fere ad medium

trilobato, lobis triangulato-ovatis, staminibus suborbiculatis; flores 9

absque perianthio, bracteis 3 partim connatis achaenia terna includentibus;

achaenia anguste ovoidea, acuminata, sparse villosula.

Plant suffrutescent, the stem slender, up to 3 mm. thick, subquadrangular,

essentially glabrous; stipules lanceolate, about 1.5 mm. long and 0.6 mm.

wide, deciduous; petioles 1 to 2 mm. long; leaves ovate or ovate-lanceolate,

5 to 18 mm. long, 3 to 8 mm. wide, acute at apex, subacute at base, entire or

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. I

with 1 or 2 coarse teeth on either side, 3-nerved, sparingly strigillose above,

sparingly to densely pilosulous beneath; inflorescence axillary, loosely

flowered, shorter than the petioles, the flower-clusters androgynous, rarely

unisexual; staminate flowers pedicellate, the pedicels 1 to 1.2 mm. long, the

perianth 2 mm. long, glabrous, 3-lobed nearly to middle, the lobes triangular-

ovate, the stamens 3, suborbicular, about 0.8 mm. long; pistillate perianth

none, the achenes in groups of 3, enclosed by 3, partially coalescent, finely

villosulous dark bracts 1.5 to 2 mm. long; the stigma elongate-filiform;

achenes narrowly ovoid, 1 mm. long, acuminate, dull, very sparingly

pilosulous.

Type in the herbarium of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, col-

lected in the Department of Cuzco, Peru, October, 1839, to February, 1840,

by Claude Gay.

Weddell has noted upon the label accompanying this curious specimen

‘“‘Phenacis species anomala aut genus novum ille affine.’”’ It may well repre-

sent a genus distinct from Phenaz, and if so, one that is undescribed. In all

the species of Phenax with which I am acquainted the naked achenes are

surrounded by free bracts which become more or less spreading and are not

at all perianth-like. In this plant the bracts are partly united and enclose

three achenes, their stigmas long-exserted, the unopened cluster giving the

appearance of a perianth with three stigmas. In general habit, especially in

the shape of the leaves and the loose flower clusters, the plant resembles

Phenaz laziflorus.

Gaiadendron macranthum Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex ubique glaber; folia opposita, obovata, obtusa, basi cuneata, sub-

tus dense punctata; inflorescentia racemosa, floribus ternis, lateralibus

breviter pedicellatis, terminali sessili; calyx cylindricus limbo patente in-

tegro; petala 7 libra, anguste linearia; filamenta petala subaequantia.

Shrub about 2 meters high, glabrous throughout; branches subterete;

leaves opposite, obovate, 3.5 to 5 em. long, 1.5 to 2.3 cm. wide, obtuse at

apex, cuneate at base, short (about 4 mm.)-petioled, 1-nerved (nerve im-

pressed above), densely punctate beneath, coriaceous, lustrous; inflorescence

racemose, 10 to 15 cm. long, the branches opposite, divaricate, squarrose;

bracts similar in texture, shape, and punctation to the leaves, 2.5 to 0.8 cm.

long, 1 to 0.4 cm. wide, persistent; flowers in three’s, the lateral short- —

pediceled, the middle sessile, the bractlets ovate, 5 to 7 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm.

wide, concave, persistent; calyx cylindric, about 4 mm. long, 2 mm. in di-

ameter, the margin flaring, entire; petals 7, distinct to base, narrowly

linear, 3 to 3.5 cm. long, about 1 mm. wide, acute, orange; filaments sub-

equal to the petals, the anthers narrowly oblong, about 4 mm. long; style

subequal to the filaments.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum of Natural History, no.

562,433, collected at Putis, Choimacota Valley, Province of Huanta, De-

partment of Ayacucho, Peru, altitude 3,400 to 3,500 meters. February 27

to March 12, 1926, by A. Weberbauer (no. 7523).

This is one of the non-parasitic Loranthaceae, true trees or shrubs, which

have been placed in various genera, but now are usually referred to Gazaden-

JANUARY 15, 1934 KILLIP: NEW PLANTS 45

dron. From G. punctatum, G. tagua, and G. puracense the proposed species

differs in the large leaf-like bracts, larger bractlets, and longer petals.

Phrygilanthus linearis Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex parasiticus glaber; rami teretes; folia alterna vel subopposita,

linearia, obtusa, sessilia, obscure l-nervia; inflorescentia subcorymbosa,

floribus ternis pedicellatis; bracteolae triangulari-ovatae, persistentes;

cupula teres, denticulata; calyx quam cupula paullo longior, subinteger;

petala anguste linearia, acuta.

Parasitic shrub, glabrous throughout; branches terete, grass-green, the

internodes 2 to 3.5 cm. long; leaves alternate or subopposite, linear, 2 to

3.0 cm. long, 1.5 to 5 mm. wide, obtuse, sometimes minutely mucronulate

at apex, slightly narrowed at base, sessile, obscurely 1-nerved, fleshy; in-

florescence subcorymbose, compact, the flowers in three’s, pedicellate, the

peduncles and pedicels squarrose, the pedicels 3 to 5 mm. long; bractlets

triangular-ovate, 2 to 3 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. wide, concave, persistent;

cupula cupuliform, 2 to 2.5 mm. long, terete, denticulate; calyx slightly

longer than the cupula, subentire; petals 6, narrowly linear, 2 to 2.5 cm.

long, 0.7 to 0.8 mm. wide, acute, bright red or scarlet; filaments very

slender, about 2 cm. long; anthers linear-oblong, 3 mm. long; style subequal

to or slightly longer than the petals; fruit ovoid.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,281,718, collected at Talara,

Province of Paita, Department of Piura, Peru, September 16, 1925, by

Oscar Haught (no. 9). Represented also by Weberbauer’s 7765, collected at

La Brea, in the same province, and perhaps by Townsend’s 823, the latter

having leaves up to 6 em. long and 1.5 cm. wide.

This species is nearest to P. flagellaris (Cham. & Schlecht.) Eichl., a plant

ranging from southern Brazil to Argentina, which has a longer cupula,

with more pronounced teeth, and deciduous bractlets. The proposed species

does not appear to have the flagellate habit of P. flagellarzs. The leaves are

suggestive of P. cunezfolius (R. & P.) Eichl., but in that species the flowers

are solitary. Weberbauer notes that the plant was parasitic on species of

Acacia. Haught states, “Piva, a slender semi-trailing plant growing nearly

always on algarroba [Prosopis limensis]. The branches reach a length of 6

to 8 feet. Flowers are produced throughout the year, and are bright red.

The two species of Loranthaceae commonly found here [this and Psvtta-

canthus obovatus] are not infested by insects to any extent, but goats seem to

prefer them to any other plant. Goat-herders break pina off trees with long

poles for their animals.”’

Phrygilanthus tumbecensis Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex parasiticus glaber; folia opposita, anguste oblonga, subfalcata, ob-

tusa, sessilia; inflorescentia laxe corymbosa; bracteolae triangulari-ovatae,

concavae; cupula patelliformis, remote denticulata; petala linearia, acuta.

Parasitic shrub, glabrous throughout; branches terete, drying dark brown;

leaves opposite, narrowly oblong, subfalcate, 5 to 10 em. long, 1.5 to 3 cm.

wide, obtuse at apex, narrowed at base, sessile, 1-nerved with numerous ob-

scure ascending secondary nerves, fleshy; inflorescence loosely corymbose,

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. I

the peduncles stout, squarrose, about 1.5 cm. long, the secondary branches

opposite, stout, the flowers in three’s; bractlets triangular-ovate, 2 to 3 mm.

long, concave, fleshy, subpersistent, cupula patelliform, 2 to 2.5 mm. long,

4 to 5mm. wide, remotely denticulate; calyx subcylindric, slightly exceeding

the cupula, denticulate; petals 6, linear, 3 to 4 cm. long, about 1 mm. wide,

acute, ‘‘fiery red with yellow point’’; anthers linear, about 4 mm. long; style

about 4 cm. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,420,154, collected in moun-

tains east of Hacienda Chicama, Province of Tumbez, Department of

Tumbez, Peru, altitude 500 to 700 meters, February, 1927, by A. Weber-

bauer (no. 7668).

This is a much coarser plant than P. lonearis, to which it appears to be

most nearly allied. The leaves are opposite and much broader, and they have

a very blunt apex. The inflorescence is few-flowered and the petals are larger.

All the specimens of Loranthaceae discussed in the present paper I have

compared with material at the herbaria at Berlin.

Hesperomeles goudotiana (Dene.) Killip

Osteomeles goudotiana Dene. Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. 10: 182. 1874.

Specimens examined: Colombia: Cundinamarca: Bogota, Mutis 4328

(Madrid, U. S. N. M.), Goudot (type, Paris); Triana 4182 (Berlin, Paris,

U.S. N. M.); Perez 1092 (U.S. N. M.).

I fully agree with Macbride, Schneider, and others that Osteomeles should

be restricted to the Hawaiian and Chinese species.

Hesperomeles pachyphylla (Pittier) Killip.

Osteomeles pachyphylla Pittier, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 20: 109. 1918.

Specimens examined: Colombia: Paramo de Buena Vista, Huila Group,

Central Cordillera, Pzttver 1183 (U. S. N. M., type). Ecuador: Pichincha:

Turubamba Valley, Firmin 298 (U.S. N. M.). Alangasi, Fzrmin 610 (U.S.

IN. MM).

Hesperomeles nitida Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex, ramis adultis cinereis, glabris, junioribus rufo-hirsuto-tomentosis;

folia late ovata vel suborbiculata, apice rotundata, basi cordulata, crenata —

vel crenato-serrata, supra nitida, pilis nigrescentibus tenuiter hirsutula,

subtus in costa dense rufo-hirsutula; inflorescentiae pauciflorae; fructus

globosus, ruber, rufo-hirsuto-tomentosus, lobis calycis triangularibus acic-

ularibus. |

Compact shrub, 1 to 2 meters high, the older branchlets cinereous, glab-

rous, the younger rufo-hirsute-tomentose; leaves broadly ovate or sub-

orbicular, 1.5 to 2.5 ecm. long, 1.5 to 3 em. wide, rounded at apex, cordulate

at base, short-petioled (petioles up to 5 mm. long, rufo-hirsutulous),

crenate or crenate-serrate, above lustrous and finely hirsutulous with

blackish hairs, becoming glabrous, beneath densely rufo-hirsutulous on

midnerve, less densely so elsewhere, the principal lateral nerves 12 to 14 to

a side; corymbs few (up to 7)-flowered, the branches densely rufo-hirsute-

tomentose, the common peduncle up to 8 mm. long at fruiting time; fruit

JANUARY 15, 1934 KILLIP: NEW PLANTS 47

globose, 5 to 6 mm. in diameter, red, rufo-hirsute-tomentose, becoming

glabrous except at top and bottom; calyx lobes triangular, 1.5 to 3 mm. long,

1.5 to 2 mm. wide, acuminate, acicular, rufo-hirsute-tomentose..,

Type in the U. S. National Museum, no. 1,353,547, collected at edge of

woods, near La Baja, Department of Santander, Eastern Cordillera of

Colombia, altitude 3,500 meters, January 24, 1927, by E. P. Killip and A. C.

Smith (no. 18063).

The nature of the indument on the foliage and fruit distinguishes this

from H. goudotiana and H. obtuszfolia, species which it resembles in the

general shape of the leaves. The plant is known as “‘mortifia,”’ and the fruit

is said to be edible.

Rubus bogotensis eglandulosus Killip, subsp. nov.

Planta pilis flavescentibus eglandulosis dense et molliter hirsuto-tomen-

tosa.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,354,798, collected on the

eastern slope of the Paramo de Santurban, toward Mutiscua, Eastern Cor-

dillera of Colombia, altitude 3,600 to 3,900 meters, February 20, 1927,

by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 19595).

Acaciella curassavica Britton & Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex glaber vel sparse strigosus; folia 10-14 em. longa, pinnis 2—7-jugis,

foliolis 6—-21-jugis, obtusis, oblongis, ellipticis, vel supremis obovatis; capi-

tula in paniculis laxis terminalibus, oblonga vel subglobosa; legumen ob-

longum, 5-8 cm. longum, 1.2—1.5 cm. latum, inter semina impressum, ob-

tusum, basi late cuneatum; semina lenticularia, suborbicularia.

Shrub up to 2 meters high, glabrous, or the young twigs and leaf-rachis

sparingly strigose; leaves 10 to 14 em. long, the pinnae 2 to 7 pairs, the

rachilla very slender, the leaflets 6 to 21 pairs, oblong or elliptic (or the upper

pair obovate), membranous, dull, obtuse, or rounded, 4 to 9 mm. long, the

midvein slender, the lateral venation delicate, or obscure; heads in loose

terminal panicles, oblong or subglobose, in bud 4 to 6 mm. long; peduncles

1 to 1.5 em. long, nearly filiform; pedicels about 0.4 mm. long; calyx about

1 mm. long, 5-toothed; corolla about 2 mm. long, 5-lobed; stamens many,

distinct, about 5 mm. long; legume oblong, transversely forked-veined, ob-

tuse, apiculate, impressed between the 5 to 8 seeds, 5 to 8 cm. long, 1.2 to

1.5 em. wide, the base broadly cuneate, the stipe 6 to 10 mm. long; seeds

lenticular, suborbicular, brown, faintly variegated, about 3 mm. in diameter,

the raphe oblong.

Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected on

limestone rocks near Willemstad, Curacao, March 20 to 27, 1913, by N. L.

Britton and J. A. Shafer (no. 2943). Duplicate in U. S. National Herbarium.

Additional material examined, all from Curagao: Killip & Smith 21039,

21055, 21063; Boldingh 5560; Curran & Haman 137, 251, 255; Rose 22014.

This species was recorded by Boldingh? as Acacia villosa (Sw.) Willd., a

species endemic in Jamaica, and was thus referred to also by Urban, who

noted, however, that it differed from the Jamaica plant in several details.

> Fl. Ned. W. Ind. 206.

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. I

Derris amazonica Killip

Lonchocarpus negrensis Benth. Journ. Linn. Soc. 4: Suppl. 98, 1860. Not Der-

ris negrensis Benth. |

Specimens examined: Brazil: Amazonas: Rio Negro, Spruce 1671 (type,

Kew). Along Rio Negro, above Mandos, Killip & Smith 30044. Man4os,

Killip & Smith 30191. Sao Paulo de Olivenca, Ducke 23400. Para: Gurupa,

Ducke 17201.

One of the specimens which Mr. Smith and I collected has mature fruits,

the broad wings of which show that the species belongs to Derris rather than

to Lonchocarpus. The legumes of the type specimen are not well developed.

Under The American Code of Nomenclature the name for this plant would

be Deguelia amazonica (not Deguelia negrensis Taub.).

Tropaeolum longifiorum Killip, sp. nov.

Herba scandens, glaberrima; stipulae lineares, subpersistentes; folia pel-

tata, fere ad medium septemlobata, lobis obovatis, apice latioribus, rotun-

datis, minute calloso-mucronulatis; pedunculi longissimi quam folia multo

longiores; calcar cylindricum, conspicue nervosum, rectum vel subcurvatum;

sepala oblonga; petala spathulata, subaequalia, subtruncata, subintegra, 2

superioribus coccineis, 3 inferioribus aurantiacis venis coccineis.

Scandent herb, glabrous throughout; stipules linear, about 3 mm. long,

coriaceous, subpersistent; petioles 3 to 4.5 em. long, cirrhose; leaves 2 to

3 cm. long, 2.5 to 4 ecm. wide, 7-lobed nearly to middle (lobes obovate, up to

1 cm, wide, rounded and minutely callose, mucronulate), peltate (propor-

tion above petiole to below petiole about 7:1), papillose beneath; peduncles

elongate, much exceeding the leaves, 12 to 15 cm. long; flowers 4 to 5 cm.

long; spur cylindric, 3.2 to 3.5 cm. long, about 3 mm. wide at throat, con-

spicuously nerved, the tip straight or very slightly curved; sepals oblong,

8 to 10 mm. long, 3 to 5 mm. wide, obtuse; petals similar and subequal, 1.3

to 1.5 cm. long, 6 to 9 mm. wide, subtruncate, subentire, the two upper

scarlet, the three lower orange with scarlet veins, all with dark brown veins

at base.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,473,481, collected near Atac,

Rio Masameric Valley, Province of Jauja, Department of Junin, Peru, alti-

tude 3,400-3,500 meters, April 25, 1913, by A. Weberbauer (no. 6641).

The leaves of this species are of the same general outline as those of T.

septemlobum and T. purpureum, though the lobes are longer and are broad-

ened at the apex. The flowers are much larger, however, the spur being fully

a centimeter longer, and the upperand the lower sets of petals are more nearly

uniform than in either of these relatives. In leaf shape as well as in the size

and form of the flowers the proposed species resembles 7’. bicolor, a repre-

sentative of the Serrato-ciliata group of species.

Tropaeolum purpureum Killip, sp. nov.

Herba scandens, glaberrima; stipulae lineari-subulatae, caducissimae;

folia peltata, septemlobata, lobis rotundatis vel truncatis, mucronulatis,

basi truncata, subtus glauca; flores 2-2.5 cm. longi; calcar cylindrico-

conicum, basi subcurvatum, brunneo-rubrum, sparse purpureo-punctatum ;

JANUARY 15, 1934 KILLIP: NEW PLANTS 49

sepala oblonga; petala spathulato-unguiculata, sepalis longiora, apice crenu-

lata, purpurea.

Scandent herb, glabrous throughout; stipules linear-subulate, 1 to 1.5

mm. long, soon deciduous; petioles 3 to 6 cm. long; leaves 2.5 to 4 cm. long,

3 to 4.5 em. wide, 7-lobed (length of lobes: nerves: :1:4), the lobes rounded

or truncate, mucronulate), peltate (proportion above petiole to below petiole

about 4:1), epapillose, glaucous beneath; flowers 2 to 2.5 cm. long; spur

cylindric-conical, about 1.2 em. long and 3.5 mm. wide at throat, slightly

curved at tip, brownish red; sepals oblong, 8 to 9 mm. long, about 5 mm.

wide, obtuse, brownish red; petals spatulate-unguiculate, crenulate at apex,

purple, 5 to 6 mm. wide, the upper about 1 cm. long, the lower about 1.5 cm.

long.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Herbarium of Natural History, no.

605,323, collected at Marcapata, Province of Quispicanchi, Department of

Cuzco, Peru, altitude 3,200 meters, February 15, 16, 1929, by A. Weber-

bauer (no. 7788). Duplicate at Berlin.

This species comes nearest 7’. crenatiflorum Hook. f. and T. septemlobum

Heilb.; differing from bothin having purple, rather than yellow or yellowish

red petals, a coloring found more usually in species of the Serrato-ciliata

group. The flowers appear to be rather similar in shape to those of 7. crenati-

florum, though they are much smaller. The leaves are 5-lobed in that species.

From 7. septemlobum, a species of central Ecuador with leaves of similar

outline, T. purpureum differs further in the crenate petals.

Mabea acutissima Killip, sp. nov.

Arbor gracilis glaberrima, inflorescentia excepta ;folia lineari-lanceolata, ad

apicem subabrupte et acutissime caudata, basi subrotundata, minute ven-

ulosa, supra nitidula, subtus glaucescentia; paniculae ramuli # glaberrimi,

umbelliformes, 3-flores, pedicellis filiformibus, elongatis, bracteis linearibus,

utrinque glandula nigra oblonga ornatis, sepalis late triangularibus, egland-

ulosis; sepalis 9 ovato-lanceolatis, eglandulosis; stamina ca. 30.

Slender tree about 6 meters high, glabrous throughout; leaves linear-

lanceolate, 5 to 8 cm. long, 1 to 1.2 em. wide, subabruptly tapering to a

long and very sharp point (this 1.5 to 2 em. long, up to 2 mm. wide), sub-

rotund at base, short-petioled (petiole filiform, about 2 mm. long), minutely

serrulate, bright green and lustrous above, glaucescent beneath; panicle

7. to 9 em. long, 2 to 3 cm. wide, deep red, the & branches glabrous, bi-

glandular at base, the glands oblong, up to 2 mm. long and 1 mm. wide,

black, 3-flowered, the flowers pedicellate, the pedicels filiform, 1 to 1.3

cm. long, minutely puberulent, ovate, the bracts about 3 mm. long, flowers

o 2 to 3 mm. wide, deep red, the sepals broadly triangular, 0.5 mm. long,

subobtuse, eglandular; sepals 9 ovate-lanceolate, 2 to 2.56 mm. long, 1 mm.

wide, acuminate, eglandular; ovary ovoid, puberulent; style 1.2 to 1.4 cm.

long, puberulent; stamens about 30.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,518,780, collected at Tu-

tunendo, 80 kilometers north of Quibdé, Intendencia del Chocé, Colombia,

altitude about 80 meters, May 19, 20, 1931, by W. A. Archer (no. 2133).

In the monograph of the genus in Das Pflanzenreich® this species keys out

3 1V. 1475; 25-42. 1912.

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

to the group of Umbelluliferae, species 16 to 19. From these four species it

differs in having very narrow leaves, which more closely resemble those of

M. angustifolia and M. longifolza.

Buettneria flexuosa Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex espinosus, ramulis juvenilibus flexuosis, crassis, subhexagonis,

6-costatis, ferrugineis, sparse vel dense hirsutulis; folia lanceolata vel

ovato-lanceolata, acuminata, basi rotundata, denticulata, quinquenervia,

utrinque ferrugineo-tomentosa; inflorescentia subpaniculata, pedicellis

tenuibus, floribus parvis; calyx campanulatus, lobis lanceolatis; cucullus

petalorum obcordatus, ligula filiformi, glabra.

Shrub 3 to 4 meters high, spineless, the branchlets obscurely 6-angled,

6-costate, ferruginous, sparsely to densely hirsutulous; petioles 1 to 3 cm.

long, ferruginous-villous; leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, 6 to 9 cm.

long, 2 to 5 em. wide, acuminate at apex, rounded at base, denticulate, 5-

nerved (nerves impressed above), densely ferruginous-tomentose; inflores-

cence axillary, subpaniculate, about 2 cm. long, the pedicels slender, 2 to

3 mm. long; calyx tube campanulate, about 1.5 mm. long, 3 mm. wide, the

lobes lanceolate, 3 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, acute; petals about 1 mm. long

exclusive of a filiform glabrous ligule 2 mm. long; stamen tube about 1 mm.

long. :

Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected at

Loja, Ecuador, November 12, 1876, by E. André (no. 4435). André’s K870, —

from the same locality, and K879, from Chuquiribamba, Ecuador, both be-

long to this species.

In the general shape of the leaves and in the dense indument this species

is suggestive of B. mollis H. B. K. and B. hirsuta R. & P., both of which are

spine-bearing. In addition, B. mollis has deeply cordate leaves and a dif-

fuse inflorescence.

Abatia macrostachya Killip, sp. nov.

Frutex ubique stellato-pubescens; folia ovata, apice acuta, basi auriculata,

crenato-serrata; racemi terminales laxiflori, pedicellis tenuibus, 1.5—2 cm.

longis, divaricatis, in fructu prope medium geniculatis; calycis segmenta

anguste lanceolata, apice subulata, interne glabra; stamina fertilia ca. 35,

sterilibus creberrimis; fructus subglobosus. 3

Shrub, the branchlets terete, finely floccose-tomentose with stellate

yellowish-white hairs; leaves ovate, 10 to 18 em. long, 6.5 to 10 cm. wide,

acute at apex, auricular at base, crenate-serrate, membranous, sparingly

stellate-hirtellous above, densely stellate-floccose on the principal nerves

beneath, the petioles 2 to 3 cm. long, quadrangular; racemes terminal,

loosely flowered, 20 to 25 em. long, 5 to 6 cm. in diameter, the rachis sub-

hexagonal, stellate-floccose, the pedicels slender, 1.5 to 2cm. long, divaricate,

at length geniculate near middle, the upper half ascending; calyx 4-parted

nearly to base, the segments narrowly lanceolate, 7 to 8 mm. long, 2.5 to 3

mm. wide, attenuate to a subulate apex, flavo-stellate-tomentose without,

glabrous within; petals none; fertile stamens about 35, the filaments filiform,

about 5 mm. long, the anthers narrowly oblong, nearly 1.5 mm. long; sterile

stamens very numerous (several hundred?), capillary, about 4 mm. long;

ovary globose-conical, densely flavo-stellate-tomentose; style subulate, 7

JANUARY 15, 1934 KILLIP: NEW PLANTS ol

to 8 mm. long, glabrous; fruit subglobose, 5 to 6 mm. in diameter, densely

flavo-stellate-tomentose.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 604,397, collected between

Yanamechi and Amaibamba, Department of Cuzco, Peru, June 19, 1915, by

QO. F. Cook and G. B. Gilbert (no. 1186). Also represented by Herrera’ S 1568,

from the Urubamba Valley, in the same department.

This is evidently a very handsome plant, with its long racemes of flowers.

The pedicels of the individual flowers are much longer and more spreading

than in the other species of this small genus.

Turnera ulmifolia serissima Killip, forma nov.

Caulis pilis brunneis adscendentibus dense vestitus; folia obovata, acuta,

minute denticulata, dentibus mucronulatis, pilis albidis ubique densissime

sericea.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,351,104, collected on the

Mesa de los Santos, Department of Santander, Eastern Cordillera of Co-

lombia, altitude 1 500 meters, December 12, 1926, by E. P. Killip and A. C.

Smith (no. 15179).

This plant is far more densely sericeous than any of the variants of the

polymorphic species 7. ulmifolia. The toothing of the leaves is much finer

than in most of the variants.

Cajophora smithii Killip, sp. nov.

Planta scandens; caulis villosulus, sparse retrorso-setulosus; folia lanceo-

lata, supra medium pinnatilobata, infra medium pinnatipartita (segmentis

jugi infimi petiolulatis), supra scabrida, subtus minute villosula; ovarium

subconicum, dense setosum; lobi calycis lineares; petala cymbiformia;

squamae saccato-convexae, oblongae, apice incrassatae, bicornes, trinerves,

prope medium dorsi appendices 3 oblanceolatas acutas albas gerentes;

staminodia ad quamque squamam 2, falciformia, papillosa, apice filiformia;

stamina ca. 80.

Herbaceous vine; stem sparsely and minutely villosulous, very sparingly

setulose with minute retrorse hairs; petioles 2 to 3.5 cm. long; leaves lanceo-

late, 5 to 7 cm. long, 3.5 to 5 em. wide, pinnately lobed in upper half, pin-

natisect to rachis in lower half (lowermost pair of segments petiolulate, the

segments ovate or lanceolate, dentate, the terminal segment denticulate),

scabrid above with short appressed hairs, finely villosulous beneath; pe-

duncles about 1 cm. long, very slender; ovary obconic, about 7 mm. long,

5 mm. wide at apex, densely setose; calyx lobes linear, about 1 cm. long, up

to 1 mm. wide; petals cymbiform, 1 cm. long, 7 mm. wide, villosulous and

sparingly and weakly setulose without, orange; scales green, saccate-convex,

oblong, 4 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, strongly thickened at apex, 2-horned,

3-nerved, bearing dorsally near middle 3 oblanceolate acute white append-

ages about 2 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide; staminodia 2 to a scale, falciform,

about 5 mm. long, papillose, white, filiform at apex; stamens about 80, 5 to

6 mm. long, the anthers ovate.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,358,846, collected at Car-

papata, above Huacapistana, Department of Junin, Peru, altitude 3,000

meters, June 7, 1929, by E. P. Killip and A. C. Smith (no. 24419).

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

Apparently this species comes nearest to the Argentinan C. clavatain Urban

and Gilg’s monograph of Loasaceae, because of the general shape of the ap-

pendages of the scales. In C. clavata these are said to be filiform, narrowly

laminuliform-dilated at the apex, thus differing from those of the proposed

species. The leaves of that species, moreover, are ovate.

ZOOLOGY.—A new sea-urchin from Florida.1 Austin H. CuarK,

U. 8. National Museum. ;

While working at the Dry Tortugas laboratory of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington Mr. P. Powers of the University of Penn-

sylvania obtained some specimens of a fine new species of Astropyga

which he was so kind as to submit to me for study.

As at present understood, the genus A stropyga includes two species,

A. radiata, ranging from Zanzibar to the Hawaiian Islands, which

was beautifully figured by Seba as Echionanthus major in 1758 and

described by Leske as Cidaris radiata in 1778, and A. pulvinata, oc-

curring on the west coast of Mexico and Central America, which was

described by Lamarck under the name of Cidarites pulvinata in 1816.

The discovery of a third species of this interesting genus of large and ©

conspicuous littoral sea-urchins in Florida waters at this late date is

therefore a matter of no little interest, and this interest is increased

by the fact that, with the sole exception of Tripneustes esculentus

which sometimes slightly exceeds it, this new species is the largest

of the regular echinoids in the shallow waters of the tropical Atlantic.

The new species from Florida may be called

Astropyga magnifica, sp. nov.

Locality.—South of Dry Tortugas, Florida; 48 fathoms (88 meters); col-

lected by Mr. P. Powers.

Diagnosis.—Related to A. pulvinata but with the ambitus circular instead

of rounded pentagonal; with longer spines, which reach slightly more than ~

half the diameter of the test in length; with a smaller peristome; and with

only the outermost column of tubercles in each interambulacral area failing

to reach the peristome. The color is uniform purplish black throughout.

The test is 145 mm. in diameter and 52 mm. high, thin and flexible, the

plates interiorly with abrupt deep circular or oval pits corresponding to the

primary tubercles, these pits becoming very numerous on the actinal sur-

face. The oculogenital ring and the bare forked lines extending outward

from the genital plates are deeply sunken so that the inner two-thirds of the

ambulacral areas on the abactinal surface are much swollen. The whole

animal is covered with rather thick soft skin.

The longest primary spines are about 75 mm. long; it is impossible to

1 Published with the permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Received September 13, 1933.

JANUARY 15, 1934 CLARK: NEW SEA-URCHIN 53

estimate their length exactly as all of them are broken off at some distance

from the tip. The interior of the spines is filled with a rather dense calcareous

network so that they appear solid. The spines increase in diameter slightly

and very slowly from the base for a distance of about 20 mm., then remain

uniform for some distance, finally tapering gradually to the tip. In section

they are circular at the base, becoming transversely oval outward and often

considerably flattened distally. At the base they bear 20—24 sharply rounded

ridges which a little way above the base break up into rows of elongated

scales with overlapping distal ends. Distally these scales gradually become

more and more oblique, finally making an angle of about 30° with the axis

of the spine. They show a marked tendency to become arranged in irregular

verticils.

In the interambulacral areas on the actinal surface the outermost column

of tubercles ends abruptly about one-third of the distance from the ambitus

to the peristome, but the next column curves inward and reaches the peri-

stome. There are 12 columns of tubercles in each interambulacral area at

the ambitus.

The diameter of the actinal system from the apex of one genital to the

outer border of the opposite ocular is 28 mm. The diameter of the periproct,

within the ring of encircling plates, is 11 mm.

The diameter of the peristomal area is 42 mm.

Type specimen.—Cat. No. E.3125, U.S. National Museum. A second large

specimen is entered under No. E.3126, and two small ones under Nos.

E.3127 and E.3128.

Notes —Two young individuals 58 mm. in diameter and 18 mm. high and

49 mm. in diameter and 16 mm. high, resemble A. pulvinata more closely

than do the adults. Their form is pentagonal with broadly rounded angles.

The color (in formalin) is light reddish buff actinally becoming brighter

pinkish in the interradial areas abactinally. Abactinally the bare central

portion and the bare lines radiating from it are deep purple, this color being

continued outward along the sides of the ambulacral areas as a progressively

narrowing margin as far as the amitus, and further as a much lighter pinkish

line to the peristome. Along this band bordering the ambulacral areas is a

series of conspicuous brilliant blue spots, one to each plate. The spines are

very light dull greenish with several narrow bands of bright pinkish-purple

or sometimes more or less deep purple. Abactinally the ambulacral areas

within the dark border are duller and less pinkish than the interambulacral

areas. The ambulacral pores are arranged in a single irregular column.

There are six columns of primary tubercles in each interambulacral area at.

the ambitus.

Remarks.—This species is very readily distinguished from all the other

sea-urchins of the tropical Atlantic. In its general appearance and blackish

color it suggests Centrechinus (or Diadema) antillarum; but it is at once

differentiated from this species by its much shorter and more slender solid

spines and its thin and flexible test, the inner side of which is deeply pitted.

The young are very easily recognized by their conspicuous color pattern

and by their form.

This species should be compared with A. radiata, but no comparable

specimens of that form are available.

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

ZOOLOGY.—Two new parasitic worms of Didelphys aurita: Skrjabi-

nofilaria pricei n. sp. and Gongylonema marsupialis n. sp.

ZEFERINO VAz and CLEMENTE PEREIR, Instituto Biologico, Sao

Paulo, Brasil. (Communicated by BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ.)

Dr. Flavio da Fonseca of the Instituto Butantan, 8. Paulo, has

kindly sent us for study three lots of nematodes collected during

post-mortem examination of Didelphys aurita. One of the lots con-

tained some specimens of a Metastrongylidae, Heterostrongylus

heterostrongylus Travassos,” 1925, taken from the lungs. The contents

of the second lot were taken from the subcutaneous tissue and proved

to be a new filarid worm. The third contained a few specimens of a

Gongylonema which appear to us to be a new species.

Skrjabinofilaria pricei n. sp.

Fig. 1.

This new species can be included in the genus Skrjabinofilarza erected by

Travassos, 1925, for a filarid worm parasitic in the subcutaneous tissue of

the opossum. S. pricez is distinguished from S. skrjabinz by the following

characters: (1) shape of the anterior extremity, (2) absence of buccal capsule,

(3) position of the vulva, (4) trifid tip of the tail in S. pricez, (5) absence of

caudal alae, (6) number of caudal papillae.

Length: male 27-30 mm., female, 45-70 mm.

Thickness: male 0.14 mm., female, 0.2 mm.

Anterior extremity somewhat enlarged. Cuticle thin and smooth; lateral

flanges absent. Mouth simple without lips, but surrounded by a small

chitinous peribuccal ring; buccal capsule absent. Near the tip of the tail in

each sex there is laterally a pair of small cuticular appendages giving the end

of the tail a trifid appearance. Oesophagus divided in two portions: the

anterior one measuring 0.36—0.5 mm. in length, and the posterior 0.7—1.01

mm.; sometimes there is no very clear line of demarcation between the two

parts.

Male.—Posterior extremity spirally rolled with four pairs of preanal pa-

pillae and two pairs of postanal near the anus. Caudal alae absent. The anus

is situated about 0.13 mm. from the trifid posterior extremity. Spicules un-—

equal, the larger one measuring 0.16—0.18 mm. and the smaller 0.13—0.14 mm.

Female.—Opistodelphys; ovoviviparous. The vulva is 0.9-1.4 mm. behind

the anterior end. The vagina is 0.6 mm. long and directed backward. The

anus is situated 0.4 mm. from the posterior end.

Host.—Didelphys aurita Wied.

Location.—Subcutaneous tissue.

Geographic distribution.—S. Paulo, Brazil.

Types and cotypes.—Helminthological collection of the Instituto Biologico

de 8. Paulo, No. 1490. Paratypes. U.S. N. Museum helminthological collec-

tion No. 32533. ;

1 Received September 14, 1933.

2 Comp. Rend. Soc. Biol. Paris. 93: 1255. 1925.

JANUARY 15, 1934 VAZ AND PEREIR: PARASITIC WORMS 0

Con

: :

vy mo

S 9

—

@7.

Fig. 1.—Skrjabinofilaria pricet. a, anterior end of female; 6b and c,

posterior end of female; d, posterior end of male.

Gongylonema marsupialis n. sp.

Kies 2:

Two well preserved female specimens and the anterior portion of another

are the only material on which our description is based. It is possible that

this species is a synonym of a Gongylonema already known; we have created

it based on differences in the host and the geographic distribution. Only when

male specimens have been studied can we say whether this new species is

valid or not.

Female.—Length 37 mm. Thickness 0.26 mm. Mouth surrounded by

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

small dorsal and ventral lips. Cuticle thick, with transverse striations, bear-

ing in the oesophageal region of the body a number of rounded or oval cutic-

ular plaques arranged in three longitudinal rows on the dorsal and ventral

parts. Cervical alae symmetrical and relatively broad, extending anteriorly

to within 0.31 mm. of the extremity.

The pharynx is very short, measuring 0.049 mm. in length. The muscular

portion of the oesophagus measures 0.74—0.8 mm. in length by 0.04 mm. in

breadth. We cannot distinguish the posterior glandular portion of this

organ. Nervous ring 0.52 mm. from the anterior extremity.

The vulva is situated towards the posterior extremity, 4.2 mm. from the

tip of the tail. The short muscular ovejector is directed anteriorly. The uterus

is entirely full of numerous little eggs; coils of uterine complex extending near

the anus. The anus is situated 0.22—0.24 mm. from the very blunt posterior

extremity.

Host.—Didelphys aurita Wied.

' Location.—Mucous membrane of the oesophagus.

F Geographic distribution.—S. Paulo, Brazil.

" Allotypes.—Instituto Biologico de S. Paulo helminthological collection No.

1220.

ww 29

a : - / | 0,05 rn rm Yo) e

Fig. 2.—Gongylonema marsupialis. a and b, anterior end; c, posterior end of female.

ZOOLOGY .—An annotation on the nematode genus Pontonema Leidy

1855.1. N. A. Cops and G. STEINER, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Joseph Leidy described in 1855 and again in 1856 a new genus of

free-living nematodes which he called Pontonema, and to which he re-

1 The figures for this paper were prepared by Josephine F. Danforth and Florence

M. Albin, and technical assistance was given by Edna M. Buhrer, all of the Division

of Nematology, Bureau of Plant Industry. Received October 21, 1933.

JANUARY 15, 19384 COBB AND STEINER: GENUS PONTONEMA oO”

ferred two species, P. vacillatum and P. marinum. Unfortunately

Leidy’s incomplete characterization of the genus and the two species

did not allow later observers to recognize or place them properly. In

1927 a revision of the nematodes still available in Leidy’s various

collections was published by Walton. In this revision Pontonema

vacillatum was referred to the genus Oncholaimus Dujardin and the

species redescribed; P. marinum was transferred to Enoplus. About

that same time, the senior author, in connection with investigations

on nematodes from the New England coast, found it desirable to de-

termine, if possible, the exact standing of the two forms.

From the redescription by Walton (4) it may well be seen that

Pontonema vacillatum belongs to the Oncholaims but its membership

in the genus Oncholaimus proper seems doubtful. As to Enoplus

marinus as redescribed by Walton a more detailed characterization

also seemed necessary to properly differentiate the form from other

species. Such a revision was made possible through the courtesy of

Dr. J. Perey Moore of the University of Pennsylvania, to whom we

express our thanks.

THE GENUS PONTONEMA LEIDY 1855 ( =PARONCHOLAIMUS

FILIPJEV 1916)

Reexamination of the type material collected by Leidy proved that Pon-

tonema vacillatum belongs to the genus Paroncholaimus Filipjev 1916. The

latter genus is therefore a synonym of Pontonema which is now reestablished

and diagnosed as follows:

Oncholaiminae with an anterior circle of six papillae and a posterior circle

of ten short setae on the head, with three teeth in the buccal cavity, the two

subventral ones of symmetrical position, equal size, and both larger than

the dorsal one. Buccal cavity of strict dorso-ventral symmetry. Tail short,

obtuse, curved. Female apparatus amphidelphic. Gubernaculum well de-

veloped.

. Type: Pontonema vacillatum Leidy 1855.?

REDESCRIPTION OF PONTONEMA VACILLATUM LEIDY 1855

The body tapers slightly toward the head end; the tail of both sexes is

short and obtuse, (fig. le, e, f) somewhat digitate in the male. The smooth,

transparent cuticle is 6—-7u thick. There are six flap-like lips, each with a

papilla at its base (fig. la). In addition there are ten short cephalic setae,

of which one occurs in each lateral and two in each submedial sector. Short

somatic setae also occur in longitudinal series in the oesophageal region of

the body. The inconspicuous amphids are situated opposite the point of the

dorsal tooth. |

The buccal cavity is of typical shape, about 38-43 wide and 75—85y long,

and the three teeth are placed as shown in fig. ld. As in related forms the

cane velannius vulgaris (Bastian 1865) was declared type of the genus by Filipjev

in 1916.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

5: i Ape

Fig. 1—Pontonema vacillatum Leidy 1855 a.—Top view of head. X515. b—

c.—Tail of male. 235. d.—Lateral

Detail of male ventro-median supplement,

e.—Tail of male. X235. j.—Tail of female showing

view of head of female. 515.

spinneret. X515. g.—Detail of spicula and gubernaculum.

JANUARY 15, 1934 COBB AND STEINER: GENUS PONTONEMA 59

oesophagus is of cylindrical shape, increasing somewhat posteriad in diam-

eter. It is surrounded by the nerve-ring at about 0.5—0.6 mm. from the an-

terior end. The position of the caudal glands was not made out, but is

undoubtedly preanal, as in other members of the group; their outlet, the

spinneret, is very minute (fig. le, f).

The excretory pore opens about four and one-half times the length of the

buccal cavity behind the head end.

The female apparatus is amphidelphic, with a larger posterior branch.

This inequality in the size of the two branchesis especially noticeable by the

number of smooth, thin shelled eggs in the two uteri, the anterior containing

up to eleven, the posterior up to twenty-four. These eggs are oval, measure

45X55u and are apparently deposited unsegmented. The ovaries are re-

flexed.

In the male, the spicula are quite slender and of much simpler form than

the gubernaculum, which, as shown in fig. 1g, is of complicated structure and

almost as long as the spicula themselves. A pair of large preanal papillae is

located a short distance anteriad of the anus, and farther forward, at about

twice the spicula length in front of the anus, a ventromedian supplement is

present (fig. le and fig. 1b). A number of papillate structures is furthermore

spread over the male tail and also as a preanal ventrosubmedial series (fig.

1c).

Oe als (eee cao 2 OO aD,

ss WS TT

OA. eae Oe .98 .59

Al eee. ME O92:2

EE LD 2D TOD.

43 ? OAR = T.

Habitat—Kennebunk Port, Maine.

Diagnosis.—Pontonema with the tail slightly longer than the anal body

diameter with very short cephalic setae, with amphids opposite the point

of the dorsal tooth, with the excretory pore at about four and one-half times

the length of the buccal cavity behind the anterior end, with a longer pos-

terior branch of the amphidelphic female apparatus; with gubernacula only

slightly smaller in size than the spicula and also in the male with a pair of

slightly submedial papillae in front of the anus.

REDESCRIPTION OF ENOPLUS MARINUS (LEIDY 1855)

WALTON 1927

The cuticle is thin, measuring on the head only 5.5u, in the oesophageal

region 8u. It is traversed by fine transverse striae. The head is set off by a

fine line, a suture, as in other Enoplids, about two-thirds head-width back.

There are ten cephalic setae—one in each lateral and two in each submedial

sector. The latter are of unequal size, the longer one measuring about 22u,

its companion being about one-third shorter. A few short, small setae are

scattered in the oesophageal region and on the tail. Around the ora] opening

six lips are seen, obscurely grouped in pairs. Each of the lips bears a mammi-

form papilla. In the buccal cavity the three equal, yellowish, slightly arcuate

mandibles of 35u length have their normal position, one dorsal and one in

each ventro-submedial sector. Each mandible, 35u long, has two slightly

retrorse, distinctly separated prongs. Anteriorly each mandible is about 16y

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. I

wide but tapers posteriorly rather regularly to its blunt end which is exactly

opposite the aforementioned encircling suture. The lip region is supported

by a refractive transverse triangular framework, serving for the attachment

of the powerful buccal muscles. The small amphids occur a short distance

behind the lateral setae; their ellipsoidal, transverse openings are about.

12u long. Their opening leads into a pouch-like structure behind which

follows a fusiform cavity containing the sensilla.

As in other Enopli the three oesophageal glands empty near the base of the

mandibles into the alimentary tract. No ocelli or pigment spots were seen

on the oesophagus, but long preservation of the material may have caused

their disappearance.

Behind the buccal cavity the oesophagus is about three-fifths, at the

nerve-ring about one-half and at the base again three-fifths as wide as the

corresponding portion of the body. The lateral chords opposite the middle

of the oesophagus are about one-third as wide as the body, whereas in the

middle of the nematode they seem to be more nearly half the corresponding

body width. The number of cells making up the intestine in a cross section is

estimated to be about 20; a few scattered intestinal cells are considerably

larger than the rest. The rectum is about as long as the anal body diameter.

The base of the tail tapers conically and thence onward it may be said to

be subcylindroid in the posterior two-fifths, although the terminus is slightly

Fig. 2.—Enoplus marinus (Leidy 1855) Walton 1927 a.—Tail of male. X170-

b.—Lateral view of head of male. X490. c.—Tail of female. X170. d.—Top view

of head of male. X380. e.—Detail of tail showing spinneret. 490.

JANUARY 15, 19384 SCHMITT: NOTES ON PYCNOGONIDS 61

swollen. A spinneret forms the opening of the large tubular outlets of the

caudal glands.

The inconspicuous excretory pore is located halfway back to the nerve-

ring. Vulva slightly raised, vagina leading in at right angles; female apparatus

amphidelphic, ovaries reflexed. Three to four eggs, each about as long as the

body is wide and two-thirds as wide as long, are contained in each uterus.

The egg shell (1—2u thick) seems to be smooth.

The male has two equal, rather flatly arcuate spicula, about two-thirds

as long as the tail; they taper throughout their length. A double gubernacu-

lum is about one-fourth as long as the spicula and a telamon slightly longer.

The single tubular supplement (65X15) is located about twice the length

of the spicula in front of the anus. Its length is about one-third the cor-

responding body width and it forms an angle of about 45° with the body

axis. About one hundred posteriorly continuous oblique copulatory muscles

(about 12u wide) occur for a distance in front of the anus equal to 2-3 times

the length of the tail. A few are located behind the anus.

i ogee ae Oe je 696.00

SSS PG TLE

ic 129 1.6 iho) 1.3

OPA iol. TZ, M Tall

SO SS Cia TNT

OE A 1.4 2.2 1.4

Habitat—Kennebunk Port, Maine, and in oyster bed, Atlantic City, New

Jersey.

Diagnosis—Enoplus resembling FE. brevis Bastian, 1865, but differing from

it by larger size (8-9 mm. instead of 4.-5.5 mm. in EF. brevis), by a slightly

shorter tail in the female, by regularly tapering spicula and by a more

slender and smaller preanal supplement in the male.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Finipsev,1.N. Les nématodes libres contenus dans les collections du Musée Zoologique

de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences de Petrograd. Annuaire Mus. Zool. Acad.

Imper. Sciences. 21: 59-116.

2. Letpy, JosEPH. Contributions towards a knowledge of the marine invertebrate fauna

of the coasts of Rhode Island and New Jersey. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 3: 135-

i525 SoD:

. Letpy, JosEpH. A synopsis of entozoa and some of their ecto-congeners, observed by

the author. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 8: 42-58. 1856.

4. Watton, ARTHURC. A revision of the nematodes of the Leidy collections. Acad. Nat.

Sei. Phila. Proc. 79: 49-163. 1927.

» OO

ZOOLOGY .—WNotes on certain pycnogonids including descriptions of

two new species of Pycnogonum.! Waupo L. Scumirt, U.S.

National Museum.

Along with various collections of invertebrates received at the

National Museum, there are a number of pycnogonids which seem

worthy of record. Included are two apparently new species of Pycno-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived November 3, 1933.

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

gonum, P. rickettsi and P. hancockv. The first of these new species

comes from Pacific Grove, Monterey Bay, California, where it was

collected by the donor, Mr. E. F. Ricketts, owner and director of the

Pacific Biological Laboratories. The second was taken in the Gala-

pagos Islands in the course of the recent survey of that zoologically

unique group of islands by Captain G. Allan Hancock, of Los Angeles

and Santa Maria, California, sponsor and leader of the Hancock

Galapagos Expedition of 1933. This second new species is here pub-

lished in advance of the more complete account of the results of the

expedition in order to make this interesting find known without de-

lay.

Pycnogonum rickettsi, new species

So far as I am aware, this is the first reticulated Pycnogonum found in the

northern hemisphere. The proboscis is nearly as long as the first three trunk

segments taken together, and is about half as wide as long.

Measured across the crurigers the first trunk segment is almost twice as

wide as long in the median line; the width across the crurigers of the third

segment is equal to the length of the first two segments, the width of the

second segment is intermediate between the first and third. The first seg-

ment is about as long as the second and half the third taken together; the

third is less than half the first in length and from two-thirds to three-

fourths the length of the second.

The abdomen is a little longer than the fourth segment and the fused por-

tion of the crurigers forming part of it taken together; it extends posteriorly

as far as the first coxae of the last, fourth, pair of legs and its width is ap-

proximately equal to half its length.

The oculiferous tubercle arises a little behind the anterior margin of the

segment; it is cylindrical, more or less rounded above, with the suggestion

of a small ‘‘granular”’ tip or apex, and carries no accessory spines or tubercles

either before or behind; the eye spots are faintly marked, of just slightly

deeper and darker color than the body, and not at all as conspicuous‘as in

the drawing. On the ‘“‘neck”’ of the first segment in line behind the oculiferous

tubercle is a stout conical, somewhat apically pointed spine, which is per-

haps half again as high as the oculiferous tubercle; similar but stronger

spines top the second and third segments, that on the second is the largest

of the three. The third is intermediate in size between the first and second;

the dorsum of the small triangular portion of the fourth segment proper is

but slightly convexly raised medially, forming in some specimens more than

in others a low, blunt, rounded and rather inconspicuous eminence.

The lateral processes of the body or crurigers are subequal to the first coxae

in length, except that the first pair are a little longer than the corresponding

coxae and the last pair, which bulk less than half, or only a third the size

of the subjoined coxae. Each cruriger is armed at the middle of its upper

distal margin with a well formed small spine or conical tubercle; these

spines or tubercles decrease in size and height from last to first; the first are

very small yet distinct and noticeable, the last pair are stouter and less spine-

like; the others are intermediate in size and form. Similar stouter and larger

tubercles are located on the distal margin of the first coxae of corresponding

ambulatory legs; those on the first coxae of the last or fourth legs, are each

JANUARY 15, 1934 SCHMITT: NOTES ON PYCNOGONIDS 63

somewhat curved backward and outward; those on the first coxae of the

third legs are less curved than those on the fourth pair and like the spines or

tubercles topping the crurigers, they also decrease in size and prominence

back to front; but individually each pair is slightly larger and stouter than

the corresponding spines on the crurigers.

The second and third coxae of the ambulatory legs are without any par-

ticular armature; they are swollen or expanded distally, the first coxae of

each leg appear somewhat nodulose, in dorsal view at least. All of the joints

of the walking legs are roughened, more or less tubercular-granulate on the

upper or outer surface; above, the distal margin of the femoral and first tibial

joints are armed each with a pair of juxtaposed, stout, conical, lumpy, tu-

bercles, the tibial pair of which is smaller than the femoral; similarly placed

on the second tibial joint is an inconspicuous pair of small tubercles or

nodules; between each of these several pairs of tubercles or nodules on the

femoral and tibial joints arises a stout seta or hair.

In length the second tarsal joint of the third right leg about equals the

second tibial joint and the first tarsal taken together; the terminal claw is

about half, more or less, the length of the second tarsal joint; beneath, the

first and second tarsal joints have a fairly dense fringe or multiple row of short

spinules; similar spinules fewer in number and less definitely in rows occur

on the under side of the second tibial joint; and some few scattered spinules

are to be found here and there on the lower surface of the first tibial joint,

and even more sparingly on the femoral joint.

Type and distribution—One of two male specimens taken ‘‘from an

anemone, probably Metridiwm, brought in by a ‘dragboat’ from deep water

(60 fms.), Pacific Grove, March 31, 1925,” by Mr. Ricketts has been selected

as the holotype. It is slightly the larger of the two, and measures approxi-

mately: proboscis, length 3 mm.; greatest width, 1.2 mm; length of trunk

to base of posterior crurigers, 3 mm.; abdomen 0.9 mm. long. The largest

specimen of this species at hand is a female, which is but very little larger

than the type. It has the proboscis 3.5 mm. long by 1.5 mm. wide; and trunk

4, and abdomen about 1.1 mm. long (measurements approximate). Regard-

ing it, Mr. Ricketts says, ‘‘The large female was taken June 24, 1925, in

40-50 fms., mud bottom, off Pt. Davenport, about 14 miles N.W. of Santa

Cruz on an anemone or Polynices shell.

“Tt is interesting to note that Pycnogonum stearnsi occurs almost invari-

ably on Metridium on wharf piling, on barnacles that also have Metridium,

or on Bunodactis in the tide pools; whereas the other larger [new] species of

Pycnogonum seems to occur also in connection with Metridium, but entirely

on the giant Metridium from deep water. Ecologically, as well as taxonomi-

cally, it would appear that these two Pycnogonums are closely related,

since the mud bottom association of deep water is most closely related to

the wharf piling associations of the intertidal zone.”’

There is still a fourth specimen of this species in our collections, also col-

lected and donated by Mr. Ricketts, from Pacific Grove, 1927.

Remarks.—P. rickettsi seems to be the only reticulated Pycnogonum known

at present, in which the spines, or processes on the first three trunk segments,

are individually much stronger than, and considerably exceed the ocular

tubercle in height. P. cataphractum, in which the first of the median processes

is larger than the ocular tubercle, is at once set apart by its very spiny legs.

In P. mucronatum the median row of spines or processes topping the trunk

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

Fig. 1—Pycnogonum rickettsi. a, Dorsal view of holotype, X about 8; b, Lateral

view; c, Third right leg, X about 29; d, Oviger, X about 60.

JANUARY 15, 1934 SCHMITT: NOTES ON PYCNOGONIDS 65

segments are more or less subequal in height with the ocular tubercle, they

may slightly exceed it but they are much less stout, indeed feeble in com-

parison ; moreover, the very long slender spine-like processes topping the distal

upper margins of the crurigers are quite distinctive of this species and readily

set it apart from all others.

P. madagascarensis, which, regrettably, seems never to have been figured,

has its proboscis in the shape of a truncate cone like P. mucronatum, but

the median dorsal tubercles are low and not so elevated and columnar-

appearing as in that species, while spines or tubercles on the crurigers above

seem to be wholly wanting.

Pycnogonum hancocki, new species

A very striking reticulated species of light tan, with reticulation a deep

rich red-brown color, contrasting sharply with the bright white articulating

ends of the various joints. The ocular tubercle forms quite a conspicuous

feature in the color pattern of this species because of its darker coloration

and greater concentration of brown. This is due chiefly to the presence of

the dark brown pigmented eye-spots and to the fact that two of the dark

brown lines forming the reticulations divide the ocular tubercle roughly into

four quarters.

The proboscis is subcylindrical, truncate, and a little narrower anteriorly

than posteriorly. It is about 2} times as long as its greatest width. In length

the proboscis is very slightly longer than the first two and half the third

trunk segments taken together. The first trunk segment is equal in length to

the second, third, and fourth taken together; its greatest width over the

outermost angles of the crurigers equals the combined length of the first,

second, and about a fourth of the third trunk segments taken together. The

greatest width of the second segment is equal to the length of the first two

trunk segments taken together. The third segment is about as wide as the

length of the first trunk segment plus one-third the second. The posterior

pair of crurigers are fused for a part of their length. The abdomen is about

two-fifths the proboscis in length.

In line behind the only moderately high, rounded ocular tubercle are

three rounded tubercles, each smaller and less robust than the ocular; of

these the third on the third trunk segment is the larger; the first is situated

on the hinder margin of the first trunk segment; the second of these three

tubercles is but little larger than the first and, like it, is placed on the hinder

margin of its, the second, segment. On the dorsum of the last trunk segment

there is no eminence or raised place worthy of comment, under a higher

magnification there appears to be a very slight elevation or swelling at

about the midpoint of the center line.

The distal margins of the crurigers seem to be rather inconspicuously,

slightly nodulated, or perhaps just a bit more coarsely granulated, than the

rest of the body surface. The distal margins of the first coxae of all the

ambulatory legs seem little swollen, there being a tiny nodule or tubercle

either side of the brown line of the reticulations which divides the white

area into two; at about the distal mid portion of the proximal half of the

second coxae of the second and third legs there is a single small nodule of

comparable size, the second coxa of the first leg seems without a trace of

nodulation, while the second coxae of the fourth pair each carry a pair of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

Fig. 2—Pycnogonum hancocki. a, Dorsal view of holotype, X nearly 9; 6, Lateral

view; c, Third right leg, X about 19; d, Oviger of male, X about 70.

JANUARY 15, 1934 SCHMITT: NOTES ON PYCNOGONIDS 67

nodules or noticeable small rounded tubercles, one on the middorsal line,

and the other transversely in line and a little behind the median axis of the

coxa. The remaining joints of the ambulatory legs are rather uniformly finely

granulate, as is the entire animal.

In the third right leg the three coxal joints are more or less sub-equal in

length as are the femoral and the first tibial joints approximately; the second

tibial joint and the second. tarsal exclusive of the terminal claw are also of

about the same length; measured on the ventral margin, the first tarsal

joint is very little longer than the terminal claw; the second tibial joint is

about two-thirds the length of the first, and either two coxal joints are equal

to three-fourths the femoral joint in length. Much as in the preceding species,

the inferior borders of the tarsal joints are finely spinulate, and to a lesser

extent the tibial joints near their distal ends only.

Type and distribution.—The largest of four specimens before me, a female,

has been taken as the type. It was taken Feb. 9, 1933, in company with a

somewhat smaller male carrying eggs on its ovigers at Sta. 65, Hancock

Galapagos Expedition, at low tide from a small rocky reef, offshore, north

of Tagus Hill, Albemarle Island, Galapagos, latitude 0°14’ S. It measures

approximately: proboscis 2.4 mm. long by 0.9 mm. wide; trunk, exclusive

of posterior crurigers, 2.6 mm. long; and abdomen 1.0 mm.

The two other specimens at hand, both females, were taken respectively

at Chatham Island, January 31, 1933, in the course of dredging in 2-3 fathoms

east of Wreck Bay; and during shore collecting along the rocky shore east

of Cormorant Point, Charles Island, Galapagos, February 6, 1933.

Remarks.—P. hancock: is one of the reticulated species of Pycnogonum be-

longing to the group having a few tubercles on the ambulatory legs. From

the species so grouped, P. indicum, madagascarensis and mucronatum, it

differs, in the case of the first, among other characters, in lacking the armed

ridge running back from the ocular tubercle, and in having a subcylindrical

proboscis instead of a decided conical one; the proboscis of P. madagascar-

ensis, like that of P. indicum, forms an obtuse cone; in P. mucronatum the

height of the median dorsal tubercle of the trunk serves to differentiate it from

P. hancockt, aside from the fact that the former has long slender spinous or

tubercular processes on the crurigers which are wholly lacking in the latter.

The very low dorsal tubercles of the trunk segments of this species seem

rather unique among the reticulated Pycnogonums, particularly those with

legs comparatively or almost wholly free of noticeable tubercles.

NYMPHON GROSSIPES (Fabr.)

On occasion of a reconnaissance in the Bering Sea in the furtherance

of the National Geographic Society’s interest in the possibilities of

aerial Arctic exploration, Capt. R. A. Bartlett made a number of

dredgings for marine invertebrates. In one haul made about fifteen

miles north of Big Diomede Island, Bering Strait, June 14, 1924, two

specimens of Nymphon grossipes were obtained. The only previous

records of this species off the West American coast are those of John

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

Murdoch at Point Franklin in 134 fathoms and at the head of Norton

Sound, Alaska, in 5 fathoms, respectively August 31 and September

12, 1883.

PHOXICHILIDIUM FEMORATUM (Rathke)

A very ragged, yet identifiable, specimen of this species was re-

ceived from the U. 8. Biological Survey as a part of the stomach con-

tents of Histrionicus histrionicus pacificus Brooks, the Pacific har-

lequin duck, collected by A. M. Bailey Sept. 1, 1920, at Stephens Pas-

sage, Alaska. At the time of its receipt, the specimen represented a

noteworthy eastward and southward extension of the range for the

species, which heretofore on the west coast of America had only been

known to range from Unalaska to Orea (Cole). However, I have also

had occasion to determine another specimen of this species from much

farther south, from Ucluelet, Vancouver Island. This specimen is

listed a second time below as one of the pycnogonids seen from British

Columbia.

AMMOTHEA LATIFRONS Cole

A portion of fragments of sixteen specimens of this pyenogonid were

determined for the Biological Survey from the stomach contents of

the Pacific harlequin duck, Histrionicus histrionicus pacificus Brooks,

taken by P. A. Tavener at Kiska Island, Aleutians, April 16, 1924.

AMMOTHEA PRIBILOFENSIS Cole

This species has been determined from stomachs of Histrionicus

histrionicus pacificus Brooks, the Pacific harlequin duck, as well as

Somataria v-nigra Gray, the Pacific eider, on several occasions in

quantities of one to three specimens. The birds in which these identi-

filable specimens were found were secured by G. Dallas Hanna on St.

Paul Island, Pribilofs, January 13 and 29, 1918, and Mar. 21, 1915.

In several other specimens of each of these two ducks, fragments

of pycnogonids which could not be definitely named were found, as

well as in a pigeon guillemot, Cepphus columba Pallas, also obtained by

Dr. Hanna on St. Paul Island, Dec. 9, 1914. Hydroids of at least two

species were found in the stomachs of several of the birds from which

pycnogonids were sorted at the Survey. The remarkable variety of

marine animals eaten by the ducks at least would indicate that the

pycnogonids were very probably ingested along with the hydroids,

some algae, crustacea, mollusks, echinoderms, and the like, which

form the bulk of their varied fare.

JANUARY 15, 1984 SCHMITT: NOTES ON PYCNOGONIDS 69

PYCNOGONIDS FROM MONTEREY BAY, CALIFORNIA

As it may be of some interest, a list of the Monterey Bay pycno-

gonids that were identified a few years ago for Mr. E. F. Ricketts of

the Pacific Biological Laboratories is here appended. Eight species

are to be recorded from the region:

ANOPLODACTYLUS ERECTUS Cole, 1 specimen, collected in 1927,

‘from compound ascidians far out; tide pools.’’

HALOSOMA VIRIDINTESTINALIS Cole, 16 specimens, chiefly taken in

1928, “from wharf piling, Obelza colonies.”’ 7

AMMOTHEA LATIFRONS Cole, 2 specimens ‘‘from 80 fathoms,”’ re-

ceived in 1928. These specimens seem to be of a somewhat more

slender build as regards the appendages, eye-tubercle, and abdomen

than most of those available for comparison from farther north. How-

ever, one from Sanborn Harbor, Nagai, Alaska, determined by Leon

J. Cole, appears so well to link the California specimens to the species

that I have so identified them in spite of what appears to be a very

considerable extension of range southward.

AMMOTHELLA TUBERCULATA Cole, | young specimen, received 1927.

LECYTHORHYNCHUS MARGINATUS Cole, 3 specimens, data as for A.

erectus above.

TANSTYLUM INTERMEDIUM Cole, 2 specimens, received in 1927.

PYCNOGONUM STEARNSI Ives, 9 specimens received in 1927. One of

specimens was found on an anemone.

PYCNOGONUM RICKETTSI Schmitt, specimens and occurrence as

given with the description of the species above.

PYCNOGONIDS FROM SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

AMMOTHELLA BI-UNGUICULATA Dohrn, 3 specimens from San Pedro

(Pt. White), collected by E. P. Chace, May 5, 1919.

AMMOTHELLA SPINOSISSIMA Hall, 1 specimen, as above, May 18,

1919.

PYCNOGONUM STEARNSI Ives, 13 specimens, collected by E. P.

Chace; three males, one female, from tide pools, Point Fermin, Mar.

28, 1918; and three males, six females, from mussels, north of Santa

Monica, Nov. 17, 1918.

PYCNOGONIDS FROM BRITISH COLUMBIA

From Ucluelet, Vancouver Islands, W. Spreadborough, May—July,

1909, sent in pyenogonids of four species for identification, while a

fifth but tentatively determined was taken from Virago Sound, Queen

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 1

Charlotte Island, from 8-15 fathoms by M. Dawson, 1878. The

specimens seen are as follows:

PHOXICHILIDIUM FEMORATUM (Rathke), 1 specimen.

AMMOTHEA GRACILIPES Cole, 4 specimens.

AMMOTHELLA, TUBERCULATA Cole, 5 specimens.

? AMMOTHEA ALASKENSIS Cole, 1 specimen; close to if not identical

with this species; from hydroids.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

NoTEs

National Academy of Sciences.—A number of contributions were made by

Washington scientists at the autumn meeting of the National Academy of

Sciences at Cambridge, November 20 to 22. Dr. F. EK. WricHt announced

new data obtained in polariscopic examination of moonlight, and their

bearing on the problem of the nature of the lunar rocks. Dr. C. G. ABBoT

spoke on his recent discovery of a 23-year weather cycle, and its correlation

with periods of sun-spot maxima. Dr. ARTHUR E. Morgan, director of the

Tennessee Valley Authority, delivered the principal evening lecture, on

Muscle Shoals and the Tennessee Valley Problem. Dr. JoHN C. MERRIAM pre-

sented a review of the present status of the problem of the antiquity of man

in North America. Gen. GEorGE O. SQuiER discussed a proposal for a com-

bined sound and light distributor.

National Institute of Health—Researches at the National Institute of

Health and at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York

City indicate that encephalitis patients develop immune bodies in their

blood. In both investigations a virus-susceptible strain of mice was used. The

animals were inoculated with material from the brains of encephalitis vic-

tims, producing typical symptoms. But susceptible mice given preliminary

injections of blood serum from encephalitis patients were protected from the

disease.

The Colorists organized.—The artistic, commercial, scientific, and other

aspects of color will be the concern of an informal group organized under the

name of The Colorists. While color enters into many activities of daily life

and is of interest to groups of artists, physicists, and industrialists in many

aspects, Washington has not heretofore had a society whose primary object

was color in all of its many aspects. At the organization meeting held at the

Cosmos Club, CHarLEs BiTTincEeR, Washington artist who has made a

scientific study of color, presided. Miss Dorotuy NicksErson, color expert

of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the Department of Agri-

culture, was also one of the leading organizers. Among those who participated

in the formation of the organization were Dr. E. C. CRITTENDEN, assistant

director of the U. 8. Bureau of Standards, and Mr. A. EH. O. MunsE x1 of the

Munsell Research Laboratory, Baltimore, Md., who has been a leader in

the commercial standardization of color. The U.S. Bureau of Standards was

also represented by Dr. K. 8. Gipson, Dr. DEANE B. Jupp, R. T. MEAss,

J.T. BREwstTErR, WILLIAM D. Appr, R.S. Hunter, Dr. Percy A. WALKER,

JANUARY 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS (fi

Miss Rusy K. Worner, Miss GENEVIEVE BEcKeER, and Dr. H. D. HusBarp.

Among the representatives of the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture were:

B. A. Brice, M. R. Coz, C. C. Firretp, Paut E. Hown, Grorce PFEIFFEN-

BERGER, CHARLES E. Sanpbo. From the University of Maryland came Dr.

Braumont and LEE SHRADER. The Paint and Varnish Institute was repre-

sented by L. P. Hart, J. R. Stewart, G. G. Swarp and A. W. Oan. Dr.

T. S. Bracxetr and Dr. E. D. McAtistTrer attended, representing the

Division of Radiation of the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. 8. W. Boaes,

geographer of the State Department and Miss Epna S. Banks of the Library

of Congress Map Division represented geographical interest. Lieut. BERN

ANDERSON mentioned the color problems of the U. 8. Navy. Other Washing-

ton fields of color interest were represented by CHARLES VAL CLEAR, director

of the Art League, I. H. Gopuove, color counselor, and Fetrx MAHonrEy,

artist.

National Zoological Park.—A “ghost wolf” (Chrysocyon jubatus) from

Brazil has been acquired by the National Zoological Park. The animal,

which is about five months old, is believed to be the only one in captivity.

The National Zoological Park has also started a collection of birds whose

names are familiar in English literature; it includes specimens of the English

robin, European shrike, goldfinch, chaffinch, hawfinch, bullfinch, lapwing

and waxwing. Specimens of the bulbul and shamas thrush, Asiatic birds

also often mentioned by English authors, are also included.

National Bureau of Standards.—On the evening of Saturday, November 18,

the members of the staff of the Bureau of Standards gave a reception in

honor of Dr. Lyman J. Briaas, the new Director of the Bureau. In addition

to staff members there were in attendance the Secretary of Commerce

and the heads of the scientific bureaus of the Government. An exhibit of

recent developments in science was arranged in connection with the recep-

tion.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Dr. GuNTHER ROEDER, director of the Pelizaeus Museum, Hildesheim

Germany, lectured before the Archaeological Society of Washington on

discoveries made by his expedition at Hermopolis, in Egypt.

Dr. Witut1aM WALLACE CAMPBELL, president of the National Academy

of Sciences, president emeritus of the University of California and director

emeritus of the Lick Observatory, was the principal speaker at the annual

Carnegie Day exercises of the Carnegie Institute of Technology on November

28.

Dean A. A. Porrrr of Purdue University has been added to the committee

on railway research of the Science Advisory Board.

Dr. W. F. G. Swann, director of the Bartol Research Foundation of the

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, gave a cello recital before the Arts Club

of Washington on the evening of Thursday, December 14.

Dr. Karu F. Kevuerman has been appointed head of a new division of

plant disease eradication and control in the Bureau of Entomology, U. S.

Department of Agriculture.

Freperick D. RicHry, now in charge of corn investigations in the

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 1

Bureau of Plant Industry, has been promoted to be associate chief, effective

January 1.

Dr. JAMES RosBeERTSON, director of the Nautical Almanac office of the

Naval Observatory, was given the degree of Doctor of Science by George-

town University on the evening of Friday, December 24. Among those who

witnessed the ceremony was the Rev. EH. C. Puiuurps, 8.J., formerly astron-

omer at Georgetown and now Father Provincial of the Baltimore Province

of the Society of Jesus.

Dr. W. B. BE tt, of the Bureau of Biological Survey, attended the 47th

annual convention of the Association of Land Grant Colleges and Uni-

versities, at Chicago, Ill.

RicHARD KILBOURNE, forester for the Extension Service of the University

of Maryland during the last three years, has resigned to become assistant

chief of planting in the forestry department of the Tennessee Valley Au-

thority at Knoxville.

W. C. HENDERSON, associate chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey,

spoke over the radio on the subject, A critical time for ducks and geese, on

November 12. His talk was broadeast by Station WMAL in Washington.

He pointed to overshooting as one of the chief causes of the decrease in water-

fowl and the only one that can be remedied immediately.

Park Naturalist PauL R. FRANKE of Mesa Verde National Park and Park

Naturalist D. 8. Lippy of Crater Lake National Park are in the Washing-

ton Office at the present time. Mr. FRANK will remain in Washington for

several months assisting with the motion picture program being lined up for

the Civilian Conservation Corps camps by the Branch of Research and

Education. Mr. Lipsey will also remain in the Washington Office for several

months to assist with the Emergency Conservation Work program being

carried out in the reservations under the jurisdiction of this office.

Mr. Earu A. TRAGER, geologist in the branch of research and education,

office of National Parks, Buildings and Reservations, U. 8. Department of

the Interior, will give a talk on the geology in the national parks at the forth-

coming meeting of the Geological Society of America to be held in Chicago at

the end of December.

F, P. Parris and E. M. SxHook of the department of historical research,

Carnegie Institution of Washington, received training in December at the

department of terrestrial magnetism in making astronomical observations

for the determination of latitude and longitude and in observing the magnetic

declination preparatory to taking up work in connection with the proposed

archaeological excavations in Central America.

Mr. Jason R. SwWALLEN, assistant agrostologist, Bureau of Plant Industry,

sailed Nov. 22 for Para, Brazil. He will spend six months collecting and

studying grasses in the states of Para, Maranhao, Piauhy, Ceara, and Rio

Grande do Norte. The grasses of this region are very little known, the few

botanists who have visited northeastern Brazil having as a rule neglected

the grasses.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS

Page

Chemistry—The ammoniation of waste sulfite liquor and its possible utilization

as a fertilizer material. Max Puruuips, M. J. Goss, B. E. Brown, and ve R.

FRB ee Oy a hate aed a os De CON GOR Rata a a en 1

Hydrology.—The history and development of ground-water hydrology. abun

EpWaRp UMBINZER } os 000408 Sa oo a Oe 6

Botany.— Hawaiian algae collected by Dr. Paul C. Galtsoff. Marsnaun A.

BOWE cis ee fe Pa eS ee A eS an BSR 2 en 32

Botany.—New plants mainly from western South America—lV. ELusworts P. |

FORTE G2) ee ee a ke eo oa Sea ne a et ted ee cr Gude Why abe

Zoology.— A new v sea-urchin from Florida. Austin H. OUARK...........-++.-. 52

foology —Two new parasitic worms of Didelphys aurita: Skrjabino; apie pricet

n. sp. and Gongylonema marsuptalis n. sp. ZEFERINO Vaz and CLEMENTE

PRT R 5 Re og ORs Ta de aa ate int Oo Geto, ae tag ts ee a BE 54

Zoology.—An annotation on the nematode genus Pontonema. N.A.Copgand G.

SPMINER woo ol Ry oa ists Ce ee

Zoology.—Notes on certain pycnogonids including descriptions of two new species _

of Pycnogonum.’ «WawLno L: SCHMITT. 3.0. ge a ee 61

Scrunrivic Notes anp NewS. 0.40. Oyo i ee Oe 5 On 70

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Bt Psd

LW 2

Vou, 24 | Frepruary 15, 1934 No. 2

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 24 FEBRUARY 15, 1934 No. 2

BOTANY.—Two new varieties of Salix scouleriana Barratt. “ CARLE-

TON R. Batu, University of California.

The well marked but variable species complex known as Salix

scouleriana is distributed from New Mexico and southern California

to the Yukon Valley of Canada and Alaska. In altitude it ranges from

sea level along the Pacific Coast, from California to Alaska, to eleva-

tions of 8000 or 9000 feet in the southern part of the Rocky Moun-

tains and in the San Bernardino Mountains of California.

It has been described under several specific names, including S.

scouleriana Barratt (1839), S. flavescens Nuttall (1841), S. stagnalis

Nuttall (1841), S. brachystachys Bentham (1857) and S. capreoides

Andersson (1858). Probably some of the plants so named represent

distinguishable varieties, but none of them is so recognized as yet.

This is due in part to the difficulties of current herbarium material.

It is a species of extremely precocious flowering and the promptly

deciduous aments fall before the leaves develop. Some plants flower

in December on the Pacific Coast. Except in the rare cases where col-

lections are made from the same plant at intervals of some weeks,

therefore, it is almost impossible to know what observed leaf forms

are associated with certain ament and flower characters. The species

certainly would be better understood if it could be split into varieties.

Happily it now is possible to segregate and describe two varieties

hitherto unrecognized.

The writer desires to express thanks for the many courtesies re-

ceived from the staff of the Department of Botany, University of Cali-

fornia.

SALIX SCOULERIANA var. coetanea Ball, var. nov.

Sectio Capreae. A specie typica amentis coetaneis, pistilliferis iis speciei

aliquando laxioribus, et ambobus in pedunculis brevibus folioso-bracteatis

fultis differt.

* Received October 17, 1933,

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

Shrub usually 2-4 or rarely 5 m. high. Branchlets rather slender, fragile

(or readily deciduous in drying), divaricate, the 2-year brown to dark brown

and glabrate to glabrous, the 1-year and seasonal shoots yellowish to brown

and usually finely and often sparsely puberulent. Bud scales small, colored

and clothed as the branchlets. Stipules wanting, or rarely 2-5 mm. long on

vigorous shoots, broadly lanceolate, dentate, puberulent. Blades oblance-

olate and acutish to obovate and obtuse or rounded at apex, cuneate at base,

3 to 5 cm. long by 1.5—2.5 cm. wide, or the larger up to 6 by 3 cm., entire and

slightly revolute on the margins or the distal on seasonal shoots irregularly

crenulate-denticulate, dark green above, glaucescent to glaucous beneath,

puberulent on both surfaces (probably becoming glabrate in age).

Aments coetaneous, borne on short, leafy-bracted peduncles, the Sena

nate peduncle about 5 mm. long, with small bracts, the pistillate peduncle

5-15 mm. long and bearing 3—5 smal] leaf-like bracts, 0.5-2 em. long. Stam-

inate aments 1-2 cm. long, Pistillate aments 1.5—4 cm. or sometimes 5 cm.

long; pedicels of the capsules 0.5-1 or 1.5 mm. long; styles short, stigmas

elongated, 1 mm. long, usually entire. Flower scales in both sexes elliptical-

obovate, acutish to rounded, black, longvillous.

This is a shrub with the general characters of S. scouleriana, but differing

from type concept of that species and the next variety in having the aments

coetaneous, the pistillate rather lax, and both sexes borne on short, leafy-

bracted peduncles. For the material on which the description is based, bota-

nists are indebted chiefly to two very discriminating collectors, Joseph P.

Tracy of Eureka, California, and J. William Thompson of Seattle, Washing-

ton. The writer is glad to acknowledge his personal obligation to both.

As will be noted from the specimens cited, variety coetanea flowers from

May to June, and fruit may be found during June and early July, in marked

contrast to the early spring flowering of the species. Even at sea level,

flowering did not occur until mid-March. There must be admitted the

possibility that this condition results from physiological disturbance of the

plant. The increasing number of collections, over a wide area, however,

make this unlikely. The type specimen (pistillate) is Thompson No. 9297

in herbarium C. R. Ball (2 sheets).

So far as available material indicates, this variety is confined to the central

part of the range of the species. It occurs sparingly from northwestern Cali-.

fornia to Nevada and Utah, and north to south-central Washington, western

Montana, and the mountains in the southern parts of Alberta and British

Columbia. It is found, therefore, in the Wasatch, Rocky, Sierra-Cascade,

and Coast Range mountain systems. Except for the one collection near the

ocean, where precipitation and fog maintain low temperatures, the collec-

tions are all from elevations of 4000 to 6000 feet. It seems probable that the

variety will be found to have an even wider range.

Specimens examined are cited below. The containing herbariums are:

CRB, Carleton R. Ball; NMC, National Museum of Canada; PC, Pomona

College; UMont. University of Montana; and UC, University of California.

CaLirornia: Humboldt Co. Ferndale, alt. 100 ft., shoots from cut and

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 BALL: NEW SALIX VARIETIES 19

burned stump, Joseph P. Tracy 10921, (UC). Trinity Summit, shrub

10 ft. tall, on dryish slopes back from the meadows, Corral Prairie, alt.

5000 ft., Joseph P. Tracy 10507, (CRB, UC); shrub with erect branches,

15 ft. tall, at edge of meadow, same locality, Tracy 10518 (UC).

Trinity Summit, common shrub in moist places, 6-10 ft. tall, rocky, ex-

posed places, head of Devil’s Hole, alt. 6000 ft., Tracy 10694, (CRB,

UC). Trinity Summit, rocky exposed places, head of Brett Hole, alt.

6000 ft., Tracy 10714, (UC). Modoc Co. In lodgepole pine woods, north

slope of Bidwell Mtn., Warner Mts., Elmer I. Applegate 7619, (CRB).

Nevapa: Head of Fall Creek, Ormsby Co., elev. 2460 m., C. F. Baker 1153,

(PC; distrib. unnamed; 9 and <a’, the latter aments 1 cm. long, the

peduncles 0.5 cm. and bracted). Lake Tahoe, Nevada, M. E. Jones,

(PC, distrib. unnamed; fruit past ripe).

Montana: Missoula, on trail to Mt. Stuart, alt. 6000 ft., J. EH. Kirkwood

1076, (UMont, UC).

WASHINGTON: Kittitas Co. Upper alpine slopes of Redtop, alt. 4500 ft.,

J. Wm. Thompson 9297, (CRB, UC, luxuriant growth, leaves green

beneath from artificial drying); same locality, alt. 4000 ft., Thompson

9303, (CRB, UC; ‘‘more robust than 9297, and occupying a definitely

lower zone’’). Chelan Co. Blewett Pass, Wenatchee Mts., abundant

in thin timber on open hillsides, elev. about 4200 ft., C. R. Quick, 1057,

Goro’), (CRB, UC).

UranH: La Sal Mts., M. E. Jones, (PC). City Creek Canon (Ogden?), M.

E. Jones (PC).

BritisH CoLumBiA: International Boundary Commission. Near Interna-

tional Boundary between Midway and Osoyoos, first summit west of

Skagit River, J. M. Macoun 73683 (NMC). Mons, Pacific Great East-

ern Ry., J. M. Macoun 97789, 97790 (NMC).

ALBERTA. Banff and vicinity, VN. B. Sanson, 19, 145, 161 (CRB).

SALIX SCOULERIANA var. thompsoni Ball, var. nov.

Salix brachystachys Bentham, S. scouleriana tenuijulis Andersson (in part)

Monog. Sal. Kon. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handlingar 6: 83. 1867.

S. brachystachys, 8 scouleriana, 1. tenuzjulis Andersson (in part). DC. Prodr.

16(2): 225. 1858.

Sectio Capreae. A forma typica differt ramulis gracilioribus, strictioribus, et

glabrescentioribus, foliis minoribus plerumque anguste ellipticis vel anguste

oblanceolatis, 3—7 cm. longis, 1—2 cm. latis, plerumque plus minusve crenato-

denticulatis, et amentis minoribus gracilioribus, 1—2.5 cm. longis.

Differs from the species in the slender, elongated, more glabrate branch-

lets, the small and slender aments, and the small, mostly narrowly oblanceo-

late, and usually more or less crenate-denticulate leaves.

Shrub 2-4 or sometimes 6 m. high, branchlets usually slender, elongated,

straightish, ascending, and tough; l-year and 2-year branchlets usually

black or dark brown, glabrous and often shining; seasonal shoots pubescent

or puberulent, becoming glabrate; bud scales 4-7 mm. long, colored and

clothed as the shoots bearing them; stipules usually wanting, or 1-2 mm.

long and semi-cordate on vigorous shoots; petioles 5-10 mm. long, pubescent

to glabrous; leaf-blades relatively small, those on seasonal shoots and the

upper leaves on 1-year and 2-year branchlets narrowly elliptical to oblanceo-

late, commonly 1 by 3, 1.2-1.5 by 4, 1.5-1.8 by 5-6, and 2.5 by 7.5 em. in

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

size; the lowermost on these branchlets broadly oblanceolate, commonly

1.5 by 3-3.5 and 2 by 4 cm. in size; all usually cuneate at base; narrower

blades acute or short-acuminate, lower and broader often obtuse; "the upper

narrower irregularly and often prominently crenate- denticulate, the lower

entire or subentire; all green and glabrous above or the younger puberulent,

Fig. 1.—Salix scouleriana var. thompsoni Ball. Portion of pistillate

and staminate cotype specimens.

all pale green to subglaucous beneath, the older glabrous to glabrate,

younger pubescent or occasionally tomentose beneath with gray hairs which

often become somewhat rusty in color.

Staminate aments 1-2 cm. long, almost sessile; stamens two, filaments

free, glabrous; scales usually somewhat narrower than those of the pistillate

flower. Pistillate aments 2-3 cm., or occasionally 4 em. long at maturity,

usually slender and incurved, on tomentose peduncles 5-7 mm. long and

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 BALL: NEW SALIX VARIETIES rege

bearing 2-3 pilose bracts or small, bract-like leaves; capsule lance-rostrate,

6-7 mm. long, gray-pubescent, borne on a pubescent pedicel 1-1.5 mm.

long; style very short, 0.2-0.5 mm. long; stigmas entire or divided, 0.5-1

mm. long; scales broadly oblanceolate or obovate, 1.5-2.5 mm. long, acute

to obtuse or sometimes slightly erose at apex, black, densely pilose on out-

side and thinly pilose inside with long, shining hairs.

The existence of the well marked variation described above has been

known for several years but publication has been delayed until the collection

of flowers and foliage from the same plants should make possible a complete

and accurate description. This convincing material has now been made avail-

able by Mr. J. William Thompson, of Seattle, whose critical collections are

adding rapidly to the known flora of this large and diverse State. It is a real

pleasure to name this variety in his honor.

The portion of the scouler,ana complex to which variety thompson is

most closely related is the variety or form tenuzjulis described by Andersson,

as cited at the opening of this discussion. From Andersson’s form it differs

in still smaller aments and foliage and especially in elliptical or elliptical-

oblanceolate and denticulate leaves, as well as in much less pubescence on

branchlets and leaves.

The center of distribution for this variety appears to be the Puget Sound

area of Washington and the Georgian Bay area of adjacent British Colum-

bia. It has been found by Pammel on the Oregon Coast below the mouth

of the Columbia River. Away from the coast it has been taken at appreciable

elevations in the Cascade Mountains, at Easton, Washington, by Pammel

and on Mt. Benson, Vancouver Island, by John Macoun. Doubtless the

known range will be extended still further when these facts come to the

attention of collectors.

Tke initials of the herbariums containing the specimens cited below are:

CRB, Carleton R. Ball; NMC, National Museum of Canada; UC, Univer-

sity of California; and USN, United States National Herbarium. The follow-

ing specimens have been examined:

OREGON: Clatsop Co. Gearhart Park, L. H. Pammel 13, (CRB).

WASHINGTON: King Co. Seattle: Pzper and Smith 556 (in part), (CRB);

C. V. Piper, March, 1890 (CRB); about 3 miles north of city limits,

C. V. Piper 6682, 6686, 6693, (CRB); moist slopes along Cheasty

Boulevard, J. William Thompson 5896 (pistillate type collection), 5898,

5900 (staminate type collection), 5901, (CRB). Pierce Co. Taco-

ma, shrub, 10-20 ft. high, common in gravelly soil, J. B. Flett 1884,

March 6, April 14, and June 14, 1901 (CRB); abundant in vacant

lausssany places. Jc 5. Mleil 2272, 22724, (CRB); L. H. Pammel 34,

(CRB). Kittitas Co. Haston, Pammel and Dudgeon 19, (CRB). Snoho-

mish Co. Marysville, J. M. Grant 208, 209, 211, (CRB); 203, (CRB,

UC, sub nomen S. caudata). San Juan Co. Lopez Island, shrubs 6-9

feet high, dry roadsides near the “‘Holy Roller” colony, Hunter’s Bay,

€. kh. Ball 2084, (CRB).

BritisH Cotumsia: Vancouver Island. Cowichan Lake, W. Spreadborough

83853, (NMC). Departure Bay, W. Spreadborough 2, (NMC, 83847 and

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

83857); 3, (NMC, 83846 and 83854); 4, (NMC, 83845 and 83848); 5,

(NMC, 83844 and 83849); 6, (NMC, 83843). Mt. Benson, upper

slopes, alt. 3200 ft., John Macoun 76800, (CRB, NMC). Nanaimo and

vicinity, John Macoun 76802, (CRB, NMC); in thickets, John Macoun

80958, (NMC); John Macoun 76804, (NMC); W. Spreadborough 15,

(NMC 88850). Strathcona Park, Drumm Lake, J. M. Macoun 83881,

(NMC). Victoria and vicinity, John Macoun 76770, (CRB, NMC);

in thickets, Burnside Road, John Macoun 76766, (NMC); Beaver

Lake, John Macoun 76801, distributed as S. geyerrana (CRB, NMC,

branchlets very short, crowded); A. J. Pinio 68682, (NMC); M. O.

Malte 122135, (NMC, UC). Georgian Bay Islands. Mayne Island,

J. M. Macoun 90155, (NMC). Salt Spring Island, wet places, John

Macoun 24470, (NMC, UC). New Westminster District. Ocean

Park, 3 miles north of 49th parallel, gravelly hillsides on logged and

burned land, J. K. Henry 6, (CRB, 3 sheets; NMC, 2 sheets); Henry 7,

(CRB, 3 sheets; NMC, 2 sheets); Henry 12, (CRB, NMC). All distrib-

uted unidentified, NMC Nos. 117206-117209, and 117211. Powell

River, erect bushes, 8-10 ft. high, J. G. Jack 2838, (CRB).

ZOOLOGY.—Two new species of pearly fresh-water mussels... WtL-

LIAM B. MarsHA.u, U. S. National Museum. (Communicated

by Paut BARTSCH.)

The recent pearly fresh-water mussel described herein comes from

southern Paraguay and belongs in the genus Anodontites. The fossil

species comes from the State of Monagas, Venezuela, and is the type

of anew genus, Castalioides.

Castalioides, new genus

Shell with strong sculpture of radial ribs, several of the innermost pairs

arranged to form very long V’s. Ribs crossing the anterior and posterior

slopes form a divaricate pattern with the radial ribs.

Type: Castalioides laddi described below.

Castalioides laddi, new species

Shell subelliptical, slightly inflated. Beaks set well forward (at about the

first one-quarter of the length). Dorsal margin arcuate; anterior margin

rounded and rounding into the ventral margin which is slightly arcuate and

joins the posterior margin in a sharp curve. Posterior end obliquely subtrun-

cate. Anterior ridge not differentiated from the general surface except by the

divaricating sculpture along it. Posterior ridge high, subangular. Posterior

dorsal area rather broad. Sculpture of strong, nearly straight, radial ribs,

several of the innermost pairs joining to form very elongate V’s with the

apex pointing toward the ventral margin. Distant from the beaks the ribs

become somewhat irregular. Several low ribs originating on the posterior

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived October 6, 1933.

Figures 1-6.

Figs. 1-3. Castalioides laddi. Fig. 1—Posterior sculpture of type X2. Fig. 2—

Anterior sculpture of type X2. Fig. 3.—Right valve. Natural size.

Figs. 4-6. Anodontites schadei, typespecimen. Natural size.

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

ridge and divaricating there from the general radial sculpture, run across

the posterior area. Similar, but smaller, more sharply defined ribs divaricate

from the general sculpture near the anterior ridge and run across the an-

terior area. (Teeth not showing in the type, but judging from imperfect

teeth showing in a right valve paratype, they resemble those of Tetraplodon

linkt Marshall.)

The type, U.S. National Museum (Cat. No. 373033) measures: Length,

40mm.; height, 22 mm.; diameter (about 24 mm.). It and a paratype (Cat.

No. 373034) were found fossil near Aragua de Maturin, capital city of the

District of Piar, State of Monagas, Venezuela. This locality is on the Aragua

River, a tributary of the Guarapiche River, which in turn is tributary to the

San Juan whose waters drain into the Gulf of Paria, formed by the mainland

of Venezuela and the Island of Trinidad. Two other paratypes were returned

to the Venezuela Gulf Oil Co. from which the material was received. The

geological age quoted for the specimens is Quaternary.

In general appearance the species resembles T'etraplodon linki Marshall?

(Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 69: 6, plate 1, figs. 6, 7; plate 3, fig. 2. 1926), but is

distinguished generically and specifically by the divaricated sculpture along

the anterior and posterior ridges. The species is named for Dr. Harry S.

Ladd, through whose kind efforts the material was obtained.

ANODONTITES

Four specimens of this genus, all in bad condition, retain enough of their

features to show that they are related to the group including such species as

A. tortila Lea, A. lacteola Lea, A. palmeri Marshall and A. pittcert Marshall,

all of which are recent species from the northern coast of South America.

Anodontites schadei, new species

Shell of medium size, rather heavy, oblong; dorsal margin lightly arched;

ventral margin nearly straight, sloping upward at the anterior end and fad-

ing into the sharply rounded anterior margin; posterior margin oblique,

slightly arched and forming with the ventral margin a widely rounded point

which points downward, giving the shell a rather oblique appearance. Beaks

eroded, located well forward, making the shell appear to hunch forward.

Anterior ridge rounded, the descent to the anterior margin abrupt. Posterior

ridge low, rounded, the descent to the posterior and dorsal margins rather

steep. A well-marked riblet traverses the posterior area from the beaks to ©

the rear extremity of the shell. Sculpture consisting of fine concentric growth

striae, with a number of major rest periods prominently marked by deep

concentric grooves. Centre of shell nearly smooth, posterior area and around

the margins somewhat lamellate. Color chestnut, dark greenish near the

beaks, the colors darker on the front half of the shell. Interior whitish, highly

iridescent in the adductor sears and in the area between the pallial line and

the margins. Anterior scar deep, posterior scar well-impressed. Pallial line

15 mm. from ventral margin. Prismatic border dark greenish olive, rather

wide throughout but widest along the middle of the ventral margin. Sinulus

narrow and long, its tip curving backward.

The type (U.S.N.M. No. 434732) measures: Length, 90 mm.; height, 53

2 Von Martens in letter to Pilsbry (Princeton University Expeditions to Patagonia,

1896-99, 3: 610. 1911) says the generic name Tetraplodon is a synonym of Castalia.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 LINTON: NEW TREMATODES 81

mm.; diameter, 34 mm. It and a paratype (No. 424837) come from the Tubi-

cuary River at Aroja in southern Paraguay, and were collected by Mr. F.

Schade for whom the species is named and were presented by Mr. Hugh

Fulton of London. The Tubicuary River is a tributary of the Paraguay

about 65 miles above its confluence with the Parana and hence is in the La

Plata system.

The nearest relative of Anodontites schadet is A. mansfieldi Marshall of

the Rio Yaguaron and its branches, in Cerro Largo, Uruguay. A. mansfieldi

is lighter in weight, proportionally more elongate, has the sinulus broad and

curving forward, the interior typically rosy, the posterior end well-elevated

above the ventral margin, and the prismatic border much wider, approach-

ing in character the very wide prismatic border of Anodontites patagonica

Lam. In addition to these differences, the two species come from different

drainage systems.

ZOOLOGY .—A new genus of Trematodes belonging to the subfamily

Allocreadiinae1. Epwin Linton, University of Pennsylvania.

(Communicated by PAuL BARTSCH.)

In the manuscript of a paper: Some Trematodes of fishes, mainly

from the Woods Hole region, awaiting publication, a new generic name

is proposed to accommodate distomes, recorded in earlier papers by

the author under the name Distomum vitellosum. To avoid possible

confusion in nomenclature it has been suggested that a brief descrip-

tion of the new genus be published.

Cymbephallus Linton, gen. nov.

Body smooth, moderately elongate; ventral sucker surrounded by a raised

border of the body wall, which may be more or less scalloped, papillate, or

slightly fimbriate; cirrus very short, appearing as a muscular sucker at the

orifice of the ejaculatory duct in front of the ventral sucker, to the left of

the median line. Testes smooth or lobed, median, one following the other,

behind the smooth or lobed ovary. Vitellaria diffuse.

Type species, Cymbephallus vitellosus (Linton).

CYMBEPHALLUS VITELLOSUS (Linton).

Distomum vitellosum Linton. Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. 1899: 290, 416, fig. 38,

89, and 333-340. Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. 1904: 335. Proc. Nat. Mus.

33: 105.

These distomes assume a great variety of contraction shapes. Living

examples are usually relatively short with breadth one-third or more of the

length. When placed in fresh water or weak formalin they tend to become

turgid and may elongate until the length is six or more times the breadth.

Under pressure the living worm may become several times as long as broad.

Neck short, conical, often reflected dorsad, especially in turgid specimens;

1 Received October 18, 1933.

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

posterior end of body frequently tapering to a blunt point. Ventral sucker

larger than oral, ratio about 8:5, surrounded by a raised border, which may

appear to be sinuous in outline, or to bear 4 or 5 lobes on the posterior

border and about 4 on the anterior border, often inconspicuous in mounted

specimens. In turgid specimens the ventral sucker is prominent, often more

or less pedicellate. Maximum length in balsam about 3.5 mm. Pharynx usu-

ally a little longer than broad, ratio of length of pharynx to diameter of oral

sucker about 4:5. Prepharynx very short or none; esophagus as long or

longer than pharynx; intestinal rami reach nearly to the posterior end of the

body, usually hidden by the dense vitellaria. Genital pore in front of the

ventral sucker to the left of the median line; the ejaculatory duct terminates

in what has the appearance of a strong, muscular sucker-like structure, at

the anterior border of which is the opening of the metraterm. The seminal

vesicle extends one-third or more of the distance between the ventral sucker

and the ovary. The two testes, the one following the other, lie about midway

between the ventral sucker and the posterior end. They are usually circular

or oval in outline, occasionally subtriangular and rarely slightly lobed.

Ovary near anterior edge of first testis usually more or less elliptical in out-

line. Vitellaria diffuse, continuing from near posterior edge of ventral sucker

to the posterior end of the body, often obscuring the other organs. Uterus

between ovary and ventral sucker. Ova, average of 24 specimens from 16

different specific hosts, in balsam, 0.053 by 0.029 mm.; maximum 0.063 by

0.033, minimum 0.045 by 0.027.

Recorded from 34 species of Woods Hole fishes, from 15 species of Beau-—

fort fishes and from 5 species of Bermuda fishes. Found in the intestines.

Cymbephallus fimbriatus Linton, sp. nov.

Distomum vitellosum Linton, Bull. U. 8. Fish Com. 1899: 462. Bull. U.S.

Fish Com. 1904: 388, 390, 399, fig. 176-178.

Body elongate, not varying much in diameter; neck short, more or less

conical; ventral sucker larger than oral, prominent, sometimes pedicellate,

surrounded by a border of short papillae; pharynx elliptical-ovate, longer

than broad; esophagus longer than pharynx; intestinal rami extend to pos-

terior end; genital pore in front of ventral sucker, on left of median line,

the opening of the ejaculatory duct a strong, muscular sucker; opening of

the metraterm with sphincter on blunt papilla at anterior border of genital

sucker; seminal vesicle elongate, curved, extending from one-third to more ~

than one-half the distance between the ventral sucker and the ovary; testes

two, the one following the other with but a short interval between, in some

cases lobed, in others lobes not distinct; ovary at or near the anterior edge

of the first testis, usually not lobed, although a tendency to lobing was ob-

served in a few cases. Vitellaria diffuse, filling the body back of the testes,

and extending to a point about half way between the ovary and the ventral

sucker. Ova about 0.06 by 0.03 mm. Maximum length, in balsam about 5

mm.

From Menticirrhus sazatilis, Woods Hole; from Bairdiella chrysura,

Menticirrhus americanus and Sciurus ocellatus, Beaufort. Found in the intes-

tines.

This species differs from C. vitellosus in its larger size, and in having

longer and more numerous papillae bordering the ventral sucker, in the lobed

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 83

character of the testes and larger ova, also in that the seminal vesicle extends

farther back of the ventral sucker, and the vitellaria do not reach to a

point as near the ventral sucker. Furthermore while C. vitellosus tends to

taper towards the posterior end, C. fimbriatus, as a rule, maintains its

breadth back of the ventral sucker and is bluntly rounded at the posterior

end. There are, however, many contraction shapes in both species which

make it difficult to fit descriptions to them.

ORNITHOLOGY .—Bird bones from Eskimo ruins on St. Lawrence

Island, Bering Sea... HERBERT FRIEDMANN, U. S. National

Museum.

During several seasons of excavating ancient and more modern

Eskimo habitations on St. Lawrence Island, Mr. H. B. Collins, Jr.,

Assistant Curator of Ethnology, United States National Museum,

amassed a large collection of avian bones. Inasmuch as all his

material was carefully collected with full stratigraphical data, it

is possible to determine, in a relative sense, the different ages of

the various specimens. Furthermore, since the time limits range from

village sites abandoned half a century ago to some probably 2500 or

more years old, the ages of the diggings vary appreciably. Of course,

while 2500 years means a great deal in human cultural biology, it is of

little moment as far as birds are concerned. The collection totals

several thousand bones, all of which have been carefully studied and

identified and are reported on in this paper. The bones are referable

to 45 species of which 10 are new to the known avifauna of St. Law-

rence Island. These 10 are as follows:

PUFFINUS TENUIROSTRIS Slender-billed Shearwater

BRANTA CANADENSIS MINIMA Cackling Goose

BRANTA NIGRICANS Black Brant

MELANITTA DEGLANDI White-winged Scoter

MELANITTA PERSPICILLATA Surf Scoter

MERGUS MERGANSER subsp. Merganser

HETEROSCELUS INCANUS Wandering Tattler

LARUS CANUS BRACHYRHYNCHUS' Short-billed Gull

RISSA BREVIROSTRIS Red-legged Kittiwake

BRACHYRHAMPHUS BREVIROSTRIS Kittlitz’s Murrelet

In addition to these, several species previously recorded on the basis

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived October 9, 1933.

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

of observational records alone, are represented in the present collec-

tion.

These bones, together with the collection of birds reported on in a

previous paper (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 80, art. 12: 1-31. 1932.) give

a fairly comprehensive picture of the avifauna of the island. Perhaps

the most striking single feature is the complete absence of any species

of ptarmigan, although both the Alaskan and the Siberian mainlands

and most of the islands between them are inhabited by one or more

forms of these birds.

In attempting to analyze the data from the viewpoint of ornithol-

ogy, rather than ethnology or anthropology, we must remember that

the number of bones of a given species is not a reliable index to the

abundance of that species with respect to another, less abundantly

represented, as the factor of human selection plays a large role. Thus,

there are no raven bones in the present collection, but this does not

mean that there were no ravens on the island at the time when the

old villages were flourishing; it only means that Eskimos did not look

upon ravens as food and did not kill them and leave their bones in

and around their huts. On the other hand, it is obviously unlikely that

the Eskimos would have been able to get numbers of birds of species

that were rare at the time, so an abundance of remains does indicate a

high numerical status for the species. It is the relative abundance of

species that is chiefly affected by the element of selection. (By selec-

tion is meant not only the volitional choice of the Eskimo, but also

his ability to procure the bird in question. Thus, a strong flying spe-

cies that feeds over the open ocean, and relatively seldom roosts on

the cliffs on the island would be very difficult to get and so, while de-

sired by the Eskimo, might be ‘“‘selected out’’ by his inability to get

it.) Also some selection was involved in the actual collecting of the

specimens.

The species most abundantly represented in the collection is Pal-

las’s murre. It is obviously the most important single bird species

to the Eskimo, and it is obvious from the enormous number of bones,

that the species was as abundant in the past as it is in the present.

The other birds commonly used for food include the crested and

the paroquet auklets, the Pacific and king eiders, and, strangely

enough, the pelagic cormorant. One of the surprises was the paucity

of goose bones, especially of the emperor goose. Pigeon guillemot, old-

squaw, long-tailed jaeger, red-faced cormorant, and short-tailed al-

batross come next in descending order of frequency, and after them

come a large number of species, present in varying quantities.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 85

The village sites involved in this study have been described by

Collins (Geogr. Review 22: 109-114. 1932.) from whose account

the following remarks are extracted.

On the gravel spit near the present village of Gambell, at the north-

west end of the island, are three abandoned villages, known to the

Eskimos as Miyowaghameet, Jevoghiyogameet, and Seklowaghya-

get, while a recently abandoned village immediately adjoins the

present settlement of Gambell. The gravel spit extends westward from

Gambell Mountain, on the slopes of which is the oldest village site,

the one referred to in this paper as Hillside Village.

At the opposite, southeast, end of the island is the old village site

of Kialegak, judged to be of approximately the same age as Ievoghi-

yogameet. The estimate of the age of the sites is, of course, very vague

but in the case of the four villages near Gambell, it was possible for

Collins to work out a relative, chronological sequence, even if the ab-

solute age was indeterminable. To quote him on this point:

Beginning at the base of the mountain and extending westward to the

village at the end of the spit is a series of parallel ridges of gravel—old beach

lines—which from the top of the mountain can be seen very distinctly. The

position of the several old villages in relation to these former beach lines and

to the present beach affords some evidence of their respective antiquity, for

villages of the maritime Eskimo are always situated close by the sea or other

body of water. The ruins closest to the present village at the end of the spit

should be the latest; these are the recently abandoned houses... and the

adjoining old site Seklowaghyaget. ... Inthesame way the oldest of the aban-

doned villages should be Miyowaghameet.. . three-fourths of a mile away

at the base of the mountain and half a mile distant from the sea and enclosed

in the first two (the oldest) beach lines. Ievoghiyogameet ..., some 200

yards north... (of Miyowaghameet), is separated from it by four beach

lines and thus should date from a somewhat later period. Between .. . (it)

. . and the north shore are six more old beach lines, most of which were no

doubt piled up after the abandonment of the village.

The archeological evidence resulting from four months of intensive ex-

cavation bore out this assumed sequence... . A fifth site. . . (Hillside Vil-

lage) ... , unknown to the Eskimos and completely covered over with sod,

moss, and rocks, was found on the lower slope of the mountain... .

To sum up for our immediate purposes, the oldest site is Hillside

Village, estimated as possibly 2500 or more years old; next is Miyo-

waghameet, assumed to be about 2000 years old; then Ievoghiyoga-

meet, around 1000 years old; Kialegak corresponds in age with Miyo-

waghameet and Ievoghiyogameet, chiefly with the latter; Seklowa-

ghyaget is estimated to have been occupied up to about 200 years

ago, and the recent Gambell site is supposed (on hearsay evidence

from the natives, as well as from the nature of the excavated materi-

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

als) to have been abandoned about 40 years ago. The lower strata

of its middens may be 100 years older.

In the course of his work Collins made a great many cuttings or

diggings in each of these sites and recorded the levels of each. Of

these individual diggings about 75 revealed bird bones. The time ele-

ment in each site between superficial and basal strata is, however, too

short to be of significance as far as the ornithological results are con-

cerned, however much it may mean to the anthropologist, and in this

paper I have combined many of these individual data.

I am greatly indebted to Mr. Collins for much information regard-

ing the location and relative age of the sites, and for his patience

in answering many questions more or less relevant to the immediate

topic at hand.

The specimens of bones are all in the United States National Mu-

seum.

Family GAVIIDAE Loons

GAVIA ADAMSI (Gray) Yellow-billed Loon

The yellow-billed loon is represented only in the diggings of sites

about 1000-2000 years old; thus the northern and western sections

of Miyowaghameet yielded a fragmentary sternum, radius, and meta-

carpal; Ievoghiyogameet a fragmentary sternum; while the Kialegak

site at the opposite end of the island produced a tarsometatarsus and

a metacarpal of this bird.

Judging by the size of the bones of this species, which would make

for both their preservation and discovery, the few bones found and

the few diggings containing them seem to indicate that either the bird

was always scarce or hard to get or not sought after by the Eskimos.

GAVIA ARCTICA PACIFICA (Lawrence) Pacific Loon

The Pacific loon appears first in the Ievoghiyogameet site where it

is represented by a broken sternum. The Kialegak ruins yielded a

single tibiotarsus attributable to this species. In the recent site at

Gambell a part of a skull and a broken sternum were found. All in all,

the story is similar to that of the yellow-billed loon, a scarcity of re-

mains of the species due to the same several possible factors.

GAVIA STELLATA (Pontoppidan) Red-throated Loon

The diggings at Ievoghiyogameet and at Miyowaghameet, dis-

closed several bones of the red-throated loon. Ievoghiyogameet re-

vealed this species in three separate cuttings representing the whole

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 87

time duration of the village deposit, from the surface layer to the

basal portion, the bones (single ones in all cases) being a sternum, a

tibiotarsus, and a metacarpal. At Miyowaghameet, in the relatively

younger northwest deposits an ulna was found. In the much more

recent deposits at Seklowaghyaget a tibiotarsus was unearthed.

Family DIOMEDEIDAE Albatrosses

DIOMEDEA ALBATRUS Pallas Short-tailed Albatross —

In my paper on the birds of St. Lawrence Island (Proc. U.S. Nat.

Mus., 80, art. 12:8. 1932.) I wrote that although Nelson and Turner

saw this albatross at sea near and about St. Lawrence Island, the

only definite records for the island are two mandibles found there by

Nelson and a maxilla dug up by Collins at Miyowaghameet. A study

of the present collection of bones has revealed this species in no less

than ten separate cuttings ranging from the most recent sites to the

most ancient one—the extent of time between the two extremes being

around 2500 years or more. Beginning with the oldest, we may men-

tion them in chronological sequence: Hillside Village, fragments of

humeri, ulnae, and metacarpals; Miyowaghameet, 4 separate diggings,

a total of one pair of maxillae, 1 pair of clavicles, 1 fragmentary ulna,

1 fragment of a mandible, 1 tarsometatarsus; Ievoghiyogameet, 2

cuttings, 1 fragmentary pair of clavicles, 1 tarsometatarsus, 3 meta-

carpals; Seklowaghyaget, 1 tibiotarsus; Gambell (recent) 2 cuttings,

1 humerus, | pair maxillae, 1 ulna, 1 radius.

Apparently the short-tailed albatross was used for food whenever

it could be obtained. The large size of its bones makes it probable

that relatively fewer were overlooked by the collector than in the

case of smaller bird bones.

Family PROCELLARIIDAE Shearwaters, Fulmars

PUFFINUS TENUIROSTRIS (Temminck) Slender-billed Shearwater

This species has not been recorded previously from St. Lawrence

Island. It is represented by a coracoid in perfect condition, found at

Miyowaghameet.

F'ULMARUS GLACIALIS RODGERSI Cassin Rodger’s Fulmar

Bones of this fulmar are noticeably scarce in the present collection,

only two being definitely attributable to the species. At Ievoghiyo-

gameet a coracoid was unearthed, and at Kialegak a tibiotarsus was

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

found. The fulmars, being very pelagic in their habits are probably

seldom killed by the Eskimos, a fact that may help to explain the

absence of further osseous remains.

Family PHALACROCORACIDAE = Cormorants

PHALACROCORAX PELAGICUS PELAGICUS Pallas Pelagic Cormorant

The pelagic cormorant is represented in 17 individual diggings,

from the most ancient to the most recent. It was most abundantly

found in the deposits at Kialegak, where it was unearthed in 6 sepa-

rate cuttings, and at Ievoghiyogameet, where it was revealed in five

cuttings; 2 diggings at Miyowaghameet turned up bones of this cor-

morant as did also 2 cuttings at Seklowaghyaget; the ancient hillside

village near Gambell and the recent village at Gambell each revealed

one bone of this bird. Although in most of the 17 diggings only single

bones or only a very few were found, in the upper layers at Ievoghiyo-

gameet no less than 16 tarsometatarsi were unearthed. This extra-

ordinary abundance makes one wonder what unusual conditions may

have made the birds so accessible or sought after at that time.

It is noteworthy that although many limb bones were found, only 4

synsacra and 1 sternum were unearthed, and no parts of the skull or

mandibles.

PHALACROCORAX URILE (Gmelin) Red-faced Cormorant

Hitherto this cormorant has been known from St. Lawrence Island

only on the basis of Nelson’s statement that it is a, “...moreor

less common summer resident” there. No specimens have been taken

in the flesh as far as I know. However, bones attributable to this

species are included in the results of 8 diggings, but only in cuttings

of ancient sites. It may well be that the species was formerly more

abundant on St. Lawrence Island that it is today, but no reasons can

be advanced to account for its change in status. The most ancient

site, the Hillside Village revealed a fragment of a humerus; Ievoghi-

yogameet yielded the greatest number of bones distributed among 4

cuttings, one of which contained as many as 12 tarsometatarsi and 3

tibiotarsi; while 3 cuttings at Kialegak produced 2 humeri and 1 tarso-

metatarsus. The fact that the species is represented at both ends of

the island (Gambell and Kialegak) indicates that it was widespread in

its local range. If it were present 1n only one place, it might have been

assumed that its hypothecated decrease might have been due to the

decimation of the sole colony on the island.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 89

Family ANATIDAE Ducks, Geese, Swans

CYGNUS COLUMBIANUS (Ord) Whistling Swan

When one considers the gastronomic desirability of this, the largest

edible bird on the island, and its fairly even distribution there, it is

surprising that its remains have been found only in the deposits at

Kialegak and not in any of the old sites near Gambell. At Kialegak

it is represented by a pair of clavicles and several fragmentary bones

found in 3 separate diggings.

BRANTA CANADENSIS MINIMA Ridgway Cackling Goose

The cackling goose is an addition to the known avifauna of St.

Lawrence Island. It is represented in 2 cuttings of the upper layer of

the Kialegak site; in one by a coracoid, in the other by a pair of clavi-

cles.

BRANTA NIGRICANS (Lawrence) Black Brant

This goose is also new to the known bird fauna of the island. It is

represented by a metacarpal found in a basal digging at Kialegak.

PHILACTE CANAGICA (Sevastianoff) Emperor Goose

The remains of the emperor goose are remarkably few in number

considering the abundance of the bird on St. Lawrence Island, and

the extent to which it is hunted and used for food by the Eskimos.

Furthermore, its bones are present in neither the two oldest sites

(Hillside Village and Miyowaghameet) nor the most recent one (Gam-

bell), but chiefly in the diggings at Kialegak, and, in small numbers,

in 2 cuttings at Seklowaghyaget. At Kialegak bones of the emperor

goose were found in 5 cuttings; at Seklowaghyaget in 2 diggings.

Strangely enough, almost no long bones were unearthed, but chiefly

metacarpals and fragments of clavicles and coracoids.

The fact that the majority of the bones come from Kialegak at the

southeast end of the island is in keeping with the present distribution

of the bird. It is found chiefly in the southern part of the island, es-

pecially in the vicinity of the long lake and lagoons. On the north side

the species is not nearly so common.

ANSER ALBIFRONS ALBIFRONS (Scopoli) White-fronted Goose

The white-fronted goose is represented in the remains from Kiale-

gak (2 diggings) and Ievoghiyogameet (1 cutting), in all cases by

metacarpals only. It is peculiar, to say the least, that all four species

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

of geese are represented by bones other than the long limb bones usu-

ally preserved, such as the humerus, femur and tibiotarsus.

Apparently the white-fronted goose has always been an uncommon

bird in St. Lawrence Island, as it is today.

DAFILA ACUTA TZITZIHOA (Vieillot) American Pintail

The pintail is represented by a single bone, a tarsometatarsus found

at Kialegak.

NYROCA MARILA (Linnaeus) Greater Scaup Duck

One sternum, collected at Ievoghiyogameet, is referable to this

duck. Previously the greater scaup duck was known from St. Law-

rence Island only on the basis of Nelson’s statement of its occurrence

there. No specimens were collected by him.

CLANGULA HYEMALIS (Linnaeus) Old-squaw

The old squaw is one of the commonest ducks on the island, and

its bones have been found in 12 diggings, the greatest number being

at Kialegak, where it is represented in 7 cuttings. The oldest bones

come from Miyowaghameet (3 diggings); one fragmentary skull was

found at levoghiyogameet, and a piece of a sternum was unearthed

in the recent village site at Gambell.

HISTRIONICUS HISTRIONICUS PACIFICUS Brooks

Western Harlequin Duck

The western harlequin duck is represented by bones chiefly in the

Kialegak and Ievoghiyogameet sites. In the former it was found in 4

diggings; in the latter village, in 2 cuttings. A single coracoid comes

from the excavations at Seklowaghyaget as well. The Kialegak and

Ievoghiyogameet specimens are all humeri except for a pair of tarso-

metatarsi. |

POLYSTICTA STELLERI (Pallas) Steller’s Eider

Steller’s eider appears among the remains of the oldest site, the

Hillside Village, in the form of a fragmentary femur. Otherwise it is

represented only from Kialegak, where, however, it figures in four

diggings, 3 of which yielded a humerus apiece and 1 a synsacrum.

SOMATERIA V-NIGRA Gray Pacific Eider

The Pacific eider is abundantly represented in the present collec-

tion, its bones being recorded from 32 separate cuttings, ranging

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES Ot

throughout all the sites and ages except the very oldest (Hillside

Village), and Seklowaghyaget. At Miyowaghameet, it was found in

3 cuttings; at Ievoghiyogameet, in 7 cuttings; at Kialegak, in 20 dig-

gings; at the recent Gambell site, in 2 diggings.

SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS (Linnaeus) King Eider

Today the Pacific eider is much more abundant on St. Lawrence

Island than the king eider, but, if we may judge by the skeletal re-

mains, the latter species was somewhat the commoner of the two in

the pre-historic past, or else was often selected as an object of the

chase by the Eskimos. Remains of the king eider are included in the

material excavated at 37 different diggings. The oldest village site

revealed a coracoid of this duck, and its bones have been found at

each of the other village deposits except, strangely enough, the recent

village site at Gambell. At Miyowaghameet it was found in 1 cutting;

at levoghiyogameet in 3 cuttings; at Kialegak, where it was found

in greatest numbers, in 31 diggings; at Seklowaghyaget in 1 digging.

The absence of this species from the recent Gambell site is of interest

in connection with its relative decrease in abundance at present.

ARCTONETTA FISCHERI (Brandt) Spectacled Eider

The spectacled eider is represented only in the collections from

Kialegak, where it was found in 4 cuttings. All in all, 3 humeri and 4

coracoids were unearthed.

MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte) White-winged Scoter

_ The discovery that this duck was represented in no less than 9 dig-

gings at Kialegak is very surprising in view of the fact that the species

had never been recorded from the island before. To find a bird new to

the local avifauna in a single cutting is a thing to be expected, but to

find such abundant evidence of one is really unusual. It is significant

that the species was found only from the southeast end of St. Law-

rence Island, the point nearest its mainland range. The bones include

2 tarsometatarsi, 2 tibiotarsi, 1 coracoid, and many fragmentary

pieces.

MELANITTA PERSPICILLATA (Linnaeus) Surf Scoter

A humerus, found at Kialegak, is of this species. The surf scoter is

new to the avifauna of St. Lawrence Island. As far as I know, this is

the most northwestern locality whence the species has been recorded

as yet,

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

OIDEMIA AMERICANA Swainson American Scoter

The American scoter seems (from somewhat inconclusive evidence)

to have been commoner on St. Lawrence Island in the past than

it is today. Bones of this duck are present in the collections made

in 5 different diggings at Kialegak. Of naturalists who have made

observations on the bird life of the island, only Nelson has recorded

this species, and he reported it as occurring only sparingly there.

None of the collectors since the time of Nelson’s visit have found it.

The fact that no bones of this duck were found at any of the sites

at the northwest end of island suggests that even in the past (perhaps

1000 years ago) its range on the island was very limited. This may

still be so, and may be the reason recent visitors have failed to find

it.

MERGUS MERGANSER subsp. indet. Merganser

A number of bones, from 5 different diggings at Kialegak, are defi-

nitely referable to this species, but I cannot find any diagnostic skele-

tal characters by which to determine their subspecific identity. Nei-

ther race of the merganser has ever been found near St. Lawrence

Island and either one might be the form involved as the island is just

about half way between the known limits of their respective ranges.

If the bird should turn out to be the nominate Eurasian form, it would

be an addition to the North American avifauna, if it should be M. m.

americanus, it would be a considerable extension of range. The species

is new to St. Lawrence Island.

The bones include 1 humerus, 1 radius, 2 ulnae, 7 metacarpals, and

1 tibiotarsus.

MERGUS SERRATOR Linnaeus’ Red-breasted Merganser

The red-breasted merganser is represented by a tibiotarsus and a —

metacarpal, both from Kialegak (2 separate diggings).

Family GRUIDAE Cranes

GRUS CANADENSIS CANADENSIS (Linnaeus) Little Brown Crane

Three village sites (Miyowaghameet, Ievoghiyogameet, and Kiale-

gak) yielded bones of this crane. Most of the bones are fragmentary

but a whole tarsometatarsus was found at Ievoghiyogameet. In a bird

of this size the absence of records from a deposit is fairly good evi-

dence that the species was either not present or was not fed upon by

the Eskimos.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 93

Family SCOLOPACIDAE Woodcock, Snipe, and Sandpipers

HETEROSCELUS INCANUS (Gmelin) Wandering Tattler

A humerus found in one of the basal diggings at Kialegak appears

to be of this species. St. Lawrence Island is the northwesternmost

locality from which this bird has been recorded so far. The wandering

tattler is an addition to the avifauna of the island.

Family STERCORARIIDAE Jaegers and Skuas

STERCORARIUS POMARINUS (Temminck) Pomarine Jaeger

The pomarine jaeger is represented only in the material excavated

at Kialegak, where its bones were found in 4 separate diggings.

STERCORARIUS PARASITICUS (Linnaeus) Parasitic Jaeger

The three oldest village sites (Hillside Village, Miyowaghameet,

and Kialegak) yielded osseous remnants of the parasitic jaeger, but

the more recent sites did not. Only a few bones were found in all—3

humeri, 3 tibiotarsi, 1 ulna, and several fragments.

STERCORARIUS LONGICAUDUS Vieillot Long-tailed Jaeger

The abundance of bones of this jaeger came as a distinct surprise

as the species was not previously recorded as particularly common

on St. Lawrence Island. Bones attributable to it were found in twen-

ty-six diggings, from the oldest site (Hillside Village) to the newest

(the recent Gambell site). In the Hillside Village site a fragmentary

humerus and a tarsometatarsus were found; at Miyowaghameet (4

cuttings) 7 humeri, 4 tarsometatarsi, and 3 tibiotarsi were found; at

Kialegak bones were found in 15 separate cuttings, the bones includ-

ing 7 humeri, | coracoid, 6 tarsometatarsi, 2 femurs, and fragments; at

Ievoghiyogameet (5 diggings) 8 humeri, and 4 tarsometatarsi were

collected; at Gambell (recent) 2 tarsometatarsi were unearthed.

This bird is said to walk about on the ground when feeding on in-

sects, and it is probably at such times that the Eskimos are able to

kill it in numbers.

Family LARIDAE Gulls, Terns

LARUS HYPERBOREUS Gunnerusm Glaucous Gull

The ancient Hillside Village yielded a fragmentary humerus and a

piece of a mandible of this gull; a coracoid was found at Miyowagha-

meet; 2 cuttings at Ievoghiyogameet produced 1 skull, 1 extra max-

94- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

illa, 1 tarsometatarsus, and 1 coracoid; the Kialegak collection con-

tained a pair of mandibles.

LARUS GLAUCESCENS Naumann Glaucous-winged Gull

This gull is more abundantly represented in the collection than the

preceding species. It was found in 7 diggings at Miyowaghameet,

Ievoghiyogameet, Kialegak, and the recent site at Gambell. The re-

mains include 4 metacarpals, 1 fragmentary skull, 1 pair of mandibles,

1 sternum, | ulna, and fragments.

LARUS BRACHYRHYNCHUS Richardson Short-billed Gull

This gull was not mentioned in my list of the birds of St. Lawrence

Island (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 80, art. 12. 1982), but I have since

found that Bent (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 113: 145. 1921.) states that

it breeds on the island. Furthermore, the map in Cooke’s paper on the

distribution of North American gulls (U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 292:

47. 1915.) shows a record for St. Lawrence Island. Bones of this gull

were found in 38 diggings, all at levoghiyogameet. The bones include

3 ulnae and a sternum.

RISSA TRIDACTYLA POLLICARIS Ridgway Pacific Kittiwake

This gull is represented in 11 diggings in the old village sites (Hill-

side Village, Miyowaghameet, Kialegak, and Ievoghiyogameet) and

seems to have been as numerous 1000 or more years ago as it 1s today.

A broken pair of mandibles found at Hillside Village and an ulna from

Miyowaghameet are the oldest specimens in the order named. Kiale-

gak site contained many bones, as 4 cuttings there revealed this spe-

cies; but the greatest abundance of kittiwake bones was found at

Ievoghiyogameet, where 5 cuttings yielded 1 sternum, | pair of man-

dibles, 1 skull, 6 ulnae, 1 humerus, and 1 metacarpal.

RISSA BREVIROSTRIS (Bruch) MRed-legged Kittiwake

This gull is an addition to the avifauna of St. Lawrence Island.

It is represented by a pair of mandibles found in a superficial digging

at levoghiyogameet. This constitutes a considerable northward ex-

tension of the known range of the species.

Family ALCIDAE Auks, Murres, Auklets

URIA LOMVIA ARRA (Pallas) Pallas’s Murre

This, the most abundant bird on St. Lawrence Island today, is also

by an enormous percentage, the species most abundantly represented

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 95

by the bones from the old village sites. It is represented in 69 diggings,

from all the sites and of all the ages. It is also represented by almost

as many individual bones as all the other species combined. Two

humeri, collected at Kialegak, match exactly humeri of Uria aalge

californica, but I am not convinced that it is advisable to attempt to

separate the two murres on the basis of their humeri as they are so

very similar and overlap in their dimensions.

It is obvious that Pallas’s murre is the most important avian item

of food in the lives of the St. Lawrence Eskimos.

CEPPHUS COLUMBA Pallas Pigeon Guillemot

This guillemot is represented by bones from 16 diggings from all

the village sites except Seklowaghyaget. Apparently its numerical

status on St. Lawrence Island has not changed much during the last

2500 or so years.

BRACHYRHAMPHUS BREVIROSTRIS (Vigors) Kittlitz’s Murrelet

A humerus from a basal digging at Ievoghiyogameet is the only

record of this murrelet for St. Lawrence Island. Although it is known

to breed on both the Alaskan and Siberian coasts of Bering Sea and

adjacent parts of the Arctic Ocean, it had not been reported from St.

Lawrence Island before.

CYCLORRHYNCHUS PSITTACULA (Pallas) Paroquet Auklet

The paroquet auklet is abundantly represented in the diggings of

all the village sites except the very old Hillside Village. The greatest

quantity of bones came from Kialegak in the southeastern part of the

island; fewer from the Gambell region at the northwestern tip. This

is in keeping with present local distribution of this bird on St. Law-

rence Island.

AETHIA CRISTATELLA (Pallas) Crested Auklet

The crested auklet, one of the common birds of St. Lawrence Is-

land, is represented in 16 diggings, all from the sites at the northwest

end of the island, and not at all from Kialegak at the opposite end,

where it is replaced by the paroquet auklet, just as the two species

complement each other’s local range today. The old Hillside Village

yielded 4 humeri; Miyowaghameet (4 cuttings) many bones; Ievoghi-

yogameet (6 cuttings) yielded still more, as many as 20 humeri, and

1 sternum being found in one digging alone; Seklowaghyaget (2 cut-

tings) produced several bones; and the recent Gambell site (2 dig-

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

gings) revealed many more, as many as 11 humeri and 3 sterna in one

digging.

AETHIA PUSILLA (Pallas) Least Auklet

The least auklet is represented in 3 diggings from 3 villages at Gam-

bell (Miyowaghameet, Ievoghiyogameet, and the recent Gambell

site). Only a few bones were found in all, the total being 4 humeri and

1 sternum.

FRATERCULA CORNICULATA (Naumann) Horned Puffin

In spite of their abundance and size neither of the puffins inhabiting

St. Lawrence Island seems to have figured very largely in the diet of

the ancient Eskimos. Remains of the present species were found in 8

diggings representing the following sites: Miyowaghameet, Kialegak,

and Ievoghiyogameet. Most of the bones were found singly; in 2 dig-

gings more than 1 bone was found (2 in one case, 3 in the other).

LUNDA CIRRHATA (Pallas) Tufted Puffin

This puffin is more numerously represented than the horned spe-

cies. It figures in 14 diggings from both ends of the island (Gambell

and Kialegak). The specimens come from ends of the chronological

series of excavations—from Hillside Village, Miyowaghameet, levo-

ghiyogameet, Kialegak, as well as from the recent Gambell site.

Family STRIGIDAE Owls

NYCTEA NYCTEA (Linnaeus) Snowy Owl

The snowy owl is represented by a pair of metacarpals and by a

few fragments, both from cuttings at Kialegak. The absence of bones

of this species from the other sites and from the other diggings at

Kialegak may mean that owls are not looked upon as a food supply as

long as other birds are available.

ETHNOLOGY.—WNeuwly discovered Powhatan bird names.| JOHN R.

SwANTON, Bureau of American Ethnology.

Dr. Alexander Wetmore, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian

Institution, has called my attention to an article in The Auk for July,

1933 which contains a number of bird names in Indian not apparently

recorded elsewhere. The article is entitled Topsell’s ‘Fowles of heauen’

and was read by its author, Bayard H. Christy, at the fiftieth meeting

of the American Ornithologists’ Union, Quebec, October 18, 1932.

1 Received October 30, 1933.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 SWANTON: POWHATAN BIRD NAMES 97

Edward Topsell, it seems, who died about 1638, was ‘‘an English

clergyman, and sometime curate of St. Botolph, Aldersgate,” chiefly

remembered as the author of a Historie of four-footed beastes and a

Historie of serpents, which were printed in 1607 and 1608 respectively.

“Tt now appears,’ says Christy, ‘‘that, having projected a third work

on The fowles of heauen, he progressed with it so far as to complete

a first part—perhaps one fifth of the contemplated whole. The dedica-

tion is to Baron Ellesmere, the Lord Chancellor; to him, as may be

supposed, the MS. was transmitted; and from a descendant of his the

Huntington Library acquired it. Resting today in the archives of that

library, it forms part of the Ellesmere Collection, and bears the iden-

tifying number, E L 1142.” From internal evidence it appears that it

was written “‘before the end of the year 1614, and perhaps a year or

two earlier than that.”’

Among the birds illustrated are nine from Virginia, eight of which,

all but The Crane of Virginia, are accompanied by their Indian names

which Christy gives and attempts to identify as follows:

-“The Aushouetta (=the Thrasher?)

The Aupseo (= the Bluebird)

The Aiussaco (= the Flicker)

The Artamokes (=the Blue Jay)

The Chuguareo (=the Red-winged Blackbird)

The Chuwheeo (= the Towhee)

The Chowankus (= the female Towhee?)

The Tarawkow Konekautes (= the Sandhill Crane)

“A: Black-macke of Brasilia is also figured which manifestly is a

tanager.”’

At the end of the volume is a prospectus indicating the birds which

were to be treated in subsequent parts, and among these are eight

more Virginia birds, all but one of which, the Turkey Cocke, have their

Indian designations. These are the “‘Kaiwk, Manasscneau, Meesse-

nouns, Pockway, Poocgueo, Poppogattuweo, and Teauh.”’

While the term “Virginia”? had a somewhat extended use in Top-

sell’s time, its appearance and the date of compilation of the manu-

script show conclusively that we must look to the Powhatan language

for the origin of the names. This is important because it means the

addition of fourteen or fifteen words to our scanty material from this

_ Algonquian dialect. Not being a student of Algonquian myself, I

have submitted these words to two fellow members of the Bureau

of Ethnology, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt and Dr. Truman Michelson, to

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

Prof. Frank G. Speck of the University of Pennsylvania, and Prof.

John M. Cooper of the Catholic University of America, who have

kindly furnished the following notes: |

Aushouetta. Attention might be called to a bird called ahshowcut-

ters, mentioned by Strachey, which had “‘carnation-coloured wings.”

Speck says this is perhaps the red-start, the term being derived from

the word for ‘‘fire”’ (cf. Penobscot skunt-e’s, ‘‘little fire,’ or ‘‘little

flame’’), from its red flashing wings and tail, pointing out that in

Cuba it is known as the candelita for the same reason. Commenting

on this, Cooper states that the Téte-de-Boule Cree word for ‘‘fire”’

is ickwude.?

Aupseo. Speck points out that this name is evidently identical with

Oklahoma Delaware a’psi-o which signifies ‘‘he is white,” white and

light blue being covered by the same term.

Atussaco. The Téte-de-Boule Cree term obtained for this bird by

Cooper wurakéné’o, is evidently unrelated, but that for crow, adyda’sio

is rather close. The common Cree word for raven, and often for crow,

he gives, however, as ka’kago.

Artamokes. None of the informants could suggest a parallel.

Chuguareo. Hewitt gives the following names for this bird: chégan

in Narragansett (Williams), tsowgheres in Abnaki (Rasle), chog-luskw

in modern Abnaki (K.A.), tschoqualt or tschukquallt in Delaware

(Zeisberger), tskennak in modern Delaware (Anthony), assiggenauk

(siggenauk) (Tanner), auchugyeze in Pequot (Stiles). Speck gives the

Penobscot word as tcugwala'so and states that it is derived from the

bird’s call as are also the Delaware terms. Cooper says that the

Téte-de-Boule Cree name is mt’kwo tcatca’k’ero, in which mi’kwo

signifies “‘blood,” and tcatcak is onomatopoetic. ‘“The Téte-de-Boule

children, when they hear or see a redwinged blackbird, imitate its call

by a half-chanted articulated verbalization, as follows: teak’ tcak’

tcak’ teak’-lawé’, the last é being very long.”’

Chuwheeo. Cooper reports having once recorded the Téte-de-Boule

Cree word for this bird as pasté’cic, but feels none too sure of it and

in any case there is evidently no relationship.

Chowankus. No suggestion was ventured. The form of this word is

rather similar to Strachey’s cheawanta, ‘‘a robin red-breast,” but that

may be merely accidental.

2 In the notes furnished by Dr. Cooper, ¢ is equivalent to English sh; 4 to English

u in but; ’ indicates a glottal stop; and * is a voiceless or barely audible sound. Prof.

Speck has the following special signs: i- a closed vowel like ee in queen; n: and t: length-

ened consonants equivalent to nn and tt; aan obscure vowel like ein English her; ‘an

aspiration following a vowel or consonant.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 WALKER: CADDO POTTERY 99

Tarawkow Konekautes. Hewitt gives the following synonyms:

tare’gan (pl. tare’gok) in Abnaki (Rasle), taroecka in the Algonquian

dialect of New Sweden, tale’ka in Delaware (Zeisberger), tazinek in

Narragansett (Williams). He thinks ‘‘konekautes”’ signifies “‘long

legged,’ and is supported by Speck who gives the Delaware form of

the word as kwun7i-ka't.

Kaiuk. Hewitt gives kaa‘kow or kaiakou in Abnaki Gedy and

points out that the same word is given by Strachey in the form

cotahqwus. Cooper states that the Téte-de-Boule Cree term for the

American herring gull is kio’k “2, and that the Albany Cree on James

Bay call this bird ktack, the common tern being kia’ck “6cic.

Manasscneau. Cooper gives uki’skimanisé’o, kingfisher, the Téte-

de-Boule Cree term, as involving a possible explanation.

Meessenouns. Michelson says that this word seems to signify ‘“‘little

big-partridge,”’ perhaps indicating a small specimen of some bird

known as “big-partridge.’’ Dr. Wetmore suggests that it was prob-

ably the quail.

Pockaway and Poocgueo. Michelson thinks that one, and perhaps

both, of these names were intended for the pheasant. Cooper suggests,

rather doubtfully, that pockaway may be related to Téte-de-Boule

Cree pick, “‘night-hawk,” and cites pépické’o (given by another in-

formant as papaskio) as the name of the ruffed grouse in the same

language. Dr. Wetmore thinks that the bird intended by these two

names was the ruffed grouse, or possibly the prairie chicken.

Poppogattuweo. According to Michelson this word seems to indicate

some bird making a noise as it alights. Speck says it may possibly

refer to the quail, the Mohegan-Pequot word for which would be

bopu’kwati-s, “the spotted or speckled little (bird).’’ Cooper mentions

as a possible analogy Téte-de-Boule Cree papasté’o, the name of one

of the woodpeckers.

ARCHEOLOGY.—A variety of Caddo pottery from Louisiana: W.

M. WALKER, Bureau of American Ethnology. (Communicated

by JoHn R. Swanton.)

The accidental discovery of an ancient burial ground near the town

of Natchitoches, La. during the summer of 1931, reported by the wri-

ter in the Smithsonian Explorations volume for that year, has made

possible the identification of the type of pottery made by the Natchi-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived December 8, 1933.

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

toches, one of the constituent members of the Caddo confederacy.

This identification rests not alone on the finding of European trade

objects in immediate association with the Indian artifacts but is

further strengthened by documentary evidence tending to show that

the site stands on or near the village of the Natchitoches first visited

by Henri de Tonti in 1690. As the detailed proof of this assertion has

Fig. 1—Polished and engraved bowl, black with red filled lines.

Typical Natchitoches pottery. X#.

been offered in the complete report already submitted to the Bureau,

no attempt will be made to repeat it, even at the risk of appearing

dogmatic.

The principal significance of this discovery is that it establishes

not only the pottery type of this particular tribe but also shows it to

be practically identical with that of a closely allied tribe, the Oua-

chita. Thus we have a key which it is hoped will help unlock the major

problem confronting the archeologist in the Red River region—the

ancient remains attributable to the Caddo tribes. The published re-

ports of such workers as Moore,” Harrington,’ and Pearce,’ with their

2 Moors, C. B. Antiquities of the Ouachita Valley. Jour. of the Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.

14: 1. 1909.

3 HARRINGTON, M. R. Certain Caddo sites in Arkansas. Indian notes and .mono-

graphs, Mus. Amer. Ind. Heye Foundation. N. Y. 1920.

4 Prarce, J. E. The archaeology of east Texas. Amer. Anthrop. 34: 4. 1982.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 WALKER: CADDO POTTERY 101

many excellent illustrations, have laid the ground work for detailed

comparative studies which will be rendered easier after further deter-

mination of the other archeological components of historic Caddo cul-

Fig. 2—Bottle fragment, Natchitoches type, incised but not polished. X#.

ture, such as those furnished by the Adai, Yatasi, Petit Caddo, and

Grand Caddo.

Unfortunately of the pottery vessels found at the Cane River site

near Natchitoches practically none were recovered intact, but enough

fragments were obtained to give a good idea of the nature of the ware

and its decoration. In form they range from conical bowls, cup-like

bowls with flaring collars, small jugs and pots, to subglobular bottles

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

with short necks. The quality of the ware also varies from coarse,

crude, undecorated poorly fired pieces to highly polished, engraved

specimens rubbed with ochraeous coloring matter—the typical Red

River Ware of Moore and Harrington. The bow] fragment seen in fig.

1 is of this latter type, bearing traces of red paint only in the engraved

portions of the collar, while its companion from the same burial, fig. 2,

bears only an incised decoration much more crudely executed and lacks

the final polish of the bowl. All of the ware is heavily shell-tempered,

whether decorated or not. This is in sharp contrast to the condition

reported by Harrington for the Caddo pottery described by him from

southwestern Arkansas, but may perhaps be due to greater abundance

or availability of the mussel-shell material at the Natchitoches site

nearer the mouth of Red River. The paste is grayish in color, but

turns reddish after firing.

Decoration of the Natchitoches pottery was produced apparently

only by the incising and engraving techniques, as no sherds bearing

cord markings, punctate, stamped, ridged, or rouletted designs were

present, nor was there any use of paint other than in the color-filled

engravings already noted. The designs most typically found are made

up of combinations of parallel straight and curved lines, interlocked

scroll meanders, and rounded spots, with reticulated or hachured

spaces intervening. Decoration applied after drying and firing may be

best described as incised, that completed after polishing, as engraved.

The shiny black polish on the bowl may have been achieved after

dipping the vessel in bears’ oil after firing, a process recorded by

Bushnell for the Choctaw.*® Elements most commonly found in the

bowl designs comprise four spiral arms appearing to radiate from

a circle on the under side of the vessel which is always left as a cleared

space free from any decoration. In the case of the small cup-like bowls

a different band of design forms the encircling collar of the vessel,

generally employing a zig-zag motif with large spots. One bowl found

had five instead of the customary four spiral arms radiating outward

from the central circular area on the bottom over the body of the

vessel.

Small pipe bowls not over two inches high were also manufactured

out of the same kind of shell-tempered clay (Fig. 3). They are in the

form of a cone set into a cup-shaped base and lack an attached stem,

thus differing completely from the forms found by both Moore and

Harrington farther up Red River.

5 BUSHNELL, D. I. Jr. The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, Louisiana. Bur. Amer. Eth-

nol. Bull. 48: 12. 1909

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 WALKER: CADDO POTTERY 103

The closest resemblance to the Natchitoches pottery is that found

by Moore on the Ouachita river at Glendora Plantation and Keno

Place. Both in shape and decoration these vessels are almost dupli-

cates of those found at Natchitoches, the explanation of which is that

the Ouachita and Natchitoches were found living together at the site

visited by Tonti on Red River, and the trading path between the

distant settlements of the two tribes is clearly shown on La Fon’s

map of Louisiana as late as 1806. Which tribe is to be regarded as the

originator of this ceramic style is not certain from the data at hand.

Fig. 3—Natchitoches pottery pipe bowl. Note possible property

mark scratched on front. Xl.

The northernmost limit of distribution of this kind of pottery

seems to be along the Arkansas river in the vicinity of Pine Bluff,

Arkansas. Moore found at the Douglas site and at the site near Greer

unmistakable specimens of Natchitoches-Ouachita ware and it was

present also at the Battle Place site on Red River. More recently

Pearce has described and figured the same kind of pottery from far-

ther west in the Red River section of East Texas® which may also be

Natchitoches in origin as the early historians note an upper and a

lower village of this tribe some 100 leagues apart on Red River. It is

important to note, however, that this ware differs somewhat from

that found by Harrington in southwest Arkansas and regarded by

him as of Caddo manufacture. Although the technique of decoration

6 PEARCE op. cit. Plate 23 a.b.

104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

is much the same there are stylistic differences that are quite notice-

able. The scroll, for instance, is not so prevalent a motif as in the

Natchitoches ware. The characteristic vessel forms of the latter are

also absent, though there is present a greater variety of shapes. This

is not to be taken as an indication that Harrington’s pottery may not

also be Caddo, but only that it does not conform to the ceramic pat-

tern here identified as belonging to the Natchitoches-Ouachita divi-

sion of the Caddo confederacy. When the village site of the Kadoha-

dacho or Grand Caddo somewhere in the great bend region of Red

River, can be located definitely and its archeological remains studied

we may be in a position to see the relationship of these two types of

pottery more clearly.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1056TH MEETING

The 1056th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 20th,

1933, President O. 8. ADaMs presiding.

Program: J. G. THompson: The use of physical methods for testing purity

of metals ——Some of the common metals such as aluminum and zine have

been produced recently in extremely pure forms, approaching absolute

purity. The new and improved properties of these superpure metals have

convinced metallurgists that amounts of impurities formerly considered to

be unavoidable and not objectionable can no longer be so regarded; a few

thousandths of one per cent are no longer negligible.

The Bureau of Standards is attempting to prepare iron as pure as poemIbID

in order that the basic properties of this fundamentally important metal

may be determined. A state of purity has been attained such that the exact

determination of the purity and of minor changes in the purity, in subse-

quent operations, has become a real problem. Chemical analysis is limited

in its usefulness. The possible use of various physical methods has been con-

sidered, including spectrochemical analysis, the determination of thermal

emf, permeability, and critical temperatures but it appears that none of these

determinations yield the desired information. The most promising method

for the determination of purity in high purity iron appears to be the deter-

mination of the temperature coefficient of resistivity but further information

concerning the effect of details such as annealing treatment is needed.

(A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. P. W. Wurtr, RoznspEr, HAWKESWORTH, RAMBERG,

HuMPHREYS, TUCKERMAN, Kracek, and Rawpon.

Louts JorDAN and H.S. Rawopon: The preparation of metal single crystals

and their utilization in metallurgical studies.—The properties of metal single

crystals are obviously the fundamental properties of the polycrystalline

metals which are in very day use in scientific and engineering applications.

These fundamental properties are modified in polycrystalline metals by the

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 105

effects of different crystal lattice orientations in adjacent grains and of grain

boundary effects. It is logical to study such modifying effects by the prepara-

tion and examination of single crystal and bi-crystal metal specimens. One

of the major problems of present day physical metallurgy is the study of

the so-called ‘‘creep”’ of metals, that is, the slow and sometimes continuous

plastic deformation of metals which are subjected to prolonged loading at

temperatures which are relatively high as compared with the melting point

of the metal in question. Creep tests of single crystal and bi-crystal metal

specimens are promising much in this field of metallurgical study.

Metal single crystals may be quite readily formed either from the solid,

the liquid, or the gaseous phase of a metal by several methods: (1) by strain-

ing and annealing a solid bar or strip of the metal; (2) by growing a metal

“icicle” or ‘‘stalactite”’ by slowly raising a metal rod from the surface of a

mass of liquid metal; (3) by slow deposition on a wire of atoms from metal

vapor; (4) by lowering a crucible of liquid metal through a furnace; (5) by

slowly cooling a stationary crucible of liquid metal so arranged that all cool-

ing proceeds from one point on the crucible.

Metal single crystals exhibit several peculiarities in both physical and

chemical properties. Indentations made on single crystals by conical or

spherical indenting points produce patterns characteristic of the crystal

lattice of the metal (square or hexagonal). Single crystal bars broken in ten-

sion deform to ribbon-like cross-section and break with a chisel-edge frac-

ture instead of the familiar conical fractures of polycrystalline bars.

The chemical activity of different planes of atoms in the metal crystal

lattice varies to such a degree that it is possible, by a suitable selection of

etching reagents, to develop on the surface of single crystal specimens etched

patterns characteristic of several simple lattice planes, e.g., the cubic, octa-

hedral, or dodecahedral faces of the cubic lattice of copper. This furnishes a

simple visual method of determining the crystal orientation in single crystal

test specimens. (A wthors’ abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. HAWKESWORTH, HumpuHrReEys, H. L. Curtis, and

BRICKWEDDE.

1057TH MEETING

The 1057th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October

14th, 1933, President O. S. Apams presiding.

Program: Harry DiamMonp: Recent developments in radio aids to air navi-

gation.—The paper discussed recent developments in directional guidance

of aircraft by radio. Point to point guidance along the civil airways of the

United States is provided by a network of radio range-beacons. Means have

been developed for furnishing either aural, visual or combined aural and

visual indication of the position of the airplane with respect to the beacon

courses. A single transmitter and antenna system for simultaneous trans-

mission of phone weather broadcasts and the beacon signals has also been

developed. A recent major improvement in the beacon network is the re-

placement of the loop transmitting antennas by a new type of antenna

system, called the TL antenna. The latter was developed to eliminate irregu-

lar and erratic course variations occurring at night.

A system of radio landing aids permitting safe landing of airplanes under

zero conditions of ceiling and visibility was also described. The system com-

prises three elements; a low power radio range-beacon for giving guidance to

the landing airplane along the proper approach to the airport, an ultra-high

frequency landing beam for giving vertical guidance and marker beacons for

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

indicating the longitudinal position of the airplane. On the airplane a single

crossed-pointer type instrument combines the indications from the first two

elements, while the marker beacon signals are heard in the headphones.

Successful tests of the system at College Park, Md. and Newark, N. J. were

described and a movie reel of a completely blind landing was shown. (Au-

thor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. HAwKESWORTH and Watson Davis.

W.B. Burcsss: Application of radio direction finding.—After a brief his-

tory of the investigations of atmospheric disturbances, means were discussed

for directional studies. It was shown that the cathode ray type of direction

finder, first developed by R. A. Watson-Watt, has proven most practicable.

Improvements in this type were traced from the first model, using twelve

hundred foot loops, to one recently developed by the U. 8. Navy, of unit

construction, employing loops less than three feet square, but of high sensi-

tivity. |

This model gives instantaneous unilateral indications of direction and

field strength on individual impulses. Two of these instruments are being

used in a study of atmospherics due to tropical hurricanes. It is believed that

their use will lead to an increase in the available data on such storms, and

that losses due to them may be minimized by advance information of the

storm path, as determined by the radio direction finder. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mr. SEARLES.

The following informal communications were presented. 7

P. R. Hryu.—In 1863, Hermite proved that the number e, base of the

natural system of logarithms, is transcendental. Lindemann in 1872 made

use of this theorem to prove that e*?, where z is a rational number, is also

transcendental. From this, Lindemann wrote, it follows that 7 is transcen-

dental. The intermediate steps are not obvious. (Secretary’s abstract).

Discussed by Messrs. HAwKESWORTH and NAIMAN.

P. R. Hryyt.—The number z expanded to 708 terms contains the different

digits as follows:

Digit Number of Occurrences

75 |

OOnNrnoo»orwn- ©

or)

(Secretary’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. DRYDEN and GOLDBERG.

Raymonp J. Seecmr.—The magnetic moment of the proton was deter-

mined by sending beams of ortho- and para-hydrogen through a nonhomo

geneous magnetic field after the manner of the earlier experiments of Ger-

lach and Stern.

Fermi made a calculation of the magnetic moment of the hydrogen mole-

cule. The largest contribution to the magnetic moment of a hydrogen mole-

cule comes from the rotation of the protons around the center of mass of the

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 = SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 107

molecule. The electron spins of the two electrons cancel each other vectori-

ally, and because the electrons rotate more slowly around the center of mass

than the protons, acting as though they were being dragged around by the

protons, the magnetic moment due to the rotation of the electrons is only

about 1-4 as large as that due to the protons. In addition, there is also the

magnetic moment due to the spin of the protons. In ortho-hydrogen the

two protons are so directed with respect to each other that the magnetic

moments due to their spins are additive, whereas, in para-hydrogen they are

opposed and cancel each other as do the electron spins.

The magnetic moment of para-hydrogen is, therefore, due altogether to

the rotation of the charges around the center of mass, and thus by a deter-

mination of the magnetic moment of para-hydrogen this moment can be

determined. Subtracting the magnetic moment due to the rotation of the

charges from the magnetic moment of ortho-hydrogen, the magnetic mo-

ment of two protons is determined.

The experimental result obtained for a single proton is between two and

three times the size of a Bohr magneton for a proton (eh/4mmc, where m

is the mass of the proton). (Secretary’s abstract.)

105STH MEETING

The 1058th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October

28th, 1933, President O. 8. ADAMs presiding.

Program: B. H. Carrouu: Present theories of photographic sensitivity.—

Photographic sensitivity is measured in terms of the density developed after

a given exposure and is not exclusively dependent on the extent of the photo-

chemical change in the emulsion. Statistical studies of the sensitivity of in-

dividual silver halide grains in emulsions, combined with other chemical

and physical evidence, indicate that the presence of nuclei of silver sulphide

or silver are an important factor in sensitivity. Their function is apparently

to increase the developability resulting from a given amount of photolysis

of the silver halide, as even in the presence of the nuclei the sensitivity of a

erain depends on the absorption of energy by the silver halide of that grain.

(A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Monusrr, Hryu, P. W. Wuitr, HumpHReys, GIsH,

KRACEK, SPENCER, H. L. Curtis and BRICKWEDDE.

R. M. Reeve: The history of color photography including recent develop-

ments, illustrated by lantern slides and an exhibit of color photographs.

Discussed by Mr. E. W. SPENCER.

F. G. BRICKWEDDE, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Notes

Washington at the midwinter meetings.—Washington scientists attended

the midwinter meetings of scientific societies in considerable numbers, and

took leading parts in their programs. At the Boston meeting of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science and affiliated societies, the fol-

lowing Washingtonians presided over the meetings of the organizations des-

ignated: R. E. Snoperass, Bureau of Entomology, Entomological Society

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 2

of America; C. O. APPLEMAN, University of Maryland, American Society of

Plant Physiologists; C. L. SHrar, Bureau of Plant Industry, Mycological

Society of America; W. R. Maxon, U.S. National Museum, American Fern

Society; W. D. LELAND, chairman of Section L (Historical and Philological

Sciences) of the A.A.A.S.

An outstanding address of the meeting was delivered by the Hon. Henry

A. WALLACE, Secretary of Agriculture, who spoke before the general session

on Friday evening, December 29, under the auspices of Section M (Engineer-

ing). Mr. Wallace’s subject was The social advantages and disadvantages of the

engineering-scientific approach to civilization. He pointed out that the high

degree of individualism natural to most engineers had fitted in well with the

highly individualized society which characterized the growing period in

American history, but warned his hearers that it cannot be expected to fit

into the cooperative or socialized phase which we are now entering. Particu-

larly must the engineer give up his attitude of impersonal detachment, in

which he accepted support from men who exploited his work and relieved

him from any feeling of responsibility for its social consequences. Mr. WaL-

LACE called upon his hearers to promote a broader education and a more

humanistic outlook among engineers.

Among the scientific exhibits at the Boston meeting were two prepared

by bureaus of the Federal government: one from the Melrose, Mass. station

of the Bureau of Entomology, showing methods used in fighting the gipsy

moth and other insect pests; the other from the National Bureau of Stand-

ards, showing aerodynamic tests of automobile body models, an optical

strain gauge, a cement turbidimeter and a test for fatigue in airplane propel-

lers.

During the Christmas week another group of scientific meetings were

held in Philadelphia. Among the participating bodies were the Society of

American Bacteriologists, at which sixteen papers were presented by Wash-

ington scientists; the American Statistical Association, the American Eco-

nomic Association, the American Farm Economic Association, the Econo-

metric Society and American Association of University Professors. At all

of these meetings Washingtonians were duly represented.

The American Anthropological Association, of which Dr. Joun Mont-

GOMERY CoopER of the Catholic University of America is secretary, met at

Columbus, Ohio.

At the meeting of the Geological Society of America and its affiliated

societies, held in Chicago, Dr. W. H. TWENHOFEL, secretary of the division

of geology, National Research Council, presented two papers.

The meeting of the American Psychoanalytic Association, of which Dr.

WiuuiaM A. Waitt of St. Elizabeth’s Hospital is vice-president, was held in

Washington, December 26 and 27.

Washington was also the scene of the joint meeting of the Archaeological

Institute of America, The American Philological Association and the Linguis- —

tic Society of America, Dec. 27 to 29; George Washington University acted

as host institution.

At the request of the World Calendar Association, Inc., Mr. Henry W.

Brarce, co-chief of the weights and measures division of the Bureau of

Standards, attended meetings held in Philadelphia on December 28, 1933,

under the auspices of the American Statistical Association, and presented

a paper on calendar revision. Mr. Brarcer supported the 12-month, equal-

quarters plan of revision, as opposed to the 13 equal months plan.

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 109

Bureau of Plant Industry.—Following the retirement of Dr. W1LLIAM A.

TAYLoR as Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Depart-

ment of Agriculture, KNowLEes A. RYERSON became Chief of the Bureau

January 1, 1934. Mr. Ryerson was formerly head of the Division of Foreign

Plant Introduction of the Bureau. He holds the degrees of B.S. and M.S.

from the University of California.

At the same time FreprrRIcK D. Ricuery, formerly in charge of the Bu-

reau’s corn investigations, was appointed Associate Chief of the Bureau, to

succeed Dr. Karu F. KELLERMAN, who has been placed at the head of a new

Division of Plant Disease Eradication and Control in the Department. Mr.

RicHey is a graduate of the University of Missouri with the degree of B.S.A.

In his new position he will give special attention to the Bureau’s research

activities.

Life-saving trap.—A patent on a trap attachment to safeguard small mam-

mals and birds and to make trapping more efficient, recently granted to

ALBERT M. Day, of the Bureau of Biological Survey, has been dedicated by

Mr. Day to the free use of the public. The new device is known as the Bi-

ological Survey pan spring and is already on the market. It is a small, de-

tachable, thin steel spring to be inserted between the pan and the base of a

standard steel trap and can easily be adjusted to prevent the capture of any

of the lighter animals common in a given locality. The use of the attachment

also helps trappers, who lose time and effort when a trap in a carefully se-

lected location is sprung by unsought animals or by birds.

Radio talks —The following radio talks have been made by Washington

scientists under the auspices of Science Service. They were sent out over the

network of the Columbia Broadcasting System: Dr. O. E. Baknr, U. S.

Department of Agriculture, The population prospect, December 13; J. B.

Kincer, U.S. Weather Bureau, Is our climate changing to milder?, January 3;

Dr. Pau 8. Gautsorr, U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, The mystery of the ocean,

January 10.

Assistant Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. CHAPMAN of the Department

of the Interior gave a radio talk January 8 over the Columbia Broadcasting

System’s Station WJSV in Washington. The subject of his talk was the use

and value of the national parks.

Recommendations for Weather Bureau.—A committee of the Science Ad-

visory Board, consisting of Dr. IsaAiaH Bowman, Dr. Karu T. Compton,

CuHarRLEs D. RexEp and Dr. Ropert A. MILLIKAN, chairman, has presented

to the Secretary of Agriculture its preliminary report, recommending certain

changes and measures of reorganization in the reporting and forecasting of

weather in the United States. Primary recommendations are two: first, that

the air-mass analysis method, already in use in certain European countries,

be adopted in this country as rapidly as practicable, to supplement the

method now in use here: second, that all meteorological activities now con-

ducted by several separate agencies be integrated into one central organiza-

tion, under the Weather Bureau, except for the activities necessary to the

Army and the Navy. In addition to these two major recommendations, the

committee also considers the following innovations desirable: a certain de-

centralization of the general forecast work of the Weather Bureau by the

establishment of more numerous district forecast centers in place of the

five now existing; an extension of climatological work, looking toward long-

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

range forecasting; efforts toward cooperation with other countries in the

Northern Hemisphere; postgraduate training for Weather Bureau meteor-

ologists, and the establishment of a permanent Weather Bureau Committee

to advise on matters of weather service and policy.

Science in the recovery program.—Among the Federal projects approved

by the Public Works Administration, five allotments indicate a recog-

nition of the value of scientific research as part of the recovery program.

Two allotments were made to the National Planning Board. One of

$35,000 provides for a program to discover, correlate, and study the re-

searches and surveys now being made throughout the country on such sub-

jects as natural resources, population distribution and trends, health prob-

lems, local planning, and any other field which has a direct bearing on na-

tional welfare.

A second allotment of $250,000 to the National Planning Board is to

stimulate the preparation of state, regional, local and city plans by sending

technical advisers out to visit the local communities.

The Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture,

received $70,000 for the construction of an industrial farm by-products

laboratory at Ames, Iowa, where the state agricultural college and experi-

ment station is located. :

An experimental study of stream pollution in the upper Mississippi River

is provided for by an allotment of $15,000 to the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.

This Bureau also received $127,300 for the survey and improvement of

streams and lakes in various sections of the country and to provide a scien-

tific basis for such operations.

A new project of the Civil Works Administration includes the exploration

of archaeological sites in five different states: Florida, Georgia, North

Carolina, Tennessee and California. The work of excavation will provide

employment for a total of approximately 1,000 men.

Allocation of more than $1,750,000 of funds for new construction on

government property near Beltsville, Md., as a part of the Public Works

program will enable the U. S. Department of Agriculture to develop there a

model experiment station for agriculture. |

A national experiment in land use, devoted to studying the prevention of

soil erosion and providing for removal from cultivation of submarginal land

instead of the average land required in the crop reduction programs, is

being undertaken cooperatively by the Replacement Crops Section of the

Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the Soil Erosion Service of

the Department of the Interior. The experiment was authorized upon the

recommendation of Secretary of Agriculture WaLLAcr and Secretary of

Interior Ickus. It will cover two million acres of land in 10 different regions.

The Bureau of Fisheries was allotted in August by the Public Works Ad-

ministration a sum of money amounting to $309,000 to be expended on some

37 projects including repairs and reconditioning to fish hatcheries, repairs

to vessels, improvement to Alaska salmon streams, and the enlargement and

continuation of new construction at 4 hatcheries.

News BRIEFS

At the annual meeting of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institu-

tion of Washington, held December 15, the following elections were an-

nounced: trustees: Frank B. Jewett, Roswetu Miuuzmr, both of New York

FEBRUARY 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS gl!

City; officers of the board for three ensuing years: Euinuv Root, chairman,

Henry 8. PRITCHETT, vice-chairman, FREDERIC A. DELANO, secretary.

An aerial mapping project has been undertaken over large selected rural

areas in the South, under the auspices of the Civil Works Administration.

A summary of the earthquakes of 1933 based on data compiled by seis-

mologists of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, shows a total of about

forty “‘earth-shakers.’’ Of these five were destructive to property and human

ee ao damage estimated at $41,000,000 and approximately 2,000

eaths.

By cooperation of several scientific agencies with the Tennessee Valley

Authority, Indian mounds and other archaeological sites in areas to be ex-

cavated, flooded or otherwise disturbed will be given thorough scientific

exploration with the objective of salvaging all possible data and material.

It is announced that the International Scientific Radio Union will have

its Fifth General Assembly in London, September 12 to 19. This is the

international organization for the promotion of radio research. Its Fourth

General Assembly was held in Copenhagen in 1931. Dr. A. E. KENNELLY

is the President of the Union and Chairman of its American Section. Dr.

J. H. Dex~iincrer, Vice Chairman of the American Section, was recently

appointed chairman of the Union’s Commission on Radio Wave Propaga-

tion.

The International Radio Consulting Committee will have a meeting in

Lisbon, beginning September 22. This is one of three advisory committees

established by the international telegraph and radio conferences; the other

two are on telegraphy and telephony, respectively. The International Radio

Advisory Committee has had two previous meetings, The Hague, 1929 and

Copenhagen, 1931.

Professor Max Berean, Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in

Dresden, Germany, gave a lecture entitled Some recent work in the chemistry

of proteins and amino acids at the George Washington University school of

Medicine on Tuesday, November 28, 1933.

The December lecture on the Smith-Reed-Russell series at the School

of Medicine, George Washington University, was delivered by Dr. Howarp

T. Karsner, Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Western Re-

serve University. Dr. Karsner’s subject was Rheumatic heart disease.

More than 48,000 acres of national forest land were planted to trees

this fall, the U. S. Forest Service reports. This total covers practically only

a half-year, but it is greater than the acreage planted in the national forests

in any preceding 12-month period. Plantings in the national forests in 1932

aggregated 24,900 acres, in 1931 they were 26,000 acres. Complete figures

for 1933 are not yet available.

PERSONAL ITEMS

CuestsrR C. Davis has been appointed administrator of the Agricultural

Adjustment Act by Secretary of Agriculture Watiacsz, with the approval

of President RoosEVELT.

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 2

WILLIS 8. GreaG has been appointed chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau,

succeeding Dr. CHARLES 8. MARVIN, retired.

Dr. WALTER C. LowpERMILK has been appointed vice-director of the

Soil Erosion Service of the Department of the Interior.

Dr. H. C. Dickinson, chief, heat and power division, National Bureau

of Standards, has been appointed by Secretary of Commerce DANIEL C.

Roper, a member of the committee on uniform traffic laws and ordinances

which is charged with conducting a re-survey of the standards recommended

by the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety as a basis for

traffic laws and ordinances in many of the states and municipalities. The

committee will hold its first meeting in Washington, January 17 and 18.

Mr. J. W. Green, of the department of terrestrial magnetism, Carnegie

Institution of Washington, returned from Toronto, Canada, December 23,

1933, where he had carried out an inter-comparison of the magnetic stand-

ards of the Carnegie Institution of Washington with those of the Meteoro-

logical Service of Canada.

Prof. Grorcre W. Carver of Tuskegee Institute delivered a lecture at

Howard University, December 14.

Miss J. Buss, chief, thermometry section, Bureau of Standards, was

elected on January 4 to the office of Vice President of the Quota Club.

The Abbé GrorGres LEMAITRE, who has been visiting professor at the

Catholic University of America, was designated for the award of the Mendel ~

Medal for 1934 by Villanova College on January 12.

Dr. Neru E. Stevens of the Bureau of Plant Industry was elected Presi-

dent of the American Phytopathological Society at the mid-winter meeting

of the Society at Boston.

@Obituary

Homer CoLuarR SKEELS, botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry, died Janu-

ary 3 at East St. Louis, Illinois, where he had been spending the holidays

with his daughter. Mr. SkEELS was born July 31, 1873, at Grand Rapids,

Michigan, and received his elementary education in that city. He graduated

from the Michigan Agricultural College in 1898 with the degree of Bachelor

of Science, following which he was in charge of private parks in Joliet, IIli-

nois, for a number of years. He came to the Bureau of Plant Industry in 1907

and served there continuously until his death. During the years spent in the

Department of Agriculture, Mr. SkrEts built up a very comprehensive col-

lection of economic seeds, now numbering nearly 45,000 samples, which

work brought him a nation-wide reputation as an expert in the identification

of seeds. He was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement

of Science, and in addition to the Washington Academy of Sciences was a

member of the Botanical Society of America, the Botanical Society of Wash-

ington and the Biological Society of Washington.

anaes . sie ae ‘ ry) Ori nr aed

a ys. 4 Ob etek beng i i ¥ at te i x

} Ne 1a f 7

Botany. —Two new varieties of Salix seouleriana Barratt.

- Zoology. Two new species of pearly, fresh-water mussels

Boh ig ts UPA 53S aeadie's

' yuk

ste ete tee ee eee ee cea

Wablees, —A new ems of Trematodes belonging to the subfamil

EDWIN LANTON. 00s oe ree hee be a

‘Ornithology _—Bird bones from Eskimo ruins on St. a eee Ielan l,

ee en ae

Sommvruic Nor an NEWS. <0 -esse es essassseee of rf

-Onrrvarr- —Homer CoLiar SKEELS. . vets tei aad Sie Smme Nereis anak ay

Vou. 24 Marca 15, 1934 No. 3

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JOURNAL

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VoL. 24 Marca 15, 1934 No. 3

PETROLOGY.—Some magmatic problems.) CLARENCE N. FENNER,

Geophysical Laboratory.

For many years the causes of magmatic differentiation have been

a subject of very great interest to petrographers. As much as a hun-

dred years ago Scrope suggested that a main cause of variation of

magmas was to be found in the sinking of early formed crystals, and

Lyell believed this to be the true explanation. Later, various other

explanations were advocated by different students, but there was no

general agreement as to their efficacy or applicability. The theories

were expressed in rather vague general terms and lacked precision.

Comparatively recently N. L. Bowen has shown, by skilful labora-

tory work and admirable reasoning, in just what manner the separa-

tion of successive solid phases from a silicate melt should modify the

composition of the residual liquid, and the way in which the results

might be applied to natural magmas. His views have gained wide ac-

ceptance, and probably most petrologists now regard the essential

problems of differentiation as solved.

There is, however, a danger that in the enthusiasm aroused by a

notable advance, expectation will be too great, and the possibility

of the operation of other processes will be overlooked. There are some

geologists who are not yet prepared to accept all the implications of

this theory of differentiation, and who feel that it would be well to

proceed a little more cautiously and to test more carefully by field

observations whether all its requirements are met. They would ask

its advocates to give consideration to some apparent discrepancies

and endeavor to bring them into accord. It is my purpose to describe

certain occurrences that seem incompatible with some of the require-

ments of the theory as heretofore enunciated. It is hardly necessary

to emphasize that our whole conception of the properties of magmas

1 Presidential address, presented before the Geological Society of Washington, De-

cember 13, 1933. Received Dec. 21, 1933.

113

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

and of the processes operating in the depths of the earth are involved

in the question of differentiation.

All petrologists are familiar with the general principles of the theory

of differentiation by crystal separation, but I wish to call special

attention to one or two of its main points. It is supposed that the

magma that begins to differentiate is basic, probably basaltic. As this

cools, crystals separate, and by their separation the composition of

the remaining liquid is caused to change progressively. In the normal

sequence the liquid passes from basalt through increasingly siliceous

andesitic types to a very siliceous rhyolite. The points to be noted

are that rhyolite is the coolest liquid of the series, and that basic

constituents have been eliminated by a freezing out process. It fol-

lows necessarily that if rhyolitic magma should engulf fragments of

basic rock it should not be able ordinarily to melt them or take them

into solution, as the minerals of such basic rocks are almost wholly

of the sort that, theoretically, have already been frozen out of the

magma in the process by which rhyolite has been generated. This idea

has been regarded by many writers as almost axiomatic. Accepting

unreservedly the view that rhyolites have been formed in this man-

ner and only in this manner, they reason that it would be as illogical

to suppose that rhyolite magma could dissolve basic rocks as that a

salt solution that had deposited crystals could automatically reverse

the process and redissolve the crystals.

On the other hand, in the course of field work, I have come across

two remarkable occurrences in which there seems to have been direct

solution of large amounts of basic rocks in rhyolite. The incompati-

bility of these phenomena with theoretical expectations seems to place

before petrologists a problem requiring solution before we can be

satisfied that the orthodox scheme of differentiation is broad enough

to cover all phases of the subject. |

The first of these occurrences was met in the Katmai region. At

the time of the great eruption of Katmai, the main activity was in

the central crater, but important manifestations occurred in the near-

by area known as the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. We believe

that these subsidiary outbreaks had their origin in an intrusive sill

that was thrust into the horizontal Jurassic sediments that underlie

the valley, and broke through to the surface at numerous points.

The chief of these secondary eruptive centers was at Novarupta.

From the nature and distribution of the ejected material of the

eruption the chief events may be stated as follows:

At the main crater of Katmai enormous quantities of pumice and

MARCH 15, 1934 FENNER: MAGMATIC PROBLEMS tS

lapilli were ejected in violent explosions, and carried to great dis-

tances. At the vents in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes the vio-

lence was much less, but pumiceous material frothed over the rims

and was swept down the Valley in one or more incandescent floods

that resembled the glowing clouds of the West Indian eruptions; these

we have called the hot sand flows. Novarupta, at the head of the

Valley, participated in this phenomenon and was probably a chief

contributor to the sand flows. Later, it shot up a spray of fiery frag-

ments which were deposited in thick beds in its immediate vicinity

and built up an encircling wall. Its last act, most important for the

information on assimilation that it gives, was the slow extrusion of a

mass of viscous, glassy lava, which became rigid on the surface as it

cooled, and broke into great blocks from the effect of the uplifting

forces. This material represents what might be termed a gigantic

quenching experiment. It shows in diagrammatic manner the proc-

esses of solution and incorporation of xenolithic blocks, arrested at

a stage of incomplete digestion by the congealing of the mass.

The new, live magma ejected at Katmai crater and at all the other

vents is a very siliceous rhyolite with about 77 per cent silica. Speci-

mens of uncontaminated lava from Katmai, from Novarupta, and

from the Valley have been analyzed by several chemists, and they

show an almost identical composition. Moreover, there is good reason

to believe that the composition of the live magma rising from the

depths remained constant from beginning to end of the eruption.

Where variations occur there is direct evidence of near-surface con-

tamination.

At all the vents, however, contamination seems to have taken

place on a large scale and in similar fashion. Evidence might be

cited for each, but it is at Novarupta that it is most easily and con-

vincingly demonstrated.

The uncontaminated rhyolite pumice emanating from all of the

vents is a typical pumice, greatly inflated and almost white. It differs

much in appearance from the minutely vesicular rhyolitic glass of

Novarupta, but this is due simply to their different degrees of in-

flation. The only crystals that appear in either are rare phenocrysts

of quartz and oligoclase. Where the rhyolite has become contami-

nated the undigested xenoliths have usually the composition of basic

andesites of various kinds, and the textures of surface lavas, though

sedimentary fragments are fairly plentiful, and there are inclusions

of plutonic rock. |

The contaminated pumice of the early phases of eruption, which is

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

found in abundance, shows alternations of white and black bands.

The black bands, which are sharply contrasted with the white, con-

tain numerous phenocrysts of labradorite, pyroxene, and magnetite

in a brown glass, but in the final stages of reaction these phenocrysts

almost disappear in solution, and the siliceous and basic liquids

become thoroughly mixed.

In many specimens it is evident that not only was the basic ma-

terial melted down, but it became so thoroughly impregnated with

gases that it participated in the inflation to a pumiceous froth.

These variegated and banded pumices plainly show a remarkable

association of two sharply contrasted types of lava, but because of

the fragmental nature of the pumice, such material is not well adapted

to show how the basic bands originated. Novarupta supplies to per-

fection the missing evidence. The rock that forms the dome represents

the closing stages of activity. The violently explosive phenomena

had subsided, and though the rock is shattered, the blocks are large

enough to exhibit the mutual relations of the heterogeneous constit-

uents.

Novarupta forms a nearly circular pile of lava about 800 feet in

diameter, consisting of rock that is banded on a large scale. Associated

with the dark bands and evidently the source from which they origi-

nated may be seen thousands of basic xenoliths in all stages of diges-

tion. Some still preserve a sharply bounded, angular outline, but the

process of digestion stopped just as others had become softened and

were tending toward an elongated form, and as fragments were float-

ing away. Still others reached the stage of disintegration at which they

formed lenticular masses of scoria, and finally nothing was left but

dark bands. Some of the bands extend for many feet, but at their

terminations they always wedge out into the rhyolite. There is no

reason to doubt that the rhyolite is the all-embracing matrix and that

the dark bands represent included material. Furthermore, the separa-

tion between light and dark bands is usually abrupt. This could

hardly be so if the two had been stirred together in a violently agi-

tated pool of lava, nor could such a separation have survived the tur-

bulent mixing that the constituents would have undergone, if the

basic material had become involved in the rhyolite during its rise

from the depths. For this reason, and because the basic material

itself has the characteristics of surface andesites, it is believed that

the contamination is a near-surface phenomenon.

The features described characterize all the rock of the dome. The

specimens and photographs exhibited demonstrate more effectively

MARCH 15, 1934 FENNER: MAGMATIC PROBLEMS 117

than descriptions the processes that were in operation just prior to

the congealing of the Novarupta lava. Microscopic examination of

this contaminated material shows undoubted evidence of solution,

but the best evidence on a microscopic scale is obtained from certain

specimens that belong to an earlier stage of activity, when solution

was probably going on more vigorously; these were thrown out during

the explosive phases.

In thin sections of these specimens some of the minute xenoliths

still have a definite form, though the boundaries are very irregular in

detail. In many of them the original texture is preserved, and they

may be recognized commonly as basic andesites, less often as sedi-

ments. Some of the xenoliths became softened, and their shape was

distorted. Some were even drawn out into long tongues. The ground-

mass progressively lost its textural characteristics and became a dark

brown glass which has an index of refraction appropriate to an andes-

itic glass.

Contrary to what we might expect, we find that basic xenoliths

were softened and dissolved with more ease than those having the

composition of acid andesites.

Further mixture of rhyolite magma and basic liquid is seen in thin

sections to present an extremely streaky appearance, and irregular,

dark clots are numerous. The phenocrysts of the inclusions consist

of pyroxene, iron ore, and plagioclase. Less often hornblende and bio-

tite appear. The phenocrysts were somewhat more resistant to attack

than the groundmass, and many of them became free and floated

away, but they too yielded to attack and became much corroded, es-

pecially the feldspars.

Commonly the feldspars have the composition of acid to basic

labradorite, and are much zoned in oscillatory fashion. In their de-

struction many show a curious effect. The interiors became riddled

with brown glass, which had a decided preference for the more calcic

zones. This form of replacement went so far that while the outlines

of the crystal were preserved, the whole interior, except for small is-

lands of unreplaced feldspar, concordantly oriented, consists of iso-

tropic glass.

In the thick deposits of ejecta from the main crater of Katmai,

xenoliths and banded pumices are present, as at Novarupta, but, on

the whole, digestion of xenoliths has been much more complete, es-

pecially in the later pumices. They carry phenocrysts of labradorite,

pyroxene, and ore, from which the matrix has been wholly dissolved

away, uniformly dispersed through a frothy glass. Little bipyramids

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, NO. 3

of quartz are also present, as witnesses of the rhyolitic partnership

in the combination, and the bulk composition of the mixture, as

shown by analyses, is that of an acid andesite. It does not seem

possible to escape the conclusion that in the vents of the Katmai re-

gion rhyolite magma melted down and incorporated a large quantity

of basic rock. It is especially noteworthy that the introduction of this

cold material into the magma, and its assimilation, did not cause pre-

cipitation of crystals in the rhyolite. A large amount of heat must

have been available, either as excess temperature or as heat of reac-

tion. 7

I will now take up the second example of assimilation of basic rocks

by rhyolite to which I have referred. This was found along Gardiner

River in Yellowstone Park. Here many of the conditions were very

different from those in the Katmai region, and the resulting phenom-

ena differ in many respects, but assimilation is equally remarkable.

At this place Gardiner River forms the boundary between a wide

area of basalt on one side and a still wider area of rhyolite on the

other. Both are believed to be of Upper Tertiary age, but the basaltic

flow occurred long enough prior to the rhyolite for erosion to produce

a surface of considerable relief. At this particular place there was evi-

dently a steep, eastward-facing slope of basalt, with small ridges and

other minor irregularities rising from it, and probably with accumula-

tions of boulders lying on its surface and at its foot. From some un-

known source enormous extrusions of rhyolite were poured out, which

advanced upon this slope and flooded it. Subsequent erosion has worn

down the surface in the vicinity so that it is now a nearly level plain,

and, what is a very fortunate circumstance, Gardiner River has cut

a steep-sided little valley or gorge at just the place best suited to show

the contact phenomena.

The contact is very irregular in detail, but, in general, basalt occurs

along the sides of the gorge at lower levels whereas the contaminated

rhyolite is at higher levels. Small ridges and knobs of basalt protrude

through the rhyolite. A little farther back from the river on the west

is the wide area of basalt and on the east that of rhyolite. Exposures

along the rocky gorge are excellent for a distance of 1,500 feet.

The contaminated rhyolite along the contact contains myriads of

basalt xenoliths, ranging in size from those several feet in diameter

down to minute chips. These show varying degrees of digestion, and

the rhyolite shows varying degrees of contamination. Probably some

of this xenolithic material was derived from loose blocks, but cer-

tainly not all of it, for the rhyolite had remarkable powers of penetra-

MARCH 15, 1934 FENNER: MAGMATIC PROBLEMS 119

tion. This is plainly demonstrated by the way in which it found its

way into the basalt, which is penetrated in places by veins of rhyolite

of paper-like thinness. The magma also soaked into some of the inclu-

sions almost as if it were water, and by some process of interchange

of constituents not fully understood, the xenolith, while preserving a

definite outline, was replaced by rhyolite until only a dim phantom

was left. Multitudes were acted upon in this manner, but great quan-

tities of others were disintegrated and incorporated in the rhyolite.

A very remarkable effect is found in a number of places in the ex-

posures along the rocky walls of the gorge. In a typical exposure the

rock at the top of the bluffs, 30 feet or so above the water, is largely

rhyolite. As we descend the slope, the proportion of rhyolite decreases

irregularly, and that of basalt increases, until most of the rock is solid

basalt, but this is cut by ramifying and anastomosing veins or dikes of

rhyolite. Such dikes locally attain a foot or more in width, but many

of them are narrow seams. The rhyolite in these may be quite pure

or may be much contaminated with basalt and have an intermediate

composition. The dikes decrease in size and number going downward,

and at the water’s edge very little rhyolite is found. We have here a

strange case of a lava flow becoming an intrusive. ,

In another place, nearly vertical cliffs, 15 or 20 feet high, are com-

posed essentially of unaltered basalt, but locally this is penetrated

in the most intricate and irregular manner by more or less con-

taminated rhyolite. This injected material is in small to minute vein-

lets. Both the rhyolite and the hybrid rock contain numerous vesicles

lined with tridymite crystals, and the passage of gases is indicated by

open pockets and pipes of irregular shape. The vertical zone of basalt

penetrated in this manner by rhyolitic liquids and gases has a width

of 1 or 2 up to 4 or 5 feet. It is made up of rhyolitic veins, seams, and

bands; basalt fragments; and hybrid material, inclosed in walls of

solid basalt. Forty or fifty per cent of basalt in the mixture is not

unusual. In places irregular, dike-like offshoots of rhyolitic affinity

extend into the walls, but individually they have no great length and

soon fade out.

In some places a zone or system of dikelets of this character has

penetrated 40 or 50 feet downward into basalt.

At one place at the top of the cliffs a mass of normal-looking rhyo-

lite with gently inclined flow banding sends out a horizontal tongue,

3 or 4 feet thick, under a capping of basalt for a distance of several

feet, and appears much contaminated. Then it becomes thinner and

is succeeded by a network of rhyolite veins in basalt. Immediately

120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 3

adjacent, a vertical pillar of basalt is bounded by rhyolite on the two

exposed sides. The rhyolite is contaminated at the contact but has a

normal appearance a few feet away.

Minor effects are seen that suggest the action of gases distilled

from the rhyolite into the basalt rather than the action of liquid

rhyolitic magma. Certain small xenoliths of basalt inclosed in very

vesicular, tridymite-bearing rhyolite became granular and porous,

and minute tridymite scales were deposited in the pores.

This penetration of veins of rhyolite into solid basalt for long dis-

tances indicates a remarkable mobility of the rhyolite magma, even if

we assume that it was forced into seams of the basalt under great pres-

sure of overlying magma. This mobility may be ascribed to its high

content of volatiles. What seems almost unbelievable is the ability

shown by the small tongues of magma that penetrate 25 to 50 feet

downward into masses of basalt within narrowly confining walls to

heat up and assimilate considerable quantities of cold rock, but the

relations seem to leave no room for doubt.

Great powers of assimilation are likewise shown by certain large

masses of rock at the top of the cliffs, well above the solid basalt.

These are composed of material in which contamination and assimila-

tion progressed so far that a uniform-looking, nearly aphanitic mix-

ture resulted. They have a color ranging from medium gray to a shade

nearly as dark as the basalt itself. Their appearance is that of fine-

grained andesites. Analyses were made of two homogeneous-looking

specimens of this hybrid rock. One has a composition corresponding

to 30 per cent basalt and 70 per cent rhyolite, and the other to 69

per cent basalt and 31 per cent rhyolite. The heat necessary to assimi-

late such large amounts of basalt may have been supplied in part by

overlying magma, but this explanation is hardly applicable to the

dikelets of rhyolite that penetrated long distances downward into

masses of cold rock, corroding and assimilating as they went. These

phenomena seem to require either a very highly superheated magma

or the development of heat by chemical reactions, but both of these

suppositions are excluded in the theory of crystal differentiation as it

has been formulated. We seem to have evidence everywhere in this

area of the ability of the rhyolite to accomplish things that the theory

of crystallization differentiation has declared to be impossible.

Microscopic examination of the rocks confirms in every way the

inferences derived from field studies. In the contaminated rocks thin

sections reveal inclusions of basalt in rhyolite in various stages of

reaction and disintegration. Their borders became greatly corroded,

MARCH 15, 1934 FENNER: MAGMATIC PROBLEMS 121

and fragments floated away in the liquid. In these fragments the

minerals of the groundmass commonly underwent partial disintegra-

tion, the inclusion taking on a sooty appearance, and in the later

stages of solution only sooty specks were left. Phenocrysts in the

basalt were set free and became distributed through the rhyolite, but

though they persisted longer than the groundmass, they also were

attacked.

In the hybrid rocks in which assimilation was so complete that they

appear homogeneous, the microscope shows a strange assemblage of

minerals indicative of their hybrid origin. Taking as an example the

specimen previously mentioned as having a composition equivalent

to 70 per cent rhyolite and 30 per cent basalt, we find corroded pheno-

erysts of olivine, pyroxene, and labradorite derived from the basalt

xenoliths, together with quartz and sodic orthoclase derived from the

rhyolite magma, scattered through a perfectly uniform-textured fine

groundmass derived from mutual reactions. It consists of pyroxene,

ore, oligoclase, and orthoclase. In most places in the section all evi-

dence of xenolithic inclusions has disappeared, though here and there

traces persist in small, dimly perceptible areas which are a shade

darker than the rest. Some of these form narrow borders to clusters of

basic xenocrysts, but most of the xenocrysts were freed from their

original matrix.

I believe that sufficient evidence has been given to show that both

in the Katmai region and in Yellowstone Park rhyolitic magma has

been able to dissolve large amounts of basic andesites and basalts.

The question may be asked as to why such phenomena have not been

more commonly described. The explanation is doubtful. They may

have been overlooked or they may be very rare. It is hardly to be ex-

pected that a magma appearing at the surface will long retain the

temperature required to produce such effects. Also, there are indica-

tions that the retention of volatiles is an important factor in the proc-

ess. Ordinarily lava flows quickly give up their volatiles, but for some

strange reason the volatiles are sometimes retained for a long period.

Both in the Katmai region and in Yellowstone Park the lavas evi-

dently contained a large amount of volatiles, for they were in a very

mobile state at the time that assimilation occurred. This implies in

turn that the inner equilibrium appropriate to the small external pres-

sure had not been attained.

When we consider these factors, it does not appear likely that lava

flows will often show such results ashave been described. Theimportant

fact, however, is that they are sometimes capable of producing them.

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 3

With plutonic magmas of similar composition it is different, and

we might more commonly expect solution. Asa matter of fact, granit-

ic bodies show phenomena that might reasonably be interpreted in

this manner, but ordinarily investigators have been so convinced of

the impossibility of such a process that they have preferred to look

for other explanations. Though contamination or hybridization of

granites has been frequently recognized as an obvious fact, it has been

explained as due to a mechanism by which basic minerals that are

out of equilibrium with the acid magma are dissolved in only infinites-

imal portions at a time, and new minerals are simultaneously precip-

itated; in other words, it is the process formulated by Bowen in the

reaction principle. This is an important principle and must frequently

be operative. When the amount of basic rock is small in comparison

with the acid magma, the heat requirements of this process are not

excessive, and it is not incompatible with the theory of crystallization

differentiation. It has frequently been invoked, but, without depreci-

ating its value when properly applied, we may say nevertheless that

it has been used by many writers as a facile means of solving difhicul-

ties and of explaining almost everything in the way of assimilation.

From the nature of its postulated action it is almost impossible to

disprove its application in plutonic bodies in any specific instance,

whatever may be the truth of the matter. We should have to show.

that the disappearance of basic minerals is a process of true solution

and is not accompanied simultaneously by the precipitation of new

minerals farther along in the reaction series. However, when one ob-

serves such opposing phenomena as the common persistence of zoned

feldspars in magmas, which illustrate the lack of equilibrium that the

reaction principle is supposed to correct, one may doubt whether

the principle is as universally operative as has been assumed, but

doubt is not disproof. In the Yellowstone rocks, however, the amount

of contamination is so great and the phenomena are of such a nature

that it seems out of the question to explain the results by this prin-

ciple. Especially in the veins of rhyolite that penetrated many feet

downward into basalt, does it not seem certain that the chilling effect

of mere contact with cold walls and xenoliths, to say nothing of as-

similation, would be far beyond the capacity of the rhyolite magma to

meet unless there were inherent in it heat reserves not recognized in

the theory of crystallization differentiation? It seems still more ap-

parent that the reaction principle cannot explain assimilation in the

Katmai lavas, for here no precipitation of new minerals occurred—

the contaminated lava remained a liquid.

MARCH 15, 1934 FENNER: MAGMATIC PROBLEMS 123

Harker has described beautiful examples of hybrid effects at the

contact of granites and granophyres with basic rocks on the island

of Skye. Some of the phenomena described by him, such as phantom

xenoliths and the penetration of threads of magma into the walls, are

matched by those of Yellowstone. In spite, however, of his observa-

tion of obvious assimilation on a very considerable scale, he is im-

pressed with the great difficulty of accounting for the solution of any

large amount of cold rocks by the new magma. He has written:

“The insuperable difficulty to any such theory is that it demands an

enormous amount of heat to raise the solid rocks to the point of melt-

ing and to melt them.” He therefore explains the phenomena on Skye

by supposing that the injected rocks were still hot or even partly

fluid when the new injections occurred. The evidence for this is not

altogether convincing, and it looks as if he had felt forced to make

this assumption.

The problem of the heat supply may be freely admitted to be one

of great difficulty. A number of writers have recognized that the same

problem exists in other phases of volcanism, where it is equally strik-

ing. The suggestion has been made that the development of heat is

essentially a surface phenomenon, due to the combustion of escaping

gases or to the oxidation of ferrous iron in the magma. However,

combustion of gases that have left the magma does not develop heat

in the place where it is required, and in neither the Katmai nor the

Yellowstone hybrid rocks was the ferrous iron oxidized. Chemical

analyses and microscopic examination show that beyond doubt.

Exothermic heat reactions within the magma itself have also been

discussed, and diametrically opposing conclusions have been reached.

I doubt if this process has been by any means thoroughly explored;

in fact, our knowledge is far from complete regarding the state of

combination of the silicate constituents and the dissolved gases in

magmas, or of the reactions that take place when the magma rises

from a region of great pressure to one of little pressure. In the Katmai

and Yellowstone lavas the presence of a considerable amount of vola-

tiles is indicated, and this points to a state of delayed equilibrium.

Whether the reactions that finally ensued, permitting the volatiles

to escape, were exothermic or not, is a question that must await

further information.

However, in these hypothetical exothermic reactions there may

possibly be found a means of reconciling phenomena of assimilation

with the theory of crystallization differentiation. We may suppose

that a rhyolitic magma is formed at depth by the freezing out of basic

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

phenocrysts. It is therefore a relatively cool liquid; but it may con-

tain within itself latent possibilities of exothermic reactions, which

are developed by the change of equilibrium consequent upon its rise

to the surface and the escape of volatiles. By this means it may be

reheated to such a degree as to be enabled to take into solution the

very minerals that had been precipitated.

This is highly speculative, and even if it represents some approxi-

mation to the truth, it necessitates a considerable revision of ideas

that have been based upon a theory in which such a conception has

found no place.

Moreover, if it should eventually be found that exothermic reac-

tions supply a source of heat for assimilation, this fact would not

necessarily be dependent upon the generation of rhyolitic magma by

crystallization differentiation, or have any relation to it. It would

leave the question open as to how rhyolites have been formed.

Without going farther into this, if the phenomena that have actu-

ally been observed have the meaning they seem to have, large

amounts of basic rocks were dissolved by the rhyolites. In whatever

manner this may have been accomplished, it is not satisfactorily

explained by current theories. Many subsidiary problems relating to

magmas are likewise involved. I will leave all these for future con-

sideration, only expressing the belief that the important requirement

now is to examine without bias the facts as they are found in the

field.

CHEMISTRY.—83, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloro-benzylidene di-amides.* Ray-

MOND M. Hann. (Communicated by ATHERTON SEIDELL.)

Noyes and Forman? have recently studied the reactions of a num-

ber of liquid aldehydes with acetamide and isolated the resulting al-

dehyde di-amides. The purpose of the present investigation was an

extension of the reaction to include a solid aldehyde and a variety of

acid amides.

Raiford and Lichty’s’® orientation of the mono-chloro vanillins

provides a foundation for the preparation of chloro veratric aldehydes

of known configuration. Methylation of 5-chloro vanillin has yielded

5-chloro veratric aldehyde and this has been condensed under suitable

conditions with acetamide, propionamide, n-butyramide, n-capro-

amide and benzamide.

1 Received December 2, 1933.

2 NoyrEs and Forman. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 55: 3493. 1938.

3 RaAIFORD and Licuty. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 52: 4576. 1930.

MARCH 15, 1934 HANN: DI-AMIDES 125

EXPERIMENTAL

5-Chloro veratric aldehyde (3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloro benzaldehyde).

50 grams of 5-chloro vanillin was dissolved in 150 cc. 10 per cent Na--

OH and 600 cc. H:.O, heated to complete solution of the separated

sodium salt, cooled and held at 35° C., 100 cc. of dimethyl sulfate

added to the constantly stirred solution, and the solution maintained

alkaline to phenolphthalein by addition of 10 per cent NaOH (10 ce.

every 3 to 5 minutes, a total of about 1400 cc. being required). When

about 250 ec. of NaOH had been added on oil separated and was ~

brought into solution by addition of 50 cc. more dimethyl sulfate.

When this second portion of sulfate had reacted the alkaline solution

again separated an oil and on cooling this solidified. The solid was

filtered off, washed with H,O and the filtrate acidified, and 3.7 grams

unchanged chloro vanillin recovered. Yield of crude material 50

grams; quantitative. The substance was recrystallized from 50 per

cent alcohol for analysis.

5-Chloro veratric aldehyde crystallizes in colorless, soft, glistening

needles, and melts to a clear colorless oil at 57° C. (cor.).

Analysis: 0.2182 gram gave 0.1553 gram AgCl equivalent to

17.61 per cent Cl. Theory for C,H,O;Cl =17.68 per cent Cl.

§-Chloro-veratrylidene di-amides. One molecular portion of alde-

hyde, two of the desired amide, and 1 cc. of glacial acetic acid were

heated at 140°-C. in a small flask for 15 hours. Water was given off

when acetamide and propionamide were used and a solid brown cake

resulted. The other amides gave brown liquid melt which solidified

on cooling. The melt was brought into solution by refluxing with alco-

hol and filtered through char. The colorless filtrate soon separated

crystalline material which was filtered, washed with alcohol, recrystal-

lized from alcohol to constant melting point, and analyzed. The yields

are almost quantitative. The data are summarized in table 1.

TABLE 1. Proprrtiss or 3, 4- DimEeTHOXy-5-CHLORO-BENZYLIDENE DI-AMIDES

Nitrogen Analysis

Product

3, 4-Dimethoxy-5-Chloro | , he Appearance Berean

Benzylidene £2 Ge)

Cale’d. Found

Di-acetamide 244-5 Colorless, crystalline powder 9.32 9.23

Di-propionamide Dao Colorless fine acicular needles 8.52 8.30

Di-n-butyramide 204—5 Colorless, glistening platelets 7.85 7.50

Di-n-caproamide 172-3 Colorless needles 6.79 6.76

Di-benzamide PAT Brilliant, soft, colorless needles 6.60 6.63

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

SUMMARY

The aldehyde amide condensation reaction has been extended to

include a solid aromatic aldehyde with various aliphatic amides.

CHEMISTRY.—The isomeric oximes of ethyl vanillin. RAYMOND

M. Hann. (Communicated by ATHERTON SEIDELL.)

Ethyl vanillin (3-methoxy-4-ethoxy benzaldehyde) has long been

known, having been prepared by Tiemann? in connection with his

exhaustive research upon the structure of coniferin. The original

method of preparation, the interaction of vanillin and ethyl iodide in

the presence of ethyl iodide, has since been displaced by the cheaper

and simpler method of ethylation by diethyl sulfate in alkaline solu-

ip Coyee

In furthering an investigation upon the relationship between struc-

ture and taste in the vanillin series it was desired to investigate some

properties of the syn-oxime of ethyl vanillin. Because it was necessary

to prepare the anti-oxime, it seemed desirable to continue the study

of these derivatives and to correlate them with some known com-

pounds of the ethyl vanillin series.

The present paper reports the result of these investigations, and

outlines the indirect synthesis of ethyl vanillic acid in accordance

with the following series of reactions.

N-OH HON N

| | I

SHO CHOW He HC eee COUM

~ ~ AS

oc ~\ Jocn, "| Jocn, “\ /ocu,” \ /ocH ay aan

OC, OCH, OGH, OC, H; 7 eer

EXPERIMENTAL

Ethyl vanillin (3-methoxy-4-ethoxy benzaldehyde). ‘Twenty-five

grams of vanillin were dissolved in 75 cc. of 10 per cent NaOH solu-

tion and 200 cc. of H.O added. To the constantly stirred clear yellow

solution 45 cc. of practical diethyl sulfate (theory for 2 moles. 42.8 cc.)

were added and the suspension gradually heated to 65° C. when reac-

tion occurred. The solution was maintained alkaline to phenol-

phthalein by addition of increments of 10 cc. 10 per cent NaOH at

1 Received December 2, 1933.

2 TiIEMANN. Ber. Deutschen Chem. Gesell. 8: 1128. 1875.

3 BARGER, EISENBRAND, and SCHLITTLER. Ber. Deutschen Chem. Gesell. 66: 453.

1933.

MARCH 15, 1934 HANN: ETHYL VANILLIN 127,

approximate five minute intervals, a total of 70 cc. being required.

The solution was then heated rapidly to boiling, 100 cc. H,O added

and upon cooling to 50° C. crystallization occurred. When cold, the

ethyl vanillin was filtered and dried. Yield 24 grams. A second crop

of 0.8 gram crystallized from the other liquor. Total yield 24.8 grams

or 84 per cent of theory. This material was used directly for further

work. Recrystallization from 4 parts of 50 per cent ethyl alcohol gave

a product melting at 65° C. (corr.) in agreement with Tiemann.

Ethyl vanillin anti-oxime. Twenty grams of crude ethyl vanillin,

8 grams of hydroxylamine hydrochloride, 10 grams of sodium bicar-

bonate and 50 cc. of 95 per cent alcohol were heated under reflux for

one half hour. The addition of 200 cc. H.O caused separation of an

oil which rapidly solidified. Cooled, filtered, and recrystallized from

4 parts of 50 per cent alcohol the oxime was obtained in colorless gran-

ular prisms which melt at 102° C. (corr.) to a clear colorless oil.

Analysis: 0.1137 gram consumed 5.80 cc. 0.1 N acid equivalent to

7.14 per cent N. Theory for C,oH,3;0;N is 7.18 per cent N.

Ethyl vanillin anti-oxime acetate. One and nine-tenths grams of the

anti-oxime was heated to boiling with 10 cc. acetic anhydride, the ex-

cess anhydride decomposed by NaHCOs, and the separated solid re-

crystallized from 50 per cent alcohol. The compound crystallized in

fine glistening prismatic crystals which melt at 69° C. (corr.) to a clear

colorless oil.

Analysis: 0.0694 gram consumed 2.9 ce. 0.1 N acid equivalent to

5.85 per cent N. Theory for C,.H,;0,N is 5.91 per cent N.

Ethyl vanillin syn-oxime. Twelve grams of crude ethyl vanillin

anti-oxime was dissolved in 150 cc. ether and the hydrochloride pre-

cipitated by introduction of dry HCl and 25 ec. H.O, and the suspen-

sion added to a solution of 25 grams of Na,CO; in 250 cc. H.O. An

oil came down which rapidly solidified. Yield 10 grams. The solid

was recrystallized several times from 50 per cent alcohol, and finally

obtained in colorless brilliant crystals which melt at 98° C. (corr.) to a

clear colorless oil.

Analysis: 0.1069 gram consumed 4.5 cc. 0.1 N acid aquivalent to

7.21 per cent N. Theory for C:oHi;0;N is 7.18 per cent N.

Kithyl vanillonitrile (38-methoxy-4-ethoxy benzonitrile). Five grams

of ethyl vanillin syn-oxime was dissolved in 10 ec. acetic anhydride,

heated to 30° C., and allowed to stand for ten minutes. The excess

anhydride was decomposed by addition of 200 cc. 10 per cent Na,CO;

solution and the separated nitrite filtered and washed with H.O.

Yield 4.5 grams. Recrystallized from dilute alcohol it melted at 102° C.

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 3

in agreement with Kefflert who prepared it by the action of ethyl

iodide on the potassium salt of ethyl vanillin.

Ethyl vanillic acid (3-methoxy-4-ethoxy benzoic acid). One gram of

ethyl vanillonitrile was boiled with 20 cc. of 10 per cent NaOH solu-

tion for one half hour, the solution cooled, and the acid precipitated

by dilute HCl. It was recrystallized from 25 per cent alcohol, separat-

ing in beautiful colorless needles which melt at 193—4° C. in agreement

with Tiemann.

SUMMARY

Kthyl vanillin has been oximated to the anti-oxime, which has been

isomerized to the syn-form, and the latter by the action of acetic an-

hydride converted to 3-methoxy-4-ethoxy benzonitrile. Alkaline hy-

drolysis of the nitrile leads to the previously described ethyl vanillic

acid, obtained by direct oxidation of ethyl vanillin.

4 KEFFLER. Jour. Chem. Soc. 119: 148. 1921.

PALEONTOLOGY .—WNew fossil fresh-water Mollusca from the Cre-

taceous and Paleocene of Montana.: Loris 8. RussELu, Geologi-

cal Survey, Ottawa, Canada. (Communicated by John B. Ree-

side, Jr.)

Dr. G. G. Simpson, of the American Museum of Natural History,

recently submitted to the writer a collection of non-marine mollusks

from central and southwestern Montana, material obtained under the

auspices of the United States National Museum. Most of the speci-

mens pertain to described species, but at least two new species and

two varieties appear to be represented. The writer is indebted to Dr.

Simpson for the opportunity of studying this collection, and to the

authorities of the U. 8S. National Museum for permission to publish

the following descriptions.

PELECYPODA: UNIONIDAE

Elliptio silberlingi, sp. nov.

Figs. 1 and 2.

Type.—U. S. National Mus. No. 75287A; paratype, No. 75287B. From

the Eagle coal mine, Bear Creek, Carbon county, Montana. Upper Paleo-

cene (‘‘Bear Creek’’ horizon).

Description.—Shell moderately large, elongate-ovoid, flattened. Beak low,

placed near anterior extremity, sculptured with two fine plications, slightly

1 Published with the permission of the Director, Geological Survey, Department

of Mines, Ottawa, Canada: Received Oct. 26, 1933.

MARCH 15, 1934 RUSSELL: FOSSIL MOLLUSCA 129

double-looped; also a pair of fine, diverging ridges extending from posterior

end of beak toward the posteroventral extremity. Anterior margin well

rounded; ventral margin sinuous, convex in front, slightly concave near

midlength; posterior extremity low, narrowly rounded, produced; posterior

dorsal margin broadly convex. A broad, shallow sinus extending downward

and somewhat backward from umbo. Surface marked by fine and coarse

lines of growth. Length of holotype, 98.8 mm.; height, 44.6 mm.; thickness,

as preserved, 16.3 mm.

Remarks.—This species clearly belongs to the group of “‘Unio”’ priscus

and its relatives, but may be distinguished by the elongate outline and pro-

duced posterior, as well as by the reduced beak sculpture. In a forthcoming

revision of the Canadian fossil Unionidae the writer erects a new subgenus

for the ‘‘Unio” priscus group under the genus Elliptio. More particularly,

the present species closely resembles, and probably is descended from, the

Judith River form identified by Stanton? as Unio subspatulatus.

The new species is named for Mr. Albert C. Silberling, of Harlowton,

Montana, in recognition of his services to paleontology.

Medionidus? senectus (White)

Unio senectus, White, U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., Ann., Rept. for 1878, pt. 1,

p. 69. pl. 28, fig. 1, pl. 29, fig. $. 1883.

Remarks.—In his revision of Canadian fossil unionids, mentioned above,

the writer tentatively refers this species to the genus Medionidus Simpson.

This reference is based principally on the presence of postumbonal radiating

sculpture. It is probable that ‘‘Unio”’ senectus represents a genus absent from

the living fauna.

Medionidus? senectus declivis, var. nov.

Rigo:

Type.—U. S. National Mus. No. 75288; from SE. 4 of SE. 4, Sec. 10,

T. 5 N., R. 18 E., Sweetgrass county, Montana. Paleocene, ‘‘about 4000

feet above base of ‘‘No. 3,” with highest mammals from Crazy Mountain

Field, probably post-Torrejon.’”

Description.—Shell elongate, tapering posteriorly; posterior dorsal margin

broadly convex, sloping to the narrowly rounded posteroventral extremity.

Postumbonal radiating sculpture as in M.? senectus but more obscure.

Length of holotype, 76.4 mm., height, 41.2 mm.; thickness, as preserved,

16.8 mm.

Remarks.—Shells of this variety are associated at the type locality with

typical examples of M.? senectus, from which they differ in the characters

given above. Some examples from the upper Ravenscrag beds of Saskatche-

wan show characters intermediate between those of M.? senectus senectus

and the present variety. The differences may be only sexual, but it is note-

we. Geol sun; bull: 25721075 pl. 13; fig. 1. 1905.

3 Simpson, personal communication.

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 24, No. 3

LAA eat

Ox (as

————

ay ©

Off? Wt

Fig. 1.—Elliptio stlberlingi, sp. nov., holotype, X1.

ventral view.

Fig. 2.—Elliptio silberlingi, sp. nov., paratype, showing umbonal markings, X1.

Fig. 3.— Medionidus? senectus declivis, var. nov., holotype, <1.

tral view.

Fig. 4.—Campeloma vetulum pegmate, var. nov., holotype, X1. A, dorsal view; B,

Fig. 5.—Gontobasis ursarivulensis, sp. nov., holotype, X1. A, dorsal view; B, ven-

MARCH 15, 1934 RUSSELL: FOSSIL MOLLUSCA 131

worthy that the variety declivis appears to be absent from the Judith River

and contemporary faunas. All examples of this age seen by the writer have

the short outline and the broad posterior extremity.

GASTROPODA: VIVIPARIDAE

Campeloma vetulum (Meek and Hayden)

Paludina vetula, Meek and Hayden, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Proc., 8: 121. 1857:

Campeloma vetula, Meek, U. 8. Geol. Surv. Terr., Rept., 9: 587. pl. 42, figs. 14a, 14b.

1876.

Campeloma vetulum pegmate, var. nov.

Fig. 4.

Type.—U.S. National Mus. No. 75289; SW. 4 of NW. 4, Sec. 8, T.6N.,

R. 18 E., Wheatland county, Montana. About 75 feet above base of Judith

River formation, Upper Cretaceous.

Description.—Shell as in C. vetulum, but with a narrow, distinct shelf

along the posterior (apical) border of the whorls; body whorl relatively

less ventricose. Length of holotype (first whorl missing), 20.1 mm.; width,

11.9 mm.; length of aperture, 9.7 mm.

Remarks.—This variety occurs associated with C. vetulwm vetulum in the

Pale beds (upper Belly River) of Alberta.

MELANIIDAE

Goniobasis ursarivulensis, sp. nov.

area P

Type.—U. 8. National Mus. No. 75290; from the Eagle coal mine, Bear

Creek, Carbon county, Montana. Upper Paleocene (‘‘Bear Creek”’ horizon).

Description.—Shell of moderate size, elongate-concoid. Spire tapering,

length almost two-thirds that of shell; volutions about five, prominently

convex; suture linear, broadly impressed. Inner lip of aperture nearly

straight, outer lip strongly convex. Surface marked by numerous fine and

a few coarse lines of growth, and occasionally by obscure revolving mark-

ings. Length of holotype, 17.8 mm.; width, 9.0 mm.; length of aperture, as

preserved, 6.7 mm.

Remarks.—This species closely resembles, and probably is descended

from, G. sanctamariensis Russell‘ from the St. Mary River formation of

Alberta. The present species may be distinguished by the more slender shell,

and the lesser prominence of the whorls, which do not show numerous fine,

revolving lines. The distinction between these two species may be of value

in differentiating Upper Cretaceous from Paleocene strata.

* Canadian Field-Nat. 46: 81. fig. 4. 1932.

1382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, NO. 3

ZOOLOGY.—New genera and species of blood flukes from a marine

turtle, with a key to the genera of the family Spirorchidae.! Em-

METT W. Pricz, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated

by BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ.)

Among some trematodes collected by Dr. B. G. Chitwood and the

writer from a marine turtle, Chelone mydas, which died in the National

Zoological Park, March 8, 1932, were a number of specimens belong-

ing to the Spirorchidae, a family proposed by Stunkard (1921) for

trematodes occurring in the circulatory system of turtles. These speci-

mens were collected for the most part from washings of the digestive

tract, but in view of their affinities with species which have been

described from the blood vessels of other cold-blooded hosts, it ap-

pears certain that they had escaped from the blood vessels during

evisceration; a few specimens were collected also from washings of the

body cavities. These specimens were found to represent four new spe-

cies and three new genera, the descriptions of which are given in this

paper. In order to differentiate the new genera from related genera, a

key to the genera of the family Spirorchidae is appended.

Neospirorchis, new genus

Generic diagnosts.—Spirorchidae: Body greatly elongated, threadlike,

subcylindrical. Cuticula provided with fine transverse ridges but without

spines. Oral sucker moderately developed; acetabulum absent. Esophagus,

especially the posterior half, surrounded by unicellular glands; intestinal

tract similar to that of schistosomes. Genital aperture lateral, in posterior

half of body. Testis slender, more or less spiral, extending to intestinal

union; vas deferens arising from posterior pole of testis; cirrus pouch present.

Ovary slender, spiral, situated along posterior portion of testis. Seminal

receptacle and Laurer’s canal absent. Vitellaria extending from intestinal

bifurcation to near level of genital aperture. Eggs without polar processes.

Parasitic in marine turtles.

Type species.—Neospirorchis schistosomatoides, new species.

Neospirorchis schistosomatoides, new species

Figs. 1-2.

Description.—Neospirorchis: Body threadlike, 7.45 to 9.5 mm. long by

about 140 to 220u wide; pretesticular portion of body slightly flattened

dorsoventrally, posttesticular portion cylindrical or subcylindrical. Cuticula

without spines but marked with fine transverse ridges. Oral sucker sub-

terminal, 32 to 40u in diameter; acetabulum absent. Esophagus 595 to 680u

long, consisting of two parts about equal in length; anterior part slender,

posterior part about twice the width of anterior part and surrounded by uni-

cellular glands. Intestinal branches slightly sinuous, uniting near level of

1 Received November 18, 1933.

MARCH 15, 1934 PRICE: NEW BLOOD FLUKES 133

anterior pole of testis, forming a common cecum terminating near posterior

end of body. Excretory pore terminal; excretory vesicle Y-shaped. Genital

aperture lateral, about 1 to 1.2 mm. from posterior end of body. Cirrus

pouch weakly developed, enclosing a long, slender, muscular cirrus; cirrus

apparently protrusible, but not actually protruded in any of the specimens

available. Vas deferens relatively long and convoluted, arising from

posterior pole of testis. Testis long, slender, more or less spiral, and extend-

ing anteriorly as far as level of intestinal union. Ovary long, slender, more or

less spiral, and extending anteriorly from a point posterior to genital aper-

ture for about one-third the length of testis. Oviduct slender, extending

posteriorly to an ootype about 500u from posterior end of body; oviduct

joined here by vitelline duct and continued anteriorly as a slender tube ex-

panding to form the uterus. Seminal receptacle and Laurer’s canal absent.

Vitellaria well developed, extending in intercecal field from posterior end of

esophagus to intestinal union, thence continuing dorsal to common cecum

and terminating near level of genital aperture. Vitelline duct single, extend-

ing posteriorly to ootype and expanding there to form a large vitelline reser-

voir. Uterus slightly tortuous, containing 7 to 15 eggs, extending anterior to

genital aperture, then turning posteriorly. Eggs oval, 44u long by 32yu wide,

without polar prolongations.

Host.—Chelone mydas.

Location.—Visceral blood vessels.

Locality United States (Washington, D. C.).

Type spectmen.—U.S. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 32563; paratypes No. 32564.

Neospirorchis schistosomatoides appears to be more or less closely related

to Unicaecum ruszkowskii, a species described by Stunkard (1925, 1927)

from Pseudemys scripta, but differs from that species in the form of the di-

gestive tract and in the point of origin of the vas deferens. In N. schistosoma-

toides the digestive tract is of the same type as that found in members of the

family Schistosomatidae, while in U. ruszkowski the digestive tract consists

of a single cecum. The vas deferens in N. schistosomatoides arises from the

posterior pole of the testis, while in U. ruszkowski1 it arises from the anterior

pole of the testis, and extends parallel to the testis for its entire length.

The form of the digestive tract in N. schistosomatoides is of especial inter-

est, since this is the first species of blood fluke from cold-blooded vertebrates

which has a digestive system of the type characteristic for blood flukes oc-

curring in warm-blooded vertebrates. A tendency toward fusion of the in-

testinal ceca to form a digestive tract of the schistosome type has been

reported by Stunkard (1923) in specimens of Spzrorchis.

Amphiorchis, new genus

Generic diagnosis.—Spirorchidae: Body slender, subcylindrical. Cuticula

marked with fine transverse ridges. Oral sucker and acetabulum present.

Ksophagus slender, surrounded by unicellular glands; intestinal ceca slender,

not uniting posteriorly. Cirrus pouch well developed, containing a short

cirrus, internal seminal vesicle and prostate cells; external seminal vesicle

anterior to cirrus pouch. Testes two in number, one anterior and the other

posterior to cirrus pouch and ovary. Seminal receptacle and Laurer’s canal

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

aero’ REB2G Ob.

ge &

5) - 5 y i mat

AIO & 02,08

Sop

Fig. 1. Neosptrorchis schistosomatoides. Entire worm. Fig. 2. N. schistosomatoides.

Terminal portions of genital system. Fig. 3. Amphiorchis amphiorchis. Entire worm,

ventral view. Fig. 4. A. amphiorchis. Genital complex; reconstructed from serial

sections. Fig. 5. Learedius learedi. Entire worm; ventral view. Fig. 6. L. learedt.

Genital complex; greatly enlarged. Fig. 7. L. similis. Entire worm; ventral view.

Fig. 8. L. semilis. Genital complex; greatly enlarged.

ac. Acetabulum mg. Mehlis’ gland

C. Cirrus mt. Metraterm

cp. Cirrus pouch od. Oviduct

é. Egg Ov. Ovary

es. Ksophagus sr. Seminal receptacle

esg. Esophageal glands sv. ext. External seminal vesicle

ex.v. Excretory vesicle sv.int Internal eminal vesicle

gp. Genital aperture t. Testis

tnt. Intestine vit. Vitellaria

le. Laurer’s canal vr. Vitelline reservoir .

MARCH 15, 1934 PRICE: NEW BLOOD FLUKES 135

present. Vitellaria consisting of two groups of follicles, one group extending

from intestinal bifurcation to anterior testis, and the other from posterior

end of vitelline reservoir to near posterior end of body. Parasitic in blood

vessels of marine turtles.

Type species—Amphiorchis amphiorchis, new species.

Amphiorchis amphiorchis, new species

Figs. 3-4.

Description —Amphiorchis: Body elongated, 1.87 to 2.2 mm. long by

120 to 148u wide at level of posterior testis, oval to subcylindrical on cross

section. Cuticula without spines but marked by fine transverse striations.

Oral sucker subterminal, 40 to 44u in diameter; acetabulum circular, 40 to

64u in diameter, 476 to 510u from anterior end of body. Esophagus 255 to

320u long, surrounded by unicellular glands; intestinal ceca slender, termi-

nating blindly about 280u from posterior end of body. Excretory pore ter-

minal; excretory vesicle Y-shaped, the branches slightly longer than the

stem. Genital aperture median, immediately anterior to ovary. Cirrus pouch

oval, 60 to 80u long by 48 to 60u wide, enclosing a short, thick cirrus, a

moderately large internal seminal vesicle, and numerous prostate cells;

external seminal vesicle more or less globular, 40 to 60u in diameter, im-

mediately anterior to and slightly to right of cirrus pouch. Anterior testis

oval, 100 to 120u long by 80 to 88u wide, in front of external seminal vesicle;

posterior testis oval, 140 to 190u long by 100 to 120u wide, situated a short

distance caudal to posterior end of vitelline reservoir and separated from it

by a band of vitelline follicles. Ovary irregularly oval, 120 to 140u long by

54 to 80u wide, between testes and immediately posterior to cirrus pouch.

Seminal vesicle globular, 24 to 40u in diameter, posterior to ovary and sit-

uated in curve of vitelline reservoir. Mebhlis’ gland present, consisting of

relatively few large cells; Laurer’s canal relatively large, opening in mid-

dorsal line a short distance posterior to seminal receptacle. Vitelline reser-

voir large and curved; vitellaria consisting of two groups of follicles, one

group between intestinal bifurcation and anterior testis and the other be-

tween posterior end of vitelline reservoir and posterior end of body. Metra-

term simple, muscular. Eggs not observed.

Host.—Chelone mydas.

Location.—Visceral blood vessels.

Locality.— United States (Washington, D. C.).

Type specomen.—U.8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 32565, paratypes No. 32566.

The genus Amphiorchis appears to be more closely related to the genera

Hapalotrema Looss, Spirhapalum Ejsmont, and Hapalorhynchus Stunkard

than to any of the other genera of Spirorchidae. Amphiorchis amphiorchis

is more slender and the testes are simple instead of being divided into pre-

ovarial and postovarial groups of follicles as is the case of the types of

Hapalotrema and Spirhapalum. In body form it resembles most closely

Hapalorhynchus gracilis Stunkard, but in that species the genital aperture

is dorsal and the anterior testis is situated posterior to the genital aperture

and seminal vesicle, while in A. amphiorchis the genital aperture is ventral

and the anterior testis is anterior to the seminal vesicle.

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 3

Learedius, new genus

Generic diagnosis.—Spirorchidae: Body elongate, slightly constricted

equatorially, flattened dorsoventrally. Oral sucker and acetabulum present.

Esophagus long and surrounded by unicellular glands; intestinal ceca

slender, not uniting posteriorly. Genital aperture median or slightly to left,

near posterior end of body. Cirrus pouch present, largely filled by internal

seminal vesicle; external seminal vesicle present. Testes numerous, pre-

ovarial. Ovary deeply lobed, posttesticular. Laurer’s canal present. Eggs

with polar prolongations. Parasitic in circulatory system of marine turtles.

Type species.—Learedius learedi, new species.

Learedius learedi, new species

Figs. 5-6.

Description.—Learedius: Body elongated, 3.4 mm. long by 690u wide,

slightly constricted near equator of body, flattened dorsoventrally. Cuticula

with verrucae similar to, but smaller than, those of species of Schistosoma.

Oral sucker cup-shaped, 280u long by 240 wide, oral aperture subterminal;

_acetabulum circular, 340u in diameter, pedunculated, near equator of body,

Esophagus slightly tortuous, 1.02 mm. long, surrounded by unicellular

glands. Intestinal ceca slender, curving inward at level of acetabulum, ter-

minating near posterior end of body. Excretory pore terminal; excretory

vesicle Y-shaped, the branches of about the same length as stem. Genital

aperture about 360u from posterior end of body, slightly left of median line.

Cirrus pouch shaped somewhat like an elongated letter 8, its base enlarged

and lying about 360u from genital aperture, containing a slender internal

seminal vesicle, numerous prostate cells, and a protrusible cirrus; external

seminal vesicle transversely elongated, 144 long by 60 wide, to right of

base of cirrus pouch. Testes 28 in number, in intercecal field between ex-

ternal seminal vesicle and acetabulum. Ovary deeply lobed, more or less

dendritric, 240u long by 240u wide, posterior to external seminal vesicle.

Oviduct long and slender, arising at right side of ovary and expanding pos-

teriorly to form an elongated ootype; seminal receptacle postero-dorsal of

ootype; Laurer’s canal slender, opening in mid-dorsal line near level of ends

of ceca. Vitelline reservoir large, anterior to ootype. Vitellaria consisting of

small follicles forming a transverse band across body between intestinal

bifurcation and level of ‘posterior margin of acetabulum, then extending

posteriorly in extracecal fields to level of tips of ceca. Metraterm short and

containing a single egg. Egg fusiform, about 210u long (including polar

prolongations) by 28 wide.

Host.—Chelone mydas.

Location.—Circulatory system.

Locality.—United States (Washington, D. C.).

Type specomen.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 32567.

Learedius similis, new species

Figs. 7-8.

Description.—Learedius: Body elongated, 2.2 mm. long by 320 wide,

slightly constricted at level of acetabulum. Cuticula with verrucae larger

and less numerous than those of L. learedi. Oral sucker subterminal, 160u

in diameter; acetabulum circular, 240u in diameter, pedunculated, about

MARCH 15, 1934 PRICE: NEW BLOOD FLUKES 137

750yu from anterior end of body. Esophagus about 170u long, surrounded by

unicellular glands; intestinal ceca slender, extending to near posterior end of

body. Excretory pore terminal; excretory vesicle Y-shaped, the limbs longer

than stem. Genital aperture almost median, 260u from posterior end of body.

Cirrus pouch somewhat S-shaped, its base about 1 mm. from genital aper-

ture, almost completely filled by internal seminal vesicle; external seminal

vesicle 180u long by 80u wide, situated as in L. learedi. Testes arranged as in

L. learedi, the exact number not ascertainable in the specimen available.

Ovary lobulated, 260u long by 120u wide, between external seminal vesicle

and vitelline reservoir, ventral to cirrus pouch. Oviduct dilated, arising from

right side of ovary; ootype short and surrounded by Mehlis’ gland; seminal

receptacle present; Laurer’s canal not observed. Vitellaria extending from

level of intestinal bifurcation to about middle of ovary and occupying entire

intercecal field anterior to testes. Egg fusiform, 234u long (including polar

prolongations) by about 12 wide.

Host.—Chelone mydas.

Location.—Circulatory system.

Locality.— United States (Washington, D. C.).

Type specimen.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 32568.

The descriptions of Learedius learedi and L. sumilis are each based upon a

single specimen, but in view of certain distinct differences they cannot be

regarded as the same species. These differences are as follows: L. s¢milis has

a much shorter esophagus and the intestinal bifurcation occurs much farther

cephalad of the acetabulum than in L. learedz; the testes are much less

numerous than in L. learedi; the cirrus pouch is relatively much longer and

encloses a larger internal seminal vesicle and fewer prostate cells than does

that of L. learedi; the ovary, while distinctly lobed, does not present the

dendritic appearance of that structure in L. learedi; and the vitellaria in L.

similis extend posteriorly only as far as the level of the middle of the ovary,

while in L. learedi they extend to the level of the tips of the ceca. The egg is

also somewhat different in the two species, that of L. semzlis being longer

and more slender than that of L. learedt.

In addition to the two species just described, Distoma constrictum Leared

must also be included in the genus Learedius. This species was described by

Leared (1862) from the “‘edible turtle” (also referred to in the same paper

as the ‘“‘common turtle’’), the specimens having been collected from the

heart, and submitted to Cobbold who regarded them as larval flukes. Almost

no description was given for this species aside from the size—‘“‘Their average

length was a line and a half, and the breadth about one third of this,’””—and

a few minor comments on the shape of the body and on the configuration of

the digestive tract. Judging from the figure accompanying the description,

the species is closely related to Learedius learedi described in this paper and

may actually be the same. However, the writer feels that the two forms

should be regarded as distinct until such time as a restudy can be made of

specimens from the same host and from the same locality as that from which

Leared’s specimens were obtained. The apparent points of difference be-

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 3

tween the two forms are the longer and more serpentine esophagus and the

smaller number of testes in Leared’s species as compared with these struc-

tures in L. learedt.

In reviewing the literature concerning Dzistoma constrictum Leared, a

situation was discovered which involves the validity of the name of Leared’s

species as well as of the status of forms subsequently described by Monticelli

(1896) and by Looss (1899), which were regarded by them as the same as

D. constrictum Leared. This situation is briefly summarized as follows:

Distoma constrictum Leared, 1862, is preoccupied by D. constrictum Mehlis,

in Creplin, 1846, making Leared’s constrictum a homonym and, conse-

quently, unavailable. This fact was noted by Monticelli (1896) who de-

scribed under the name of Mesogonimus constrictus (Leared) a blood fluke

from ‘‘Thalassochelys caretta Linn.’ Despite the fact that he noted the

priority of names he continued to use the specific name constrictus through-

out the paper. In his discussion, however, he stated: “‘Per questo suo carat-

teristico aspetto, qualora avesse dovuto cambiar nome specifico, il distomide

del Leared avrebbe potuto meritar quello mistroides (da pustpoc-ov cucchi-

aio).”’ This statement was regarded by Stiles and Hassall (1908) as a re-

naming of Distoma constrictum Leared. Later Looss (1899) proposed the

genus Hapalotrema for Mesogonimus constrictus (Leared) of Monticelli, bas-

ing his discussion of this form on material collected by him from the heart of

“Thalassochelys corticata” at Abukir, Egypt. A comparison of the descrip-

tions and figures given by Monticelli and by Looss, however, show certain

differences which suggest that while the forms studied by them are unques-

tionably congeneric, they probably represent distinct species, and are not

the same as, or congeneric with, the species described by Leared. In view

of the foregoing, the following points must be considered: (1) The status of

D. constrictum Leared and of the name mistroides Monticelli; (2) the status

of the genus Hapalotrema Looss; and (3) the identity of Mesogonimus con-

strictus (Leared) of Monticelli and Hapalotrema constrictum (Leared) of

Looss. The solution of these problems appears to the writer to be as follows:

1. Since Distoma constrictum Leared is a homonym it must be renamed,

and since the name mzstrovdes indicates an anatomical character (spoon-like

shape of the body) of the species which Monticelli described as Mesogonamus

constrictus and which does not apply to Leared’s species, the specific name

mistroides must apply to Monticelli’s species. The writer, therefore, proposes

for D. constrictum Leared the new name Learedius europaeus.

2. Hapalotrema Looss was proposed as a genus for Mesogonimus constrictus

(Leared) of Monticelli and applies to that species and not to Leared’s spe-

cies, and since the specific name mistroides appears to be the valid name for

Monticelli’s form, the type of the genus is Hapalotrema mistroides (Monti-

celli, 1896) Stiles and Hassall, 1908 (syn. Mesogonimus constrictus (Leared)

of Monticelli, 1896; misdetermination).

3. Neither Monticelli nor Looss gave any indication as to the extent of

variation occurring in the specimens which they studied, and in view of this

MARCH 15, 1934 PRICE: NEW BLOOD FLUKES 139

lack of information one must assume that the drawings which they published

are representative of the forms which they had before them. A compari-

son of these drawings shows differences in the number of testes and in the

extent of vitellaria, and in body proportions which are as great as, or greater

than, those occurring in species of other genera. Monticelli’s figure shows 9

testes in the preovarial group and 16 in the postovarial group, whereas in

Looss’ figure there are 8 in the preovarial group and only 10 in the postova-

rial group. Monticelli’s figure also shows distinctly that the vitellaria unite

in the median field anterior to the preovarial group of testes and also pos-

terior to the postovarial group, while in Looss’ figure no such union is shown.

In Monticelli’s figure the oral sucker is of the same size as the acetabulum,

while in Looss’ figure the oral sucker is about one-third smaller than the

acetabulum. There are also noticeable differences in the relative distances

between the suckers in the two illustrations, but these may be due to varia-

tion in the amount of contraction or extension of the specimens drawn. In

view of the disparity as given above the writer feels that for the time being

Looss’ form should be regarded as a distinct species and proposes for it the

name Hapalotrema loossi (syn. Hapalotrema constrictum (Leared) of Looss,

1899, not H. constrictum (Leared) of Monticelli =H. mistroides (Monticelli).

Up to the present time the following genera have been included in the

family Spirorchidae: Spzrorchis MacCallum, 1918 (syn. Proparorchis Ward,

1921), Henotosoma Stunkard, 1922; Haematotrema Stunkard, 1922; Hapalo-

trema Looss, 1899; Hapalorhynchus Stunkard, 1922; Vasotrema Stunkard,

1926; Unicaecum Stunkard, 1926; Spirhapalum Ejsmont, 1927; Diarmoschis-

torchis Ejsmont, 1927; and Tremarhynchus Thapar, 1933. To this family are

now added three additional genera, Neospirorchis n. g., Amphiorchis n. g.,

and Learedius n. g. Whether all of these genera should be regarded as valid is

a matter of personal opinion. Ejsmont (1927) not only doubts the validity

of some species assigned to certain of the above genera but of some of the

genera as well. The present writer does not propose to go into the question of

the validity of the species at the present time, but so far as the genera are

concerned he does not regard Henotosoma Stunkard and Haematotrema

Stunkard as sufficiently different from the genus Spzrorchis to be considered

distinct, the types of the genera, Henotosoma haematobium Stunkard and

Haematotrema parvum Stunkard, becoming Spirorchis haematobium, (Stunk-

ard) and S. parvum (Stunkard), respectively. Tremarhynchus indicus, as

described by Thapar (1933), apparently does not differ sufficiently from

Hapalorhynchus gracilis Stunkard to warrant its separation as a distinct

genus, the differences being specific rather than generic; 7. zndicus Thapar,

therefore, becomes H. indicus (Thapar).

The genera of Spirorchidae fall into two more or less well defined groups,

one consisting of monostomatous forms and the other of distomatous forms.

Ejsmont, however, has shown that evidence of transition occurs in some of

the genera, a fact which makes it undesirable to regard the two groups as

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

subfamilies. In the genus Diarmoschistorchis, which was proposed for a

monostomatous species, Spzrorchis blandingt MacCallum (1926), the testes

are arranged in two groups, one group preovarial and the other postovarial;

this condition simulates that occurring in species of Hapalotrema, which are

distomatous. The writer has had the opportunity of examining MacCallum’s

specimens of this species, and is inclined to regard it as an abberrant form

not closely related to the distomatous species. The testes, 12 or 13 of which

are preovarial and 3 postovarial, are arranged in a linear series as in the

monostomatous species and not irregularly as in the distomatous species;

the arrangement of the other organs is the same as in the genus Spzrorchis.

The relation of Dzarmoschistorchis blandingi, therefore, to such genera as

Haplorchis, Amphiorchis, and others of the distomatous group is question-

able. The other example of transition between the two groups, which Ejs-

mont pointed out, is Spzrhapalum polesianum; this is a distomatous form

which does show definite evidence of transition, especially as regards the egg

which is oval and contains a miracidium with eyespots as in the genus

Spirorchis. Aside from the egg, S. polesianum might easily be regarded as

congeneric with Hapalotrema mistroides, but in the latter species the egg is

spindle-shaped and the miracidium is not provided with eyespots. Much

might be said regarding the relationships of the genera and families of blood

flukes, but such a discussion is not within the scope of this paper.

KY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY SPIRORCHIDAE

1. Monostomatous forms.(0 0. 0 02. 2

Distomatous forms. &.. 85.2.) ee ee eee 5

2. Testes 2 or mong}... 0a i ea ee oh os ee 3

Testis single and spiraly. 0. ore ea a 4

3. slestes{preovanial hens. ce ey Ais wee ae ge oe eee Se: Sptrorchis

Testes both preovarial and postovarial............. Diarmoschistorchis

A Intestime consisting Olea sinclei cecum a5 4-4. See _.Unicaecum -

Intestine consisting of 2 branches uniting near equator of body and form-

ing a common cecum as in the Schistosomatidae..... Neospirorchis

5. estes numerous; preovariall.. 08... un eg eee Learedius

Testes numerous, or single, both preovarial and postovarial, or post-

ovarialjonly.. ig ogc a Be eee 6

6. Testis single, postovarial; esophageal diverticula present... . . Vasotrema

Testes 2 or more, preovarial and postovarial; esophageal diverticula ab-

SONGS. Si o8 «emia cx a eidelou hehe ele RES oe a

1s. PEStES MUMETOUS .:. sc. a Be aly «le a eee es 8

Testese2 in mumber..s 5.6. 6 gece kok dee pe aes ee 9

Sa Recoval: minacidiumwith eyespots. .9e0- ee sae Spirhapalum

Egg spindle-shaped; miracidium without eyespots......... Hapalotrema

9. Genital aperture dorsal, in front of anterior testis...... Hapalorhynchus

Genital aperture ventral, posterior to anterior testis....... Amphiorchis

MARCH 15, 1934 STEINER: NEW NEMATODE 141

LITERATURE CITED

EssmMont, L. Spirhapalum polesianum n. g., n. sp., trématode du sang d’Emys orbicu-

laris L. Ann. de Parasitol. humaine et comp., 5: 220-235, figs. 1-6. 1927.

LEARED, ARTHUR. Description of a new parasite found in the heart of the edible turtle.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc., Lond., n. s., 2: 168-170, figs. a-d. 1862.

Looss, A. Weitere Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Trematoden-Fauna Aegyptens, zugleich

Versuch einer naturlichen Gliederung des Genus Distomum Retzius. Zool. Jahrb.,

Jena, Abt. f. Syst., 12: 521—784, figs. a—b, pls. 24-32, figs. 1-90. 1899.

MacCatuium, G. A. Revue du genre Spirorchis MacCallum. Ann. de Parasitol. hu-

maine et comp., 4: 97-103, figs. 1-5. 1926.

Monticetui, F. 8. Diz un ematozoo della Thalassochelys caretta Linn. Internat.

Monatschr. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Leipz., 13: 141-172, pls. 7-8, figs. 1-22. 1896.

Stites, C. W., and Hassauu, ALBERT. Indezx-catalogue of medical and veterinary zool-

ogy. Subjects: Trematoda and trematode diseases. Hyg. Lab. Bull. 37, U. S. Pub-

lic Health and Marine Hosp. Serv., 401 pp. 1908.

STUNKARD, H. W. Notes on North American blood flukes. Amer. Mus. Novit. (12):

1-5. 1921.

—— Studies on North American blood flukes. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 48: 165—

221, pls. 2-13, figs. 1-61. 1923.

— A new blood fluke Unicaecum ruszkowskii, n. g., n. sp.; a contribution to the re-

lationship of the blood-infesting trematodes. Anat. Rec., 31: 317. 1925.

Sur ?Unicaecum ruszkowskii, trématode sangutcole des tortues d’eau douce de V’

Amérique du Nord. Ann. de Parasitol. humaine et comp., 5: 117-126, figs. 1-3.

1927.

THAPAR, GOBIND SINGH. A new blood fluke from an Indian tortoise, Trionyx gangetica.

Jour. Helminth. 11(8): 163-168, figs. 1-3. 1938.

ZOOLOGY .—A new species of the nematode genus Aphelenchoides

living in sugar cane G. STEINER, Bureau of Plant Industry.

A phelenchordes heterophallus n. sp. was observed in a piece of sugar

cane stalk originating in Jamaica.” The rind of the cane was a normal

green color; the axial portion, however, had a blackish discoloration

probably caused by a fungus. It was in this latter portion that a pure

culture of the new nematode species was found. A. heterophallus is a

well characterized form, most closely related to certain species found

in the mines of and associated with bark beetles of Europe and the

Pacific Northwest. The present case may also involve some associa-

tion with an insect (most probably a carrier relationship), although

the piece of sugar cane stalk exhibited neither mines nor other traces

of insects. The complete absence of saprophytic nematode species and

of signs of decay seems to exclude the possibility that the infestation

was picked up by contact with soil.

The thin cuticle is very obscurely annulated. The anteriorly convex head

is well set off. Male and female tails differ in shape, that of the latter being

conical and elongated (fig. 1B), and that of the former having a broad,

obtuse base with a distinctly set off point (fig. 1D and E). The length of the

female tail, however, is quite variable. The head is supported by a cuticu-

1 Received December 19, 1933.

* Intercepted at the Port of Philadelphia, Pa. by inspector A. B. Wells of the Bureau

of Plant Quarantine.

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

Fig. 1.—Aphelenchoides heterophallus n. sp. X about 1250.

lat vnc, lateral incisure; cut, cuticularized framework.

ut, uterus; vlv, vulva; rect, rectum. C, Anterior portion of body; sty, buccal stylet; oe

A, Top view of head:

B, Posterior portion of female;

blb, esophageal bulb; p. ex, excretary pore. D, Ventral view of tail of male; sp, spicula;

min cop ppl, small copulatory papilla; maj cop ppl, large copulatory papilla; trm, ter-

minal processus. E, Lateral view of tail of male.

MARCH 15, 1934 STEINER: NEW NEMATODE 143

larized framework which is star-shaped in front view (fig. 1A). The ar-

rangement of the sense organs is that typical for the genus. In a front view

of the head a rather remarkable lateral and medial incisure is seen on the

periphery. The delicate buccal stylet has only a slight indication of basal

knobs. The very large esophageal bulb, iocated about three spear-lengths

behind the anterior end, is provided with small valvulae and rather reduced

muscles. The rectum is about as long as the anal body diameter. Males and

females are equally numerous.

The most characteristic feature of the female is the prominent vulva lo-

cated near the anus (fig. 1B), the distance between vulva and anus being

only about half the length of the tail. The single ovary is not reflexed. There

is no posterior uterine branch.

In the male the terminal processus also varies somewhat in size and shape.

The spicula are juxtaposed (fig. 1E) and of quite characteristic shape, though

they still retain the outlines of typical A phelenchoides spicula. There are two

small and three large pairs of copulatory papillae (fig. 1D and E). The

smaller ones are close to the ventromedial line, one pair being about level

with the proximal third of the spicula in front of the anus, the other in about

the middle of the tail. Of the three larger pairs the first is located a little

caudad of the middle of the spicula, the second ventro, the third dorso-

submedial, close to the base of the obtuse portion of the tail.

med. nrv.

bulb ring

70.

1.0 5.2 Gal 02) 6 Ga 7 p

ee OT huey a7 2.2 a

74,

pe 1.3 Gs foal M a cas roma lk

ai (4 2.2 2.92 2.9 iGReo G

DIAGNOSIS

A phelenchoides with delicate, minutely knobbed stylet. Vulva prominent;

distance from vulva to anus about one-half the length of tail or less. Male

tail with broad, obtuse basal portion ending with a distinctly set-off finger-

like processus. Male papillae as follows: A pair of small papillae subventral

about level with the proximal third of the spicula; a similar pair also sub-

ventral in the middle of the tail; a pair of larger ones, ventrosubmedial,

slightly caudad of the middle of the spicula; a second and third larger pair

ventrosubmedial and dorsosubmedial respectively, at the base of the obtuse

portion of the tail. Spicula juxtaposed, aphelenchoid.

Type host: Sugar cane.

Type locality: Jamaica.

144. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

255TH MEETING

The 255th meeting of the Academy was held in the Auditorium of the

National Museum at 4:45 p.m., on Thursday, November 16, 1933. About

150 persons were present. President Griaes introduced the Reverend Dr.

G. LeMAITRE, professor of physics in the University of Louvain and lecturer

at the Catholic University of America, who delivered an address on The

expanding universe.

250TH MEETING

The 256th meeting of the AcApEmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club on Thursday, January 18, 1934. Seventy five persons were

present. Vice President H. L. Curtis presided and introduced RoBERT

F. Griaes, Professor of Botany, George Washington University, retiring

President of the AcapEmMy, who delivered an address on The problems of

Arctic vegetation.

The 36th Annual Meeting of the AcApEMy was called to order by Presi-

dent R. F. Griaas, at 9:20 p.m., immediately after the 256th regular meet- -

ing. Thirty-six members were present. The minutes of the 35th Annual

Meeting were read by the Recording Secretary and approved.

Annual reports of officers were presented as follows:

The corresponding secretary reported that on January 1, 1934, the mem-

bership consisted of 16 honorary members, 3 patrons, and 521 members, one

of whom was a life member. The total membership was 540 members, of

whom 378 reside in or near the District of Columbia, 136 in other parts of

the continental United States, and 26 in foreign countries.

The members of the AcapEmy stood while the Secretary announced the

following deaths:

Otis F. BLACK F. P. GoRHAM

ARTHUR P. Davis W.H. Houtmes

HARLAN W. Fisk ORMOND STONE

The Recording Secretary summarized the five public meetings of the

ACADEMY, one of which was a joint meeting with the Medical Society.

The Treasurer reported that the receipts of the AcapEMy during the past

year amounted to $4,983.81 including the return of investment of $50 and

interest on investments of $993.06. The disbursements amounted to

$5,195.30 including bills for the year 1932 totaling $413.79. The bank balance

at the end of the year was $1,365.35. The investments of the ACADEMY com-

prise $6,337.50 in stocks, $6,758.87 in bonds, and $8,000.00 in real estate

notes making a total of $21,096.37 computed on the basis of cost to the

ACADEMY.

Doctor H. H. Haran, chairman of the board of auditors, reported exam-_

ination and approval of the books and properties in the hands of the Treas-

urer, after which both reports were accepted.

The report of the Board of Editors was presented by the Senior Editor,

Huau L. Drypsn. Volume 23 consisted of 77 original papers covering 588

pages and illustrated by 30 halftones and 78 line cuts. The total cost per

printed page exclusive of reprints and of the cost of the new’s service was

MARCH 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 145

$5.50 as compared with $6.62 for 1932. The cost to the AcapEmy of supply-

ing 50 free reprints of each article was $0.57 per page. A marked increase

in the space devoted to scientific notes and news was made possible by a

contract with Science Service operative during the year.

Doctor W. B. Bell, chairman of the board of tellers, reported the election

of the following officers: President, L. B. TucKERMAN; non-resident Vice-

Presidents, E. C. ANDREWS and E. T. WuHeERRyY; Corresponding Secretary,

PauLt E. Howe; Recording Secretary, CHARLES THoMm; Treasurer, H. G.

Avers; Managers for the term of three years ending January, 1937, W. M.

Corss and J. E. Grar.

The Corresponding Secretary read the list of members nominated for

Vice-Presidents by the affiliated societies. Upon motion the entire list was

unanimously elected as follows:

Philosophical Society, H. L. DRYDEN

Anthropological Society, MatrHrew W. STIRLING

Biological Society, Cuas. E. CHAMBLISS

Chemical Society, D. BREESE JONES

Entomological Society, HaRotD Morrison

Geographic Society, FREDERICK V. COoVILLE

Geological Society, C. N. FENNER

Medical Society, H. C. MAcaTEE

Historical Society, A. C. ALLEN

Botanical Society, CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT

Archaeological Society, WALTER HouGH

Society of Foresters, SAMUEL B. DETWILER

Washington Engineers, Paut C. WHITNEY

Electrical Engineers, E. C. CRITTENDEN

Mechanical Engineers, H. L. WHITTEMORE

Helminthological Society, G. STEINER

Bacteriological Society, N. R. Smiru

Military Engineers, C. H. BrrpsEYE

Radio Engineers, H. G. Dorsry

President Griggs appointed Past President L. H. Apams to escort Presi-

dent TucKERMAN to the chair. After a short address, he declared the meeting

adjourned.

CHARLES THOM, Recording Secretary.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

246TH MEETING

The 246th regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club on January 3, 1933. President CHARLES Brooks presided; attendance

150.

Brief notes and reviews: A. S. Hircucock of the International Committee

on Botanical Nomenclature reported that the new rules were practically

finished in English and that translation into other languages would prob-

ably be completed by the end of 1933.

Program: W. A. ArcHER: Botanical explorations in Choco Province,

Colombia.—Choco Province is about twice the size of New Hampshire with a

low central area surrounded on all sides by mountains. The annual rainfall

is approximately 457 inches. The population of some 60,000 consists of a few

146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

scattered white people and the balance Indians of Choco stock and negroes.

About 500 plant specimens were secured, including a large number of new

species. Of the scant 40 economic plants obtained, several are new, indicat-

ing the need for further studies of the flora of the region.

247TH MEETING

The 247th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

February 7, 1933. President CHARLES Brooks presided; attendance 55.

FLORENCE E. Meier and Lewis B. Lockwoop were elected to membership.

Brief notes and reviews: W. A. WHITNEY reviewed a new Dictionary of

Colors by Maerz and Paul, including more than 7,000 colors, which may be

freely exposed to the light. Davip GrirFiTus exhibited a plant of the genus

Lachenalia with decorative leaves and flowers. M. B. WaiTE reported on two ~

interesting conifers, Torrya taxzfolia and Juniperus barbadensis, the latter

erowing at Wrightsville, North Carolina, 30 miles north of its previous

northernmost station. H. R. Fuutron exhibited a branch of satsuma orange

bearing fruiting bodies of Schizophyllum commune.

Program: CHARLES THOM: The arsenic fungi.—The history and signifi-

cance of the group of fungi capable of attacking insoluble arsenical sub-

stances and producing gases with a garlic odor and more or less toxicity,

were developed along the lines established by Thom and Raper in Science

76 (1980) : 548-550, December 9, 1932. The ubiquity of these species in rela-

tion to the general use of arsenic in excess in combatting insects was stressed

as involving injury to certain crops and health hazards worthy of serious

consideration. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messers WHITNEY, WAITE, RAPER, THONE, and ROSE.

G. M. Darrow: Short daily light periods the cause of the rest period and

regional adaptation in strawberries.—This was a report of experiments and

observations covering the past ten years on the effect on varieties and species

of short days during summer, and long days during winter, the relation of

shortening days of fall to the rest period, the intensity of the rest period of

different varieties, breaking the rest period by exposure to low temperatures

and. by increasing the daily light period, and the significance of this in

breeding. (Author’s abstract.)

248TH MEETING

The 248th meeting was held at Meridian Mansions Hotel, March 7, 1933.

President CHARLES Brooks presided, attendance 89.

Dinner was served at 7:00 o’clock. Davip GRIFFITHS supplied extensive

table decorations including Narcissus, Iris, and Lachenalia. During the

meeting he pointed out the different varieties and explained a new method

of forcing which had enabled him to secure the blooms within three to four

weeks. Dean H. Rosh outlined briefly various methods of preparing frozen

fruits, of which the strawberries served at the dinner were an example.

Program: J. R. SWALLEN: Yucatan as seen by a botanist.

249TH MEETING

The 249th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

April 4, 1933, President CHARLES Brooks presiding; attendance 109.

JaMES M. PickENs was elected to membership.

Brief notes and reviews: F. THONE exhibited four recently published

botanical works, Plant Sociology, Braun-Blanquet; Plant Ecology, Weaver

MARCH 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 147

and Clements; Natural Gardens of North Carolina, Wells; and The Plant

World in Florida, Nehrling. C. A. Lupwic showed graphs of the distribution

of cowpea and hairy vetch seeds by weight classes. R. KENT BEATTIE called

attention to the first two numbers of Phytopathological Classics, the first

Attempt at a dissertation on the diseases of plants by Fabricus, published in

1774 and translated by Mrs. K. Ravn; and the second, Observations on the

rust of grains by Fontana, published in 1767. H. B. Humpurey discussed

the precipitation record for Washington, D. C., from January 1930 through

ie 1933, the record disclosing a net accumulated deficiency Ole ane

inches

Program: D. H. Rose: Bruising and freezing injury of apples in storage and

transit.—Published in mimeographed form by the Bureau of Plant Industry.

CHARLES DRECHSLER: The capturing of nematodes by fungi.—Published

in substance. TH1Is JOURNAL 23: 1388-141. 1933.

250TH MEETING

The 250th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

May 2, 1933, President CHARLES BRooks presiding; attendance 44.

Brief notes and reviews: H. B. HumMpuHReEy exhibited 9 species of endemic

violets. C. A. Lupwic exhibited a specimen of quack grass (Agropyron

repens) which had grown through the root of a sumac bush. A. 8. HircHcock

requested information on the location of types of plants to be used in a

central index of types which would be available to botanists.

Program: J. H. Martin: Grohoma and other fake grains: therr origin and

explottation.—Grain crops are a favorite medium for exploiters. Poulard,

Polish, Fulcaster and other wheats, hulless varieties of oats and barley, proso

and Pearl millets have been exploited frequently. Grohoma, a new grain

sorghum, has been exploited by several firms and individuals since 1929. It

was claimed to have been originated by grafting a kafir bud on a stalk of

sorgo. Extravagant and fraudulent claims were made for Grohoma in ex-

tensive seed selling campaigns. Efforts of the Department of Agriculture and

State officials resulted in suppressing much of the fraudulent advertising and

in greatly curtailing the sale of Grohoma seed at high prices. The fake graft-

ing process on sorghums was detected. Exploiters attempted to retaliate

against Department and State officials for exposing the fraud by using

political and legal methods but were unsuccessful. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messers RaBER, SWINGLE, HitrcHcock, and BRIERLY.

C. O. ErRLANSOoN: A resumé of potato investigations in Mexico and South

America.—The Bureau of Plant Industry sent out expeditions in 1931 and

1932 to obtain new varieties of potatoes for use in breeding new types resist-

ant to the various virus diseases of this crop. Potato relatives, numbering

about 150 species, are distributed from New Mexico and Arizona south

through the mountains of Mexico, Central and South America. About 600

collections of tubers and seeds of potatoes and potato relatives were obtained

from the two expeditions. This material is now being grown at several ex-

periment stations where studies will be made as to the resistance to degener-

ation diseases of any promising types which develop.

Discussed by C. A. Lupwice.

2518ST MEETING

The 251st regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club October 3, 1933. President CHARLES Brooks presided.

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

Program: J. B. KincEr: Long-time temperature trends: Are the old fashioned

winters gone?—Attention was called to the remarkable sequences of years

with supra-normal temperature, especially during the fall and winter seasons,

which have occurred over eastern North America since 1876. Weather re-

cords for Washington, D. C., show that 18 of the last 21 winters have been

warmer than normal, and that all of the last 13 have been mild; only 3 of the

25 fall seasons since 1907 have had sub-normal temperatures while 15 of

the last 17 months, including September 1933, had plus departures from

normal. The abnormally warm weather experienced in general for a long

time past does not mean, however, that cold periods have been entirely

absent. The records indicate that occasional brief spells of abnormally cool,

or extremely cold, weather are characteristic of prevailingly high tempera-

ture trends. The cold winter of 1917-18 coming at a time when the long-

time trend was running comparatively high was cited as an example, and

also the fact that the lowest official temperature on record for the United

States—66 degrees below zero—occurred in the Yellowstone National Park

in February, 1933.

Discussed by W. A. Taytor and M. B. Waite.

H. H. McKinney: Time of sexual reproduction in wheat as influenced by ©

temperature and light—Shoot development and flower differentiation in the

wheat plant are affected by temperature and length of day. Winter wheats

are low-temperature short-day plants during leaf and tiller formation, and

high-temperature, long-day plants during elongation and heading. The low

temperature requirements for earliness in winter wheat can be met during

the early stages of germination by exposing partly germinated seeds at 35-—

38° F. for 65 days. The treatment called iarovization by the Russians, and

vernalization by the English, may be carried out in either darkness or light.

By its means heading of wheat may be significantly advanced.

252ND MEETING

The 252nd regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club on November 7, 1933. President CHarRLES Brooks presided.

Program: W. W. Dinuu: The lack of chlorosis in some sterility diseases of

grasses.—The effect upon certain grasses of a systemic infection produced

by certain parasites recognized in the genera, Myriogenospora, Dothichloé

and Balansia is to produce a partial or complete sterility, unaccompanied,

however, by any chlorotic condition, since diseased plants and organs are of

a normal green color. Dependent upon the particular combination of host

and parasite there may be a dwarfing or an invigoration of the diseased

plant. The examples which were chosen to illustrate these conditions were

as follows: Andropogon virginicus infected by Myriogenospora; Arvstida

glauca, Sacciolepis striata, Panicum clandestinum, and Sporobolus bertero-

anus infected by Dothichloé; Cenchrus echinatus infected by Balansza clavi-

ceps; = Danthonia spp. infected by Balansia Hypoxylon. (Author’s ab-

stract.

J. R. Maeness: The functioning of fruit trees as influenced by moisture

supply.—When a portion of the root zone of apple trees reaches the wilting

percentage, the daily period of stomatal opening becomes reduced. Under

extreme water shortage, stomata fail to open at any time during the day.

Rate of fruit growth is closely correlated with the moisture condition and

stomatal behavior. When sufficient moisture becomes available following

drought conditions, leaf function and fruit growth are apparently resumed

MARCH 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 149

at a normal rate. Under conditions of water shortage, the starch-sugar ratio

in bark and wood is modified, tissue from trees under moisture shortage con-

taining more sugar and less starch than under ample moisture supply. Total

carbohydrates manufactured as well as total starch in the tree are reduced

by water shortage. Fruit bud formation apparently is increased by the water

shortage associated with high soluble carbohydrate content in the tissues.

(A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by L. E. Yocum and M. B. WalrTs.

253RD MEETING

The 253rd regular meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club, December 5, 1933, President CHARLES Brooks presiding.

Program: Address of retiring President CHARLES Brooks: After-harvest

botany—Some botanical aspects of perishable food products.—This address will

be published in The Scientific Monthly.

33RD ANNUAL MEETING

The 33rd annual business meeting and election of officers was held follow-

ing the adjournment of the 253rd meeting.

The recording secretary reported 8 regular meetings and one outing dur-

ing the year. The annual dinner was held in March at Meridian Mansions.

The average attendance at the regular meetings was 87. Thirteen new mem-

bers were elected, two absent members reinstated, two active members

placed on the non-resident list, and four members lost by resignation. Dr.

J. A. Faris died September 24th. The active membership is 213. Three mem-

bers, W. H. Evans, V. K. Curstnut, and W. W. Eaaueston, who retired

during the year, were elected to honorary membership.

The following officers were elected: President, NATHAN R. SmituH; Vzce-

President, W. W. DIEHL; Recording Secretary, FREEMAN WEIsS; Correspond-

ing Secretary, ANNA E. JENKINS; Treasurer, NELLIE W. NANCE; nominated

as Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences, CHARLOTTE EL-

LIOTT.

CHARLOTTE ExuiottT, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Notes

CWA aids American archaeologyx—CWA archaeological projects in five

states, under the guidance of the Smithsonian Institution, are yielding new

data in American archaeology. An old Indian burying ground explored in

Kern County, Calif., has revealed grave posts of extraordinary importance.

The wooden posts may enable archaeologists to establish some definite dates,

thus turning prehistory into dated history in California. The posts are of

cedar or juniper wood. Old as they are, annual growth rings in the wood are

well preserved. It is hoped that by comparing the rings with the long calen-

dar of annual rings shown in California redwood trees, the years when the

grave posts were cut and made can be determined. The California Indians

whose age may be learned were buried with few possessions. The excavators

have found 150 burials, wrapped in cloth and matting, in the graveyard.

CWA workers near Murphy, N. C., have excavated an Indian mound and

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

identified the site as a Cherokee village visited by the Spanish explorer De

Soto. It is called ‘“‘Guasili” in the Spanish records. Another Indian village

which De Soto may have visited is being explored at Bradenton, Fla. Euro-

pean glass beads suggest that the Spanish gold-seeking expedition tarried

there, and exchanged beads for information, hospitality, or supplies.

A large mound being explored by another CWA group in Macon, Ga., is

proving far more extensive than had been expected. Near the top, the dig-

ging has disclosed evidence of European contact. More deeply buried are

phases of aboriginal cultures, some belonging to historically known tribes.

From pottery fragments, the archaeologists see indications that these Geor-

gia Indians had contacts with tribes farther north.

In Tennessee, the CWA workers are still seeking to identify Indians who

built the numerous mounds in Shiloh National Military Park.

Photographic map of Indian lands.—A huge airplane photographic map,

40 by 24 feet, of the Navajo and Zuni Indian lands in New Mexico, Arizona,

and Utah has been contracted for by the Department of the Interior. It is to

be used as a basis for the better regulation of grazing practises, which have

already gone to severely damaging excess in many small areas and a few

large ones.

Airplanes making the photographs will fly at an altitude of over 20,000

feet, taking more than 4,500 individual photographs with a special four-lens

camera. The separate pictures will be fitted together into a single mosaic

map. The total cost of the work will be about $77,000; but if the work were

done by ground parties it would cost more than $500,000.

A new deal for ducks.—Secretary of Agriculture WALLACE, with the ap-

proval of President RoosEVELT, has appointed a committee to outline a

course of action under a proposed plan for enlarging areas on which game

birds can be fed and bred. The first projects will be for the restoration of the

feeding grounds of ducks and other migratory game birds, including the re-

flooding of unprofitable ‘‘reclaimed”’ swamp and lake lands, the renewal of

natural food supplies, cover and nesting sites, and the protection of the birds

from natural enemies and illegal hunters. Correlated with the lowland proj-

ects is a program of reversion to brush and timberland of upland areas in the

submarginal agricultural class, giving cover for non-migratory upland game

birds and mammals. These can be handled at least partly on a “game farm-

ing’’ basis by the landowners. The cost of the program, it is proposed, shall

be met in part through a low Federal hunting license fee, together with a

small tax on hunting ammunition.

Fish cultural survey of Puerto Rico.—On January 25 Dr. 8. F. HILDEBRAND

senior ichthyologist of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, sailed from Baltimore

@ Puerto Rico to conduct a survey of the fish cultural possibilities of the

island.

On the occasion of his visit to the United States Mr. R. MENENDEZ

Ramos, Commissioner of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce of

Puerto Rico, requested the assistance of the Bureau of Fisheries in assessing

the possibilities of developing trout culture in the high mountain streams

and in several reservoirs of the northern watershed on the island, as well as

the possibility of propagating and stocking the lower reaches of the streams

with other food and game fishes. The Puerto Rican Government is cooperat-

ing in the survey by defraying the field expense of the investigation, and the

Bureau is furnishing the services of the investigator.

MARCH 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 151

News BRIEFS

The third Arthur Lecture was given by Dr. CHARLES G. ABBOT, secretary

of the Smithsonian Institution, in the hall of the U. S. National Museum

on the evening of February 26. The subject was, How the sun warms the earth.

The American Academy of Tropical Medicine was founded at a conference

held at the National Academy of Sciences on February 5, under the auspices

of the National Research Council. Dr. THEOBALD SMITH was elected its first

president.

The U. S. Public Health Service has received advices from Manchukuo

indicating that the United Anti-Plague Commission has been re-established

as a permanent organization.

Greater refractivity of the lower layers of the atmosphere during periods

of profound calm may be due to the ‘‘settling to the bottom” of the heavier

isotopes of oxygen, sorted out by differential gravitation, L. W. TILTon of

the National Bureau of Standards, has suggested in a communication to

Nature.

JAMES A. Forp of the Smithsonian Institution has discovered a mound-

builder dwelling site near Marksville, La., with clearly marked post-holes

giving dimensions and general architectural plan. Though far from the

traditional Hopewell country, it seems to belong to the Hopewell culture

type.

Public attention was directed to a widespread incidence of measles by the

U. S. Public Health Service, on February 7. Measles outbreaks seem to

run in cycles of about two and one-half years, it was pointed out; and this

is apparently the peak of a cycle.

Radio talks under the auspices of Science Service were broadcast over the

network of the Columbia Broadcasting System, by F. A. S1icox, chief

forester, U. S. Forestry Service, on January 31, and by Dr. VINCENT DU

VIGNEAUD of the faculty of the George Washington University School of

Medicine, on February 7.

A number of mallard ducks have been donated to the Office of National

Parks, Buildings and Reservations of the U. 8. Department of the Interior

and placed on Roache’s Run on the Mount Vernon Boulevard. It is believed

that this will form the nucleus of a bird sanctuary at this point which will

undoubtedly attract many Washington visitors. A report made February 9

says that the original 27 pairs planted at this point had attracted a consider-

able number of other ducks. The total number is now in excess of 250.

The Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture each have appointed two

men within their Departments as members of a committee of five, the fifth

member being the chairman, Mr. JAcoB BAKER, to assemble and recommend

lands to be acquired in connection with a program for the purchase of sub-

marginal lands with $25,000,000 made available through the Public Works

Administration. :

On January 15 the five district officers in the United States having charge

of State Park Emergency Conservation Work met in the office of assistant

director Conrap L. WrrTH of the Office of Public Parks, Buildings and Res-

ervations, U. S. Department of the Interior, for the purpose of discussing

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 3

general organization plans and work to be carried on in State Park Emer-

gency Conservation work camps during the third enrollment period. This

period will start next April 1 and extend to March 31, 1935, provided Con-

gress appropriates the necessary funds.

Dr. G. W. Warr, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie

Institution of Washington, broadcast a talk entitled Electricity in the at-

mosphere on January 30 from Station WMAL under the auspices of the

Greater National Capital Committee of the Washington Board of Trade.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Capt. ALBERT W. Stevens, U.S. Army Air Corps, has been awarded the

Franklin L. Burr prize of the National Geographic Society in recognition of

his work on aerial photography, particularly his photograph from 20,000

feet altitude of the moon’s shadow during the total solar eclipse of 1932.

Pau G. Repineron, chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey and F. C.

LINCOLN, who is in charge of the Bureau’s bird-banding work, attended

the joint meeting of the Northeastern Bird-Banding Association and the

Federation of the Bird Clubs of New England, held in Boston, on January

19.

O. J. Murin, Biological Survey field naturalist stationed at the Elk

Refuge in Wyoming, is in Washington conferring with Bureau officials on

matters pertaining to his studies of the elk of Jackson Hole, Wyo.

Assistant Director Haroutp C. BRYANT, assistant to the superintendent

of Yellowstone National Park JosePH JoFrFE, and Mr. Davip E. MApseEn of

the Wild Life Division, represented the Office of National Parks, Buildings,

and Reservations, U. 8. Department of the Interior, at the American Game

Conference held in New York City the latter part of January. Former Direc-

tor Horacr M. ALBRIGHT also attended. In connection with this conference

a special meeting of the Commission on the Conservation of the Elk of Jack-

son Hole was held, at which Mr. Jorrr was appointed secretary to succeed

Mr. Ovip BUTLER.

W. E. Emuey, chief of the organic and fibrous materials division of the

National Bureau of Standards, addressed the Board of Directors of the

General Federation of Women’s Clubs in Washington on January 11, in

regard to consumers’ specifications for hosiery. Mr. EMuEy also addressed

the annual meeting of the National Association of Dyers and Cleaners in

Chicago on January 17 and presided at a meeting of the Research Committee

of the U.S. Institute for Textile Research in Washington on January 20.

W. D. AppxEt, chief of the textile section of the National Bureau of Stand-

ards, attended a meeting of the shrinkage committee of the American

Standards Association in New York on February 1. This committee is con-

sidering the adoption of an American standard for measuring the shrinkage

of fabrics.

On January 2, Dr. FreppRick A. Davipson, associate aquatic biologist

of the Bureau of Fisheries, was appointed by the commissioner to serve as

acting director of the Fisheries Biological Laboratory at Seattle, Wash.,

relieving JosEPH A. CraiGc, who has been serving as director since October

1193S:

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~ Von, 24 Apri 15, 1934 No. 4

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

| OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Witmort H. BrapLey JoHN A. STEVENSON F. G. BRICKWEDDE

U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BURSAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

H. T. WENSEL Haroutp Morrison

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIBTY BNTOMOLOGICAL SOCISTY

E. A. GoLDMAN W. W. Rosey

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

AGNES CHASE J. R. SWANTON

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

R. E. Gipson

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY

BY THE

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Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis.

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JOURNAL

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VoL. 24 ApriL 15, 1934 No. 4

BOTANY.—The problem of arctic vegetation.. RosBrrt F. Griaes,

George Washington University.

One of the most definite of the side lines which I expected to

carry through when the National Geographic Society sent me to

Katmai was a study of the vegetation of the region—that is of the

normal vegetation outside the area devastated by the great eruption

of 1912.

But when I tried to classify the vegetation on the ground as it

would be done by an ecologist further south, I became confused and

had to give it up. It was easy to segregate the plant societies in a few

special situations like the strand and the dunes. But these were all

habitats of minor importance, and after they had been considered

the main body of the vegetation remained hopelessly confused. Five

times upon returning to the States, I renewed the determination to

master the problem on the next trip. And every time until the last

I gave it up as beyond my power of generalization.

This may sound strange in view of the fact that many others be-

fore me have studied arctic vegetation and have published volumi-

nous records of what they observed. I shall return to a brief consider-

ation of the literature, but at this point I may say merely that earlier

students had not, to my mind, solved the problem of dealing with

arctic vegetation. All of them have attempted to treat arctic ecol-

ogy from analogy with the ecology of temperate regions. But high

latitudes are different from low latitudes and analogies break down.

I felt that a new point of view was essential to effective treatment of

the problem and until this was gained nothing could be accomplished.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN ARCTIC VEGETATION AND ARCTIC FLORA

I should, perhaps, explain the distinction drawn between arctic

vegetation and the arctic flora. The student of a flora, a taxonomist,

1 Address of the retiring president of the Washington Academy of Sciences delivered

January 18,1934. Received February 6, 1934.

153

154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

is concerned primarily with the species which occur in a region, with

the species as separate entities, while the student of vegetation, an

ecologist, is concerned primarily with the relations of these species to

each other and to their physical environment, as they grow together

in the field. The taxonomist stands to the ecologist somewhat as does

the nurseryman to the landscape gardener. The work of the taxon-

omist and the nurseryman must underlie any development of ecol-

ogy or of landscaping. But as successful planting requires a great

deal more than a knowledge of the nurseryman’s materials, so an

ecological treatment demands very much more than a knowledge of

the flora of the area studied.

In the temperate zone vegetation is rather clearly segregated into

more or less well-marked associations, like beech forests, oak forests,

pine woods, swamps, and bogs. Each of these associations has a

somewhat definite composition, and mention of a few plants at once

conveys to one familiar with the country a picture of the whole as-

sociation. Thus when you enter a pine woods hereabout you expect

to find spotted pipsissewa and dewberries, but not maidenhair fern,

jack-in-the-pulpit or Dutchman’s breeches. Study of vegetation

types has convinced us, moreover, that these associations are not

accidental, but that they arise from causes to be found in the special

requirements of the species present interacting with the different con-

ditions of the various habitats.

When one goes to the arctic he naturally expects to find similar

plant associations, but instead he meets a bewildering mixture of

plants of all sorts jumbled together in seeming defiance of the prin-

ciples of plant association learned in low latitudes. The criteria by

which plant associations are distinguished further south break down

in the arctic. In few of the different habitats can characteristic species

be named, and most habitats are invaded with some measure of suc-

cess by almost every species of the flora. The fact that two species

happen to be associated in a given situation means nothing as to

their habitat preferences—to the utter bewilderment of a botanist

accustomed to finding one set of plants in oak forests and another

in beech woods. Lacking plant associations in the sense of moré or

less organic societies with definite constituent species, the vegetation

appears an indescriminate mixture of the species of the flora as though

the plant cover of any situation depended merely on the seeds that

happened by chance to fall thereon instead of on the fitness of the

species represented for that particular habitat.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 155

INDIFFERENCE OF ARCTIC PLANTS TO ALTITUDE

A special case of this sort of thing is the indifference of arctic plants

to altitude. This has been noted by many observers and in many

lands. Whereas in the south we find definite zones of vegetation with

the alpine types limited to the highest mountains, nothing of the sort

occurs in the arctic. There the sea cliffs and the mountain summits

have practically the same flora.

A curious instance of the indifference of plants to altitude in the

north, though in this case in a boreal rather than in an arctic country,

has recently been brought to light in Newfoundland. There Fernald

(1933) has found a large number of high-arctic species reaching their

southern limits not on the mountains but on the coast near sea-level.

Conversely a number of southern species such as Schizaea pusilla of

the New Jersey pine barrens, and the orchids, Habenaria psychodes,

Calopogon puchellus, Cypripedium acaule, and Pogonia ophioglossoides-

together with Rynchospora alba, Bartonia, Utricularia clandestina,

X yris and others, which reach their northern limits in Newfoundland,

are to be found not on the lowlands but only on the high tablelands

of the interior. The high-arctic element confined to the coast makes

an especially impressive showing since the arctic species already col-

lected comprise 494 per cent of the total flora of the Arctic Archi-

pelago and Fernald thinks that their number would be considerably

increased by further collecting.

But arctic vegetation like the arctic flora is similar all around the

pole, and it has been described by many observers, especially in

Scandinavia. It is instructive to observe the devices used by these

writers in the attempt to characterize an indiscriminate vegetation.

They fall in general into two categories. Either the accounts are ab-

stractions too far removed from the actual plant cover, or they are

merely particularized descriptions of individual patches of plants

whose variations are neither in any way correlated with physical fac-

tors, nor of general application to other areas.

PRESENT PRACTICES IN DEALING WITH ARCTIC VEGETATION

The Upsala school, which adopts the second course, sets up more

than one hundred “‘associations”’ to describe a vegetation where there

are less than that number of common species. Thus Fries (1913) in

northern Sweden lists fifteen lichen-rich heaths as follows: (1) Lichen-

rich Empetrum association, (2) lichen-rich Phyllodoce association,

(3) lichen-rich Azalea association, (4) lichen-rich Andromeda tetra-

gona association, (5) lichen-rich Andromeda hypnoides association,

156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

(6) lichen-rich Salix herbacea association, (7) liverwort-Salix herb-

acea association, (8) lichen-rich Dryas octopetala association, (9) lich-

en-rich Diapensia lapponica association, (10) lichen-rich Juncus tri-

jidus association, (11) lichen-rich Carex rigida-C. lagopina association,

(12) lichen-rich Hierochloé alpina association, (13) lichen-rich Cala-

magrostis lapponica association, (14) lichen-rich Festuca ovina as-

sociation, (15) lichen-rich Forb association. Further it is to be ob-

served that a number of the character plants given above appear also

as character plants in several other associations, e.g. Empetrum

nigrum appears in the moss-rich Empetrum heath, the Empetrum-

rich lichen-birch forest, and the Empetrum high-moor. Moreover the

subordinate plants in each of these associations include to a large ex-

tent the character plants of adjoining associations. Empetrum nigrum

also appears in the plant lists of the following eighteen associations:

(1) Heath-like lichen-birch woods, (2) Myrtillus nigra-rich lichen

birch woods, (8) Azalea-rich lichen-birch woods, (4) Carex rigida

lichen birch woods, (5) Polytrichum-rich lichen-birch woods, (6)

lichen-rich Betula nana bushland, (7) lichen-rich Diapensia lapponica

association, (8) lichen-rich Juncus trifidus association, (9) lichen-rich

Calamagrostis lapponica association, (10) moss birch woods, (11)

mossy Betula nana bushland, (12) mossy Andromeda tetragona as-

sociation, (13) mossy Calamagrostis lapponica association, (14) Ger-

anium silvaticum-rich meadow birch woods, (15) Cirsium heterophyl-

lum-rich meadow-birch woods, (16) Betula nana high-moor, (17) Salix

glauca high-moor, (18) Rubus chamaemorus high-moor. While it is

true that E’mpetrum is probably the most nearly ubiquitous of all

the species in the lower arctic regions, yet most of the other common

species would make the same sort of a showing.

I must beg the reader’s pardon for giving such a jumbled and re-

petitious list of names. But if left out, the real situation would be

grasped only by those who took the trouble to look up the original.

Nothing would have been easier for me at Katmai than to have

given a similar list of a hundred or more “‘associations.’’ But however

useful such an analysis might be to the writer himself it did not seem

to me that it would be very helpful to the ecological fraternity in

general.

The difficulty of the problem may be readily visualized from a

perusal of Ostenfeld’s account of the botany of the Faerdes (1908),

which, though lying at a comparatively low latitude, are essentially

arctic in character. He works out a clear and logical classification,

but he tells us (page 920) that it is ““more abstract than in most other

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 157

countries and it will be necessary again and again to indicate the

gradual transition from one association to another.” These transitions

(page 935) “‘recur with almost tiresome frequency and an accurately

defined survey is almost impossible.’ (Page 920) ‘‘It will be under-

stood that differences so slightly defined are difficult to maintain,”

and again (page 981) ‘“‘The mosses as well as the higher plants convey

the same impression, they are a very mixed and heterogeneous com-

pany.”

VARIABLE HABITAT PREFERENCES OF ARCTIC PLANTS

From the literature also another aspect of the puzzle appeared;

not only are the habitat preferences of arctic plants obscure but such

as they are they vary from region to region, thus breaking down the

few ideas on the subject I had been able to deduce at Katmai. In

the “‘Flag’’ vegetation of Iceland, according to Hansen (1930), rock-

dwelling alpine plants such as Silene acaulis, Saxifraga oppositifolia,

and Thalictrum alpinum grow together with aquatics including Swb-

ularia aquatica, Triglochin palustris, and Ranunculus reptans—a mix-

ture which passes my imagination even after my experiences at

Katmai. Again the Arctic fireweed, Epilobium latifolium, which is

confined to rock crevices and gravel bars in southern Alaska, in

Greenland invades the ponds and pushes creeping runners two to

three meters long out into water knee-deep (Rikli, 1910). A third

illustration I quote from Simmons (1913), who reports (p. 145)

“Statice maritima, a pronounced halophyte in the south becomes an

inland and mountain plant in the north.”

Arctic ecology fairly bristles with anomalies like these, the mere

mention of which arouses one’s desire to understand them. Probably

many of them would be readily explained if they were attacked ex-

perimentally. Some day we shall have laboratories as well as field

stations in the arctic where such problems may be solved.

DEFINITION OF TUNDRA

Not the least of the difficulties of dealing with arctic vegetation

lies in the prevalent confusion as to what constitutes “‘tundra.”’ Good

writers use the term in two distinct senses, some with a geographic,

some with a descriptive connotation. Thus the Standard Dictionary

defines it as ‘“‘A rolling treeless plain of Russia, Siberia, and the

American arctic regions, covered with moss and at times very moist

or marshy.” The reason for this ambiguous definition probably lies

in a natural desire to convey to persons who have never visited the

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

arctic some concrete idea of the appearance of the tundra. But the

inevitable result has followed. The two meanings will not hold to-

gether. The arctic plains are by no means universally boggy, conse-

quently some writers have fixed upon the geographic sense of the

word and others upon the descriptive. Then the layman, unaware of

the real situation, and endeavoring to gain some idea of the country,

re-synthesizes the diverse conceptions and concludes that the whole

arctic is a barren moss-covered morass, gaining his ideas of the char-

acter of the tundra from those who use the word in a descriptive sense

and of its extent from those who use it in a geographic sense. This

is the situation which Stefansson has endeavored to set right with

his phrase “‘The friendly arctic’ and by his prolonged efforts to por-

tray the possibilities of reindeer and muskox culture in the north.

Clearly enough ambiguity cannot be tolerated in a scientific

term. If tundra is to be retained its meaning must be fixed. But un-

fortunately both senses are thoroughly established in good usage.

To Alaskans and to a certain extent to Canadians tundra is nearly

synonymous with bog. The forest bogs of southeastern Alaska which

differ little from the bogs of Oregon and Washington are called tun-

dras by the people of the country. Such usage is not confined to com-

mon parlance but is to be found in scientific literature as well. Wit-

ness the following from Summerhayes and Elton’s (1928, p. 264)

account of Spitzbergen. ‘‘Tundra, defined as swamp or moorland, is

quite absent from Spitzbergen.’”’ Nevertheless much of the “heath”

described from Spitzbergen and other parts of the Atlantic province

of the arctic is exactly the sort of vegetation which Alaskans would

single out as tundra, and thus confusion creeps into the ranks even

of those who use the word in a descriptive sense.

Now there are, to be sure, extensive areas of the tundra which are

best described to a southerner as boggy, but the larger part of the

arctic is arid, and the innermost subpolar areas are more arid than

the outer transitional regions. Simmons (1913, p. 31) discussing the

ecological conditions of the Arctic Archipelago says ““The prominent

and important factor I take its extreme dryness to be.’”’ The annual

precipitation in all high arctic countries is less than 10 inches, a de-

ficiency in rainfall which in lower latitudes invariably marks a desert.

It should be pointed out however that much less rainfall is required

to support a given type of vegetation in high latitudes than in low.

There are several reasons: (1) Evaporation is less on account of lower

temperature. (2) The water requirement of a given plant is propor-

tional to the length of the growing season. (3) In parts of the arctic

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 159

fog and mist are so prevalent that measurements of collected rainfall

do not give a correct idea of the humidity of the climate. (4) Thawing

of snow and ground ice keeps poorly drained situations soggy through-

out the summer with very little loss by runoff. But after all allowances

are made for economy in the utilization of the scanty rainfall the

essential fact remains that the arctic is predominantly an arid country

and that furthermore the high arctic is more arid than the lower.

It was in the discussion of desert country that the term tundra was

introduced to scientific literature by Middendorf (1864). Middendorf

found the analog of tundra to be not bog but steppe and went into

long and detailed comparisons of tundra and steppe. He found it in-

deed somewhat difficult to produce satisfactory differentiating char-

acters between the two aside from the plant species concerned. He

describes the Siberian tundra as the most extreme desert, ‘‘d6dste

Ode” (p. 736) and states that it is too dry to be compared with any

terrain familiar to Europeans. Further, he specifically states that no

peat develops in the “high tundra.”

Middendorf had a very wide acquaintance with the tundra not

only across Siberia but in Russia and Lapland as well. He clearly

differentiates the ‘‘high tundra’”’ or what we might call desert tundra

from “low tundra’’ which he describes as grassy or boggy. Inasmuch

as his account was not only the first, but remains to this day one of

the best scientific studies of the tundra I believe that we would do

well to follow him and use tundra in a geographic sense, applying it

to all of the country of the treeless arctic.

BOUNDARIES OF THE ARCTIC

Another major difficulty lies in the lack of any general agreement

as to the proper boundaries of the arctic. Before I could do anything

with my own area at Katmai I had to decide whether it was arctic

or temperate. Inasmuch as decision on this point would seem to be

a prime requisite for further treatment of the subject, I will digress

to consider it here.

The reason for the indecision as to the boundaries of the arctic

lies partly in the lack of any comprehensive general treatment of

arctic ecology and partly in a failure to recognize the fact that the

arctic, like any other major vegetation zone, requires subdivision

before it cdn be treated adequately. Explorers of high arctic countries

are inclined to tell us that ‘‘real arctic conditions” or ‘‘true arctic

vegetation” is limited to polar lands. It is natural enough for one

familiar with Spitzbergen, north Greenland, or Ellesmere Land to

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

think northernmost Norway temperate by comparison. Thus we find

Simmons (1913, p. 144) criticising Hooker’s ideas of the Scandinavian

arctic, saying “Even the northernmost part of the Scandinavian

Peninsula is not an arctic but a temperate land.”

There is no difference of opinion as to the facts at issue. No one

doubts but that the flora of the arctic Archipelago is far more ex-

treme than that of the North Cape. But if the two are to be assigned

to different zones where should a line be drawn between them? From

the extreme poverty of the plant life of the polar desert there is the

most gradual transition to comparatively luxuriant vegetation like

that of arctic Norway. Any boundary separating the two would have

to be an entirely arbitrary affair.

It would be natural to call the transitional belt of more luxuriant

vegetation surrounding the polar area subarctic. But unfortunately

subarctic is well established in another application—to the circum-

polar boreal coniferous forest. If we are to follow accepted usage and

call the Hudsonian forest subarctic there is no alternative but to

denominate as arctic all territory beyond the forest border.

There is really no need of attempting to move the term subarctic

from the forest into the outermost belt of the arctic. If we recognize

that North Greenland, the northern portion of the arctic Archipelago,

and Spitzbergen are “‘high arctic”’ as is commonly done, it is a simple

matter to term such countries as South Greenland, northern Sean-

dinavia, and northern Alaska ‘“‘low arctic,” and that meets the prob-

lem just as well as though we should attempt to limit the “true

arctic” to polar areas and reduce the outermost belt to subarctic.

IMPORTANCE OF THE ARCTIC TIMBER-LINE

It will be agreed that the arctic timber-line, the limit of coniferous

forest, is one of the major vegetation boundaries of the earth. It 1s

not only clearcut and easy to recognize, but it marks a transition

important to life in its every aspect. Whether one thinks of the nu-

merous plants of the undergrowth which find shelter in the forest but

cannot grow beyond, of the birds and mammals which almost neces-

sarily have different habits and different adaptations within and

without the forest, or of the aboriginal cultures which develop in the

possession of timber or in the lack of it—from every point of view

the forest border is of fundamental importance. Even moré significant

from the human standpoint is the fact that the forest border marks

approximately the northern limit of cereals and of all sorts of agri-

cultural operations except reindeer grazing.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 161

COMPARISON OF TREE LIMIT AND SUMMER TEMPERATURE

Recognizing that as one progresses toward the pole increasingly

severe conditions are encountered and that in a general way the

meagerness of polar life is due to the rigor of the climate, it is natural

to seek a climatic transition at the timber-line. If one is not too par-

ticular about close coincidence of climatic and vegetational lines this

may be done, for it may be observed that there is a rough parallelism

between the edge of the forest and the July isotherm of 10°C. (50°F.).

But if one examines the case more closely, the discrepancies become

somewhat disconcerting. On the Alaska peninsula the forest, which

ends at Kodiak, is two hundred and fifty miles behind the isotherm

which crosses at the Shumagin Islands. But in northeastern Alaska —

at about longitude 145° the forest has caught up and the two coincide.

East of the Mackenzie near Cape Dalhousie the forest goes nearly

one hundred and fifty miles beyond the isotherm. But on the west

shore of Hudson’s Bay it has fallen back again until it is three hundred

and fifty miles below the isotherm. At Ungava Bay in northern

Labrador, however, the forest again reaches forward until it is nearly

four hundred miles beyond the isotherm which bends far to the south,

nearly touching Newfoundland.

In western Eurasia as in western America the forest front, com-

posed now of pines and now of spruces, again lags behind the isotherm

by a hundred miles or more. This is true both in humid Norway and

in arid Russia. In Siberia both isotherm and forest reach far north-

ward, running probably as closely parallel as could be expected as

far as the mouth of the Kolyma River, longitude 160°. But there as

in eastern America the isotherm takes a sharp dip to the southward

from about 69° to 52°, finally leaving Kamchatka at about 56° while

the forest, here Larix dahurica, stretches nearly straight eastward

along the upper course of the Anadyr River, coming to the sea nearly

on the arctic circle at the head of the Gulf of Anadyr, more than 10°

(700 miles) north of the isotherm.

The arctic vegetation zone thus defined by the forest front is a

very irregular area. In the most southerly of the Aleutian Islands,

which by any criterion are undoubtedly arctic in character, the bound-

ary reaches down to latitude 51° 20’, which is a few miles further

south than London. But at the mouth of the Khatanga River in the

Tamir Peninsula it advances to 72° 50’, as far north as Upernivik,

Greenland. This is a difference in latitude greater by about 100 miles

than that from Miami, Florida to Montreal.

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 4

THE ARCTIC FOREST-FRONT NOT A CLIMATIC LINE

In an effort to harmonize temperature and tree-line various writers,

Martin Vahl, Nordenskjold (1928), Brockmann-Jerosch (1919), and

others have tried empirically to make up some formula that would

fit the facts better than simple comparison with the isotherm. Such

efforts are at best only guesses and there is little attempt to show any

relation of cause and effect between the factors brought into the

equations. Vahl, for example, has used the ‘‘formula? v =a-+bk where

v represents the temperature of the warmest month and & that of the

coldest month, and when a and b are constants that have to be determined

in each case’ i.e. are not constants at all but merely factors intro-

duced, as a schoolboy would say, ‘‘to get the right answer.’ Such

operations are not very helpful and may become vicious if, as some-

times happens, they impart a false appearance of mathematical pre-

cision to the statements made.

All are familiar with the fact that unexpected deviations from pre-

dictions often lead science into its most important advances. We need

only recall the discovery of the two outer-most planets of our solar

system by reason of the perturbations in the orbits of the others. It

seems not at all unlikely that if we look behind the irregularities of

the forest border instead of trying to fit them into climatic conditions,

we may discover facts concerning climatic changes which will be of

the first order of importance.

CLIMATIC CHANGES SUGGESTED BY ANOMALIES IN TIMBER LINE

An example of the possible fruitfulness of this point of view may

be gained from consideration of the situation in northern Labrador

where the forest extends 400 miles further north than apparently it

should. This would suggest a recent climatic change—so recent that —

plant migrations have not yet adjusted the flora to the changed con-

ditions. Now it so happens that the Danish excavations of the sites

of the old Norse colonies in South Greenland exactly fit in with this

inference from ecology (Hovgaard, 1925). The mediaeval Norse col-

onists lie buried in perpetually frozen ground. This of itself is sur-

prising, for men do not often chop holes into ice to bury their dead.

More significant, however, is the fact that the graves are grown

through and through by the roots of trees. The roots even penetrated

into the marrow of the bones. Now tree roots cannot grow into frozen

soil. There is no question, therefore, but that within the last few

hundred years South Greenland had a climate far milder than at

2 Quoted from Nordenskjold (1928, p. 73). The italics are ours.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 163

present, thus confirming the indication given by the forest. The

graves, however, leave much to be desired as to dates and other de-

tails of the climatic change which they demonstrate. It is not at all

impossible that a thorough study of timberline ecology around Un-

gava Bay might supply more specific information than is to be ob-

tained from any other source.

I should add in passing that while the meteorologists accept, per-

force, the evidence as to recent climatic change in Greenland they

are not at all prepared to explain it.

Turning to the western side of the Continent now, the opinions of

practically all explorers of Alaska are to the effect that here reverse

changes are occurring and that the forest is advancing. This opinion,

based on extensive but cursory observations of many men in many

places, has been confirmed by detailed studies.

At Kodiak Griggs (1934) and Bowman (1934) brought out the

following facts: (1) All the trees near the edge of the forest are young

—less than 100 years old, whereas three miles back from the edge

they exceed a meter in thickness and are over three hundred years

old. (2) Many old trees now in a dense forest of younger growth are

“open ground”’ trees with branches, now killed by overshading, clear

to the base. (3) The rate of growth at the forest edge compares fa-

vorably with that of the same species, Sitka spruce, in southeastern

Alaska many hundred miles behind the edge. (4) Records left by the

early Russian settlers explicitly describe as treeless, areas now cov-

ered with heavy forest. (5) Peat from the bogs contains only a few

scattering grains of spruce pollen such as would be blown a long dis-

tance, thus demonstrating that the present is the first forest that has

occupied the ground since the beginning of the bogs i.e., since the

glacial period.

Similar detailed studies, as yet unpublished, have been made by

Robert Marshall around Bettles in northern Alaska, Lat. 67°, Long.

152°. These tell the same story. Here a different forest composed of

white spruce is concerned. Mr Marshall tells me that the very last

trees grow as fast and in every way appear as favorably situated as

those many miles to the south of the forest limit and that the growth

rate equals that of the same species in Eastern Canada.

PLANT RANGES SUGGESTIVE OF ACTIVE MIGRATIONS IN PROGRESS

The distribution of a number of arctic herbs, likewise, cannot be

readily explained otherwise than on the hypothesis of active migra-

tion in progress. Pedicularis capitata, for example, is common and

164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

characteristic of the Empetrum heaths of Kodiak, Lat. 58°. It is wide-

ly distributed in Asia as far as the Altai. From this region it stretches

across Siberia and the American arctic through the Arctic Archipelago

and enters Greenland on the northwest coast, Lat. 78°. While its

abundance in the mild climate of Kodiak proves that its existence

by no means requires the rigor of a polar climate, it is entirely absent

from south Greenland, being restricted to the area immediately ad-

jacent to the American arctic islands. Another wide ranging species

which barely enters northwest Greenland is Androsace septentrionalis.

In this connection it is interesting to observe that there are a dozen

genera of plants which reach the Archipelago but do not cross to the

milder shores of Greenland. Cases like this may not be significant

however, for though migration seems altogether likely we have no

knowledge of the actual fact. In almost all such cases the migration

must be inferred. No actual study of the behavior of arctic species on

the edges of their ranges has been made. It would be of great ad-

vantage to know about these matters instead of having to speculate.

Methods of attacking such questions are available, (Griggs, 1914).

Recognizing this problem, Porsild (1932), who has had more experi-

ence with arctic vegetation than any one else, remarks concerning

some unsuccessful experiments of his, ‘‘I hope that the enumerated

experiments with native Greenland plants will show that plant dis-

persals and migrations so willingly and so liberally assumed in every

paper of plant geography may be quite different in nature itself.”

The advancing forest is in fact almost the only case of active mi-

gration that has been worked out. Not everyone will be inclined at

first to agree with me that the timberline constitutes the proper

boundary of the arctic, but I believe that if anyone who doubts my

thesis will try to replace the timber line by some other vegetation

line, he will find himself in difficulty at once.

DIFFICULTY OF CHARACTERIZING THE ARCTIC FLORISTICALLY

The fact is that it is difficult to characterize, much less to define,

the arctic by the plants that grow there. Plants confined to the arc-

tic are surprisingly few in number. That is, there are few species,

and there is not a single genus, confined to the arctic.? Moreover the

species endemic in the arctic are not among its most characteristic

plants.

3 Of the grass genus Pleuropogon listed by Hocker as endemic in the arctic two spe-

cies have since been discovered in west America, one in Oregon, the other in California,

on the lowlands as well as in the mountains. The original species, P. sabinet, remains,

however, one of the most characteristic of high arctic species.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 165

Almost all arctic species, if species be taken in a broad sense, go

well down into the temperate zone. Indeed, all but 150 of the 762

arctic species recognized by Hooker (1861, p. 258), ‘“‘advance south

of parallel 40° north.”’

The floristic characteristics of the arctic are chiefly negative, due

to the absence from northern lands of species occurring at lower

latitudes. Thus the flora of the Aleutian region includes about 350

species of seed plants and that of arctic Siberia about 400, but the

arctic Archipelago has only 204 (Simmons, 1913), and many of these

reach only the southern islands, while north Greenland has only

about 125 species (Ostenfeld, 1926). Even so it would be easy to

characterize the arctic floras if it were the important species that drop

out. But the species which fail to go far north are generally those

which are already scarce further south. The situation will be clear

from a consideration of the plants of the extreme north where, if any-

where, definite arctic species should prevail. In extreme north Green-

land, north of 83 degrees of latitude, only three flowering plants grow:

The opposite-leaved saxifrage, Saxifraga oppositifolia;. the arctic

poppy, Papaver nudicaule; and a grass Alopecurus alpinus. The first

two are classified by Ostenfeld as low arctic. They occur in every

arctic province. Both are important members of the Katmai flora

1800 miles further south and the poppy extends to Colorado while

the saxifrage reaches Vermont. Only Alopecurus can be described as

high arctic and even it occurs in north Russia which barely enters

the arctic vegetation zone.

On Smith Sound, several hundred miles further south but still al-

most 1000 miles above the arctic circle in Latitude 78°-79°, Ekblaw

(1919) lists the six commonest plants as follows: the opposite-leaved

saxifrage, Saxifraga oppositifolia, blue grass, Poa pratensis, arctic

poppy, Papaver nudicaule, Cerasttum alpinum, Dryas integrifolia, and

Cassiope tetragona. It will be observed that only the two subarctic

members of the extreme high arctic trio given above are here included

and that our familiar Kentucky bluegrass is substituted for Alope-

curus. Of the others, Cerastium alpinum is common to all arctic dis-

tricts and is classed as low arctic by Ostenfeld. Dryas integrifolia is

more limited in distribution but is also low arctic, leaving Cassiope

tetragona as the sole type prevailingly characteristic of high arctic.

But it occurs also far down into Labrador and Alaska.

Another way of approaching the problem is by considering the

whole flora. Of the 125 species known from north Greenland above

76°, 11 according to Ostenfeld are subarctic, 59 low arctic, and 55

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

high arctic. of the species prevailingly high arctic 43 occur also in

some low arctic region, Alaska, Scandinavia, Iceland, or Russia, or

at low arctic stations in Greenland. Of the twelve species remaining

which are confined to the high arctic, half belong to the ‘‘critical’’

genera Taraxacum, Poa, Draba, and Potentilla. A seventh, Braya

Thorildwulfir, is a segregate from the widespread B. purpurescens.

There remain Pleuropogon sabinet, Deschampsia arctica, Ranunculus

sabiner, Hesperis palasu, and Minuartia Rossi. Only two of these

twelve are even mentioned in Ekblaw’s general account of the vege-

tation; one of the Taraxacums is mentioned merely because it is en-

demic and Pleuropogon is reported as growing ‘‘in a few of the shallow

ponds.” Thus the high arctic can be characterized floristically only

by using species of minor importance in the vegetation. A number of

high arctic species are, indeed, high arctic in one region only. The

same is true in perhaps even greater degree in the low arctic.

LACK OF STRUCTURAL PECULIARITIES IN ARCTIC PLANTS

Because the plants of extreme polar habitats are all dwarfed and

held close to the ground, there is a popular idea that arctic plants

are possessed of some special anatomical peculiarities fitting them

for the conditions in which they live. This is not the case. On this

point Holm (1924, p. 81 B) speaks as follows:

‘‘As far as concerns the structure of arctic species it has been shown in the

preceding pages that no morphological structure seems absolutely charac-

teristic of these; they share the same development of their floral and vegeta-

tive organs with their southern allied species; they exhibit exactly the same

method of vegetative reproduction as these and are in many cases not of

such dwarfed stature as frequently described *******, There is thus no

morphological character by which arctic and alpine species may be defined

and we must therefore consider them from other points of view when the

question arises to distinguish them.”

ECOLOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE ARCTIC

Altogether the arctic can be characterized rather better ecologically

than any other way. This is true in spite of the difficulties of arctic

ecology. The prevalent vegetation type of the high arctic is open

fellfield, nearly bare, rocky ground most nearly analogous to talus

slopes with us. The only closed associations of any great extent are

heaths dominated by Cassiope tetragona or by mosses, especially by

Rhacomitrium lanuginosum, the famous ‘‘Grimmia heaths.”’ Closed

grassland is absent or restricted to very favorable situations which

are best considered as oases of low arctic vegetation advanced beyond

the general limit of that zone. The plants are perennial, annuals being

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 167

absent or almost so. All plants are held strictly to the ground, often

rising only an inch above the general level. Bogs are formed by plants

other than Sphagnum. Ponds are devoid of flowering plants or nearly

so. This, however, is not a hard and fast rule, for while there are no

aquatic flowering plants in Spitzbergen (Summerhayes and Elton,

1928, p. 265), both Batrachium trichophyllum and Hippurus vulgaris

occur in north Greenland.

In the low arctic, fellfield is restricted to exposed and unfavorable

situations. The heaths are dominated by Empetrum rather than by

Cassiope. The most favorable habitats are occupied by grassland

usually with bushes and scrub of willow, birch, or alder. The bogs

may consist largely of Sphagnum, though that moss is of much less

importance than in the boreal region to the southward.

A number of aquatics penetrate into the outer portion of the arctic

zone, including, besides Hippurus and Batrachium, several species of

Potomogeton, Utricularia, Myriophyllum, Menyanthes, Callitriche, and

others.

CAUSES OF THE INDISCRIMINATE CHARACTER OF

ARCTIC VEGETATION

These various considerations as to definitions, boundaries, and

characterizations were no part of my original plan of study, but as I

have shown it was necessary to go into them before I could under-

take the problem which confronted me at the outset: Namely, the

reason for the indiscriminate character of the vegetation at Katmai.

Finally we are ready to undertake consideration of that problem.

The nearest analogs of tundra in temperate vegetation all belong

close to the pioneer stage. The highest stages reached in the low arctic

of Alaska are the poplar woods and the alder grassland. Back in the

forest the poplar woods are paralleled by the cottonwood thickets

that come up on new gravel bars along rivers, and something very

similar to the alder grassland develops on avalanche tracks, where

frequent disturbance prohibits the growth of climax forest.

A good share of the tundra is what we should call boggy, and in a

country where bogs are to be found chiefly encircling and invading

ponds, it is easy to see again that bogs stand close to the pioneer

stage. The fellfield of the extreme north, which most nearly resembles

talus slopes with us is still younger in the ecological scale. In the case

of the two associations first mentioned, the river bar woodland and

the avalanche track, the analogy with the arctic is rather good. If

the same were true with bog and talus slope there would have been

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

little difficulty in working out the vegetation of Katmai. But with

them the analogies are useful only insofar as they may serve in a

feeble way to give one who has never seen the arctic some idea of the

physical conditions of the habitats concerned. It is questionable in-

deed whether the attempt to draw analogies in these cases does not

do more harm than good, for the differences between the arctic and

the temperate types are more significant than their resemblances.

With us soggy, undrained bogs and loose, open talus slopes are so

different in every way that we cannot imagine any difficulty in dis-

tinguishing them. Not so in the arctic. Neither bog nor fellfield has

a distinctive flora, for most of the commonest and most characteristic

of arctic plants spread promiscuously not only over bog and fellfield

but over all habitats of intermediate dryness as well. And since this

series, which includes the heaths, occupies the greater part of many

arctic countries, herein lies the problem of arctic vegetation.

RESEMBLANCES OF ARCTIC AND RUDERAL VEGETATION

So long as I tried to solve this problem of arctic ecology by com-

parison with the native vegetation down here I found it impossible

to proceed. Finally, however, I came to see the trouble. These north-

ern vegetation types stand lower in the plant succession than any

of the natural associations of the south. When I began to compare

them with the ephemeral weed vegetation of cultivated fields a com-

prehension of arctic ecology began at once to dawn on me.

Go out to one of the numerous real estate developments where

they have made over the landscape recently and try to classify the

weeds that appear. Cataloguing the plants over several such develop-

ments, you will make a long list of familiar weeds. Now try to classify

them as to habitat preference and their association with each other.

You will make little progress, for the weed cover of new ground varies

indefinably from place to place. The weeds, with some wellknown ex-

ceptions, have no associations. The population of any area depends

much more on the kinds of seeds that happen to fall thereon than on

fitness of the species present for that particular habitat.

SIMILARITY OF FELLFIELD AND PLOWLAND

One of the most evident resemblances, and perhaps one of the most

significant, between fallow fields and high tundra is in the large

amount of mineral soil exposed to colonization, and the further north

one goes the more bare ground there is. On the fellfield the plants

are spotted here and there with so much space between that a picture

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 169

of the habitat looks like a bed of shingle and the inconspicuous plants

are hardly noticed except upon close inspection. This eliminates one

of the most important of the ecological factors of lower latitudes.

There is no struggle for room.

On the high tundra most of the plants are entirely out of touch with

their neighbors. There is always plenty of free space for new plants.

Thus while in the south nearly all plants have continually to wrest

their living so to speak out of the very mouths of others which would

take it if strong enough, in the far north the struggle for existence

consists entirely of passive endurance of the rigors of the climate.

A second point of resemblance between tundra and plowland lies

in the relatively small amount of humus commonly present in both.

As everyone knows, one of the chief problems of agriculture is the

loss of organic matter consequent upon cultivation and the ensuing

wash. Fields cut out of the virgin forest soon lose the heavy coat of

leaf mold which had been built up through ages of primeval conditions.

Thereafter their soil approaches nearer and nearer to a mass of in-

organic detritus unless organic matter is artificially added by green

manures or similar means. This of itself favors the development of

the species we know as weeds over the humus-loving natives originally

in possession, (Croxton, 1928). These weeds both ecologically and

floristically resemble arctic plants. In the arctic the formation of

humus and peat either in thick layers or in small floccules is at a

minimum.

Pedologists would call arctic soil very young, if they were willing

to admit that the rock detritus which covers the ground in high arctic

countries constitutes a soil at all. Presumably this juvenile, or better

infantile, condition of the soil is due to an unfavorable climate which

prevents the development of a proper soil. One would like to be able

to discuss this problem in more detail but present knowledge does

not permit. It is not impossible that it might have important impli-

cations.

Arctic ground is almost everywhere poor in nitrogen. This is gen-

erally attributed to the effect of low temperatures on the activity of

nitrogen-fixing bacteria, but no thorough study of the matter seems

to have been undertaken. The deficiency in nitrogen is so important

that cliffs manured by nesting birds support a vegetation notably

more luxuriant than occurs elsewhere. The arctic ‘‘barren grounds”

might perhaps be ‘‘made to blossom like the rose”’ by the application

of fertilizer.

A third and most important similarity of tundra to farmland lies

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 4

in the unstable condition of the soil. As a means of stirring up the

_ ground and uprooting plants nothing but the plow can compare with

the rigors of the arctic climate. The violence of heave and throw in

daily freezing and thawing have been commented on by many writers.

Another factor of importance has been brought to light by Johansen

(1924, p. 26). He ascribes the bare spots on the tundra largely to dis-

turbance by running water from melting snow and to slumping away

of the ground after melting of ground ice. The plants which remain

are those which happen to be favorably situated to escape such acci-

dents. Thus tundra and field are alike in that on neither is vegetation

allowed to grow for long before it is uprooted and destroyed.

If undisturbed the ruderal associations of cultivated fields and new

ground soon pass into definite old field associations characteristic of

the particular vegetation province concerned; white birches in New

England, pines in the southern coastal plain. It is only by repeated

plowing that the ruderal stage is maintained. In the north the neces-

sary disturbance is supplied by Nature herself.

On account of the vicissitudes of freezing and thawing adjacent

patches of tundra may be of very different age. While freshly denuded

areas are conspicuous, as the years pass they gradually fade into the

general tundra thereby introducing another element into the con-

fusion of an explorer without detailed knowledge of the history of

the areas observed.

HOMOLOGIES OF ARCTIC HEATH AND BOG

In a field the open stage wherein the soil is still largely unoccupied,

which is comparable with the fellfield of the North, quickly passes

into a closed ‘“‘association”’ in which competition is keen and destruc-

tive as every gardener knows. In the extreme high arctic this open

stage is permanent and succession does not go beyond the fell field.

In more favorable localities the vegetation spreads out and occupies

the whole ground forming heath or bog. These are homologous with

the second stage in the revegetation of a field. In the field the vegeta-

tion of this second stage may be even more erratic in composition

than in the initial stage because the first pioneers consist exclusively

of the species able to come up at once and they may arrive well

ahead of the general weed population. In parts of the coastal plain

for example, crab-grass, Syntherisma sanguinalis, always appears first.

Following this in the second stage is a diverse assemblage made up

of any one of a number of species or any mixture of them depending

on the seeds that happen to be most available.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 171

Because the ground is covered, the second stage may appear to be

closed association, but this is a false appearance for such areas lack

the essential character of truly closed associations in which each

species present has some special fitness for the conditions of the habi-

tat and all lacking such fitness are excluded by the intensity of the

competition. If the term association as applied to vegetation means

anything beyond mere physical propinquity it is clear that vegetation

in this stage does not constitute proper associations at all.

This is the condition of the protean heaths and bogs at Katmai

wherein the plants did not keep their places and so baffled a would-be

classifier. Lack of the close-drawn competition which determines

membership in associations higher in the succession explains both

the apparent lack of habitat preferences in the most characteristic

species, and of the infinite variation in the composition of the plant

cover. }

It may be needless to adduce further evidence that the tundra is

in fact in the ruderal condition beyond that with which this essay is

prefaced, but I shall cite one additional illustration showing how the

irregularities in the distribution of arctic plants correspond with the

vagaries in the occurrence of weeds. Three Greenland nunataks have

been described by Warming (1888, p. 84-86). Their combined flora

numbered 54 vascular plants, but no more than 27 occurred on any

one of the three, and only two species were common to all three

mountains. Clearly most of the 54 species, if once established, would

thrive on any of these nunataks. The explanation here, as in the field,

is that the flora of each is due to the accidents of immigration rather

that to special fitness, and that colonization has not been completed.

The essentially unstable ecological condition of the tundra thus

runs into and fits in with the instability of a higher order discussed

above, namely the floristic irregularities which suggest that active

migration of arctic species is still in full swing.

WEEDS NATIVE TO THE ARCTIC

I have said also that the ruderal character of arctic vegetation is

floristic as well as ecologic. There is no time here to go into such an

analysis of the arctic flora as would be necessary adequately to de-

velop that fact. A brief summary with a few examples will illustrate

my point.

The usual conception of arctic plants is that when they come south

at all they are confined to high mountains. It will probably surprise

many to learn that there are fewer species native above the arctic

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 24, NO. 4

circle which in their southern extensions are confined to alpine situ-

- ations than of those which we know as weeds of cultivated ground.

Long ago Hooker (1861, p. 277) pointed out:

“Of the plants found north of the arctic circle very few are absolutely or

almost confined to frigid latitudes (only 50 out of 762 are so) ; the remainder,

so far as their southern distribution is concerned, may be referred to two

classes; one consisting of plants widely diffused over the plains of northern

Europe, Asia, and America of which there are upwards of 500; the other of

plants more or less confined to the alps of these countries, and still more

southern regions of which there are only about 200.”

To illustrate I cite a few familiar plants of fields and other new

habitats which are native to the arctic, though some of them have

come to us only as introductions from northern Europe. In this con-

nection Porsild’s (1932) paper on Alien plants and apophytes of Green-

land is most instructive.

One of the worst of our weed invaders from Europe is sheep sorrel,

Rumex acetosella. This is native in Greenland and is abundant in the

untouched natural vegetation as far north as Disco, Lat. 70°. Dr.

C. O. Erlanson tells me that the Greenland plant is in all respects

closely similar to our weed.*

Toad rush, Juncus bufonius, a cosmopolitan weed which with us

frequents roadsides and other open places, goes far north reaching

67° 49’ in Greenland, occurring there ‘‘in places which preclude human

introduction.” (Porsild, 1932.)

Horsetail, Hquisetum arvense, which though unable to compete with

more rapidly reproducing annual herbs for the occupation of cul-

tivated fields, is fundamentally similar to a weed in that it is confined

to new ground and is supplanted whenever species beyond the pioneer

stage can take hold. With us it is restricted to such places as sand

bars and road embankments. At Katmai it dominated the ashflats

for a time after the eruption, coming through ash blankets too thick

for other plants to penetrate. It goes to the far north reaching Spitz-

bergen and the north coast of Greenland, Lat. 83°.

Chickweed, Stellaria media, one of the most widespread and ubi-

quitous of weeds occurs generally in arctic as well as temperate coun-

tries. In Greenland it enters natural vegetation uninfluenced by hu-

man occupancy, yet it is considered certainly introduced. In arctic

Norway, however, it is believed primeval. (Jesson and Lind 1923,

Holmboe, 1906.) Its ability to enter the native vegetation of the arctic

4 This does not accord with Porsild’s published accounts. Erlanson, however, is

more familiar with the temperate plant than is Porsild.

APRIL 15, 1934 GRIGGS: ARCTIC VEGETATION 173

really gives clearer testimony as to the ruderal character of that

vegetation than if it were native. This is clear from a consideration

of its habitats with us. Here it is strictly an ephemeral weed unable to

hold on in any permanent stabilized plant cover.

Rhode Island bent grass, Agrostis canina, is native to the arctic

Archipelago, Greenland, and arctic KEurope—but not at all to Rhode

Island.

Similarly, Kentucky bluegrass, which as detailed above goes to

the far north, is not believed to be indigenous in the northeastern

United States. H. M. Raup (1934) discovered, however, that it grows

in extensive pure stands in the subarctic meadows of the Mackenzie.

Our common winter cress, Barbarea vulgaris, likewise is native from

Lake Superior northwestward into Alaska and Arctic Europe, but

comes to us here as an introduced weed.

Plantago lanceolata is given by the Canadian Arctic Expedition

(Johansen, 1924, p. 41 C.) as one of the characteristic plants of the

uninhabited American arctic coast. It is also in arctic Europe where,

however, Norman regards it as introduced. Hereabout it is one of our

worst weeds.

Ranunculus acris, one of the commonest introduced weeds in our

territory, is native and abundant in Arctic Norway and in South

Greenland.

Polygonum aviculare, the little smartweed which everywhere edges

into well-trodden paths in this country, or a close relative (there has

been a recent redefinition here) is native in arctic Scandinavia, Ice-

land, and Greenland as far north as 70°.

Cardamine pratensis, which in the United States is native north-

ward, but escaped southward, is indigenous throughout Greenland

up to 76° as well as in Scandinavia.

Yarrow, Achillea millefoliwm and var. nigrescens (Fernald 1925,

p. 269), is common on the tundra of the uninhabited country of the

Alaska peninsula. Whether the native Alaskan plant is the same

species as ours is disputed, but our common weed is indigenous to

Scandinavia and Iceland. In Greenland it is replaced by the native

arctic American form.

Anthoxanthum odoratum, the sweet-smelling vernal grass which

comes up in waste places everywhere hereabout, is common in Scan-

dinavia, Iceland, and South Greenland. In the latter place, however,

it is believed to have been introduced by the old Norse colonists.

Epilobium angustifolium, the fireweed whose ephemeral character

in this region is attested by its common name, is one of the most

174. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

characteristic of arctic plants, occurring in all low arctic districts and

ascending to 70° in Greenland.

CONCLUSION

In short every feature of arctic vegetation, the anomalies in the

geographical distribution of arctic species, the occurrence of many

species in all sorts of habitats, and their apparent indifference to the

diverse conditions thereof, the lack of definiteness to the composition

of the plant cover in any particular habitat, the physical instability

of the ground itself, the general ruderal character of arctic vegetation,

the large number of our weeds which are native to the arctic—all

these testify to an instability in arctic vegetation very different from

the relatively stable plant formations of the temperate zone.

Each of the items contributing to the belief that arctic vegetation

remains in a state of flux goes to indicate that the plants of the arctic,

individually and collectively, are still far from equilibrium with their

environment. This conclusion has far-reaching consequences.

First, combined with the demonstrated active migration of the

Alaskan forest into the arctic, it gives definite support to the sup-

position that vegetation there has not yet recovered from the glacial

period but is still in process of active readjustment.

Second, a science of arctic ecology cannot be built up on the as-

sumption that the place and mode of occurrence of a plant give re-

liable indications of its optimum habitat. As this is one of the central

theses upon which the ecology of the temperate zone has been built

up, it is clear that arctic ecology must be worked out on an entirely

different basis.

If the study of arctic ecology be approached from a dynamic rather

than from a static and merely descriptive point of view, if instead of

attempting to fit arctic vegetation into a supposedly stable climate,

we try to work out the great movements of vegetation that are in

progress, there lies open to the investigator a rich field which bids

fair to throw much light on many features of our environment and

its history that have an importance far beyond the immediate prob-

lems concerned. |

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CEenrt es, W. C. Revegetation of Illinois coal-stripped land. Ecology 9: 155-175.

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HoveaarD, W. The Norsemen in Greenland: Recent discoveries at Herjolfsnes. Geogr.

Rev. 15: 605-615. 1925.

JESSON, KNup oa LiINp, Jens. Det Dansk Makurkrudts historie. K. Dansk vid.

Selsk. Copenhagen. Natur & Math. Afd.8 R VIII. 1923.

JOHANSEN, Frits. General observations on vegetation. Rept. Can. Arctic Exped.,

1913-18. Vol. 5, pt. 3. 1924.

MippEnporrF, A. Von. Szberische Reise 4:1: 736. 1864.

NORDENSKJOLD, Orto. The geography of the polar regions. Am. Geogr. Soc. Sp. Pub.

8:72, 73. 1928.

Norman, J. M. Index Sup. Soc. Nat. Spec. Pl. non-vasc. Prov. arctica Norwegiae,

sponte nasc. Kgl. Norske Vidensk, Selsk. Skr. 5: 1-58. 1865.

OsTENFELD, C.H. Bot. Faeroes. In Warming, Bot. Faeroes 867-1026. 1908.

Cees A. E. Reindeer grazing in northwest Canada. Canada Dept. Interior.

1929.

Porsitp, Morten P. Flora of DiskoTIsland. Arb. Dansk. Artk. Sta. No. 11. 1920.

Porsitp, Morten P. Alien Plants and apophytes in Greenland. Med. om Grgnland

92: 1-85. 1932.

Ravup. H. M. Phytogeographic studies in the Peace and Laird River regions. Contrib.

Arnold Arbor. 6. 1934.

Rixur, M. Veg. Disko Island. Vegbild. 7: 8. 1910.

Stumons, HerMAN G. A survey of the phytogeography of the arctic American Archi-

pelago. Lunds Univ. Arsskr. nf. 9: no. 18. 1913.

SumMErRHAYES, V. 8. and Etton, C. S. Further contributions to the ecology of Spitz-

bergen. Jour. Ecol. 16: 193-268. 1928.

WaRMING, E. OmGrénlands Veg. Med. om Grgnl. 12: 84-86. 1888.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.—Saline peat profiles of Puerto Rico.t

A. P. DacHNowSKI-SToksEs and Ray C. RoseErts, Bureau of

Chemistry and Soils.

The source of organic matter found in salt and brackish waters of

the sea and the question of its abundance, specific nature, and func-

tion either in relation to the nutrition of marine bacterial and animal

life, to the formation of coal, oil, and petroleum, or to practical agri-

culture, presents a number of highly important problems. Much in-

formation has been published showing the development of swamp

forests of mangrove and other halophytic plant communities, but

the most significant results of vegetation at work, namely, the char-

acteristic features of organic accumulations and the phases bearing

upon past conditions, have scarcely been considered.

The opportunity for the following article arose through field work

carried on in Puerto Rico in connection with a survey for the U. Be

1 Received February 6, 1933.

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils with the cooperation of Dr. J. A.

Bonnet, Chief of the Soils Division, of the Insular Experiment Sta-

tion of Puerto Rico. Vertical cross sections believed to be representa-

tive of coastal swamps and salt marshes in northern and eastern

parts of the island were collected by the junior author and the Sta-

tion’s surveyors. The former also made the determinations of soluble

salts contained in the samples.” The descriptions of the peat profiles

and the general discussion regarding them were contributed by the

senior author. A specific aim has been that of basing the study upon

the point of view set forth in a recent book dealing with a new system

of classifying American peat deposits.’

Puerto Rico is an island well within the tropical zone in the At-

lantic waters. It is approximately 182 km. (113 miles) long and 66

km. (41 miles) wide and includes an area of about 8,900 square kilo-

meters (3,425 square miles). The island is largely mountainous and

primarily of volcanic origin. It has been described as a portion of a

chain of mountains under water, the summits of which reach an alti-

tude of 1,350 m. (4,429 feet). Other summits of the range form the

other islands which with Puerto Rico make up the group known as

the Greater Antilles. A scientific survey of the region is in progress

by cooperating institutions. Studies on the geology and physiography

of Puerto Rico will be found in the publications issued by the New

York Academy of Sciencest and the New York Botanical Garden.*

A valuable descriptive account of the plant ecology of Puerto Rico

and certain phytogeographic relations of the vegetation have been

given by Gleason and Cook,‘ while information as to the climate and

soils of the island may be obtained from the reports of the United

States Weather Bureau and the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.’

CHARACTERISTICS OF MANGROVE PEAT

On the coastal plain of the east side of the island are found num-

erous parcels of tidal mangrove swamps that grow in the water of

the open bays and the open ocean where wave action is characteristic

of the more exposed shores. The red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle

2 The authors are indebted to Mr. E. H. Batury of this Bureau for the hydrogen-

ion determinations on the air-dried samples.

8’ DACHNOWSKI-STOKES, A. P., and AuER, V. American peat deposits. In Handbuch

der Moorkunde, vol. 7. Gebr. Borntraeger, Berlin. 1933.

4 Sci. Surv. Puerto Rico I-VI. 1923-1926.

5 Britton, N. L. and Wotcott, G. N. Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Nat-

uralists’ guide to Americas, 700-705. 1926.

6 Sci. Surv. Puerto Rico VII. 1927.

7 Dorsey, C. W., MesMER L., and Caine T. A. Soil Survey from Arecibo to Ponce,

P.R. Field Oper. Bureau Soils, 1902: 793-839. 1903.

APRIL 15, 1934 STOKES AND ROBERTS: PEAT PROFILES LWP

L.) is usually the pioneer species. This characteristic shrubby ever-

green tree is widely distributed on tropical coasts and is the first to

appear in the open water offshore. It extends farthest into salt water

where it makes a dense growth and builds up islands of peat that

are occupied by it alone. Colonies of impenetrable thickets, separated

by tortuous channels of tidal salt water, push steadily seaward the

margin of the swamp, gradually forming broad expanses that extend

over hundreds of acres and are related chiefly to the gradient of the

shore, shape of the sea floor, and the depth of salt water.

In the formation of new peat land the prominent adaptational

peculiarities of the red mangrove are the specialized roots that arise

from branches, grow down vertically as an interlacing tangle of stout

pithy roots and together with numerous fine rootlets become anchored

in the underlying soil. This dense network of roots and rootlets re-

tards greatly the movement of. sea water; it retains any decaying

fallen leaves and twigs of the trees and any suspended organic matter

and floating particles of silt or clay that may be carried by the water.

Thus a type of peat profile is developed bringing ultimately the level

of the layer to that of high tide.

Ensenada Honda type. In vertical cross section this type of profile

represents one continuous layer of mangrove peat. The characteristics

stated below were observed on a monolithic sample collected about

2 km. east of Ensenada Honda. It illustrates the development of a

long coastal area of peat facing the waters of the ocean and connected

with mangrove swamps most of which are under salt water and ex-

tend from the coast to the foothills. The morphological features of

the profile may be described as follows:

Mangrove peat: 0 to 101.6 cm. brown to reddish-brown, coarse but firm

fibrous peat, consisting chiefly of a porous, interlacing network of fine rootlets,

yellowish-brown in color, brittle when dry, crumbling into small particles.

Embedded in the tangle of rootlets are relatively small quantities of dark

colored, finely divided organic sediments carried by tides and waves of sea

water. A prominent feature is considerable amounts of stout roots of man-

grove, the pith of which is in varying states of decomposition. The whole

profile section is indistinctly differentiated, free from woody fragments and

plant remains of secondary species, contains little mineral material, and is

but feebly altered by soil making processes; it is the product of the roots

and rootlets from a pure stand of mangrove. Soluble salts are present in the

entire profile in amounts ranging between 3 and 54 per cent and the reaction

of the air-dried material is strongly acid (pH 4.3-4.6). The thickness of the

layer varies in places from 1 to 14 m. and rests abruptly on coarse white

sand of unknown depth.

Many of the coastal mangrove swamps are cut for charcoal and

1 |

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 4 |

fuel, and serve as an important source of income. They re-establish

themselves easily under natural conditions and should be used along

newly built embankments as a means of preventing the wash of

waves and undermining.

PEAT PROFILE FORMATION IN LAGOONS

On the north shore of Puerto Rico there are many places that are

free from effective wind and wave action, but where salt water flows

inland by tidal movement and produces saline conditions. The shel-

tered bays, estuaries, and great lagoons east of San Juan are of this

nature. The shallow sea waters favor deposition of organic ooze, over

and around which grows a halophytic vegetation showing transitions

from saline to brackish waters and a succession of plant communities

from shore lines fringed with littoral swamp forest of mangroves to

marshes of cattail, rushes, and sawgrass toward the landward side.

The mangrove swamps occur in strips bordering on quiet salt water

in direct connection with the sea.

In general several species of mangrove compose the swamp forest.

Of these the great bulk are red mangrove and to a less extent the

black mangrove (Avicennia nitida L.). Other species such as Lagun-

cularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus, with an undergrowth of

smaller shrubs and herbaceous plants are relatively more abundant

landward. The presence of secondary species generally indicates an

interference with the penetration of tidal salt water and the tendency

of rains or fresh water streams to dilute periodically the salinity of

the groundwater.

Along the shore at sufficient depths to preclude agitation by cur-

rents and waves, the bottom is covered with soft, black organic ooze.

The formation of this residue appears to be partly a result of the ac-

tion of bacteria in the salt water. By decomposing the remains of

marine plants and animals a layer is formed that can be designated as

sedimentary peat because of its similarity in origin and probably in

chemical composition® to the sedimentary peat found in fresh water

lakes and ponds. The thickness of the marine layer varies consider-

ably but in some protected localities the mud-like residue is present

in great abundance. Its decomposition is sufficiently slow to indicate

that the constituents are altered anaerobically to a very small extent

after their deposition. The various processes that might produce such

beds of fine organic material, and preserve them as marine sediments,

8 Trask, P. D., and Hammar, H. E. Some relation of the organic constituents of

sediments to the formation of petroleum. Abstract in this JoURNAL 23; 568. 1933.

APRIL 15, 1934 STOKES AND ROBERTS: PEAT PROFILES 179

have not received much consideration as yet. Some significant con-

clusions, however, may be drawn from the fact that the content of

organic matter is consistently large and that its deposition is under

saline conditions below effective wave action. For purposes of com-

parison the following profile is of interest.

Martin Pena type. The chief distinguishing feature of this profile

is the fact that it is composed of two layers, markedly different in

texture and composition. It consists typically of a surface layer of

fibrous mangrove peat and an underlying layer of marine sedimentary

peat. The profile was collected about 14 km. east of Martin Pefia

railroad station from an area of mangrove swamp that represents an

old channel-like depression and connected at one time Lake San Jose

with the Harbor of San Juan. Much of the swamp forest has been

cut-over for fuel; its surface is under water at sea level, and the en-

trance of tide water causes saline conditions some distance in the in-

terior portion. A detailed study of the profile brings out the following:

Mangrove peat: 0 to 28 cm.; thin surface cover of black, sticky organic tidal

ooze containing an occasional mollusk shell; the sediment varies in thickness

from 5 mm. to 1.5 em. Below it is reddish-brown, coarsely fibrous, matted

mangrove peat which consists of a tangle of yellowish colored fine rootlets

and large reddish-brown pithy aerial and lateral roots of mangrove (species

of Rhizophora and Avicennia) embedded in black, finely divided organic resi-

due. The material contains about 3 per cent of soluble salts and has a mod-

erately acid reaction (pH 5.6).

28 to 61 cm.; finely fibered, very dark brown to mottled, more or less

firm mangrove peat; it consists of a large proportion of black organic residue

held in a meshwork of fine yellowish rootlets and is penetrated by a few

stout, branching pithy roots in varying states of decomposition. The material

is saline and acid (pH 5.1).

Sedimentary peat: 61 to 92 cm.; grayish-black, soft, oozy mixture com-

posed chiefly of organic residue of the size of colloidal particles, together with

gray colored fine rootlets. The layer is penetrated by a few pithy roots of

mangrove; it becomes dense and hard when dry and breaks with smooth

fractures. The content of soluble salts varies between 3 and 33 per cent and

the reaction is moderately acid (pH 5.6).

At a depth ranging from 1 to 14 m., the underlying mineral soil is bluish

green to gray plastic clay.

SALINIZATION OF A PEAT AREA

On the coastal shore of the island, between Arecibo and Barceloneta

a line of consolidated sand dunes and limestone hills form a pro-

nounced ridge. It separates from the near-by ocean an extensive

level marsh nearly 13 km. long and from 1 to 13 km. wide, known

locally as Cafio Tiburones. The natural outlet of the marsh is at the

western end but numerous ditches and canals intended to drain it

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

have facilitated the entrance of salt water. Much of the surface of

the marsh is at or below sea level and the natural vegetation indicates

that in some places it is influenced by the denser salt water while

in other parts the soil water is brackish or nearly fresh because of

its slow diffusion. _

Where the vegetation is still in a natural condition, Cook and Glea-

son’ report that it consists of almost pure stands of cattail (Typha

angustifolia L.) and sawgrass (Mariscus jamaicensis [Crantz] Brit-

ton), while at wider intervals are small patches of reed (Phragmites

communis L.) and isolated thickets of shrubs. The vegetation changes

more or less abruptly toward the western end into continuous masses

of ferns (Acrostichum aureum L.) and still farther west into mangrove

swamps where the salinity is increased by the entrance of the tides.

Ecologists are still uninformed as to the details of the origin and

history of this marsh. The evidence of the surface vegetation as to

the factors that operated during past periods is very slight, and there

is reason to believe that the development of the marsh might be due

perhaps to a progressive submergence of the coast. Since the compo-

sition and appearance of any vertical peat section depends primarily

on the plant remains caused by a preponderance of species and by

the successional trends of the vegetation, a detailed study of a profile

should reveal any changes in natural conditions.

Cano Tiburones type. The profile described below was collected

from the eastern part of the Cafio Tiburones marsh, about 15 km.

east of Arecibo. Its distinguishing features display two layers of peat

in a reversed sequence of which the lower material is coarsely fibrous

peat, developed under marsh conditions influenced by brackish wa-

ter, while the upper layer is markedly dense and heavy in texture

and represents conditions of nearly fresh water and a rising water

level.

‘Sedimentary muck: 0 to 26 em.; under cultivation; the material at the

surface develops a black, granular muck, more or less mineralized; it contains

bits of fine rootlets from crops (sugar cane) and shows channels of burrowing

insects and worms. Downward it continues into sticky plastic sedimentary

peat of heavy texture, dense, compact and hard when dry, tending to break

into angular cloddy aggregates that later disintegrate into loose granules.

The cultivated material is neutral in reaction (pH 7.3).

Tule peat: 26 to 58 em.; black, stringy fibrous peat consisting mainly of

soft, partly decomposed vertical stems and the rootstocks of tule (Scerpus

sp., Eleocharis sp. and others), embedded in sticky plastic organic residue

derived from secondary herbaceous plants. The material contains very small

® Cook, M. T., and Gieason, H. A. Ecological survey of the flora of Puerto Rico.

Journ. Dept. of Agri. P. R. 12: 1-189. Jllus. 1928.

APRIL 15, 1934 STOKES AND ROBERTS: PEAT PROFILES 181

amounts of soluble salts, is slightly acid in reaction (pH 5.9) and shows a

tendency to compaction and hardening when dry.

58 to 63 em.; band of dark gray clayey mineral material probably due to

flood waters; it is mottled with black organic residue and channeled ver-

tically with partly decomposed, flattened culms of tule sedges (Scirpus sp.);

the material is moderately saline and acid in reaction.

63 to 90 cm.; coarse stringy-fibrous tule peat, very dark brown to black,

consisting largely of vertical, partly decomposed, more or less flattened stems

of tule (Scirpus sp.) in a matrix of plastic amorphous organic residue. No

visible alterations have taken place in the material during the period of time

it has been buried by the mineral sediments. The content of soluble salts is

fairly high, and the reaction is strongly acid (pH 4.2).

The thickness of the layer extends to a depth of 14 m. below the surface

and the underlying mineral material is a bluish-gray, plastic clay.

It is apparent that Cafio Tiburones first developed as a marsh

characterized by fresh or brackish water in which tall-stemmed rushes

(Scirpus sp.) were dominant and persisted in great abundance as the

pioneer plant community. The profile section also indicates a sudden

inflow of erosion water that carried with it large quantities of clayey

sediments. Flooding, that may be attributed to a period of very moist

climatic conditions,!° or else subsidence, appears to have continued

down to recent times. The change brought about a stand of water so

nearly fresh that aquatic vegetation, forming sedimentary peat, re-

placed the tule marsh. The vegetation dominating at the present

time is associated in places with saline conditions due to the entrance

of tide water, but no particular part of it has, as yet, contributed to

the development of fibrous peat.

SUMMARY

A brief discussion has been given of the more important character-

istic features of three peat profiles that are representative of coastal

shore conditions of Puerto Rico. These profiles from the tropics are

members of a major group that includes two regional subdivisions,

namely salt marshes such as exist along the open bays and estuaries

of northern coastal states, and mangrove swamp forests and tidal

marshes of tropical coasts and islands. To this maritime group of

peat land the name halotrophic has been applied, to designate the

fact that profile development is related to salt water or brackish

water by the effective activity of plant communities associated in a

successional trend. The peat materials are of a distinctive nature;

they promise a basis for paleontological correlations and they may

be significant in indicating the character of source beds of coal and

Carnegie Institution Washington, 55-64. 1929.

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

oil, accumulating in brackish and salt water, on or near ocean shore

conditions.

PALEOBOTANY.—A pine from the Potomac Eocene. Epwarp W.

Brrry, Johns Hopkins University.

The Eocene of Maryland and Virginia comprises an older Aquia

and a younger Nanjemoy formation collectively known as the Pam-

unkey Group, and the best general account of the geology and con-

tained faunas is that by Clark and Martin, published in 1901.? Aside

from undetermined and probably undeterminable drift wood in these

marine beds I know of no terrestrial plants having been recorded from

these deposits except the two nominal varieties of fruits described by

Hollick in the volume above mentioned,’ and referred to the form

genus Carpolhithus without any suggestions as to their probable botan-

ical affinity. These are said to have come from the Woodstock stage,

the uppermost of the two stages into which the Nanjemay formation

was divided. It is these same forms in all probability which were

noted by Ruffin in the last century in one of the earliest American

papers on fossil plants,* since these objects are not of great rarity,

although no one has attempted to discover their botanical affinity.

During the past summer Dr. W. Gardner Lynn of the Johns Hop-

kins University collected an excellently preserved cone of a new spe-

cies of Pinus from an outcrop of the Aquia formation at Belvedere

Beach on the Virginia bank of the Potomac, near the type locality

of the Aquia formation. This may be appropriately named Pinus

lynni n. sp. and described as far as the material permits as follows.

Pinus lynni n. sp. 7

Fig. 1

Cone thoroughly lignified and much compressed, somewhat macerated at

both the apex and base. The part preserved measures 9.5 centimeters in

length, 3.5 centimeters in width, and about 1.5 centimeters in thickness, so

that in life it was relatively slender. That it was mature is indicated by the

fact that it must have been shed or blown from the parent tree and was suf-

ficiently dried to have been buoyant enough to have been floated into this

marine basin of sedimentation. The faint impression of the seeds on the cone

scales and the absence of any traces of seeds also indicates that these had

already been shed. Scales triangular in profile, flat basally and somewhat

thickened distad, the rhomboidal face being about 1.2 to 1.5 centimeters

wide by 7 or 8 millimeters high with a prominent central transverse boss or

1 Received Dec. 16, 1933.

2 CLARK, W. B., and Martin, G. C. Md. Geol. Survey, Eocene, 1901.

3 Houuick, A. Idem, p. 258, pl. 64, figs. 11, 12.

4 RuFFIN, EpmMuND. Amer. Journ. Sci. 9: 127-129. 1850.

APRIL 15, 1934 BERRY: POTOMAC EOCENE 183

Fig. 1. Pinus lynni Berry X1. Eocene, Belvedere Beach, Va.

umbo crowned with a central conical point, which does not appear to have

been extended, but may have been abraded before fossilization.

Among the cones of existing North American species, this Eocene form

shows resemblances in the size and proportions of the cone as a whole and

of the individual cone scales to the three southeastern species Pinus taeda

Linné, Pinus elliottii Engelmann, and Pinus caribaea Morelet. I suppose

that too much reliance cannot be placed on resemblances of what, after all,

are superficial features, but I give them for what they may be worth. That

these resemblances are really objective is indicated by the fact that if the

specimen had not actually been dug out of Aqui sediments I should have re-

garded it of Pleistocene age in spite of the fact that the lignification is more

advanced than is usual in material of Pleistocene age.

Although Pinus is a reasonably ancient geological type and characteristic

cones are found in this region in the late Lower Cretaceous (Patapsco forma-

tion) as well as in corresponding horizons in Europe, none have been en-

countered in the middle Atlantic states in the long interval between the Up-

per Cretaceous and the Pleistocene.

Pinus is, of course, present in western North America and on the other

north temperate continents during the Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene, but

is usually represented by woods or impressions of the foliage and actual

cones are relatively rare.

Comparisons with described fossil cones afford nothing of pertinent inter-

est. I assume, from the character of the cone scales and the resemblance to

the existing species mentioned above that the present fossil belongs in the

Pitch pine section of the genus.

The present occurrence is of great interest as it gives a hint at least of the

character of the vegetation which clothed the shores of this region in early

Kocene time, its essentially temperate character and the contrast which it

suggests between this region and that of the shores of the Mississippi Gulf

embayment where the very extensive known flora contained so many im-

migrants from more southern latitudes.®

® Berry, E. W. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 156. 1930.

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

PALEOBOTANY.—Phocene in the Cuenca Basin of Ecuador. Ep-

WARD W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

In 1932 Dr. George Sheppard of Guayaquil, Ecuador, transmitted

to the U. 8. National Museum, a small collection of freshwater in-

vertebrates from two localities near the towns of Biblian and Paccha

in the Cuenca Basin of southern Ecuador.

This was described by Marshall and Bowles? who enumerated 3

gastropods and 2 lamellibranchs—all new, which suggested compari-

sons with the so-called Pebas molluscan fauna from eastern Peru? of

probably Pliocene age.

Recently I received from Dr. Roy E. Dickerson, Chief Geologist of

the Atlantic Refining Company, two small collections which he made

in the Cuenca Basin of Ecuador in 1927. These, although small, are

of considerable interest. The first of these comes from an outcrop on

the road from Biblian to Cuenca in the Azogues valley, where there

is a good exposure of what Wolf many years ago noticed and referred

to as ‘‘Arsenisca de Azogues.’’? The exact locality is along the Biblian-

Cuenca road on the right side of the Rio Azogues, 16 kilometers south

of the town of Biblian and 3 or 4 kilometers above the juncture of the

southerly flowing Rio Azogues with the northerly flowing Rio Gualua-

bamba to form the easterly flowing Rio Paute.

The second locality is 3.1 kilometers southeast of Biblian in the

Azogues valley and on the left side of the valley. The material from

the latter locality is a compact, somewhat bituminous, neutral gray

(K in Goldman and Merwin’s color chart for sediments) shale which

has the appearance of being a devitrified volcanic ash. No tests have

been made to determine whether or not it is a true bentonite. I have

not found any certainly determined plant fragments in this shale,

but it does contain numerous cyprinodont fish scales, one of which is

figured in the present paper. One of these is shown in Fig. | and is

seen to be nearly circular with concentric growth lines and the usual

longitudinal grooves on the anterior half. It is typically cycloid and

may represent the same species of fish as that described by White

(see infra) from the Loja Basin.

The material from the southernmost locality, first mentioned above

is of two sorts—a whitish or light gray paper shale with plant remains

1 Received Dec. 16, 1933.

2 MarsHALt, W. B., and Bowtss, E. O. New freshwater Mollusks from Ecuador.

U.S. Natl. Mus. Proc. 82: art. 5. 1932.

3 For a summary of the literature on Pebas see GARDNER, J. A. Tuts JOURNAL 17:

505-509. 1927. eo

4Wot.r, T. Viajes cientificos por la Republica del Ecuador-Relacion de un viaje

geognostico por la Provincia del Azuay, pp. 55-56. 1879.

APRIL 15, 1934 BERRY: PLIOCENE IN ECUADOR 185

and a slightly darker and more silty material with molluscan remains,

which latter have caused more or less calcareous cementation.

The molluscan remains comprise a single specimen, doubtfully

identified with Potamolithoides biblianus Marshall,*® and a large num-

ber of specimens of a freshwater gastropod, which Mr. Marshall

Fig. 1. Cyprinodont fish scale.

Fig.2. Leaflet of Macrolobium tenurfolium Englehardt.

states (letter of November 25, 1933) represents a new genus resem-

bling Gyrotonia and other Streptomatidae of the southern United

States. The paper shales contain fish-scales like those from the previ-

ous locality and many fragmentary impressions of plants. Only one

of these is sufficiently complete to permit of identification and this

proves to be a leaflet of Macrolobium tenurfolium Engelhardt® de-

scribed originally from Loja, Ecuador. This specimen is shown in

Fig. 2. In this connection it is pertinent to call attention to the small

eyprinodont fish described by White’ from the Loja deposits as Carri-

onellus diumortinus gen. et sp. nov. The present scales are somewhat

larger than White had, but he mentions one specimen which indicated

a fish twice the size of his complete specimens.

I discussed the Loja flora in 1925 and concluded that it represented

a late Tertiary, and very probably a Pliocene assemblage, preserved

in water laid sediments, largely volcanic ashes and at a lower altitude

than that at which its existing representatives are now found.’ More

5 MaRSHALL and Bowes. Op. cit. p. 4, pl. 1, figs. 1-3.

§ ENGELHARDT, H. Abb. Senck. Naturf. Gesell., Bd. 19: 20, pl. 2, fig. 17. 1895.

7 Waits, E.I. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 9, 20: 519-522. 1927.

8’ Berry, E. W. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology No. 10: 79-136,

2 figs., 6 pls. 1929.

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

recently through the kind cooperation of Professor Clodoveo Carrion

of Loja I have received material from a total of 18 localities in the

Loja Basin scattered from the nudo of Cajanuma at the southern end

to a locality 6 kilometers north of Loja.

Similar late Tertiary deposits have a considerable areal extent in

the tributary valleys of the Rio Catamayo east and south of the town

of Malacatos which is 27 kilometers south of the town of Loja. Engel-

hardt, in the paper already cited, recorded similar plant-bearing ma-

terial from Tablayacu in the valley of the Rio Jubones, north of the

nudo of Acayana.

The present occurrences in the Cuenca Basin demonstrate the pres-

ence of similar continental deposits a considerable distance farther

north than was hitherto known, so that now we have actual records

of the presence of such deposits over a distance of at least 170 kilo-

meters from Biblian on the north to Malacatos on the south. Whether

all these represent the reworked remnants of a single great volcanic

eruption in Pliocene times and whether the resulting sediments once

formed a continuous deposit is not known. Some of the deposits in the

Loja basin are horizontal and in any event were formerly more exten-

sive than they are now. All are undoubtedly of approximately the

same age. The fossil plants in the Loja basin occur at altitudes be-

tween 7000 and 7300 ft., those in the Cuenca basin at an altitude of

about 8000 ft. Both are now in the temperate altitudinal zone, where-

as the fossil plants are mostly meosphytic types of the tropics and

indicate not only a much lower altitude at the time they were living,

but also a better distributed rainfall than that of the present in the

Cuenca and Loja basins. 7

In considering the correlation of these inter-Andean deposits with

those of Pebas in eastern Peru, attention should be called to the Plio-

cene fossil plants which have been described from the Rio Aguaytia

in eastern Peru from beds which are probably a part of the same

formation as those containing the so-called Pebas molluscan fuana,

since apparently malacologists never read geological or paleobotanical

papers. This small but exceedingly interesting flora® seems clearly to

be of Pliocene age and contains several species which are also present

in the Loja Basin.

° Berry, E. W. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology No. 6: 163-182,

pls. 1, 2. 1925.

APRIL 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 187

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held

on January 16, 1934, elected the following officers for the ensuing year:

President, MattHew W. STIRLING; Vice-president, FRANK H. H. RoBERtTs,

JR.; Secretary, FRANK M. SurzuER; Treasurer, Henry B. Couns, JR.;

Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences, MattHEw W. STIR-

LING; Members of the Board of Managers, BIREN BONNERJEA, GEORGE 8.

Duncan, Herpert W. KrirGer, WILLIAM DUNCAN STRONG.

The following is a report of the membership and activities of the Society

since the annual meeting held on January 17, 1933.

Membership:

IL juice san eran NaS 5 Say Soe Ae es eA ac Sie eT en 3

IGG RTITE TINDER tre ee tees Se eg a uc dees ta 46

INSSOCTALERIFIGIM CE Stas ret eens aerate as cc ees iae Miutetesape es 6

FLOMONALVRINeT DEES .ayets is See eke Cis els s eueitus Sie mee evelacs bs 8 Pap

Corresponding members..... PERE RG TeON ee APA ee oe ul the 22

Total 99

Deceased:

INGLIVG STM CIM DCIS 21s taa eee Nie os hao cae RRR RIN lee Sata 1

FLOMOT ALVIN EMA CIS. ails crsr a cionereotia eae kere ace ows ote 1

Total 2

Resigned:

ING TINE EILOTO DEES hier, tities easier tiue Castine i gee etd eee 3

INSSOCIATOEEN OID ENS ou teres ran cg Re Gee RISEN ee eats Ue ee doeata 3

Total 2 6

INewalemibensreNetivienc. uo cea ore tee ena at kins ceciase habe Sees 2

The Society lost through death the following members: Honorary: Prof.

W. H. Hotmess, one of the founders of the Society and a past president;

active: Captain RoBprertT R. BENNETT.

Members elected during the year were: Mrs. MarGaret WELPLEY and

the Honorable Dr. Pepro M. Arcaya, Minister of Venezuela.

The financial statement (Treasurer’s report) is as follows:

Funds invested in Perpetual Building Ass’n...................... $1114.06

21 shares Washington Sanitary Improvement Co., par value $10

(ETE SIDE IES sig: Bee or RR NOR EERO I Ci ES Re grog ah are ae ee ter 210.00

2 shares Washington Sanitary Housing Co., par value $100 per

SORIA C RPM rere as ee ea EPC iit cS Mente oe Miche buries Ge aelie ve Soa aME oar 200 .00

CoESLD ND LOE AUR ba 3 Bis Sp nO rec ur eg REpRea ae et eC RS he a 246 .04

TOUEUIAS easih's G UREN UN ce ROE ALA. ded tS aa gee en ce oer a $1770.10

Bills outstanding:

To American Anthropological Ass’n........ $60 .00

ROMO ATCT ieee ce 6 RRS Sone eT adh yk Rasraiee 3.75

MnO Pale emeens e eee. a rea aee ees eke coo $63.75 63.75

ING tals allan Cemetery oy es eee Pitas oe ato hase Sie aphice collector Guat $1706.35

Papers presented before regular meetings of the Society were as follows:

January 17, 1933, 648rd regular meeting, The probable route of DeSoto

through the Southeastern States, by Dr. Joun R. Swanton, ethnologist, Bu-

reau of American Ethnology.

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

February 21, 1933, 644th regular meeting, Folk-lore in some languages of

northern India, by Dr. B1IrEN BoNnNERJEA of the Foreign Mission School,

Catholic University.

March 21, 1933, 645th regular meeting, Dazly life of the James Bay Cree,

by Dr. Joun M. Cooper, Catholic University of America.

April 18, 1933, 646th regular meeting, The cultures of Stone Age Man in

the Old World, by L. LORNE WEDLOCK.

October 17, 1933, 647th regular meeting, Notes on southeastern aboriginal

history, by Dr. Joun R. Swanton, ethnologist, Bureau of American Eth-

nology.

November 21, 1933, 648th regular meeting, Religion of the eastern Cree,

by Dr. Jonn M. Coopnr, Catholic University of America.

The regular December meeting was cancelled by the Board of Managers.

All regular meetings were held in room 43 of the new National Museum.

FraNnK H. H. Rosurts J.R Secretary.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

506TH MEETING

The 506th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Oct. 25, 1933, President C. N. FENN=ER presiding.

Informal communication. —W. H. BrRapL&y presented graphs showing the

existence of a 10 year cycle in the growth rings of silicified coniferous wood

from the upper part of the Green River formation (Eocene) of Wyoming.

It seems probable that this cyclic growth is to be correlated with the cycle

of sun spot numbers though it may well have been modified by other factors.

Discussed by Mr. F. E. Matruss.

Program: Cuas. B. Hunt: Tertiary structural history of parts of north-

western New Mexico.—The structural deformation of the southern San Juan

Basin, New Mexico, is closely related to important nearby uplifts. These up-

lifts are: The Zuni Mountains, an asymmetric anticline with steep west

flank; Mesa Lucero, a broad gentle dome abruptly faulted down on the east

side; Sandia Mountain, a block mountain, tilted east and downfaulted on

the west: and the Nacimiento Range, an asymmetric anticline with local

reverse faulting along the steep west flank.

Several groups of rocks in the region contribute to determining the se-

quence and age of the deformation. The earliest are Cretaceous sedimentary

formations which comprise most of the surface rocks. The porphyritic lavas

erupted by the Mount Taylor volcano overlie the northward tilted and

folded Cretaceous, and were followed slightly later by sheet basalts erupted

on erosion surfaces around Mount Taylor. The fluviatile Santa Fe formation

of this region was apparently deposited in the topographic depression that

resulted from the down faulting of the graben between Mesa Lucero and

Sandia Mountain. The deepest part of the depression was probably near the

present Rio Grande, and successively younger beds overlapped the sides of

the subsiding trough. Random collections of vertebrate fossils indicate late

Miocene and Pliocene age, but the Santa Fe locally overlaps erosion surfaces

only 100 feet above arroyo bottoms and only 50 feet above flood plains in

which the arroyos are incised. Accordingly, some of the youngest Santa Fe

beds may be younger than Pliocene. The sheet basalts around Mount Tay-

APRIL 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 189

lor seem to be about the same age as the lower part of the Santa Fe, and the

Mount Taylor eruptions are therefore probably middle or late Miocene.

The deposition of the Santa Fe followed all except the very latest block

faulting in the graben. The faulting had therefore mostly taken place before

late Miocene but continued into the Pliocene. The northward tilting and

associated folding of the southern San Juan Basin involved the early Eocene

Wasatch formation but had occurred before the eruptions of Mount Taylor.

The deformation was produced by the uplifts of the Zuni and Lucero regions

which can, therefore, be limited as post-early Eocene and pre-late Miocene.

There is stratigraphic evidence that Sandia Mountain was formed contem-

poraneously with the graben faulting. The Santa Fe is involved in the latest

movements at the north base of the mountain the same as farther east.

The Nacimiento uplift is post-early Eocene for the Wasatch is turned up

steeply along the west flank. The presence along the range of undisturbed

erosion surfaces at roughly the same elevation above present drainage as the

basalt-covered surfaces around Mount Taylor indicates that the Nacimiento

Range is pre-basalt in age. Renick has reported that the Santa Fe is involved

in the Nacimiento uplift. There is a transition zone a few miles wide at the

south tip of the uplift and north edge of the graben, and late movements of

block faulting in this transition zone involve the Santa Fe as they do farther

south in the graben. But so far as now known the Santa Fe is not involved in

the uplifting. The fact that the Santa Fe locally rests on only slightly dis-

turbed erosion surfaces sloping from the Nacimiento is confirmatory evi-

dence that the uplift is pre-Santa Fe. Its date therefore is probably post-

early Eocene and pre-late Miocene. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Snars, G. R. MANSFIELD, TRASK, RuBEy, and

C.S. Ross.

C. P. Ross and Cuarues Miuton: Stratigraphic correlation by heavy min-

erals in Paleozoic beds in Idaho.—In order to assist in the stratigraphic corre-

lation of the different Paleozoic formations in the Bay Horse region, Idaho,

a study was made of the heavy mineral content of 46 specimens from this

and neighboring areas. The specimens were not collected with this purpose

in mind and a number were unsuited to it. All the rocks studied were thor-

oughly cemented, largely recrystallized and metamorphosed to a greater or

less extent. Some had undergone intense contact metamorphism. Many

contained abundant flaky carbonaceous and argillaceous material. In spite

of these disadvantages the results are sufficiently distinctive and consistent

to have suggestive value in correlation. The principal question was as to the

correlation of certain contact metamorphosed beds in the western part of the

Bayhorse region. Eliminating from consideration minerals of probable syn-

genetic origin, the detrital heavy minerals in these beds accord closely with

those in beds of known Carboniferous age in the Hailey quadrangle and are

quite different from the assemblages of detrital heavy minerals found in

any of the older rocks studied. This fact accords with other evidence and the

conclusion is regarded with confidence. Other distinctions can be made on

the basis of differences in the assemblages obtained from different rocks but

these are somewhat less positive.

In general, the results of the study indicate that even in sedimentary

rocks poorly adapted to it by reason of induration and metamorphism the

investigation of the content of detrital heavy minerals may yield information

of value. (A uthors’ abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. FENNER and FERGUSON.

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

EUGENE CALLAGHAN: Some aspects of the geology of the Cascade Range in

Oregon.—The results of field work in the Cascade Range south of Mount

Hood during two seasons—one of which was under the direction of Prof.

A. F. Buddington—as well as the data published by other workers, permit

a few generalizations concerning some of the geological features of this large

region of volcanic rocks. In a certain sense the Cascade Range is the dis-

sected western margin of the large plateau-like area of dominantly volcanic

rocks in the northwestern part of the United States. This is particularly

true of the range in California and in the southernmost part of Oregon, but

farther north topographic features, distribution of rock types, and linear ele-

ments appear which distinguish the Cascade Range from adjacent physical

divisions.

For the geologic description it is convenient to divide the range south

of Mount Hood into two parts, to which the terms Western Cascades and

High Cascades are applied. This is largely on the basis of a pronounced un-

conformity in the stratigraphic sequence of lavas and consequent topograph-

ic differences. The High Cascades is the easternmost belt and is charac-

terized by rolling upland, partly or wholly preserved volcanic surfaces, and

volcanic cones in various states of preservation. The Western Cascades is

characterized by deep dissection, lack of preserved uplands, and long ridges

sloping toward the major drainage lines.

The rocks of the High Cascades are greatly varied, but the western mar-

gin of the area is composed chiefly of olivine basalt which extends in long

tongues down valleys in the Western Cascades. The large cones appear

to consist chiefly of hypersthene andesite. The lower limit of age of the rocks

of the High Cascades is not known, but they are believed to be largely of

Pliocene and Pleistocene age. They have not been deformed appreciably.

The older rocks of the Western Cascades are divided into two groups on

the basis of dominant rock type and associated structural features. One

group is characterized by black glass-bearing lavas which are chiefly andes-

ites but contain some basalt. These occur in two areas along the western

margin of the Western Cascades—one in the Rogue River Valley area and

the other along the east side of the Willamette Valley. In most places these

rocks dip to the east or northeast. Those in the Rogue River area range in

age from Eocene to middle Miocene. The second group occupies the re-

mainder of the Western Cascades and is characterized by labradorite andes-

ite, but contains many other varieties. Because these flows are heterogene-

ous, deformation structures cannot be readily ascertained but both warp-

ing and faulting have been noted. These rocks are younger than most of

the black lavas but are believed to be largely of Miocene age.

Linear elements of the Cascades include the elongate outline of the range

as a whole; a line of quicksilver deposits on the western margin between

Black Butte and Rogue River; a line of complex sulphide mineral deposits

which coincide for the greater part of its length with a line of stocks, dikes,

and plugs of porphyritic diorite and granodiorite extending almost through

the center of the Western Cascades; and the belt of volcanic cones in various

states of preservation extending throughout the High Cascades.

The ten mineralized areas have a recorded production of approximately

$1,000,000, almost entirely in gold from the oxidized portions of sulphide

veins. In the unoxidized condition these veins are characterized by sphaler-

ite, galena, chalcopyrite, and pyrite. Tetrahedrite, bournonite, and arseno-

pyrite occur in some veins. Quartz is the chief gangue mineral, but many

APRIL 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 191

others occur—including johannsenite, a new manganese mineral described

by Mr. Schaller. Some evidence of areal zoning of mineralization was found.

(Author’s abstract.)

507TH MEETING

The 507th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Nov. 8, 1933, President C. N. FENNER presiding.

Informal communications.—PARKER TRASK reported on two publications

of the results of the German Atlantic Expedition of the Meteor in 1925 to

1927. The expedition studied all features of the Atlantic Ocean between

latitudes 20° N. to 60° 8. The publications of the Expedition are expected

to provide the greatest advance in oceanography since the Challenger Ex-

pedition. One of the reports by H. Wattenberg is a comprehensive treatise

on the calcium carbonate and carbon dioxide content of the sea water. It

contains many tables relating to the factors influencing the solubilities of

these substances in the sea water. Maps are presented to show that the

saturation of the surface water with calcium carbonate increases from 100

per cent in the southern part of the South Atlantic to 150 per cent at the

equator. The water below a depth of 100 fathoms is reported to be between

90 and 100 per cent saturated with calcium carbonate. The influence of boron

is ignored in the computation of these figures. If they are corrected for boron,

they become about 50 per cent greater for surface water, but not much

greater for subsurface water which has a lower pH. The second report by

Wiist discusses the circulation of the bottom water. It contains many tables

and maps among which is one emphasizing the northward drift of Antarctic

water at the bottom of the Atlantic.

Discussed by Mr. BRADLEY.

A. R. Barwick exhibited a specimen of Cuculea gigantea from the lower

Eocene Aquia formation collected at Fort Washington which contained a

pearl-like growth.

Program: CHARLES B. READ and RoLanp W. Brown: Genus Tempskya

in western North America.—The fossil ferns called Tempskya differ from the

common modern ferns in having a trunk known as a “false stem.’ EXxter-

nally these fossils have the appearance of petrified palm trunks, but trans-

verse sections of well-preserved specimens reveal their true fern nature.

Such sections usually show a number of horseshoe-shaped stems embedded in

a mass of roots, the latter being fairly uniform in size, circular in cross-sec-

tion, and smaller than the stems.

The first American Tempskya came from the Patapsco formation of Mary-

land and was called Tempskya whitei by Berry in 1911. In 1924, A. C. Seward

described a fine specimen collected from sediments of Colorado age in Mon-

tana and called it Tempskya knowltoni. During the past few years field work

in southeastern Idaho, west-central Wyoming, and eastern Utah has resulted

in the collection of much new material which it has been the privilege of the

authors to study. Although the authors are not ready to publish the details

of this study, enough information has been accumulated to show that these

collections contain at least two new species of Tempskya. Anatomical details

throw new light on the habits and affinities of the genus. It is becoming ap-

parent that these Tempskyas may be very helpful in the stratigraphic corre-

lation of the Cretaceous deposits containing them. (A uthors’ abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Butts, G. R. MANSFIELD, Mis=r, and GRIGGs.

J. C. Reep: Gravel-filled basins in the Nez Perce National Forest, Idaho.—

The Nez Perce Forest of north central Idaho embraces an area in the Clear-

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

water Mountains in which are at least half a dozen small basins that contain

auriferous gravel. Three of these, those of Elk, Newsome, and Meadow

Creeks have been examined in some detail. The basins studied range in

length from about 5 to about 10 miles and are about 3 miles wide. Each is

surrounded by a bed-rock divide broken only by the narrow, V-shaped can-

yon of the stream that drains it. Where the basins have not been trenched

during the present erosion cycle, the quiet, meandering streams wandering

through them are entirely out of harmony with their actively eroding por-

tions farther downstream. The sediments in the basins probably once cov-

ered a considerably greater area than at present as is indicated by isolated

patches of gravel on certain interstream divides.

The size and shape of the basins, and their location in a region where the

bed rocks offer about the same resistance to erosion, appear to rule out the

possibility that they were excavated by simple erosion at the heads of cer-

tain streams, whereas farther down their courses, the same streams flowing

over the same kinds of rocks cut narrow gorges. But, the basins do appear to

be at least in part erosional because the floors of the basins extend as benches

well up into the basins’ tributary valleys except those which enter from the

west sides.

The western sides of the basins are straighter and steeper than the others

and in one placer pit, along the western edge of Elk Creek basin, Lindgren

actually observed a vertical fault separating unconsolidated sediments and

gneiss. Large blocks of Columbia lava, more than a square mile in area, have

been let down approximately 1000 feet along a fault that still forms a well-

defined scarp that bounds Meadow Creek basin on the west. The basins ap-

pear to be gravel-covered portions of a pediment-like erosion surface cut

off from their normal outlets by structural movements. This pediment-

like surface was formed below an older somewhat deformed erosion surface

that in this vicinity ranges in altitude between 4500 and 8000 feet above sea

level. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Mesgrs. ALDEN and BRADLEY.

H. M. Eakin: An accidental large scale model of diastrophic action.—Levee

building across old clay-filled basins of cutoff lakes in the Mississippi Valley

is frequently complicated by shear failure of the foundation, persistent sub-

sidence of embankment materials, and extensive displacement and deforma-

tion of clay formations adjacent to the growing levee. In 1931 one of these

failures at Ward Lake, near Sherard, Mississippi, was studied in detail

throughout the period of instability.

Immediately following initial failure of the foundation, profiles were run

daily over some 25 ranges at right angles with the levee line and correspond-

ing with the standard 100-foot stations of the location survey. After the first

few days weekly surveys were substituted and these continued until the

levee finally became stable and was topped out.

In addition to recording topographic changes, about 140 borings were

made on three selected ranges to determine final underground distribution

of fill material. Also, observations were made covering phenomena of ex-

pansion and compression; of elevation and subsidence, and horizontal migra-

tion of surface areas, of folding, faulting and mass deformation of the surface

stratum and of upward migration of clay and local emergence of clays and

water at the surface. The old lake bed at this place is about half a mile across.

The original clays are 15 to more than 75 feet deep, and overlie gritty sands

and gravels. The surface clays are oxidized and somewhat toughened down

APRIL 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 193

to lowest water level, some 10 feet below the surface. Below this the deeper

clays are wet, blue, and soft, containing about 45 per cent by weight of wa-

ter.

The first re-adjustment was a general sinking of the faulted-off portion

of the fill from a few inches to about 10 feet on the various ranges, and com-

pensatory uplift along the toe line of the new fill. These movements together

comprised a rotation of an elongated body of fill material and underlying

clay. At the ends of this prism transverse faults appeared, with opposite

differential displacements on the two sides of a relatively undisturbed axis

of rotation.

Filling operations from this time onward concentrated on dumping ma-

terial across the fault line onto the subsiding limb of this rotating prism. The

rotation persisted in this zone throughout subsequent operations. Measure-

ment of subsidence was carried on by crow-foot method until it had a-

mounted to 96 feet and was then discontinued. Total subsidence along

the fault line must have been several hundred feet.

Along the line of initial uplift at the outer margin of the zone of rotation

there appeared, as operations continued, a system of vertical block faults.

The blocks tended at first to spread slightly apart, then all tilted their tops

back toward the levee so that each rested inclined upon its neighbor. The

zone as a whole continued to show tension and spreading. Eventually clays

were faulted upward along certain lines among the blocks and both clays

and water appeared at the surface along these lines.

The next distinctive zone outward from the levee bordering on the zone

of initial uplift and subsequent spread and clay extrusion was that of the

outward limb of the initial uplift feature. This limb moved outward and

slightly upward without notable deformation. It is apparently a neutral

zone of deformative forces, giving a zone of structural integrity. However,

this zone represented a maximum of horizontal movement and a minimum

ratio of vertical to horizontal displacement. This ratio was about 1 to 10,

elevation amounting to 25 feet against horizontal movement of about 250

feet.

Next outside the zone of structural integrity there developed a zone of

compression, manifest at first in simple flexures of the crust that gradually

became overturned folds and thrust faults. Both overthrusts and under-

thrusts developed, but overthrusting was predominant. Several grabens

developed in which a sinking strip of land was overridden from both sides

and finally buried completely. This zone of compression widened by develop-

ment of new flexures at its outer margin. Each flexure went through about

the same history of overturning, faulting, over riding to a position of stability

on the succeeding block and then moving outward with the latter in about

the same relative position.

Outward beyond the last flexure of the zone of compression was a final

zone of disturbance, characterized by simple uplift receding from a maximum

of 2 to 4 feet at the toe of the flexure to zero out 150 to 200 feet beyond.

Beneath the tilting blocks and emergent masses of clay in the zone of

tension and beneath the deformed surface member in the zone of compres-

sion the clays penetrated by borings showed a lack of original structure and

cohesion, clearly due to flowage. In the zone of compression this condition .

was characteristic of the clays from about 10 to 20 feet below the surface.

At the margin of the zone of rotation this condition was found under fill

at various depths, down to about 55 feet.

194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

It is plain that the general phenomenon is energized by the head of new

fill placed in the embankment. This is supportable up to a certain intensity

by cohesion and friction in the underlying and adjacent clays, part of the

load being transmitted to adjacent lands by the structural strength of the

upper member of the clays. Shearing stress is thus at zero under the central

part of the fill and at maxima near its margins. The development of actual

shear at one or the other of the margins of new fill results in rotational sub-

sidence and displacement of underlying clay. Subsurface currents in the

clay are the obvious explanation of the rotation of the fault blocks in the

zone of initial uplift and tension; the dragging of strips of land over and

under each other in the zone of compression and the elevation of the land

surface in the outer zone of simple uplift.

The horizontal extent of subsurface flowage naturally has exceeded surface

movements in all situations. Where surface migration has amounted to 250

feet, the increment in cross-section area of lands of the outward zones indi-

cates at least 250 feet additional movement of the underflowing sheet of

clay.

The phenomena of the Ward Lake occurrence are generally characteristic

of similar occurrences at many other old lake sites in the Valley. This order-

liness suggests that the general phenomenon is controlled by definite and

perhaps broadly applicable mechanical laws. If these laws are sufficiently

general to apply to diastrophic action on a continental scale it would appear

that we should be able to identify in the geologic structures of our mountain

systems the same general zones of differential forces and movements,

namely: 1. A zone of subsidence, perhaps manifest as an off shore deep, or

inland graben generally parallel with the shore line or mountain axis. 2. A

zone of moderate uplift, expansion, intrusion and extrusion; 3. A zone of

moderate deformation and absence of extensive igneous members; 4. A zone

of compressional folding and faulting with marked overthrusting, under-

thrusting and local grabens, diminishing to overturned folds and finally to

simple step folds; 5. A plateau region of simple structure, falling off in eleva-

tion approximately with the dip of the youngest beds to finally merge with

an undisturbed plain. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. C. W. Wricut, Cookn, G. R. MANSFIELD, J. C.

Reep, Rusery, ALDEN, HENDRICKS, BARWicK, Butts, BRown, TRASK,

BRADLEY, and HEWETT.

o08TH MEETING

The 508th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club November

22, 1933, President C. N. FENNER presiding.

Program: C. H. DANE and W. G. Pierce: Fossil sink-holes in Cretaceous

beds of Prowers County, Colorado.—In a small area in sec. 6, T. 22 8., R. 44

W., Prowers County, Colorado, the exposed Upper Cretaceous rocks record

the former presence of three sink-holes, between 100 and 200 feet in diameter

and from 150 to 250 feet apart. Collapsed and brecciated masses of the

Smoky Hill marl member of the Niobrara formation occur in the central _

parts of two of the subsidence areas and collapsed masses of the Hays lime-

stone member of the Niobrara occur in all three. These collapsed masses are

in contact with the upper part of the Carlile shale, which normally underlies

the Niobrara formation, and is about 200 feet thick. Some of the collapsed

' filling has thus dropped 65 feet,—the thickness of the Hays limestone. A

normal fault which may have preceded or accompanied the subsidences ex-

tends northward between them. It has a downthrow of perhaps 20 feet to

the west.

APRIL 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 195

The sink-holes are attributed to removal of soluble material from the

Greenhorn limestone, which underlies the Carlile shale, or possibly to re-

moval of soluble salt and gypsum from Permian rocks at greater depths,

with subsequent natural stoping upward through the overlying rocks. The

solution may have been first localized and aided by downward water circu-

lation along the small fault.

The time of collapse can not be closely dated. It took place before the im-

mediately superjacent topography was developed, for the Smoky Hill marl

does not now crop out within two miles of the sink-holes, from which it has

evidently been stripped back by erosion. The collapse probably occurred at

some time after the irregular folding and faulting that has in places in

western Kansas and eastern Colorado deformed the Tertiary sediments

which form the surface of most of the High Plains. This deformation should

locally, in faulted areas, have allowed downward percolation of ground

water to soluble horizons. (A uthors’ abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Ricz, Misrer, THompson, Turner, McKwnicut,

JOHNSTON, and MEINZER.

Puitip B. Kine: The Cretaceous of West Texas.—Mesozoic deposition be-

gan in trans-Pecos Texas in a geosyncline whose trend cut across that of

older Paleozoic structural lines. In this area, which lies in the western part

of trans-Pecos Texas, a great thickness of sandstone and finer clastic sedi-

ments was laid down in late Jurassic and early Cretaceous time. This was

followed by the deposition of a great mass of limestone in the geosyncline,

but to the northeast the beds of equivalent age are thinner, and change first

to a neritic marly facies, and then to a sandy marginal facies that overlapped

the Paleozoic rocks. The form and dimensions of the limestone mass are

comparable to the early Paleozoic limestones of the southern Applachian

geosyncline. The limestones are followed by Upper Cretaceous marine shaly

beds which pass upward, east of the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous geo-

synclinal area, into continental beds with an increasing amount of volcanic

material toward the top. That the volcanic material is indicative of the be-

ginning of a period of diastrophism is suggested by its association with con-

glomerates which contain fragments of the older rocks. The center of ac-

tivity must have been to the west, however, for the well rounded pebbles

have probably traveled a great distance from their source. Finally, the

diastrophic movement culminated at the end of Cretaceous deposition, and

the rocks northeast of the geosyncline were broadly folded and deeply

eroded. In early Tertiary time, lavas were spread widely over the eroded

rocks east of the geosyncline, and in places also overlapped the strongly

folded rocks of the geosynclinal area. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Szars, Huss, and STEPHENSON.

F. KE. Martrues: Wind-faceted pebbles from the glacial drift of Nantucket.—

A series of pebbles was exhibited showing successive stages in the production

of faceted forms by sand blast action—beginning with a pebble having one

incipient facet, and leading up to typical ‘‘dreikanters’” and other multi-

faceted forms. Criteria were presented for distinguishing wind-cut facets

from stream-cut, glacial, and joint facets. The distinctive feature of all

wind-cut facets is the sharp, clean cut terminal edge at the leeward border.

The windward border is commonly rounded, often grooved. Facets cut on

convexly curved pebbles tend to become nearly plane, sometimes slightly

concave. On multifaceted pebbles that have had a long and varied eolian

history nearly all the facets may be bounded by sharp edges in consequence

of the progressive encroachment of new facets on old ones.

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

Stream-cut and glacial facets seldom have sharp, clean edges, as the

fluvial and glacial processes work rudely, each in its own way. Joint facets

as a rule have sharp edges, but these are in detail ragged and splintery.

Their surfaces, though approximately plane, likewise are in detail rough and

broken by minute scarps, scales, and other irregularities.

High polish is not an invariable characteristic of wind-faceted pebbles.

Many of the most beautifully faceted pebbles on Nantucket, although well

preserved, have a dull, mat finish. This is due, probably, to their having been

cut by coarse sand driven by violent gales. A finer abrasive, actuated by

moderate winds, would doubtless have given them a more perfect, gleaming

polish.

Wind-faceted pebbles have been found in the glacial deposits of Nan-

tucket, Martha’s Vineyard, and neighboring portions of the main land by

several observers, notably by Shaler, Gulliver, W. M. Davis, Woodworth,

and Bryan, yet there is still uncertainty as to the time when the sand blast

action prevailed. Wind-cut pebbles abound in the hummocky kame moraine

that covers a large part of Nantucket, but that deposit, having been much

disturbed by the overriding ice, affords no satisfactory clew to the period of

eolian activity. Much clearer is the evidence presented by the Squam Head

bluff. It shows the wind-cut pebbles in place, in thin layers of gravel associ-

ated with beds of compact sand that are gently flexed and only locally con-

torted. These beds, 30 feet in aggregate thickness, are believed to form part

of an outwash apron that was laid down in front of the continental ice

sheet. They rest on the eroded surface of a body of old, blue gray till, and are

capped by a thin layer of later, buff colored till, in all probability of Wis-

consin age.

Now it is a notable fact that the pebbles in the sandy beds have the same

fresh, almost unweathered appearance as those in the overlying till. It seems

entirely probable, therefore, that the two deposits are essentially contem-

poraneous. Indeed, the interpretation that seems best to fit the facts is that

the sandy beds were deposited in front of the advancing Wisconsin ice sheet

and ultimately were overridden by it.

All the evidence tends to show that the outwash apron was laid down sub-

aerially—the ocean level at that time being lowered presumably by reason

of the storage of water in the ice sheets on the continents. It may be con-

cluded, therefore, that the sandblast action which shaped the pebbles took

place on the bare surface of the outwash plain that stretched in front of the

Wisconsin ice sheet while that ice sheet was approaching its maximum ex-

tension. Perhaps it was effected by violent anticyclonal winds that were

generated over the expanse of ice. (Author’s abstract.)

_ Discussed by Messrs. ALDEN, F. G. WELLS, THOMPSON, STEPHENSON, and

ENNER.

509TH MEETING

The 509th meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club December

13, 1933, President C. N. Frennur presiding. Vice-President H. G. FER-

GusON took the chair during the presentation of the presidential address:

Some magmatic problems.

41ST ANNUAL MEETING

The 41st annual meeting was held at the Cosmos Club after the adjourn-

ment of the 509th regular meeting, President C. N. FENNER presiding. The

annual report of the Secretaries was read. The treasurer presented his annual

APRIL 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 197

report showing an excess of assets over liabilities of $1,336.86 on December

13, 1933. The auditing committee reported that books of the Treasurer were

correct.

The results of the balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as fol-

lows: President: H. G. Frercuson; Vice-Presidents: M. I. GotpMAN and

W. T. ScHauuer; Treasurer: C. WytHEe Cooxs; Secretaries: T. B. Nouan

and W. D. Jounston Jr.; Members-at-large of the Council: G. A. Cooprr,

L. W. Currizr, W. W. Rusey, T. STADNICHENKO, and G. TUNELL. Nominee

for Vice-President of the Washington Academy of Sciences representing the

Geological Society: C. N. FENNER.

W. H. Brapuey and T. B. Nouan, Secretaries.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

NOTES

New deal in forestry.—Privately owned forest lands are to be integrated

with the national program for conservation and re-growth of forests, ac-

cording to the recommendations of a conference held under the chairmanship

of Secretary of Agriculture Wautuacr. This conference brought together

representatives of the U.S. Forest Service and other public agencies charged

with the care of forest lands, several groups of professional foresters, the

U. 8. Chamber of Commerce, and the lumber and timber, pulp and paper,

and naval stores industries. Their report may well be looked upon as almost

an Emancipation Proclamation for the industries dependent upon forests.

“Sustained yield forest management’? sums up in four words the New

deal for American forests; the abandonment of forests as mines to be ex-

hausted, the discovery of forests as “farms” to be intelligently cultivated.

The end sought, though stateable in a single simple phrase, ‘‘sustained

yield,” is not so simply attained. Many problems, some inherent in the na-

ture of forests, some economic, some involving the human equation, must

be solved and their answers reconciled. The conference undertook to do this,

at least in outline, in such a way as to include even the individual farmers’

timber lots, as well as the huge holdings of private lumber companies and the

great state and National forests.

The recommendations of the conference are contained in no less than 46

sections, beginning with the combating of fire, insects, disease, and other

natural forces of destruction, and carrying through to suggested sources of

funds for the prosecution of new lines of research in the forests. Outstanding

suggestions include; consolidation of administration of publicly owned

forests, elimination of unnecessary competition in marketing between public

and private forests, vigorous pursuit of the present policy of adding to pub-

lic forests by purchase of new lands, adjustment of tax burdens on private

forest lands to encourage rational rather than forced marketing, federal or-

ganization of credits, increased protection against fire, establishment of

sound lumber specifications, increased appropriations for administration,

education, and research.

C.W.A. dismissals and science—The gradual closing up of the operation

of the Civil Works Administration, which involves the dismissal of 400,000

employees at the rate of ten per cent a week until May 21, immediately

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

affects the scientific departments of the government as follows: The Depart-

ment of Agriculture is reduced from 91,147 employees to 48,000; the Fish-

eries Commission from 2,349 to 650; the Bureau of Mines from 446 to 225.

In addition, the Coast and Geodetic Survey must discontinue its supple-

mentary control survey, employing about 15,030 men; the Smithsonian

Institution its archaeological excavations, employing 1,104, in Florida,

North Carolina and other places the one exception being the undertaking in

Shiloh National Park; the Tennessee Valley Authority a large number of the

16,588 men at work on improvement projects; the Interior Department

1,762 men on soil erosion work, and the Public Health Bureau 29,779 men

on malaria control work, 32,010 on rural sanitation, and 6,572 sealing mines

to stop water acidity in the Ohio Valley. Projects under the Department of

Agriculture which must be stopped include cattle tick eradication, involving

6,000 men; typhus-fever control operated cooperatively with the Public

Health Service, 17,033 men; citrus canker control in Texas, 88; Dutch elm

disease control in several New England states, 1,057; phony peach eradica-

tion, 1,112; potato weevil eradication, 211; spotted fever control, 369;

mosquito pest control, 25,646, and brown-tail moth control, 5000.

National Park Service-—The name, ‘“‘National Park Service,” was re-

instated and applied to the Office of National Parks, Buildings and Reserva-

tions, by an Act of Congress signed by President RoosEvELtT on March 2.

The National Park Service was originally established in 1916 to correlate

federal park administration. Its scope was expanded to include care of

national buildings and reservations as well, by the consolidation of June 10,

1933, and its name changed accordingly. But the convenience and famili-

arity of the older and shorter name, together with a wealth of associations

in the minds of many persons familiar with the excellent progress of the

national parks and monuments during the administrations of the late

STEPHEN T. MatTHeER and of his successor, Horace M. ALBRIGHT, pre-

vailed to bring about its restoration.

The National Park Educational Advisory Board met in Washington,

D. C., on February 26 and 27. The members of the board in attendance were

Dr. H. C. Bumpas, Chairman; Dr. W. W. Artwoop, Dr. W. W. CAMPBELL,

Dr. WALpo G. LELAND, and Dr. FRANK R. OASTLER.

Many important problems relative to educational policy were passed

upon. Of particular importance were reports on historical developments

presented by chief historian VERNE EK. CHATELAIN of the National Park

Service, and a plan outlining museum development in the whole national

park system presented by AnsreL F. Haut, chief of the Field Division of

Education and Forestry of the National Park Service.

Bureau of Plant Industry —The Bureau of Plant Industry, United States

Department of Agriculture, has issued the first in a series of publications

describing types of American varieties of vegetables. This series is intended

to remedy the lack of generally accepted, authentic, and adequate descrip-

tions of vegetables varieties, and to remove the confusion as to just what

characteristics a given variety should possess. The work is based on coopera-

tive studies by the Bureau and certain state experiment stations and is de-

signed to present the consensus of opinion of the seedsmen, vegetable

growers, canners, and horticulturists who are best qualified to judge what

type should be established as a standard. The publication recently issued de-

scribes the nine principal varieties of tomatoes and contains numerous illus-

APRIL 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 199

trations, some of them in color, showing plants and fruits. Similar works on

cabbage and peas are in press, and others are in preparation.

World veterinary congress.—President RoosEvsE.T, Secretary of Agricul-

ture WALLACE, and a number of officers of the U.S. Department of Agricul-

ture will cooperate with other American scientists as hosts to the Twelfth

International Veterinary Congress, which will meet at the Waldorf-Astoria

Hotel in New York, August 13 to 18. This is the first time this body has met

in the United States, previous meetings having been held in Europe. The

object of the congress is the advancement of the science and practice of

veterinary medicine and surgery. Besides the presentation of papers on

scientific and practical veterinary questions of world scope, the program

provides for an interchange of opinions and experiences among the dele-

gates.

FRANKLIN D. RoosEvELt, President of the United States, is patron of

the congress and Henry A. Wa.uacs, Secretary of Agriculture, is vice

patron. Prof. Dr. E. Lecuarncus, director of the Bureau of Epizootics,

Paris, France, is president of the permanent committee in charge of arrange-

ments, and Dr. JoHn R. Monunr, chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry,

U. 8. Department of Agriculture, is a vice-president and will present one of

the principal papers. Other Department officials and scientists on the pro-

eram are Dr. W. EK. Corton, Dr. A. EK. Wicgut, Dr. M. Dorset, Dr. M. C.

Hatt, Dr. E. C. Joss, all of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

News BRIEFs

So strong was the Utah earthquake of March 12 that it was registered

on instruments at the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey observatory at

Cheltenham, Md., which are primarily intended for recording of the mag-

netic field of the earth. For ten minutes at the time of the main shock the

magnetic needle wrote a record of the earth tremors and in the afternoon

another shock set them in motion for eight minutes.

A new trap developed by W. D. Rep of the U. 8S. Department of Agri-

culture functions efficiently against the cigarette beetle, one of the most de-

structive enemies of stored tobacco.

The first joint meeting of the Institute of Radio Engineers and the Ameri-

can Section of the International Scientific Radio Union has been announced,

to be held in Washington on April 27.

The Smith-Reed-Russell lecture for March at the School of Medicine,

George Washington University, was given by Dr. JoaN WHEELER, professor

of ophthalmology in Columbia University and director of the ophthalmologi-

eal Institute. Dr. WHEELER spoke on EHxophthalmos.

In a statement issued on February 22, members of President Roosevelt’s

Science Advisory Board strongly condemned the oft-repeated declaration

that ‘science destroys jobs,” asserting that on the contrary research opened

the way to more and pleasanter employment opportunities.

A C.W.A. worker in the Smithsonian Institution library discovered in a

German book printed within twenty years after Columbus’ death a most

unconventional description of the great navigator: it characterized him as

big, brave, and sharp-eyed, and said he had a “‘long, red, freckled face.”’ The

book is now being translated into English.

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 4

The third Arthur lecture was given on the evening of February 26 by

Dr. CHARLES G. ABBOT, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. AB-

BoT spoke on How the sun warms the earth.

The discovery of an important center of Maya civilization, bridging a gap

between Old Empire and New Empire cultures, was announced on February

24 by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

“Heavy water’ accumulates in willow shoots, apparently through differ-

ential evaporation, researches by the late Dr. E>warp W. WaAsHBURN and

his associate Dr. Epcar B. Situ of the National Bureau of Standards,

indicate. Their paper was published in Sczence.

The following radio talks were given under the auspices of Science Service,

over the network of the Columbia Broadcasting System: February 28, Dr.

FRANK Lorimer, Population trends of American groups; March 7, Dr.

Water T. Swineue, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, New crops for the

American Sahara.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Jay N. Daruine of Des Moines, Iowa, has been appointed chief of the

Bureau of Biological Survey, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture. Although he

is known to the public chiefly as one of the outstanding cartoonists of the

world, Mr. Daring has also been for many years an enthusiastic and care-

ful student of wild life and a strong conservationist. PAUL G. REDINGTON,

whom Mr. DaRuine succeeds in office, was transferred at his own request to

the Forest Service on March 1. Previous to his appointment as chief of the

Biological Survey seven years ago, Mr. Repinetron had been for twenty-

three years with the Forest Service.

G. H. Barnes of the Canadian Forest Service, on a three-months’ detail

in Washington, with Francis X. SCHUMACHER of the Branch of Research,

U. S. Forest Service, is making a study of methods of predicting growth in

the uneven-aged spruce forests after partial cutting.

Dr. JouHn C. Merriam, president of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-

ington, read a paper on Conservation and evolution in a changing social pro-

gram before a stated meeting of the American Philosophical Society in

Philadelphia on March 2.

Prof. W. H. TwEenHOFEL of the University of Wisconsin, chairman of the

division of geology and geography, National Research Council, has been

elected chairman of the Tri-State Geological Field Conference of Wisconsin,

Iowa, and Illinois.

Dr. WaLTER C. LowpreRMILK of the California Forest Experiment Sta-

tion, Berkeley, has been appointed vice-director of the Soil Erosion Service

of the U.S. Department of the Interior.

Lieut.-Comdr. T. G. W. Serriz, U.S.N., spoke on February 8 before the

Physics Club of the University of Chicago on The physics of free ballooning.

H. H. NinincGe_r, curator of meteorites at the Colorado Museum of Natu-

ral History, spoke before the Cosmos Club on the evening of February 19.

Anthropological So gety. te

se wnt sae AS ihe ak

B, whtw thoi eo) w iw, ye.) 0h) 8) 16%

May 15,1984 No. 5

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ASHINGTON ACADEMY

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JOURNAL

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VoL. 24 May 15, 1934 No. 5

MATHEMATICS.—Flatland: Not a romance but a necessary ex-

pedient.1 O. 8S. Apams, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The Philosophical Society of Washington has been in existence long

enough to have certain well-established customs and traditions. One

of these is that an expiring president may have the right and in fact

has the duty thrust upon him of singing his swan song before passing

into the discard. Another tradition is that this president may have the

privilege of speaking upon any subject he may choose, and without

consulting the all-powerful communications committee. The subject

chosen may be one connected with the work of the speaker or it may

be merely a hobby in which he is especially interested. Before enter-

ing on a discussion of the subject in hand, I shall give a short history

of the way in which my interest in it was aroused.

Immediately after we entered the World War, the subject of map

projections came into great prominence. It was reported that the

maps in the war zone in France were constructed on the Lambert con-

formal conic projection with two standard parallels. At once the Army

and Navy officials were anxious for information about such projec-

tions, how they were computed, how constructed, and what were

their special properties. At a meeting of such officials Major Bowie,

chief of the Division of Geodesy of the Coast and Geodetic Survey,

stated that he had men in his division who knew all about such mat-

ters. The next day he called me into his office and told me it was up

to me to substantiate his statement. As a matter of fact my knowledge

of such subjects was very hazy if not altogether non-existent. How-

ever I immediately set to work consulting such authorities as I could

find who dealt with the subject. I at once found that there was no

adequate discussion of either the Lambert projection or of map pro-

jections in general in existence in the English language. One had to

: Received February 8, 1933. Address of the retiring president, delivered before

the Philosophical Society of Washington, January 6, 1934.

201

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

consult works in either French or German to get any real grasp of the

subject. I was at once struck with admiration by the skill of Johann

Heinrich Lambert in devising the projection and by the elegance and

generality of the treatment of Gauss and LaGrange. Ever since that

time the general subject of map projections has been one of my hob-

bies and an avocation in which I always have a lively interest.

After getting a clear grasp of the general theory of the projection, |

it was difficult to determine from the meager reports that we had just

what the French were doing in their practical construction of the

maps in France. Mr. Deetz, one of our experienced cartographers,

wrote a publication on the subject of this projection in which I gave

some account of the general theory. With regard to its specific use in

France we had to make some guesses that were later shown to be not

exactly in accordance with the usage in France. It was at this time

that I gave a paper before this society on the subject of the Lambert

projection. Much interest was manifested at that time because it was

a subject of much practical import to those who were destined to take

part in the war.

This then was the occasion of my introduction to the general field

of map projections. From that day to this my interest in this line of

work has remained unfailing and I shall now take it upon myself to

inflict some of my enthusiasm upon you. I shall not however trouble

you with elaborate mathematical formulas, but I shall endeavor to

convey some ideas to you on the subject that may be found of

some interest and perhaps of some use.

Places on the earth’s surface are located by latitude and longitude;

that is, they are assigned a definite position in the network of merid-

ians and parallels that are conceived of as covering the surface of

the earth. For every point there is a unique latitude and longitude

that applies to that point and to no other. A map projection is an

orderly arrangement of two sets of lines or curves, one set to represent

parallels and the other set to represent the meridians. They must be

ordered by some law because they must have a sequence ordered as

are the meridians and parallels themselves. This orderly arrangement

may come from direct geometric projection or it may be expressed in

mathematical terms. Of course all projections can be stated in mathe-

matical terms, but sometimes a projection is more directly in evidence

when considered as a true geometric projection. It is rather unfortu-

nate that all possible schemes are called projections for in some cases

it is rather difficult to interpret them in the way of geometric projec-

tion.

Oscar S. ADAMS

President, Philosophical Society of Washington

1933

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 203

The difficulty that we have to face in any method of projection is

due to the fact that the earth’s surface is a curved spheroidal surface

and consequently no part of it can be flattened out in a plane without

distortions. There is no such thing as a perfect map of any part of the

earth’s surface. In wrestling with problems of this nature we may wish

that the earth were flat, as some religious sects contend that it is, or

at least that it were a developable surface such as a cone or a cylinder,

but if either of these conditions were so I fear we should as a conse-

quence be plagued with greater evils. We might better “bear those

ills we have than fly to others that we know not of.”

Since the spheroid is not a developable surface and cannot be repre-

sented on a plane accurately in all parts, any map must be a compro-

mise between the various desirable properties. There are, in the main,

four things to be considered in regard to any map in question. These

are:

1. The accuracy with which a projection represents the scale

along the meridians and the parailels.

2. The accuracy with which it represents areas.

3. The accuracy with which it represents the shape of the fea-

tures of the area included. |

4. The ease with which the projection can be constructed.

The scale of a map in a given direction at any point is the ratio

which a short distance measured on the map bears to the correspond-

ing distance upon the surface of the earth. The definition must be

limited to short distances, because the scale of a map will generally

vary from point to point; in other words we must limit ourselves to

small elements of length in the way that is familiar to every beginner

in the calculus.

We must be careful, in comparing distances, to choose directions

that really correspond to each other upon the earth and upon the

map. The meridians and parallels on the earth intersect everywhere

at right angles; but there are many map projections in which the

corresponding lines do not intersect at right angles. In such projec-

tions, two directions at right angles on the earth would not necessarily

correspond to two directions at right angles on the map. We can

avoid confusion if we confine ourselves as much as possible to the

consideration of the scale along the meridians and parallels of the

map, which necessarily correspond to the meridians and parallels

on the earth.

We should like to have the scale of the map correct in every direc-

tion at every point. If this could be done, the plane map would be a

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 5

perfect representation of the spheroidal surface of the earth. Since

this is impossible, the scale cannot be correct in all parts of the map.

We are, however, able to choose some one direction and hold the scale

constant in that direction; as, for instance, along the meridians or

along the parallels. When this is done, the scale in other directions

will be wrong at nearly all points.

In what is called the zenithal equidistant polar projection, the

scale is constant along the meridians. We denote the scale along the

meridian by &.,,; in this case k,, =1; that is, it is constant. We denote

the scale along the parallel by k,; in this projection then k, =z/sin 2

which is a variable quantity, z being the angular distance from the pole.

An orthogonal polar geometric projection on the plane of the

equator holds the scale constant along the parallels. In this case

km = coszand k, =1. The distortion of scale in this projection is more

noticeable than in the case of the equidistant projection, and, in fact,

it is greater as well as more self-evident. This is approximately the

way a map drawn on a globe would appear when looked at from a

great distance. Also, it is about the way that the surface of the moon

looks to us. Of course the point from which geometric projection lines

would have to be drawn must be an infinite distance away since the

projecting lines are all perpendicular to the mapping plane. However

for practical purposes the distance of the moon from the earth may be

considered as belonging to the junior order of infinities. Considered

by and large, the best we can do for our satellite is to represent its

surface on such a projection since it persists in turning the same face

to us at all times.

In the general theory of projections there are two classes that are

much used in the actual construction of maps. These are what are

called the conformal projections and the equal area projections. In

the conformal projections the scale is constant in all directions for

infinitesimal distances at a given point. In consequence of this, the

angles formed by curves on the earth are preserved in their projec-

tions on the map. Since the meridians and parallels on the earth inter-

sect at right angles, the lines or curves representing them on the map

must also intersect at right angles. In all such maps, there must neces-

sarily be points at which this preservation of angles breaks down un-

less the projection passes off to infinity. Even there, if we choose to

consider infinity as a point, the conformality fails. In the well known

Mercator projection, if we look upon the meridians as meeting at

infinity they will all meet at zero angle since they are represented

by parallel straight lines.

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 205

An equal area projection is one in which the ratio of area is constant

for all parts of the map; that is, a square inch in one part of the map

will represent the same area on the earth that a square inch in any

other part of the map would represent. Of such a map we could say

in general that a square inch of the map represents a certain number of

square miles on the earth. The ratio of area is held constant by mak-

ing the ratio of length vary at a point in different directions. If the

scale is too great in one direction there must be other directions in

which it is too small if the ratio of area is to be maintained constant.

In a great many equal area projections the meridians and parallels

of the map do not intersect at right angles. On the other hand, if they

do so intersect, the scale ratios along the meridians and along the

parallels are reciprocals of each other; that is, k,k,, =1.

One of the best known conformal maps is the one based upon the

Mercator projection. This is frequently spoken of as a projection upon

a cylinder tangent at the equator. This has caused many to think of

it as a perspective or geometric projection upon the cylinder with all

of the projecting lines radiating from the center of the sphere. I am

acquainted with a work issued by two university professors in which

this statement is made and I have heard the same statement made by

others who should know better. In the Mercator projection of the

sphere the scale increases as the secant of the latitude; in the cylindri-

cal perspective projection the scale along the meridian increases as

the square of the secant of the latitude. The distance from the equator

of any point on the map would be given by s =a tan ¢; hence the most

elementary knowledge of the calculus would show that

Now in the Mercator projection the ares of all parallels are kept equal

to the same arc on the equator; hence the scale in the longitudinal

direction is equal to sec ¢ and since the scale is constant at a point,

the scale along the meridian at the point is also equal to sec ¢ and not

sec’p as in the perspective projection. It is thus often misleading to

speak of the tangent cylinder in connection with the Mercator pro-

jection.

The stereographic projection is one of the oldest projections that is

still in use. It is said to have been used by Hipparchus for a map of

the celestial sphere as early as 130 B.C. This is a true perspective or

geometric projection from a point diametrically opposite to the point

of tangency of the mapping plane. In the polar stereographic projec-

tion when the north pole region is being mapped, the south pole is

206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

the point from which projecting lines are drawn. This projection is a

conformal one and hence this class of projections was one of the earli-

est to be introduced. The point of tangency can be anywhere on the

sphere so that the neighborhood of any place can be chosen as the

center of the map. When the point of tangency is on the equator, we

have what is called the meridian stereographic projection.

The equal area projections are useful when it is desired to preserve

the ratio of areas on the map the same as they are on the surface of

the earth. They are thus of great importance in showing statistical

data in which the relative amounts of area in separate parts enter

into the conception.

The Lambert zenithal equal area projection is one in common use

in atlases to represent a hemisphere. In the polar projection km =

cos 2/2 and k, = sec 2/2 illustrating the relation k,,k,=1.

rane

Beale |

aN NY

Fig. 1.—Parabolic equal area projections of the world. Compiled and arranged

by C. H. Deetz, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The Bonne projection is one that is frequently used for maps of

Asia. It belongs in the equal area class. Conical equal area projections

are very important, especially the Albers projection. The Geological

Survey has issued a wall map of the United States with this projec-

tion as a basis. Tables for the same were issued by the Coast and

Geodetic Survey which were computed under my direction. In late

years the sinusoidal projection has been much used for general maps.

A somewhat similar and, in some respects, a more pleasing projection

is the one called the parabolic equal area projection. This projection

is so called because the meridians are ares of parabolas. It was first

suggested by Lieut.-Col. J. E. E. Craster of England and I made some

computations from which Mr. Deetz of the Coast and Geodetic Sur-

vey constructed an interrupted map of the world. The Carnegie In-

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 207

stitution of Washington is using the same projection for a general

map of Pan-America for use in studies in genetics.

Many of the equal area maps are much distorted in shape and some

of them remind one of images seen in comic mirrors. Werner’s heart-

shaped map of the world is one such; also Collignon’s triangular map

of the world and even the cylindrical equal area map.

We should not fail to mention the equal area world maps within an

ellipse. We have Mollweide’s map with straight line parallels and the

Hammer-Aitoff map in the same ellipse but with curved parallels. A

rather curious map of this kind is the transverse Mollweide computed

by Col. Close of England.

The surface of the earth adopted for mapping purposes is that of an

ellipsoid of revolution. This is a more complicated surface than that of

a sphere. Latitude upon the ellipsoid is the angle made by a normal

to the surface with the plane of the equator. These normals in general

do not pass through the center of the ellipsoid. If one wants to com-

pute projections by taking into account the ellipticity of the earth the

formulas become quite complicated. In the discussions of the Lambert

conformal conic projection, it is usually stated that the geocentric

latitude can be used since it differs but slightly from what may be

called the conformal or isometric latitude. In the early computations

that I directed and made, this latitude was used. My attention was

drawn to the question of the magnitude of this difference by an in-

quiry to the Office of the Survey from the venerable James Pierpont

of Yale University. He inquired at what latitude this difference was

a maximum and what was the approximate size of the difference. I

was called upon to answer the query and my interest was thus

aroused. All authorities stated that if this isometric latitude were

known then all conformal projections could be computed directly

from this conformal or isometric sphere. I conceived the idea of taking

all different kinds of latitude for which there was any use and de-

veloping the differences between them and the geodetic latitude in

terms of the sines of the multiple ares. In all, five kinds of latitudes

were thus treated. Tables were then computed that can be used for

any future computations.

The isometric latitude is then a conformal projection of the sphe-

roid on the sphere. A conformal projection of this isometric sphere

on the plane therefore gives a conformal representation of the sphe-

roid on the plane. :

In analogy to this, I had the happy inspiration to project the

spheroid on a sphere of equal surface so that the projection was

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

characterized by equal areas in all of its parts. I had never seen this

referred to by any authority; so I gave the name of authalic latitude

to this conception after Tissot who employed the term authalique for

all equal area projections. The equivalent sphere is also called the

authalic sphere.

Fig. 2.—Conformal map of the Western Hemisphere in a square.

Another important latitude is the one called the rectifying latitude.

A sphere is chosen such that the length of a meridian on it is exactly

equal to the length of a meridian on the spheroid. Then corrections to

the geodetic latitudes are computed so that each parallel on the sphere

is the correct distance from the equator. With these latitudes any are

of the meridian can be computed readily and accurately.

I shall now give some account of a series of projections with which

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 209

my name is more directly connected since they are the result of my

own investigations. In 1864 H. A. Schwarz proved that a circle could

be mapped conformally upon a regular polygon of n sides by means of

the integral

[ a dx

W — a .

0 (1 pas Gp) lL

This was proved by the theory of functions of a complex variable,

and its validity is readily seen to follow from consideration of inte-

grals in that branch of mathematical analysis. Two examples of the

results of this theorem had been made, one by C. 8. Peirce in 1877

WO ee as nae

[REE

Se Steser re seseer aa bike |_|

COE

SY OTH ee

Fig. 3—Conformal map of the world in a rhombus.

at that time a member of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and one by

Lieut. Guyou of France. Both of these depended upon the integral

when n =4, and hence the maps were enclosed in a square.

Now Gauss and LaGrange had proven that any projection derived

by any function of the complex variable for any conformal projec-

tion would of necessity give a new conformal projection. Moreover

since Gauss established the theorem in all generality, when such pro-

jections are formed, we do not need to investigate whether they are

conformal. Their conformality follows from the general theorem.

I saw at once that if we could form an algorithm for the computa-

tion of the integral

ie dz

i ey jedan ola

0 (1—28)2/8

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

we should have a circle mapped within a triangle, and by further

manipulation we could map the circle or a hemisphere within a rhom-

bus with one pair of angles 120° and the other pair 60°. One could, of

course, develop the integral in a series and use for z the complex

variable of the stereographic projection, but this is a laborious proc-

ess since the series does not converge very rapidly.

As an aid in the formation of computation methods, I decided to

invert the integral and to develop the properties of z as a function of w.

In 1890 Prof. A. C. Dixon of Trinity College, Cambridge, published

a paper On the doubly periodic functions arising out of the curve x?+y?

—3axy =1. On consulting this article, I saw at once that the function

that I wished to treat was a special case of the functions that he had

developed. If a became zero, then the functions that he had devised

became the same as those that I wished to treat. These functions are

single valued elliptic functions with many interesting properties. In

Special Publication No. 112 of the Coast and Geodetic Survey there

is a rather comprehensive account of the function which I denoted,

after Dixon, by the symbol sm w. By means of the properties of this

function, I was able to devise formulas for the computation of the

projections.

In all, five different projections were computed with these functions

and published in the above-mentioned publication:

1. Northern hemisphere in an equilateral triangle and the whole

sphere in a regular hexagon.

2. Western hemisphere in the rhombus, poles in the 120° angles.

3. The same with the poles in the 60° angles.

4. Northern hemisphere in the rhombus, pole at the center of

the rhombus.

5. Rhombic projection of the world, poles in |the 120° angles.

A projection of the western hemisphere within the Peirce and

Guyou square and with the poles in a pair of the angles was also in-

cluded in the same publication.

A further illustration of the Schwarz integral was computed, based

upon 6 as the value of n. This gives the northern hemisphere in a

regular hexagon, and the rest of the world mapped on the points of a

six rayed star.

As a final example of the use of elliptic functions, for maps, the

world was conformally mapped in an ellipse similar to the Mollweide

ellipse. This was done in two steps; first a computation was made for

a projection within an elongated rectangle. A map was constructed on

this grid to show what it was like. By use of a function of the complex

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 211

variable of this projection, the final map was made. This map has

been reproduced in the recent important French work on projections

by Driencourt and Laborde as an example of a planisphere in this

ellipse that does not have such violent distortions of shape as have the

others mapped in the same ellipse.

Before leaving this subject I wish to call attention to a conformal

projection that was computed for Mr. B. J. 8. Cahill, an architect of

Oakland, Calif. Mr. Cahill calls this projection a butterfly map of the

world. It is easy to see that the projection depends on the same el-

liptic function that I have used for the various other maps within a

rhombus. The map is strictly conformal and is computed on the most

rigid mathematical basis.

|| in ae ALI

eee (68 eeaeens StH Sa |

ACCA vay

SSW ZEEE

ELE

Fig. 4.—Conformal map of the world in an ellipse.

Besides this map, I have computed for Mr. Cahill what he calls his

gnomonic variant of the butterfly map. This is in fact a gnomonic

projection or a geometric projection from the center of the sphere

upon a circumscribed regular octahedron; then this octahedron is

split along the edges and spread out into the plane in the butterfly

style. In this projection a great circle on the sphere becomes a straight

line on the map. Unfortunately we can only consider the earth as a

sphere in making such a map. It might be thought that we could first

project the ellipsoid on the sphere in such a way that the geodetic

lines on the spheroid would become great circles on the sphere. It is

to be regretted that this cannot be done. It has been proved that

geodetic lines on an ellipsoid cannot in general be projected into

straight lines in the plane. Now if such a projection could be made on

the sphere the geodetic lines would become straight lines in the plane,

212 JOURNAL OF TNE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

but this is contrary to what has been proved. However for the usual

mapping purposes it is sufficiently accurate to consider the earth as

a sphere.

f- I wish here to call attention to an interesting feature in making cer-

tain types of maps. I have spoken of the conformal projection of the

spheroid upon the sphere as forming a cartographic expedient that

is very useful in practice. In addition to this we can map the whole

sphere conformally on the half sphere and then project this hemi-

sphere upon the plane within a circle. This is done in the case of La-

grange’s projection in which case we can imagine a cut made along a

aN AAS

Peidensess AS ra

Pe ETE Cs.

CRA Z CHEATS RRS

SESE SA Bee e eS N Soe eee Eee HN ge er eerowN

BEE eoceeessuauueaesersss a2 =< SES rt ge Te

CZ : : HSS BENOIT eS

seb cctsseceensesnecerssss == ee Ngee >

SEES rg eR ee eeteseses =e

SSSA AEE EEE SREY

seaean Baeeeees sess.) ERE

SSOEEEEE ERE a ERE

SSE Cv i LADS Es

Na ees eu Ve Seetete genenle

SARS SONA ga

SBR oe,

Ries, eeceecats sor}

RRR eee!

Seeeaes eee ct

A ses!

LIL LP Ee

UST ALO ge

meee eaee, LER caus!

Hie eee sate

LTR Re SS SH

Ke quiet

MESS SAU

WIE SD & \

Ly” AN

yy <<

Fig. 5.—Gnomonic map of the world on a circumscribed octahedron.

meridian from pole to pole and then the surface shrinking conformally

until the whole surface covers only a half of the sphere. This hemis-

phere projected conformally on the plane as a meridian projection

gives Lagrange’s projection of the world within a circle. ,

As an interesting experiment, I tried cutting along the equator

half way around and then causing the surface to shrink conformally

until only the half sphere was covered. This hemisphere could then

be projected into the plane in a circle as was done in Lagrange’s pro-

jection. However I computed the same in a square with the poles

situated on a diagonal symmetrical with respect to the center. Other

arrangements either in a square or in the rhombus that I have al-

ready used extensively could be made. It would be interesting to

map it in the.ellipse that I have already used, placing the poles on

the major axis symmetrical with respect to the center. Sometime,

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 213

possibly when I have too much leisure on my hands, I may try such

experiments. )

After the publication of the work on Elliptic functions applied to

world maps, I sent a copy to Professor Dixon explaining that his

article in the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics was the source of

my inspiration in the subject. I received a very pleasing letter in

reply in which he said that as far as he could check up he thought

that I was the only one who had ever looked into his article farther

than reading the title. He congratulated me very heartily on finding

some use for his work. |

Using Lagrange’s projection of the world within a circle as a basis,

we can compute a conformal map of the world within a two cusped

epicycloid. This has been done by Prof. August and I have computed

a table of coordinates for the same. It could be constructed graphically

after the Lagrange projection has been made to serve as a basis, but

better construction work can be done by the use of x and y coordi-

nates.

Just recently a new use for some of the more important projections

has come to the fore. In this country the Coast and Geodetic Survey

has some 40,000 miles of ares of triangulation. Since these cover great

stretches of territory all of the work has to be computed by means of

latitude and longitude. The actual surface of the earth is, of course,

very irregular but the ideal sea-level surface approximates very closely

to the surface of an ellipsoid of revolution. Such a surface has been

adopted as the basis of geodetic operations and all of our triangula-

tion is computed on this ideal surface in terms of latitude and longi-

tude and azimuths and lengths.

Now local surveyors in cadastral surveys and surveys for public

works are interested in general in much more limited areas. A demand

arose from engineers throughout the country for the establishment of

plane coordinate systems for regions in which such work was to be

done. It has been the custom of most such engineers to establish local

systems for their various projects. This led to much confusion when

it was desired to extend the work so that various projects overlapped.

It was found very troublesome to coordinate the work with what had

already been done. Also these local systems are quite limited as to

the distance that they can be carried without troublesome discrepan-

cies entering into the work.

It might be said that such engineers should resort to geodetic com-

putations. This is easy to say and we of the Coast and Geodetic

Survey have been saying it for many years. However, the trouble is

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

that ‘‘you can lead a horse to water but you can’t make him drink.”

Geodetic computations are rather complicated and, though they are

easy enough when one is used to them, it is nevertheless difficult to

get the general public to use them. So, “if the mountain will not come

to Mahomet, then Mahomet will go to the mountain” and that is

exactly what we have done.

In response to this demand for coordinate systems that could be

applied to more extensive areas and would still give exactness in

computation, I was requested by Major Bowie to look into the mat-

ter to see what could be done. The first request came from the engi-

neers of the Public Works Administration of North Carolina. The

Coast and Geodetic Survey in cooperation with this state was just

completing a network of triangulation over the state that gave ex-

cellent control for any engineering work within the region. The state

officials were making extensive surveys for roads and other public

works and they wanted this control data put on a more practical

basis for use by their engineers and the request was a very logical

one. All Federal control data should be put in such form as to be most

readily available for the engineers who wish to use such _ con-

trol.

After a careful study of the situation we recommended a state-

wide system of plane coordinates based upon the Lambert con-

formal conic projection with two standard parallels. Since this gives

one system for the entire state, any work done in any part of the state

that is based on the general control system is at once coordinated

with the work in any other region of the state. Scale discrepancies

are found in such an extensive system, but they are definite variations

that can be taken into account and computations can be made upon

the grid with an accuracy far within the accuracy of ordinary en-

gineering work. |

With careful use of the scale factors geodetic accuracy can be ob-

tained. This system has been in use in North Carolina for some time

and all the surveys that are being made at the present time are com-

puted directly on this grid making use of the scale factors in all cases.

Work of this kind is very active in that state under the state relief

appropriations.

After completing the computation for North Carolina a similar

computation was made for Long Island. In this system owing to the

limited extent in latitude the scale variations could be kept below one

part in 100,000 for the island proper with most of it as good as one

part in 200,000. This is within the accuracy of even geodetic control,

MAY 15, 1934 ADAMS: FLATLAND 215

so it will not be necessary to trouble about the scale factors except

for the most exact computations.

As a next experiment, a system for New Jersey Was devised, based

upon the transverse Mercator projection. This is the well known

Mercator projection with its axis turned to an east and west direction

in which the coordinates are related to a central meridian in the same

way that the ordinary Mercator projection is related to the equator.

To give a balance of scale in the system, the scale was reduced one

part in 40,000 along the central meridian. This makes the scale exact

along two small circles parallel to the central meridian at a distance

from it of approximately 28 miles. We might think of this as an in-

tersecting cylinder instead of a tangent cylinder but we have advised

against this cylindrical conception of the projection. It is similar to

what we should have in the ordinary Mercator projection if the scale

were held exact along parallels approximately 28 miles north and south

of the equator.

Formulas for the direct computation of coordinates from geodetic

positions have been devised for both systems of coordinates. These

are comparatively simple and the computations can be made by any-

one familiar with the use of logarithms and trigonometric tables. The

state tables are made to include all of the data necessary for such

computations. After all geodetic stations have been computed in

terms of x and y coordinates on the grid, all further computations can

be made directly in terms of plane coordinates.

Single systems have also been computed for Maryland, Tennessee

and Massachusetts on the Lambert projection and for Delaware on

the transverse Mercator. For Iowa, Ohio and South Carolina two

systems on the Lambert have been used with the division between

them determined by county lines. This will keep each county on a

single system. In Florida it was found desirable to employ three sys-

tems; two transverse Mercators for the north and south section and a

Lambert for the western portion at the north. Georgia, Alabama and

Mississippi have been divided into two systems, each on the trans-

verse Mercator, and further systems will be computed just as rapidly

as possible until practically all of the states are provided with such

aids to accurate computation on the plane.

In our rapid survey of the various and sundry possibilities for flat-

land construction, we have seen that the ideal map has proved as elu-

sive as Sarah Gamp’s Mrs. Harris. The best we can do is to choose

the form of projection that is most suitable for the particular purpose

that the map is to serve. We should be careful in any case not to draw

216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

conclusions from a map that are not justified by the facts. Even a

man in the Coast and Geodetic Survey inquired why ships and aero-

planes go north by way of Newfoundland in going from New York

City to England. He said ‘‘Why not go straight across and save a lot

of distance?’ He was thinking in terms of a Mercator projection and

not in terms of a gnomonic as should be done in all such cases. A

gnomonic map will show that the great circle from New York City

to Liverpool passes through Massachusetts west of Boston and over

Newfoundland well towards the northern portion. Any route south of

this line is necessarily a longer one. The shortest distance from Seattle

to Yokohama passes through the Aleutian Islands. That from Pan-

ama to Yokohama passes far inland through the states, entering the

Pacific near the mouth of the Columbia River.

Even a President of the United States, in his letter of congratula-

tion to an explorer of arctic regions, felicitated him for the discovery

of an island westward of the pole. I fear it would tax the ingenuity

even of a president to explain in what way any point on the earth could

be westward of the pole. We should attempt to judge things not as

they seem but as they are.

I am glad to note that a number of moderate priced globes have

appeared on the market in the last few years. This is a matter that

I advocated in Special Publication No. 68 which appeared some years

ago. Whether my advice has been a factor in causing this new move-

ment I am not able to say, but I do know it is an important move.

Even a small globe, though badly fitted together, will give a truer

picture of the relative arrangements of the features of the earth than

can be secured from the best of maps.

We may not be intentionally misleading as is described by Dean

Swift:

“So geographers, in Afric maps,

With savage pictures fill their gaps,

And o’er uninhabitable downs

Place elephants for want of towns.”’

Nevertheless, our best efforts are often misinterpreted through lack

of insight on the part of the user. Let us all try

“To know what’s what, and that’s as high

As metaphysic wit can fly.”

MAY 15,1934 §BLACKWELDER: PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION 217

GEOLOGY.—Supplementary notes on Pleistocene glaciation in the

Great Basin! Eviot BLACKWELDER, Stanford University.

Since the publication of my paper on the glaciation of the Sierra

Nevada and Basin Ranges,” I have extended my studies among the

ranges of Utah, Nevada, and eastern California. The results, so far

as they concern glaciation, are here presented.

Stansbury Range, Utah.—A view from Grantsville affords clear evi-

dence of glaciation near Mt. Deseret (10,250 feet). The topographic

forms show that several glaciers occupied canyons in the eastern slope,

probably during the Tahoe glacial stage,-and descended about half

way to the base of the range, leaving moraines of considerable size in

the bottoms of the valleys. It seems probable also that the cirques

made at that time were refreshed by glacierets during the later Tioga

stage. Marsell,? who has climbed Mt. Deseret, confirms this opinion

and adds the information that several tarns were found in the cirques.

Oqurrh Range, Utah—According to Marsell, Mt. Lowe (10,200

feet) formerly had glaciers on its eastern slope. The freshness of the

cirques indicates the Tioga as well as the Tahoe stage.

Deep Creek Mountains, Utah—This short range on the western

edge of Utah reaches an altitude of 12,100 feet. My only information

regarding its glacial history is from Marsell who states that deep

cirques and glacial canyons, which he saw from the adjacent plain,

indicate vigorous glaciation in both Tioga and Tahoe stages. This

range is probably very similar to the Snake Range, farther south, in

both form and glacial history.

Pilot Range, Nevada.—A valley head on the northeast side of Pilot

Peak suggests by its form and rugged surface a cirque of Tahoe age,

but the locality has not been examined closely.

Independence Range, Nevada.—About fifty miles north of Elko, a

small group of glaciers once clustered around Jack’s Peak (altitude

about 11,000 feet). In the Tahoe stage a glacier descended McAfee

canyon, on the eastern slope, about 43 miles and built a moraine on

the edge of the plain. The terminal portion has since been eroded away

and replaced by a wedge shaped alluvial fan, but the old lateral

moraines extending down to the base of the range are still conspicu-

1 Received Jan. 22, 1933.

* BLACKWELDER, Exiot. Pleistocene glaciation in the Sierra Nevada and Basin

Ranges. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 42: 865-922. 1931. In this paper four glacial stages

are recognized as follows, beginning with the oldest: 1, McGee; 2, Sherwin; 3, Tahoe;

and 4, Tioga. The last of these is believed to be equivalent to the latest Wisconsin

moraines of northern United States.

’ Marsevi, R. E. University of Utah. Oral Communication.

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

ous. Two smaller glaciers occupied unnamed canyons immediately

to the north and another across the ridge to the south. In the Tioga

stage there were apparently only three glaciers in this group and the

largest was not much more than a mile long. Their existence is indi-

cated by the presence of tarns and by the freshness of the cirques and

moraines. Farther south there is similar evidence of two stages of

glaciation at the heads of Pratt and Foreman Creeks. No doubt when

the western slope of the same mountains is examined evidence of

similar glaciation will be found there also.

Along Foreman Creek at least there are two well defined sets of

gravel terraces—one 10 feet above the modern flood plain and the

other 36 feet. Reasoning from better known terraces elsewhere in the

West, I infer that the lower terrace was formed as a valley train at

the time of the Tioga glacial advance and the upper terrace during the

Tahoe stage.

When these mountains are more carefully examined it is probable

that evidence of still older glacial stages will be found.

Jarbidge Mountains and Copper Mountain.—As the highest peaks

of this group are, if anything, somewhat higher than Jack’s Peak, it is

almost certain that they were glaciated likewise. Distant views through

a hazy atmosphere were not sufficient to permit me to draw satisfac-

tory inferences.

Ruby Mountains.—The northern part of this range lying between

Wells and Secret Pass was formerly known as the East Humboldt

Range. Its summits rise to elevations of 10,500 to 11,300 feet but

its relief is greater and its slopes steeper than those of the In-

dependence Range. Many of the larger canyons on both flanks were

glaciated in both Tahoe and Tioga stages. Those on the west side were

apparently the largest—5 to 7 miles long in the Tahoe stage—but did

not reach the plain. On the east side those of the same age extended

down to the base of the range. The glaciers in Leach and Steel canyons

appear to have been the longest—about 3 miles. As usual, the older

(Tahoe) terminal moraines have been eroded away, leaving only the

lateral ridges. Excellent cirques, still ragged and bare, and small fresh

moraines’clearly indicate glaciers of the Tioga stage, but none of them

came far down the mountain sides South of Johnson Creek, on the

eastern slope and Boulder Creek on the west side, no definite evidence

of glaciation was observed.

From Secret Pass the main body of the Ruby Range extends

southward about 60 miles. Its crest is above 10,000 feet through per-

haps half of its length and culminates in Lamoille Peak (altitude

MAY 15, 1934 BLACKWELDER: PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION 219

11,128 feet). The eastern slope of the range, being steep and short,

afforded less catchment area for snow. Perhaps for this reason none

of the glaciers reached the base of the range even in the Tahoe stage,

although the Dawley Creek glacier came within about half a mile

of the plain. Most of the larger canyons between Lutts Creek and

Dawley Creek display the usual moraines and cirques, indicating

glaciation in both the last two stages.

On the western slope large glaciers descended Lamoille (13 miles

long) and Rattlesnake canyons during the Tahoe stage and extended

out upon the adjacent plain. Several intermediate glaciers reached

the base of the range. Even in the Tioga stage glaciers several miles

long occupied the heads of these canyons.

No clear evidence of glaciation has been observed south of Harrison

Pass and nowhere in the range has clear evidence of pre-Tahoe glacia-

tion been found.‘ }

During a moister epoch, which probably coincided with the last

glaciation in the mountains, an extensive lake occupied the basin east

of the Ruby Range. Conspicuous gravel embankments around the

northern and eastern sides of the lake and occasional wave-eroded

cliffs indicate a lake which was at one time at least 120 feet deep. It has

now dwindled to two shallow lakes, of which the northern one is little

more than a marsh.

Toyabe Range, Nevada—The Toyabe Range, culminating in Arc

Dome, at an elevation of 11,775 feet, is somewhat higher than the

Ruby Range and yet reveals to cursory examination surprisingly lit-

tle evidence of glaciation. At the head of a canyon on the east slope

about 12 miles south of the Lincoln Highway, obscure cirques now

much clogged with talus, suggest glaciation in the Tahoe stage only.

The canyons around Are Dome, west of Round Mountain, seem to

have harbored glaciers several miles long during the Tahoe epoch,

but the cirques are now so subdued that I am disposed to doubt that

there were any glaciers there in the Tioga stage. Apparently the most

favorable place for glaciers in this range is in the deep canyon south

of Arc Dome, a locality not yet examined.

Shoshone Range, Nevada.—These mountains are a northward con-

tinuation of the Toyabe Range but are generally somewhat lower in

altitude. As seen from the railroad near Beowawe, the highest moun-

tain in this group has a cirque-like hollow on its northeast side that

strongly suggests glacial action of Tahoe age.

* As mentioned in my earlier paper (Op. cit., p. 911), some indications of till of the

pwn stage were found west of the mouth of Lamoille canyon, at the western base of

e range.

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

Wassuck Range, Nevada.—This range was evidently too low to in-

duce vigorous glaciation. The only evidence I have observed is a

cirque-like excavation on the east side of the highest peak, Mt. Grant

(elevation 11,303 feet) which suggests a small glacier of the Tahoe

stage.

Sweetwater Range, California.—Being higher (11,646 feet) than the

Wassuck Range, the Sweetwater Mountains were fairly well glaciated

at least during the Sherwin and Tahoe stages. Subdued cirques and

small moraines suggesting glacierets of Tahoe age have been found

at the heads of Desert and Deep Creeks on the western slope. On the

east flank ice tongues of the same age were somewhat longer and more

numerous. Although the canyons there have not been closely exam-

ined, the glacier in Sweetwater canyon appears to have been about 3

miles long and extended more than half way down to the base of the

range. The cirques are not ragged and clean enough to suggest vigor-

ous ice action in the Tioga Stage.

Near the head of Deep Creek on the western slope a body of much

weathered and eroded old till indicates that a glacier of the Sherwin

stage about 3 miles long descended below the 9300 foot contour.

White Mountain Range in California. —Although by far the highest

mountain range in the Great Basin (summit 14,242 feet) this range

was less severely glaciated than the much lower Ruby Range. Only

the northern part of the range, about 22 miles in all, gives evidence

of strong glaciation. Small glaciers of the Tioga stage are indicated

by fairly clean cirques and suggestions of very bouldery moraines at

high elevations. In the Tahoe stage much longer glaciers descended

the canyons but none of them approached the base of the range

closely. On Perry Aiken Creek, on the east side of the range, a remnant

of what is probably the Tahoe stage moraine stands at an altitude of

about 6,500 feet, 2 miles back from the margin of the range. No evi-

dence of glaciation has been observed south of Milner Creek on the

west slope, or on Iron Creek on the east side.

On both sides of Perry Aiken canyon and near the front of the range,

bodies of ancient till, now greatly eroded and weathered, probably

represent the Sherwin stage. The distribution of these remnants sug-

gests that the glacier of that age extended out to the adjacent plain.

The patches of old till lie upon the tops of ridges which themselves

have been carved out of granitic rock. In this locality faulting along

the base of the range has introduced complications not usually present.

From a brief study of the valley I infer that a thick valley train was

aggraded below the terminal moraine of the Tahoe stage. A displace-

MAY 15, 1934 BLACKWELDER: PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION 221

ment of nearly 300 feet on a fault along the base of the range then

caused this deposit to be deeply trenched, leaving gravel terraces of

corresponding height along the sides of the canyon. The large fan at

the mouth of the present canyon is therefore probably of late Pleisto-

cene and Recent age. It is still growing by the addition of bouldery

mudflows at frequent intervals.

Spring Mountain Range, Nevada.—This southernmost range of high

mountains in Nevada attains an altitude of 11,910 feet, but ap-

parently it was too far south to receive snow enough for glaciers dur-

ing the Tioga epoch. The somewhat excavated heads of the canyons

surrounding the highest peak afford a suggestion of glaciation during

the Tahoe stage. It is still more probable that glaciers were present

in the Sherwin stage, but observational evidence is not yet available.

Panamint Range, California—Although Telescope Peak reaches

an elevation of 11,045 feet no good evidence of glaciation has been

afforded by views from the base of the range on either side. However,

because of its altitude and geographic position, it seems possible that

glaciers were present in the Sherwin stage, but scarcely probable that

even small glaciers occupied any of the valley heads during Tahoe

time.

Other Great Basin ranges of which the highest peaks reached eleva-

tions between 10,000 and 11,000 feet may well have possessed small

glaciers during the Sherwin and even the Tahoe glacial stage. Most

of these mountains have not been examined for evidence of glaciation.

In some, the record will doubtless be obscure, and in others, quite

lacking.

SUMMARY

The facts which have been derived from this reconnaissance indi-

cate rather clearly that the distribution and intensity of mountain

glaciation are influenced by three factors—latitude, humidity, and

altitude. In the mountains of Nevada which attain elevations of

11,000 to 12,000 feet the severity of glaciation decreases steadily from

north to south, as would be expected. In northernmost Nevada moun-

tains scarcely 11,000 feet high were inhabited by small but vigorous

glaciers of Tioga stage, whereas near the southern end of the state,

mountains nearly 12,000 feet high had no glaciers at that time.

The influence of humidity is conspicuously shown by the extensive

glaciation of the Sierra Nevada, whereas the equally high White

Mountain Range, which lies directly east and therefore in the rain-

shadow of the Sierra, had only a few relatively small glaciers.

222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 5

The Ruby Range illustrates the importance of altitude as a factor.

In the section where the peaks range in elevation from 10,500 to

more than 11,000 feet every canyon held a vigorous glacier. Farther

north along the same ridge, where the highest summits rise to only

9,500 to 10,000 feet, there is little evidence of glaciation.

In keeping with the well known fact that the last three glacial

episodes in western United States form a declining series, it is clear

that in the Great Basin each successive member of that series could

form glaciers only at a higher altitude than the one preceding. In

central Nevada the mountains below 11,500 feet developed no gla-

ciers during the Tioga ice stage and those below 10,700 feet none in

the Tahoe stage. Much less is known about the Sherwin glacial stage

but from the greater extent of the ice lobes of that time it seems prob-

able that an altitude of about 9,500 to 10,000 feet may have been suf-

ficient then to induce glaciation. It seems very improbable that any

mountains whose summits are less than 9,000 feet in altitude in north-

ern Nevada or 10,500 feet in extreme southern Nevada will be found

to show any evidence of Pleistocene glaciation. It is not to be for-

gotten that some vertical diastrophic movements have occurred in

the region since the Sherwin stage, but available evidence indicates

that in most places the increase of relief from that cause has been

negligible.

BOTAN Y.—WMicrosporum of cats causing ringworm in man. VERA

K. CHARLES and ALINE FENNER Kempton, Bureau of Plant

INDUSTRY.’ 7

It has been recognized for some time that domestic animals and

pets may be a source of danger to man as carriers of disease. A case of

ringworm infection transmitted by a cat, which came to our attention

in 1933 not only demonstrated this fact but enabled us to work out

very definitely the exact stages in the transmission of the ringworm

fungus from cat to man. The following is a brief outline of the history

of the case.

The first victim we will designate as Case I. In this instance a three-

months-old Persian kitten had been acquired, and after having it

about 3 weeks the new owner developed a few suspicious spots on the

throat. The original owner of the kitten had observed a few dandruff-

1 Received January 29, 1934.

2 Acknowledgment is made of the assistance of Dr. L. T. Giltner, of the Bureau

of Animal Industry.

MAY 15, 1934 CHARLES AND KEMPTON: MICROSPORUM OF CATS 223

like particles on the neck especially on the throat of the kitten, but

had attributed their appearance to a slight stomach disorder, which

seemed to have been controlled before the kitten was acquired by the

new owner, or Case I. The later history of the case proved that a cure

had not been effected, but the kitten had been combed and cared for

so carefully that no evidence of scurf remained. It is important to

note that the kitten’s home in both instances was an apartment.

As previously mentioned, about 3 weeks after the kitten had been ac-

quired several red, oval to round spots appeared almost simultan-

eously on the throat, chest, and face, especially around the eyes and

shoulders of the new owner. Later the affection spread to all parts of

the body. These spots were accompanied by intense itching and the

infected area became inflamed and feverish. A microscopic examina-

tion of particles of skin from the diseased area revealed the presence

of mycelium but no fruiting fungus. Cultures made from dandrufflike

particles in the hair produced spores, but no typical lesions developed

on the scalp.

Cultures were made on Sabouraud medium from scrapings from the

affected parts, and in three days the fungus was fruiting abundantly.

As soon as the mycelium was found suspicion was directed to the

kitten. The animal was immediately brought to the laboratory and

on careful examination showed a few dandrufflike particles. A micro-

scopic examination of this material also disclosed mycelium. Cultures

were made on Sabouraud with the result that in three days the fungus

was fruiting abundantly. The two cultures, one from the human skin

and the other from the cat, proved to be identical.

When the cultures were about ten days old, two healthy short-

haired cats were inoculated, one from the human inoculum and one

from the strain from the cat. With the latter strain two methods of

inoculation were used: (1) hairs from the diseased kitten were placed

on a scraped spot of the skin of the cat to be inoculated; (2) a bit

of the fruiting fungus was placed on a scraped spot of the skin of the

other healthy cat. All inoculations were positive and no difference

could be observed in the virility of the two strains. The new owner of

the kitten had lived in the apartment for some time before acquiring

the kitten; therefore there could be no doubt of the kitten being the

source of infection.

TREATMENT

Case I was given intensive and persistent treatment as soon as the

cause of the trouble was definitely diagnosed. Daily baths and fre-

quent shampoos were taken with medicated soap containing sulphur

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

or mercury compounds. The earliest treatment consisted in an ap-

plication of a 5 per cent solution of salicylic acid in 95 per cent

alcohol. The treatment was begun on April 18, and at first there

seemed to be evidence of improvement, but about a week later the

spots broke out again as small raised lumps around some of the old

lesions. Additional new lumps developed even after the infection had

run for some time. Treatment was continued once a day or twice

when new lesions appeared. Some authorities insist that a 10 per cent

solution of salicylic acid is necessary to kill the fungus, but this is very

severe and many skins cannot tolerate so high a percentage. An ap-

plication of 35 per cent solution of iodine was used quite faithfully

for a few days, but the salicylic acid seemed to be more effective. On

May 10, treatments were begun with bismuth violet,* made according

to the following formula: 1 gram of bismuth violet crystals, 10 grams

of salicylic acid, and 100 ce. of 70 per cent alcohol. This solution

proved too strong, and the percentage of salicylic acid was reduced

one-half. This treatment appeared quite effective, but on account of

its color the solution is not desirable for ordinary use.

During the latter part of May treatment with an ointment of am-

moniated mercury was begun, but as this was a salve it was applied

only at night. On June 1, treatment was started with a certain com-

mercial product. This was employed as a spray and was very con-

venient and satisfactory, as it could be applied several times a day

and caused no discoloration. This medicinal spray appeared very

effective, but just how much credit it should have is a question, be-

cause in all probability the fungus had been weakened or partly con-

trolled by the applications of strong salicylic acid. It is important to

repeat that, from the beginning, medicated soap was used regularly

for both baths and thorough shampoos. The treatment of the kitten

consisted of baths with a 1 per cent solution of orthophenylphenol

in cocoanut oil soap. This treatment failed to control the fungus,

which increased considerably and spread along the back and shoulders

of the kitten. The long thick hair was doubtless partly responsible for

the ineffectiveness of the treatment, but other factors entered into

the case. The kitten was confined in a small cage in a hot room having

a high degree of humidity. These two factors, heat and humidity,

were especially favorable to the growth of the fungus. At the end of

three weeks the kitten was taken to Pennsylvania by the original

owner who reported that the kitten was finally cured, after having

spent the summer out of doors.

3 Formula patented by Dr. Irving S. Barksdale, Greenville, S. C.

MAY 15, 1934 CHARLES AND KEMPTON: MICROSPORUM OF CATS 229

DURATION OF THE DISEASE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY

The lesions of Case I were of long duration and great severity. The

first spots appeared on April 16 and the spots continued to develop

until early August. Even after that period, small red spots developed

but soon subsided. During the course of the infection Case I developed

over 70 typical lesions, the largest the size of a dime. In addition to

the typical lesions, numerous small spots appeared which, however,

soon yielded to treatment. Case II, another member of the household,

developed lesions in considerable number but much less than Case I.

In this instance a lesion developed in the scalp and was very slow in

yielding to treatment. A third case was that of a friend who visited

the house only once, on April 17, 1933, and held the kitten for several

minutes. This case developed one very typical lesion on the neck,

which was cured by the use of strong iodine.

There is evidently a great difference in the susceptibility of in-

dividuals. The original owner of the kitten had six cats in addition to

the kitten so that there was every opportunity to develop a severe

case of ringworm. These cats developed the disease but in a much

milder form. No typical lesions appeared on the owner, but for some

weeks she was troubled with rather hard, red, raised spots on her

arms. These spots were too nearly cured when examined to make suc-

cessful cultures even if the fungus had been the cause of the eruption.

The question of susceptibility or non-susceptibility has been at-

tributed to various factors. E. W. and A. E. Stern? conducted experi-

ments on the pH concentration of different remedies and showed that

basic dyes are increasingly effective as inhibiting agents as the pH

of the media is increased. Gentian violet is a basic dye that is effective,

whereas mercurochrome is acid and has been found to be less effec-

tive. The question arose as to whether or not the degree of acidity or

alkalinity of the human system would have any bearing on the ques-

tion of susceptibility. Hoping to get a little data on this phase of the

subject, a series of experiments was conducted with culture media

having different pH concentrations ranging from 4.7 to 7.3. The

cultures were fairly uniform in growth, no marked differences being

observed.

DETERMINATION AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE CAUSAL ORGANISM

The mycelium observed in the scrapings from the human skin le-

sions and in the scurf from the kitten was found very sparingly and

4 Stearn, E. W. and A. E. Journ. Lab. & Clin. Med. 14: 1057-1060. 1927.

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

was hyaline and fine, about 235 to 3u in diameter. In the cultures the

mycelium was much coarser. The cultures produced spores in great

abundance in 3 days. From the spores the fungus was determined as

a species of Microsporum.

Two species of this genus, M. lanosum Sabouraud’ and M. felineum

Fox and Blaxall® have been reported as occurring on cats. Micro-

sporum lanosum or Microsporum caninum Bodin was first observed

on dogs, but later reported on cats. Microsporum felineum was in-

vestigated first by Fox and Blaxall in 1896, who described the trans-

mission of the ringworm from cat to man, but did not name the fungus

specifically. This species was reported of frequent occurrence in Eng-

land but was not found in Paris. Later, in 1902, it was found by Mew-

born’ in New York. The author’s use of the name Microsporum felin-

eum appears to be the first time it was mentioned in literature. These

two species have been considered identical by different authorities,

and there is nothing in the descriptions of the microscopic characters

of the species to separate them.

The organism studied in the present investigation has been tenta-

tively referred to M. felinewm. Because of the marked variation ob-

served in the size and shape of the spores in cultures isolated from

cats, in the same strains at different ages, and in cultures inoculated

into cats and later recovered and re-cultured, it is felt that until a

comparative study is made of a large number of strains isolated from

cats a specific determination cannot be positive. Comparative exam-

inations were made of strains from cats from Texas, District of Co-

lumbia, and New York. The three strains showed a wide range in the

spore measurements. The strain from Texas grew slowly and produced

smaller, narrower spores than those of the local strain studied by the

authors, while the New York strain had spores over twice as long as

the latter strain and narrower. In strains from Texas and District of

Columbia, the cell walls were not conspicuously muriculate and then

only at an advanced stage. The strain from New York showed this

character earlier and in a much more marked degree. It is observed

that the spores of the organism studied here exceed the measurements

for M. felineum, but in the different strains studied the size of the

spores seemed to vary so much, according to age and vigor, that these

differences were not considered sufficiently constant to warrant the

establishment of a new species.

5 SABOURAUD, R. T'richophyties Humaines. Atlas, p. 58. Paris. 1907.

6 Fox, C. and Buaxatt, F. R. Brit. Journ. of Dermatology 8: 377-384. 1896.

7 Mewsory, A. D. New York Medical Journal 76: 843-849. 1902.

MAY 15, 1934 BERRY: WALNUT FROM CHESAPEAKE MIOCENE 227

Cultures made from the scrapings of the human skin and from the

scurf of the cat, on Sabouraud and corn meal agar, grew rapidly and

fruited in 3 days. The cultures were at first white and fluffy, but later

became powdery and deep cream in color. In Petri dishes the fungus

showed marked zonations and a tendency to make a secondary

growth. The spores were hyaline, spindle-shaped, mostly 7 to 9-

septate, and ranged in size from 8—-12ux45-60yu. Old cultures were

strikingly pleomorphic and showed an abundance of chlamydospores

and so-called aleurispores. No striking morphological differences were

apparent in cultures made from the inoculated cats.

It is proposed to assemble various strains of Microsporum occur-

ring on cats widely separated geographically in order to make a com-

parative study of these forms.

PALEOBOTANY.—A walnut from the Chesapeake Miocene.’ Ep-

waARD W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

Fossil plants are extremely rare in the shallow water marine forma-

tions of the Middle Atlantic Miocene and, as far as I know, are con-

fined to a very few localities where the near shore deposits of the

Calvert—the basal formation of the Chesapeake group—have yielded

a limited number of species.

1 2

Fig. 1. Juglans calvertiana Berry of Calvert formation, 13 miles south of Plum

Point, Maryland.

Fig. 2. J. calvertiana from Richmond, Virginia.

An attempt was made to evaluate these florules in 1916? and it

was concluded that the one from the District of Columbia with its

small-leafed oaks, holly, Vaccinium, Pieris and Leguminosae repre-

sented a temperate flora growing in a region of coastal sand dunes on

a low coast with high insolation and slight run-off; and that from Rich-

mond, Va., indicated a low coast lined with cypress swamps where the

inconsiderable run-off carried only the finest muds. This past summer

1 Received Dec. 16, 1933.

* Berry, E. W. The physical conditions indicated by the Here of the Calvert forma-

tion. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 98: 61-73, pls. 11, 2. 1916

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 5

Dr. R. L. Collins collected a single compressed nut from Zone 11 of

the Calvert formation? at a locality 15 miles south of Plum Point, on

the Bay shore in Calvert County, Md. This was collected in place

from near the base of Zone 11 which is here a poorly fossiliferous sandy

clay about 13 ft. thick, at a point where recent storm waves had

washed a new face at the base of the cliff.

At about the same time Mr. Benjamin Gildersleeve working for the

Virginia Geological Survey, collected a second specimen from an ex-

posure in the bed of Cannon Creek, 100 ft. north of the Valley road

in the city of Richmond, Va. This second specimen was partly weath-

ered out of the matrix and is in two pieces, which enables one to get

some idea of the internal morphology.

Although it is not desirable to sacrifice the Maryland specimen to

check the internal features, the size, degree of compression, degree of

lignification and rather characteristic surface ornamentation leave no

doubt that the two fossils represent a nut of the same botanical species

and that the internal features of the Virginia specimen may safely

be used to amplify the description of the species.

There can be no doubt but that we are dealing with the fruit of

some member of the family Juglandaceae and the shape and rugose

surface of the specimens point to the genus Juglans rather than to

Hicoria. The seed itself is too shriveled to furnish positive evidence,

but the proportions and size of the seed cavity point in the same direc-

tion as do the external features.

The species may be called Juglans calvertiana and is the first Mio-

cene species from eastern North America. It may be described as

follows: | |

Juglans calvertiana n.sp.

Nut indehiscent, bony, apparently circular in cross-section, with no evi-

dence of any angularities; slightly prolate-spheroidal in form; slightly apicu-

late—a feature which may have been more pronounced in life than the speci-

mens indicate; rounded at the base; medium thick-walled, irregularly longi-

tudinally rugose, the rather flattened rugosities formed by inosculating and

rather deep sulcae.

Seed solitary, fleshy, deeply two-lobed, prominently pointed, too shrunken

to show whether it was corrugated as in Hicoria or more smoothly excavated

as in Juglans, seemingly less compressed than in Hicoria and with the gen-

eral proportions of the seeds of Juglans.

Maryland specimen Virginia specimen

Dimensions: Length 2 ema. 2°05) cme

Width 1.8 em. 1.8) vemey

Thickness 0.9 cm. L232 nem

3 Maryland Geol. Survey. Miocene, p. Ixxii, 1904.

MAY 15, 1934. BERRY: WALNUT FROM CHESAPEAKE MIOCENE 229

Regarding the ecological meaning of the specimen a species of Juglans

hardly fits into the picture of a dune flora or a cypress swamp association,

which, as previously mentioned were considered to be the associations of

the District of Columbia and Richmond florules respectively.

Insofar as climatic features are concerned Juglans accords well with the

idea of a temperate flora during the deposition of the Chesapeake group

Miocene. That this walnut was not a coastal species, but was carried into

the basin of sedimentation by river action seems probable, and while it is

remarkable that two specimens from widely separated regions should be

found at the same time, the fact that nothing of the sort has hitherto been

encountered in all the years that the Calvert exposures have been assiduously

collected over by both vertebrate and invertebrate paleontologists points

to the actual rarity of such remains and further enhances the probability

of the foregoing explanation.

The genus Juglans has a fossil record which according to the published

accounts goes back to the Mid-Cretaceous and about 150 nominal extinct

species have been described. Sixteen Upper Cretaceous species, all from

North American localities and all based upon leaflets have been described,

but the majority of these must be considered of doubtful botanical validity

as the identity of none of the leaflets is confirmed by fossil fruits. The fossil

fruits are found however, often in some abundance, in formations ranging

in age from the Eocene to the present.

About a dozen Paleocene species are recorded, all North American and all

open to some question, and about 26 Eocene all North American or Arctic,

except a single European form. The majority of these are based upon leaflets

but several fruits have also been found. Oligocene species to the number

of 15 have been described and these are all European except one based upon

entirely characteristic petrified seeds from the Titanotherium beds of

Dakota. The absence of North American Oligocene records is to be at-

tributed to the actual dearth of, and the failure to recognize beds of this age

on this continent and not to any absence of the genus at that time in North

America.

More than 50 Miocene species have been described, the majority of which

are European, but Asia, Porto Rico and northern South America appear in

the record at this time and many are represented by characteristic fruits.

The 14 North American Miocene species are all from the western part of the

continent.

About 20 Pliocene species are known, mostly European, although several

are from Asia and include many excellent and characteristic fruits. North

America does not contribute to the Pliocene record and, as in the Oligocene,

this is due to the sparsity of Pliocene deposits which are either marine or are

in the arid western part of the continent. Pleistocene species, several of

which are apparently extinct, are found in Europe (2), Asia (1), North Amer-

ica (4), and Porto Rico (1). The majority of these are based upon fruits.

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

ORNITHOLOGY.— Bird bones from old Eskimo ruins in Alaska.

HERBERT FRIEDMAN, U.S. National Museum.

In the past few years several valuable lots of Alaskan avian bones

have come to the United States National Museum as a by-product of

explorations and excavations by members of the Divisions of Anthro-

pology and Ethnology. For convenience in publication and reference,

the reports on these collections have been combined into one paper,

but each is treated separately herein.

It has been argued at times that bird bones found in old Eskimo

habitations are not reliable faunal records as they might have been

brought there from quite far off by visiting Eskimos. This, however,

is largely negatived by the sedentary habits of almost all the present

tribes and village groups of these people.

Not only do these bones (which total hundreds of individual

specimens) reveal a little of the “‘third-dimension”’ of avian geog-

raphy, that is, the time duration of present local distribution, but they

also yield a number of interesting distributional records, as well as

supplying information on the diet of the Eskimos in prehistoric times.

ANCIENT BIRD BONES FROM AMAKNAK ISLAND, ALEUTIAN ISLANDS

The bones reported on below were collected by Mr. Henry B.

Collins, Jr., Assistant Curator of Ethnology of the United States

National Museum from three ancient Eskimo village sites on Amaknak

Island. The exact age of the sites (and therefore of the bones) is not

determinable, but according to Mr. Collins their antiquity is very

considerable, probably over a thousand years. The village sites are

designated by their relative positions—West, East, and Southwest.

Amaknak Island is a small island in Unalaska Bay near the entrance

of Captain’s Bay, in the northeastern part of Unalaska Island, in the

central part of the Aleutian chain. It has a port, Dutch Harbor, where

the ships bound for Unalaska generally call, but it has not figured in

ornithological literature under its own name to any extent, practically

all bird records from there having been recorded merely as ‘‘Unalaska

Island.”’

The bones include identifiable remains of 21 species. The majority

of these are well known members of the Aleutian, or even Unalaskan,

avifauna; two, the yellow-billed loon and the long-tailed jaeger, are

of interest as geographic records. Of the bones collected, those in

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 2, 1934.

MAY 15, 1934 FRIEDMAN: BIRD BONES FROM ALASKA 231

sufficiently good condition to be useful as specimens have been re-

tained in the national collections, the fragmentary specimens (unless

of interest as records) have not been kept in all cases. An annotated

list of the species follows.

GAVIA ADAMSI (Gray) Yellow-billed Loon

The yellow-billed loon is represented by a metacarpal and a tarso-

metatarsus found in the diggings in the East Village. This species

appears to be new to Unalaska Island.

GAVIA STELLATA (Pontoppidan) Red-throated Loon

Two fragmentary humeri were found at the East Village.

DIOMEDEA ALBATRUS Pallas Short-tailed Albatross

A coracoid from the South West Village site (two to three feet

down from the surface), and several fragmentary humeri from the

East Village (surface down to six feet below) represent this albatross.

PUFFINUS TENUIROSTRIS (Temminck) Slender-billed Shearwater

The slender-billed shearwater is represented by a coracoid found in

the surface diggings at South West Village.

PHALACROCORAX PELAGICUS PELAGICUS Pallas Pelagic Cormorant

Two humeri and a fragmentary tarsometatarsus from East Village,

a coracoid from West Village, and several humeri and a tibiotarsus

from South West Village (surface to three feet deep) reveal the pres-

ence of this cormorant on Amaknak Island.

ANSER ALBIFRONS subsp. White-fronted Goose

The white-front goose (probably gambelz) is represented by a broken

humerus found in the superficial diggings at East Village.

CLANGULA HYEMALIS (Linnaeus) Old-Squaw

One humerus of the old squaw was found at West Village.

HISTRIONICUS HISTRIONICUS PACIFICUS Brooks

Western Harlequin Duck

The western harlequin duck is represented by a humerus from the

superficial layer at South West Village, and by another from the

deepest layer (four to six feet) at East Village.

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

SOMATERIA V-NIGRA Gray Pacific Eider

The Pacific eider is represented by bones from three village sites—

a tibiotarsus from West Village, a broken tarsometatarsus from South

West Village (layer two to three feet deep), and by fragments from

East Village (layer three to four feet deep).

SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS (Linnaeus) King Eider

Four fragmentary coacoids from East Village, an ulna from South

West Village (superficial layer), and a humerus from the deepest

layer (four to six feet) from North East Village belong to this species

and indicate the relative commonness of the king eider at Amaknak.

MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte) White-winged Scoter

The white-winged scoter is represented by a broken humerus from

West Village, four humeri from East Village, and two humeri from

the superficial layer of North East Village.

OIDEMIA AMERICANA Swainson American Scoter

A tarsometatarsus from the middle layer (three to four feet deep)

from East Village is of this species.

HALIAEETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS ALASCANUS Townsend

Northern Bald Eagle

A broken humerus and a tarsometatarsus from South West Village

belong to the Northern bald eagle.

STERCORARIUS PARASITICUS (Linnaeus) Parasitic Jaeger

The parasitic jaeger is represented by a humerus and a tarsometa-

tarsus from East Village, and by a broken tibiotarsus from the deep-

est layer (four to six feet) from East Village.

STERCORARIUS LONGICAUDUS Vieillot Long-tailed Jaeger

The long-tailed jaeger is represented by five pairs of humeri and

one tarsometatarsus from East Village, two humeri and three frag-

mentary tarsometatarsi from South West Village (surface to three

feet deep), and by six humeri (two pair plus two) from West Village.

MAY 15, 1934 FRIEDMAN: BIRD BONES FROM ALASKA 233

LARUS HYPERBOREUS Gunnerus Glaucous Gull

A humerus from East Village and a mandible from the middle

layer (three to four feet) from East Village represent the glaucous

gull.

LARUS GLAUCESCENS Naumann Glaucous-winged Gull

The glaucous-winged gull is represented by a fragmentary humerus

from the lowest layer (four to six feet) from East Village.

URIA AALGE CALIFORNICA (Bryant) California Murre

The California murre is listed here on the basis of two humeri from

South West Village (two to three feet deep), and a piece of a skull, a

humerus, and some fragments from the two lower layers (three to

six feet deep) from East Village. This species is very similar to the

next osteologically and a number of bones have been considered

unidentifiable and are omitted from this report.

URIA LOMVIA ARRA (Pallas) Pallas’s Murre

The Pallas’s murre is represented by two broken humeri from

West Village, a coracoid, two humeri, two femurs, two fragmentary

pairs of clavicles, and three ulnae from South West Village (superficial

layer), and by nine humeri and three ulnae from East Village. If

Salomonsen’s new form inornata® be recognized, these bones would

have to be considered as of that race, a course that I consider not

unlikely.

CEPPHUS COLUMBA Pallas Pigeon Guillemot

A few fragments of pigeon guillemot bones were found in the

superficial layer at South West Village.

LUNDA CIRRHATA (Pallas) Tufted Puffin

The tufted puffin is represented by a humerus and an ulna from

East Village. |

BIRD BONES FROM OLD ESKIMO RUINS ON KODIAK ISLAND

The following bird bones were collected by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, cu-

rator of Physical Anthropology, United States National Museum, in

old Eskimo ruins on Kodiak Island, Alaska, during the summer of

1932. The bones are all in the collections of the Museum.

2 Ibis, 1932, p. 128: St. Matthew’s Island, Bering Sea.

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

GAVIA IMMER ELASSON Bishop Lesser Loon

One humerus of this loon was collected. The subspecific determina-

tion is made on the basis of geography.

COLYMBUS GRISEGENA HOLBOELLI (Reinhardt) Holboell’s Grebe

This species is represented by a single humerus.

DIOMEDEA ALBATRUS Pallas Short-tailed Albatross

A tarsometatarsus represents this species in the present collection.

FULMARUS GLACIALIS RODGERSI Cassin Pacific Fulmar

One fractured skull of this bird was unearthed.

PHALACROCORAX CARBO SINENSIS (Shaw and Nodder)

Chinese Cormorant

A humerus of this species (subspecies by virtue of geography) is

the most surprising discovery in this collection. It comprises not only

a great eastern extension of range of this cormorant, but also the first

record for the form in North America.

PHALACROCORAX PELAGICUS PELAGICUS Pallas Pelagic Cormorant

The pelagic cormorant is represented by five good and two frag-

mentary humeri, two ulnae, and one tibiotarsus.

ANSER ALBIFRONS ALBIFRONS (Scopoli) White-fronted Goose

The white-fronted goose is represented by a single humerus in al-

most perfect condition.

CHEN ROSSI (Cassin) Ross’s Goose

A fragmentary skull exactly matches one of this species. This bird

appears to be new to the avifauna of Kodiak Island.

CLANGULA HYEMALIS (Linnaeus) Old-squaw

One sternum of this form was collected.

SOMATERIA V-NIGRA Gray Pacific Eider

A single coracoid and two skulls of this eider were collected.

MAY 15, 1934 FRIEDMAN: BIRD BONES FROM ALASKA 2395

SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS (Linnaeus) King Eider

A humerus and seven skulls of this bird were brought back by Dr.

Hrdlicka.

ARCTONETTA FISCHERI (Brandt) Spectacled Eider

This duck is represented by a humerus. It is known to winter in the

Aleutian chain and southward.

MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte) White-winged Scoter

Nine humeri and three ulnae of this bird were collected.

MELANITTA PERSPICILLATA (Linnaeus) Surf Scoter

Of this species five humeri and two ulnae were found.

OIDEMIA AMERICANA Swainson American Scoter

This duck is represented by a broken skull, fifteen humeri, and

two ulnae.

HALIAETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS ALASCANUS Townsend

Northern Bald Eagle

The bald eagle is one of the commonest birds of Kodiak Island, and

its remains are similarly numerous. It is represented in this collection

by nine skulls in various degrees of perfection, one pair of mandibles,

four sterna, seven synsacra, thirteen humeri, four ulnae, two radii,

five tibiotarsi, two coracoids, one clavicle, one femur, three tarsomet-

tatarsi, and twelve metacarpals.

LAGOPUS RUPESTRIS KELLOGGAE Grinnell Kelloge’s Ptarmigan

A single humerus of this bird was brought back by Dr. Hrdlicka.

The subspecific identification is based on Taverner’s data on the dis-

tribution of the races of the rock ptarmigan (Ann. Rept. Nat. Mus.

Canada 1928: 28-36).

LARUS HYPERBOREUS Gunnerus Glaucous Gull

This gull is represented by four humeri.

LARUS GLAUCESCENS Naumann Glaucous-winged Gull

Five humeri of this gull were collected.

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 5

URIA AALGE CALIFORNICA (Bryant) and URIA LOMVIA ARRA

(Pallas) California Murre and Pallas’s Murre

It is unfortunate that the bones of these two murres are not more

diagnostic as both species occur on Kodiak Island. The genus is

represented by four skulls, five synsacra, one pair of clavicles, one

pair of maxillae, one femur, one ulna, two tibiotarsi, and twenty-

three humeri. The probabilities are that the majority of the bones

are of Uria lomua arra as that is the commoner of the two murres on

the Island.

CEPPHUS COLUMBA Pallas Pigeon Guillemot

A single skull represents this bird in the present collection.

BUBO VIRGINIANUS ALGISTUS (Oberholser)

Saint Michael Horned Owl

Dr. Hrdlicka collected six ulnae of a great horned owl, which on

geographical grounds, is probably the race algistus. It is rather strange

that no other parts of the skeleton were found.

SURNIA ULULA CAPAROCH (Miiller) American Hawk Owl

A single fragmentary skull represents this species.

CORVUS CORAX PRINCIPALIS Ridgway Northern Raven

This raven is represented by four skulls, one pair of maxillae, two

humeri, and two ulnae.

CORVUS BRACHYRHYNCHUS CAURINUS Baird Northwestern Crow

A single humerus of this crow was collected.

BIRD BONES FROM CAPE DENBEIGH, NORTON SOUND

These bones were collected by Mr. H. B. Collins, Jr., from diggings

of prehistoric, but probably not very ancient, Eskimo ruins at Cape

Denbeigh. The great bulk of the bones are of two species of ptarmigan,

Lagopus rupestris and Lagopus lagopus, both of which were obviously

the chief avian items of food (and probably still are) of the local

Eskimos. The next most abundant bones are those of Pallas’s murre,

Uria lomvia arra, the white winged scoter, Melanitta deglandi, and

the Pacific and King eiders, Somateria v-nigra and Somateria spect-

abilis. Fifteen species in all are represented in the Cape Denbeigh

material, a list of which is as follows:

MAY 15, 1934 FRIEDMAN: BIRD BONES FROM ALASKA 237

Gavia adamsi (Gray) Yellow-billed Loon

Gavia stellata (Pontoppidan) Red-throated Loon

Phalacrocorax urile (Gmelin) Red-faced Cormorant

Branta canadensis minima Ridgway Cackling Goose

Histrionicus histrionicus pacificus Brooks Western Harlequin Duck

Somateria v-nigra Gray Pacifie Eider

Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus) King Eider

Melanitta deglandi (Bonaparte) White-winged Scoter

Melanttta perspicillata (Linnaeus) Surf Scoter

Oidemia americana Swainson American Scoter

Logopus lagopus alascensits Swarth Alaska Ptarmigan

Lagopus rupestris subsp. Rock Ptarmigan

Uria lomvia arra (Pallas) | Pallas’s Murre

Cepphus columba Pallas Pigeon Guillemot

Fratercula corniculata (Naumann) Horned Puffin

BIRD BONES FROM SEWARD PENINSULA

In 1929 Mr. H. B. Collins, Jr., excavated an old Eskimo village at

Kowieruk, three miles east of Imaruk Basin, Seward Peninsula. This

site was poor in bird bones but revealed fragments of three species:

Gavia adamsi (Gray) Yellow-billed Loon

Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus) Old-squaw

Histrionicus histrionicus pacificus Brooks Western Harlequin Duck

BIRD BONES FROM BONASILA

In the course of some diggings in an old midden at Bonasila Dr.

Hrdlicka unearthed a few bird bones representing the following three

species.

CYGNUS COLUMBIANUS (Ord) Whistling Swan

Two broken humeri and one femur.

BRANTA CANADENSIS MINIMA Ridgway Cackling Goose

One humerus and one femur.

MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte) White winged Scoter

One humerus.

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 5

SCIENTIFIC NEWS AND NOTES

Prepared by Science Service

Nores

Meeting of the American Chemical Society.—At the spring meeting of the

American Chemical Society, held in St. Petersburg, Florida, March 26 to

30, papers were presented by the following Washington scientists: J. EH.

Apvams, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; Gkorcn M. Baur, Bureau of

Chemistry and Soils; FREDERICK Batrs, Bureau of Standards; F. G.

BRICKWEDDH, Bureau of Standards; C. A. BRownn, Bureau of Chemistry

and Soils; C. K. Cuarx, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; C. C. CoNcANNON,

U. 8. Department of Commerce; J. M. Datuavauie, U.S. Public Health

Service; EK. L. DemMmon, Forest Service; P. H. Emmett, Bureau of Chemistry

and Soils; EK. J. Fox, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; W. A. GrERSsDoRFF,

U. 8S. Department of Agriculture; R. E. Grpson, Carnegie Institution of

Washington; R. M. Hann, National Institute of Health; R. W. HaARKNEss,

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; T. H. Harris, Bureau of Chemistry and

Soils; H. P. Hotman, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; C. S. Hupson,

National Institute of Health; H. S. Issey, Bureau of Standards; EH. F.

Kouman, National Canners Association; C. H. Kunsman, Bureau of Chem-

istry and Soils; H. H. Morrrern, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; EK. K.

Newson, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; E. M. Netson, Bureau of Chem-

istry and Soils; R. A. NeLtson, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; 8. Paxin,

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; G. N. Puttey, Bureau of Chemistry and

Soils; C. B. Purvus, National Institute of Health; D. A. Rrynoups, Bureau

of Mines; N. H. Sansorn, National Canners Association; R. R. SAYERs,

U.S. Public Health Service; W. C. Smiru, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils,

IF. H. THurser, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; J. W. TURRENTINE,

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils; H. W. Von Lorsecket, Bureau of Chemistry

and Soils; J. R. Winston, Bureau of Plant Industry, and W. P. YAnrt,

U.S. Public Health Service.

Johns Hopkins University —The university circular covering 1934 sum-

mer courses announces the following Washington scientists as special lec-

turers for the Summer Research Conferences on Chemical Physics: F. G.

BRICKWEDDE, Bureau of Standards; and 8. B. Henpricxs and L. R. Max-

WELL, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

The Hillebrand prize.—The Hillebrand prize of the Chemical Society of

Washington for the year 1933 has been awarded to the late Dr. Epwarp

Wicut WASHBURN for the discovery of the first practical method of separat-

ing the isotopes of hydrogen. This discovery, namely, the electrolytic

method of separation, has made possible the subsequent research into the

properties of the isotopes of hydrogen, and has thus initiated almost a new

era in chemistry, consequent upon the differences in the chemical and physi-

cal properties of these isotopes and their compounds. 3

Biological Survey.—Dr. Jay N. Daruine on March 19 took the oath

of office as chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey, U. 8. Department of

Agriculture. Early this year he was awarded the Medal of the Outdoor Life

Magazine for outstanding service in the field of wild-life conservation. On

June 14, 1933, he was appointed by Secretary WALLACE as a member of the

MAY 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 239

Advisory Board, Migratory Bird Treaty Act. He has also served as a mem-

ber of the President’s Committee on Wild-Life Restoration.

A recently revised map of the Canadian northwest designates a hitherto

unnamed bay on Great Bear Lake as Preble Bay, in honor of E. A. PREBLE

of the Bureau of Biological Survey, an early explorer of this region. Mr.

Preble had previously been similarly honored when an island 25 miles long

in Great Slave Lake was named Preble Island. In North America Fauna No..

27, “A Biological Investigation of the Athabaska-Mackenzie Region,” pub-

lished by the Bureau in 1908, Mr. Preble not only provided the first exten-

sive biological knowledge of this region but also made important contribu-

tions to its geography.

Dr. W. B. Bruty spoke before a Recreation Conference held March 16

to 18 at the Massachusetts State College, in Amherst, on ‘‘The Biological

Survey’s Contribution to Recreation.”

On March 3, F. C. Lincoun, of the Bureau of Biological Survey, spoke

at the annual meeting of the Wilderness Club at Philadelphia, Pa., on The

distribution and migration of some eastern waterfowl. Mr. Lincoln was

recently appointed one of five members of the Waterfowl Committee of the

National Association of Audubon Societies.

Bureau of Standards.—Dr. RAauLEeicH GILCHRIST left on March 14 to

attend international congresses on chemistry in Paris and Madrid, as official

delegate of the Department of Commerce and of the National Research

Council. At the Madrid congress he presented a paper by himself and Dr.

EK. WicuHeErs, also of the Bureau’s staff, on A new system of analytical

chemistry for the platinum metals.

Children’s Bureau, Department of Labor.—An extensive program has been

undertaken for the location of children who are undernourished or in need

of medical care. This was first suggested at a national conference called

last fall after information assembled by the Children’s Bureau had shown

many children to be showing effects of the depression. With the aid of

C.W.A. funds, thirty-eight states and Puerto Rico set up child health nurs-

ing services and employed approximately 2,300 nurses, including 180 super-

visors. The Bureau has made available the services of five physicians to

assist the states in the development of the program and has prepared special

examination forms for use by physicians making examinations of children

suspected of being undernourished.

In a majority of the states the lead in organizing the child health recov-

ery program was taken by the state health departments, in a few by the

state medical associations, the Academy of Pediatrics, or the state relief

administrations. Support of the work has been voted by the American Child

Health Association, which lent the part-time services of its medical director

for three months, and by the executive board of the American Academy of

Pediatrics. Lay organizations of men and women are also assisting.

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution. R. H. Mans-

FIELD, who has been stationed at the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory in

Peru since September 26, 1932, left the Observatory the latter part of April

for Buenos Aires whence he will proceed to Capetown, South Africa. After

comparing instruments at the University of Capetown, he will make his way

up the east coast of Africa to Aden, Port Sudan, and Suez, securing en route

magnetic observations at selected stations previously occupied by observers

of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The principal object of this ex-

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 5

pedition is to obtain data for the study of secular variation in the region

traversed.

O. W. TorRESON accompanied by Mrs. Torrzson, left Washington on

April 6, 1934, for Peru, where he will join the staff of the Huancayo Mag-

netic Observatory.

Dr. B. J. F. SCHONLAND, Senior Lecturer in Physics, University of Cape-

town, South Africa, and well known for his investigations of lightning,

arrived in New York on April 8, for a ten-week visit in the United States.

He plans to spend the first six weeks at the Department of Terrestrial Mag-

netism. He is to present several papers on the results of some of his recent

work at the scientific meetings which will be held in Washington the latter

part of April. Before his departure in June, he will visit a number of univer-

sities and scientific institutions in the eastern and middle-western states.

Bureau of Fishertes.—At the invitation of the deputy governor of the

Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, Jonn S. Srncuarr, Dr. P. 8. Gatr-

SOFF, in charge of oyster investigation for the United States Bureau of

Fisheries, presented at the meeting called by the reserve bank, March 27,

1934, an analysis of the present conditions in the oyster industry with spe-

cial reference to New Jersey.

Dr. GautsorF regards the drop in demand for oysters and low prices

as being responsible for the present critical situation. Planting operations

in Delaware Bay begin in May and end on June 30, but on account of the

general economic situation and especially because of the closure of several

local banks, the oystermen are unable to obtain credit to finance planting

operations. Steps are being taken to obtain credit from the Federal reserve

bank.

The sound policy, adopted by the state in maintaining the public seed

oyster beds from which planters are permitted to dredge seed oysters for

cultivation, is a guarantee that natural oyster resources of the state will not

be depleted. This conclusion is corroborated by the fact that from 1880 until

1929 oyster production in New Jersey steadily increased, whereas, in the

Chesapeake Bay it materially declined.

At the request of the New York State Conservation Commissioner,

LirHGow OsBoRNB, a conference was held by the representatives of the state

and officers of the United States Bureau of Fisheries at Cambridge, Mass.,

on March 21, for the purpose of laying plans for a cooperative investigation

of the marine fisheries of New York. As a result of the very definite increase

in interest among anglers, particularly in the fishery resources of the marine

district, the conservation department is considering the possibility of under-

taking an intensive study of the fish supply in order to provide for adequate

utilization as well as conservation. Dr. EMmMEtine Moors, chief aquatic

biologist of the conservation department, presented the tentative plans of

the state’s investigation, and R. A. Nussirt, in charge of the Bureau’s inves-

tigations in the Middle Atlantic section, discussed at length the findings of

four years of research by himself and several assistants in this field.

PERSONAL ITEM

Desert M. Lirrus, for the past five years in charge of the Weather

Bureau’s station at Oakland, Calif., has been promoted to the chief of the

aerological division of the Bureau.

CONTENTS |

Original Papers

Botany.—Microsporum of cats causing ringworm in man. sf Cua

and ALINE FENNER KEMPTON................. oe be

' Paleobotany.—A walnut from the Cleeaperee Miocene. -Epwanp ; V

Ornithology.—Bird bones from old Eskimo ruins in Alaska. :

SMAN 5 bot WE, oo ge ee

Scurntiric Notes anv NEWS iis Joi. 6 is. ee

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals.

ait - oes f:

. STEVENSON __ -F. G. Brickwzppk

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY ‘BUREAU OF STANDARDS

~ ssgoctaTE EDITORS

ue F “

- Harotp Morrison

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

W. W. Rusey

. GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY

J. R. Swanton

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

i ar ‘Manas, Wisconsts

one

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 24 JUNE 15, 1934 No. 6

PALEONTOLOGY .—Early Tertiary species of gastropods from the

Isthmus of Tehuantepec. JuLIA GARDNER, U. 8S. Geological

Survey and Epgar Bow tgs, Johns Hopkins University.

Among some collections made in Mexico a number of years ago,

was a small gastropod assemblage of four species, all of them un-

familiar. They had nothing in common with any known East Coast or

Gulf fauna and were put aside in the hope that at some future time

check material might come to light. A few months ago, in a random

survey of the Federal collections, Mr. F. E. Turner of the University

of California came upon them and commented on their extraordinary

resemblance to middle Eocene (Domengine) species from the Simi

Valley in southern California. A closer comparison further revealed

the faunal similarity which is the more significant because the species

are not generalized but are apparently specialized and short ranging

types. Although certain elements in the Domengine fauna are present

in the Umpqua formation of Oregon, there is no former record of the

extension of the Domengine sea south of California. So close, how-

ever, is the resemblance between the Chiapas faunule and that from

the Simi Valley, distant more than 1700 miles in an air line, that a

common shore line may be reasonably postulated.

The Chiapas locality is about 12 miles east-north-east of Sayula and

less than 10 miles behind the mountain front which faces the Atlantic

Ocean. There is no evidence in the present material that the Atlantic

had broken through, but the inter-oceanic barrier must have been ex-

tremely narrow.

The sketch map (Fig. 1) indicates the outcrop from which the col-

lection was made.

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received

March 5, 1934,

241

sue

242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

TPN tly td,

CUTE ess

Fig. 1.—Locality 1—Simi Valley, California; 2—12 miles east-north-east

Sayula, Chiapas, Mexico.

AMPULLINAE

CERNINA Gray

1840. Gray, J. E. Syn. Cont. Brit. Mus., 42: 147.

Type: Natica fluctuata G. B. Sowerby (Recent in the south Pacific).

The type of Cernina is a large, not very heavy, inflated shell with a de-

pressed spire and with a widely expanded and obliquely produced aperture.

The inner margin of the aperture is broadly constricted at the base of the

body. The parietal callous is very heavy but thins gradually and is spread

over the body wall with no sharply defined limit excepting at the extreme an-

terior portion where it merges into the sharp, narrowly reverted, anterior

margin of the aperture. The genotype is the only living representative of a

family which was widespread during the first half of the Tertiary, both in

JUNE 15, 1934 GARDNER AND BOWLES: EARLY SPECIES OF GASTROPODS 243

the Tethyan sea and in the cooler waters. Stewart? in his discussion of the

Ampullinae recognized the need of a new group name to include “‘Natica”’

hannibali Dickerson: ‘‘Globularia hannabali Dickerson might be cited as an

Eocene Cernina but it has a much heavier callous extending over the parietal

region with a distinct boundary. I think it will prove to represent a separate

group of Globularia, not directly related to Cernzna, the latter having proba-

bly developed from Globularia in the Miocene or later.’’ The importance of

the group is increased by the recognition of an allied member many hundred

miles to the south of the form described by Dickerson.

EocERNINA Gardner and Bowles, new section

Type: Natica hannabali Dickerson. Middle Eocene (Umpqua formation)

of Oregon. ?

Shell heavy; obliquely ovate. Spire depressed. Nucleus not preserved but

certainly small and paucispiral. Post nuclear whorls increasing very rapidly

in diameter. Aperture pyriform, expanded and obliquely produced anteriorly,

the line of division between the outer lip and the parietal callous indicated

by a shallow groove. Parietal callous heavy with a sharply defined outer

limit, almost or entirely sealing the umbilicus and merging into the slightly

reverted anterior margin of the aperture. Sculpture restricted to incremen-

tals with occasional resting stages.

The section is founded upon the type species from the Umpqua formation

of Oregon and its variants in the Domengine formation of southern Cali-

fornia and a new species from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

Ampullina sphaerica Deshayes from the upper Eocene of the Paris Basin

shares with the American forms the depressed spire, heavy shell, and parietal

callous.

Cernina (EKocernina) chiapasensis Gardner and Bowles, n. sp.

Hie. Zona.

Shell subglobose, smoothly inflated; spire depressed. Nuclear whorls not

preserved but doubtless small in size and few in number. Post-nuclear whorls

4 to 5, increasing rapidly in diameter; body whorl largely enveloping the

earlier volutions, inflated, obtusely shouldered. Sculpture consisting only of

fine incremental lines, most evident on the body whorl. Sutures regular,

clearly defined, and deeply impressed. Aperture wide and flaring, anteriorly

produced. Parietal callous heavy. Umbilicus almost or entirely covered by

the encroaching callous.

Dimensions: Height, 36 millimeters; greatest diameter, 38+ millimeters

(aperture of specimen incomplete).

Holotype: U.S. National Museum No. 373046.

Paratype: U.S. National Museum No. 373047.

Type locality: U. S. Geol. Survey Sta. No. 13230, about 12 miles east-

north-east of Sayula, Chiapas, Mexico. Eocene.

The closest analogue of this species is Ampullina hannibali Dickerson’ from

2 Stewart, R. B. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Proc. 78: 331. 1926.

3 DickERSON, R. E. California Acad. Sci. Proc., ser. 4, 1: no. 4, p. 119. pl. 12, figs.

Sa, 5b. 1914. (as Natica hannibalt).

244. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, NO. 6

the middle Eocene (Umpqua formation) of Oregon, and the variants in the

Domingine of the Simi Valley, California. The West Coast species differs

from A. chiapasensis, however, in its less inflated and more obliquely shoul-

dered body whorl; its higher spire; its more flaring aperture; and the heavier

callous which completely seals the umbilicus. The apparent perforation in

the umbilicus of the holotype is, however, increased by the broken margin

of the callous.

Cerina chiapasensis is represented by the holotype and a smaller paratype,

measuring 28 millimeters in height and 26.5 millimeters in maximum diame-

ter.

AMAURELLINA ‘“‘Bayle”’ Fischer 1885

1885. Fischer, Paul, Manuel de Conchyliologie. 8: 766. 1885..

Type by monotypy: Ampullaria spirata Lamarck. Eocene of the Paris

Basin.

Amaurellina malinchae Gardner and Bowles, n. sp.

Fig. 5.

Shell of medium size. Spire more than one-third as high as the entire

shell; scalariform. Nuclear whorls not well preserved or clearly differentiated

from the conch. Post-nuclear whorls probably 5 in number, regularly increas-

ing in size, those of the spire rudely trapezoidal in outline. Body whorl angu-

lar posteriorly, elongated and tapering anteriorly. Shoulders sharply cari-

nate, sloping inward from the pinched and elevated keel to the distinct but

not conspicuous sutures; space between the suture and the keel irregularly

threaded with about 8 spiral lirae overridden by fine, crowded incremental

laminae. Aperture crushed in the type but apparently long and narrow, an-

teriorly produced. Parietal callous heavy, almost—and possibly in a perfect

specimen, entirely—sealing the umbilicus, merging into the margin of the

outer lip.

Dimensions: Height, 39 millimeters; greatest diameter, 24 millimeters.

Holotype: U. S. National Museum No. 373050.

Type locality: U. S. Geol. Survey Sta. No. 13230, about 12 miles east-

north-east of Sayula, Chiapas, Mexico. Eocene.

Amaurellina moragat Stewart’ from the Tejon of California is more in-

flated and more ovate in form, and the whorls are less sharply angulated.

Amaurellina moragai lajollaensis Stewart,® from the Domengine horizon is

less inflated than the Tejon form, but the whorls are not so sharply keeled

asin A. malinchae. Amaurellina malinchae is known only from the holotype.

Amaurellina cortezi Gardner and Bowles, n. sp.

Figs. 7, 9.

Shell heavy, squat-ovate; spire moderately high for the group, obtusely

scalariform. Whorls about 6 in number, regularly increasing in size, obtusely

shouldered. Sutures distinct, impressed. Shell smooth excepting for an in-

4Strewart, R. B. Op. cit. 334. pl. 18, fig. 3.

5 Stewart, R. B. Op. cit. 335. pl. 28, fig. 2.

JUNE 15, 1934 GARDNER AND BOWLES: EARLY SPECIES OF GASTROPODS 245

eremental sculpture which is unusually strong, sharp, and regular. Aperture

semilunate; outer lip entire. Inner wall covered by a heavy callous com-

pletely sealing the umbilical opening.

Dimensions: Height, 32.5 millimeters; greatest diameter, 27.0 millimeters.

Holotype: U. 8. National Museum No. 373048.

Paratypes: U. 8. National Museum No. 373049.

Type locality: U. 8. Geol. Survey Sta. No. 13230, about 12 miles east-

north-east of Sayula, Chiapas, Mexico. Eocene.

There are 18 paratypes of this species in the Chiapas collection. Many of

these are broken or poorly preserved and the largest is 46 millimeters high.

Amaurellina clarki Stewart,’ so abundant in the Domengine of the Simi Val-

ley, differs from A. cortezi in the relatively higher and more turrited spire,

the less inflated and more produced body whorl and the less expanded aper-

ture.

VOLUTIDAE

Volutocristata Gardner and Bowles, n. gen.

Genotype: Volutocristata chiapasensis Gardner and Bowles. Middle

Eocene of Chiapas, Mexico.

Shell coniform; spire depressed but the apex a rather prominent boss;

nuclear whorls not well preserved, but certainly small and few in number;

post nuclear whorls about 5 in the genotype, the later whorls wound close

to the tubercled periphery of the preceding volution; body conic, slightly

concave laterally; abruptly shouldered; apical surface ornately sculptured;

early whorls with 11 to 13 prominent axial ribs which on the later whorls

are reduced to erect peripheral tubercles evanescing on the body within the

posterior third ; incremental striae crowded and rather sharp; axial sculpture

overridden by fine, crowded, somewhat irregular lirae; base of body ob-

liquely sulcate, the grooves more closely spaced anteriorly; sutures distinct,

undulated by the peripheral nodes of the preceding volution; aperture nar-

row, elongate with subparallel margins; outer lip entire with a simple, bev-

elled edge; columellar wall plicate, the anterior fold the strongest and the

most oblique, the 4 or 5 behind it less sharply defined and irregular in size

and spacing and almost at right angles to the axis of the shell; all of the folds

deep-seated and visible only in the broken shell or in moulds; parietal callous

heavy, washed backward over the preceding volution in the adult whorls;

anterior fasciole narrow, the terminal notch shallow.

This genus has been erected to accommodate two similar and remarkable

volutes, Plejona lajollaensis Hanna’ from the Domengine (middle Eocene)

of California and Volutocristata chiapasensis, the genotype, from the Isthmus

of Tehuantepec. They are characterized by the conspicuously coniform out-

line, depressed spire, crested periphery and the very narrow aperture with

sub-parallel margins.

‘Stewart, R. B. Op. cit. 336. pl. 26, figs. 8, 9.

7 HANNA, M. A. Univ. California Dept. Geology, Bull. 16: no. 8, p. 320. pl. 52,

wigs. 1,2. 1927, ““Pejona’”’ by typographical error.

246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

Figs. 2-13.—For explanation see opposite page.

JUNE 15, 1984 GARDNER AND BOWLES: EARLY SPECIES OF GASTROPODS 247

The genus Volutoconus of Crosse® though suggesting a coniform shell in-

cludes species with a more typically volutoid aperture, rounded shoulders

and an oliviform rather than coniform outline.

The form most closely resembling Volutocristata pictorially is Diploconus

crassus Douville? from the Cardita beaumonti beds of northern India.|

The genus Diploconus was erected by Douvillé!® to cover two species, the

genotype D. elegans, a relatively high-spired form, and D. crassus. Diplo-

conus was referred to the Fusidae in which Douvillé included Turbinella,

but in his discussion, he emphasized the characters common to the Strom-

bidae and recognized in Dzploconus an indicator of a common ancestry for

the fusids and strombs. Douvillé’s figures suggest that the outer lip in adult

Diploconus is pulled slightly backward over the preceding whorl as it is in

the strombs, but this is not true of the American forms and may not be true

of the Indian, for the material figured by Douvillé is mostly in the form of

incomplete moulds. The columellar folds of the Indian species seem stronger

and more oblique but this difference is probably more apparent than real

for the folds of the American species are deep seated and can be adequately

observed only in the broken shell. No genetic relationship between the In-

dian and American faunas can be surely established on the material avail-

able, but such a relationship is a possibility of unusual interest as it involves

the early migration routes of the Tethyan faunas. The Tethyan, the ancestral

Mediterranean, sea was presumably closed on the west by the “‘Cathaysia”’

of Grabau, and was thus isolated from the equatorial Pacific, though it may

have been open to the Atlantic by way of northern Africa. Forms similar to

Diploconus are unknown in either the fossil or the Recent Japanese faunas.

Among the American volutes, the closest relationship may perhaps be

found with Volutocorbis Dall, a group remarkably prolific in the American

Kocene. Variants of the genotype, Volutilithes limopsis Conrad from the

Fig. 2-3. Cernina (Eocernina) chiapasensis Gardner and Bowles. 2. Apertural view

of holotype, X1. 3. Apertural view of paratype, X1. Fig. 4. C. (Hocernina) species cf.

C. hannabali (Dickerson) from the Simi Valley,!! California. Apertural view, <1.

Fig. 5. Amaurellina malinchae Gardner and Bowles. Apertural view of holotype,

X1. Fig. 6. A. clarki Stewart from the Simi Valley, California. Apertural view, <1.

Fig. 7. A. cortezi Gardner and Bowles. Apertural view of holotype, Xl. Fig. 8. A.

clarki Stewart from the Simi Valley, California. Rear view of individual shown in

Figure 5, X1. Fig. 9. A. cortezi Gardner and Bowles. Rear view of individual

shown in Figure 6, X1. Fig. 10-12. Volutocristata chiapasensis Gardner and Bowles.

10. Apical view of paratype, X1. 11. Apertural view of holotype, X1. 12. Apertural

view of holotype broken to expose columellar plications, X1. Fig. 13. V. lajollaensis

(Hanna) from the Simi Valley, California. Apertural view, X1.

§ Crosse, H. Jour. p—E Concuy.., ser. 3, 19: 306. 1871.

® Douvitit, Henri. Les Couches a Cardita Beaumonti. Geol. Survey of India,

Mem., Paleontologia Indica, new ser., 10: 38, pl. 7, figs. 8,9. 1929.

weldem:p. 136:

11 All of the specimens from the Simi Valley are from U. 8. Geol. Survey Sta. No.

12632, collected by W. P. Woodring on the north side of the Simi Valley, on the east

side of Las Llajas Canyon, 6850 feet South 173° East from Bench Mark 2165, Ventura

County, California.

248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

Gulf Eocene, are widespread in the lower Claiborne of Texas and northern

Mexico. There are numerous obvious differences between the genera, the

most significant, perhaps, being the more regular and stronger plications

upon the pillar of Volutocorbis, which unlike those of Volutocristata, emerge

at the aperture. In Volutocorbis, however, as in Volutocristata, the parietal

wash is extended backward upon the preceding whorl in adult individuals,

and the two groups are similar in the direction of the growth lines, the groov-

ing upon the base of the body, the characters of the anterior fasciole, and

the general sculpture pattern.

Volutocristata chiapasensis Gardner and Bowles, n. sp.

Figs. 10-12

Shell of moderate dimensions and rather heavy, coniform. Spire depressed

but the apex a prominent boss. Body elongate-conic, gently tapering and

slightly concave, laterally. Nuclear whorls imperfectly preserved and differ-

entiated but certainly small and few in number. Post-nuclear whorls about 5,

rapidly increasing in size, conspicuously shouldered. Post-nuclear axial

sculpture gradually changing from narrow ribs continuous from suture to

suture on the early whorls to prominent peripheral nodes on the later, the

number running from 11 to 13 to the whorl; fine spiral striae superposed

upon the axials, strongest relatively and most regular upon the early volu-

tions; base of body obliquely sulcate, the grooves more closely spaced an-

teriorly; sutures incised, undulated by the axials of the preceding whorl.

Aperture narrow, the margins sub-parallel. Outer lip simple, the edge bev-

elled. Pillar wall plicate, the folds deep seated and not emergent at the aper-

ture; anterior fold the strongest and the most oblique; the 4 or 5 folds be-

hind it irregular and approximately at right angles to the axis of the shell.

Parietal wash moderately heavy, transgressing the shoulder on the last two

volutions and partially overriding the peripheral nodes. Anterior fasciole

narrow and inconspicuous; the terminal notch very shallow. | :

Dimensions: Height, 39.5 millimeters; greatest diameter, 23.5 milli-

meters.

Holotype: U.S. National Museum No. 373044.

Paratype: U. 8. National Museum No. 373045.

Type locality: U. S. Geol Survey Sta. No. 18230.

Volutocristata chiapasensis is represented by the holotype and a broken

paratype consisting of the apical portion only. The maximum diameter of

the paratype is 34 millimeters and the axial nodes total 55 or 56. Volutocris-

tata lajollaensis (Hanna) from the Domengine of southern California is the

only known American species remotely resembling specifically our Mexican

form. It differs in the relatively broader body whorl; the less sharply angu-

lated keel; the less prominently elevated but more acute peripheral nodes;

the more posterior suture which follows closely the periphery of the later

whorls rather than falling a little in front of the periphery as it does in V.

chiapasensis; and the sharper, more uniform and more regularly spaced colu-

mellar plications.

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 249

PALEONTOLOGY .—WNew Carboniferous invertebrates—IV.1 GEORGE

H. Girty, U.S. Geological Survey.

This paper contains descriptions of one brachiopod from western

Texas, five gastropods from Colorado, and three gastropods from

Arkansas.

Cryptacanthia? robusta n. sp.

Figs. 1-7.

Shell rather large for the genus, subpentagonal in outline, highly inequi-

valve with reversed curvature, the pedicle valve having a pronounced fold

and the brachial valve a pronounced sinus.

The pedicle valve is widest at the mid-length or just above and somewhat

emarginate in front with an outline more or less conspicuously pentagonal.

Longitudinally, this valve is gently arched toward the anterior end, but

shows a rapidly increasing curvature toward the beak which rather strik-

ingly overhangs the brachial valve. Transversely, the median part is more

or less planate at the anterior end, the flattened zone contracting posteriorly

to form a narrowly rounded ridge which terminates in the small incurved

beak. From this flattened median part the lateral slopes descend steeply and

to an uncommon length, causing the valve to be correspondingly convex.

The lateral slopes are flattened or even somewhat concave and they seem to

flare slightly in the region of the cardinal angles. On some specimens the

descent from the fold is so abrupt close to the anterior margin as to produce

two short but pronounced grooves and to give that structure, which would

otherwise be undefined, distinct boundaries and a quadrate shape. The beak

in my specimens is imperfect but it appears to have been truncated by a

round foramen without any collar formed by the introverted shell margin

adjacent.

The brachial valve is subquadrate in outline and moderately convex. It is

strongly and more or less abruptly deflected at the sides and across the front,

leaving a median area (for half or two-thirds of the length) which is but

slightly arched. The sinus, which makes its appearance back of the middle

of the valve, is in the beginning a narrow groove, but it widens rapidly and

somewhat abruptly, the bottom, at the same time, becoming more rounded

and at the anterior margin almost planate. There, the part included in the

sinus projects as a linguiform extension which is folded downward at a strong

angle, one, however, appreciably greater than 90 degrees. The parts on either.

side of the sinus are also deflected downward, though less strongly than the

sinus itself, with an almost truncating effect. As an extreme expression this

valve is planate over the posterior part and abruptly flexed along three sides,

so that the planate area has a certain definition. The lateral and anterior

folds in conjunction with the broad deep sinus, cause this area to terminate

on either side in prominences almost like little mounds.

Of internal structures little is known except that the pedicle valve is pro-

vided with dental plates and the brachial valve with a strong median sep-

tum. The shell substance is finely punctate.

_} For the previous paper in this series see this JouRNAL 21: 390-397. 1921. Pub-

fora permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received Sept.

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

C. robusta so closely resembles Cryptacanthia compacta as to raise a doubt

whether it is more than a very robust form of that species, yet the facts re-

garding both are so incompletely known and in certain respects so at vari-

ance as to suggest that they belong to distinct genera. The possibility that

they belong to different genera is opposed by their close external similarity.

Such a resemblance would mean little or nothing between many species but

in this instance it is significant because the configuration which these two

possess in common is highly exceptional and distinctive. On the other hand,

the original description of C’. compacta does not mention the dental plates

and median septum which are shown by the present species, and it does give

the character of the brachidium whose characters in the present species have

not been determined.

C’. compacta is one of the rarest of Carboniferous brachiopods and no first

hand description of it has been published since 1868 until very recently.

Dunbar and Condra, however, redescribe the genus with some additional

characters among which, significant in the present connection, are the pres-

ence of dental lamellae in the pedicle valve (a character which could be pred-

icated with reasonable assurance as it is found in all or nearly all Carbonifer-

ous Terebratuloids) and the absence of a median septum in the brachial

valve. I hesitate to challenge the character last mentioned and at the same

time cannot accept it unconditionally for the following reasons. I have ex-

amined specimens of C. compacta, especially one from the Murphysboro

quadrangle (station 6129) in which a median septum certainly appears to

be present, though it may not have the form of a thin high plate. Further-

more, the specimen which supplied the structural characters described by

Dunbar and Condra and which in their sections seem to afford conclusive

evidence that a septum was absent, came from New Mexico and is strikingly

unlike the authentic specimen shown by the original publication. Their fig-

ures (p. 309) represent a shell that is much more elongate, that is ovate in

outline instead of pentagonal, and that has a moderately convex instead of

a nearly flat brachial valve. On these grounds one might infer that their

specimen did not belong to C. compacta and might not belong to Cryptacan-

thia at all. These differences are less marked, however, if the figures on p. 309

are compared with figures on plate 37 representing specimens from Kansas

and Illinois. The fact that a median septum was not mentioned in the origi-

nal description cannot be taken as corroborating the observations of Dunbar

and Condra for the original description also failed to mention the much more

obvious dental lamellae.

If Cryptacanthia did indeed lack a median septum in the brachial valve,

the present species can hardly remain in the same genus as C. compacta.

In the presence of this septum it suggests the genus Heterelasma, not to

mention Girtyella and others, but in configuration it is the reverse of Hetere-

lasma whose characters in this category are singularly misrepresented in the

American Zittel. In that usually accurate work the genus is summarized as

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 251

comprising ‘‘smooth Dielasmids with a ventral fold and a dorsal sinus.”’ In

point of fact, the transverse curvature of the ventral valve in Heterelasma

is concave, in other words, it has a sinus not a fold, and that of the brachial

valve is convex, but the convex curvature is reversed in the anterior part

which is indented by a more or less conspicuous sinus. The present species

which really has a fold in the ventral valve and a sinus in the dorsal valve

might well belong in Heterelasma as the genus is represented in Zittel, but

not as it is in fact. If it does not belong in Heterelasma by reason of the re-

versed curvature of the valves, or in Cryptacanthia by reason of the median

septum in the brachial valve, its generic affinities are hard to discover. In

configuration it recalls the Jurassic genus Glossothyris and in default of a

suitable generic locus the term Glossothyropsis might be used for it.

In its specific relations as already pointed out C. robusta greatly resembles

Cryptacanthia compacta and when the doubtful points are cleared up, it may

belong in the same genus. As a summary of the differences at present known,

aside from those of generic significance, C’. robusta is much larger; the lateral

outlines appear to contract more gradually forward so that the anterior out-

line is broader than it is in C. compacta; the two valves appear to be much less

unequal in convexity, the pedicle valve being somewhat lower and not so

angular along the median line, and the brachial valve not quite so planate;

and the fold and sinus are higher and conspicuously quadrate in outline.

These differences can not be wholly vouched for, as the original description

and figures of C’. compacta are inadequate in several respects, and as speci-

mens are rare. I have been able to examine only 10 or 12 specimens, all of

them small and more or less broken. Their imperfections tend to vitiate the

identification, but it is probable that they belong to C. compacta. The fact

that C. robusta occurs in a widely unlike fauna of much later geologic age

adds significance to the differences already known and gives promise of oth-

ers when our knowledge is more complete.

C. robusta occurs associated with Pugnaz bisulcata, which it resembles so

closely in configuration that on a hasty examination the two species might

readily be confused; the resemblance, of course, is only superficial and

scarcely that, inasmuch as it exists only through a reversal of the valves,

the pedicle in this species resembling the brachial valve in that and vice

versa.

Delaware Mountain formation (Permian); True Canyon, 7 miles north-

west of 7-Heart Gap, Culberson County, Texas (station 6452).

Pleurotomaria worthenioides n. sp.

Figs. 8, 9.

Shell small, conical, turreted, consisting of 5 or 6 volutions. Apical angle

less than a right angle but varying with different specimens. Aperture rhom-

bic. In the final volution the peripheral region is occupied by two large

rounded carinae which inclose between them a flattened and much depressed

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

zone containing the slitband. The lower of the two carinae is almost basal and

is slightly smaller and less prominent than the upper. The surface between

the suture and the upper carina is broad, strongly oblique, and nearly flat

though it is slightly tumid near the suture and more or less spreading as it

joins the carina. The lower surface is gently convex and nearly horizontal

except that near the axis it bends strongly upwards. The whorls embrace

up to the lower carina which is concealed in some specimens and partly

exposed in others. The upper carina on the other hand forms a conspicuous

projection and lends the shell its turreted appearance. The axis seems to be

imperforate.

The lateral surface is marked by 6 or 7 fine, sharp, revolving lirae which

diminish in size from above downwards and are separated by interspaces

wider than the lirae themselves. About 4 similar lirae, but finer and more

crowded, occur on the upper carina and two or three others like them on the

lower carina. The lower surface is marked by about 10 revolving lirae which

are coarser and stronger than those of the lateral surface, and stand rather

more than their own diameter apart. The interspaces gradually diminish

toward the axis and the lirae decrease in size and strength in the same direc-

tion. The sculpture also comprises fine, regular lamellose transverse lirae.

On the lateral surface they decrease in size individually from above down-

ward and are perhaps a little more delicate than the revolving lirae and pos-

sibly a little more closely arranged. They form with the revolving lirae a

regular cancellated sculpture marked at the intersections by minute but con-

spicuous nodes. The transverse lirae are well developed upon the upper

carina, cancellating the revolving lirae that occur there, and they reappear

on the lower carina. Over the basal surface they are a minor feature. If well

developed or well preserved they are sharp and clear, but much more delicate

and much more closely arranged than the revolving lirae which they cross

as crenulations rather than as nodes. The slitband occupies nearly the whole

of the depression between the two carinae and is defined by lamellose lines

partway up its sides. The slitband is divided longitudinally by a slender re-

volving lira set with minute, closely arranged, uniform nodes, whereas each

of the divisions is subdivided by a lira more or less inferior in size. In the

slitband the transverse lirae appear as delicate close-set lunettes which on

many specimens are somewhat difficult to make out and are chiefly apparent

by reason of the nodes that they produce in crossing the median lira.

On the lateral surface the growth lines have a strong backward trend from

the suture and a slight convexity toward the aperture. In crossing the slit-

band of course they are conspicuously arched with the convex side facing

backward. On the lower surface their general direction is about transverse

but they retreat into a broad shallow concave arc just below the lower carina

and make a short shallow convex arc in the axial region.

This species is not exactly rare; about 25 specimens, large and small, have

been examined, but only a few of the large ones are well preserved, whereas

the small ones are identified with less accuracy. Some of the variation ob-

served is probably due to imperfect preservation. That the revolving lirae

vary somewhat in number and arrangement scarcely need be specified. In

some specimens revolving lirae seem to be obsolete on the carinae, the trans-

verse lirae alone being distinguishable. The carinae then appear flat on top

instead of rounded. The delicate though sharp lunettes in the slitband are

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 253

more often invisible than seen, and the transverse lines of the lower surface

may be sought for in vain. Probably they are fully developed, but are sub-

dued to the strength of growth lines, or obscured by abrasion. On a few small

specimens from Woolsey, Ark. (station 2849) the upper carina is uncom-

monly thin and prominent.

Brentwood limestone member of the Bloyd shale (early Pennsylvanian) ;

SW sec. 27, T13N, R32W, Winslow quadrangle, Arkansas (station 3733).

Euconospira hermosana n. sp.

Figs. 10-12.

Shell small, conical, composed of about seven gradually enlarging volu-

tions. The spire comprises half, or a little more than half, of the entire height,

and the height is slightly greater than the width of the last volution.

Final volution somewhat rhombic in section and strongly carinated around

the periphery which is at the mid height or somewhat below. The lateral

surface, which is slightly concave, descends steeply from the suture. The

lower surface, which is gently convex, descends from the periphery inward,

but in the axial region it rather sharply assumes an upward direction. The

peripheral zone is occupied and truncated by the slitband, which is rather

narrow and depressed between two thin strongly projecting lamellae. Below

the carina, that is, on the lower surface but in the peripheral part, there is

a narrow groove which in width is about equal to the slitband, and which

is separated from the slitband by the lower of the two bounding lamellae;

below this again and of about the same width there is a narrow, rounded

ridge. The volutions embrace to this spiral ridge, so that the carina forms a

somewhat conspicuous projection winding around the shell, but losing its

elevation as it approaches the apex.

The surface is crossed by numerous slender, sharply elevated transverse

lirae distinctly narrower than the striae between them, little difference in

sculpture being observable between the lateral and basal parts. On the upper

surface these lines are at the same time convex (toward the aperture) and

oblique, with a rather strong backward swing. On the lower surface they are

sinuous but on the whole generally transverse in direction. Starting at the

slitband they have for a short distance a forward direction but turn back-

ward as they cross the revolving ridge on the basal surface. Thence, they

make a broad shallow reentrant curve, followed by a broad shallow convex

curve, the change in direction occurring about midway on the lower surface.

As these lines necessarily converge toward the axis, many that begin at the

carina die out or become confluent to form lirae of larger size; the others ap-

parently become somewhat strengthened so that the peripheral half of the

lower surface is more finely striated than the axial half. In the slitband the

transverse lines make distinct lunettes, the markings here being similar to

those elsewhere on the shell but considerably finer. Traces of extremely fine

spiral lines have been observed in the slitband. They are interrupted by the

lunettes or confined to the spaces between them. Some 5 or 6 of the trans-

verse lirae of the upper surface are spanned by 1 mm., the measurement be-

ing made at right angles to their oblique direction. On the lower surface the

liration is somewhat finer near the carina but it becomes as coarse if not

coarser toward the axis through confluence or fasciculation of the lirae.

In typical Euconospira the surface is crossed by spiral as well as trans-

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

verse lines, producing a cancellated ornamentation. Euconospira Hermosana

has no such spiral lines, and this fact although it is not regarded as debaring

it from Euconospira, at once distinguishes it from a number of species there

referred. Several species of Huconospira, it is true, have only traces of spiral

lines (such as the very robust H. taggart:), or have spiral lines only on the

under surface. Pleurotomaria coniformis, P. conulus, and P. (Bembezia) ele-

gantula, which possibly should be referred under Euconospira, have, like the

present species, only transverse lirae, but they are sharply distinguished

from it in other ways.

McCoy formation of Roth (Pennsylvanian); McCoy, Colorado.

Pleurotomaria rockymontana n. sp.

Figs. 13-16.

Shell of moderate size, elongate, conical, composed of 10 or more gradually

enlarging volutions. Spire about twice the height of the final volution and

distinctly but not strongly turreted.

Final volution irregularly rhombic in section with the basal surface gently

convex and almost horizontal, with the lateral surface strongly oblique, and

with the carinated periphery sharply rounded or subtruncate. The lateral

surface is slightly sinuate, somewhat protuberant in the upper part and

somewhat flaring in the lower. The peripheral angle, which is rounded as

just described, is the locus of 2 revolving ridges or carinae of which the higher

is slightly the more prominent. Adjacent to the lower carina, but on the un-

derside of the volution is a third ridge distinctly inferior in size and promi-

nence. It is separated from the lower carina by a narrow groove, somewhat

narrower and shallower than the groove inclosed between the two peripheral

carinae.

The lateral surface of the final volution is crossed by small spiral and

transverse lines which form a regular and fine cancellation marked with little

nodes where the lines intersect. The spiral lines are slender and spaced at

about their own width or somewhat more. They are subequal but gradually

diminish in size and prominence from above downward. About 8 can be

counted on one specimen; one or two more on others. The transverse lines

are about the same in size and spacing as the spiral ones on some specimens

but on most they are the dominant feature being conspicuously stronger and

more widely spaced. They are in the upper part almost straight and almost

direct but bend backward more or less strongly as they approach the upper

carina so that they have, in that degree, a general backward trend.

The markings of the peripheral zone vary much in detail on different

specimens, probably due to the minute character of the units and to their

imperfect and unequal preservation. Where most clearly distinguishable the

slitband is a narrow flat ribbon deeply depressed between the two peripheral

carinae. It appears to be defined by delicate lirae on the sides of the carinae

and it is marked by very fine, closely arranged lunettes. The occurrence of

the lirae is such that the carinae sometimes appear to be surmounted by two

revolving lirae. This is especially true of the lower carina because it is some-

what smaller and less prominent than the upper, and the lira on its inner

side is more on a parity with it. In one specimen the slitband is not distin-

guishable as such, but instead the groove between the carinae appears to be

occupied by several fine spiral lines. These features are not shown clearly or

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 255

in detail, however. The transverse lirae apparently do not pass the upper

carina, which is not crenulated, and when they reappear in the slitband they

are very much finer and more closely arranged. Nor have they been detected

on the lower carina, but in the groove just below it the transverse lines re-

appear with a sharp expression and with a marked forward slant from above.

Traces of fine spiral lines are also shown here by some specimens, and

probably they are a constant feature. The sculpture of the basal surface

from the lower carina to the axis, is not well shown. It seems to be cancel-

lated like the lateral surface, but more finely. The revolving lirae are more

slender, more closely arranged and consequently more numerous, and the

transverse lines are even finer. They are greatly inferior to the transverse

lines of the lateral surface so that whereas there the transverse lines are the

dominant feature, the spiral lines have here the dominant part. The volu-

tions embrace so as partly to conceal the lowest of the three revolving ridges

that occupy the peripheral zone exposing, however, its crest together with

the groove above it and the two peripheral carinae with their included

groove. These projections break the regular slope of the spire and give the

conical shell its somewhat turreted shape.

This species appears to resemble P. adamsi in a general way. Worthen’s

description, however, is not clear, in fact seems to be contradictory regarding

certain details. In point of sculpture it mentions only spiral lines on the two

carinae which inclose the slitband. One part, at least, of the final volution is

said to be smooth, apparently the basal surface (‘‘smooth below the spiral

band’’); this is not true of any part of P. rockymontana. P. adamsi also has a

wider spiral angle. P. gzffordi is on the whole somewhat more similar but it

has fewer spiral lines on the lateral surface and apparently no transverse

lines at all; there are other differences as well, such as showing a greater

depth of shell below the slitband in the final volution and above the suture

in the higher ones and lacking a third ridge below the two carinae that in-

close the slitband. P. subdecussata and P. rockymontana are also comparable

in a number of details, more in sculpture than in configuration, as P. sub-

decussata has a much lower spire. P. subdecussata resembles the present spe-

cies and differs from the two previously mentioned, in having the lateral sur-

face finely cancellated by numerous revolving and transverse lines, but like

the foregoing it appears to lack the additional carina below the two on the

periphery.

McCoy formation of Roth (Pennsylvanian); McCoy, Colorado (station

6714).

Orestes? reticulatus n. sp.

Figs. 17-19.

Shell rather small, subconical, composed of about seven volutions. Width

and height nearly equal.

Final volution rhombic in section with the peripheral line well-nigh basal.

The lateral surface juts out at the suture to form a narrow shelf-like projec-

tion which, though slightly inclined is almost horizontal. From this tablet,

which it meets in a pronounced angle, the main part of the lateral surface,

sloping steeply, drops down to the periphery without material interruption.

256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

The peripheral angle, which is about 60 degrees, is somewhat truncated or

sharply rounded. The lower surface is almost planate and almost horizontal.

It descends appreciably from the peripheral angle and in the axial region

makes a sub-angular turn, bending upward with a slight obliquity. The axis

is solid and the lip slightly reflexed to form a false umbilicus. The rather

broad slit band occurs just above the periphery and is sharply defined by

two rather thick prominent lirae. Just below the lower of these lirae but still

above the peripheral line the surface retreats into a rather narrow deep

rounded groove, and this is followed by the periphery itself, consisting of a

narrow rounded ridge which in width is about equal to the groove above and

in prominence scarcely exceeds the guarding lirae of the slitband. Thus the

peripheral region is marked by three slender ridges or carinae separated by

two grooves. The lower carina is decidedly thicker than the two above that

inclose the slitband, and the slitband or upper groove is much broader

than the lower. The volutions embrace up to and including the lowest ridge,

so that the groove above and the slitband are exposed. This gives the shell

as a whole an obscurely turreted appearance. As the whorls are followed

backward up the spire, they lose their angulated shape and become more

regularly rounded.

The sculpture in general terms consists of a rather coarse reticulation made

by sharply raised revolving lirae crossed by transverse lirae of about the

same size and spacing. Small but rather conspicuous nodes emphasize the

points where the lirae intersect. Reckoning the sharp edge of the shelf-like

projection below the suture as a lira, from 6 to 8 revolving lirae occupy the

lateral surface and an additional lira not uncommonly occurs upon the sub-

sutural tablature. The lirae are as a rule rather regular in size and spacing,

but they may vary greatly, and in both items they show a general diminu-

tion downward toward the slitband. The two slender lirae that inclose the

slitband are not distinguished from the lirae above except that they are a

little more prominent and are not affected by the transverse lirae. They are

smooth or in places finely notched or crenulated. Two rather small spiral

lines close together form the peripheral curve or carina (wherefore its

rounded instead of angulated shape) and from 10 to 13 others are developed

on the lower surface. This part of the shell is somewhat more finely marked

than the lateral surface, the lirae being more slender and the intervals nar-

rower, though on both surfaces the intervals are decidedly wider than the

lirae. The slitband generally appears to be without spiral lines and to be

marked only by the usual lunettes, but in one specimen the slitband is

divided by a single delicate raised line, and in several it shows traces of

numerous exceedingly minute lines which seem to be interrupted by the

much stronger lunettes and confined to the intervals between them.

The transverse lirae on the lateral surface are about like the spiral lirae,

rather strong and coarse, and between the two, the lateral surface is divided

into rather large rhombic areas. The transverse lirae come to an end at the

raised line that forms the upper boundary of the slitband. They are not con-

tinuous with the lunettes in the slitband which are in fact much more

numerous and more closely arranged. Nor do they account for the crenula-

tions on the lira that bounds the slitband above (when these can be seen at

all) for the crenulations are even finer than the lunettes. On the lower surface

the transverse lirae are generally finer, more subdued and more closely ar-

ranged than they are on the lateral surface. They show considerable irregu-

larity on the same specimen and great variation between different speci-

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 257

mens. Compared with the revolving lirae which they intersect, they are less

conspicuous; they are also more closely arranged so that the parallelograms

which they help to inclose are much longer than they are wide. Here on the

lower surface they are associated with growth lines to which they are similar

in kind but superior in strength.

In direction, the transverse lirae spread straight out from the suture, but

take on a slight backward trend at the angular margin of the tablature that

surrounds it, and at the same time they become arched (convex side toward

the aperture), so that upon reaching the upper boundary of the slit band

their backward direction is very pronounced. The transverse markings on

the slit band itself make the usual concave arch. On the lower surface the

transverse lines have a gentle backward trend from the periphery and are

gently sinuous in shape. Close under the slit band they have a forward direc-

tion, but, making a turn on the periphery they first describe a concave curve

and then when half-way across, a convex curve. These curves, which are ex-

pressed with reference to the outer lip, are very broad and shallow.

In some respects Orestes? reticulatus resembles the species which Keyes

thought might be the one which Meek and Worthen thought might be

Shumard’s Pleurotomaria brazoensis. Shumard’s species, as I interpret it on

specimens from Texas, is a characteristic member of the genus Orestes, and

is very different from Meek and Worthen’s shell. The latter must be called

Pleurotomaria intertexta, a reversional name which those authors suggested

in case it proved to be distinct from P. brazoensis. P. brazoensis of Keyes,

on the other hand, seems to be a quite different species from the P. brazoensis

of Meek and Worthen (or Pleurotomaria intertexta) and even more different

from typical P. brazoensis. Though not identical with Orestes? reticulatus,

it is much like it in general appearance. Its shape, however, is more turreted

and less conical; its slit band is broader, is divided by a median line, and is

peripheral in position instead of being above the periphery with a groove be-

low it. The carinae on either side of the slit band are not simple raised lines

or ridges—they are compound, the upper being formed by two raised lines

and the lower by two or three. Furthermore, the transverse lines are of two

orders and so disposed that from three to six of microscopic size intervene

between two of the larger ones. Something like this can be observed on the

lower surface of O: reticulatus though the intermediate lines are subdued and

incremental in character, but on the lateral surface, growth lines, if present

at all, are only just discernible. Thus, the obvious resemblance between O.?

reticulatus and the Pleurotomaria brazoensis of Keyes is of a general charac-

ter, and critical comparison discloses many differences in detail.

McCoy formation of Roth (Pennsylvanian); McCoy, Colorado (station

6714).

Orestes? quadrilineatus n. sp.

Figs. 20-22.

In its general character and also in many details this species is closely

allied to Orestes? reticulatus. It is, however, more depressed and in shape more

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIKNCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

or less hemispherical whereas the other is more or less conical. This differ-

ence is partly due to the shape of the constituent volutions which are more

rounded, and partly to their adjustment to one another. The more rounded

shape of the volutions manifests itself in several details. The lateral surface

is more arched and at the same time less oblique; the lower surface likewise

is more arched, dropping farther below the peripheral zone. The peripheral

zone is much less angular, for whereas in O.? reticulatus the part below the

slitband projects beyond the part above, so as to form a sharply rounded

peripheral angle, in this species the two parts project about equally, so that

the slitband appears to occur rather upon a broadly rounded peripheral

zone than above a narrowly rounded one.

The two species differ perhaps more in configuration than they do in

sculpture, but the sculpture too, though the same in general character, is

different in certain details. The spiral ornamentation in O.? quadrilineatus

consists of fewer and sometimes thicker lines more widely spaced and the

transverse ornamentation also, though varying greatly in scale, is on the

whole somewhat coarser. The lateral surface is commonly marked by 4

strong, sub-angular, revolving costae separated by rounded grooves of much

larger size. This enumeration does not include the raised line that bounds

the slitband on its upper side, but it does include the ridge that marks the

outer limit of the tablature below the suture. These four revolving costae

can not be said to have any constant or characteristic arrangement for they

vary in spacing from specimen to specimen, but rather commonly the upper

one stands some distance from the suture and the intervening surface may,

by reason of the rounded shape of the volution, incline slightly downward

toward the suture instead of declining slightly away from it. On the other

hand the side of the surface may arch inward regularly to the suture with-

out forming any distinct tablature. The lowest of the 4 costae, as a rule, oc-

curs rather close to the slitband, but is separated by a rather broad interval

from the one above. The one above (or the third from the suture) may be

somewhat smaller than the rest or it may be entirely undeveloped. In that

event there would be 3 instead of 4 of these revolving costae. All four, how-

ever, may be essentially equal in size and spacing. The transverse lirae in-

stead of tracing a regular backward curve from the suture as in O.? reticu-

latus, reach the same end by an angular change of direction where they

cross the spiral ridges, the points of intersection being marked by nodes

which though actually small are sometimes prominent and striking. Thus,

the shelf-like jutting of the shell below the suture is apt to be conspicuously

and handsomely marked by strong lines which spread out from the suture,

form pronounced nodes on the revolving ridge that forms its outer boundary,

and pass backward by successive angles to the slitband. This shelf-like pro-

jection, crossed by transverse lines and bordered by a row of nodes, is in

many specimens a conspicuous feature.

O. quadrilineatus is closely related to O. reticulatus; the fact of relationship

is clear and the degree is not. Taken together a rather large number of speci-

mens have been examined but many of these specimens have been crushed,

some completely flattened, so that their original shape at best can only be

surmised; to that extent it is impossible to determine how far the differences

in configuration and the differences in sculpture above described are parallel

developments, especially as the sculpture also is defaced in some specimens.

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 259

Judged by such specimens as retain both features more or less faithfully the

two species appear to intergrade. Some specimens represent a more or less

intermediate condition between the low hemispherical shape distinctive of

O. quadrilineatus and the high conical shape distinctive of O. reticulatus.

Again some specimens that in configuration appear to belong with the one

species have a sculpture tending to ally them with the other. In fact the

sculpture is not at all constant, varying if only in minutiae from specimen to

specimen. Yet we have the counter-vailing fact that the low hemispherical

shells do generally differ in sculpture as well as in shape from the high conical

ones and that the extremes are conspicuously unlike.

McCoy formation of Roth (Pennsylvanian); McCoy, Colorado (station

6714).

Pleurotomaria aspera 0. sp.

Figs. 23-25.

Shell small, conical, composed of 6 or 7 regularly enlarging volutions.

Spiral angle about 60°. Spire with rather flat sides interrupted by the

suture which is indented though not deeply.

Final volution trapezoidal in section with the peripheral line almost basal.

The lateral surface is nearly planate, descending steeply from the suture and

passing below into the peripheral angle which is narrowly rounded. The basal

surface, though nearly flat and nearly horizontal descends slightly from the

periphery and bends upward rather abruptly in the axial region. The slit-

band is situated on the peripheral angle and the volutions embrace to or al-

most to its lower boundary. The axis is solid, but the lip appears to be

slightly reflexed forming a small indentation.

The sculpture, as is usual in these shells, consists of spiral and transverse

lirae but as the lirae are uncommonly strong and coarse for so small a species

they give the surface a conspicuously rough appearance. The side of the last

volution is marked by 5 or 6 primary lirae which are more or less equal in

size and separated by somewhat wider interspaces. The interspaces, like

the lirae, vary somewhat in width and one or more of them may be occupied

by a secondary lira; thus the sculpture presents great variety in detail. The

transverse lirae are not quite so strong as the revolving lirae and they are

not quite so far apart. The intersections of these decussating lines are marked

by exceptionally large nodes. The nodes are somewhat elongated in line

with the transverse lirae which are thin and depressed in the intervals be-

tween them. Thus the nodes have a strict linear arrangement in a transverse

as well as in a spiral direction. This double alignment is not well shown in

the illustrations in which the transverse arrangement is hardly distinguish-

able while the spiral arrangement is conspicuous. The transverse lirae at

the outset are about perpendicular to the suture but in a short distance they

bend rather abruptly backward with a gently convex course. The slitband is

broad. It is divided by a median lira which is generally stout and strongly

nodose, and it is defined above and below by raised lines which are slender

and obscurely nodose. If the median lira is large and prominent, as it is in

many specimens, it tends to give the periphery an angulated shape. On the

other hand, because the median lira is small or for some other reason, the

periphery may be strongly rounded instead of angular. As the lirae that

bound the slitband resemble the secondary lirae of the lateral surface and

260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

the median lira resembles the primary lirae the slitband is not as well differ-

entiated as it is in many species, being recognizable chiefly by the deflection

of the transverse lirae into lunettes, which, as they produce stout nodes upon

the median lirae, to that extent disguise instead of distinguish it. The

lunettes are strong and rather widely spaced—not quite so widely spaced as

the transverse lirae on the lateral surface. On a few specimens the lunettes

for some distance near the aperture are feebly developed—scarcely more

than growth lines—and in crossing the median lira they produce scarcely

more than crenulations. Farther back on the same volution, however, they

are strong and nodose.

The markings of the lower surface do not differ materially from those of

the lateral surface. The revolving lirae are generally a little more slender

and more widely spaced and they are also more regular in size and in arrange-

ment. They are somewhat more numerous (being 8 or 9 in number) but at

the same time they cover a wider surface. In comparison with the lateral

surface the transverse lirae are decidedly more subdued and more closely

arranged, and they are more distinctly subordinate to the associated spiral

lirae. The enlargements formed at the intersections are but small, sometimes

scarcely appreciable except in the axial region where some of the spiral

lirae (rarely more than 2 or 3) are strongly and conspicuously nodose. In

direction the transverse lirae have a somewhat backward direction and a

slightly sinuous course making close to the slitband a short and gentle con-

vex curve, then a broad and gentle concave curve, and near the axis a second

convex curve.

In the earliest volutions on which the sculpture has been observed, it

appears to consist entirely of very fine spiral lirae—this refers, of course, to

the region above the slitband which is the only part not concealed. Some-

what later transverse lirae become visible though at first they are much sub-

ordinate to the spiral ones; still later by a relative increase in strength they

become nearly but not quite equal to them.

There are few species in our Carboniferous literature with which P. aspera

can profitably be compared, those whose sculpture is somewhat similar being

mostly much more depressed-conical in shape. P. granulistriata, however, is

very similar in both shape and sculpture, so much so that selected specimens,

though no two have been observed that were even essentially the same in

character, might yet be classed as of the same species. The sculpture of P.

granulistriata, however, is on the whole coarser than that of P. aspera, the

nodes at the intersections of the decussating lirae are more rounded and

prominent and the transverse lirae are less pronounced. |

McCoy formation of Roth (Pennsylvanian); McCoy, Colorado (station

6714).

Pleurotomaria woolseyana, n. sp.

Figs. 26, 27.

Shell of medium size, subconical or subovate, somewhat turreted. Volu-

tions about five in number. Spire moderately high with depressed sutures.

Aperture subelliptical or slightly rhombic. Axis solid.

The external surface of the final volution is sharply differentiated into

three zones—lateral, peripheral, and basal. The narrow peripheral zone

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 261

which contains the slitband occurs well below the mid-height. It is approx-

imately parallel to the axis and is either gently concave, when it is defined

by slender raised lines, or flattened, when it is defined by distinct angles.

The broad lateral surface is moderately convex and declines more or less

strongly from the suture. The broad lower surface is almost planate. It has

a gentle downward obliquity from the periphery but is strongly upturned

in the axial region and also, in some specimens more than in others, near the

periphery.

The sculpture comprises spiral and transverse lirae. The spiral lirae occur

on both the lateral and the basal surface; the transverse lirae only on the

lateral surface. On the lateral surface the spiral lirae are rather strong and

closely arranged; they are developed to the number of 10 or 12 and are com-

monly subequal, though they may irregularly alternate in size. The trans-

verse lirae are apt to be somewhat weaker than the revolving lirae and some-

what finer and more closely arranged. The spiral series shows a gradual

increase in scale from the suture to the periphery; the transverse series like-

wise shows a gradual increase in scale from above downward but also a

diminution in strength. The points of intersection of these two series are

reinforced as small but pronounced nodes which are distinctly aligned in

spiral and transverse rows. Because of the weakening of the transverse lirae

in their downward course, the transverse alignment is conspicuous over the

upper part of the volution while the spiral alignment alone is distinct in the

lowest rows—2 or 3 in number. Sometimes the lirae themselves are incon-

spicuous but the nodes which they form remain undiminished in strength

and in the regularity of their alignment.

The lower surface is marked by revolving lirae, about 12 in number. These

lirae contrast sharply with those of the lateral surface in being smooth in-

stead of nodose; as a rule they are also somewhat stronger and more widely

spaced. They become more slender and more closely arranged toward the

axis. Very fine regular incremental lines are sometimes present and cor-

respondingly fine crenulations are then formed on the revolving lirae; how-

ever, even these are rarely to be observed.

The markings of the peripheral zone are delicate and commonly obscure,

and they appear to vary from specimen to specimen. The arrangement most

often found consists of 3 or 4 equal, closely spaced, revolving lirae without

appreciable cross-markings. On some specimens a line having the median

position is larger than the rest, and on some only a single line, corresponding

to this one, can be made out. The median lira, whether alone or accompanied

by others, may be periodically enlarged into minute, beadlike nodes; for

any other manifestation of transverse lines, however, one looks almost in

vain. There is, however, convincing evidence, both from analogy and oc-

casional observations, that the peripheral zone with its specialized sculpture

is the site of the slitband.

The volutions embrace up to the lower border of the slitband, and as the

volutions are more or less convex while the band is vertical in direction be-

sides being more or less concave, the suture is correspondingly indented and

the spire correspondingly turreted.

In the figured specimen the nodes above the slitband appear to be ar-

ranged in spiral lines only, especially the two lowest. Over the upper part of

the volution the dual alignment is conspicuous. In fact, certain lights bring

out a reversed alignment across the surface. The normal transverse align-

ment (from the suture downward and to the right) is not adequately shown

262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

by the figure which also is on too small a scale to show the minute nodes on

the median lira of the slitband.

P. woolseyana is related, though somewhat distantly, to P. granulistriata.

It is much larger, the largest of my specimens being 11 millimeters in height

and 9.5 millimeters in diameter. Meek and Worthen’s species is only about

half as large and it also seems to be more constant in its slender conical

form. The surface markings of both are the same in general plan, but those of

P. woolseyana are finer, especially in relation to the size of the shell, and more

subdued; 10 to 12 revolving lirae occur on the upper surface as against 3 or 4

in P. granulisiriata, the lirae on the under side being also more numerous.

The lirae of the lower surface are in this species a little larger and more

widely spaced than those on the upper, which is just the reverse of the condi-

tion described by Meek and Worthen. Furthermore, the slitband in P.

granulistriata is marked by sharply defined lunettes and is occupied in large

part by a single revolving lira that is strongly and somewhat coarsely nodose.

P. woolseyana is much more closely related to P. millegranosa besides oc-

curring in the same fauna. The most pronounced difference perhaps is that

the slitband in P. mllegranosa regularly carries a single revolving line that

is strongly nodose, whereas the slitband in P. woolseyana has from 1 to 4

revolving lines that are not nodose or are but partly so; this difference, how-

ever, is but a general tendency, not invariably pronounced. Again, in P.

millegranosa the sculpture of the lateral surface is coarser, the nodes are

larger, and their arrangement in spiral lines, more conspicuous—or at least

an arrangement in transverse lines is less so.

Brentwood limestone member of the Bloyd shale (early Pennsylvanian) ;

bank of stream about 14 miles south of Woolsey, Arkansas. Winslow quad-

rangle (station 2849).

Pleurotomaria millegranosa n. sp.

Figs. 28, 29.

Shell small, subconical, composed of 5 or 6 volutions. Height and width

about equal. Suture depressed.

Final volution somewhat rhomboidal in section with the periphery well

below the middle. The lateral surface is strongly oblique and gently convex,

slightly prominent close to the suture; the lower surface is almost planate

and almost horizontal but is strongly upturned to the axis. The lateral and

lower surfaces meet in a rounded peripheral angle about two-thirds of the

entire height of the volution below the suture. The peripheral angle is in-

dented by the slitband which is defined by two slender sharp revolving lirae

of equal size and prominence. The volutions embrace about to the lower

boundary of the slitband which, rising sharply above the suture, gives the

spire a slightly turreted shape.

The sculpture varies considerably, but that of the lateral surface in gen-

eral terms consists of 7 to 9 revolving lirae surmounted by rounded nodes

regularly spaced at about their own diameter. The lirae are on the whole

equal in size and regular in arrangement, but they are commonly a little

JUNE 15, 1934 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 263

finer and more closely arranged above, near the suture, and a little coarser

and more widely spaced below, near the slitband. For a short distance below

the suture the nodes have a transverse as well as a spiral arrangement.

The lower surface is marked by from 7 to 13 slender, sharply elevated re-

volving lirae separated by flattened interspaces. In contrast to those of the

lateral surface, these lirae are smooth, devoid of nodes or even, as a rule, of

crenulations. Toward the axis, thev do not so much diminish in size as in

spacing, the interspaces near the periphery being somewhat wider than the

lirae, those near the axis somewhat narrower.

The slitband, as already described, is a narrow sulcus indenting the pe-

ripheral angle and defined by two slender lirae. These lirae are smooth and

knife-edged. The upper one contrasts strongly with the nodose lirae just

above; the lower one, on the contrary, rarely differs appreciably from the

lirae of the lower surface except that it is so situated and directed as to make

the lower surface appear to terminate there in a sharp angle. The slitband is

regularly divided by a slender median lira formed of small, closely arranged

nodes. Though resemling the lirae of the upper surface in its moniliform

shape, this lira is more slender and more finely nodose.

The axis is solid. There is no inner lip; instead, the surface of the final

whorl within the aperture is smooth and depressed as if the shell had been

removed by absorption.

The slit was probably shallow though it has not actually been observed.

This inference is suggested by the fact that structure is not shown by speci-

mens which appear to be but little broken at the aperture. Either the slit

must have been short or the breakage greater than it appears to be.

This species is by no means rare and the numerous specimens examined

show considerable variation. Shells have been referred here that differ

notably both in the width of the spiral angle and in the shape of the con-

stituent whorls. In some, the lateral and lower surfaces of the whorls are

less arched than in others; the lateral surface may flare in the lower part

with a prominent edge to the slitband below it; and rather commonly the

lira that bounds the slitband above is a little stronger and more prominent

than the one below it.

The relation between the lirae and the interspaces on the lateral surface

is variable; the lirae may be relatively thick and the interspaces about equal

to them or a trifle smaller; or the lira may be relatively slender and the

interspaces correspondingly broad. Small accessory lirae may occur here and

there in the interspaces, bringing the total number up to 12 or more in some

instances. The size of the nodes and the size of the lirae vary pari passu. The

accessory lirae have smaller nodes than the regular lirae and if extremely

slender they may have no nodes at all. The slitband is sometimes distin-

guished not only in the ways mentioned, but also by being isolated, the

interval between it and the lowest lira above being as wide as the slitband

itself and much wider than the interval between any of the nodose lirae. On

the other hand, this interval may be occupied by a slender accessory lira.

The relation between the lirae and interspaces varies also on the lower sur-

face, some specimens having slender lirae with relatively wide interspaces,

others relatively thick lirae with narrow interspaces.

The nodose character of the revolving lirae is virtually due to slender

transverse ridges developed at short and regular intervals which, on crossing

the revolving lirae, greatly strengthen them. These transverse elements are

rarely to be distinguished as ridges except below the suture; elsewhere they

264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

Figs. 1-29.—For explanation see opposite page.

JUNE 15, 19384 GIRTY: NEW CARBONIFEROUS INVERTEBRATES 265

are almost without visible evidence save that which is furnished by the

nodes. Consequently, the spiral arrangement of the nodes is conspicuous, the

transverse arrangement readily overlooked. Nevertheless such an arrange-

ment must be present if the nodes are formed in the manner indicated, and

in fact, upon close observation, transverse rows can be distinguished, curved

and backward sloping. Except near the suture and for occasional prolonga-

tions, very subdued, the transverse ridges do not appear elsewhere on the

older volutions. They are suggested, it is true, by the nodes on the median

lira of the slitband, but the slitband rarely shows any evidence, even ob-

securely, of the sharply defined lunettes characteristic of that part, whereas

the lower surface commonly appears to lack even growth lines.

With well preserved specimens and with a favorable light, the nodes on

the lateral surface are seen to have the form of arched scales rising obliquely

toward the aperture and in general appearance they may be likened to a

series of minute funnels issuing one from another. They appear to be pro-

duced by transverse lameliae that are extended and thickened where they

cross the revolving lirae. On the same specimen, but with a change of light

these projections look like well defined rounded nodes, and that is how they

usually appear.

As the shell progressed toward maturity the volutions underwent a change

both in shape and in sculpture. The immature whorls were essentially cir-

cular in section, but the later ones became flattened on the outer side ob-

liquely and on the under side horizontally until they became more or less

rhombic in section. The immature sculpture was characterized by a greater

balance between the transverse and spiral markings. At a stage preceding

that characterized by a mature type of sculpture the transverse lirae and

the spiral lirae appear to have been of about equal strength. Not un-

Description of figures

The figures on this plate are of natural size unless otherwise stated.

Figs. 1-7. Cryptacanthia? robusta n.sp. Different views of 4 cotypes. Figs. 1-2.

Dorsal and side views of a large specimen somewhat worn down the middle of the ped-

icle valve. Fig. 3. Dorsal view of a small specimen. Fig. 4. Ventral view of another

specimen. Figs. 5-7. Anterior, dorsal, and ventral view of a fairly complete specimen.

Delaware Mountain formation, Culberson County, Texas (station 6452).

Figs. 8-9. Pleurotomaria worthenioides n.sp. Two views of the holotype, X38.

Brentwood limestone, Winslow quadrangle, Arkansas (station 3733).

Figs. 10-12. Huconospira hermosana n.sp. Three views of the holotype, figure 10

being X2. McCoy formation of Roth, McCoy, Colorado (station 6714).

Figs. 13-16. Pleurotomaria rockymontana n.sp. Views of 4 cotypes. Figures 14-16

are X3. McCoy formation of Roth, McCoy, Colorado (station 6714).

Figs. 17-19. Orestas? reticulatus n.sp. View of 2 of 4 cotypes. 3. The specimen

represented by figure 19 is not only crushed, but as drawn is somewhat tilted, giving

a false impression of the configuration in several respects. The under side is really al-

most flat and almost horizontal, as in figure 17. McCoy formation of Roth, McCoy,

Colorado (station 6714).

Figs. 20-22. Orestes? quadrilineatus n.sp. Views of 3 of 4 cotypes. Fig. 20 is X2,

the others X3. McCoy formation of Roth, McCoy, Colorado (station 6714).

Figs. 23-25. Pleurotomaria aspera n.sp. Views of 2 of 4 cotypes. X4. Figures 24

and 25 represent the same specimen. McCoy formation of Roth, McCoy, Colorado

(station 6714).

Figs. 26, 27. Pleurotomaria woolseyana, n.sp. Views of 1 of 7 cotypes, X5. The

median lira of the slitband is marked by minute nodes, too small to be represented on

the drawing. Brentwood limestone, Winslow quadrangle, Arkansas (station 2849).

Figs. 28, 29. Pleurotomaria millegranosa n.sp. Views of 2 of 7 cotypes, X65.

Brentwood limestone, Winslow quadrangle, Arkansas (figure 28, station 3733; figure 29,

station 3662).

266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

commonly the upper half of the volution will appear to be marked by trans-

verse lirae rendered irregular or nodose by the spiral lirae while the lower

half appears to be marked by spiral lirae rendered regularly nodose by the

transverse lirae. At one stage, probably just prior to the stage just described,

the surface is marked by smooth spiral lirae of considerable strength and at

a stage still earlier by minute irregular spiral striations. The earliest stages

were presumably smooth or marked only by incremental lines.

These specimens show a feature which they share with many other gas-

tropods, but which cannot be accounted for in any acceptable way. I refer

to small round openings or perforations which are obviously superficial as

regards penetration, fairly uniform in size, and fairly regular in distribution.

That is, although they are found only on certain specimens and on certain

parts of others, they almost invariably occur on the tops of the nodes or on

the crests of the lirae. They can hardly be attributed to a boring organism or

on the other hand to abrasion. It is conceivable that they may be due to

some peculiarity of structure or to some peculiarity of chemical composition

(perhaps related to the pigments that produced color markings) and that

variation in this feature was played upon by varying forces in process of

fossilization. As this phenomenon is so common it is mentioned here only

because it sometimes lends a fictitious appearance to those lirae of the lower

surface which are described as smooth and even, but are in this way made

to appear ragged or nodose.

P. millegranosa was found in considerable abundance at station 3662 and

station 3733, and a single characteristic specimen was found at station

-1996d. Elsewhere the species appears to be rare and the other specimens re-

ferred here are few, immature, and more or less ill-preserved. Their identi-

fication is correspondingly qualified.

Pleurotomaria millegranosa resembles Meek and Worthen’s P. granulis-

triata from which, however, it differs considerably in several particulars. The

whorls in P. granulistriata appear to be more regularly rounded and the

lateral surface is traversed by only 3 or 4 revolving lines, whereas P. mille-

granosa has twice that number. The transverse lines which in both species

help to produce the granules on the revolving lirae are in P. granulistriata

more pronounced; in the present species the granules (except in young speci-

mens) rarely show much transverse connection and are predominantly

spiral in their arrangement. Furthermore in P. millegranosa the lower sur-

face has somewhat more numerous revolving lirae and it is also without cross

striae. These differences and others show clearly that P. millegranosa is a

distinct species. It is also distinct from the one which I have called Pleuro-

tomaria woolseyana, though an undoubted resemblance exists between them.

The slitband in P. millegranosa is narrower and more sharply defined and

it is traversed by a single lira which bears regular nodes instead of several

smaller lirae which commonly are without them and the lateral surface is

even less conspicuously marked by transverse lirae.

Brentwood limestone member of the Bloyd shale (early Pennsylvanian) ;

S.W.2 sec. 27, T.138N., R.82W. (station 3733); up draw from Cove Creek,

3 miles north of Cold Spring, Arkansas (station 3662). Winslow quadrangle.

JUNE 15, 1934 NELSON AND GOLDMAN: A NEW MOUSE 267

ZOOLOGY.—A new pocket mouse from Sonora.! E. W. NELSON,

U.S. National Museum and E. A. Gotpman, Biological Survey.

Among the results of the Mexican expedition of Frederic Winthrop

in cooperation with the Biological Survey in 1932, was the collection

of a specimen of Perognathus flavus in Sonora. The known range of

the species is thus materially extended into the low desert region near

the shore of the Gulf of California. The single specimen collected

appears to represent a new and easily recognizable geographic race

here described.

Perognathus flavus sonoriensis, subsp. nov.

Sonora Pocket Mouse

Type.—From Costa Rica Ranch, lower Sonera River, Sonora, Mexico.

No. 250885, 2 adult, skin and skull, U. S. National Museum (Biological

Survey collection), collected by Vernon Bailey and Frederic Winthrop,

December 13, 1932. Original number 11282.

Distribution.—Low desert plains of middle western Sonora.

General characters.—Closely allied to Perognathus flavus flavus, but upper

parts less heavily overlaid with black, owing to shortening of dark tips of

hairs; ears less blackish; black facial markings obsolescent; hind foot ap-

parently shorter; cranial details distinctive.

Color.—Type: Upper parts in general near pinkish buff (Ridgway, 1912),

finely mixed or overlaid with black, the dark hairs most numerous on top of

head and over back; lateral line rich pinkish buff, broad and distinct from

cheeks to thighs, with a narrow downward extension reaching to near fore-

arm; under parts and limbs white; muzzle white; dark, V-shaped, facial

marking narrow and indistinct; ears lined internally with mixed grayish and

brownish hairs; tail dull whitish, nearly unicolor.

Skull——Very similar to that of typical flavus, but rostrum and nasals

shorter; zygomata more widely spreading anteriorly ;molariform teethsmaller.

Measurements.—Type: Hind foot, 15 mm. (no other external measure-

ments available). Skull (type): Length (median line), 19.3; greatest breadth

(across audital bullae at meatus), 11.7; zygomatic breadth (posteriorly),

10.3; interorbital breadth, 4.2; length of nasals, 6.5; width of nasals (in

front of incisors), 2; interparietal, 33.2; maxillary toothrow, 2.8.

Remarks.—P. f. sonoriensis requires close comparison only with typical

flavus of western Texas. Vernon Bailey reported that the specimen made the

type “‘was found dead, drowned after the big rain of December 14, near our

camp on the big flat at the sink of the Sonora River.” In regard to the gen-

eral occurrence of the animal he says: ‘‘On the big sandy mesquite plains

near Llano they were especially numerous and dozens of their characteristic

little round burrows and little hills of earth were all around our camp...

but the mice refused our bait. One left his tail in a trap which showed the

species if not the subspecies. Other places where signs were seen were near

Hermosillo and Magdalena.”’

1 Received March 14, 1934.

268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

ENTOMOLOGY .—The genus Oliarus and its allies in North America

(Homoptera Fulgoridae).1 EK. D. Bau, University of Arizona.

The writer started to prepare a food plant list of the western wax-

hoppers of the Fulgorid family Cizidae but soon found that, as usual,

a considerable number of the species had apparently not been named.

As opportunity afforded he has been taking up one genus at a time

for preliminary revision in order to assign the new forms to their

proper positions. One form was found that did not fit into any existing

genus and the following genus is proposed for its reception.

Oliaronus Ball n. gen.

Intermediate in size and form between Mnemosyne and Oliarus. Resem-

bling a large dark Oliarus with an extremely broad head and long, narrow,

almost parallel margined elytra. Vertex very broad, but little longer than

broad, almost parallel margined, the lateral carinae angled just in front of

the middle and uniting before the apex, forming two large fovae. Front

tumid, rounding over to vertex with only a trace of a carina, broad at the

base and narrowly clasping the extremely long, oval, tumid clypeus. The

ocellus visible and a median carina on front and clypeus indicated. Prono-

tum as short or shorter than in Oliarus, deeply angularly emarginate

posteriorly and projecting into the angularly emarginate head. Mesonotum

faintly 5 carinate. Elytra long and narrow with a smoky subhyaline mem-

brane and strong dark nervures that are heavily setigerous throughout. Ve-

nation striking and distinctive. The subcosta (+R) approaching the costa

which is thickened back to the stigma and the whole thickened area thickly

beset with heavy setigerous punctures. The area between the subcosta and

medius with scattering punctures in the central part. The stigma located

anterior to the end of the clavus, the subcosta and radius both turning in,

the subcosta capturing the radius about half way back from the stigma and

thus forming a very broad area along the costa, which is divided into from

8 to 10 long narrow transverse cells. The female abdomen with a large wax

plate.

Type of the genus Oliaronus tontonus Nn. sp.

Oliaronus tontonus Ball n. sp.

Superficially resembling Oliarus pima Kirk, slightly longer and narrower,

much darker and more heavily setigerous; with a series of transverse vein-

lets back of the stigma. Length 9 10mm, o& 8mm, width 9° 3.5mm.

Structure of the genus, the vertex almost square, rounding over in front,

face much narrower than in O. pima and more tumid. Pronotum very short,

not more than half the length of that in pima, the carina closely margining

the eyes. Elytra long, narrow, and appressed, the apical third slightly ex-

panded, the costal margin with a slight angle near the base, the costal area

back of this very narrow, darkened and heavily pustulate. The stigma very

short and placed far forward, only a little farther from the base than the

apex. Behind this in the expanded area are 8-10 long narrow transverse

cells becoming more oblique as they approach the apex.

1 Received February 28, 1934.

JUNE 15, 1934 BALL: THE GENUS OLIARUS 269

Color, dark smoky brown, the face, margins of vertex and often the meso-

notal tablet testaceous; elytra smoky, the nervures black.

Holotype @, allotype o, and 10 paratypes Eloy, Ariz., Aug. 5, 1932,

one Cline, Ariz. Aug. 2, 1929, all taken from mesquite by the writer; one

paratype, Florence July 25, 1932 (Parker). The transverse cells in the ex-

panded margins of the elytra will at once distinguish the species.

Genus OLIARUS Stal

The genus Olzarus was a difficult one for all early American workers be-

cause the amount of material available was very limited and fragmentary,

many species being represented by a single individual or a single sex and good

series from a single food plant unknown. Five species were named by the

early workers. The writer described three western species in 1902. Fowler in

the Biologia (1904) described nine new species without recognizing any of

those previously described. His material was very limited, half of the species

being described from a single sex. Van Duzee reviewed the United States

forms in 1908 with the first key and added several species in 1912, and others

later. Metcalf (1923) keyed out the species of the eastern United States and

added four more.

The writer has been collecting material and attempting to determine food

plants during the thirty years since his first paper, and now has good series

of twenty-three and representatives of three others of the twenty-eight spe-

cies here recognized as occurring north of the Mexican border. A study of

long series of a number of species has brought out the fact that in this genus

the females may be transversely banded, striped, or spotted but the corre-

sponding males are nearly always plain or nearly so. This has not been pre-

viously recognized and has led to much confusion and synonomy.

A careful study of Fowler’s descriptions and figures suggests the following

disposition of his species; O. excelsus belongs to the vicarius-placitus group

but cannot be placed accurately until a male is found. It appears to resemble

placitus Van D. and examples of that species are at hand from Brownsville,

Tex. O. concinnulus appears to be a distinct species occurring in the U. 8.

O. propior seems to be a distinct species of the broad headed group; the figure

shows an extremely broad face. O. lacteipennis, poorly described without sex

is apparently complectus Ball (1902). O. humeralis, equally poorly described

from a female, is probably the same. O. breviceps described from a female is

aridus Ball (1902) which occurs commonly around the Gulf. O. chirzquensis

and insignior belong to the genus Myndus and are apparently distinct species

in that group. O. nigro-alutaceus is a distinct species occurring north into

Arizona.

Metcalf (1923) did not recognize the difference in color between sexes

which is so striking in this group, nor did he consider the Fowler species and

as a result redescribed concinnulus Fowl. as texanus from Brownsville. The

writer took a good series there in Jan., 1932. Fowler’s drawing of the genitalia

is much better than Metcalf’s figure. Metcalf apparently misidentified dzffi-

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

cilis Van D. which was described from two females, as he figures the male

genitalia as of the “hammer” type. The writer collected in central and south-

ern Florida and at Brownsville, Tex. a small pale species the female of which

exactly fits Van Duzee’s description of difficilis and the male of Metcalf’s

description of vzttatus (holotype male) from Brownsville. The allotype 92 of

vittatus described with the broad vitta was the female of teranus (which

=concinnulus Fowl.), while the true female of vittatus (which = difficilis Van

D.) has the remnants of a transverse band as described by Van Duzee.

PRELIMINARY KEY TO THE SPECIES OF OLIARUS

A Female with more or less definitely transversely banded elytra (often

three dashes on costal area). Verticies rather long, narrow, deeply

sunken between high lateral carinae that are alternately light and dark.

(Male genital projections sometimes greatly enlarged at apex.)

B Male genital projection enlarged, plates hammer like................

Bods eR cl ee (Fla. Tex.) 1. placitus V.D. (N.C.) 2. montanus Mete.

BB Male genital projection triangular.

C Nervures all heavily dotted. Species large....................+-..

..(SE) 3. vicartus Wk. (NE) 4. quinquelineatus (N.C.) 5. vitreus Mete.

CC Nervures on the basal half of elytra pale, punctures scarcely show-

ing. Species smalkc. eo. i

A ee (Fla. Tex.) 6. difficilis V.D. (Fla.) 7. chuliotus Ball

AA Females with markings on elytra more or less linear (or oblique) or

obscure (no dashes along the costal area, evoptatus excepted). Vertex

variable, often broad and shallow, male genital projection never en-

larged.

D Species broad, often short and broad, the vertex as broad as long or

not over one third longer than broad.

E Elytra smoky. Females often with dashes along costa and occasion-

ally a transverse band.

F Elytra uniformly smoky, face definitely carinate................

FOS ie: «diac Seine Senet Rear mee eee (NW) 8. exoptatus V.D.

FF Elytra deep smoky, twice interrupted with white. Face tumid,

polished «ib 0 eet seen eee eee (Ariz.) 9. papagonus Ball

EE Elytra hyaline, costal area immaculate.

G ¢@ 8-10 mm. Elytra milky, the nervures darkened but scarcely

punctured.

H 2 10mm. Hlytra with markings... ° |: (Ariz.) 10. poma Kirk

HH 2 8mm. Elytra more or less ornamented..................

... 9 (Ariz.) 11. nogalanus Ball (South) 12. aridus Ball

GG @ 7mm. or less. Elytra various.

I General body color dark.

J @ witha heavy zig zag pattern on elytra... >... eee

tN oe Re kara ig (SW) 13. californicus V.D.

JJ 2 almost unmarked.

K Face tawny with large spots....-.........- 2.5: = eee

(Western 14. hespertus V.D. (Calif.) 15. truncatus V.D.

KK Face black, unmarked. Stigma small............:.--3.

eee iin ae eee, OS, eee ae eer (Calif.) 16. fidus V.D.

II General body color tan or lighter. >..9. 2.2. =. >. 2 eee

JUNE 15, 1934 BALL: THE GENUS OLIARUS 271

DD Species more or less elongate, the vertex more than 4 longer than

broad.

L Elytra hyaline or subhyaline, not deeply smoky.

M Body dark (or brown). The nervures dark or dark punctured.

N Elytra with the apical nervure and margin concolorous with

the adjoining nervures.

O The nervures of the elytra only faintly or sparsely dotted or

else the nervures dark so that the punctures are obscure.

P Front more than twice as broad across the antennae as at

base. Faun colored with a pair of yellow spots. Large.......

ie EERE ae WA a arn 3 San tn (Fla.) 18. slossont V.D.

PP Face much narrower, not twice wider on antennae than

at base, dark with the carinae light.

Q Large (3 mm. broad) Dark with the nervures dark

Troe hotie,. .2 cee cee... 2 ee (Ariz.) 19. corvinus Ball

QQ Smaller (2 mm. broad) paler or dark with the nervures

pale.

R Spine of anal segment of 2 produced into an acute

point extending into the genital cavity, 3rd anteapical

cell wanting, the fourth very broad at apex..........

nee eey th Ma, Teele Geis Subtropical) 20. complectus Ball

RR Anal segment of male without a spine extending into

genital cavity.

S 6 anteapical cells, the third but little longer than wide

IO «ALS NG a yma Ie Rea Pets (Ariz.) 21. yavapanus Ball

SS 5 anteapical cells the third wanting..............

ce A eae a ae (Ariz.) 22. coconinus Ball

OO The nervures at the base of the elytra pale, heavily and

evenly dotted.

T Elytra slightly tawny or smoky, the dots and cross nervures

MOGs PLOWMM EMIS 4 une yale (Fla.) 23. lttoralis Ball

TT Elytra hyaline with heavy dots and cross nervures.

U Vertex broad at base, the lateral fovae not half its length

ep a tec. See tas ate: 24. concinnulus Fowl.

UU Vertex narrow, the lateral fovae more than half its

ra nes ae ccs (Ariz. & Mex.) 25. apache Ball

NN Elytra with the apical margins narrowly ivory; the nervures,

at least on the apical portion, dark with heavy bristles.......

0 2 at et RR Rae NIE ne re en (Ariz.) 26. altanus Ball

MM Body tawny, the nervures pale except at apex................

sa ducreyi ge ae A aes A SO (Arid W.) 27. dondonius Ball

LL Elytra deep smoky or black, or at least the apical third dark.

V Elytra all smoky.

W Small (not 2mm. wide) costal margin of elytra dark...........

SE Saree a ee ae (SW & Mex. ) 28. nigro-alutaceus Fowl.

WW Large (4mm. wide) costal margin ma ErOnvityaw Niet ee

50 i MOE MRE Rae (North) 29. cinnamomeus Prov.

VV Apical third of elytra deep smoky..... (North) 30. humilis Say

Oliarus chuliotus Ball n. sp.

Size and form of difficilis Van D. nearly, slightly smaller and decidedly

whiter. Length 4.5—5 mm.

Vertex slightly longer and narrower than in difficilis, the front much nar-

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6°

rower with the basal fork of the carina subobsolete, the front slightly longer

than the clypeus, while in difficilis it is reversed. Mesonotum with the five

carinae distinct, while dzfficilis shows only three. Male styles short and stout

with a stout hook at right angles extending one third of their length beyond

the short pygofers. In difficilis the styles are longer, the hooked portion

shorter and stouter and the whole not extending beyond the elongated py-

gofer margins.

Color pale cinnamon brown above and below; the face without white

spots, an elongated white spot on the carinae of vertex, the anterior fovae

black, a dark brown area outside the lateral carinae of mesonotum. Elytra

milky subhyaline over a dark abdomen; the apical third slightly smoky

with the transverse nervures infuscated with brown; sometimes a brown

cloud inside the stigma. In the females, an elongated black spot back of the

middle of the commissure.

Holotype 9 April 17, 1927, allotype & Apr. 18, 1927, paratype females

Apr. 17, 1927, and Apr. 15, 1928, all taken by the writer at Sanford, Fla. A

female, Homestead, Fla., May 15, 1928. A male, Eustice, Fla. Apr. 6, 1926,

taken by the writer and a male, Haw Creek, Fla., Oct. 8, 1887. Strikingly

distinct in color and genitalia.

Oliarus papagonus Ball n. sp.

Resembling exoptatus Van D. but slightly smaller, darker with rather in-

definite white bands across the elytra. Elytra smoky, face and mesonotum

black, polished with the carinae obscure. Length 4-5 mm.

Vertex narrower than in exoptatus or fidus Van D., a little longer than

wide, parallel margined instead of broadening behind as in those species. The

basal tablet of vertex narrow and forming a long oval in front, instead of

very broad and almost truncate before the tumid apex as in the species

mentioned. The whole face evenly convex, polished with the carinae almost

obsolete. Mesonotum broad, tumid, polished with obscure carinae. Elytra

broad, short, with prominent nervures and heavy setigerous bristles. Male

styles with the reflexed portion little wider than the shank and only slightly

exceeding the pygofers, the dorsal membrane broad and elevated into a

roof-like structure over the styles. ,

Color, dark smoky, with indistinct white bands across the elytra. Face and

mesonotum shining black, the latter margined outside with white. Vertex

dark, the carinae rather broadly light.

Holotype @, allotype &, and 13 paratypes Eloy, Ariz., June 3, 1933, all

taken by the writer from a few mesquite trees growing in an area where

Lycium sp. was abundant.

Oliarus nogalanus Ball n. sp.

Smaller and narrower than pima Kirk, the female more definitely orna-

mented, resembling aridus Ball but darker and more slender, much more

heavily clothed with setigerous bristles than in either of the others. Length

6-8 mm., width 2 mm.

Vertex, within the carinae and omitting the fovae, as long as wide instead

of wider than long as in arzdus or nearly twice wider than long as in pima.

Face slightly narrower than in aridus. Male styles with the shanks narrow

and the hooked portion broad and roundingly right angled, extending con-

siderably beyond the short rounding lateral margins of the pygofers. The

dorsal membrane very short and rounding with a slight elevation in the

JUNE 15, 1934 BALL: THE GENUS OLIARUS 273

center. In arzdus the styles are acutely angled, the pygofers long and the

dorsal membrane projects in a long triangle, while in pima the hook is still

thicker and the dorsal membrane is both longer and broader.

Color brown; a pair of creamy spots on margins of face just below the

antennae; the carinae of vertex and pronotum white, elytra in female slightly

milky, the nervures dark, the bristles darker, with the forks and cross

nervures marked with smoky, which in heavily marked individuals coalesces

into two oblique bands toward the apex.

Holotype 9, Nogales, Aug. 7, 1932, allotype o, Santa Rita Mts., July

19, 1931, and 14 paratypes taken with the types and from Douglas, Pata-

gonia and Tucson. All taken by the writer in the mountains of Arizona.

Oliarus corvinus Ball n. sp.

Resembling complectus Ball, but larger and darker with heavy pilosity.

Black with the carinae orange. Length 5-6 mm.

Vertex relatively long and narrow with the fovae long, slender, reaching

the middle of vertex. Base of front narrower and more heavily carinate than

in complectus. Pronotum larger and more heavily carinate than in complectus,

elytra longer with the nervures darker and more heavily clothed with

setigerous punctures. The third anteapical either reduced or wanting, the

fourth about as wide as the adjoining cells instead of much wider as in com-

plectus. Male styles stout, the hook broad, evenly rounding, exceeding the

truncate pygofers by nearly their width. Dorsal hood moderately broad and

almost evenly rounding except for a slight central depression, instead of

rather narrow and acutely produced into the genital cavity as in com-

plectus.

Color black, all carinae broadly orange. Elytra hyaline or slightly smoky,

the nervures dark and heavily clothed with dark hairs. Genitalia cinnamon.

Holotype @, allotype o&, and 12 paratypes, Patagonia Aug. 8, 1932.

This species is widely distributed in southern Arizona and is easily dis-

tinguished by its size.

OLIARUS COMPLECTUS Ball

O. complectus Ball Can. Ent. 34: p. 152. 1902.

(O. lactetpennis Fowl. Bio. Cent. Am. Homop. Vol. 1, p. 98. 1904)

(O. humeralis Fowl. op. cit. p. 94)

(O. franciscanus V.D. Cat. p. 732 [Not Stal])

This species was described from 25 examples from Haiti, Md., Kans.,

Ariz., and Colo. The present study brings out the fact that there were at

least two and probably three species included in the original material. In

order to definitely limit it to the species intended in the original description,

the holotype is fixed on a female from Port Au Prince, Haiti, and the allo-

type on a male from the same place, both examples so labeled and in the

author’s collection.

Thus limited the species may be known by the fact that the anal segment

projects down into the genital cavity in the form of a median spine. Ex-

amples are at hand from Haiti, many places in Florida, southern Arizona and

adjacent Mexico. Van Duzee places this species as a synonym of franciscanus

of Stal, largely on size and distribution no doubt, as Stal’s description is

274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

purely generic. As there are at least four species treated in this paper that

would meet these requirements, it seems best to consider Stal’s species as

unknown until such time as our west coast forms are better known and

Stal’s type can be critically studied.

Oliarus yavapanus Ball n. sp.

Resembling complectus but with a narrower vertex, and 6 anteapicals, paler

with smoky elytra. Length o' 4mm.; 2 nearly 6 mm.

Vertex twice longer than wide, the fovae scarcely half its length, the

lateral carinae high, almost foliaceous. In profile the vertex and face form

a slightly obtuse angle. Mesonotum with five definite carinae, the inner pair

strongly sinuate and together with the outer pair enclosing an oval compart-

ment posteriorly. Elytra long and slender, six apical cells the third little

longer than wide. Male with the anal segment forming a narrow and uni-

formly rounding hood back of the long, narrow, angularly hooked, dark

brown styles.

Color dark brown to black, the carinae broadly orange, elytra slightly

smoky in females, rarely so in the males. The darkening emphasized on the

apical cells. The nervures distinctly but not conspicuously punctured. The

stigma not as prominent as in complectus or corvinus.

Holotype 2, allotype o, and a pair of paratypes, Ashfork Aug. 16,

1929, six paratypes Ashfork July 15, 1929, three Yarnell Heights July 21,

1929, and two from the same place Aug. 20, 1929. All collected by the writer

from the higher table lands or mountains of Arizona.

Oliarus coconinus Ball n. sp.

Stouter than complectus Ball, resembles yavapanus Ball, but with a broader

vertex and only five anteapicals. Female elytra heavily smoky posteriorly ;

male hyaline. Length «1 4.5mm.; @ 5.5mm.

Vertex broader behind than in yavapanus especially in the female. In

profile the vertex meets the front in a right angle. Elytra long and slender

with five anteapical cells, the fourth scarcely broader than the others, the

stigma elongate. Male anal hood broad on the lateral margins, deeply emar-

ginate medially, where it is distant from the short, stout, bright yellow styles

that terminate in round slightly divergent plates.

Color dark brown or black, the carinae narrowly orange. Elytra smoky

in the female especially on the transverse nervures, hyaline in the male,

nervures dark, sparsely and inconspicuously ornamented with setigerous

punctures. A dark line along the median portion of the sutural margin.

Holotype 2, allotype o, and one male paratype Williams July 13, 1929,

a female Aug. 15, 1929, a female Flagstaff Aug. 7, 1929, and two ’ males

Huachuca Mts., Aug. 2, 1931, all taken by the writer ‘from the table lands or

mountains in Arizona.

Oliarus littoralis Ball n. sp.

Form of complectus Ball nearly, slightly shorter and stouter, resembles

sementinus Ball in form and color, but with a much longer, narrower head.

Pale brown with the carinae light; elytra pale tawny with the nervures punc-

tured and darker towards apex. Length 4.5 to 5.5 mm.

Vertex and mesonotum about as in yavapanus Ball, the elytra with six

anteapicals, punctures on nervures strong and extending almost to base.

JUNE 15, 1934 BALL: THE GENUS OLIARUS 275

Male anal segment broad and emarginate as in coconinus Ball, the styles

stout with long angularly reflexed heads.

Color, pale tawny; the vertex and mesonotum pale to dark brown with

the carinae broadly light. Front and clypeus dark brown or darker, but

with the carinae broadly light. Elytra tawny subhyaline, the nervures pale

tawny and heavily punctured to the cross nervures beyond which they shade

to smoky.

Holotype 2, allotype o, and seven pairs of paratypes taken by the writer

at Tampa, Fla. Sept. 10, 1927. This tawny species resembles dondonzus but

is much darker, with the styles broader and more hairy, the hood with the

lateral flaps overhanging the genital chamber, while in dondonius the hood

is only a marginal line. Besides the type set, the writer has taken this species

in a number of places along the east coast of Florida.

OLIARUS CONCINNULUS Fowler

O. concinnulus Fowl. Bio. Cent. Am. Homop. Vol. 1, p. 92. 1904.

(O. texanus Mete. Journ. El. Mitch. Sci. Soe. 38: 181. 1923)

(O. vittatus (2) Mete. Op. cit. 181. [Not holotype <])

This is a short broad species, (4-6 mm.), but the vertex is more than 3

longer than its width. The elytra are milky with heavily punctured nervures,

pale at the base but becoming dark beyond the cross nervures. The stigma

is large and there are usually two black spots in an oblique line from it to

the scutellum. The female often has a broad, longitudinal, slightly interrupted

stripe near the inner margin of each elytron.

Habitat, Vera Cruz and Guerrero, Mexico (Fowler) and Brownsville,

Texas. Fowler suggested that this species may have to be referred to O.

lunatus Fab. as represented by material which the writer sent him. That

material, however, represents a very distinct species.

Oliarus apache Ball n. sp.

Resembling concinnulus Fowl. in size and form, darker with a narrower

vertex. Black with the carinae on head narrowly light. Elytra milky with

close set, black punctures, each bearing a long curved black hair. Length

4—6 mm.

Vertex much narrower than in concinnulus, the fovae long, extending

more than half way to base. Mesonotum with three, heavy, parallel carinae,

the intermediate pair only faintly indicated. The anal segment much more

extended than in concinnulus, the styles more slender and asymmetrical,

the left one larger and slightly notched at apex.

Color black above and below, the carinae on vertex and pronotum nar-

rowly light, a pair of white spots on the carinae between the eyes and an-

nother pair on the extended apical margins of the front. Mesonotal carinae

concolorous or slightly orange, elytra milky, the nervures white through-

out, except the marginal nervures, heavily and closely punctured with black

and clothed with long curved black hairs. The forks and cross-nervures

broadly black. The stigma coriaceous white except for aggregated punctures

on the boundary nervure.

Holotype @, allotype o, and 4 paratypes May 15, 1933 and nine para-

types May 19, 1929, all taken by the writer at Tucson, Ariz. This strikingly

276 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

distinct species has been taken in the Creosote deserts around Tucson, at

Patagonia and Tinajas Altas in Ariz. and near Hermosillo, Mexico.

Oliarus altanus Ball n. sp.

Resembling apache Ball, but longer, slenderer with extremely long narrow

elytra, and coarse irregular veins that are definitely black in the apical

region against the broad white margin. Length 5 mm.

Vertex slightly broader and deeper than in apache, the front longer and

narrower. Elytra extremely long and slender, the inner fork of the radius

approaching and paralleling the medius for some distance, nervures and cells

in the apical portion tending to irregularity with the third apical narrow and

curved. The stigmal cell extremely long and narrow, four times as long as

its width.

Color, black, the bounding carinae, except on mesonotum, narrowly light,

median carinae of front tawny, a pair of semi-circular white spots on the

carinae adjacent to the eyes. Elytra milky white, the bounding nervure

broadly white, the remaining nervures either all dark or dark spotted at

base and all dark towards apex in striking contrast to the margin.

Holotype @, allotype o, and two male paratypes taken by the writer at

Tinajas Altas, Ariz. May 17, 1932.

Oliarus dondonius Ball n. sp.

Resembling sementinus Ball in color, slightly smaller, but with a vertex

one half as wide. Form of yavapanus Ball nearly, much paler with a pale

stigma. Pale tawny with a castaneous mesonotum. Length 4.5-5.5 mm.

Vertex as in yavapanus nearly, the fovae narrowed, pronotum much

shorter and rarely reaching the epaulets at the shoulders. Elytra slightly

broader with only 5 anteapical cells and a narrow stigma, half longer than

its basal width.

Color, pale tawny, the elytra paler. The face in the males, the lateral

fovae and sometimes longitudinal stripes on the mesonotum, brown. Elytra

with the nervures on the basal half indistinct, becoming tawny, towards the

apex with the cross nervures smoky.

Holotype @, allotype o’, and 10 paratypes, Tucson, Ariz. July 24, 1930,

A paratypes, Grand Junction, Aug. 7, 1906, all taken by the writer on sea

blite (Dondia). This species is common in alkaline areas from western

Colorado through Utah to Arizona and Sonora, Mexico. It is a smaller and

much narrower headed species than sementinus which it otherwise resembles.

ADVANCE SUMMARIES

BIOLOGY .—Viability of bacteria in air.1 W. ¥F. Wxuts, Harvard School

of Public Health. (Communicated by W. H. BRADLEY.)

A technique has been devised for study of the viability of droplet nuclei

infection in air, by determining the differential disappearance rates in a con-

trolled atmosphere of the infection and of the nuclei, and will be described

more fully in a later publication. Preliminary experiments demonstrate that

1 Presented before Section N. of the American Association for the Advancement of

Science, Dec. 27, 1933. Received April 24, 1934.

JUNE 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 277

the viability of pathogenic micro-organisms constitutes a more important

limiting factor in the localization of droplet nuclei infection than does the

rate at which droplet nuclei settle from the atmosphere.

Since the rate of fall of small droplets is proportional to the surface, and

the rate of change of surface is constant, the distance a small droplet falls

before ceasing to be a droplet is proportional to the fourth power of the di-

ameter. Droplets less than 0.1 mm. in diameter, expelled from the nose or

mouth, will dry under ordinary atmospheric conditions before reaching the

ground. Droplet nuclei from broth culture of B. subtilis, atomized into a

still chamber of 200 cubic feet capacity, were recovered from the air after

several days. Though resistant organisms could be recovered from the air of

the experimental chamber up to a week after inoculation, Pfeiffer’s bacillus

was not recovered after one hour.

Four organisms typical of infections of the passages of the upper respira-

tory tract, B. pneumoniae, B. diphtheriae, Streptococcus hemolyticus and

Streptococcus viridans, were recovered from the air in small numbers forty-

eight hours after inoculation, although in rapidly decreasing numbers. Or-

ganisms typical of the digestive tract, B. coli, B. typhosus, B. paratyphoid

A, and B. dysenteriae Hiss Y, were not recovered after eight hours and were

invariably absent at the end of the first day. Bacteriophage was recovered

and identified after being suspended in air for 24 hours. It had decreased in

a manner characteristic of microorganisms.

CONCLUSIONS

A distinction must be made between droplets, droplet nuclei, and dust, in

considering air-borne infection. Droplets larger than 0.2 mm. are localized

by rate of fall to the vicinity of the source both in time and space. Droplet

nuclei derived from evaporation of droplets less than 0.1 mm. diameter are

dispersed in time and space. Localization of dust also varies with the size

of the particles. Droplet infection is largely localized and concentrated,

whereas Droplet nuclei infection tends toward dispersion and dilution and

the possibility of infection is limited in time chiefly by the viability of the

microorganisms. Dust infection may be localized either in space by the local-

ization of particles, or in time by the viability of the infection.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

NOTES .

National Academy of Sciences.—The spring meeting of the National Acad-

emy of Sciences was held in Washington, April 23, 24 and 25, under the

presidency of Dr. W. W. CampsxE.. The principal evening address was de-

livered by Dr. Epwin Hussxe of the Mount Wilson Observatory of the

278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 6

Carnegie Institution of Washington, on ‘‘The Realm of the Nebulae.” Dr.

HvusBs.e described the present Observable Region as having a diameter of

some 600 million light years, and containing approximately 100 million

known spiral nebulae. A substantial enlargement of the Observable Region,

the speaker stated, can be expected after the completion of the 200-inch

reflector now under construction.

Spectrographic detection of large proportions of methane in the atmos-

pheres of the major outer planets was announced at the meeting through a

telegram sent by Director V. M. SiipHer of Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff,

Ariz. The tell-tale lines in the spectra of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Nep-

tune were interpreted in considerable part by Dr. ArRTHuR ADEL of the

University of Michigan. Presence of massive quantities of methane in the

atmospheres of the giant planets has a possible significance for the still un-

solved riddle of their surface temperatures, Dr. Henry Norris Russeuy of

Princeton University said, in commenting on Dr. SLIPHER’s telegram. At a

temperature of —161.4 degrees Centigrade this gas becomes a liquid, un-

able to betray its presence through reflected light rays. Of course, under the

different gravity and atmospheric-density conditions on the great planets

the boiling point of methane might be different.

The intensity of a sound and its frequency are quite distinct physical

attributes, but the corresponding ‘psychological attributes of loudness and

pitch are not so independent; a loud tone sounds lower in pitch than a high

one, and a low tone sounds unduly loud, it was indicated by a report of the

National Academy of Sciences delivered at the annual meeting by Dr.

Harvey FuetcHER, of the Bell Telephone Laboratories. It was found that

a 50-cycle tone with an intensity which is 10,000 times that of a just barely

audible sound appears just as loud as a 1,000 cycle tone with an intensity

1,000,000,000 times that of the threshold. The apparent pitch of a tone also

depends upon its intensity. The pitch of a 200-cycle tone was heard as being

as much as a quarter of an octave lower at the very high intensities than at

the low intensities. However, when the tones were of very high frequencies,

near 2,000 or 3,000 cycles, such changes of apparent pitch with intensity were

not observed.

Distilled water, replacing ordinary tap water containing its usual quota of

highly dilute mineral substances, produces anesthesia in plant cells, seem-

ingly by dissolving out of them some unknown organic stuff. This observa-

tion was presented by Dr. W. J. V. OsrerHoutT and Dr. 8. E. H1ut of the

Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. When cells of Nitella are placed

in distilled water they presently become completely anesthetic, transmit-

ting no variations in potential along the protoplasm. This loss of sensitivity

is hastened by the addition of acids or alkalis, but slowed by the addition of

calcium. The anesthetic state passes off again when the cells are replaced in

tap water.

Honored after his death, for his researches on the skull of ancient Peking

Man, Dr. Davipson BLAck was given the posthumous award of the Elliot

Medal for 1931, which carries with it a cash honorarium of $200. Dr. BLack

was designated to receive the award before his death in Peiping on March 15;

the medal and check were placed in the hands of Dr. FRANK DAwson ADAMS,

foreign associate of the Academy, on behalf of Dr. Buack’s widow. The first

award of the Charles Doolittle Walcott Medal and honorarium of $1,350

was made to Dr. Davip Waitt of the U. 8S. Geological Survey, in recognition

of his work on the pre-Cambrian algae of the Grand Canyon of Arizona. Other

JUNE 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 279

honors bestowed by the Academy were: the Agassiz Medal, awarded to Dr.

ByoRN HELLAND-HANSEN of the Geophysical Institute, Bergen, Norway;

the Public Welfare Medal, awarded to Dr. DAvip FartRrcuixp, of the U.S.

Department of Agriculture; and the Elliot Medal and honorarium of $200

for 1930, awarded to Dr. GEorGE ELLEeTT CoGHILL, Wistar Institute of An-

atomy and Biology, Philadelphia.

The American Geophysical Union.—Penetrating radiations resembling

cosmic rays, but softer, are thrown upward into the air from the tops of

thunderstorm clouds, like spray from the tops of waves. They come to earth

again to the eastward of the cloud, drawn down by the earth’s magnetic

field. These radiations, which are made up of negative electrons, were de-

seribed before the meeting of the American Geophysical Union here by Dr.

B. F. J. ScHONLAND of the University of Capetown, who is visiting in the

United States. Dr. SCHONLAND stated that when he began his investigations

of penetrating radiations caused by lightning, he thought that he would find

electrons poured directly earthward as well as upward into the higher levels

of the air; but this proved not to be the case. He has found that lightning-

engendered radiations can influence cosmic-ray detecting instruments as

much as a thousand miles away from.a thunderstorm, and he stated that

another investigator claims for them an even greater radius of action. But

their effect is always felt to the eastward of the storm that gives them birth,

never toward the west. The research was undertaken with the idea of finding

out whether cosmic rays were entirely the product of thunderstorms, as one

student of the subject had claimed. Dr. SCHONLAND is convinced that this is

not the case; nevertheless, there are enough lightning-caused penetrating

radiations to make it necessary for researchers on cosmic rays to take them

into account, if their figures are not to be falsified by thunderstorms.

New 40-inch reflector at Naval Observatory—The new 40-inch reflector

built for the U. 8. Naval Observatory under the direction of Grorcr W.

RitcHry has been completed. The instrument is designed especially for

spectrographic observation. Figured on. new curves calculated by Mr.

RitcHey and HENRI CHRETIEN, it is expected to be as efficient as a reflector

of several times its aperture based on the conventional paraboloid figure.

It is the first air cooled telescope. The entire observatory building is built

of very light metal, with double walls, so that at night the temperature will

soon become the same as the surrounding air. With more massive buildings,

the stone and brick absorb heat all day, and give it off long into the night,

producing objectionable air currents which spoil the clearness of the tele- -

scopic images. In order to keep the telescope at its night time temperature, a

felt canopy will be placed over it in the daytime. This is connected with air

cooling equipment, so that all day the telescope will be kept at the temper-

ature expected that night.

The tube of the telescope is constructed with a unique system of counter-

poises, so as to prevent bending. Convenience of the observer is also remem-

bered, and he is provided with a movable observing platform which auto-

matically keeps him at the eyepiece as the telescope turns. Thus he does not

need to interrupt his work frequently to adjust himself.

U. S. Weather Bureau.—With the cooperation of the War, Navy, and

Commerce Departments, the Weather Bureau of the U. 8. Department of

Agriculture, on July 1, 1934, will launch part of its new program for increas-

ing the accuracy of its forecasts, W. R. Greaa, chief, has announced. This

hew program, among other things, calls for more stations for upper air

280 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 6

soundings by airplanes and for more frequent daily forecasts. The part

covering more airplane observations can now be put into effect.

The air-mass method of forecasting, long recognized as an aid to accuracy

and to longer forecasts, has never been practicable in the Weather Bureau’s

daily routine because of the difficulty of getting the needed upper-air observa-

tions. Facilities offered by Army and Navy pilots at more than a dozen

selected stations, at six specially-equipped Weather Bureau airway stations,

and at one cooperative station at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

now remove this difficulty. The Department of Commerce will provide for

the transmission of the observations from the points where they are taken

to. the forecasting stations. According to the present plan, observation

flights will be confined to one a day, each beginning about half past five

(E.S.T.) in the morning and reaching a maximum height of 17,000 feet above

sea level. These flights will be made by Army and Navy pilots and by com-

mercial aviators hired for the purpose by the Weather Bureau. Meteorolo-

gists of the Weather Bureau assigned to the air-observation stations will

compute, code, and transmit to forecast stations the information the meteor-

ographs bring down. This information will give forecasters an important

supplement to the morning surface observations in drawing the weather

maps to be used in making the daily forecasts.

Children’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor.—The complete, detailed

report of the study of maternal deaths in 15 states made by the Children’s

Bureau at the request and with the cooperation of state medical societies

and state boards of health is now in press and will appear at an early date.

Interest in this subject has been intensified by discussion of the recently pub-

lished report of similar study in New York City by the New York Academy

of Medicine. The Children’s Bureau study was made before that of the New

York Academy of Medicine which used the same schedule or questionnaire.

In both studies the material was gathered by physicians through personal

interviews with those who attended the women who died and in both studies

the international list of causes of death was used as the basis of analysis.

The most obvious differences between the two studies lie in the area covered:

15 states in the children’s Bureau study, 47 per cent of deaths being in

urban and 53 per cent in rural areas, whereas the New York City deaths

were all urban; the larger number of deaths: 7,400 in the Children’s Bureau

study and 2,000 in the New York study; and the greater detail of analysis

in the Children’s Bureau study.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Dr. Aurs Hrpuicka, of the U. 8. National Museum, is again spending the

summer in archaeological work among the Alaskan islands. He has with him

a group of student volunteers.

Dr. F. A. Wourr, chief of the telephone standards section, National

Bureau of Standards, has been designated as a member of the Committee of

Departmental Representatives appointed at the instance of Admiral Peo-

ples, Director of the Procurement Division, to determine the cost of the

Government’s communication services, including telephone, telegraph, and

radio.

CONTENTS|

Oniginat Papers”

Zoology.—A new pocket mouse from Sonora. E, w. Nexsox and |

Cee i ee

an ee eS

ScIENTIFIC Norss AND News.. eeecevoevceeeevevece Se ° Le es us eeneee

aes

ASHINGTON ACADEMY

JULY 15, 1934 | | No. 7

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Vou. 24 JuLY 15, 1934 | No.7

MATHEMATICS.—Spinors.! OswaLtp VEBLEN, The Institute for

Advanced Study, Princeton.

The theory of spinors had its origin in the search for a suitable

mathematical tool to use in the extension of the quantum theory to

the field of relativity. The quantum mechanics in the form that was

given to it by Schroedinger describes the motion of a particle by

means of the concept of a wave. It is not, as people used to say, that

a physicist thinks of an electron as a particle on Mondays, Wednes-

days, and Fridays, and as a wave on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Satur-

days, and on Sundays prays for a Messiah who will lead him back to

the belief which he held on Mondays. The actual situation is quite

different from that. He works with a mathematical theory which he

visualizes for some purposes by means of the classical conception of a

particle and for other purposes by means of the imagery of the wave

theory. The wave that he works with is just a funetion which satisfies

a partial differential equation of a certain type. The physicist be-

lieves that by applying a certain integration process to the solution

of this partial differential equation he is able to express the proba-

bility that the particle which he thinks of shall be in a certain pre-

assigned position with a certain preassigned velocity.

The whole thing is an attempt to find mathematical formulas and

language for the discussion of phenomena which did not make sense

in terms of the language and formulas which the physicists had been

using before. Some people actually go so far as to say that we shall

have to make real changes in our habits of thought and use of lan-

guage. But I am referring to these deep and difficult questions only

incidentally. I am concerned with something much more superficial.

1 This is the fourth of the Joseph Henry Lectures of the Philosophical Society

presented March 31, 1934, in honor of the first president of the Philosophical Society.

his paper was prepared from stenographic notes taken at the time of the lecture.

Received June 2, 1934.

281

282 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

The spinor theory grew out of the attempt to reconcile the wave

mechanics with the relativity theory. The wave mechanics was at first

developed so as to fit into the framework of the classical dynamics.

On the other hand, the theory of relativity has taken such a firm hold

of all branches of physics that everyone is convinced that a really

sound theory must take it into account. Therefore, the problem was

to find a relativistic formulation of the quantum theory.

Also there was experimental evidence indicating that from the

partial point of view an electron should not be considered just as a

mathematical point but rather as a thing which is capable of a rotary

motion, or spin, at the same time that it has a motion of translation.

The problem of bringing this concept into the theory of the electron

turned out to be closely related to the problem of giving a relativistic

formulation to the differential equations of the electron.

What looks like a very good solution of the problem was developed

by Dirac, building upon previous work of Pauli and others. Dirac

modified the Schroedinger differential equation not only by changing

its form but by replacing it by a system of four equations with four

unknown wave functions, y, ¥’, ¥3, ¥4. These four functions were

related among themselves in what seemed to be a very intricate

manner, but they were evidently the components of a physical

quantity of some sort.

When I speak of a physical quantity I am thinking of something

which has components analogous to the components of a vector.

When you take the three rectangular components of a velocity you

recognize that you are taking components of something which has a

physical existence. In the same way the quantities which appeared

in the Dirac equation were evidently components of some sort of a

physical object. But they behaved quite differently from the com-

ponents of any previously known physical quantity and thus Bao

vided a puzzle for the mathematical physicist.

The problem was clearly formulated by the late Professor Ehren-

fest. He said, in affect: We are familiar with such things as vectors

which are the tools of classical physics. Since the advent of the rela-

tivity theory we have got acquainted with the theory of tensors and

have been led to believe that any physical phenomena could be de-

scribed by means of tensors. Now comes a new kind of a physical

quantity which is not a tensor and yet has to be taken into account.

It has something to do with a spinning electron. Let us call it a

spinor. Then he called on the mathematicians to provide a theory of

spinors, if possible, analogous to the theory of tensors.

JULY 15, 1934 VEBLEN: SPINORS 283

The elements of such a theory were in fact already available in

Diraec’s own work and in the previous work of Darwin and Pauli. The

Dirac equation had also been adequately discussed from the point

of view of the underlying group theory by Wey] in his book on group

theory and quantum mechanics, so that implicitly a good deal of the

requisite theory was in existence. Nevertheless, so long as it was pos-

sible for a mathematical physicist of the order of magnitude of Ehren-

fest to regard it as obscure there remained something of a problem.

Promptly in response to Ehrenfest’s challenge, a format theory of

spinors was produced by van der Waerden. This was a theory of two-

component spinors which was adequate to the Dirac equation in its

original form. But here one has to say, as in so many other cases, that

a fully satisfactory account of the subject was possible only after

the original theory had been highly generalized. It was in fact so in

this case. The original Dirac equation was relevant to the special

relativity. The extension to general relativity was indicated first by

Weyl and Fock and the system of mathematical equations thus de-

termined has been studied by Schouten, Schroedinger, Einstein and

Mayer, and other mathematical physicists. From these studies there

has now emerged a clear conception of a class of physical objects

which we call spinors and which can be precisely defined.

I shall try to state this definition. In doing so I propose to repeat a

number of well-known elementary ideas leading up to the one step

which introduces the definition. After this is done the whole matter

may seem rather trivial, but it is nevertheless, true that after this

foundation is laid the working out of the theory becomes a matter of

technical detail.

We start with elementary geometry. How are the points in a room

to be described? The first step in such a description is to give names

to the points so as to distinguish them, and we agree to use numbers

as names. A point will have a first name xz, a second name y, and a

third name z. The way which we all know for assigning these names

is to let x be the distance of the point from the floor, y the distance

from the wall at the front of the room, and z the distance from the side

wall. That way of assigning the names is of course completely arbi-

trary. It could be done in some perfectly bizarre way so long as you

satisfied the condition of giving different names to different points.

A system of naming the points is what we call a coordinate system.

I have mentioned a particular way of naming the points only to

emphasize the fact that the particular system we use for assigning

these names is of no importance. We can, in fact, when we have one

284 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 7

way of naming them, get any number of other ways by the following

device. Suppose you write down these three equations:

X=e2xe+y

oe i == yf (1)

Zee

If we substitute in these equations the numbers 2, y, and z appearing

in the name of this point, we get three other numbers (X, Y, Z) which

gives us a new name for the point, and so we have a new coordinate ~

system. These equations can be solved to give

2 = 4(X + ¥)

y = i(X — Y) (2)

If we apply these equations to any point in the room and know the

names X, Y, Z, we are able to get back the names 7, y, z. We have a

dictionary which translates one system of nomenclature for our points

into another system of nomenclature. This dictionary is what we call

a transformation of coordinates.

In general, a transformation of coordinates

(@, y, 2) > (X, Y, Z)

is defined if we replace the right-hand members of equations (1) by

quite arbitrary functions subject only to the condition that (1)

should be capable of being solved so as to obtain the inverse trans-

formation

CG Y, Z) ani (a Y; z)

analogous to (2). In all this we confine attention to points in the

room, that is to say, to a limited portion of space. In practice we re-

quire that the functions used shall be amenable to the processes of

analysis such as differentiation, etc., corresponding to the technique

of the mathematician of the present epoch. |

The essential point which I should like to stress in this considera-

tion of coordinate systems and transformations of coordinates is that

the coordinate system is something which we ourselves introduce. It

is something in addition to the physical state that we are trying to

describe and represents our point of view towards the natural phe-

nomena which are under consideration. To be objective, we must

somehow or other get away from this thing that we have introduced.

In previous generations mathematicians and physicists used to play

with the idea of doing without coordinates. The geometry of Euclid

is an example in which coordinates were not used and the attempt was

JULY 15, 1934 VEBLEN: SPINORS 285

made to reason directly with the physical objects we were talking

about. Many will recall the time when it was regarded as important

to do vector analysis without coordinates. This idea was based on the

feeling that by so doing one was dealing with the natural object it-

self.

An equally good way of being free from the influence of the coordi-

nates introduced is to use all coordinate systems. Using no coordinate

system is, so to speak, the dual idea to using all possible coordinate

systems. If you arrange your work in such a way that it applies no

matter what the coordinate system is, then you have reached the

ideal of dealing with the object itself. This point of view has become

very common since the discussions which were brought about by the

theory of relativity.

In dealing with physical problems much use is made of vectors. A

vector is a special case of what we can call a physical object with

components. The idea is something like this: Supposing that in a

room we have at every point a tendency of a certain sort, no matter

what sort, but a tendency in a definite direction with a definite mag-

nitude. That tendency can be defined by associating with each point

(7, ¥, 2) three numbers V!, V2, V°.

Vi@,y, 2) V(a,y,2) Va, y, 2).

They describe this tendency and they are the components of some-

thing that represents a physical state of affairs. If this physical ob-

ject is a vector, then on making a transformation into a new coordi-

nate system you will get functions

We 2) | AG) Ge)

of the coordinates z, 7, 2. When you measure this physical object in

the new coordinate system, you will get the new set of quantities

V', V2, V3, and there will be definite formulas which tell you what

these components in the new coordinate system are:

Vi = f1(V!, V2, V3) “V2 = £2(V}, V2, V3) =~ = £3(V}, V2, V3).

You will have three formulas of this sort which express the new com-

ponents as functions of the old ones. There is no need of my mention-

ing what these formulas are in detail, for in talking about a subject

which is full of formulas, we should be hopelessly lost if we got tangled

up with particular formulas. The essential point which I want to bring

out is that when you change to a new coordinate system you get a

new set of components and in every coordinate system there is a set

of components for the physical object. If the law which tells you the

286 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, NO. 7

new components in terms of the old components is of a particularly

simple sort, then your physical object is a vector. There are lots of

other physical objects. For example there are physical objects with

9 components that you could call 7,1, 7; 2, T1 3, ete., using two in-

dices. Then if you have a certain formula connecting the components

in one coordinate system with those in another, the thing you are

talking about is a tensor of the second order. The essential things

about a tensor are that it is a physical object with components, and

that the components are uniquely determined when the coordinate

system is given in terms of which the components are described. J am

intentionally leaving this statement in a thoroughly abstract form.

When we come to the theory of relativity we must pass from the

three-dimensional space of points to the four-dimensional world of

events. This is a story which you have probably heard many times.

If you want to describe the events which take place in this room, you

have to give not merely x, y, and z which tell you where, but also f,

which tells you when, for each event. The essential point is that the

events we talk about are things which are capable of being named by

means of four names, the four names being numbers. This can be ex-

pressed by saying that the events constitute a four-dimensional

world or space-time.

Let us transfer what we have just been saying about coordinate

systems from the world of points over to the world of events. We make

the same remark that we made before. The essential thing about a

coordinate system for events is not any particular way of setting up

the coordinate system but is the fact that the coordinate system as-

signs distinct names to different events.

In order to make an objective description of the world of events,

we deal with the totality of coordinate systems. We keep free from

any particular point of view and so talk about all coordinate systems

at once. For this purpose we have a complete theory of transforma-

tions of coordinates and a theory of vectors and tensors. A tensor is a

physical object such that with every event we are able to associate

a set of numbers called its components when we have before us a given

coordinate system. If we change to a new coordinate system we get a

new set of components of the same physical object.

Thus in the general relativity theory itself we have a set of 16

functions

Gin (@ 1 ee Gua (0020 +) ee OA Eee oe

These functions of the coordinates are the components of a physical

JULY 15, 1934 VEBLEN: SPINORS 287

object called the fundamental gravitational tensor. They satisfy a

system of partial differential equations, and the theory of these equa-

tions is the relativity theory. The general conception is this: We as-

sume that a given body of physical phenomena is representable by a

physical object with components of a certain tyve, and the theory

of these phenomena is contained in the set of differential equations

which the components satisfy. This, without any formalism, is the

basic mathematical idea which appears in the relativity theory.

Continuing in that theory, it turns out that there are certain other

kinds of geometrical objects which have to be considered. The ones

which appear first are the electromagnetic potentials. Again there are

four components

1, Po, 3; ps

which are functions of the coordinates. But, as physicists know, when

you give the coordinate system the electromagnetic potentials are

not fully determined. You can take another function f(z!, x?, x’, «*)

and add the four derivatives of this function to the components, ob-

taining

of of of of

di + eae de + a? ds + ery ds + Se

without changing the physical significance of these potentials.

Let us try to say what is essential in this without using technical

language. It ought to be clear even to those who do not know what

these differentiation symbols mean. When we specify a definite co-

ordinate system we have not only one set of four functions which

appear as the components of our physical object, but we have a

whole class of other sets of components. The physical object in ques-

tion is of an essentially different kind from those which we have

previously been talking about. Its components are not fully deter-

mined when the coordinate system is given; something in addition

has to be specified before the components are known. This additional

something which we have to specify we will call a gauge frame.

I might also try to put it in the following way: We previously said

that when we introduce a coordinate system we put something into

the phenomena of nature, and before we can be talking about nature

itself we have to get free of the coordinate system which we put in.

When we talk about electromagnetic potentials, we put something

else in, namely, the gauge frame, which has to be specified before we

can specify the particular set of components which we are talking

about.

288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

So our theory has to be such that we make not only transformations

of coordinates but transformations of gauge, and we have to formu-

late our laws of physical phenomena in a manner which is unaltered

not only by changes of coordinate system but also by changes of

gauge. Physicists have heard a good deal about that under the head-

ing of gauge invariance. The underlying idea is just as before: In try-

ing to describe nature we have introduced not only coordinate sys-

tems, but also another extraneous element called the gauge frame.

In addition to the theory of coordinate transformations, there is a

theory of gauge transformations which has to be recognized in order

to free our theory of physical phenomena from this element which we

introduced in our view of nature.

The theory of spinors requires another step in this direction. A

spinor is a physical object with components. The number of com-

ponents is a power of four. In a particular case a spinor may have

four components Yi, Wo, 3, ws. The components are functions of the

coordinates just as the ¢’s and g’s were, but when the coordinate sys-

tem and the gauge frame are given, the components of the spinor are

not fully determined. You can take a new set of components i, Wo,

Ws, Ws, which will serve equally well as a set of components of this

spinor. The new components are given by means of linear formulas

in terms of the old components,

WY a Tin sp IA == T 33 ae Ti;

and three other formulas which look like this one. The coefficients T

are arbitrary functions. A linear transformation of this sort is called

a spin transformation.

When you have given your coordinates and your gauge, there is

still something free, which we will call the spin frame, and we are

unable to describe our physical object until the spin frame is fixed.

In other words, we have got to state everything that we say about a

spinor so that it will be true no matter what spin transformation is

applied to the components. A spin transformation is very analogous

to a coordinate transformation, but it takes place completely inde-

pendently of the coordinate transformation.

This is the simplest example of a spinor. There are spinors with 16

components or in general with 4; components and you will have linear

formulas which give you the other possible sets of components in the

same coordinate system.

I have not yet mentioned one of the important facts about spinors

JULY 15, 1934 VEBLEN: SPINORS 289

which give them their significance. Their components are not ordinary

numbers. They are complex numbers of the form

a++wWJ/-—-1b

where a and 6 are real numbers. In this respect they are like other

physical objects which appear in quantum theory. There have been

cases in physics before where the complex numbers were used as a

convenient device, but here they come in an essential way.

The additional degrees of complication which appear in the defi-

nition of a spinor correspond to the nature of the physical problem

which it is designed to meet. Ordinary vectors and tensors would be

well enough adapted to tell where an electron is, in what direction it

is going, and what its angular momentum is. But the quantum

theoretic problem states the problem differently. It does not ask di-

rectly what these quantities are but rather, what are the probabilities

that these quantities shall take on preassigned values. To meet this

requirement, it is not the components of the spinors themselves which

are interpreted in terms of physical measurements, but certain com-

binations of these components with their complex conjugates. These

combinations of components of spinors are components of ordinary

tensors and are interpreted as probabilities that the electron will be

in a certain place moving in a certain way.

Let us now repeat the description of a spinor in a few words. A

spinor is a physical object which has components which are com-

plex functions of the coordinates. The number of components is a

power of four. A set of components is fixed only after (1) the coordi-

nate system, (2) the gauge-frame and (3) the spin frame, are fixed.

Whenever (1), (2), or (8) are changed, the components are replaced

by linear combinations of themselves according to definite rules.

Suppose that you have spinors with 16 components with two in-

dices, X4z, and supposing that these spinors satisfy the condition

that |

X AB = X BA; (3)

so that they are antisymmetric. Then the mathematicians will recog-

nize that connected with them there is a quadratic expression

X 12X34 == X 13X 42 =F X 14X93 a OF (4)

Those spinors which satisfy this relation have peculiar properties,

and it is this quadratic relation which puts the spinors into connection

with the fundamental tensor of the relativity theory, because the g’s

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

that we have in relativity are also the coefficients of a quadratic ex-

pression.

If you are going to describe some particular physical phe-

nomena such as those described by the relativistic theory of the

spinning electron, you must pick out one or more particular spinors

which embody the physical phenomena in question. It turns out in

this special case that you can pick spinors which set up a suitable

relationship between the quadratic equation (4) above and the funda-

mental quadratic form which appears in the relativity theory. The

general theory of spinors is the theory of all possible physical quan-

tities of a certain sort. The theory of the electron is the theory of cer-

tain particular spinors which describe this electron.

BOTANY.—WNew species of Aulacolepis and other grasses.| A. S.

Hircucock, Bureau of Plant Industry.

The genus Aulacolepis was established by Hackel who based it

upon Deyeuxia treutlert Stapf (Miliwm treutlert Kuntze). It is allied to

Agrostis and to Calamagrostis (Sect. Deyeuxia), differing from the

former in the comparatively large firm lemma and from most of the

species in the prolonged rachilla, and from Calamagrostis in the ab-

sence of the long callus hairs and the dorsal awn. Hackel described a

second species, A. japonica, from Japan, and recently a third spe-

cies, A. milioides (Honda) Ohwi, has been described from the same

country. Aniselytron agrostoides Merr., of the Philippines, described

as differing from Avulacolepis chiefly in the obsolete or much re-

duced first glume may also belong to that genus. In the present

paper two species are added to this interesting genus, one from Bor-

neo, the other from Tonkin.

Aulacolepis clemensae Hitche., sp. nov.

Perennis (?); culmi ascendentes, glabri, circa 60 cm. alti; ligula firma,

truncata, 1 mm. longa; laminae planae, 8-15 cm. longae, 5-8 mm. latae;

panicula laxa, 8-18 cm. longa, ramis ascendentibus, 3-5 cm. longis; glumae

inaequales, acuminatae, prima l-nervia, 2 mm. longa, secunda 3-nervia,

2.5 mm. longa; lemma quam glumae firmius, lanceolatum, scaberulum, 3

mm. longum; processus rachillae tenuis, 0.5 mm. longus.

Apparently perennial; culms ascending, glabrous, several-noded, about

60 cm. tall; sheaths glabrous; ligule firm, truncate, 1 mm. long; blades flat,

slightly scaberulous beneath, puberulent on the upper surface, scaberulous

on the margins, narrowed toward the base, acuminate, 8 to 15 cm. long, 5

to 8 mm. wide at the middle; panicle rather loose and lax, short exserted

or inclosed at base in the uppermost sheath, 8-18 cm. long, the axis angled,

1 Received April 17, 1934.

JULY 15, 1934 HITCHCOCK: NEW SPECIES OF AULACOLEPIS 291

nearly glabrous, the branches slender, flexuous, scabrous, somewhat distant,

ascending, 3 to 5 cm. long, the branchlets few-flowered; glumes unequal,

acuminate, keeled, slightly scaberulous on the keels, the first 1-nerved, 2

mm. long, the second 3-nerved, 2.5 mm. long; lemma lanceolate, compressed,

firmer than the glumes, scaberulous over the surface, 5-nerved, the lateral

nerves near the margin, the intermediate nerves faint, 3 mm. long, minutely

pubescent at base; palea about as long as the lemma but narrower, acumi-

nate, minutely pubescent, inclosed within the lemma, the two keels com-

pressed together; rachilla prolonged between the keels of the palea as a mi-

nute bristle 0.5 mm. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,538,647, collected on the

boulder margin of the Masilau River, Mount Kinabalu, British North

Borneo, alt. about 3000 meters, December 26, 1933, by Mrs. M.S. Clemens

(no. 34448).

Aulacolepis petelotii Hitchc., sp. nov.

Perennis (?); culmi caespitosi, erecti, glabri, 25-40 cm. alti; ligula mem-

branacea, 2 mm. longa; laminae erectae, planae, scaberulae, 4-8 cm. longae,

1-3 mm. latae; panicula angusta, laxa, pallida, 6-10 cm. longa; glumae

aequales, compressae, 2mm. longae; lemma circa 2 mm. longum, chartaceo-

membranaceum, lanceolatum, 5-nervium, sub apice minute aristatum, callo

breviter piloso; rachilla ultra florem in stipitem brevissimum nudum pro-

ducta; palea angusta, 1.5 mm. longa; stamina 3, antheris 0.5 mm. longis.

Apparently perennial, culms many in a rather loose tuft, erect, or the

outer ones somewhat geniculate at base, glabrous, about 3-noded, 25-40

em. tall; sheaths glabrous; ligule membranaceous, ovate, dentate or some-

what lacerate, about 2 mm. long; bladés erect or ascending flat, scaberulous

beneath, scaberulous-puberulent on the upper surface, striate-nerved, 4-8

em. long, 1-3 mm. wide; panicles narrow, loose, pale, whitish or greenish,

more or less inclosed in the upper sheaths, 6-10 cm. long, the axis scabrous,

the branches scabrous, slender, naked below, branching, the spikelets

clustered near the ends of the branchlets, the ultimate pedicels 1 mm. long

or less; glumes equal, compressed, narrow, rather abruptly acute, minutely

roughened on and near the keel, about 2 mm. long; lemma slightly longer

and less compressed than the glumes, chartaceo-membranaceous, lanceolate,

5-nerved, the midnerve projecting just below the tip as a very short awn,

the callus short-pilose, the rachilla prolonged behind the palea as a very

minute naked bristle; palea narrow about three-fourths as long as the lem-

ma; stamens 3, the anthers 0.5 mm. long.

Type, in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,538,648, collected along

a road near Chapu, Tonkin, alt. about 1900 meters, August, 1933, by A.

Petelot (no. 4743).

Muhlenbergia lindheimeri Hitchc., sp. nov.

Perennis; culmi erecti, 1-1.5 m. alti, vaginis inferioribus imbricatis com-

pressis; ligula elongata; laminae elongatae, planae, interdum plicatae, 3

mm. latae, scaberulae vel glabrae; panicula angusta, pallida, densiuscula,

erecta, 20-40 cm. longa, ramis appressis 2—5 cm. longis; spiculae 2.5-3 mm.

longae; glumae aequales, acutae vel obtusiusculae, scabro-puberulentae vel

glabriusculae; lemma 2.5-3 mm. longum, glabrum vel obscure pubescens

muticum, raro aristatum, arista 1-3 mm. longa.

292 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO.7

Perennial; culms erect, 1 to 1.5 meters tall, the numerous overlapping

lower sheaths keeled; ligule rather thin, elongate, mostly hidden in the

folded base of the blade, blades elongate, firm, flat or usually folded, about

3 mm. wide, scaberulous or glabrous; panicle narrow, pale, somewhat loose,

erect, 20 to 40 em. long, the branches ascending or appressed; spikelets 2.5

to 3 mm. long; glumes equal, acute to rather obtuse, scabrous-puberulent

to nearly smooth; lemma usually a little shorter than the glumes, 3-nerved,

glabrous or obscurely pubescent, awnless or rarely with an awn 1 to 3 mm.

long.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 998,949, collected in Texas

in 1847 by F. Lindheimer (no. 725).

Other specimens, all from Texas, are: Berlandier 1870; Carter 19; Lind-

heimer 1255 (Distr. Mo. Bot. Gard.); EH. J. Palmer 10859, 11004; Reverchon

1610; Szlveus 11, 354, 355; Tharp 70, 3076. 3

This species has been confused with the closely related M. fournieriana

Hitche. (Epicampes berlandiert Fourn., not Muhlenbergia berlandiert Trin.)

which is confined to Mexico.

About 1902 there appeared in Queensland, Australia, a species of Phalaris

which gave promise of being a valuable forage grass. About 1907 it was dis-

tributed from the Toowoomba Botanic Gardens, Queensland, and was first

grown in the United States at the California Experiment Station and later

at other stations. Burbank has distributed the grass as Peruvian winter

grass. The species was named by Hackel Phalaris stenoptera. It differs from —

P. tuberosa L. only in having a loosely branching rhizomatous base, the

lower internodes little or not at all swollen (P. tuberosa has a distinctly

tuberous base). Agriculturally it seems sufficiently distinct to warrant recog-

nition as a variety.

Phalaris tuberosa var. stenoptera (Hack.) Hitche.

Phalaris stenoptera Hack. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 5: 333. 1908.

Stipa coronata var. depauperata (Jones) Hitchc.

Stipa parishu var. depauperata Jones, Contr. West. Bot. 14: 11. 1912.

Detroit, Utah, Jones in 1891.

Stipa parish Vasey, Bot. Gaz. 7: 33. 1882. San Bernardino Mts., Parish

Bros. 1079. |

Stipa coronata parishii Hitche. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 24: 227. 1925.

This change is necessary under the International Rules which require that

the earliest legitimate name in its own category be retained.

Manisuris altissima (Poir) Hitche.

Rottboellia alttssima Poir. Voy. Barb. 2: 105. 1789.

Rottboellia fasciculata Lam. Tabl. Enecyel. 1: 204. 1791.

Hemarthria altissima Stapf & Hubbard, Kew Bull. Misc. Inf. 1934: 109.

1934.

JULY 15, 1934 BROWN: SUPPOSED FOSSIL MAIZE 293

PALEOBOTANY.—The supposed fossil ear of maize from Cuzco,

Peru.! Rouanp W. Brown, U. S. Geological Survey. (Com-

municated by JoHN B. REESIDE JR.)

Since 1919 the attention of botanists, interested in the origin and

evolution of Indian corn, has from time to time been directed to an

object (Fig. 5) described by the late Dr. F. H. Knowlton? as a fossil

ear of maize. Reference to several papers’ in which the object is fur-

ther photographed, described, and compared with varieties of maize,

shows that the designation of it as a fossil by Knowlton has at least

been tentatively accepted as true. It is my purpose now to produce

conclusive evidence that this object is not a fossil, and thus I hope to

correct as gently and as far as possible an unfortunate paleontologic

mistake.

The known historical facts about this object are meager. It was

obtained in 1914 by Dr. W. F. Parks, of St. Louis, Mo., from a curio

dealer in Cuzco, Peru. Dr. Parks transmitted it to Dr. Walter Hough,

Curator of Ethnology in the U. 8. National Museum, who gave it to

Dr. Knowlton for identification. Knowlton passed it around among

his botanical friends, from one of whom, G. N. Collins, of the U.S.

Department of Agriculture, he received the helpful suggestion that

externally it had a striking resemblance to a variety of Peruvian

maize. Knowlton thereupon described the specimen as a supposed

new fossil species of maize, calling it Zea antiqua, not because he

could distinguish it from the living variety it resembled, but for the

sake of independent reference.

That Knowlton unreservedly regarded this object as a fossil is

implied in his statement concerning its age. He says: “‘It is of course

extremely unfortunate that nothing is known as to the condition

under which this specimen was found. If this were known it might be

possible to fix its age with a reasonable degree of certainty. As it

stands, however, there is little but the the fact of its thorough fossiliza-

tion* to base an opinion on, and from this I venture the tentative sug-

gestion that it seems hardly likely to be younger than at least several

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received Feb.

19, 1934.

* KNow ton, F. H. Description of a supposed new fossil species of maize from

Peru. This JouRNAL 9: 134-136. 1919.

3 Cotuins, G. N. A fossil ear of maize. Jour. Heredity 10: 170-172. 1919. An

ear of prehistoric maize that resembles the fossil form, Zea antiqua. Jour. Heredity 14:

61-64. 1923.

Kempton, J. H. Maize, the plant-breeding achievement of the American Indian.

Smithsonian Sci. Ser., 11: 319-349. 1931.

* Italics mine.

294 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

5 Ge 7

Figs. 1, 4. Lengthwise sections through middle of specimen shown in Fig. 5.

Walls of cavity in Fig. 4 show tool marks. Fig. 2. Pellets found in cavity at base of

specimen. Fig. 3. Transverse section, a top view of specimen shown in Fig. 4. Fig.

5. The supposed fossil ear of maize before cutting. Fig. 6. Ear-of maize from a pre-

Inca grave at Arica, on the coast of Chile. Found in 1913. Fig. 7. Ear of maize grown

by Peruvian Indians in 1925. All figures natural size. Figures 5, 6, 7, by courtesy

of J. H. Kempton, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

thousand years.’ It is most regrettable that Knowlton did not have

the object cut, so that he could determine its petrographic nature.

That he did not have it cut seems inexplicable, except on the hypothe-

sis that he considered the specimen as the only one of its kind known

and therefore hesitated to damage it by sectioning.

JULY 15, 1934 BROWN: SUPPOSED FOSSIL MAIZE 295

The first fermentation past, this matter aged quietly while the

type specimen reposed in the paleobotanical collections of the Na-

tional Museum. Interest in the supposed fossil, however, was revived

recently when Dr. R. F. Griggs, Professor of Botany at George Wash-

ington University, and one of his students, F. 8. MacNeil, of the U.S.

Geological Survey, inquired about it. Suspecting from the time I first

saw it in 1929 that this object was not a real fossil, I now determined

to test my suspicions by having the specimen sectioned. My assistant,

K. J. Murata, cut a transverse section (Fig. 3) near the top, a radial

lengthwise section (Figs. 1, 4), and prepared a thin section for micro-

scopic examination. These sections show conclusively that the object,

instead of being a fossil, is a very cleverly hand-made, low-fired, clay

copy of an ear of Peruvian maize, comparable perhaps to the ears

shown in Figures 6 and 7.

Looking at the fresh faces made by the cuts one finds these char-

acters: The color is a dull, dirty brown, tinged with red. The matrix

can be scratched easily with a knife. To the naked eye it appears

homogeneous, except for scattered light-colored grains of quartz and

limestone. On the transverse section the supposed cob showing the

insertion of the separate kernels is clearly defined. The cob is round-

angular, with a smooth margin between the kernels. This fact would

be sufficient in itself to discredit the object as a fossil, for if it were a

fossil the surface of the cob would be rough, showing contiguous shal-

low pits or scars where the kernels were attached. The shape, inner

surface, and angle of attachment of these kernels suggest that the

kernels were separately fashioned. They are of the same material

as the core.

The most striking feature on the radial lengthwise faces is the coni-

cal cavity near the base. The walls in the upper portion of the cavity

show a few deep, oblique indentations, which are clearly the marks

of a blunt-edged tool used in shaping the cavity. Three small, smooth,

oval pellets (Fig. 2) that before the sectioning caused a faint rattle

when the specimen was shaken, were found in the cavity. The signifi-

cance of the cavity, the pellets, and the rattle, is as conjectural as that

of the specimen itself; but other objects with rattles are said to be not

uncommon among the artifacts of Central American and South

American Indians.

Knowlton observed the fact that the matrix lacks the delicate cellu-

lar structure displayed, for example, by many petrified woods. He,

however, did not state his theory as to how the object became fossil-

ized but said that the matrix is ‘‘a closely cemented, fine-grained

296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

siliceous sand.’’ Actually, microscopic examination of the thin sec-

tion by Dr. C. 8. Ross, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, and Miss

Anna Shepard, of the Laboratory of Anthropology, Santa Fe, N.

Mex., showed that the matrix is a partially baked clay containing a

small amount of coarse-grained material. The latter includes free

quartz grains, a little feldspar, hornblende, mica, garnet, and zircon,

a considerable amount of fine-grained, iron-stained sandstone, lime-

stone, and calcite, and a few fragments of what apparently are re-

worked bits of clay previously used for pottery. The object was baked

at only a moderate temperature, as is demonstrated by the fact that,

although the clay has lost its plasticity, the carbon dioxide has not

been driven from the limestone and calcite.

I had hoped that a minute examination of this object would show

the personal signature of its maker, but I am not convinced that

the obscure and delicate striations present in a few spots actually

are baked fingerprints. Nevertheless, the object is so clever a copy

of an original ear of Peruvian maize that the maker must be credited

with having been an artist of superior skill. The questions as to who

made this object and when, where, and why it was made must now

be referred to the ethnologists and archeologists. The answers may

throw some light on the interesting problems concerning the origin

and early cultivation of maize.

This episode of a supposed ear of fossil maize may be closed fit-

tingly with the pointing of a moral, particularly pertinent to paleon-

tologists: Be not deceived by external appearances.

ZOOLOGY.—A ffinities of the Brachyuran fauna of the Gulf of Cali-

forma.! StEvE A. GLASsELL, San Diego Society of Natural

History. (Communicated by WaLpo L. ScHMITT.)

The author having obtained numerous specimens of Brachyura |

from the Gulf of California during two collecting trips, and having

studied the results of other collectors in that region, believes that a

brief summary of the fauna of that region in comparison with that of

the regions to the north and south would be of general interest to

carcinologists.

The interesting relationship of the Panamian fauna to that of the

Gulf of Mexico need not be considered here since this has been dis-

cussed by Walter Faxon,? but the distribution of tropical (Panamian)

1 Received December 26, 1933.

2 Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College, 18: 231—50. 1895.

JULY 15, 1934 GLASSELL: BRACHYURAN FAUNA 297

Brachyura in the Gulf of California has not been heretofore studied to

any extent, and it seems probable that an infusion of southern forms

into the Gulf of California has had much to do in making up the

character of the rich fauna which is now known to exist in the latter

region.

In general it is in the Gulf of California that the tropical species

make their most northerly advance on the Pacific coast of North

America, although of course some few species have their most north-

ern limits far north of the Gulf. For these northern species it may be

difficult to determine whether they originated in northern or southern

latitudes. Even a study of their Bathymetric zones does not clarify

the situation. To cite a single instance. Pinnixa affinis Rathbun was

dredged in the Bay of Panama by the Albatross in 26 fathoms, March

30, 1888. On October 20, 1933, a specimen was dredged off Newport

Bay, California, in 20 fathoms. The inference must be that there is a

connecting link between these wide flung stations, that this little crab

must be included in the fauna of the Gulf of California, because the

Gulf is bracketed between the discovery station and this latest find.

Yet to which fauna shall it be allocated? At present this is a matter

of personal opinion.

Arbitrary boundaries are taken so as to form a base on which to

work. This will exclude some tropical and northern forms from this

fauna, which will no doubt be included in the light of future research.

I take as the boundaries, for purposes of this paper, those which ad-

mit of fewer occasional or accidental intrusions of species into the

area bounded by, and including the waters impounded to the north

of a line drawn from Cabo San Lucas, in Lower California, to the

Port of Mazatlan, in the State of Sinaloa, Mexico, and also the fauna

reported and found on the West Coast of Lower California, at Mag-

dalena Bay. In this delimitation of range no attempt is being made

to establish or admit of faunal barriers.

Also we will only consider species of Brachyuran Crustacea of the

three major groups, namely, the Cancroid or Cyclometopous crabs,

the Grapsoid or Catometopous crabs, and the Spider crabs or Oxy-

rhyncha. The total number of species of the three groups, found

within these boundaries is 197, a very large list when we consider that

we are dealing with just a part of the marine decapods. For example

Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt? lists only 181 marine decapods as known to

occur within the 100 fathom line off the coast of California.

* The Marine Decapod Crustacea of California. Univ. of Calif., vol. 23: 281. 1921.

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

A summary of the total number of species of the three groups is as follows:

Cancroid crabs reported in the Gulf of California, 77 species.

Grapsoid “ “ “ “ “ “ “ 54 “

Spider 6 6 (GB (Hs “ & & 66 6

Total of all species reported 197

The intrusion of Panamian species into the Gulf of California,

number 96 or 48 per cent of all the species reported in these writers.

They are divided as follows:

Cancroid: crabs etek ee 39 species, or 50+ per cent

Grapso1esay oS DRUM ate SRT clon Diy anes (AGE te cmene

Spider ge ies Sieben ae int ety Ghee BAA te Ste 6G

Total of three groups 96 species, or 48-++ per cent

The above percentages represent the percent which the Panamian

species bear to the total number of species in each family group.

Further intensive study and collecting will no doubt show that the

Anomuran tribe and the remaining families of the Brachyuran tribe

will bear a like relationship to the Panamian fauna.

Another interesting summation is a table showing the number and

percentages of species that are indigenous to the Gulf of California.

Cancroid: Chabseei sor. i Go eae 27 species, or 35+ per cent

Grapsoid,: So oe cnet tr. eee De 4 AL es

Spider See? Sein ape SA cade a a 20.2% ©" 39 - ae

Total of three groups 75 species, or 40—per cent of all

Then the insignificant influence that northern species play in the

Gulf of California fauna, may be visualized by a glance at the follow-

ing table.

Northern intrusion of species in the Gulf of California.

Cancroid crabs, northern species...... 11 or 14+ per cent

Grapsoid “ 7 eed fen tre Be Oats 5 See

Spider ¢ é fs ee SRD Seal Qe eee

Total of three groups 24 or 12+ per cent of all

A recapitulation of the foregoing tables, based on a total for the

three groups of 195 definitely allocated species, (two of the 197 species

are doubtful in this locality), is as follows:

Panamian species in the Gulf, total 96 species, or 48+ per cent

JULY 15, 1934 GLASSELL: BRACHYURAN FAUNA 299

Indigenous species in the Gulf, total 75 species, or 40— per cent

Northern “ “ %4 %3 % 24 “ “ 1 + %4 “

There have been three expeditions in the Gulf of California which

have added materially to our knowledge of the fauna of that region.

They were, the two Albatross expeditions of 1891 and 1911, and the

expedition of the California Academy of Sciences in 1921. As before

stated it was my good fortune to collect in this territory during part

of the years 1931-32-33. A partial summary of the results of this col-

lecting, confined to the three before mentioned groups is:

Cancroid crabs, total of species. ...47 or 61+ per cent of species

Grapsoid “ “ “ “ im 32 “ 60+ “ “ “ “

Spider «“ (Ge a Get « ge ee To 50+ “ GG «“

Total of species taken — 112 or 56+ per cent

Many new locality records were obtained, extending the range of

some species more than 25° of Latitude to the north. In the list of

species to follow no extension of range is indicated if the distance is

less than 100 miles, nor is extension of range given to that species un-

less specimens were collected at new localities. In all 46 new locality

records are recorded, 18 of these are introductions to the fauna of the

Gulf.

As a great deal of the information in this paper is of necessity a

compilation, I wish to express my deep appreciation to Dr. Mary J.

Rathbun of the United States National Museum, not only for her

monographs but also for her personal attention to my efforts.

To facilitate reference to the list of species reported from the Gulf

of California, these symbols are used after the name of the author of

the species.

A Indicates Panamian species

B . Northern species, those found on west coast of North

America, north of Magdalena Bay, Lower California.

C e Indigenous species

D : Apparently indigenous species extending their range a

short way either north or south of Cape St. Lucas.

E i Species collected by the author.

F New locality records of this collection.

(?) _ Tentative identification

Spider Crabs Podochela hemphillii (Lockington) B E

MAJIDAE Podochela latimanus (Rathbun) C E

Stenorynchus debilis (Smith) A E Inachoides laevis Stimpson A E F

Podochela vestita (Stimpson) C E Erileptus spinosus Rathbun B E F

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

Eucinetops lucasii Stimpson C

Eucinetops rubella Rathbun C E

Eucinetops panamensis Rathbun A E

Euprognatha bifida Rathbun B E

Collodes granosus Stimpson C

Collodes tenuirostris Rathbun C D

Collodes tumidus Rathbun C D

Batrachonotus nicholsi Rathbun C D

Pyromaia tuberculata (Lockington)

ABE

Dasygyius depressus (Bell) A E

Acanthonyx petiverii Milne Edwards

Kpialtus sulcirostris Stimpson C D

Epialtus minimus Lockington C E

Kupleurodon trifurcatus Stimpson C

Taliepus nuttallii (Randall) B

Pugettia venetiae Rathbun B

Mimulus foliatus Stimpson B

Leucippa pentagona Milne Edwards A

Sphenocarcinus agassizi Rathbun A

Pelia tumida (Lockington) B C

Notolopas lamellatus Stimpson A E F

Herbstia camptacantha (Stimpson) C D

' Herbstia parvifrons (Randall) B E

Herbstia tumida (Stimpson) C D

Libinia setosa Lockington C E

Libinia mexicana Rathbun C E

Lissa aurivilliusi Rathbun A

Lissa tuberosa Rathbun C

Hemus analogus Rathbun C EK

Thoe sulcata Stimpson C D E

Pitho picteti (Saussure) A E

Pitho sexdentata Bell A E

Anoptychus cornutus Stimpson A E

Mithrax (Mithrax) spinipes Bell A E

Mithrax (Mithrax) orcutti Rathbun A

Mithrax (Mithrax) armatus Saussure C

Mithrax (Mithrax) tuberculatus Stimp-

son A

Mithrax (Mithrax) sinensis Rathbun C

Mithrax (Mithrax) sonorensis Rathbun

Mithrax (Mithraculus) denticulatus

Bell A E

Mithrax (Mithraculus) areolatus (Lock-

ington) AB

Teleophrys cristulipes Stimpson A

Stenocionops contigua Rathbun C E

Stenocionops macdonaldi (Rathbun) A

Stenocionops triangulata (Rathbun) A

Macrocoeloma heptacanthum (Bell) A

Macrocoeloma villosum (Bell) A

Microphrys platysoma (Stimpson) A E

Microphrys branchialis Rathbun C D E

Microphrys triangulatus (Lockington)

PARENTHOPIDAE

Parenthope (Parthenope) hyponca

(Stimpson) A

Parthenope (Platylambrus) exilipes

(Rathbun) A

Parthenope (Pseudolambrus) triangu-

lata (Stimpson) C

Thyrolambrus erosus Rathbun C

Leiolambrus punctatissimus (Owen) A

Tyche lamellifrons Bell A E

Mesorhoea bellii (A. Milne Edwards)

Aethra scruposa scutata Smith A E

Cryptopodia hassleri Rathbun C E

Heterocrypta macrobrachia Stimp-

son AEF

Cancroid Crabs

PORTUNIDAE

Portunus (Portunus) xantusii (Stimp-

son) BE

Portunus (Portunus) asper (A. Milne

Edwards) A

Portunus (Portunus) panamensis (Stimp-

son) A

Portunus (Achelous) brevimanus (Fax-

on) A

Portunus (Achelous) minimus Rathbun

CE .

Portunus (Achelous) pichilinquei Rath-

bun C E

Portunus (Achelous) affinis (Faxon) A

Portunus (Achelous) tuberculatus

(Stimpson) A

Portunus (Portunus) iridescens (Rath-

bun) C

Callinectes bellicosus Stimpson C D E

Callinectes ochoterenai Contreras C

Callinectes arcuatus Ordway A E

Callinectes toxotes Ordway A

Arenaeus mexicanus (Gerstaecker) A E

Cronius ruber (Lamarck) A E

Euphylax robustus A. Milne Ed-

wards C

ATELECYCLIDAE

Pliosoma parvifrons Stimpson C

JULY 15, 1934

CANCRIDAE

Cancer amphioetus Rathbun B

Cancer anthonyi Rathbun B

Cancer gracilis Dana B

XANTHIDAE

Carpilodes cinctimanus (White) A E F

Platypodia rotundata (Stimpson) A E F

Actea sulcata Stimpson A E F

Glyptoxanthus meandricus (Locking-

ton) CE F

Daira americana Stimpson A E F

Lipaestheius leeanus Rathbun A E

Medaeus lobipes Rathbun A

Medaeus spinulifer (Rathbun) A

Cycloxanthops vittatus (Stimpson) A ~

Cycloxanthops novemdentatus (Lock-

ington) BE F

Leptodius occidentalis (Stimpson) A E

Xanthodius sternberghi Stimpson A

Xanthodius hebes Stimpson C E F

Xanthodius stimpsoni (A. Milne Ed-

wards) AEF

Lophoxanthus lamellipes (Stimpson)

AEF

Metopocarcinus truncatus Stimpson A

Lophopanopeus heathii Rathbun B

Lophopanopeus frontalis (Rathbun)

BEF

Lophopanopeus lockingtoni Rathbun

Lophopanopeus maculatus Rathbun CE

Panopeus purpureus Lockington A

Panopeus chilensis Milne Edwards and

Lucas A

Panopeus bermudensis Benedict and

Rathbun A E F

Panopeus diversus Rathbun C E

Neopanope peterseni Glassell C E

Hexapanopeus orcutti Rathbun O E F

Hexapanopeus sinaloensis Rathbun

CEF

Hexapanopeus rubicundus Rathbun

EKurypanopeus ovatus (Benedict &

Rathbun) C E F

Kurypanopeus planus (Smith) A

EKurypanopeus planissimus (Stimpson)

CEF

Kurypanopeus confragosus Rathbun

Eurytium affine (Streets & Kingsley)

GLASSELL: BRACHYURAN FAUNA 301

EKurytium albidigitum Rathbun C E

Micropanope latimanus Stimpson B

Micropanope xantusii (Stimpson) A E F

Micropanope polita Rathbun A E

Micropanope areolata Rathbun B E

Paraxanthias insculptus (Stimpson) A

Pilumnus xantusii Stimpson C

Pilumnus spinohirsutus (Lockington)

Pilumnus townsendi Rathbun C E

Pilumnus conzalensis Rathbun C E

Pilumnus depressus Stimpson C

Pilumnus pygmaeus Boone A E F (?)

Pilumnus limosus Smith A E F

Pilumnus stimpsoni Miers C

Pilumnus tectus Rathbun C E

Heteractaea lunata (Milne Edwards &

Lucas) A E F

Acidops fimbriatus Stimpson A E F

Ozius verreauxii Saussure A

Ozius perlatus Stimpson A E

Ozius agassizii A. Milne Edwards A E F

Eriphia squamata Stimpson A E F

Quadrella nitida Smith A

Trapezia digitalis Latreille A

Grapsoid Crabs

GONEPLACIDAE

Trizocarcinus dentatus (Rathbun) C

Euryplax polita Smith A E F

Speocarcinus granulimanus Rathbun

Speocarcinus californiensis (Locking-

ton) BEF

Oediplax granulata Rathbun C

Glyptoplax pugnax Smith A E F

Chasmocarcinus latipes Rathbun C

PINNOTHERIDAE

Pinnotheres angelicus Lockington C

Pinnotheres lithodomi Smith A E F

Pinnotheres muliniarum Rathbun C

Pinnotheres goncharum (Rathbun) B

Pinnotheres pubescens (Holmes) C E

Pinnotheres margarita Smith A

Pinnotheres reticulatus Rathbun C

Pinnotheres jamesi Rathbun C

Pinnotheres pichilinquei Rathbun C

Fabia granti Glassell C E

Parapinnixa nitida (Lockington) C E F

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

Dissodactylus nitidus Smith A E F

Pinnixa transversalis (Milne Edwards

& Lucas) A EK F

Pinnixa tomentosa Lockington B E F

Pinnixa occidentalis Rathbun B

Pinnixa affinis Rathbun A

Tetrias scabripes Rathbun C

CYMOPOLIIDAE

Cymopolia zonata Rathbun C E F

Cymopolia lucasii (Rathbun) C

Cymopolia fragilis Rathbun A

GRAPSIDAE

Grapsus grapsus (Linnaeus) A E F

Geograpsus lividus (Milne Edwards)

AEF

Goniopsis pulchra (Lockington) A E

Pachygrapsus crassipes Randall A B E

Pachygrapsus transversus (Gibbes) A E

Planes minutus (Linnaeus) A B E

Planes marinus Rathbun B

Goetice americanus Rathbun C E F

Tetragrapsus Jouyi (Rathbun) C E F

Sesarma (Sesarma) suleatum Smith A

Sesarma (Holometopus) magdalenensis

Rathbun C E F ©

Cyclograpsus escondidensis Rathbun

CE |

Plagusia

marck A

Perenon gibbesi (Milne Edwards) A E

depressa tuberculata La-

GECARCINIDAE

Cardisoma crassum Smith A;

Ucides occidentalis (Ortmann) A

Gecarcinus planatus Stimpson A E

OCYPODIDAE

Ocypode occidentalis Stimpson A E F

Uca monilifera Rathbun C E

Uca princeps (Smith) A

Uca mordax (Smith) A E F

Uca brevifrons (Stimpson) A

Uca macrodactylus (Milne Edwards &

Lucas) A

Uca crenulata (Lockington) B D E

Uca coloradensis (Rathbun) C E

Uca musica Rathbun C E F

Uca latimanus (Rathbun) A E

ZOOLOGY.—The morphology and development of the preparasitic

larvae of Poteriostomum ratzil.! JoHn T. LuckErR, Bureau of

Animal Industry. (Communicated by BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ. )

INTRODUCTION

The preparasitic larvae of the numerous species of small strongyles

(Strongylidae of genera other than Strongylus) parasitic in the large

intestine of horses have not been described, except in the case of

Triodontophorus tenuicollis. The literature relating to this group

of nematodes contains a number of publications dealing with the

structure and development of their free-living larvae, but the avail-

able information is without reference to species, with the one excep-

tion noted above. The following is a brief summary of the literature

pertaining to the preparasitic development of the small strongyles

of horses. |

In 1866, Baillet (3) published observations on the preparasitic de-

velopment of Sclerostoma tetracanthum Diesing, 1851. As is well

1 Received March 2, 1934.

JULY 15, 1934 LUCKER: LARVAE POTERIOSTOMUM RATZII 303

known, S. fetracanthum (Synonyms: Strongylus tetracanthus Mebhlis,

1831; Cyathostomum tetracanthum Molin, 1861) was shown by Looss

(9) in 1901 to be a composite of at least 13 distinct species. Subse-

quently the species which comprised the S. tetracanthum complex have

been found to represent several distinct genera. Giles (6), Albrecht

(1), Theiler (15), De Blieck (4), De Blieck and Baudet (5) and Polus-

zynski (11) have reported investigations on the preparasitic develop-

ment of specifically unidentified cylicostomes. The morphological data

in the above papers are incomplete; even Ortlepp’s (10) description

of the infective larva of Triodontophorus tenuicollis is not as detailed

as is necessary for the differential diagnosis of the larvae in question.

Larval development in the genus Poteriostomum apparently has not

_ been previously studied. ,

The worms from which cultures were made were removed from the

colons of two horses at post-mortem examination. Only a few females

and one male of the genus Poteriostomum were found in the first horse,

and three females and one male were recovered from the second

horse. The females were washed first in physiological saline solution

and subsequently in water. The eggs, removed by dissection of the

living worms, were cultured in small glass dishes containing tap water.

One culture contained the eggs from two females, and each of 4 cul-

tures contained the eggs taken from a single female. The account of

the larval development presented in this paper is based upon data

obtained from all 5 cultures. ‘After the eggs had been removed from

the female worms each of the latter was fixed separately and cleared

later for microscopic examination.

SPECIFIC IDENTITY OF THE ADULT WORMS

All of the female worms, from which eggs were removed for culture,

and the two male specimens mentioned above, have been identified

by the writer as Poteriostomum ratzii Kotlan, 1919, and have been de-

posited as No. 31026 in the U.S. National Museum Helminthological

Collection. In view of the fact that the descriptions and figures relat-

ing to this species published by Yorke and Macfie (17), Ihle (7),

Theiler (15), Smit (13), Smit and Notosoediro (14) and Wetzel (16)

are in disagreement in regard to a number of morphological details,

and in no case conform in all respects to the original description given

by Kotlan (8), the following brief comments as to certain morphologi-

cal features of the writer’s specimens are in order. There are from 64

to 84 elements in the external leaf crown (Kotldn reported from 60

Fey,

25H

ZY D o€ (7)

Royton yocier

ie Sot Se Qo

Aid

pith

aes

F C2

Seite

pits ei

25H

Figs. 1-12.—Poteriostomum ratzti. Preparasitic larval stages.

Fig. 1.—First-stage larva, newly hatched. Fig. 2.—First-stage larva, anterior

end. Fig. 3—Second-stage larva. Fig. 4——Second-stage larva, anterior end. Fig.

5.—Second-stage larva, anterior end, during late phase of development. Fig. 6.—

Late second-stage larva, posterior end. Fig. 7.—Infective (third-stage) larva. Fig.

8.—Third-stage larva, anterior end. External edge of sheath inadvertently omitted.

Fig. 9.—Third-stage larva, region of nerve ring. Fig. 10.—Third-stage larva, posterior

portion. Fig. 11.—Third-stage larva, genita primordium. Fig. 12.—First-stage larva

in first ecdysis.

JULY 15, 1934 LUCKER: LARVAE POTERIOSTOMUM RATZII 305

to 64 elements; Smit noted 44 elements; Wetzel reported from 44 to

46 elements; Ihle counted 98 elements in one specimen). The internal

leaf crown contains from 38 to 48 elements (Kotlan reported from 40

to 44 elements; Ihle counted 48 elements in one case; Wetzel reported

from 34 to 38 elements; Smit noted 30 elements). The structure of the

4 submedian and 2 lateral papillae corresponds to the descriptions

of Ihle and Wetzel and to the figure of Yorke and Macfie. In respect

to the shape of the walls of the mouth capsule, the specimens agree

closely with the figure of Yorke and Macfie and with the description

given by Wetzel. The dorsal ray pattern is similar to that figured by

Smit and by Smit and Notosoediro, except that the lateral dorsal

rays are even more widely separated from one another than noted by

the above mentioned workers.

P. ratzw var. nanum of Theiler, which has been redescribed as a

sub-species by Popov (12), has been differentiated from P. ratzi

principally because the postero-lateral rays in the former are without

an ‘‘accessory’’ process near their base. A definite small posterior

cuticular swelling or process is present on these rays in the males col-

lected by the writer.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EGG, PRE-INFECTIVE

AND INFECTIVE LARVAE

Egg

Usually elliptical in shape, but may be slightly narrower at one pole than

at the other. Shell thin and transparent. Measurements of a comparatively

small number of eggs showed a wide variation in size, namely from 90u to

125u in length and from 57y to 70u in width. Eggs present in the uterus near

the vagina were in the 16- or 32-cell stage. When fully developed the vermi-

form embryo has the structure of the first-stage larva described below.

First-stage larva

Shape and size.—F usiform; similar in appearance to rhabditiform larvae

of related strongyles, a long filamentous tail comprising about 144 to 4

of the body length (Fig. 1). Newly hatched larvae from 450u to 470u long;

larvae at time of first molt, 600u to 620u long.

Cuticle—Thin, with very inconspicuous transverse striations.

Alimentary tract—Mouth opening surrounded by minute papillae, ap-

parently 6 in number. In the rhabditiform buccal cavity, cheilorhabdions

and telorhabdions, (Fig. 2) represented by definite refractive cuticular dots;

prorhabdions and metarhabdions discernible as short refractive cuticular

rods, refractive dots appearing at their junctures. Esophagus rhabditiform;

esophageal valve prominent. Esophagus and intestine united by primordium

of esophago-intestinal valve; valve consisting of 4 cells and with a short,

narrow, straight lumen. Intestinal lumen dilated and sinuous in living

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

specimens, expanded terminally both anteriorly and posteriorly. In living

specimens the intestine dark and granular, consisting apparently of 16 cells.

Lumen of rectum narrow, leading to a conspicuous anus. Rectal glands

dorsal and subventral to rectum.

Nervous system.—Nerve ring surrounding isthmus of esophagus. Num-

erous nerve cells situated lateral and ventral to esophagus both anterior

and posterior to nerve ring.

Excretory system.—Excretory pore and excretory canal not seen.

Genital primordium.—Primordium minute, oval, transparent, containing

2 germinal cells, situated ventral to and at approximate equator of intestine.

In some specimens, genital primordium in close apposition to a smaller,

more anterior, oval or spade-shaped cell, presumably the ‘‘giant cell’? men-

tioned by Alicata (2) as of significance in sex differentiation in larvae of

Hyostrongylus rubidus.

The size relationships of 10 first-stage larvae are given below in Table 1.

TABLE 1.—SizE RELATIONSHIPS OF 10 FIRST-STAGE LARVAE OF POTERIOSTOMUM

ALL MEASUREMENTS IN MICRONS

Specimenemumalloers te ey ae eee 1) 2.| 3) 4°) So Gal Wao Om iene

STIS Gh See ee ocean tere ren ee ete 620|554|535|516/474)|456/470/583|/576/485

Width in region of esophageal bulb........ 30) 32) 35) 28] 26] 25) 27) 29) 27) 25

Heng throtbuccalicapsulenc. 92.0 ee eee 17) 15) 16} 13) 13) 12} 12) 14) 14) 14

Distance from anterior end to nervering....|| 102) 98/105) 90} 80; 70) 70) 94| 91) 82

enethyot-esophacus 2 sacs ae ee ee 130/129)140)115}122)112)116)121)132)120

Distance from bulb of esophagus to genital

PRWMOrCU I? Seg cee tee ae eee ae ae 117/141)109)117|102)105/103)127|119/100

Distance from genital primoridum to anus. .|| 165/104/120)/121/109)118/110)135)122)118

Wemethrot tails 97h wieres ee ae ae ere 190/174)169)153}130)104/127|186)189}131

Second-stage larva

Shape and size.—Similar in shape to first-stage larva; 600u to 850u long,

the latter being the approximate maximum length attained during prepara-

sitic stages (Fig. 3). During early phases of this stage, tail increasing con-

siderably in absolute length and, as a rule, in proportionate length also.

During transition to strongyliform third stage, tissue of tail loosening from

cuticle and contracting to form a short, round-tipped process (Fig. 6).

Cuticle—Thick and very prominently striated; great thickening occuring

in tail region during the later phases of this stage. ,

Alimentary tract.—In young larvae of this stage, alimentary canal similar

to that of first-stage larva. During transition to strongyliform stage the

following changes occur: Prorhabdions of buccal capsule at first curving

toward each other anteriorly (Fig. 4), later uniting (Fig. 5) to form an in-

verted V, other portions of the buccal capsule becoming reduced; esophagus

lengthening slightly, losing its rhabditiform character and assuming a

strongyliform structure; meanwhile esophageal valve disappearing, and

primordium of esophago-intestinal valve becoming syncytial; boundaries of

intestinal cells becoming more distinct, posterior 2 cells being set off by a

constriction as a pre-rectum. Anus appearing somewhat less conspicuous

than in first-stage larva.

Nervous system.—Similar to that of the first-stage larva, but nerve cells

more prominent.

JULY 15, 19834 LUCKER: LARVAE POTERIOSTOMUM RATZII 307

Excretory system.—Excretory pore and excretory duct clearly visible

anterior and ventral to esophageal bulb and just posterior to nerve ring.

Genital promordium.—Similar to that of first-stage larva, but slightly

larger and containing a greater number of epithelial cells.

The size relationships of 7 second-stage larvae are shown below in Table 2

TABLE 2.—Si1zE RELATIONSHIPS OF 7 SECOND-STAGE LARVAE OF P. RATZII

ALL MEASUREMENTS IN MICRONS

SEPM MUMIDEL 5 6! 5!) oj cna See a 6 oes 1 2 3 4 5 6 ci

7. ELSE | SoS aaa a 654 | 830 | 640 | 631 | 790 | 629 | 668

Width in region of esophageal bulb...... 26 37 We. 29 35 Ze 28

mene or buccal cavity. 22... 2 suas. 32: 14 19 16 7 19 14 14

Distance from anterior end to nerve ring.| 101 | 110 | 106 93 82 82 90

Distance from anterior end to excretory

PAPUA ec LST. EM so er ce wd 2 a Mons EZ etek ae ahaa tedial pe lelids ak oO 93 | 100

MenerUnaOl ESOPNAPUS = 2302 Gee ws el 138 Pb4d [l34 | 1394 1415 | 115 | 135

Distance from bulb of esophagus to Ei

HABA OTUCUIM ac. . Sass Sa ee ea wae ww 8 140 | 165 | 143 | 102 | 159 | 112 | 150

Distance from genital primoridum to anus | 138 | 225 | 136 | 145 | 163 | 148 | 169

RE IE SE MUS ARE ATS es fogs eee cmc. baad ee eee 222 | 279 | 211 | 228 | 310 | 240 | 200

Third-stage larva

Shape and size.—Fusiform; tail short, slightly tapering, rather suddenly

constricted near its distal end and terminating in a minute, rounded, thumb-

like process. Larva from 443u to 584u long in 10 specimens. Average width

in esophago-intestinal region, about 29u.

Cuticle—Thinner than that of second-stage larva and finely striated.

Sheath.—Very thick, with wide, prominent, transverse striae. Two median

longitudinal prominences extending along lateral surfaces of sheath; these

probably represent lateral alae; sheath conforming closely to shape of larva,

but extending posteriorly from 200u to 255u beyond posterior tip of larva

as a fine tapering cuticular tube or tail; sheath rather sharply constricted

just posterior to region normally occupied by larval tail when larva is fully

extended. At point of constriction, walls of sheath greatly thickened (Figs.

7, 10) for a short distance, enclosing a very narrow lumen; walls becoming

thinner again immediately posteriorly, the narrow lumen mentioned above

being very short and followed by a more expanded lumen becoming increas-

ingly narrow as walls converge posteriorly to form tapering distal portion

of sheath’s tail.

Alimentary tract—Oral opening surrounded by papillae and followed by

a short, narrow, slightly cuticularized tube or canal leading into a minute

oval cavity; this cavity communicating with a vestibule by means of a short

canal. Vestibule variable in size, but conforming in optical section to the

following general plan of structure: Anterior margin of vestibule formed by

an inconspicuosly cuticularized inverted V, apparently a residue of previous

stage prorhabdions; lateral walls cuticular, rather strongly refractive, prob-

ably the residuum of metarhabdions of previous stage, converging posterior-

ly to unite with esophageal lumen; greater part of vestibulum surrounded

by esophageal tissue (Fig. 8). Esophagus strongyliform; its lumen highly

refractive. Frequently 2 prominent nuclei visible within bulb of esophagus,

308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

presumably being nuclei of esophageal glands. Esophagus leading to a

16-celled intestine; boundaries of intestinal cells definite in young third-

stage larvae, but becoming indistinct with exhaustion of reserve food ma-

terial. Lumen of rectum narrow, leading to an inconspicuous anus.

Nervous system.—Nerve ring slightly posterior to equator of esophagus.

In fixed and stained specimens the following details of the nervous system

were observed (Fig. 9): 6 narrow chains of nerve cells passing anteriorly

from nerve ring about one half distance to cephalic end; nerve fibres not

traced from this point anteriorly. A small ganglion posterior and dorsal

to nerve ring, laterally a large ganglion passing posteriorly along each side

of esophagus and extending nearly to bulb. A ventral ganglion of somewhat

smaller size also visible. A chain of nerve cells extending posteriorly from

retrovesicular ganglion toward 2 large median ganglia in caudal region.

Caudal papillae or phasmids (Fig. 10) about 15u to 18u from tip of tail,

connecting with tubes or canals passing internally and anteriorly from

phasmids. The further course of these canals could not be traced owing to

the large number of nerve cells present in this region.

Excretory system.—Excretory pore slightly posterior to nerve ring. Ex-

cretory canal or duct passing inward and posteriorly from excretory pore

to join a transverse excretory duct. A cross section of lumen of transverse

duct visible in optical section of living specimen. Walls of transverse duct

contracting and expanding at irregular intervals.

Genital primordium.—Gross appearance similar to that of preceding

stages, its position being ventral to the fourth and fifth ventral intestinal

cells. The two large germinal cells rather centrally located and surrounded

by 11 epithelial cells (Fig. 11). In addition to the “giant cell’”’ near genital

primordium, 3 similar cells occuring in body cavity anterior to genital

primordium. | :

The size relationships of 10 third-stage larvae are given below in Table 3.

TABLE 3.—SizeE RELATIONSHIPS OF 10 THIRD-STAGE LARVAE OF P. RATZII

ALL MEASUREMENTS IN MICRONS

Specimenmumibers. aan ee ee ee 1) 2:13) ) 451 5) 6 aes le Oa elo

Length of sheath eee cree ce 737|845|649|706|685|743|712/802)|718)]762

Distance from posterior end of larva to pos-

terior tip of sheath. cere ce eae oe 211/261|206|253|242|232|205/253/211/220

enethoot larvar:.ce eer en ati oe ci 526/584) 443/453/443/511/507|549/507|542

Width of larva in region of esophageal bulb..| 26} 31) 20} 28) 29 24| 30 26

Width of sheath in region of esophageal bulb.| 34) 35} 25) 34) 35 30} 34 34

Distance from anterior end to nerve ring....| 94 77| 91) 90} 99} 96} 98) 96)108

Distance from anterior end to excretory pore. |115 96/110)110)118)115)115)121/120

Ihength of esophagus sc... eo eee 183) 180/162/148/158)180/174)173/180)179

Distance from bulb of esophagus to genital

PRIM ordi. «..5 As F. Aan ee ee eae 141/183)124)142)112/146)120)134)149)172

Distance from genital primordium to anus.. .|166/179)117)|130)142/151)180)205)146)149

Weng thy otstalle. ss: ks owe ee ae eee 36| 40) 32) 30} 34) 34) 34) 38] 31] 42

DEVELOPMENT OF PREPARASITIC LARVAL STAGES

In water cultures at room temperatures (20° to 26° C.), most eggs

contained a vermiform embryo 24 hours after the cultures were pre-

JULY 15, 19384 . LUCKER: LARVAE POTERIOSTOMUM RATZII 309

pared. Some eggs hatched within 22 hours and nearly all of the eggs

hatched within 40 hours. When the first-stage larvae issued from the

eggs, a small amount of helminthologically sterile fecal extract was

added to the culture medium. In one culture, after 67 hours of in-

cubation, larvae were observed in the act of casting off the first cuti-

cle (Fig. 12). While the first molt was not actually observed, in two

other cases a large number of discarded sheaths were found in the

culture dishes examined 72 hours after the cultures were started. In

these two cultures all larvae were still in the first stage after 48

hours. Third-stage larvae were found in some cases as early as 115

hours after the cultures were prepared. The thick cuticle of the

second-stage larva was not cast off, but was retained by the third-

stage larva as a sheath.

SUMMARY

The first-stage larva of P. ratzii hatches from the egg in from 22 to

40 hours when kept in water cultures at room temperature (20° to

26° C.); the larva is rhabditiform, varies in length from 450y to 620uy,

and is provided with a long filamentous tail.

The first molt was observed after about 67 hours in a water culture

to which helminthologically sterile fecal extract had been added

shortly after the first-stage larvae issued from the eggs.

The early second-stage larva is similar to larvae of the preceding

stage except that its cuticle is thick and prominently striated. Shortly

after the first molt, the excretory pore and excretory canal become

clearly visible. Second-stage larvae are from 600y to 850y long.

As development proceeds, the second-stage larva becomes further

differentiated morphologically. Following the formation of a new

cuticle and the attainment of the strongyliform structure, the old

cuticle loosens from the body and the larva enters the ensheathed

third stage. The second cuticle is not cast off.

The third-stage strongyliform larva has a short tail and is from

443u to 585u long. The sheath in which the larva is enclosed is from

650u to 850u long, and is characterized by great thickening of its

walls in the region immediately posterior to that occupied by the tail

of the fully extended larva. A minimum of 115 hours was required for

the development from the uterine egg to the infective larva.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Auprecut, A. Zur Kenntnis der Entwicklung der Sklerostomen beim Pferde.

Ztsch. Veterinark. 21: 161-181. 1909.

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

15.

16.

AuicaTa, J. E. Sex differentiation in preparasitic larvae of Hyostrongylus ru-

bidus and development of male and female reproductive systems. (Author’s

abstract of paper read before Am. Soc. Par.) Jour. Parasitol. 20: 127. 1933.

BaiuueT, C. ‘“Helminthes.”” Nouv. dict. de méd de chir. et d. hygiene vét.

Paris. 8: 519-687. 1866.

DE Buick, L. Infectie en prophylaxis bij Strongylosis van het paard. Nederl.

Natuur-Geneesk. Congres. 19: 188-193. 1923.

DE Buick, L., and Baupst, HE. A. R. F. Contribution a l’étude du développement

des Strongylidés (Sclérostomes) du gros intestin chez le cheval. Ann. de Para-

sitol. hum. et comp. 4: 87-96. 1926.

Gites, G. M. J. Some observations on the life-history of Sclerostomum tetra-

canthum Diesing, and on sclerostomiasis in equine animals in connection with

so-called outbreak of “‘surra’’ at Shillong. Scient. Mem. Med. Off. India.

Calcutta. Part 7: 1-23. 1892.

Inte, J. KE. W. Report of the Commission appointed to inquire into Sclerostomiasis

in Holland. 1. Zoological part. The adult Strongylids (Sclerostomes) inhabiting

the large intestine of the horse. The Hague. v. 1: 118 pp. 1922.

Kotuan, S. Die im ungarischen vorkommenden Sclerostomiden mit besonderer

Rucksicht auf das genus Cylicostomum. Ko6zl. az 6sszehasonlité életés

kértan kérébol. 15: 81. 1919.

Looss, A. The Sclerostomidae of horses and donkeys in Egypt. Rec. Egypt. Gov.

Sch. of Med. 1: 21-113. 1901.

OrtTLepp, R. J. Observations on the life history of Triodontophorus tenuicollis, a

nematode parasite of the horse. Jour. Helminth. 3: 1-14. 1925.

PouuszyNskI, G. Morphologisch-biologische Untersuchungen ueber die frielebenden

Larven einiger Pferdenstrongyliden. Tierartz. Rundsch. 36: 871-873. 1930.

Popov, N. K tzucheniiu fauny strongylid loshadei S. S. S. R. Statia vtorara

(Part 2). Trudy Gosudarstv. inst. eksper. vet. Moskva. 5: 31-52. 1928.

Smit, H. J. Parasitologische Studien in Niederldndisch Indien. Deutsche

Tierdrtzl. Wehnschr. 32: 480-434. 1924.

Smit, H. J., and Norosorpiro, R. Nog eenige Strongyliden van het Paard op

Java IV. Nederl.-Ind. Blad. u. Diergeneesk. e Dierent. Buitenzorg. 35:

29-36. 1923.

THEILER, G. The Strongylids and other nematodes parasitic in the intestinal tract

of South African equines. 9th and 10th Reports of the Director of Vet. Ed.

and Research. Pretoria. 175 p. 1923.

Werze., R. Strongyliden der Pferde in Deutschland. Nachtrag. Deutsche Tier-

airtzl. Wschnschr. 36: 101-104. 1928.

YorKE, W., and Macrtg, J. W. S. Strongylidae in horses: X.—On the genus Po-

teriostomum Quiel. Ann. Trop. Med. and Parasitol. 14: 159-163. 1920. |

ORNITHOLOGY.—The hawks of the genus Chondrohierax.' HEr-

BERT FRIEDMANN, U.S. National Museum.

The hook-billed kites of the genus Chondrohierax have always

been a source of much confusion to taxonomists because of their

unusual range of variation in color and size and because of their

scarcity in collections. Recently while working over these birds, I

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 21, 1934.

JULY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: HAWKS oll

took the opportunity of bringing together by far the most extensive

series of specimens ever assembled and am greatly indebted to the

following institutions and their staffs for the loan of material: The

American Museum of Natural History, New York (Mr. J. T. Zim-

mer); the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge (Mr. J. L.

Peters); The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia (Dr. W.

Stone and Mr. M. A. Carriker); the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh

(Mr. W. E. C. Todd); the University of Michigan Museum, Ann

Arbor (Dr. J. Van Tyne); and the California Institute of Technology

(Mr. A. J. van Rossem). The specimens assembled total 100 in num-

ber; in addition to these Dr. Percy R. Lowe has kindly sent me

measurements and geographical data concerning 10 specimens in the

British Museum.

If we take Peters’ Check List of the Birds of the World (vol. 1:

200. 1931) as a statement of current treatment of the genus, we find

three species with no races: wncinatus, megarhynchus, and wilsoniv.

The last one, restricted to Cuba, is easily disposed of. It is readily told

by its yellowish upper mandible. The real problems deal with wun-

cinatus and megarhynchus. On glancing through the literature, we

find that no two authorities give the same range for megarhynchus,

which is said to differ from wncinatus only in having a larger bill. This

immediately aroused suspicion as to the validity of the race and was

the chief reason for gathering together specimens from all parts of the

ranges of the two (tropical Mexico to Bolivia and northern Argen-

tina). However, before it was possible to approach the geographic

variations in these birds, obviously conspecific and not, as often

stated, distinct species, it was necessary to work out their exceedingly

complicated and puzzling plumage sequence. The following detailed

description of the plumages of uncinatus reveals varieties within

phases, certainly a most unusual degree of variability. There are only

two real steps in the sequence—juvenal and adult, but both are com-

plex.

PLUMAGES OF C. UNCINATUS UNCINATUS

Adult male

a. Gray phase.—Above dark plumbeous, or plumbeous-black, becoming

fuscous, or fuscous-black in worn plumage; the occiput with much basal

white and the upper tail coverts tipped and banded with white. Sides of

face, ear coverts, and chin deep to dark plumbeous; under tail coverts white

to ochraceous-buff, uniform, or with traces of grayish bars occasionally

distinctly banded with plumbeous. Remainder of under parts deep plumb-

eous (usually paler than the upperparts) barred with narrow bands of white,

buff, or cinnamon-buff, which are variable in width, and are usually nar-

312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

rowly bordered by fuscous or fuscous-black. Axillaries and under wing

coverts uniform deep plumbeous, barred with white or buff; primaries

banded (about equally) with white and plumbeous-black below, dark plumb-

eous and plumbeous-black above, the outer webs often uniform plumbeous-

black; secondaries uniform dark plumbeous, occasionally with traces of

lighter bars below. Tail plumbeous-black to black, white basally, narrowly

tipped with white or deep mouse-gray, and crossed by two bands (the

anterior one the narrower) of white, or pinkish-buff, shading to deep mouse-

gray posteriorly and towards the outer webs, which are often uniform mouse-

eray above. Bill black, olive below; iris greenish white; feet orange-yellow,

claws black.

Unbarred variety.—Similar to the above description, but lacking entirely

or partially the white barring on the under parts.

Cinnamon-barred variety.—Similar to the above description, but with the

gray barring of the under parts more or less replaced by cinnamon-brown

or russet, and with more or less indication of a cinnamon or ochraceous-

tawny nuchal collar.

b. Melanistic phase-—Entire plumage deep fuscous black, with a slight

bronze-purple-green gloss; the occiput with much basal white; tail narrowly

tipped with white, and crossed by a single broad white band. Bill black

above, dirty olive below, tipped with black; cere and eyelids yellowish

green; skin in front of eye blue-green, spot above inner angle of eye orange-

yellow; iris white; feet gamboge.

Adult female.

a. Brown phase.—Forehead, auriculars, and sometimes the chin deep

gull-gray to deep neutral gray, or dark plumbeous; crown and occiput

fuscous to fuscous-black, with concealed white bases; a broad, continuous

nuchal collar of ochraceous-buff, tawny, or amber-brown occasionally ex-

tending to the ear coverts; remainder of upper parts fuscous to fuscous-

black, darker anteriorly, often with slightly paler (sometimes russet) edges

to the feathers; upper tail coverts tipped and barred with white or pale gray.

Entire under parts, including under wing coverts, white, or ochraceous-

white (more ochraceous on the under tail coverts,) with broad nearly equal

transverse bars of ochraceous-tawny, cinnamon-brown, russet, or amber-

brown, narrowly edged with fuscous or fuscous-black (occasionally this

edging is absent, and sometimes it widens to spread over almost the entire

bar). Outer primaries pale fuscous above, white, or pale mouse-gray below,

cream color, or pinkish buff toward the bases of the inner webs, and dis-

tantly banded with fuscous, or fuscous-black (the bands being about one

half or one third the width of the lighter interspaces) ; inner primaries chest-

nut, or russet, shading to creamy or pinkish buff towards the bases of their

inner webs, and distantly banded with fuscous; secondaries light fuscous

above, gull-gray below, white, or cream color toward the bases of the inner

webs, and somewhat indistinctly banded with dark fuscous. Tail fuscous-

black, to black, white basally, narrowly tipped with white or paler hair-

brown, and crossed by two bands of hair-brown or mouse-gray, shading to

white or pinkish buff on the inner webs, especially anteriorly. Bill black,

yellowish olive below; lores olive-orange; sides of cere olive-yellow; spot

above eye orange; skin in front of eye grass-green; iris white; feet gamboge.

Gray-backed variety.—Like the above, but with the upper parts plumbeous-

black to sooty-black, and with a tendency toward loss of the tawny nuchal

JULY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: HAWKS 313

collar. Females in this plumage variation are very like the cinnamon-barred

variation of the gray phase of the male.

b. Melanistic phase.—Similar to that of the male.

Immature.

No definite immature plumage; there is a gradual, and probably prolonged

molt from juvenal to adult, which appears to commence anteriorly, as well

as on the underparts, and to end with the tail.

Juvenal (sexes alike).

a. Light phase-—Forehead, crown, and occiput fuscous-black with white

bases to the feathers; a broad, white, cream, or pinkish-buff, nuchal collar,

continuous with the white under parts; remainder of upper parts fuscous

(shading to fuscous-black on the neck) with narrow cinnamon-tawny or

russet margins to the feathers; upper tail coverts tipped and barred with

white, or pinkish buff. Entire under parts white, or buff, shading to pinkish

buff on the thighs and under tail coverts and either uniform, or distantly

barred with hair brown, olive-brown, or fuscous (the number and width of

these bars varies considerably) ; outer primaries fuscous above, creamy white

towards the bases of the inner webs, and pallid neutral-gray below, barred

with fuscous-black; inner primaries with more or less orange-cinnamon to

cinnamon-rufous on both webs; secondaries fuscous above, with some white,

or buff, on the inner webs, mouse-gray below, and barred with darker fus-

cous. Tail fuscous-black, basally white, narrowly tipped with white, cream,

buff, or pinkish cinnamon, and crossed with three, or four pale bands, which

are uniform hair-brown to light fuscous, on the central pair, and irregularly

marked with white, cream, buff, or pinkish cinnamon on the remainder.

b. Melanistic phase.—Forehead, crown, and occiput fuscous-black to sooty

black; remainder of upper parts fuscous to fuscous-black, the feathers with

concealed white bars or spots near their bases; upper tail coverts tipped and

widely barred with white. Entire under parts fuscous to fuscous-black, with

concealed white bars on the bases of the feathers, the under tail coverts

tipped also with white, or buff; wings fuscous-black crossed by three or four

paler bars which are white basally, fuscous above, pale neutral gray below

distally. Tail fuscous-black to sooty black, white basally, tipped with white,

and crossed by two bands of white, shaded, or marked (especially on the

distal band) with hair-brown or mouse gray (that is, the tail pattern like that

of the non-melanistic adult).

THE HOOK-BILLED KITES OF GRENADA

The specimens of wncinatus from the island of Grenada prove to be

constantly smaller than those of the South American mainland or

from Trinidad and to have certain color differences as indicated be-

low. For this distinct race I propose the name

Chondrohierax uncinatus mirus subsp. nov.

Type: Adult male, American Museum Nat. Hist., 45054, collected on

March 26, 1885, at Morne Rouge, Grenada, by J. Grant Wells.

Subspecific characters.

Adult male.—Similar to the cinnamon-barred variety of the gray phase

of C. u. uncinatus, but smaller, and with nuchal collar well developed, cin-

namon-buff to ochraceous-buff, and the barring on the under parts ochrac-

314. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

eous-tawny to tawny, with little or no grayish edgings to the bars. Iris

pale green; bill and feet (in dried skins) like those of C. wu. uncinatus.

Adult female.—Similar to the brown phase of C. wu. uncinatus, but smaller

and differing in the following respects: top of head deep fuscous, with little

or no indication of gray; nuchal collar, extending to the ear coverts and

cheeks, ochraceous-buff to ochraceous-tawny; upper parts fairly widely

edged with tawny or cinnamon-rufous; barring on under parts more ochra-

ceous-tawny to tawny, and with little or no indication of brown edgings.

Immature and Juvenal.—Not known. |

Adult male (one specimen (type) ).— Wing 250; tail 165; culmen from base

of cere 28.0; tarsus 30.0; middle toe without claw, 25 mm.

Adult female (three specimens—one sexed ‘‘male,’’ another not sexed,

but undoubtedly female).—Wing 262-266 (264.3); tail 179-183 (181.3);

culmen 30.0-30.5 (30.3); tarsus 30.0-36.0 32.3; middle toe without claw

29.0-34.0 (31.0).

Range: The island of Grenada, where resident.

It is said by observers who have worked in Grenada that the birds there

never attain the wholly gray phase found in South America, so that it seems

that the island form is a case of arrested plumage development with a tend-

ency to hen feathering in the males (the cinnamon bars of the underparts

being essentially a female character in these birds). It is noteworthy that in

specimens from Trinidad and Venezuela we find suggestions of hen feather-

ing in males (the cinnamon-barred variety of the gray phase described in

the account of the plumage sequence of typical wncinatus). In Grenada it

has apparently become fixed.

Just as we find a tendency towards hen feathering in the males in this

species so too we find signs of cock feathering in the hens in some instances.

The gray-back phase of the adult female (represented by specimens from

Surinam and Venezuela) is apparently to be so considered.

THE HOOK-BILLED KITES OF MEXICO

Examination of a good series of Mexican specimens reveals the fact

that at least two subspecies of the hook-billed kite occur in that coun-

try. The birds inhabiting Tamaulipas, Jalapa, Guanajuato, and

Jalisco are a very distinct race and may be known as

Chondrohierax uncinatus aquilonis subsp. nov.

Type.—Museum of Comparative Zoology 113711, adult male, collected

in Tamaulipas, Mexico, April 9, 1900 (ex Worthen coll.).

Subspecific Characters—Males very much darker, especially on the under-

parts, than wncinatus, blackish plumbeous instead of deep plumbeous, the

white ventral bars broader than in topotypical wncinatus; females similar

to the darker barred brown phase of typical wncinatus (the ventral bars

russet or amber brown).

Measurements.—5 males—wing 279-300 (290), tail 186-210 (199), culmen

from cere 29-33.5 (31.1) mm; 4 females—wing 275-300 (291.5), tail 191-214

(204.5), culmen from cere 30.5-33 (32.3) mm.

Range.—Tamaulipas, Jalapa, Guanajuato, and Jalisco. It is possible that

JULY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: HAWKS 315

two very large birds from Guerrero are of this race, but the only male is

in the melanistic phase and cannot be identified subspecifically. I consider

them, together with Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, Chiapas, and Guatemalan

birds as typical wncinatus.

THE UNCINATUS-MEGARHYNCHUS PROBLEM

The form megarhynchus was described by Des Murs in Castelnau’s

Voyages, volume 1, Oiseaux, 1855, page 9, plate 1, from Sarayacu, some-

where near the eastern part of the Ecuadorean-Peruvian border. The type

locality of uwncinatus is ‘‘Vicinity of Rio to the north of Brazil and all of

Guiana.”’ If we measure the culmen from the cere in the plate given by Des

Murs, we find it to be 39 mm. The bird is, by plumage, a male. Now, if we

take our series of adult wncinatus and tabulate their dimensions, we find

two things, First, an enormous range of variation; second, no correlation

between variation and geography.

Adult male (26 specimens): Wing 265-301 (285.8); tail 1738-210 (191.1);

culmen from cere 27.0—35.5 (31.3), one 42.0; tarsus 32.0—-37.0 (35.1); middle

toe without claw 28.0—35.0 (31.1).

Adult female (31 specimens): Wing 268-321 (289.4); tail 191-228 (202.8);

culmen from cere 28.0—37.0 (81.6), one 43.5; tarsus 31.0-37.0 (33.8); one

28; middle toe, without claw 28.0—34.0 (30.9).

These measurements arranged geographically are presented in the tables

on the following page.

At first glance we may see that birds from eastern Brazil (Bahia, within

the original, vague type locality of wncinatus), from the Amazon, from Mexico

(Chiapas, and Guerrero) and from western Ecuador all match the characters

of megarhynchus. In other words, ‘‘megarhynchus’’ occurs here and there

throughout the range of uncinatus; furthermore, there is no gap in the size

variations between small wncinatus and large ‘“‘megarhynchus.”’ This con-

tinuity of variation and absence of geographical correlation point to but one

conclusion: that megarhynchus cannot be regarded as a taxonomic entity in

any way distinct from wncinatus. The problem, however, is not quite as

simple as a bald statement of it implies. One specimen from Ambata

Oriente, eastern Ecuador, and four from northeastern Peru (Cajamarca

to Rio Huallaga) regions from which wncinatus has not been recorded, are

so very much larger, in bill length, and also to some extent in the greater

width of the rectrices that I cannot put them in with the merged wncinatus-

megarhynchus series. These birds, which are described below, are apparently

the climax in size of the whole species, and it appears that the birds from

Keuador, the Andes of Venezuela, eastern Brazil, and southern Mexico, that

have appeared in literature as megarhynchus are variants of wncinatus in the

direction of the Ambata-Peruvian birds. This race may be known as

Chondrohierax uncinatus immanis subsp. nov.

Type—Museum of Comparative Zoology 149835, adult unsexed (female

by plumage), collected at Ambata Oriente, on the eastern base of the eastern

Andes, Ecuador, by Reinberg.

316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO.

TABLE 1.—MBASUREMENTS OF 26 MALE SPECIMENS OF CHONDROHIERAX

UNCINATUS UNCINATUS

Number of

Country Specimens Wing Culmen from Cere

Mexico (Guerrero) 1 301 42

Guatemala 3 281-299 (287.5) 30.0-383.0 (31.2)

Nicaragua il 290 33.0

Panama 1 299 30.5

Venezuela 5 265-294 (280.4) 29.0-30.5 (29.8)

Surinam 3 272-291 (283.0) 28 .5-30.5 (29.7)

Colombia 2 278-292 30 .5-34.0

Ecuador 5 274-289 (284.3) 32.5-35.5 (34.3)

Peru 2 286-298 33 .0—-33 .5

Brazil 2 275-285 27 .0-29.5

Argentina 1 300 30.0

TABLE 2.—MEASUREMENTS OF 31 FEMALE SPECIMENS OF C. UNCINATUS

Country nee Wing Culmen from Cere

Mexico (Guerrero) 2, 283-307 30 .0-43 .5

Guatemala 1 289 29.5

Nicaragua 1 290 aD

Costa Rica 1 290 30.0

Venezuela 6 272-309 (287.8) 29.0-31.5 (29.9)

Surinam 2 285-289 28 .0-30.5

Colombia 10 268-321 (285.0) 28 .0-34.5 (31.4)

Ecuador 4 284-303 (290.8) 28 .5-38.0 (33.6)

Peru 2 290-305 34 .0-34.5

Brazil 2, 293-295 30 .0—37 .0

TABLE 3.—MEASUREMENTS OF 10 SPECIMENS OF C. U. UNCINATUS SUPPLIED

BY Dr. P. R. Lowe

Locality Sex Wing Tail aaa Oe Tarsus

Amazon Unsexed 295 187 38 36

Brazil, Bahia 4 285 194 40 37

(worn)

Venezuela, Merida : 289 200 31 34

ss - Male 297 205 Bll 38

Mexico, Chiapas,

Tonala Male Bley 210 38 40

m Colotlan Male 291 205 30 35

fe Chiapas,

Tonala Female 308 2s 34 36

a : Female 305 PALG 36 39

cs < Female 296 205 35 30

Oaxaca Female Juv. 292 218 36 36

JULY 15, 1934 FRIEDMANN: HAWKS 317

Subspecific Characters.—Distinguished from wncinatus by its huge bill

and broad rectrices; wing 317, tail 228, culmen from cere 50 mm.

Adult male.—(2 specimens, Shapaja on the Rio Huallaga, and Chaupe,

Cajamarca Province): Wing 315, 319; tail 205, 228; culmen from cere 45,

50 mm.

Adult female.—(3 specimens including the type; Ambata Oriente, Ecua-

dor; Chaupe, Cajamarca Province and Rio Jelashte, San Martin, Peru):

Wing 306, 314, 317; tail 225, 228, 229; culmen from cere 48, 50, 50 mm.

Range.—Ambata Oriente, Ecuador, to northeastern Peru (Shapaja, Rio

Huallaga; Rio Jelashte, San Martin; and Chaupe Cajamarca).

Remarks.—It may seem strange to describe as new a form from a place

not far from the type locaity of megarhynchus (which is here relegated to the

synonymy of wncinatus) but, as is shown above, “‘megarhynchus’’ has no

discrete range or dimensional limits outside the variational range of typical

uncinatus. By describing immanis, megarhynchus is caused to assume its cor-

rect place as an intermediate between uncinatus and immanis, as it should

be on geographic grounds. The ‘‘megarhynchus”’ type of individuals from

Mexico, Venezuela, and eastern Brazil, cannot, of course, be said to be inter-

mediates between wncinatus and the geographically remote immanis, but

they are variants in the direction of the latter.

VARIATIONS, TYPE LOCALITY, AND RANGE OF C. U. UNCINATUS

Males in the gray phase vary slightly from north to south in the width

of the white ventral bars, the bars becoming narrower on the average in

Peru, the Guianas, Brazil, and Argentina, and broader in Central America,

but the difference is very slight. Peruvian males (2) are a little darker gray

on the underparts than specimens from other South American countries, but

again the difference is a faint one.

As stated above, the locality given by Temminck in the original descrip-

tion of this bird is very broad—from Rio de Janeiro to all of the Guianas.

This has never been restricted as far as I know; I hereby restrict it to the

vicinity of Paramaribo, Surinam.

The range of the nominate form of the hook-billed kite is as follows:

marshy and swampy places in the tropical zone-from southern Mexico

(Guerrero, Oaxaca, Yucatan, and Chiapas) south through Guatemala, Nica-

ragua, Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama to Colombia, Venezuela, the

Guianas, Brazil, western Ecuador, western, central, and southeastern Peru

to Bolivia (Santa Cruz de la Sierra), northwestern Argentina (Embarcacién

and Tucuman), Paraguay (Fort Wheeler) and southeastern Brazil (Sao

Paulo).

KEY TO THE SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF CHONDROHIERAX

a. Upper mandible pale yellowish white, inclining to bluish horn at the base;

feathers of upper parts with concealed white bars on their bases (Cuba)

a a rs Ee IN let ee OS oa eae ie wb Be ee eS C. wilsonit

318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, NO. 7

aa. Upper mandible black; no concealed white bars on the feathers of the

upper parts. ;

b. Size larger; wing 265-301 mm., in males; 268-321 mm. in females.

c. Bill smaller; culmen from cere less than 45 mm.

d. Plumage gray or dark gray, barred beneath with gray or dark gray

and white.

e. Ground color of under parts dark blackish plumbeous, white

bars wide, (about 5 nami)" 52 qe ne C. u. aquilonis ad.

ee. Ground color of under parts paler, deep plumbeous; white bars

NATLOW) CL35— 3; TAS hee eee ee ee pe C. u. uncinatus ad. oi

dd. Plumage dark brown or blackish brown above, barred beneath

with brown on white ground color or almost unbarred white.

e. Under parts heavily barred............ C. u. uncinatus ad. 2

C. u. aquilonis ad. 9

ee. Under parts nearly unbarred white....... C. u. uncinatus juv.

C. u. aquilonis juv.

ce. Billivery larcesculmen omni ee se C. u. immanis ade?

bb. Size smaller; wing 250 mm., in male; 262—266 mm.

In*iemaless(Grenada)) Se ake a a Crs Us:

I am much indebted to Mr. W. W. Bowen for assistance in com-

piling measurements and in working out the plumages of these birds.

Dr. J. Van Tyne and Mr. L. Griscom also aided by sending notes

and opinions about plumages and variations.

MALACOLOGY.—New Philippine land shells of the genus Obba.'

Paut Bartscu, U.S. National Museum.

A sending of Obbas to the U. 8. National Museum for determina-

tion by Mr. Walter F. Webb of Rochester, New York, has brought to

light a number of new races, which are here described.

The mass of Philippine material before me belonging to the genus

Obba, makes it possible to regroup some of the named forms in a more

natural arrangement. Mr. Webb’s recent sending makes it necessary

to give consideration to the mollusks which were described by von

Mollendorff (Nachrichtsblatt der Deutschen Malakozoologischen

Gesellschaft 20: 87-88) as

Obbina lasaller Eydoux

Obbina lasalle: forma subcarinata Mldff.

Obbina lasaller forma subcostata Mlldff.

Obbina lasallet var. obscura Mlldff.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived April 6, 1934.

JULY 15, 1934 BARTSCH: SHELLS OF GENUS OBBA 319

Figs. 1-3.—Obba listeri cabrasensis.

Figs. 4-6.—Obba grandis marivelesensis.

Figs. 7-9.—Obba listert mayae.

Obbina lasallei var. grandis Mlldff.

Also those treated by him in 1898 in the Abhandlungen der Natur-

forschenden Gesellschaft, Gérlitz, 22: 82-85. Here he renames the

shell he described as Obbina lasallei above, Obbina lasallei pallida, and

describes:

Obbina planulata subglobosa Mlldff.

Obbina planulata edentula Mlldff.

Obina planulata subangulata Mlldff.

Obbina planulata depressa Mlldff.

Obba lasallei Eydoux typifies an entirely distinct group of forms

whose conspicuous colored banding at once removes them from the

present complex, which will have to carry one of the four names be-

320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

stowed by von Mollendorff in 1888. Since von Mollendorff says that

the first two named forms were each based upon a single aberrant

individual which he found with what he then called Obbina lasallei

Eydoux at Montalban, Luzon, these are best passed over.

Of the others, that is his var. obscura and var. grandts, the latter

appears more appropriate. I shall therefore here select it for the specific

designation of the group.

OBBA GRANDIS Von Mollendorft

The shell ranges from medium size to quite large. Ground color flesh-

colored, variously mottled with flecks of dull brown, never actually spirally

banded, though a series of spots, which are almost confluent a little posterior

to the middle of the turns, suggests a narrow band on the upper surface

of the whorls. Base with an obscure interrupted zone of dull brown at some

distance anterior to the periphery. The last whorl has the outer lip decidedly

deflected at the posterior angle, which gives it a pinched-in effect at this

place. Peristome broadly expanded and reflected; basal lip without tooth,

or at best with the merest suggestion of a median tumidity.

This species as now conceived ranges over central Luzon whereit breaks

up into a number of recognizable races or subspecies.

It resembles in size Obba planulata (Lamarck), but is less depressed than

that species and lacks the strong basal tooth. It also suggests some of the

races of Obba sarcochroa Mollendorff, but the absence of basal tooth at once

distinguishes it from that species. Obba marmorata Mollendorff also SuBEcets

it, but here, too, we have a strong basal tooth present.

Obba grandis Méllendorff as here constituted embraces:

Obba grandis grandis Mlldff. Montalban (type locality).

Obba grandis grandis forma subcarinata Mlldff. Montalban.

Obba grandis grandis forma subcostata Mlldff. Montalban.

Obba grandis obscura Mlldff. Balacbac.

Obba grandis depressa Mildff. Morong.

Obba grandis edentula Mildff. Morong.

Obba grandis subglobosa Mlldff. Sibul.

Obba grandis subangulata Mlldff. Zambales.

Obba grandis marivelesensis Bartsch. Mariveles.

Obba Grandis Marivelesensis, new subspecies

Figs. 4-6

Shell of medium size, lenticular, with moderately elevated, well rounded

spire. Periphery feebly angulated. Base moderately well rounded and mod-

erately openly umbilicated. Ground color flesh colored, with a pale buff

tinge. The upper surface, particularly on the early postnuclear whorls,

flecked and mottled with pale chestnut brown. On the early turns these

flecks tend to form an interrupted median line and a second interrupted,

less conspicuous line a little anterior to the summit and a third immediately

above the suture, which is even fainter. The base is almost unicolor, the

JULY 15, 1934 BARTSCH: SHELLS OF GENUS OBBA o21

color scheme being varied slightly by retractively curved, faintly brownish

streaks coinciding with the incremental lines in placement. Aperture buff

within; peristome white. Nuclear whorls 2, well rounded, the first smooth

excepting incremental lines, and the last marked by incremental lines and

fine spiral striations. The postnuclear whorls are well rounded and marked

by fairly strong incremental lines, spiral striations and the microscopic

crisscross sculpture characteristic for the species. The early postnuclear

whorls seem to be more conspicuously keeled than those of the adult shell,

and the summit of the succeeding turns falls immediately below the keel

and is appressed to it. The base is marked by strong incremental lines, fine

spiral striations and microscopic, crisscross sculpture. Aperture oval, the

outer lip deflected at the posterior angle as if pinched down. There is an

impressed line at the junction of the outer and basal lip. The basal lip is

provided with a very slight swelling in the middle, suggesting in the merest

manner a fold. Parietal wall covered with a thin callus.

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 314046 was collected by Col. Edgar A. Mearns

on the beach at Mariveles, Bataan Province, Luzon. It has 5 whorls, and

measures: Height 14.7 mm; greater diameter, 29.8 mm; lesser diameter,

23.1 mm.

Height Greater Diameter Lesser Diameter

Average, 13.8 mm. 28.3 mm. 21.98 mm.

Greatest, 15.2 mm. 30.5 mm. 25 mms

Least, 1223 mim: 25.3 mm. 19.6 mm.

Obba Listeri Mayae, new species

Figs. 7-9

Shell large, lenticular, acutely keeled at the periphery with a narrow

umbilicus; color rather dark, the upper surface marbled, with a heavy row

of rather large, elongated spots, which are more or less confluent and form

a median band between the summit and the periphery. There is a tendency

to the formation of two additional bands; one a little anterior to the summit,

and the other a little posterior to the periphery. The rest of the upper sur-

face is variously streaked, blotched and spotted with chestnut-brown of a

little lighter color than the median band. The under surface is also marked

by an almost uninterrupted broad band of brown, which is about as far

anterior to the periphery as the median band on the summit is distant from

the periphery. The rest of the base posterior to this band is also mottled,

but paler than the dorsal surface, while the reach between the umbilicus

and the dark band is wax colored, streaked with darker incremental lines.

The aperture is buff; the outer lip shows the dark mearkings within. Nuclear

whorls 124, well rounded, smooth; postnuclear whorls flattened on the upper

surface and slightly up-turned toward the periphery. The succeeding turns

are appressed to the narrow edged keel but occasionally this projects slightly

beyond the summit of the succeeding turn. The postnuclear whorls are

marked by retractively curved, slender, incremental lines and numerous,

fine spiral threads which give to the surface a finely reticulated pattern.

The fine microscopic, crisscross sculpture characteristic for the group is

also represented here. In addition to this, the upper surface is marked,

particularly on the later whorls, by strong malleations. The under surface

is marked by incremental lines, fine wavy spiral striations, which are a

322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

little stronger at the periphery than toward the umbilicus and the crisscross

sculpture referred to above. The last part of the last whorl is conspicuously

malleated below the periphery. Aperture oval; outer lip reenforced by a

rather thick callus, less strong on the parietal wall, provided with a slight

notch at the junction of the basal and upper lip and a fairly strong median

basal tooth.

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 314044 and 10 specimens were collected on Gun-

tang Mountain, Lubang Island. The type has 5 whorls, and measures:

Height, 10.6 mm; greater diameter, 35.5 mm; lesser diameter, 28.7 mm.

Ten additional specimens, two of which, U.S.N.M. No. 314045, are in

the collection of the U.S. National Museum, and the remainder in Mr.

Webb’s collection, and the type yield the following measurements:

Height Greater Diameter Lesser Diameter

Average, 12.0 mm. 34.5 mm. 27.5 mm.

Greatest, Se Zeman 36.3 mm. 28.9 mm.

Least, 10.6 mm. 32.5 mm. 25.8 mm.

This subspecies suggests in general shape the shell that I collected at Port

Tilig, Lubang Island, which I named O. listert smithi in Bulletin 100 of the

U.S. National Museum, vol. 6, part 8, page 351. lt can, however, be dis-

tinguished at once from this by the malleations present on the upper and

lower surface, which are absent in smithi, and by its much less strong spiral

striations.

I have named this mayae for Mrs. May Webb, the wife of the donor, at his

request.

Obba Listeri Cabrasensis, new subspecies

Figs. 1-3

Shell of moderate size, lenticular, rather high, acutely keeled at the periph-

ery with a rather broad umbilicus. The upper surface is of a deep buff-

colored ground color, marbled and vermiculated with spots, splotches and

dashes of brown, which are largest on the upper surface in a median line

where they partly become confluent to form an interrupted broad band.

There is an indication of a second band a little anterior to the summit of

much lesser dots, and a third immediately above the periphery, which is

even more obscure than the one at the summit. On the under surface there

is a broad interrupted band of brown almost as far remote from the peri-

phery as the band on the upper surface is from it. In addition to this, there

are incremental streaks of pale brown on the buff background on the under

surface. The interior of the aperture is pale buff, showing the brown mark-

ings within on the outer lip, while the peristome is faintly buff. Nuclear

whorls 1.7; the first smooth and the rest marked by faint incremental lines

and microscopic spiral striations. The postnuclear whorls are moderately

rounded and marked by retractively curved incremental lines and rather

strongly incised spiral striations. There are also malleations, which show

best on the later turns on the anterior half of the whorls. In addition to this,

the entire surface is marked by the fine crisscross sculpture common to the

species. Periphery strongly keeled, the succeeding turns abutting the periph-

eral keel or sometimes passing slightly under it and allowing it to show

JULY 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY O20

as a feeble thread. The under surface is strongly rounded, marked by incre-

mental lines, the spiral striations equaling those on the spire in strength,

and the fine crisscross sculpture. The posterior half also shows feeble

malleations. Aperture oval; peristome rather broadly expanded and reflected

and joined across the parietal wall by a heavy callus, which renders it com-

plete and provided with a rather conspicuous tooth on the middle of the

basal lip. There is also a slight notch at the junction of the basal and outer

lip.

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 314042, was collected on Cabras Island. It has

4.8 whorls, and measures: Height, 12 mm; greater diameter, 26.9 mm; lesser

diameter, 21.5 mm. This and 99 additional specimens yield the following

measurements:

Height Greater Diameter Lesser Diameter

Average, 11.4 mm. 26.8 mm. 21.68 mm.

Greatest, L3eS mms: = = 29.8 mm. 24.3 mm.

Least, 10.1 mm. 23.5 mm. 19.0 mm.

This subspecies recalls Obba listerz recurvata Mollendorff from the Island

of Lubang, differing from it in its slightly more elevated form, more rounded

upper surface, the combination of the two giving the shell a more deeply

lenticular aspect. The umbilicus here too is wider.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1059TH MEETING

The 1059th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

November 11th, 1933, President O. 8. Adams presiding.

The program for the evening consisted of four illustrated reports of ex-

peditions from Washington laboratories that participated in the research

program of the recent Polar Year.

The reports were presented by E. W. Eickelberg of the U. S. Coast and

Geodetic Survey, J.C. Ballard of the U.S. Weather Bureau, K. L. Sherman

of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institute of Wash-

ington, and by H. B. Maris of the Naval Research Laboratory.

There was a discussion of the reports participated in by Messrs. Heck,

Hazard, Gish, Humphreys and Kracek.

1060TH MEETING

The 1060th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

November 25th, 1933, President O. S. Adams presiding.

Program: V. L. Chrisler: Dependence of sound absorption upon the area

and distribution of the absorbent material_—The results of sound absorption

measurements were given showing that when one surface of an enclosure is

covered with a highly absorbent material it is impossible to have a diffuse

distribution of sound energy. As a result the efficiency of the material is

lowered. The results were also given on very much smaller areas showing

that under these conditions the material may be more efficient than indi-

cated by measurements on 72 sq. ft.

324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 7

Discussed by Messrs. Hafstad, Hawkesworth, Stimpson, W. P. White,

and Wenner.

R. R. Lukens: Sound ranging as applied to hydrographic survey.—The

application of sound ranging to hydrographic surveying is an outgrowth of

the anti-submarine work of the World War. The first experiments hy the

Coast and Geodetic Survey were made in 1923 with apparatus built by the

Bureau of Standards. The system was first used successfully on the Pacific

Coast and the apparatus was soon simplified and improved until it became

thoroughly practicable. Briefly, sound ranging is accomplished as follows:

Hydrophones are planted at known points near the shore and each is con-

nected to a radio station on shore. When the ship wants a position, a T.N.T.

bomb is exploded over the side. The explosion is registered on the chrono-

graph carried on board the vessel and the sound waves travel through the

water until picked up by the hydrophones near the shore. When the im-

pulse is received through the hydrophone, the radio transmits an instan-

taneous signal back to the ship and thus the time of the arrival of the sound

at each hydrophone is noted on the chronograph tape. By scaling the tape,

the time, to one hundredth of a second, required for the sound to travel from

the bomb to each shore station, is ascertained. Knowing the velocity of

sound in sea water, the distance from each hydrophone is readily computed,

and when the ares are laid down on the survey sheet, the intersection marks

the position of the bomb when it exploded. The subject of velocity of sound

in sea water is a big one in itself. Wherever possible the velocity is deter-

mined experimentally. This can be done when a shore fix is available as the

bomb is exploded. Results so far show a remarkable agreement between the

experimental velocities and the theoretical velocities using the bottom tem-

peratures. Experiments for obtaining more knowledge of the path of sound

through sea water have just been completed on the Pacific Coast, but as yet

no definite conclusions have been reached. Sound ranging is capable of great

distance. At one time the ship Guide on the Pacific Coast got bombs through

at a distance of 216 miles. In the work of the past summer, two vessels on the

Pacific Coast frequently used stations 100 miles or more distant with excel-

lent results. Sound ranging, or ‘‘radio acoustic ranging”’ as it is known in the

Coast and Geodetic Survey, has resulted in greatly increased accuracy in

offshore surveys and also in decreased unit costs due to the fact that work

can be carried on at night or in thick weather. (Illustrated by demonstration

apparatus. )

Discussed by Messrs. Wenner, Heck, Hersey, Hawkesworth and H. L.

Curtis.

The following informal communication was presented.

W. Ramberg.—It was desired in connection with the work on propeller

vibrations at the Bureau of Standards to find general solutions of the equa-

tion of transverse vibration of a slender beam of variable cross section. In

searching the literature for such solutions it appeared that the case of a

beam formed by the rotation of the curve y=Az”, (0<n<1), had been

worked out in detail by Prof. Nicholson in 1917 (Proc. Roy. Soc. London A.

93 :506.— 1917) in order to find the nodal positions in such beams as a func-

tion of the “‘shape” exponent n. The purpose of Prof. Nicholson’s paper was

to check a hypothesis of Prof. Dendy according to which the growths at

definite distances from the ends of certain sponge spicules proceed from the

nodal points; the nodes, he reasoned, were the only points that were suffi-

ciently quiet to allow these growths in the spicules as they vibrated with

JULY 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 320

their natural periods under agitation by water currents. This conclusion was

checked by Prof. Nicholson’s mathematical works.

The biologists interest in the morphology of sponges had thus given im-

petus to a paper which promises to be of value in the analysis of propeller

vibrations.

1061sT MEETING

The 1061st meeting, constituting the 63rd annual meeting, was held in the

Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday evening, December 9, 1933, President

O.S. Adams presiding.

The treasurer reported an income from all sources of $1455.43, and ex-

penditures of $1375.63. He also reported an active membership of 304.

The secretaries reported that the following new members were elected

during the year: Irvin Naiman, Louis R. Maxwell, James L. Guion, F. W.

Sohon, 8. J., N. F. Braaten, B. E. Anderson, George F. Strohaver, 8S. J.,

Scott E. Forbush, J. B. Wilke, R. S. Cleveland, R. M. Wick, Charles L.

Gordon, Charles T. Allen, Norman Bekkedahl, Paul J. Searles, and Albert

E. Coldwell. Alfred H. Hodge elected to membership in 1932 qualified

in 1933.

The following deaths were reported: Harlan W. Fisk, Frederic A. Young,

and John T. Erwin.

The following officers were declared elected for the year 1934: President,

H. L. Dryden; Vice-presidents, O. H. Gish, and N. H. Heck; Treasurer,

R. E. Gibson; and for the years 1934 and 1935; Corresponding Secretary,

F’. B. Silbsbee; and Members-at-large of the General Committee, W. G. Brom-

bacher, J. H. Taylor.

During the year the third Joseph Henry Lecture in memory of the first

President of the Philosophical Society was given by K. T. Compton, Presi-

dent of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

At the conclusion of the business meeting, E. O. Hulburt presented a paper

on The polarization of light at sea.—A polarizing prism properly oriented was

found to darken the sea relative to the sky, to reduce the brilliance of the

sun path and to render the horizon more distinct. In bright weather it in-

creased the visibility of objects against the sea background. Attaching polar-

izing prisms to a sextant and to binoculars improved these instruments in

certain cases. Measurements of the light of the sea ruffled by a breeze from

several hundred yards from the observer out to the horizon several miles

away showed that the light was often more, and rarely less, than 2/3 polar-

ized with electric rector mainly horizontal but tilted up under certain con-

ditions, e.g., tilted up 30° for the sun bearing 90° and at 45° altitude. From

the observations and theory it came out that the sea light was the light of

the sky at about 25° to 35° above the horizon reflected by the sea, the re-

flecting facets of the sea surface being most frequently at about 15° to the

horizontal. The width of the sun path calculated from this was in agree-

ment with the observed width of about 6°, 14° and 18° in moderate weather

for the sun at altitudes 10°, 20° and 30° respectively. The foregoing results

lead to the explanation of a number of breezy sea reflection phenomena such

as: (1) A dark bank of clouds rising up over the horizon does not darken the

sea appreciably until it reaches an altitude above 25°; (2) One sees practi-

eally no reflection of a black or white ship in the water on a breezy day; (3)

ce fact that the sea is usually bluer, and of course darker, than horizon

sky.

eed by Messrs. Bittinger, Humphreys, H. L. Curtis, and Hawkes-

worth.

326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7

1062ND MEETING

The 1062nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January

6, 1934, President Dryden presiding.

Program: The address of the retiring president, O. S. Adams, entitled

Flatland; not a romance but a necessary expedient. This address has since been

published in full in this JouRNAL, 24: 201-216. 1934.

I’. G. BRicKWEDDE, Recording Secretary

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Notes

Helminthological Society — The Helminthological Society of Washington

has initiated the publication of the Proceedings of the Helminthological

Society of Washington, Volume 1, No. 1, appearing in March under the

editorship of Jmssze R. Curistizr of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The

current number includes the minutes of meetings 157 to 160 together with

abstracts of the papers presented at those meetings.

Biological Society.—At the 804th regular and 55th annual meeting of the

Biological Society of Washington held on May 5th,1934, the following officers

were elected: President, C. E. CHamBuiss; Vice-Presidents, C. W. STILEs,

H. C. Fuuuer, T. H. Kearney, W. B. Bewu; Recording Secretary, 8. F.

BLAKE; Corresponding Secretary, Jon S. Wap; Treasurer, F. C. Lincouyn;

Members of Council, W. R. Maxon, A. A. DoouittTie, I. N. Horrmay, E. P.

WALKER, J. E. SHILLINGER.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Detection of incipient weakness of airplane propellers due to fatigue has

been facilitated by a new device developed by Drs. HucH L. DRYDEN and

L. B. TuckeRMAN, National Bureau of Standards.

BERTIL RONNMARK, who has been sent to the United States by the Swed-

ish Control Laboratory, Stockholm, to study American governmental

methods of drug control, has begun his research in Dr. E. M. Neuson’s

vitamin laboratory of the Food and Drug Administration. Sweden has re-

cently enacted a new food and drug law patterned to a certain extent after

the late Dr. Harvey W. Wiuery’s pioneer statute. }

CHARLES Henry KunsMan, acting chief of the Fertilizer and Fixed

Nitrogen Investigations Division of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils,

has been appointed chief.

CHARLES BITTINGER is completing a group of three mural paintings of

scenes from the life of Benjamin Franklin for the Franklin Institute, in

Philadelphia. These paintings are visible only by fluorescence produced by

ultraviolet irradiation; by common daylight they appear merely as blank

white wall panels.

JULY 15, 1934 OBITUARY old

At the spring meeting of the Society of Sigma Xi, the following persons

were inducted into membership: Dr. L. H. Apams, Geophysical Laboratory

of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Dr. A. G. Bovine, Bureau of

Entomology; Dr. D. J. PRicr, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

Francois E. Matrruss, of the United States Geological Survey, has been

appointed ‘‘titular member,” representing the United States, of the Com-

mission Glaciologique of the International Geodetic and Geophysical

Union.

@Obituary

JoHN Merton ALpRIcH, associate curator of the Division of Insects,

U.S. National Museum, died May 27, at Washington, D.C. Dr. AupricH

was born in Olmsted County, Minnesota, January 28, 1866. He received the

B.S. degree from South Dakota State College in 1891, the M.S. from the

University of Kansas in 1893, and the Ph.D. in 1906 from Stanford Uni-

versity. He served as assistant zoologist at South Dakota College 1891-92

and from 1893 until 1913 was associated with the University of Idaho, at

first in the capacity of professor of zoology and entomologist of the Experi-

ment Station, later as professor of biology in the University. In 1913 he

joined the staff of the Bureau of Entomology of the U.S. Department of

Agriculture, being stationed at Lafayette, Indiana, where he continued

his work with the Diptera. He came to Washington in 1918 and in 1919

was transferred to the U.S. National Museum as associate curator, in charge

of the Division of Insects. Included among his many scientific papers there

may be mentioned his Catalogue of the North American Diptera, published

by the Smithsonian Institution in 1905 and an extensive paper on Sarcophaga

and Allies. His extensive collection of North American flies containing al-

most 45,000 specimens was donated to the U.S. National Museum in 1923.

In addition to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Dr. ALDRICH was a

member of the Entomological Society of America (president, 1921), Amer-

ican Association of Economic Entomologists, Entomological Society of

Washington (president, 1926), and Sigma Xi.

EpwaRpD WILLIAM Netson, former chief of the Bureau of Biological

Survey, died May 19, at Washington, D.C. Dr. NELSON was born at Man-

chester, New Hampshire, on May 8, 1855. He spent his boyhood on his

grandfather’s farm in New York, and in Chicago. He was graduated from

the Cook County Normal School, Chicago, in 1875. He held the honorary

degrees of A.M. (Yale, 1920) and Se.D. (George Washington University,

1920). He joined the Biological Survey of the U.S. Department of Agri-

culture in 1890, serving in the field at many points and travelling extensively

from Alaska to Mexico. During the years 1907-13 he was chief field natur-

alist of the Survey; 1913-14, in charge of Biological Investigations; 1914-16,

assistant chief and 1916-27, chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey. Fol-

lowing his relinquishment of administrative duties he continued with the

Survey for two years, retiring in 1929. His scientific studies continued until

his death.’ From his collections hundreds of new species and varieties of

birds and mammals have been described by himself and other workers. His

published work includes monographs on various groups of mammals and

birds. He was also the author of popular books and articles on various

328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 7.

phases of wild life and wild life conservation. In addition to the Washington

Academy of Sciences, Dr. NELSON was a member of the American Association

for the Advancement of Science, Washington Biological Society (president,

1912), Society of Mammalogists, and a fellow of the Ornithological Union

(president, 1908).

- eohetmens

: ORIGINAL ParErs _ pas

Zoology.—Affinities of the e Brachyuran | fauna of ihe. Gulf of California. om

A. GURPRBEL TE Ps ns a a

i: teriostomum raizii. JoHN T. LUCKBR.. 0.2.2.4... - 2 ee. ee

Ornithology.—The hawks of the genus Chondrohieraz. eee Puan

Malacology.—New Philippine land shells of the genus Obba. Pavt BARTSCH.

PROCEEDINGS > he

The Philosophical Society), Ro... ie eo

nsaiie Sa

SCIENTIFIC Na AND NWS) ior teks eee ate eee ee

OBITUARY: JOHN MERTON ALDRICH and EpwAarRD WILLIAM NELSON . BRM ALR! Pigs}

This Journal is indexed in the Md ay Index to Periodicals.

Von, 24 | Auaust 15, 1934 No.8

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

JoHN A, STEVENSON F. G. Brick wEpDDE

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

H. T. WENSEL Haroup Morrison

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 24 : Aveust 15, 1934 No.8

CHEMISTRY .—The synthesis of 3, 4 dimethoxy-5-chloro benzoic acid.

Raymonp M. Hann, Private Laboratory of J. P. Wetherill,

Washington, D.C. (Communicated by R. E. Grsson.)

The complete orientation of the possible mono-chloro derivatives

of vanillin by Raiford and Lichty? has resulted in the confirmation

of Hann’s® assignment of 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-5-chloro benzalde-

hyde as the structure for the chloro vanillin obtained by direct chlori-

nation of vanillin in glacial acetic acid.

This structural foundation now allows the utilization of the halo-

genated vanillins as starting materials in the synthesis of substituted

derivatives of veratric aldehyde of known structure. The aldehydes

so obtained may be employed in further synthetic operations to yield

a series of oriented compounds of the 3, 4 di-methoxy benzene series.

The present communication reports the preparation of 3, 4 di-

methoxy-5-chlorobenzoic acid by the classic series of reactions indi-

cated below.

CHO CHO HC NO C=N COOH

uN J YA A

loca, a er 4 ion ef OCH, ‘ OCH,

we NY, 4 Np

OH OCH; OCH; OCH; OCH;

EXPERIMENTAL

5-Chloro-veratric aldehyde (3, 4 dimethoxy-5-chloro benzaldehyde).

This substance was prepared by methylation of 5-chloro vanillin by

dimethyl] sulfate and sodium hydroxide as previously described.‘

5-Chloro-veratral-anti-aldoxime. Four and four tenths gms. (1

1 Received April 6, 1934.

2 RaIForD and Licuty. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 52: 4576. 1930.

3 Hann, R..M. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 47: 2000. 1925.

4 Hann, This JouRNAL, 24: 125. 1934.

329

330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 8

mole) of 5-chloro veratric aldehyde, 1.5 gms. of hydroxylamine hydro-

chloride (1 mole) and 2.8 gms. of sodium bicarbonate (14 moles) were

refluxed for 1 hour with 25 ce. 95 per cent ethyl alcohol, 100 ce. of cold

water added and the separated solid filtered, washed with water and

dried. Yield 4.5 gms.

Recrystallized from 50 per cent ethyl! alcohol it was obtained in long

slender acicular colorless needles melting at 90° C. (corr.) to a clear

colorless oil.

_ Analysis: 0.1830 gm. consumed 8.53 cc. 0.1 N acid equivalent to

6.52 per cent N. Theory for C,H:O3;NCl is 6.50 per cent N.

5-Chloro-veratral-anti-aldoxime acetate. Two gms. of the anti-

oxime were dissolved in 5 cc. of acetic anhydride and heated to 35° C.

for 10 minutes, the solution treated with an excess of 10 per cent

Na,.CO; solution, and the oil which first separated brought to erystal-

lization by scratching. The washed precipitate was recrystallized from

65 per cent ethyl alcohol, separating in brilliant colorless needles

melting at 84° C. (corr.) to a clear colorless oil. Yield quantitative.

Analysis: 0.2099 gm. consumed 8.01 cc. 0.1 N acid equivalent to

5.34 per cent N. Theory for CiHi2.0,NCl is 5.44 per cent N.

5-Chloro-veratral aldoxime hydrochloride. One gm. of the anti-

oxime was dissolved in 50 cc. dry ethyl ether and a stream of dry

hydrochloric acid gas passed into the solution cooled in ice. The

hydrochloride precipitated in small colorless needles which were

filtered, washed with ether and dried rapidly in an evacuated desic-

cator over potassium hydroxide. Immediately after drying the com-

pound melted at 117° C. (corr.) but it rapidly underwent decomposi-

tion; over-night the melting point dropped to 100° C. (corr.).

Analysis: 0.2257 gm. consumed 8.95 ce. 0.1 IN acid equivalent to

5.00 per cent N. Theory for C>H,,0;NCl is 5.56 per cent N.

5-Chloro-veratral-syn-aldoxime. 'Twenty three and one tenth gms.

of the oxime hydrochloride were suspended in 25 cc. of concentrated .

HCl and 100 cc. HO and [poured into 500 ce. of ice cold 10 per cent

Na.CO; solution, the precipitate, collected, dried and recrystallized

from 50 per cent ethyl alcohol. Yield 18.5 gms. The compound crystal-

lizes in colorless needles melting at 112° C. (corr.) to a clear colorless

oil.

Analysis: 0.1201 gm. consumed 5.51 ce. 0.1 N jacid equivalent to

6.43 per cent N. Theory for C,HiO3;NCl is 6.50 per cent N.

§-Chloro-veratronitrile (8, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloro-benzonitrile). Ten

gms. of the syn-oxime were dissolved in 10 ce. of acetic anhydride and

held at 35° C. for 10 minutes, and the anhydride solution poured into

AuGusT 15, 1934 MANSFIELD: NEW SPECIES OF PECTEN del

200 cc. of 10 per cent Na,CO;. The separated oil rapidly solidified and

was recrystallized from 50 per cent ethyl alcohol. Yield 9.0 gms.

After crystallization from 50 per cent alcohol it was obtained in

colorless glistening needles melting at 103° C. (corr.) to a clear color-

less oil.

Analysis (Parrbomb): 0.2111 gm. gave 0.1540 gm. AgCl equivalent

to 18.05 per cent Cl. Theory for C,HsO0.NCl is 17.95 per cent Cl.

§-Chloro-veratric acid (8, 4-dimethoxy-5-chloro benzoic acid).—Five

gms. of the crude nitrile was boiled for 1 hour with 50 cc. of 20 per

cent NaOH. The nitrile formed an oil which disappeared after 10

minutes boiling and ammonia was detected issuing from the con-

denser. After cooling the acid was precipitated as a white solid by ad-

dition of 100 cc. of 1:4 HCl, filtered, washed with H,O, and recrystal-

lized from 50 per cent ethyl! alcohol. The yield was 4.1 gms.

The acid was obtained as soft silky brilliant needles, melting at

191° C. (corr.) to a clear colorless oil.

Analysis: 0.2234 gm. consumed 10.27 ec. 0.1 N NaOH. Theory for

C,H,0.Cl is 10.32 ec.

SUMMARY

5-Chloro-veratric aldehyde has been converted to 3, 4-dimethoxy-

5-chloro benzoic acid through acetylation of its syn-aldoxime to form

the benzonitrile and subsequent alkaline hydrolysis.

Certain other intermediate derivatives in this series of reactions

have been isolated and described.

PALEONTOLOGY .—A new species of Pecten from the Oligocene near

Duncan Church, Washington County, Florida.:| WENDELL C.

MANSFIELD, Geological Survey.

Specimens of orbitoid foraminifera from a limestone near Duncan

Church, Washington County, Florida, were described recently by

Dr. W. Storrs Cole,? and were determined to be of the age of the

Glendon formation, a middle Oligocene limestone. Cooke and Mos-

som* had previously referred the limestone near Duncan Church to

the Eocene.

At the time that Mr. Gerald M. Ponton of the Florida Geological

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Re-

ceived May 8, 1934.

2 Cote, W. Storrs. Oligocene orbitoids from near Duncan Church, Washington

County, Florida. Jour. Paleont. 8: 21-28, pls. 3, 4. 1934.

3 Cooks, C. W., and Mossom, Stuart. Geology of Florida. Florida Geol. Survey

Ann. Rept. 20: 61. 1929.

332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24,N .

Survey collected the orbitoids which were studied by Doctor Cole,

Mr. Ponton and the writer obtained several fairly good specimens of

a species of Pecten from the same limestone. The Pecten is believed to

represent a new species and is described and figured in this paper

under the name, Pecten duncanensis. In addition to the Pecten, frag-

ments of an echinoid, which may be Clypeaster rogersi (Morton), an

Oligocene species, were collected.

The Pecten corroborates Cole’s opinion that the limestone is of

Glendon age. The limestone appears to be of the same age as fossilif-

erous silicified chert exposed on Flint River at Bainbridge, Ga.,

which has been correlated with the Glendon.

The writer also visited a sink on the A. L. Parish Farm, 34 miles

southeast of Wausau, Washington County, Florida, where 20 feet of

limestone is exposed. The limestone is separable into two beds, the

lower of which is believed to be of the same age as that of the lime-

stone exposed at Duncan Church. The upper bed carries an abundant.

fauna which, according to Cooke and Mossom,‘ appears to be of

Tampa age. However, this fauna has not been studied sufficiently to

determine definitely its relationship to the Tampa fauna.

Pecten (Lyropecten) duncanensis Mansfield, n.sp.

Figures 1, 2, 3

Shell small, rather thin, inequilateral, weakly inflated, the left valve more

convex than the right. Right anterior ear with a moderately deep notch and

sculptured with five rather strong radials, the innermost of which lies close

to the submargin, and with transverse closely-spaced imbrications; right

posterior ear with six strong, imbricated radials. Disk of right valve sculp-

tured with 23 to 25 (24 on holotype) squarish, scabrous and imbricated ribs,

separated by intervals of about the same width as the ribs. The early por-

tion of each rib is narrowly rounded and the later portion nearly square; the

latter is undercut on the sides and is ornamented on the top with three

scabrous threads, the medial one of which is the strongest. The interradial

spaces on the smaller specimens are either without a radial or, if present, it

is only faintly indicated. A fragment of a larger shell (fig. 1, U.S.N.M. No.

373056) shows one interradial thread of moderate strength in each space.

Ribs and interspaces crossed by imbrications whose edges are about one

millimeter apart. Left valve sculptured similarly to the right, except that

the interradial thread appears to be more strongly developed. Submargins

low and marked with faint radials.

Dimensions of holotype (U.S.N.M. cat. no. 373055): Right valve, length

22.5 mm.; height, 23 mm.; convexity, 4 mm. Paratype (U.S.N.M. cat. no.

373056): Left valve (not entire), length 23+ mm.; height 23-++ mm.

Type locality: Station 12724, old quarry near Duncan Church, Washing-

ton County, Florida.

Geologic horizon: Oligocene, Glendon formation.

4 Tdem., p. 96.

AuGusST 15, 1934 MANSFIELD: NEW SPECIES OF PECTEN 300

Pecten duncanensis is closely allied to, if not the same as, specimens

figured and incorrectly referred by Dall> to Pecten suwaneénsis Dall, from

the Glendon chert at Bainbridge, Ga. Cooke® recognized that the Bain-

bridge material represented a new species which, however, he did not name.

P. duncanensis differs from P. suwaneénsis, an Eocene Ocala limestone spe-

Figs. 1-3.—Pecten (Lyropecten) duncanensis Mansfield. Figs. 1, 3.—Paratypes

x2. Fig. 2——Holotype X2.

cies, in having a higher left valve and squarer ribs which instead of being

rounded are ornamented on top with tricarinate radial sculpture. There are

four specimens (U.S.N.M. cat. no. 115777) in the U. S. National Museum

designated as types of P. suwwaneénsis. The matrix adhering to these speci-

mens carry foraminifera which have been examined by Mr. Lloyd G. Hen-

best of the U. 8S. Geological Survey, who identifies with comparative cer-

tainty Operculina floridensis Cushman and O. vaughani Cushman, both of

Ocala, Eocene, age. |

The type of P. suwaneénsis does not appear to have been figured.

5 DauLt, W. H. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Museum, 51: 492, pl. 83, figs. 2, 3, 4. 1916.

§ Cooxr, C. W. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 133: 5. 1923.

334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 8

ZOOLOGY .—The development of the Trichostrongyle, Nippostrongylus

muris, 7n rats following ingestion of larvae.1 BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ

and JosePpH EH. AticatTa, Bureau of Animal Industry.

In the course of investigations on the life history of the dog hook-

worm, Ancylostoma caninum, the view has been advanced by certain

investigators that the larvae of this helminth are capable of develop-

ing in the intestine of dogs without migration to the lungs. These

parasites usually migrate to the lungs when introduced through the

mouth into the bodies of small laboratory animals. The direct de-

velopment of A. caninum in dogs was first noted by Yokogawa (7)

and was later confirmed by Scott (5). Fuelleborn (2) reported the

same findings as a result of experimental infections with another

species of dog hookworm, Uncinaria stenocephala, and he observed,

moreover, that only a small percentage of the larvae of U. steno-

cephala took the roundabout journey to the lungs even in abnormal

hosts. While these conclusions are not accepted by all investigators,

having been challenged especially by Nakajima (4) and Nagoya (8),

the data which have been published in support of what appears to be

a rather unorthodox view, seem to be sound and convincing.

During the past few years the writers have been engaged in experi-

mental investigations on the course of infection of rats with Nip-

postrongylus muris, a trichostrongyle nematode of wild rats, readily

transmissible to white rats. Several experiments were undertaken

with a view to determining whether the migration of the larvae of this

species to the lungs is an essential part of the developmental process

within the host, or whether the occurrence of the larvae in the lungs

is merely the result of the worms being accidentally arrested in the

lungs while en route from the skin to the intestine.

Yokogawa (6), who first determined the life history of N. muris,

noted that white rats could be infected with this worm through the

mouth as well as percutaneously; the resultant infestation following

the introduction of larvae into the mouth was very slight, and in some

cases no infestation could be produced. According to this investiga-

tor the infestation resulting from a percutaneous infection was al-

ways proportionate to the number of larvae applied to the skin.

Africa (1) noted that the intensity of experimental infections of rats

by mouth with NV. muris, as judged by the number of eggs eliminated

with the feces of infested animals, was very low as compared to the

number of eggs eliminated from percutaneously infected hosts when

the rats in both groups were given equal numbers of larvae.

1 Received May 21, 1934.

AUGUST 15, 1934 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: NIPPOSTRONGYLUS MURIS 335

While the available evidence indicated that the skin was the more

normal portal of entry of N. muris into the body of its host, and that

the entry of the larvae through the mouth produced but slight in-

festations or no infestations, no data were available to account for

these results. The data obtained by the writers not only have cleared

up this point in the life history of N. muris but also have a bearing

on the question of the biological significance of the migration of the

larvae of this species from the intestine to the lungs.

Infective larvae from cultures of rat feces mixed with animal char-

coal were introduced into the mouths of 10 rats in a few drops of water

with the aid of a small pipette. Rats 1, 5, 9 and 10 received 2,000

larvae each; the remaining rats received 1,000 larvae each. The ex-

perimental rats were killed with ether, and were examined post

mortem for evidence of worm infestation. The lungs were chopped

into small pieces with a pair of fine scissors and put through the

Baermann apparatus; this was followed by an examination of each

fragment of lung tissue in press preparation. The stomach, small in-

testine, and large intestine were examined separately with the aid of

the Baermann apparatus. Examinations for larvae were also made of

the hearts’ blood and, in some cases, of scrapings of the intestinal

mucosa, as well as of the liver and intestinal lymph glands; the latter

two tissues were examined in press preparation and with the Baer-

mann apparatus. In a number of instances the feces of the experi-

mental rats were examined for larvae.

PROTOCOLS

Rat 1 (killed 3 hours after feeding of larvae)—15 infective larvae

in small intestine, one of which was obtained by scraping the mucosa;

95 infective larvae in large intestine; some of the larvae from both

locations sluggish, giving but a feeble response to tactile stimulation

with the dissecting needle; other larvae normally active.

Rat 2 (killed 3 hours after feeding of larvae)—9 infective larvae

in stomach; 25 infective larvae in small intestine; 32 infective larvae

in large intestine. All larvae alive.

Rat 3 (killed 5 hours after feeding of larvae)—10 live larvae in large

intestine.

Rat 4 (killed 18 hours after feeding of larvae)—2 dead larvae in

large intestine and 23 dead larvae in feces.

Rat 5 (killed 24 hours after feeding of larvae)—9 live third-stage

larvae in lungs.

336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 8

Rat 6 (killed 30 hours after feeding of larvae)—9 live third-stage

larvae in lungs; 1 dead larva in large intestine.

Rat 7 (killed 35 hours after feeding of larvae)—10 live third-stage

larvae in lungs; 2 dead larvae in large intestine.

Rat 8 (killed 42 hours after feeding of larvae)—5 live third-stage

larvae in lungs.

Rat 9 (killed 48 hours after feeding of larvae)—5 live fourth-stage

larvae in small intestine. ;

Rat 10 (killed 72 hours after feeding of larvae)—2 live larvae in

lungs; 44 live fourth-stage larvae in small intestine.

DISCUSSION

It is evident from these data that following the ingestion of in-

fective larvae of N. muris by white rats, the worms passed into the

stomach, where they were found 3 hours after ingestion. From the

stomach the larvae passed into the small intestine in which location

some of them became sluggish. Many larvae passed down into the

large intestine where they were found still alive 5 hours after inges-

tion. The larvae died in the large intestine without undergoing any

development and passed out with the feces (rat 4). A small number of

larvae apparently bored into the wall of the small intestine, as evi-

denced by the discovery of 1 larva in the scrapings of the intestinal

epithelium of rat 1, and subsequently got to the lungs.

In the series of experiments described in this paper, larvae were

not found in the lungs from 3 to 18 hours following their ingestion;

larvae were recovered from the lungs of experimentally infected rats

from 24 to 72 hours after experimental feeding. While larvae, showing

no development beyond that of the infective stage, were found in rats

3 hours after feeding, they were absent from the small intestine be-

tween 5 and 42 hours after feeding, reappearing again as fourth-

stage larvae from 48 to 72 hours after feeding. These observations are

In agreement with those of Yokogawa (6) who noted that following

percutaneous infection, Nippostrongylus larvae appeared in the lungs

in from 14 to 20 hours, remained in this location until 50 to 65 hours,

and occasionally as late as 72 hours, after having been placed on the

skin. :

The development and migration of N. muris in white rats, following

ingestion of infective larvae, followed the same course as observed by

Yokogawa (6) subsequent to percutaneous infection. The larvae

migrated to the lungs, where they continued their development to the

AuGusT 15, 1934 SCHWARTZ AND ALICATA: NIPPOSTRONGYLUS MURIS 337

fourth stage? and finally returned to the small intestine. The larvae

which failed to penetrate the intestinal mucosa following ingestion,

and apparently the vast majority of larvae introduced into the

mouth did fail, passed into the large intestine where they died and

were subsequently eliminated from the body. No evidence was found

of the development of larvae in the intestine without migration to the

lungs. Apparently the series of developmental changes in N. muris

which takes place in the lungs of the host and which culminates in an

ecdysis, did not occur as long as the worms remained in the intes-

tine. The migration of the larvae to the lungs appears to be an es-

sential step in the developmental history of these parasites, the

worms not being adapted to survival in the small intestine until the

completion of the second ecdysis in the lungs; the first ecdysis takes

place outside of the host, the larva attaining the infective stage fol-

lowing the first molt, and the final ecdysis takes place in the in-

testine.

SUMMARY

When introduced into the mouths of white rats, Nippostrongylus

muris passed into the stomach, some larvae surviving in the stomach

for 3 hours, and thence into the small intestine. A relatively small

percentage of larvae evidently penetrated the intestinal mucosa and

reached the lungs. Other larvae passed into the large intestine where

they died and were expelled with the feces.

The larvae which migrated from the intestine to the lungs de-

veloped in the normal way; larvae were found in the lungs of white

rats from 24 to 72 hours after experimental feeding.

Live larvae showing no development beyond that of the infective

stage were found in the intestine of white rats up to 5 hours after

experimental feeding; no larvae were found in the small intestine

from 18 to 42 hours after experimental feeding, though in three out of

four rats involved larvae were present in the lungs during these

periods. Two rats killed 48 and 72 hours, respectively, after experi-

mental feeding, contained fourth-stage larvae in the intestine.

The data presented in this paper indicate that the larvae did not

develop in the small-intestine to the fourth stage, but that the time

of the appearance of fourth-stage larvae in the small intestine, coupled

with the finding of larvae in the lungs, warrants the conclusion that

ak According to Yokogawa (6) N. muris molts only three times, namely, once as a

free-living larva, once in the lungs and once in the intestine. The writers have followed

Yokogawa in regarding the development of the larvae in the lungs as involving two

stages, one molt being suppressed.

338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

the third-stage larvae developed in the lungs and returned to the

intestine as fourth-stage larvae.

The migration of NV. muris to the lungs appears to be an essential

part of their life history, irrespective of their path of entry into the

body of the host.

It may be concluded that N. muris passes through three distinct

developmental phases in the course of its life cycle, namely: (1) The

free-living stage, involving one ecdysis, following which the worms

emerge as second-stage infective larvae; (2) the pulmonary parasitic

stage, in the course of which the larvae develop to the third stage and

finally to the fourth stage, the latter stage preceded by an ecdysis;

(3) the intestinal parasitic stage in the course of which the larvae

grow to the fifth or final stage, preceded by a third ecdysis, followed

subsequently by the development of the worms to fertile maturity.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Arrica, Canpipo M. Studies on the host relations of Nippostrongylus muris,

with special reference to age resistance and acquired immunity. Jour. Parasitol.

18s Vs LOSI.

(2) Fur.tunsporn, F. Ueber das Verhalten der Larven von Strongyloides stercoralis,

Hakenwiirmern und Ascaris lumbricoides 1m Kérper des Wirtes und ein Versuch es

biologisch zu deuten. Beihefte 2 zum. Arch. f. Schiffs u. Tropen—Hyg. 31: 56 pp.

1927.

(3) Nagoya, TakEaumMa. Fate of Anchylostoma caninum larvae orally or percu-

taneously transmitted to the proper host, dog fed on vitamin deficient diet. (First

report.) Experiment on puppies fed on vitamin A deficient diet. Jap. Jour. Exp.

Med. 9: 573. 1931.

(4) Naxasima, Katsumi. Experimental study on the development of Anchylostoma

duodenale. (Second report.) The development of larvae of Anchylostoma caninum

Ercolani in the normal host, dog, and in abnormal hosts, rabbit, guinea pig and white

rat. Jap. Jour. Exp. Med. 9: 569. 1931.

(5) Scort, J. ALLEN. An experimental study of the development of Anchylostoma

caninum in normal and abnormal hosts. Am. Jour. Hyg. 8: 158. 1928.

(6) Yoxoacawa, Sapamu. The development of Heligmosomum muris Yokogawa, a

nematode from the intestine of the wild rat. Parasitol. 14: 127. 1922.

(7) Yokogawa, SapAMu. On the hookworm and hookworm disease in Japan, espe-

cially its distribution and the investigation of its life history. (Investigations on

Helminthiasis in Formosa. v. Report.) 53 pp. 1926.

This paper was read at a meeting of the Third Pan-Pacific Science Congress held in Tokyo in 1926. The

date of publication is uncertain.

ZOOLOGY.—Sphaeropomatus miamiensis, a new genus and species

of Serpulid polychaete.1 AARON L. TREADWELL. (Communi-

cated by Mary J. RATHBUN.)

In May 19338, Captain John W. Mills presented to the United States

National Museum an unusually large and perfect specimen of the

fresh-water shrimp Macrobrachium jamaicense from the Miami River,

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 12, 1934.

AuGcustT 15, 1934 TREADWELL: SPHAEROPOMATUS MIAMIENSIS 309

Florida, upon the carapace of which were a number of Serpulid worm

tubes. These tubes upon examination were found to belong to a new

genus and species of annelid which I now name Sphaeropomatus

miamiensis.

Sphaeropomatus, n. gen.

Peculiar toothed setae borne on the first thoracic somite. Collar promi-

nent, thoracic membrane small. Operculum spherical, supported on a smooth

Figs. 1-5.—Sphaeropomatus miamiensis. Fig. 1.—Anterior end of body showing

operculum with blood spheres, X20. A few eggs lie under the thoracic membrane.

Fig. 2— Detail of rachis with filaments, X68. Fig. 3.—Toothed seta from first somite,

X250. Fig. 4.—Geniculate abdominal seta, X250. Fig. 5.—Thoracic uncinus,

x600. Fig. 6—Operculum of Mercierella enigmatica after Munro, X23. Figs. 7, 8.

—Ficopomatus sp. after Southern. Figs. 7—Toothed seta from first somite. Fig.

8.—Operculum.

heavy stalk. No spines or other processes on the operculum. Tube calcare-

ous, smooth, cylindrical.

Sphaeropomatus miamiensis, n. sp.

The body of the type is 8 mm. long (including the branchiae), and is

never more than 0.5 mm. broad. Branchiae not more than 7 on a side, with

heavy rachids (fig. 2), and long, slender filaments, the end of each rachis

being bare. From 6 to 9 dark brown bands cross the rachis continuing on

to the filaments. The lesser number occurs where the bands have coalesced

and are accordingly broader. Similar pigment shows on the uncinal region

of the thorax, but elsewhere the body is uncolored. The opercular stalk is

formed of the dorsalmost rachis of one side. I cannot say if it is always on

340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 8

the same side. In normal conditions the operculum is evidently spherical,

but in most of my material it is more or less wrinkled. It sometimes con-

tains rounded bodies (fig. 1), commonly regarded as eggs, but they more

probably are, as maintained by McIntosh (1926), masses of coagulated

blood. The collar (fig. 1), is one-lobed, the halves separated on the dorsal

surface. The thoracic membrane is obscure, most clearly visible at its pos-

terior end. The eggs, in the specimen drawn, were lying between the tho-

racic membrane and the body wall.

There are 6 thoracic somites. On the first is a tuft of rather long setae

which are toothed on the terminal portions. At the base of the tuft are a

ne.

Fig. 9.—Part of carapace of Macrobrachium jamaicense showing worm tubes, X2.

few very small and slender simple setae without any teeth. Other thoracic

setae are smooth, sharp-pointed and not limbate. Uncini begin on the second

thoracic somite and continue throughout the body in a single row in each

torus. The toothed setae of the first somite are of especial interest. Each

(fig. 3) is widened toward the end and then curves to end in a sharp point.

At the widening is a double row of teeth, only one row being visible in pro-

file. The basal teeth are very small, the following ones are larger as far as the

fifth which is the heaviest of all. Beyond this there is a progressive diminu-

tion in size. The other thoracic setae are as described above. The thoracic

uncini are extremely small, but under a magnification of 1200 diameters it

is possible to see that each carries 10 minute sharp teeth and a basal knob

(fig. 5). Abdominal uncini are similar to these but are more narrowly tri-

angular in form. Abdominal setae are geniculate and small, carrying minute

denticulations along the margin of the blade (fig. 4). Especially in the pos-

terior abdominal somites these have very long shafts which extend to a con-

siderable distance from the body wall.

The pygidium is bilobed, each lobe short and thick.

The tubes containing the animals were found attached to the carapace of a

shrimp Macrobrachium. They are very small at the beginning but enlarge

rapidly. In cross section they are circular and the surface is smooth (fig. 9).

AucusT 15, 1934 WEHR: THREE BIRD NEMATODES 341

Three genera of serpulids having toothed setae in the first somite have

been described, all found in water supposedly fresh, but probably more or

less brackish. Mercierella Fauvel (1922, pp. 424-430) was originally found

in a canal at Caen, France, and Ficopomatus Southern (1921, p. 655) was

collected in Chilka Lake, India. Sphaeropomatus differs from Mercierella

in not having a prominent reflexed collar and in having an operculum devoid

of spines. As figured by Munro (1924, p. 655), Merczerella has prominent

spines on the surface of the operculum (fig. 6). The toothed setae are similar

in the two genera as are the uncini, but from figures given by Fauvel and

Munro I infer that the latter are much smaller in Sphaeropomatus. The tube

of Mercierella has at intervals circular shelf-like rings which do not appear in

Sphaeropomatus. For Ficopomatus Southern does not give the character of

the collar, but the operculum (fig. 8) and the toothed setae are very dif-

ferent. A comparison of the two setae is given in figs. 3 and 7. The tube of

Ficopomatus is described as flattened along the line of attachment and as

having a longitudinal ridge along its outer border.

The type is No. 20074 in the collections of the United States National

Museum.

The specimens were sent me by Dr. W. L. Schmitt of the U. S. National

Museum, who found them when studying the shrimp Macrobrachium from

the Miami River, Florida. I am also indebted to Dr. Schmitt for portions

‘of the carapace of the shrimp on which were a number of tubes. Acknow]-

edgment is made to Mr. C. R. Shoemaker for sending the precise diagnosis

of Ficopomatus.

LITERATURE CITED

FAUVEL, PIERRE. Un nouveau serpulien d’eau saumatre Mercierella n.g. enigmatica

n.sp. Bull. Soc. Zoologique de France 47: 424-430, figs. la to 1b. 1922.

McIntosu, W. C. On the structure and functions of the operculum and neighbouring

parts of Mercierella enigmatica and other Serpulids. Ann.and Mag. Nat. Hist.,

Ser. 9, 18: 402—421, pl. 13, figs. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, pl. 14, figs. 1, 2, 4, 1926.

Munro, C. C. A. A Serpulid Polychaete from the London Docks (Mercierella enigma-

tica Fauvel). Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 9, 13: 155-159, 5 figs. 1924.

SouTHERN, R. Polychaeta of the Chilka Lake and also of fresh and brackish waters in

other parts of India. Memoirs Indian Museum 5: 655. 1921.

ZOOLOGY .—Descriptions of three bird nematodes, including a new

genus and a new species.1 EvERETT E. Wrur, Bureau of Animal

Industry. (Communicated by ELoiss B. Cram.)

The first lot of nematodes to be described and figured in this paper

was collected from a king rail, Rallus elegans, by Dr. Albert Hassall

in 1893. The preserved specimens, consisting of two males and three

females and representing a new species, Schistorophus cucullatus, were

1 Received March 12, 1934.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

342

te page.

ion see Opposi

15.—For explanat

igs.

AuGusT 15, 1934 WEHR: THREE BIRD NEMATODES 343

in excellent condition for study. This paper includes, apparently, the

first record of a species of the genus Schistorophus to be recorded from

this continent. The members of this genus represent a very interesting

and little studied group of nematodes.

Schistorophus cucullatus new species

Diagnosis.—Schistorophus: Oral opening dorso-ventrally elongated, sur-

rounded by 2 pseudolabia from which project anteriorly 2 cuticular proc-

esses, 1 on each lateral side of mouth opening (Fig. 1); interlabia absent.

A pair of submedian papillae and an amphid on each pseudolabium. Two

dorsal and 2 ventral flap-like cuticular structures arranged in form of hood

surrounding anterior extremity of body just posterior to pseudolabia (Figs.

2 and 3), 1 flap of each pair slightly overlapping the other in dorsal and

ventral views (Fig. 2). Buccal cavity cylindrical and well developed, its

wall heavily chitinized. Esophagus divided into an anterior muscular and a

posterior glandular portion.

Male 10 to 11 mm. long and 77y in maximum width. Buccal cavity about

100y long. Anterior portion of esophagus about 810, posterior portion 1.42

mm., long. Nerve ring 220u from anterior end of body. Posterior extremity

spirally coiled in ventral direction, tip abruptly pointed. Caudal alae

narrow, about 1 mm. long. Six pairs of preanal and 4 pairs of postanal papil-

lae (Fig. 4). Spicules unequal and dissimilar, the longer 1.1 mm. long and

terminating in a bluntly rounded tip, the shorter about 300u long, broad and

twisted at distal end.

Female 28 mm. long and 315u in maximum width. Buccal cavity about

115u long. Anterior portion of esophagus presenting a laterally displaced

loop near middle of length due, perhaps, to fixation, and measuring in a

straight line about 810u long; posterior portion 1.88 mm. long and only

slightly wider than anterior portion. Nerve ring about 220yu from anterior

end of body. Posterior extremity abruptly narrowed at level of anus, tip

abruptly pointed (Fig. 5). Vulva 14.3 mm. from anterior end of body, not

prominent. Vagina directed posteriorly. Tail about 300u long. Eggs 48yu

by 32u, with very thick shells, not embryonated zn wéero.

Host.—Rallus elegans.

Location.—Underneath tunic lining of gizzard.

Locality —North America (United States [Virginia]).

Type specimens (male and female).—U.S.N.M. Helminthological Collec-

tion, No. 6268-A.

Paratypes.—U.S.N.M. Helminthological Collection No. 6268-B.

Figs. 1—5.—Schistorophus cucullatus. Fig. 1—Head, en face view. Fig. 2.—

Anterior extremity, dorsal view. Fig. 3.—Anterior extremity, lateral view. Fig. 4.—

Posterior extremity of male, lateral view. Fig. 5.—Posterior extremity of female,

lateral view. Figs. 6—-9.—Stegophorus stellae-polaris. Fig. 6.—Head, en face view.

Fig. 7.—Anterior extremity, dorsal view. Fig. 8.—Anterior extremity, lateral view.

Fig. 9.—Posterior extremity of male, lateral view. Figs. 10-15.—Yserza coronata.

Fig. 10.—Head, en face view. Fig. 11.—Anterior extremity, dorsal view. Fig. 12.—

Posterior extremity of male, lateral view. Fig. 13.—Posterior extremity of female,

lateral view. Fig. 14——Head, en face view. After Drasche, 1884. Fig. 15.—Head,

lateral view. After Drasche, 1884.

344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

Molin (1) described aspecies of nematode, Histrocephalus laciniatus, from

the gizzard of the rail, Rallus cayennensis; this species was later transferred

to the genus Schistorophus by Railliet (2) in 1916. However, inasmuch as

Schistorophus laciniatus is described as 7 mm. and 14 mm. long, in case of

male and female respectively, with head encircled by a fringe of long slender

processes and with male tail bearing 24 papillae, the American material here

described is considered distinct from that species. The possibility is recog-

nized, however, that S. cucullatus may prove to be a synonym of S. laciniatus

should the type material of the latter species be more completely described.

Schistorophus cucullatus may be differentiated from the other better de-

scribed species of this genus by its having fewer papillae on tail of male, by

its much larger size, and its differently shaped head structures.

Jil

The second lot of nematodes was collected by the Bureau of Bio-

logical Survey from the fulmar, Fulmarus glacialis glacialis, and the

Brunnich’s murre, Uria lomuva lomuma, in the arctic region, the lo-

cality designation being that given below. The writer has identified

this material as a species described by Parona (8) as Histiocephalus

stellae-polaris.

The systematic position of H. stellae-polaris has been uncertain

because of its too meagre description. The species was placed in

Streptocara by Skrjabin (4) and in Yserzva by Gedoelst; (5) however, ac-

cording to the more complete description of this species herein given,

it cannot be allocated to any of these genera, for the reasons dis-

cussed below. As a result a new genus, Stegophorus, has been created

for it.

Stegophorus new genus

Diagnosis.—Acuariidae: Oral opening dorso-ventrally elongated, sur-

rounded by 2 pseudolabia, each bearing a pair of submedian papillae and a

small amphid (Fig. 6). A helmet-like cuticular structure surrounding head,

not extending farther anterior than base of pseudolabia; posterior margins

denticulated. Buccal cavity cylindrical, elongated; its wall cross-striated. —

Esophagus consisting of an anterior short, narrow, muscular portion and a

posterior long, broad, glandular portion. Male: Caudal alae well developed,

terminating slightly anterior to tip of tail. Four pairs of preanal and 5 pairs

of postanal pedunculated papillae. Spicules very unequal and dissimilar, the

longer one assuming a braided or closely twisted condition in posterior half.

Gubernaculum absent. Female: Vulva postequatorial. Uteri divergent. Eggs

embryonated 71 utero.

Type species.—Stegophorus stellae-polaris (Parona, 1901) n. comb.

Stegophorus stellae-polaris (Parona, 1901) n. comb.

Synonyms.—Histiocephalus stellae-polaris Parona, 1901; Streptocara

stellae-polaris (Parona, 1901) Skrjabin, 1916; Yserza stellae-polaris (Parona,

1901) Gedoelst, 1919.

auGustT 15, 1934 WEHR: THREE BIRD NEMATODES 345

Diagnosis.—Stegophorus: Helmet-like cuticular structure (Figs. 7 and 8)

surrounding anterior end of body, 87.6u long, and denticulated on free

margins; this structure not in form of a collarette around base of pseudo-

labia as in Yserza, Streptocara, and Seuratia. Extremities of body attenuated,

the anterior more gradual than posterior. Cervical papillae tricuspid, situ-

ated at level of junction of buccal cavity with anterior portion of esophagus.

Nerve ring near equator of anterior portion of esophagus.

Male 5 to 6 mm. long and 102y in maximum width. Buccal cavity about

190u long. Anterior portion of esophagus 400u long and 15 to 20yu wide;

posterior part 1.28 mm. long and about 30 to 40u wide. Cervical papillae

(Fig. 8) about 180yu from anterior end of body. Spicules (Fig. 9) very unequal

and dissimilar, the longer 1.6 to 2.43 mm. long, slender, enlarged proximally

and pointed distally, with the posterior half, except tip, appearing as a

twisted rope, the twisting grading into a braided condition in the distal

third; shorter spicule 65 to 100u long, slightly curved and gradually narrow-

ing towards tip. Caudal alae relatively broad and long, supported by 4 pairs

of preanal and 5 pairs of postanal papillae, the latter arranged as follows:

3 pairs just posterior to anal opening, 1 pair near tip of tail, and 1 pair slightly

more than one-half the distance from anal opening to tip of tail.

Female 12 to 16 mm. long and 148y in maximum width. In specimen 13

mm. long, buccal cavity 200u long, anterior portion of esophagus 511, long

and about 20 to 25u wide, posterior portion 1.38 mm. long and about 35 to

45u wide, cervical papillae 204u and vulva 7.05 mm. from anterior end of

body; position of latter indicated by a slight cone-shaped prominence.

Vagina directed posteriorly. Amphildelphic. Posterior extremity obtusely

rounded, curved slightly ventrad. Anal opening about 200u from tip of tail.

Eggs 44u by 24u, embryonated 2n utero.

Hosts —Fulmarus glacialis glacialis, Thalassodroma pelagica, Uria lomma

lomvia.

Location. Not stated; probably underneath tunic lining of gizzard.

Locality.—Arctic region and British Isles. No specific locality in arctic

region was designated by Parona; the recent collections were made at Lat.

73.20 N., Long. 17.25 W. and Lat. 72.00 N., Long. 13.30 W., for Urza lomma

lomvia. Lat. 61.00 N., Long. 32.10 W., for Fulmarus glacialis glacialis, accord-

ing to the Bureau of Biological Survey. Baylis (6) reported Streptocara? stel-

lae-polaris from the fulmar petrel (Fulmarus glacialis) in the North Sea, and

the storm-petrel (Thalassodroma pelagica) in Norfolk, England

The above redescription is based on specimens in the U.8.N.M., Bureau of

Animal Industry, Helminthological Collection, Nos. 33233 and 33234.

Parona described Histiocephalus stellae-polaris on the basis of a single

female specimen from the fulmar, Fulmarus glacialis, taken in the Arctic

region. His very meagre illustrated description (taken from Cram (7) is as

follows:

“Head with two large lips and a dilation in manner of a hood with denticu-

late margin. A tricuspid process a little posterior to this dilation. Male un-

known. Female 16 mm. long. Anus at caudal extremity, the latter obtuse.

Vulva at middle of body. Eggs oval, containing an embryo when deposited.”

The specimens examined by the present writer which were collected from

the same host and in the same general locality as Parona’s specimen, possess

characters that identify it with the latter’s species; Histiocephalus stellae-

346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

polaris has, therefore, been redescribed from this additional material. The

erection of a new genus was considered necessary because of the absence

of a swollen bulla in the cervical region, such as is present in species of

Histiocephalus, and because of the helmet-like structure covering the head,

and the peculiar structure of the posterior half of the long spicule, differing

from these characters in the genera Histiocephalus, Streptocara, and Y seria.

JULIE

The third lot of nematodes considered here consisted of a number

of small and very delicate specimens, both males and females, col-

lected in May, 1930, by E. B. Cram from the gizzard of a king rail,

Rallus elegans, killed in St. Mary’s County, Maryland. These have

been identified as Yserza coronata (Molin, (8) 1860) Gedoelst, (5) 1919.

From this material, it is possible to furnish a more adequate descrip-

tion than has been previously available.

YSERIA CORONATA (Molin, 1860) Gedoelst, 1919

Synonyms.—Sptiroptera coronata Molin, 1860; Histiocephalus coronatus

(Molin, 1860) Skrjabin, 1916.

Diagnosis.—Y seria: Body slender, delicate. Oral opening dorso-ventrally

elongated, surrounded by 2 pseudolabia with 2 finger-like cuticular processes

projecting anteriorly from their internal margin near the oral opening (Fig.

10). Each pseudolabium bearing near its base 2 submedian papillae and an

amphid. Cephalic ornamentation in form of 4 posteriorly directed flaps,

each flap divided into 3 or 5 finger-like processes (Figs. 10, 14 and 15). Body

slightly constricted at base of head. Cervical papillae (Fig. 11) consisting of

only a single tooth. Buccal cavity long, cylindrical. Esophagus divided into

an anterior short and a posterior long portion.

Male 8 to 9.5 mm. long and 76u in maximum width. Buccal cavity (Fig.

11) about 68u long. Anterior muscular portion of esophagus 680u, posterior

glandular portion 1.94 mm., long. Nerve ring surrounding anterior portion

of esophagus about 140u from anterior extremity. Posterior extremity spi-

rally coiled (Fig. 12) in a ventral direction, and gradually narrowing to a

bluntly rounded point. Caudal alae terminating slightly anterior to tip of

tail. At least 8 pairs of caudal papillae: 3 pairs of preanal and 5 pairs of post-

anal (it is possible that 1 or 2 additional pairs of caudal papillae were ob-

scured because of the extremely coiled condition of the posterior extremity). —

Spicules unequal and dissimilar, the longer about 300yu long, relatively broad

at the proximal end; shorter spicule about 88u long, knob-like at proximal

end, pointed at distal end.

Female 12 to 21 mm. long and 85 to 94y in maximum width. In a specimen

measuring 21 mm. long, buccal cavity 85y long, anterior muscular portion of

esophagus about 780u, posterior glandular portion 2.42 mm., long, nerve

ring 146u and vulva 10.3 mm. from anterior extremity of body. Posterior

extremity (Fig. 13) bent slightly dorsad, bluntly rounded. Anal opening 1.72

mm. from posterior end. Eggs 44u by 17u.

Hosts.—Chloroceryle americana ( syn., Alcedo americana), Rallus cayennen-

sis, and R. elegans.

Location.—Guzzard.

AuGgusT 15, 1934 WEHR: THREE BIRD NEMATODES 347

Locality—South America (Brazil) and North America (United States

[Maryland]).

Redescription based on specimens in U.S.N.M., Bureau of Animal In-

dustry, Helminthological Collection No. 29839.

Drasche (9) figured (Figs. 14 and 15) and described this species as fol-

lows (translated): ‘“Head with oval mouth opening. Two large lateral lips,

each divided into 3 parts, the lateral ones bearing small papillae. Two pos-

teriorly directed processes on each side of head, each process divided into 3

finger-like projections. Four submedian papillae. Tail of male incomplete.”

Because of the lack of knowledge concerning the number of caudal papillae

possessed by the male, Drasche left this species in the genus Spiroptera as

originally placed by Molin. He stated, however, that should the posterior

extremity of the male of this species possess 4 preanal caudal papillae and

unequal spicules, it would belong to the genus AHstzocephalus. Skrjabin (4)

later reallocated the species to that genus, although stating that its position

there was doubtful. According to the present accepted diagnosis of the genus

Histiocephalus, the cervical region is swollen into a bulla consisting of numer-

ous longitudinal folds; this is not the case in Yserza coronata.

The presence of only a single tooth on the cervical papilla differentiates

this species from Y. californica which is said to possess cervical papillae

with 3 teeth each; the male of Y. californica is as yet undescribed, so that

comparison of the two species is limited. The generic diagnosis of Yserza

must now be modified with respect to the cervical papillae, to designate

them as each having 1 to 3 cusps; also as regards the position of the vulva, to

designate it as being slightly pre-equatorial or slightly post-equatorial.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Mourn, R. Una monografia del genera Dispharagus ed una monografia del genera

Histiocephalus. Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch., Math.-naturw. Cl. 39:

479-516. 1860.

2. RatwuiEt, A. La famille des Thelaziidae. Journ. Parasitol. 2: 99-105. 1916.

3. Parona, Corrapvo. Diagnosi di una nuova specie di nematode, Histiocephalus

stellae-polaris n. sp. Boll. Mus. di Zool. ed. anat. comp. d. r. Univ. di Torino

(393), 16: 1. 1901.

4. Sxrsapin, K.I. Nematodes des oiseaux du Turkestan russe. Ann. du. Mus. Zool.

de l’Acad. imp. d. sc., Petrograd (1915) 20: 457-557, figs. 1-58, pls. 8, figs. 40, 41,

54, 59. 1916.

5. Gegportst, L. Le genre Histiocephalus et les espéces qui y ont été rapportées.

Compt. rend. Soc. de Biol. 82: 901-903. 1919.

Barus, H. A. Records of some parasitic worms from British Vertebrates. Ann.

and Mag. Nat. Hist. 10. s., 1(3): 329-343. 1928.

Cram, E. B. Bird parasites of the nematode suborders Strongylata, Ascaridata, and

Spirurata. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 140: 1-465, figs. 1-444. 1927.

Moun, R. Una monografia del genera Spiroptera. Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. d.

Wissensch. math.-naturw. Cl. 38: 911-1005. 1860.

DrascHE, Ricuarp. Revision der in der Nematoden-Sammlung des k. k. zoolo-

gischen Hofcabinets befindlichen Original-Exemplare Diesing’s und Molin’s. Ver-

handl. Fae k. zool.-bot. Gesellsch. in Wien 33: 107-118, pls. 3-5; 193-218, pls.

11-14. 1884.

Oo ON

348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

ZOOLOGY.—Some Actinaria from Bering Sea and arctic waters.}

OsKAR CAaRLGREN, Zoological Institute, Lund, Sweden. (Com-

municated by Mary J. RATHBUN.)

At the end of 1933 I received from the United States National

Museum for examination a small collection of Actinaria taken by

Capt. R.A. Bartlett in the course of his expeditions into arctic waters

during the past decade. As our knowledge of the Actinarian fauna

in the Bering Sea and in the waters continuous with it is very im-

perfect and every contribution to it interesting, I have taken the

liberty of adding to the list of the National Museum collection some

specimens from the Swedish expeditions to Kamchatka and the

Aleutian Islands (designated in brackets with the letters R.M.). The

descriptions of several species, previously imperfectly examined, are

here somewhat extended. One species, Hpiactis rittert Torrey I have

referred to a new genus, Cnidopus.

Family PTYCHODACTIIDAE

1. PrycnopacTis PATULA App. Mouth Kotsebue Sound, Alaska, Bartlett,

1924, 1 specimen.

The discovery of this species north of Bering Strait is very interesting as

it has been taken previously only in Trondheim Fjord, north of Iceland and

more recently in Malangen, Norway, at a depth of 350 m. In 1921 (Acti-

niaria. The Ingolf Exped., 5: 12.) I stated that the throat is not so much re-

duced as Appellof described it. In fact the throat in the present specimen is

1-1.5 cm. long; the column, which is rather strongly contracted, 3 cm.

Family HALCAMPIDAE

2. Haucampa arctica Carlgr. E. of Alger Island, Alberdare Channel,

Franz Joseph Land, Baldwin-Ziegler Expedition, 1901, numerous speci-

mens.

Family CONDYLANTHIDAE

3. CHARISEA SAXICOLA Torrey. Unalaska, Aleutian Islands in pools during

the ebb, 3 specimens, Hultén, 1932 (R.M.).

This species appears to be a Condylanthid, though it is not identical

with Charisea, as Stephenson (Quart. Journ. Micros. Soc. 66: 262.) suggests.

The small specimens examined, the largest being only 0.7 em. long, are little

suited to answering this question because the proximal part of the body is

introverted, but there seem to be rather distinct basilar muscles. Also the

fact that there are a few more mesenteries than tentacles in the greater

part of the body would seem to place the species in the family Condylanthi-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 19, 1934.

AuGusT 15, 1934 CARLGREN: ACTINARIA 349

dae. The sectioned specimen has 27 mesenteries, 6-+6 pairs and 3 unpaired

of the third order, one on one side of the directive plane, two on the other,

but only 22 tentacles. Only the mesenteries of the first order are macrocne-

mes. The gonads, here ovaries, are only little developed. The nematocysts

of the column are partly 15-24 X4.5y (penicilli often curved), partly 14-17

Xabout 2.5u, partly 12-13 X1,y; those of the tentacles partly 17-21 3.5-

4.5u (often curved), partly 15-19 X 2-2.5u (very numerous).

Family ACTINIIDAE

4. TEALIA (URTICINA) FELINA L. var. CRASSICORNIS. Cape Lisburne, Alaska,

beach, H. D. Woolfe, 1835, 1 specimen; mouth Kotsebue Sound, Alaska,

Bartlett, 1924, 1 specimen; 62° 15’ 20” N., 167° 48’ W., Stoney, 1884,

2 specimens; 20 miles off Devil’s Mountain, Alaska, Bartlett, 1924, 1

specimen; Wrangell, Alaska, 2 specimens; W. Greenland, 70° 20’ N..,

56° W., off Hare Island, 10-15 fms., McClain, 1884, 2 specimens;

N.E. Greenland, Clavering Island, 10-35 fms., Bartlett, 1930, 4 speci-

mens; var. corzacea, Bering Island, L. Stejneger, 1882-83, 1 large

specimen provided with distinct, although somewhat introverted, but

rather large verrucae. Therefore, I think that the specimen may be

coriacea or possibly tuberculata, at any rate neither crassicornis nor

lofotensts.

The discovery of a tuberculated form of Tealia at Bering Island is very

interesting as showing that in Bering Sea, as well as in the Atlantic, smooth

forms occur to the north, tuberculated forms to the south.

5. CRIBRINOPSIS SIMILIS Carlgr. W. Greenland, 70° 20’ N., 56° W., 90 fms.,

McClain, 1884, 1 imperfect specimen.

6. BUNODACTIS SPITZBERGENSIS Carlgr. Greenland, Bartlett, 1 specimen.

7. BUNODACTIS STELLA Verr. Unalaska, Aleutian Islands, Hultén, 1932, 3

specimens (R.M.).

Verrill states, 1922 (Report Canadian Arctic Exped., 1913-18, 8. G, p.

112), that the number of tentacles may amount to 72, sometimes to 120.

The present specimens are considerably larger than those previously de-

scribed by me (l.c. 1921, p. 148) and had more tentacles. One specimen

which was examined more closely is provided with about 96 tentacles and

mesenteries, and its sphincter is distinctly palmate circumscript.

8. ANTHOPLEURA XANTHOGRAMMICA (Brandt). Saginaw Bay, Alaska, beach,

W.H. Jones, 3 specimens; Wrangell, Alaska, 1915, 2 specimens; Bering

Island, L. Stejneger, 1882-83, 1 specimen; Nikolski, Bering Island, L.

Stejneger, 1897, 3 specimens; Petropaulovsk, Kamchatka, stony

beach, low water, Swedish exped., 1921, 1 specimen (R.M.).

The species is described from Port Townsend by MeMurrich (Ann. N. Y.

Acad. 14:36. 1901.), who, moreover, mentions that it occurs also at San

Francisco. It is possible that some of McMurrich’s specimens belong to

350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 8

zanthogrammica, but some others may be another species. According to

MeMurrich, Dr. Calkins states ‘‘that evidences of multiplication by fission

were not infrequent among the Port Townsend specimens.” I have not

found any indication of such a reproduction. The 5 specimens, taken from

three localities and examined by me are provided with 96 mesenteries and

about an equal number of tentacles. Also the sphincter seems to be different.

In MeMurrich’s specimen they are palmate circumscript; in our specimens

they are pinnate and resemble the sphincter of Hpzactzs ritterz, although the

penny

Ais vs

2 Ls

LIE, Lis Wi

“Uf

Fig. 1—Cnidopus ritteri. Almost transverse section of a protuberance showing the

distribution of the nematocysts (the black rods). Between the nematocysts in the

middle of the protuberance are many gland cells.

main lamella here is thinner. Komai and Ikari (Records Oceanographic

Works Japan 1: 120. 1929.) mention xanthogrammica from Tanabe Bay, not

far from the southernmost point of the main island of Japan, but this may

be another species, possibly Anthopleura japonica Verr. In our specimens,

preserved in alcohol, the tentacles, including their apices, the oral disc, and

the upper part of the column are greenish, the marginal sphaerules and the

actinopharynx colorless, the pigment being situated in the endoderm. I have

more closely examined a specimen the mesenteries of which are arranged

6+6+12+24=48 pairs, 2 of which are directives. All mesenteries except

the directives are fertile; all or almost all perfect. The pennons are consider-

ably stronger than those figured by MeMurrich and remind one of those of

Tealia felina. The parietobasilar and the basilar muscles are strong. The

marginal sphaerules are large in a specimen from Bering Island, correspond-

ing with the endocoels as well as with the exocoels. Meanwhile, the number

and size of the marginal sphaerules vary, as is common in species having such

organs. In another specimen they are smaller and more sparse, and in the

two specimens from Kamchatka I could not find any. It is possible, however,

AuGusT 15, 1934 CARLGREN: ACTINARIA ool

that they are present but very small and few in number. The nematocysts

of the marginal spherules in three specimens examined are (50) 55-67, 55-

68, 55-69 X3.5—4.5u, those of the lower part of the column (one specimen

examined) 18-22X2-2.5u, those of the uppermost part 14-17X1.5—2uy,

those of the tentacles 17-22 X (2) 2.5u (very numerous), those of the actino-

pharynx 23-26 X 2.5yu.

Cnidopus, new genus

Actiniid with broad pedal disc. Column smooth, in the lower part, from

the limbus upward, provided with transverse and longitudinal rows of low

protuberances square at the base and very close together. The sides of these

protuberances and the furrows between them form strong nematocyst bat-

teries. Sphincter circumscript. Tentacles rather short, comparatively numer-

ous, as a rule arranged hexamerously. Longitudinal muscles of the tentacles

and radial muscles of oral disc ectodermal. Mostly 2 siphonoglyphes. Mesen-

teries for the most part perfect, and more numerous than the tentacles.

Pennons of the mesenteries not strong, parietobasilar and basilar muscles

strong. Mesenteries of the first and second cycles probably sterile.

9. CNIDOPUS RITTERI (Torrey). St. Georges Island, Alaska, G. D. Hanna,

1914, 7 specimens. ? Nikolski, Bering Island, Stejneger, 1897, 1 specimen.

This species, described and referred by Torrey (Proc. Washington Acad.

Sci. 4: 393. 1902.) to the genus EH pzactis is here referred to a new genus for

which I propose the name Cnidopus owing to the very numerous nematocysts

present at the sides of the protuberances and between them in the lowest

part of the column. Torrey describes the exterior of the column in the fol-

lowing manner: ‘““The body-wall is smooth, without true verrucae, though

near the foot there may be ten or twelve rows of protuberances which

slightly resemble them. They are caused by transverse and longitudinal

wrinkles and are of the same histological character as the rest of the wall.

They vary greatly in size even in the same individual.” (See fig. 6, pl. 25 in

Torrey’s paper). Our specimens show the same exterior, so that it is clear

that we have to do with EL. ritterz. Like Torrey’s, our specimens are rather

strongly contracted, wherefore it is probable that the protuberances, in our

specimens arranged in 8-14 longitudinal rows, in the extended state have a

more vesicle-like appearance. The histological structure of the protuber-

ances is, however, other than Torrey stated. The sides of the protuberances

and the furrows are provided with very numerous nematocysts standing, as

in the marginal sphaerules, very close together. Only in the middle of the

protuberances the nematocysts, especially the larger, are sparse or almost

lacking on some protuberances more than on others. (Fig. 1). There are two

sizes of these nematocysts—unfortunately they are opaque, so that I cannot

decide their structure—the larger of which reach a size not observed by me

in the vesicles of any one Actiniid (including Phyllactids) except in the mar-

ginal sphaerules. The size of the larger nematocysts varies in 4 specimens

352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

between 31-41 X4.5-5y, (85-41 X4.5-5y, 32-41 4.5y, 31-41 4.5-5y, and

in the smaller specimen 31-36 X4.5u); the smaller between 17-26 X2-2.5u

(22-26 X2-2.5u, 21-26 X2-2.5u, 19-24 2-2.5u, 17-22 Xalmost 2.5u in the

smallest specimen). In the other parts of the column only the small nemato-

cysts (17-24 X about 2.5) are present, although I observed in some macer-

ated preparations a few larger nematocysts, possibly stuck to the ectoderm.

The sphincter is in all specimens pinnate circumscript, as is that figured by

Torrey. The longitudinal muscles of the tentacles and radial muscles of the

oral disc are well developed and palisade-like arranged. Three specimens ex-

amined have 2 siphonoglyphes and 2 pairs of directives. One specimen more

closely examined has 192 mesenteries, but only 172 tentacles, thus the num-

ber of tentacles is fewer than that of the mesenteries. All mesenteries are

perfect, except those of the last cycle and possibly some of the fourth. Torrey

stated that the mesenteries of the last cycle were sterile, all others fertile.

Although the strong contraction of the large specimen examined makes it

difficult to determine exactly the distribution of the gonads, I am able to

state that the mesenteries of the fifth (the last cycle), fourth, and partly

those of the third cycles have ovaries; on the other hand, I have not observed

any on the mesenteries of the first and second cycles. The pennons of the

mesenteries are rather thin, the parietobasilar muscles broad and reaching

almost the margin, the basilar muscles well developed, oral and marginal

stomata present. The nematocysts of the tentacles are in 5 specimens

29-32 X2.5u; 26-302 (2.5) uw, 24-29X2u, 26-31 Xalmost 2.54, 19-29 Xal-

most 2.54 (in the smallest specimen); those of the actinopharynx 27-32

X2.5u, 26-30 X2.5u, 26-29X2.5u, 29-32 X2.5u (in one specimen I find also

some large nematocysts 29-36 X 4.5—5y, possibly stuck to the ectoderm). The

penicilli of the filaments are in one specimen 26-31 X4.5—5y, the spirocysts

of the tentacles 22-43 *2.5—almost 3.5u, 22-41X3.5u (2 specimens ex-

amined).

Family ACTINOSTOLIDAE

10. StompuHia coccINEA (O.F.M.). Coal station near Cape Lisburne, Alaska,

beach after 4 days of N.W. gale, H. D. Woolfe, 1885, 3 specimens;

Saglek Bay, Labrador, Bartlett, 1925, 1 specimen. |

11. AcTINOSTOLA SPITZBERGENSIS Carlgr. Mouth Kotsebue Sound, Alaska,

Bartlett, 1924, 1 specimen; 20 miles off Devil’s Mountain, Alaska,

16-18 fms., mud bottom, Bartlett, 1924, 2 specimens; Clavering Island,

N.E. Greenland, 10-35 fms., Bartlett, 1930, 1 specimen.

Family HORMATHIIDAE

12. Hormartuia Noposa (Fabr.). Entrance to Fury & Hecla Straits, Baffin

Land, Norcross & Bartlett, 1933, 1 specimen; Saglek Bay, Labrador,

Bartlett, 1925, 1 specimen; 70° 20’ N. off Hare Island, W. Greenland,

2 specimens; Clavering Island, N.E. Greenland, 10-35 fms., Bartlett,

1930, 3 small specimens; Greenland, Bartlett, 1 specimen; 80° 22’, N.W.

aucustT 15, 1934 KRULL: NEODIPLOSTOMUM PRICEI 353

coast of McClintock Island, Franz Joseph Land, Baldwin-Ziegler

Exped., 1902, 1 specimen.

13. MxETRIDIUM SENILE (L.) var. FIMBRIATUM. St. Michaels, Norton Sound,

Alaska, E. W. Nelson, 1879-80, low water, 3 specimens; Unalaska,

Aleutian Islands, Hultén, 1932, 5 specimens (R.M.); Petropaulovsk,

Kamchatka, Swedish Kamchatka Exped., 1921, 4 specimens (R.M.);

Awatcha Bay, Swedish Kamchatka Exped., 1921, some small speci-

mens (R.M.); Achomten Bay, Swedish Kamchatka Exped., 1920, 1

specimen (R.M.).

Among the specimens from Unalaska there is a small one (0.5 X0.6 em.),

the nematocysts of the acontia of which are: Penicilli 47-58 Xabout 5y,

spirulae 47—57 X 3-3.5y. In a small specimen of the variety dianthus of about

the same size as the variety marginatum the penicilli of the acontia are 46—50

Xalmost 5.5u, the spirulae 38-50 X3-3.5u. Thus it seems that also young

specimens of marginatum have larger nematocysts than dzanthus in the acon-

tia (compare Carlgren, The Godthaab Exped., 1928. Medd. om Gr¢gnland 79:

23-24. 1933.). 3

ZOOLOGY .—Neodiplostomum pricei n.sp., a new trematode from a

gull, Larus novaehollandiae.t WrENDELL H. Kruuu, Bureau of

Animal Industry. (Communicated by Maurics C. HAtt.)

The fluke described in this paper was obtained from an Australian

silver gull, Larus novaehollandiae Stephens, which had been experi-

mentally infected by feeding it fish, Fundulus diaphanus diaphanus

and F. heteroclitus macrolepidotus, containing metacercariae of the

neascus type. The species appears to be new and for it the name

Neodiplostomum pricet is proposed.

Neodiplostomum pricei n. sp.

(Figs. 1-2)

Description.—N eodiplostomum: Body small, distinctly separated by con-

striction into a forebody and hindbody. Forebody 1.2 mm. to 1.6 mm.

(average 1.4 mm.) long by 600u to 665u (average 632u) wide, spoon-shaped,

relatively thin and leaf-like, without glands and lateral sucking cups;

hindbody 550u to 880u (average 748) long by 410u to 520u (average 472)

wide, roughly cone to acorn-shaped when bursa copulatrix is withdrawn.

Cuticula provided with fine spines extending from anterior end to level of

holdfast organ. Oral sucker 37u to 60u (average 47u) long by 30u to 44u

(average 38u) wide and subterminal. Mouth opening into a short prepharynx

about one-third as long as pharynx. Pharynx33y to 53u (average 43z) long by

26u to 41y (average 33) wide. Esophagus twice as long as pharynx, bifurcating

to form narrow, thin-walled ceca extending to near level of posterior end of

posterior testis; ceca ventral in position in hindbody. Acetabulum 55y to 92u

(average 76u) long by 73yu to 112u (average 91u) wide, midway between

1 Received April 17, 1934.

354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 8

). Entire worm.

tcer

yplostomum pr

Fig. 1—Neod

AauGcusT 15, 1934 KRULL: NEODIPLOSTOMUM PRICEI 300

holdfast organ and anterior end of vitelline area. Holdfast organ large,

310u long when extended (Fig. 2b), with median longitudinal cleft when re-

tracted. Testes large, tandem, filling greater part of hindbody; anterior

testis 230u to 318y (average 280u) long by 295yu to 425u (average 387) wide,

transversely oval; posterior testis 280u to 360u (average 330z) long by 372pz to

470 (average 435) wide, reniform, wider than long, somewhat larger than

anterior testis. Vas deferens broad and extending to near posterior end of

posterior testis, expanding there and forming a voluminous, folded seminal

vesicle filled with spermatozoa, discharging into genital atrium through a

Fig. 2—Neodiplostomum pricet. (a) Bursa copulatrix, expanded, dorsal view; ()),

complete specimen flexed dorsally, showing expanded hold-fast organ.

short ejaculatory duct. Ovary 110u to 140u (average 120u) long by 86y to

122u (average 104y) wide, ventral, either to right or left of median line, at,

and usually overlapping postero-lateral margin of anterior testis. Oviduct

arising on postero-dorsal face of ovary, continuing in postero-dorsal direc-

tion and uniting with Laurer’s canal, turning, continuing somewhat anteri-

orly, uniting with common vitelline duct, and then continuing as oétype.

Laurer’s canal opening dorsally in median line near level of posterior margin

of ovary. Mehlis’ gland large, surrounding odétype. Uterus voluminous, with

short ascending limb turning at level of anterior testis and continuing pos-

teriorly as descending limb, extending in median line ventral to all organs

except vitellaria, and terminating at genital atrium. Proximal portion of

uterus usually filled with spermatozoa, and in stained and mounted speci-

mens sometimes folded in such a way as to appear as a spherical seminal

receptacle equal in size to, and opposite, ovary. Vitellaria occupying area

from middle of anterior body to end of posterior testis; vitelline follicles

extending dorsally and ventrally in anterior body and in portion of posterior

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

body in front of anterior testis, and ventrally in remaining part of posterior

part of body; vitelline follicles in anterior part of body relatively small, and

those in posterior part very large. Common vitelline duct with mostly a

dorso-ventral course; expanded to form a vitelline reservoir. Eggs from pre-

served flukes averaging 86 long by 66y wide, those from living flukes

averaging 92u long by 72u wide. Details of bursa copulatrix shown in figure

2a.

Host.—Larus novaehollandiae Stephens (exueriwientaly

Location.—Small intestine.

Distribution.—United States (Washington, D. C.)

Type specumens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. No. 32880; paratypes No.

32881.

This description is based on 25 of 80 specimens recovered from a single

gull. Some of the flukes were killed under pressure in corrosive acetic fixa-

tive, and some were relaxed in cold water and killed without pressure, those

fixed by the latter method being of greatest value for descriptive purposes.

Neodiplostomum pricet may be distinguished from the numerous other

species of the genus by the position of the ovary which is posterior and

lateral to the anterior testis. In the species which have been described previ-

ously the ovary is pretesticular.

The gull, in which the experimental infection was obtained, was hatched

and raised in captivity in Washington, D. C. The natural definitive host of

the parasite is not known. The life history of this parasite will be given else-

where.

ZOOLOGY .—Two new species of Corophium from the west coast of

America. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER, U. 8. National Mu-

seum. (Communicated by Mary J. RATHBUN.)

Recently while sorting amphipod material taken by Dr. Waldo L

Schmitt along the coast of Peru in 1926, I noticed an undescribed

species of Corophium which I here designate as Corophium bacon.

In 1927 the Pacific Biological Laboratories sent to the United States

National Museum some amphipods from Monterey Bay, California,

amongst which was another species new to science which I here

designate as Corophium californianum.

Corophium baconi, new species

Figure 1

Description of male-—Head with rostrum short and broadly triangular;

eye lobes broad, their front margin nearly straight and gradually passing

into side margin of head by a broadly rounding curve. Antenna 1, first joint

about as long as second plus half of third, lower margin with one distal spine

and two about one-third from the proximal end, though the third or proximal

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 3, 1934.

AuGusT 15, 1984 SHOEMAKER: NEW SPECIES OF COROPHIUM Oot

Fig. 1.—Corophium baconi, new species. a, rostrum and eye lobes, o. b, antenna 1’,

showing lower spines. c, antenna 1 o’, top view. d, antenna 2”. e, lower margin antenna

2 showing the two proximal spines. f, antenna 12, showing lower spines. g, antenna

1 2 showing the occasional third lower spine. h, antenna 1 2, top view. 2, antenna 2 9.

j, k, mandibular palp @ and @. 1, gnathopod 1c. m, n, gnathopod 2¢' and Q. 9, p,

peraeopod 5c and Q.q, fourth and fifth abdominal segments and their appendages <.

spine is usually lacking in younger males, inner or median edge of joint with

two spines near proximal end, flagelum with four joints, the last of which is

very small. Antenna 2 short and very robust, fourth joint over half as high

as long with two lower distal teeth and one or two short spines on lower inner

margin not far from the third joint, fifth joint with long, strong tooth very

near center of inner side and a long downward-curved tooth on inner side of

distal end of joint, lower margin of fifth joint and flagellum provided with

358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 8

groups of very long setae. Mandibular palp with first joint somewhat pro-

duced distally, second joint slightly longer than first. Gnathopod 1, palm

oblique and very broadly rounding, very finely serrate throughout and de-

fined by a stout spine, dactyl overlapping palm, and bearing a tooth and

fine serrations on inner margin. Dactyl of gnathopod 2 bearing one tooth on

inner margin and fine serrations between the tooth and proximal end. Peraeo-

pod 5 with sixth joint shorter than second. Pleon segments 4 to 6 coalesced,

but there is a slight marginal depression or notch indicating the division be-

between the fourth and fifth joints. Uropod 2 very short and equal in length

to uropod 3, rami equal in length to peduncle and each bearing several long

slender spines on outer margin. Uropod 3, peduncle with outer margin pro-

duced backward into a broad rounding lobe which is armed distally with

three long slender spines and three slender spines arising from the upper sur-

face, ramus not evenly rounding distally but somewhat obliquely truncate

and bearing many long slender spines. Telson forming an equilateral tri-

angle with apex evenly rounding, the dorsal surface bearing the usual de-

pression edged with recurved spines, and also bearing a slender seta on

either side near the base.

Length.—This is a small species measuring only about 2.5 mm.

Description of female -——The female resembles the male except in the an-

tennae. Antenna 1 usually bearing two spines on lower margin of first joint,

but younger specimens may bear a third smaller proximal spine, inner

margin with two spines as in the male. Antenna 2, third joint with two spines

on lower margin, fourth joint with three evenly-spaced spines on lower mar-

gin, and fifth joint without spines on lower margin.

Type.—Male, taken off the coast of Peru, just north of Paita, October 8,

1926, by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, while travelling on the Walter Rathbone

Bacon Scholarship. Cat. No. 66871 U.S.N.M.

This species is named for Mr. Bacon in whose honor the scholarship was

founded.

This species resembles C. acutwm but differs in the following characters:

Antenna 2 in female has no spines on lower margin of fifth joint. There is

only one tooth on inner margin of dactyl of gnathopod 2 in either sex. The

division between the fourth and fifth pleon segments is indicated by a slight

marginal notch whereas in C. acutum there is no indication of this division.

Uropods 2 and 3 are equal in length, but in C. a. uropod 2 is longer than 3.

Besides the specimens taken by Dr. Schmitt off Peru there are in the

National Museum collection three male specimens from Venice, southern

California, one male from Santa Monica, southern California, collected by

Dr. F. C. Clark, and one male from Albatross Station 3253, Bering Sea,

June 14, 1890.

In one of the males from Venice, which is quite large, there are three

proximal spines on the under margin of the first joint of antenna 1 and three

spines on median edge. The tooth on the fifth joint of antenna 2 is longer and

narrower than in the Peruvian specimens and is situated beyond the center

of the joint so that it does not oppose the large terminal tooth of the fourth

joint. In the male from Bering Sea there are three spines on the lower margin

of first joint of antenna 1. The tooth on the fifth joint of antenna 2 is just

slightly on the proximal side of the center, and the inside terminal tooth of

AuGusT 15, 1934 SHOEMAKER: NEW SPECIES OF COROPHIUM 309

Fig. 2—Corophium californianum, new species, male. a, head and antennae. b,

rostrum. c, antenna 1, top view. d, antenna 2, greatly enlarged. e, mandibular palp. f,

gnathopod 1. g, gnathopod 2. h, peraeopod 1. 7, peraeopod 5.

this joint is short and blunt. The notch on the margin of the pleon indicating

the division between the fourth and fifth joints is deeper and more notice-

able than in the southern specimens

Corophium californianum, new species

Figure 2

Male.—Rostrum very broadly triangular. Eye-lobes rather long, curved

downward and distally rounding. Eyes oval, black. Antenna 1, first Joint 1s

360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

long as second and third combined, armed on lower margin with five spines,

and on the inner proximal margin with four spines, flagellum composed of

four joints, the last very minute. Antenna 2 rather short for the genus, third

joint with two spines on lower margin, fourth joint with a row of five stout

spines on lower margin, which is produced distally into a prominent, slightly

upward-curved tooth bearing two small teeth on its upper edge, fifth joint

very short, not reaching beyond the apex of the distal tooth of the fourth

joint, and bearing on lower margin very near the distal end a prominent

blunt tooth, the inner distal end of fifth joint produced into a long, pointed,

downward-curved tooth which is very nearly half the length of the fifth

joint and reaches nearly to the distal end of first antennal joint, flagellum

shorter than fifth peduncular joint. First joint of mandibular palp not dis-

tally produced. Gnathopod 1, sixth joint not distally expanded, palm rather

narrowly and evenly rounding, finely serrate throughout and defined by two

stout spines, dactyl slightly overlapping palm and bearing a tooth and fine

serrations on inner margin. Gnathopod 2, dactyl bearing two teeth on inner

margin. Peraeopod 5, sixth joint equal in length to second. Pleon segments

4 to 6 coalesced and slightly arched from side to side and not bounded later-

ally by a raised ridge. Telson a little broader than long with apex evenly

rounding.

Length.—Male, about 3 mm.

One specimen, the type, taken from holdfast of water-logged kelp dredged

in 48 fathoms, in Monterey Bay, California, by the Pacific Biological

Laboratories. Cat. No. 66880 U.S.N.M.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1063RD MEETING

The 1063rd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, January

20th, 1934, President DRYDEN presiding. |

Program: H. C. Dickinson: The mechanism of material prosperity.—

Less than a century ago a British scientist, James Prescott Joule, wrote a

paper in which he stated clearly for the first time the fact that heat and

work are equivalent to each other, thus establishing what is known as the

first law of thermodynamics. ,

Joule was not the sole discoverer of this “‘law’’ but rather was the first one

to establish it accurately among many scientists who were approaching the

same solution from various points of view.

About 50 years ago another scientist, J. Willard Gibbs, professor at Yale

University, was the first to formulate accurately the second law of thermo-

dynamics. Gibb’s work was translated into German and not until 15 years

later did Americans know its worth after German scientists had appreciated

what it meant in the field of science.

Thus was laid the foundation for the modern science of thermodynamics

which is the foundation of the world’s present growth in the production of

power with all that this means in comfort and plenty.

Thermodynamics is a statistical science and men have long known that

its basic laws must apply in other fields. National or world economics pre-

sents statistical problems which are in some ways similar to those of thermo-

AuGustT 15, 1984 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 361

dynamics. However, few economists are familiar with the natural sciences,

and few physicists and engineers have been interested in economics, so

there has been heretofore little chance of bridging the gap between the two

sciences.

In the last few years, however, the economic convulsion of the world has

turned the attention of many students of the natural sciences to economic

questions. Thus, as 100 years ago, so now is there a wave of thought focused,

this time not on heat and work but on work and money. Out of this thought

there has emerged a new science to which we have given the name of econo-

dynamics, a study of the basic laws of economics or, more specifically, of the

relationship between work and money.

Some of the similarities between the science of thermodynamics and the

newer one of econodynamics are striking. One starts out in each case with

‘“‘“conservation.”’ Conservation of matter and of energy are well known laws

of nature. ‘“‘Conservation of money”’ parallels them.

The last is, however, more complex; matter and energy are fixed by nature,

money by men. But it turns out that man must fix money so that the law of

conservation holds, or else the money is no longer good money.

Similar comparisons hold for the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

The second law of econodynamics states that in any economic system (na-

tion or world) in which men are free to spend their money, it is impossible

continuously to maintain any price above the normal competitive level

without supplying money or work from outside the system.

The “law of supply and demand” defines what may be termed an econo-

dynamic potential, showing in which direction price will move when either

or both are changed.

To illustrate some of the subject matter of econodynamics, there has been

designed and constructed a mechanical model known as an economostrator.

It was devised purely as a means of visualizing the ideas of scientists, en-

gineers, and others who have applied this new type of scientific analysis to

economic problems during the past several years. It has proved illuminating,

even to those who are familiar with the entire process.

The whole economic problem can be summed up in a few words. There are

three essentials in the problem like pressure, volume and temperature for a

gas, or current, voltage and resistance for electricity. These are payrolls,

capital, and debts. There is a certain optimum relationship between them

which yields a maximum net national income and no one of them can be in-

creased beyond this point without decreasing the net income and shortly

decreasing all three elements as the entire system starts downhill.

Almost the only new element in the analysis is the fact, seemingly shown

now for the first time, that this optimum relationship is unstable. When the

system starts out of balance the result is to increase this unbalance. The

system, as it is depicted by the economonstrator, is such that a small sur-

plus of savings must always go into capital and debts or else prosperity will

decline through depletion of capital. If this surplus is allowed to continue,

however, the system will be unbalanced in the other direction and prosperity

will decline through an overburden of interest on debts.

In the ordinary case of business cycles this unbalance goes only about so

far and corrective forces bring it back through the wiping out of the surplus

savings which have gone into capital and debts. However, if the corrective

forces which are mainly failures, defaults and foreclosures, do not go far

enough, then the main instability of the system becomes apparent and the

whole gradually collapses. Once these factors are recognized, business cycles

362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

and national declines can be put under control by simple processes which

have been worked out in some detail.

If both short cycles and economic declines were prevented, it may be seen

that nearly all the serious faults of the capitalistic system would vanish. The

main cause of international friction and war would disappear in the same

way, as would unemployment and poverty; except that no one can ever ex-

pect to have more than he can produce unless some one else gives it to him.

(A uthor’s abstract.)

The following informal communication was presented.

¥F. G. BRicKWeppBE: The vapor pressure of a sample of nearly pure molecu-

lar deuterium in its solid and liquid states was compared with the vapor

pressure of ordinary hydrogen. The following table is a brief of the results:

The Vapor Pressures of

T Ordinary Deu-

Hydrogen terium

20 .388°K 76.0 cm. of Hg 26. Boiling Point of Ordinary Hydrogen

18.6 42.9 12. Triple Point of Deuterium

14.0 5.4 0.5 Triple Point of Ordinary Hydrogen

(Author’s abstract.)

1064TH MEETING

The 1064th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

February 3rd, 1934, President DrypENn presiding.

Program: P. R. Hryu: The composition of harmonic motions.—All cases of

composition of harmonic motions may be divided into two classes on the basis

of energy considerations, designated respectively as conservative and non-

conservative.

To the first class belong sound and light waves; to the second, alternating

electric currents and tidal phenomena. In the conservative class the energy

of the resultant must be equal to the sum of the energies of the constituents;

in the non-conservative class this is not the case.

The conservative class may again be divided into two groups. In the first

group the component running waves move in opposite directions; in the

second, they move in the same direction.

The principle of superposition of amplitudes, applied to the case of op-

positely running waves, gives results consistent with the principle of the

conservation of energy; but applied to the case of similarly running waves

gives rise to a contradiction. In such cases composition must take place

by addition, not of amplitudes, but of energies. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. DrypENn, GisH, TUCKERMAN, CurTISs, HUMPHREYS,

DIckINSoN, and HAWKESWORTH.

H. A. Marmemr: T7des that follow the sun.—At most places the tide follows

the moon in coming later each day by about fifty minutes on the average.

On the basis of gravitation, this finds explanation in the fact that the tide-

producing power of a heavenly body varies directly as its mass and inversely

as the cube of its distance from the earth. Hence the moon plays the leading

role in bringing about the tide.

There are some places, however, at which the tide appears to follow the

sun rather than the moon. Tahiti in the Society Islands and Tuesday

Island in Torres Strait are examples. At these places high and low water

do not come later each day by fifty minutes on the average; instead, the

tide comes at about the same time day after day. Such tides are therefore

primarily solar tides.

AuGusT 15, 1984 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 363

The existence of solar tides is explained in entirely different ways by each

of the two theories that have been proposed for the mechanism of the tides

on our earth. The progressive-wave theory—the older—regards the tides of

the open ocean as progressive waves which are derived from the primary

tide waves of the Southern Ocean. Solar tides according to this theory occur

at places where two progressive waves meet under the condition that they

have approximately equal ranges, but differ six hours in time. Under such

conditions the lunar high water of one wave is neutralized by the lunar low

water of the other, and thus permits the solar constituent to become the

predominant constituent. Tides at such places therefore present the features

of solar tides.

The more recent theory of the tide, known as the stationary-wave theory,

conceives the response of the ocean waters to the tide-producing forces to

consist of stationary-waves, rather than progressive waves. According to

this theory the dominant tides of the world arise from stationary-wave oscil-

lations which are set up and maintained in various portions of the oceans by

the periodic tide-producing forces of sun and moon. And since the periods of

these forces differ, different portions of the oceans will respond in different

ways, on account of resonance. In other words the axis of oscillation of an

oceanic system responding to the solar forces will not necessarily coincide

with the axis of a lunar oscillating system.

On this latter theory, therefore, solar tides in the open sea are explained

as occurring in regions which lie near the axis of a lunar oscillating system,

but at some distance from the axis of a solar oscillating system. The rise and

fall of the lunar constituent at such places is small, and this gives the solar

constituent the opportunity to become the dominant constituent of the tide.

(A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Lirrrock, TUCKERMAN, HAWKESWORTH, BITTINGER,

Huuspurt, Humpureys, McNisu, and Heyu.

1065TH MEETING

The 1065th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

February 17th, 1934, President DRYDEN presiding.

rogram: K. J. SmEGaR: The physical nature of the chemical bond.—The

speaker reviewed the historical development of our ideas concerning the

nature of the covalent chemical bond and presented the mathematical

theory of the Quantum Mechanics used in the calculations of the energy of

two atoms held together by such a bond. (Secretary’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. DryprEn, HawkrswortH, Gipson, MAXWELL,

HuMPHREYS, TUCKERMAN, and HAFSsTAD.

1066TH MEETING

The 1066th meeting was held jointly with the Washington Academy of

Sciences, in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday, March the 3rd, 1934.

L. B. TucKERMAN, president of the Academy presided.

The program consisted of an address entitled Remarks on catalysis by

James Franck, formerly director of the Second Physical Institute at the

University of Gottingen.

The abstract of this address will be published in the PROCEEDINGS OF THE

ACADEMY.

Discussed by Messrs. MoHLER, WULF, HUMPHEENS, TUCKERMAN, L. H.

ADAMs, and R. E. Gipson.

364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

1067TH MEETING

The 1067th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

March 17th, 1934, President DryDEN presiding.

The program consisted of an address by J. H. Taytor: The process of

generalization in mathematics as exhibited in the development of the Frenet

formulae.—Beginning with elementary considerations of the representation

of points and directions in a three dimensional space, transformations of

coordinate systems and the correspondence of points and directions were dis-

cussed, and the Frenet Formulae then developed. The three dimensional

case was generalized, and the same procedure carried through for an n-

dimensional space representing n-variable quantities or properties, and the

more general, Frenet formulae for an n-dimensional space were derived.

(Secretary’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Drypmen, HAwkEeswortH, Danrzic, TUCKERMAN,

Munk, Horpman, HuMPHREYS, SEEGAR, BLAKE, GIBSON, and SEARLES.

1068TH MEETING

The 1068th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club,

March 31, 1934, President DrypEn presiding.

The program consisted of the fourth Joseph Henry Lecture. This was

given by Professor OSWALD VEBLEN of Princeton University, on the subject

of Spinors.

This lecture has been published in full in this JouRNAL 21: 281. 1934.

Discussed by Messrs. HAWKESWORTH, TUCKERMAN, Dantzic, ADAMs,

SEEGAR, Briaes, and GIsH.

1069TH MEETING

The 1069th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, April 14,

1934, President DRYDEN presiding.

Program: J. W. McBurney: The indentation of asphalt tile-—A formula

was presented for relating the depth of indentation to the time during which

a loaded sphere acts upon such a plastic body as an asphalt tile. Data were

presented showing the effect of varying the diameter of the sphere and the

load. A portable instrument for indentation testing was described. The use

of these test methods in technical specifications for asphalt tile was discussed.

(Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. DryprNn, Briecs, Lepic, and GisH.

W. G. BromBAcHER: Altitude in airplane and balloon flight—In making

an international record for altitude in airplane and balloon flights the

lowest pressure attained is measured and not the altitude. This pressure is

probably the best simple measure of the performance of the airplane in view

of the fact that the air temperature varies but little at the altitudes now

necessary to break the unlimited record for altitude. The lowest pressure is

converted to altitude by means of the altitude-pressure relation of the

F. A. I. standard atmosphere which has been adopted internationally for

such use.

A barograph is used to secure a record of air pressure against time. It is

mounted in the aircraft from an elastic suspension. The trace is made by a

stylus operating on a smoked chart of paper or aluminum sheet. Many baro-

graphs contain an element for recording the instrument temperature.

In this country the barograph is tested at the Bureau of Standards. The

test consists essentially in subjecting the barograph to a flight history test,

during which the conditions of the flight as to instrument temperature and

AuGUST 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 365

air pressure are reproduced. The lowest indicated pressure is measured by

a mercurial barometer of the altitude type.

Details of record breaking flights are given in the following tables:

AIRPLANE FLIGHTS TO HIGHEST ALTITUDE

; Lownst CORRESPOND-

PILOT COUNTRY DATE BS ae a ee

mm. Hg. Feet

iA Macready U.S. Sept. 28, 1921 178 34563

S. Lecointe France Oct. 30, 1923 ROIS 36555

Jeeae Miacready U.S. Jan. 29, 1926 146 38704

One. Champion U..S, July 25), 1927 147.5 38491

St. C. Streett and 7

A. W. Stevens U.S. Oct. 10, 1928 2 37854!

A. Soucek U.S. May 8, 1929 143 39140

W. Neuenhofen Germany May 25, 1929 126 41794

A. Soucek Ue. June 4, 1930 118 43166

C. F. Unwins England Sept. 16, 1932 LN Sie5 43976

G. Lemoine France Sept. 28, 1933 109 44822

1 By barometric formula from pressure and temperature observations 39606 feet.

By camera method 39250 feet.

SEAPLANE FLIGHTS TO HIGHEST ALTITUDE

PILOT COUNTRY DATE yo eee uae ee

PRESSURE eee

mm. Hg Feet

S. Lecointe France March 11, 1924 225 29462

V. Demougeot France March 28, 1927 PANS 30479

C267 Champion US. July 4, 1927 Ion 37995

A. Soucek (Ui tS June 4, 1929 147 38560

BALLOON FLIGHTS TO HIGHEST ALTITUDE

(OPEN GONDOLA)

LowEst CORRESPOND-

PILOTS COUNTRY DATE Soe ING FAI

ALTITUDE

mm. Hg Feet

Suring and Ber- Germany July eh Ot 170. 5(?) 30424

son (10800 m.)

H. C. Gray Weise March 9, 1927 235 28510

eC. Gray Wess May 4, 1927 122 42470}

H. C. Gray WES. Nov. 4, 1927 22 42470?

Bc! recognized as a record because Capt. Gray jumped from balloon before

anding. |

2 Not recognized as a record. Capt. Gray was found dead in the gondola and it was

therefore presumed that he did not navigate the balloon to a landing.

gf ie a

366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 8

STRATOSPHERE BALLOON FLIGHTS

CORRE-

VOLUME LOWEST SPONDING

PILOTS COUNTRY DATE OE PRESSURE FAI ALTI

BALLOON

TUDE

(CU Sanna Lele Feet

Piccard and

Kipfer Belgium May 27,1931 141,000 78 Sgn

Piccard and j

Cosyns Belgium Aug. 18,1982 500,000 73 53153

Prokovieff,

Birnbaum

and God-

ounoff Russia Sept. 30,1933 860,000 49-50 62300(?)

Settle and

Hordney = U.S: Nov. 20,1933 600,000 49.5 61237

Fedossenko,

Vasenko,

Usiskin Russia Jan. 30,1934 882,850 — 72178(?)

(Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. DRypEN, Stimson, DickiINSON, HAWKESWCRTH,

and Lmpia. :

1070TH MEETING

The 1070th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 12,

1934, President DrypEN presiding.

The program for the evening consisted of an address, The thunderstorm

and its electrical effects, by B. F. J. ScHoNLAND of the De Beers Institute of

Physics and Mathematics, University of Cape Town, South Africa.

Little progress has been made in the study of thunderstorm electricity

until it was placed on a quantitative basis by Prof. C. T. R. Wilson and his

school in 1919. The recent measurements of the electric moment of light-

ning discharges give average values of about 80 coulomb-kilometers for this

quantity. It follows that the charge destroyed by a flash is of the order of

20 coulombs. It can then be deduced without ambiguity that the potential

difference developed by the average thundercloud is some billions of volts

and that the continuous rate of generation of electrical energy is about

3X 10° kilowatts. Approximately half of this is spent in the form of lightning, —

the remainder being devoted to the supply of dissipation or leakage currents

above and below the cloud. These currents are of considerable importance

in that they appear to feed a positive charge from earth to upper atmosphere

and thus to provide a satisfactory mechanism for the maintenance of the

permanent electric field which prevails all over the earth in fine weather.

In the discussion of the genesis of these currents—point discharge from

the earth and cumulative ionization in the upper air—certain interesting

deductions emerge. Thus the space charge above the earth makes it difficult

for the field at the earth’s surface to reach values required for the initiation

of a lightning discharge. Again the thunderstorm should, as Prof. Wilson

has pointed out, be capable of producing considerable additional ionization

in the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. Experimental evidence on these questions

supports the deductions made. The thunderstorm origin of most atmospherics

AuGustT 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 367

and the application of this knowledge were briefly dealt with, together

with the experimental evidence for the production by thunderclouds of an

upward-moving spray of penetrating electrons.

The preliminaries to the lightning discharge have recently been studied

photographically by a Committee of the South African Institute of Elec-

trical Engineers. The discharges examined have so far all been from a

negative cloud pole to the ground, the most frequent case. They reveal the

presence of downward electron moving avalanches and will, it is hoped,

enable the mode of progression of such avalanches to be studied in detail

on a large scale. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. GisH, MoHLmER, SILSBEE, WHITE, HUMPHREYS,

GiBson, TUCKERMAN, and BRICKWEDDE.

F. G. BRICKWEDDE, Recording Secretary

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

NOTES

National Bureau of Standards——Dr. Lyman J. Briaes, Director of the

National Bureau of Standards, left Washington on July 6 for the balloon

camp near Rapid City, South Dakota, to witness the stratosphere flight

under the auspices of the National Geographic Society and the U.S. Army

Air Corps. Dr. Briaas is chairman of the Advisory Committee for the

Flight, appointed by President GrosvENor of the National Geographic

Society. He has given a great deal of time to the plans for the flight, partic-

ularly in connection with the scientific instruments carried.

Dr. H. J. McNicuouas has returned to his former work in the organic

and fibrous materials division on X-ray investigations of the structure of

fibers from farm waste.

Dr. J. H. DELLINGER, chief of the radio section, has enlisted the coopera-

tion of owners of short-wave radio sets, in a world-wide investigation to

discover the origin of long-delay radio echoes. Two high-power high-fre-

quency stations are transmitting special signals to facilitate observations.

They are GSB, Daventry, England, and HBL, the League of Nations sta-

tion in Geneva, Switzerland. GSB transmits a 1,000-cycle note on a fre-

quency of 9510 kilocycles each Sunday, Tuesday and Thursday, from 3:25

to 3:55 a.m., Eastern Standard Time and HBL transmits on 6675 kilocycles

each Sunday, Wednesday and Friday from 6:00 to 6:30 a.m. EST. The

familiar round-the-world echo occurs one-seventh of a second after the

original signal, the time required for the wireless wave to circle the earth.

The long-delay echoes being studied may occur as much as three seconds

after the primary signal.

An investigation of the paper used for Braille books for the blind has

resulted in the discovery that use of paper with a maximum tensile strength

produces Braille dots that stand up during a long life and do not crack and

irritate sensitive finger tips of blind readers.

Bureau of Biological Survey.—Changes in the Wildlife Bureau, including

the consolidation of the Divisions of Game and Bird Conservation and

Predatory Animal and Rodent Control, and establishment of a Migratory

Waterfowl Division and Public Relations Unit, have been announced.

368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 8

Public Health Service—Headed by Dr. Jamus P. Leaks, veteran of the

Service, a party of investigators including Drs. E. T. Cepmr, A. G. Gituiam

and W. P. Deartinea has left for California to lend their aid in the great

battle against infantile paralysis being waged in that state.

For over a year Dr. W. T. Harrison of the U.S. Public Health Service

has been working on a vaccine to give protection against infantile paralysis.

He has already had ‘‘encouraging”’ results in protecting monkeys with the

vaccine, but he is not yet ready to try it on humans. The vaccine is made

by a special technic which officials of the U.S. Public Health Service are not

willing to report at present.

Weather Bureau.—Beginning in July, the U.S. Weather Bureau will make

routine weather observations by airplane on a much larger scale than here-

tofore practiced. From twenty different airports, pilots will make observa-

tion flights to high altitudes, carrying a meteorograph which automatically

records humidity, temperature, and pressure.

News BRIEFS

Giant map-making camera.—The world’s largest camera, 31 feet long

and weighing fourteen tons, has just been placed in operation reproducing

nautical charts and airway maps. So precise is the work of this huge camera,

which resembles a railway trestle in structure, that cork pads and other

vibration-damping provisions must be used to eliminate the slightest build-

ing tremors, although it has been installed directly on the foundations of the

new Department of Commerce building.

Capt. R. 8S. Parron, director of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,

states that this gigantic instrument will make it possible to photograph a

complete chart on one negative, with a probable error of not more than two-

thousandths of an inch. Two years were devoted to its design, construction

and adjustment, at a total cost of over $15,000.

In order to obtain the greatest accuracy possible, every available source

of information was consulted from the designs of commercial copying

cameras to reports of technical experts at the National Bureau of Standards.

The preliminary designs were prepared at the Sight Shop of the Naval Gun

Factory.

Shrink fits with “dry ice.’—Solid carbon dioxide, popularly named

‘“‘dry ice,’ may, at its temperature of —112 degrees Fahrenheit compete

with heat in securing shrink fits for machine parts. W. H. SwanceEr of the

National Bureau of Standards, reports that machine shop practice may come

to accept the new method of applying low temperature instead of heat in

shrinking metals. When it is necessary to secure a metal band to a shaft,

the usual practice is to heat the band. Expansion allows it to be slipped

into place, and as it cools it contracts to a tight fit. However, by “‘refrig-

erating” the inside part, or shaft, it can be shrunk materially. The band is

slipped on and when the shaft warms to room temperature it expands again

to normal size, and a tighter fit is secured.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Dr. Davip WHITE, eminent scientist of the U.S. Geological Survey, was

awarded the Boverton Redwood medal by the Institution of Petroleum

Technologists in London. This is the first time that the medal, highest award

of the institution, has been given to an American and only the second time

it has gone to a scientist outside the British Empire.

— oS

eS ee ee oe Oe ee ee Ss

CONTENTS:

ORIGINAL PAPERS ee = us

Chemistry. —The = of 3, 4 | dimethony--chloro benzoic |

Zoology.—The development of the Trichostrongyle, N: sppedron ae

muris, in rats following ingestion of larvae. BENJAMIN a ate

and Josmey Bi, ALICATA (Yea ae oe eg eS

Zoology. Sap Heelies miamiensis, a new genus oud species of ‘

Zoology.—Some Actinaria from Bering Sea ane arctic waters. -OSKAR

CAREGREN LS 2 (oa ke Oe ae Tis sk ge ee ee en aees

Zoology.—N: dite pricet n. sp., a new trematode from a gull, af

Larus novachallandege. Wenve.tu H. Krubu............ Gmeeee”

Zoology.—Two new species of Corophium from the west coast t of ae

America. CLARENCH R.,SHOEMAKER............... 5 de

PROCEEDINGS |

Philosophical Society... 3. ee eae ane ie oe Se

Scruntiric Notes anp NEWS... ..<..2......-0--0-+- po

This JoURNAL ig indexed in the International Index to Periodicals.

VoL, 24 SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 No. 9

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 24 SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 ae No. 9

PHARMACOLOGY .—Remedies for cyanide poisoning in sheep and

cattle A. B. Cuawson, H. BuNnyra, and JAmMEs F. Covucu,

Bureau of Animal Industry.

The treatment of cyanide or prussic acid poisoning is an important

problem to the veterinarian. Many cases of poisoning occur each

year as a result of livestock feeding on cyanogenetic plants such as

wild cherry, sorghum, arrow grass, and the like. Those plants that

are capable of developing dangerous quantities of hydrocyanic acid

under favorable circumstances are widely distributed and the problem

of treating cyanide poisoning is not confined to a few localities, but

is a matter of national interest.

Recent reports of the beneficial results following the use of new

remedies in cases of this kind have provoked considerable interest

as to their applicability to treatment under practical conditions. As

most of the information available with respect to these remedies has

been obtained from experiments on laboratory animals it was con-

sidered desirable to secure data concerning their effectiveness with

larger animals. This paper reports the results obtained in the first

two series of experiments in which sheep and bovines were the species

used.

The experimental animals used had been kept under observation at

the Experiment Station of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Bethesda,

Md., for a sufficient period to establish knowledge of their healthy

condition. Some of the animals had been used previously in other

experiments, but at the time of these studies were normal. Except

No. 1299, all of the sheep had been used in either anthrax or black-

leg immunity tests and certain of the cows had been the objects of

mastitis studies. |

The remedies used had previously been the subject of studies by

other workers in this field. Lang (8) in 1895 studied the antidotal

1 Received May 8, 1934. |

369

3/0 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

action of sodium thiosulphate and other sulphur compounds in dogs

and rabbits and found the first-named salt the most effective. His

results showed that there is a great variation in effectiveness when the

method of administration of the poison and antidote are varied.

Hug (5), Turner and Hulpieu (11), and Forst (4) reported antidotal

properties in sodium thiosulphate, but Hug considered it less effective

than either methylene blue or sodium nitrite. The sodium thiosul-

phate used in our experiments was analytical reagent grade and was

tested for identity and purity. |

Methylene blue was found to be an antagonist of hydrocyanic acid

in white mice by Sahlin (9) in 1926. Confirmation was obtained in the

work of Eddy (3) on dogs and there has since been a large number of

reports on the remedial value of that substance. Trautman (10) as a

result of an extensive study of methylene blue as an antidote to

gaseous hydrocyanic acid poisoning in mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits

reports: ‘The average of results indicated no advantage in favor of

the treated animals.” Hug (5, p. 519) found methylene blue less

effective than sodium nitrite. The methylene blue used in our experi-

ments was the medicinal grade tested for identity and purity.

Sodium nitrite was proposed by Hug (5, p. 89) in 1932, who found

it superior to methylene blue and sodium thiosulphate in dogs and

rabbits. This salt has been used with considerable success in experi-

mental cyanide poisoning of sheep and cattle by Fitch and his co-

workers (personal communication) in Minnesota. Hug and Wendel

(12) independently conclude that the mode of action of sodium nitrite

is to convert part of the hemoglobin of the blood into methemoglobin,

which then combines with the cyanide and forms a relatively non-

toxic compound. In support of this hypothesis both investigators

have demonstrated that methemoglobin itself acts as an antidote in

cyanide poisoning. The sodium nitrite used in our study was of

analytical reagent grade tested for identity and purity. The solutions

used were freshly prepared for each experiment.

Sodium tetrathionate was found by Chistoni and Foresti (1) to

protect against doses of potassium cyanide not much in excess of the,

m.l.d. Draize (2) found it more effective than methylene blue. The

sample used by us was prepared according to the method of Klo-

bukoff (7).

The use of a combination of sodium thiosulphate and sodium

nitrite was suggested by the knowledge that these substances are

thought to counteract the poisonous effects of cyanides in different

ways, the nitrite through methemoglobin formation and the thio-

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 CLAWSON, BUNYEA, COUCH: CYANIDE POISONING 371

sulphate by converting the cyanide into thiocyanate. Since the

quantity of hemoglobin that can safely be converted into methemo-

globin for antidotal purposes is strictly limited by the minimal quan-

tity of hemoglobin that is necessary to carry out the normal trans-

portation of oxygen to the tissues, there is an upper limit to the dose

of nitrite that can be administered with safety. Sodium thiosulphate,

which does not convert hemoglobin into methemoglobin, and which

does not react chemically with sodium nitrite, would serve to in-

crease the effectiveness of the antidote without increasing its toxicity.

After several experiments had been made on bovines and had demon-

strated the superiority of the combination of remedies a paper by

Hug (6, p. 711) was received in which, working with rabbits and dogs,

he clearly demonstrated the effectiveness of the combination.’

For the purposes of the experiments reported in this paper the

cyanide was given in the form of a freshly prepared solution of

potassium cyanide. The specimen of salt used was of analytical re-

agent quality and analysis showed it to contain 98.12 per cent KCN.

The cyanide was given by drench and the remedies given by intra-

venous or intraperitoneal injection except in two instances.

SYMPTOMS OF POTASSIUM CYANIDE POISONING

The symptoms of hydrocyanic acid poisoning have been described

in various publications dealing with poisons, materia medica, and

other subjects. The series of experiments carried out by the writers

has furnished some detailed information regarding the sequence of

the different symptoms, which it seems advisable to point out.

It is well known that an appreciable time elapses between the

giving of potassium cyanide and the appearance of perceptible symp-

toms. In the cases which form the basis for this paper, this time did

not differ particularly with the two classes of animals. For the cattle,

the time varied from 0.5 minute to 2.5 minutes, and averaged 1.1

minutes. The longest time was for an animal given a small dose and

which was given the material in the shortest time. With the sheep

the time varied between 0.5 minute and 2 minutes, and averaged 1.5

minutes.

In the different experiments, from 0.5 minute to 2 minutes were

required to give the drench. The elapsed time between giving of the

2 Since this paper was prepared a report by CHEN, RosE, and Crowes (Proce.

Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 31: 250. 1933) has been received in which these authors show

that the combination is very effective against potassium cyanide poisoning in dogs.

372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 9

potassium cyanide and the appearance of symptoms was taken from

the completion of the drenching.

In practically all cases the first indication of symptoms was an

acceleration in rate and an increase in the depth of the respiration. In

some instances, at the same time the animal appeared to be anxious

as though apprehensive that something was not quite right.

In very mild cases, even when nothing was given to counteract the

poison, the effect disappeared within a few minutes. Three poisoned

cattle appeared to have entirely recovered within seven minutes after

the cyanide was given. In two cases, a somewhat accelerated and

unusually deep respiration and a somewhat increased pulse rate were

all that were abnormal. The third cow, in addition, became very

nervous, hypersensitive to movements, sounds, or other stimuli, and

her pupils were considerably dilated. She also showed a slight leg

weakness and appeared to be frightened. Two sheep, given small

doses, apparently were entirely recovered in three and five minutes,

respectively, after being given the cyanide. In the latter case, the

pulse became very fast and there was slight spasmodic jerking of the

muscles of the shoulders. The doses of hydrocyanic acid given these

animals varied from 0.441 to 1.102 milligrams per kilogram of body

weight. The smaller dose caused only a slight increase in the pulse

rate of a cow.

When more seriously poisoned the rate and depth of the respiration

rapidly increased and frequently culminated in spasms and dysp-

noea. In one cow, spasms developed in nine minutes. In the other

cattle spasms developed in five of the eleven cases and appeared in

from 1.5 to 5 minutes, or an average of three minutes after the cya-

nide was given. With the exception of one case in which the notes are

not definite, all the cases which did not have spasms were either light

cases and recovered, or were given remedial treatment. In the one

untreated fatal cattle case in which spasms developed, the spasms

occurred at intervals for eleven minutes.

In the sheep, spasms of greater or less intensity developed in 22

of the 37 cases of poisoning. They occurred in from 1 to 14 minutes

after the cyanide was given, or in an average time of 44 minutes. In

some instances the duration was very short, consisting of a few spas-

modic contractions. In some, they lasted for 7 to 9 minutes, while one

animal had spasms which occurred at intervals for 51 minutes. Aside

from two cases of the kind, the average duration was approximately

2% minutes.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 CLAWSON, BUNYEA, COUCH: CYANIDE POISONING 373

The spasms varied considerably, some consisting of more or less

violent kicking, and some opisthotonos, while in other cases there were

violent tetanic contractions of the legs and body muscles, these

usually being accompanied with jerky movements of the eye balls or

rolling of the eye ball downward. At this stage, in the cattle cases, the

jugular vein was very prominent and evidently engorged with blood.

This, together with the blanching of the teats, would appear to in-

dicate a contraction of the peripheral capillaries. During this period

the venous blood was a bright red in color.

At approximately the same time that spasms developed, the res-

piration became labored or dyspnoeic and much slower than during

the period of stimulation. As experimental treatments were given

many of the poisoned animals during the period of spasms or very

shortly thereafter, these animals can not be used in considering the

progressive changes that occurred after that time. Only one untreated

cow showed evidence of dyspnoea. This lasted for 43 minutes, or up

to about two minutes before the animal died.

In six sheep which recovered, the period of dyspnoea lasted for

from one to three minutes following which the respiration became

easier and the animal gradually improved. In eight fatal cases, the

dyspnoea lasted for from 11 to 38 minutes, or an average of 17 min-

utes. In other words, when dyspnoea continued for more than three

minutes, the animals usually died. One sheep was an exception.

On two occasions, this animal had several repeated periods of weak-

ness, spasmodic muscular jerking, trembling and mild dyspnoea.

These occurred during periods of 1 hour and 20 minutes on the first

occasion and 1 hour on the second. The sheep recovered from both

cases of poisoning.

During the period of dyspnoea the respiration varied greatly in

rate. At times, it resembled panting, and at other times it was very

deep, irregular and the expiration very much forced, while in other

cases the animals were gasping for breath. In some cases it was more

or less intermittent, being held for several seconds at a time. In mild

cases the panting or labored respiration became less and less pro-

nounced and then the animals passed into a recovery period. In fatal

cases, it grew less deep and the periods between respiratory move-

ments usually increased in length until the breathing ceased. alto-

gether. During this period the membranes were usually more or less

cyanotic and the blood as seen in the eye veins, dark in color.

The period of dyspnoea was practically coincident with a severe

374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

weakness and depression, the animal being stretched out on one

side. The eye reflex when noted was apparently normal and the

animal usually kicked occasionally, or there was some trembling of

the surface muscles. Considerable blood and watery liquid came from

the nostrils and mouth of two of the cattle during this period. Both

animals died.

The period of recovery in the two cattle given light doses was

very short. Within 7 minutes in one case, and 10 minutes in another,

after the cyanide was given, the animals appeared to have entirely

recovered. Both were mild cases of poisoning. Some of the poisoned

sheep recovered within a few minutes, while others were ill from 30

minutes to a few hours, depending on the severity of the poisoning.

For all the sheep that recovered without the use of remedial treat-

ment, the period of illness varied from four minutes to something

more than 2} hours. The exact duration in the longer cases is not defi-

nitely known. In one fatal cattle case which did not receive any reme-

dial measure, the animal was sick for 42 minutes. The sheep died after

from 11 to 55 minutes of illness, the average time for the cases in

which the notes are definite being 33 minutes.

LESIONS IN THE CATTLE

Autopsies were made on four of the five cattle that were fatally

poisoned. None of the sheep were autopsied. In all the cattle the blood

and the muscle tissues were very dark red in color. On being allowed

to stand exposed to the air the blood, especially, soon became a

bright red and resembled arterial blood. The lungs of one of the

animals, No. 1267, were very severely congested and edematous. A

considerably quantity of bloody and frothy liquid flowed from the —

mouth of this animal while it was in the latter stages of its illness. This

apparently came from the lungs. The lungs of two of the other

animals, Nos. 1264 and 1266, contained somewhat more blood than

is usually present in normal cattle. This was not sufficient to call con-

gestion however. Some bloody liquid flowed from the mouth of one

of these animals, No. 1264, just before death. In the trachea of No.

1265, between the longitudinal folds of the mucosa, there were prom-

inent hemorrhages which extended a short distance into the bronchial

tubes. Petechiae were similarly present in the tracheal mucosa of No.

1267. This was the animal with the severely congested lungs. Aside

from a few petechiae on the surface of the ventricles of No. 1264 and

a slightly congested mucosa of the 4th stomach of No. 1267, the other

tissues appeared to be normal.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 CLAWSON, BUNYEA, COUCH: CYANIDE POISONING 375

TABLE 1.—Dosss, CaLcuLaTep as Hyprocyanic AciIp, GIVEN TO SHEEP AND THE

EFFECTS PRODUCED WHEN NO REMEDIES WERE USED

Dose given mg/kg and effect

Date Animal No.

No effect | Symptoms Sick Very sick Death

1933 ag tins Aa Pip Bestel) ik

Oct. 3] 1308 4.410

eee | isis a 3.307

sh i i fos eo 3.307

« 2] 1303 a | 2.646

MS liii5n | 2.495

Peo i310 | 2.425

ee eh! 4307 | 2.315

«2 1301 | ae 2.135

Per isis 2.315

—« 101 1300 | 2.315

—« 6 1310 By 2.205

Pea | | 9.205

a yi 2.205

Sa faino | er 2.092

3 ee a 1.764

st) isis oe aes

«6 1313 1.543 bs

«5 1313 1.543

Pe aa | 1.323

Fe is00 | 1.102

fio! ios, | | 0.990 co

——<<——<—— | eS

376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

TOXIC AND LETHAL DOSES OF HYDROCYANIC ACID FOR SHEEP

AND CATTLE

In order to establish a basis on which to judge of the efficacy of

remedial measures, various quantities of potassium cyanide were

given and the subsequent effects allowed to take their natural course

unmodified by remedies of any kind. The doses which were figured

as milligrams of HCN per kilogram of the animal’s body weight varied

from 0.882 milligram to 4.41 milligrams per kilogram. The various

doses as given to sheep are shown in Table 1, and those to cattle in

Table 2. As shown in the tables the cases of poisoning were grouped

into classes on the basis of the severity of the illness. The degree of

illness is indicated by the terms “symptoms,” “‘sick,’’ “‘very sick,”

and “‘death.”’ Among those classed as showing “‘symptoms’”’ were in-

cluded cases in which the respiration was distinctly stimulated and

in which evidence of uneasiness or weakness developed. These ani-

mals were able to remain on their feet. The “‘sick’’ animals developed

marked dyspnoea, and in some cases opisthotonos or mild spasms.

They became too weak to stand throughout the illness, but did not

lie stretched out on their sides. Those animals which went into a coma,

developed pronounced spasms, or were lying stretched out on one

side in a more or less comatose condition for some minutes are classed

as “‘very sick.” :

The various doses given to sheep and the severity of illness of each

case are shown in Table 1.

The results establish, fairly closely, the minimum toxic and lethal

doses for sheep, when the cyanide is given as a drench and under the

conditions accompanying these experiments. As symptoms were

produced by 0.992 milligram per kilogram of animal weight calcu-

lated as hydrocyanic acid, and by all larger doses, and as 0.882 milli-

gram was without apparent effect, 0.992 can be taken as close to the

minimum toxic dose.

In one case, 1.764 milligrams per kilogram killed. In comparison

the same dosage in another case produced only symptoms and in

other cases sheep survived doses as high as 2.424 milligrams per kilo-

gram. The small dose of 1.764 on the basis of other results appears

erratic and may indicate an error. Two sheep were fatally poisoned

by 2.315 milligrams per kilogram. Although one animal survived a

slightly larger dose, the results in general appear to indicate that this

figure is very close to the minimum lethal dose and for the purpose

of this paper is so considered.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 CLAWSON, BUNYEA, COUCH: CYANIDE POISONING 377

Although fewer of the experiments with cattle than with sheep

furnish data regarding the degree of illness caused by different quanti-

ties of hydrocyanic acid, they furnish some evidence regarding the

minimum toxic and the minimum lethal doses.

The smallest quantity which produced definite symptoms was 0.882

milligram per kilogram of animal weight. Following a dose of one half

of this quantity or 0.441 milligram the pulse was somewhat acceler-

ated. No other evidence of effect was noted and it was thought the

pulse effect might be due in part at least to other causes. As the dose

of 0.882 milligram caused very definite symptoms, consisting of ac-

celerated pulse and respiration, nervousness, trembling and slight

weakness, it would appear that for cattle the minimum toxic dose is

somewhat less than 0.882 milligram, but more than one half this

quantity.

A dose of 2.315 milligrams, or the minimum lethal dose for sheep,

killed a cow and was thought by the observers to be somewhat more

than would have been necessary to produce fatal results with the

animal used in the experiment. In fact, one cow, not shown in Table

2, was made very ill on 2.042 milligrams and it was thought she would

TABLE 2.—Dosss, CALCULATED AS HyprocyaNic AcID, GIVEN TO CATTLE AND THE

SEVERITY OF ILLNESS PRODUCED WHEN NO REMEDY WAS USED

Dose given mg/kg and severity of effect

Not sick Symptoms Sick Very sick Death

ouges | Se eke ake ae an ee

Dec. 4 1267 2.315

es on

Ree eee iis on FS SY Pelee

Pee ee ee eee Sle a

Lise, 25 |) eee etd a ee

have died had remedial measures not been taken. Apparently the

minimum letal dose then is close to the latter quantity. Both the

minimum toxic and the minimum lethal doses appear to be slightly

less for cattle than for sheep.

REMEDIES USED AND THE RESULTS OBTAINED

As previously stated several substances have been used by various

investigators to counteract the effects of hydrocyanic acid on animals.

VOL. 24, NO. 9

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 CLAWSON, BUNYEA, COUCH: CYANIDE POISONING 379

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SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 CLAWSON, BUNYEA, COUCH: CYANIDE POISONING 381

Two or more experiments were tried either singly or in combination,

with each of the following: methylene blue, sodium thiosulphate,

sodium tetrathionate, and sodium nitrite. Methylene blue was used

with two sheep only. In each case it was given intraperitoneally.

All remedies were given to cattle intravenously. The cyanide was

administered as potassium cyanide.

It was desired to obtain information as to whether the remedies

themselves acted by chemical transformation with the cyanide. Two

sheep were given mixtures by mouth. One received a dose containing

1.42 m.l.d. of the cyanide mixed with 10 cc. of 10 per cent sodium

tetrathionate solution and the second received a dose of 1.42 m.l.d.

of cyanide mixed with 20 cc. of 10 per cent sodium nitrite solution.

In both cases the animals became sick and exhibited typical early

symptoms of cyanide poisoning. Both, however, soon showed im-

provement and recovered in a short time. The experiments indicated

that the antidotal action of the remedies had taken place in the

organism and that, therefore, the antidotal action is physiological.

Had the remedy reacted completely with the cyanide in vitro the

sheep would not have exhibited any symptoms of poisoning.

The substances used as remedies, together with the results and

other data, are given in Table 3. In the opinion of the observers,

several of the animals that died would probably have recovered if

additional remedial measures had been used to support the experi-

mental treatment.

Methylene blue

Two sheep, each given 3.307 milligrams of hydrocyanic acid per

kilogram of body weight or 1.42 times the minimum lethal dose, were

treated with intraperitoneal injection of a 1 per cent solution of

methylene blue. One given 30 cc. 3 minutes after the prussic acid was

given, and in the spasm stage of the illness, died. In this case it was

not apparent that the illness was altered by the methylene blue. The

second sheep was given 50 cc. of methylene blue solution intraperi-

toneally 4.5 minutes after the cyanide was administered and re-

covered. In these cases 50 ce. of 1 per cent methylene blue given

intraperitoneally protected against 1.42 times the lethal dose. Three

and one-half minutes after the methylene blue was given, the animal

showed marked improvement and thirteen minutes later it got up.

Sodium tetrathionate

Of three sheep treated with sodium tetrathionate, one recovered

and two died. The one which recovered was given a quantity of cya-

382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

nide equivalent to 1.42 times the minimum lethal dose to which had

been added 10 cc. of a 10 per cent solution of sodium tetrathionate.

The two substances were mixed and given together as a drench. The

sheep went through the early symptoms of hydrocyanic acid poison-

ing, but these did not reach the spasm stage. The illness was mild

and within 13 minutes the sheep had completely recovered.

In one case 20 ce. of a 10 per cent solution of sodium tetrathionate

given intraperitoneally failed to protect against 1.42 lethal doses of

the cyanide and in another case 30 ce. failed to protect against 1.66

lethal doses. In one of these cases 3.5 minutes and in the other 5

minutes elapsed after the cyanide was given before the first injection

of the remedy was administered. In these cases the sodium tetrathio-

nate did not appear to be very effective as a remedy. Both animals

had reached the spasm stage of illness and were prostrated when the

tetrathionate was administered.

Sodium thiosulphate

This was tried experimentally with one cow and three sheep.

Twenty cc. of a 10 per cent solution given intravenously to a cow 6

minutes after the cyanide was administered and 1.5 minutes after

convulsions started protected the animal against 1.39 lethal doses.

Improvement was noted in the animal’s respiration within 1.5 min-

utes after the thiosulphate was given. One hour later the cow was

looking bright and resting comfortably. She did not get to her feet

for some hours later.

With one sheep 10 ec. and with another 20 cc. of a 10 per cent solu-

tion given intraperitoneally protected against 1.42 lethal doses when

administered 2 and 3 minutes respectively after the cyanide was

given. In a third case 20 cc. of the thiosulphate protected against

1.62 lethal doses. This was given 3 minutes after the acid was given.

These three sheep were down on their sides and one of them, sheep -

1310, was having spasms at the time.

Sodium thiosulphate under the condition of the experiment pro-

tected against 1.39 lethal doses of hydrocyanic acid in cattle and

1.62 lethal doses with sheep. It was, however, given during the early

stages of the illness or before the evidences of respiratory paralysis be-

came pronounced.

Sodium nitrite

Another substance used experimentally as an antidote for hydro-

cyanic acid poisoning was sodium nitrite. This, in a 10 per cent solu-

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 CLAWSON, BUNYEA, COUCH: CYANIDE POISONING 383

tion, was used intravenously on two poisoned cattle cases and as a

drench or intraperitoneally with six sheep.

A cow given one lethal dose of cyanide recovered when given 20

ec. of a 10 per cent solution of the nitrite. In this case the nitrite was

not given until ten minutes after the cyanide was administered or

until the cow was down on her side and kicking spasmodically. The

following day this animal was given 1.5 lethal doses of cyanide and

21 minutes later treated with 20 cc. of 10 per cent sodium nitrite solu-

tion given intravenously. At the time the nitrite was given she was

prostrate on one side, the pulse was fast and beginning to grow weaker

than it had been. No beneficial effect from the nitrite was noted. She

died very shortly after the nitrite was administered.

One sheep given as a drench 1.42 lethal doses of cyanide to which

was added 20 cc. of 10 per cent sodium nitrite developed the early

symptoms of cyanide poisoning. The sheep became weak and went

down on its side. She began to improve almost immediately and in 10

minutes after falling and 12 minutes after being drenched she had

apparently almost completely recovered.

Two sheep given 1.42 lethal doses of cyanide and later given intra-

peritoneal injection of 10 per cent sodium nitrite recovered. In one

case the nitrite was administered in two doses of 5 ec., one in 3 min-

utes or just after the sheep fell, and the second in 6 minutes after the

cyanide was administered. The second sheep was treated with a single

dose of 10 cc. of the nitrite solution. This was given 11 minutes after

the sheep was drenched with cyanide, or 8 minutes after it went

down on its side. At this time the paralytic effects of the cyanide on

the respiration were beginning to be apparent.

When given ten minutes after 1.66 lethal doses of cyanide were

administered 10 ec. of a 10 per cent solution of sodium nitrite failed

to save the animal. Similarly 20 cc. of the nitrite failed to save two

sheep that had been given 1.9 lethal doses each of cyanide even when

the first half of the nitrite was administered shortly after the animal

became ill. In one case 10 cc. was administered in 2 minutes and a

second 10 cc. was given to the sheep in 25 minutes. In a second case

the first 10 cc. was given in 8 minutes and the second 10 ce. in 9

minutes. Both sheep died.

Sodium thiosulphate and sodium nitrite combined

As sodium thiosulphate and sodium nitrite have different actions,

both substances were administered to five poisoned cattle. In these

cases 20 per cent solutions were used, one being administered im-

384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

mediately after the other. They were given intravenously. In two

cattle, when these were administered within 4 and 4.5 minutes after

the cyanide was given, the two substances protected against 1.96 and

2 lethal doses of the cyanide. In two other cases, similar doses of the

thiosulphate and nitrite failed to protect against 3 and 4 lethal doses

of the cyanide when 3.5 and 4 minutes respectively were allowed to

elapse between the giving of the cyanide and the administering of the

experimental remedy.

Similarly 10 cc. of sodium nitrite and 30 cc. of sodium thiosul-

phate did not prevent the death of a cow that had received 2.54 lethal

doses of cyanide 6.5 minutes previously to the administering of the

experimental remedy. In other words, by giving intravenous injec-

tions of sodium thiosulphate and sodium nitrite it was found possible

to save cows poisoned by as much as 2 lethal doses of cyanide, but

not when 2.54 lethal doses or more had been given.

SUMMARY

Experiments with sheep and cattle were made to determine the

relative efficiency, under practical conditions, of four substances that

have been suggested as remedies for cyanide poisoning. The sub-

stances used were methylene blue, sodium tetrathionate, sodium

thiosulphate, sodium nitrite, and a combination of the two latter.

The animals were given drenches of potassium cyanide in water

and the remedies were given at various times after the cyanide was

administered. Except for two sheep for which the remedy was mixed

with the cyanide and administered as a drench, the remedies were

injected intraperitoneally and in the cattle they were injected into

the jugular vein. All of the substances tried, offered some protection

against the poisonous action of the cyanide.

The minimum lethal dose of hydrocyanic acid, administered as

potassium cyanide in a drench, was determined to be; for sheep 2.315 —

mg. per kilo; for cattle nearly 2.042 mg. per kilo. The minimum toxic

dose was found to be; for sheep 0.992 mg. per kilo; and for cattle

somewhat less than 0.882 mg. per kilo.

In the experimental work with sheep 50 cc. of methylene blue pro-

tected against 1.42 lethal doses of cyanide, although 30 cc. failed to

do so. Of the other remedies tried, sodium tetrathionate and sodium

nitrite, each protected against 1.42 minimum lethal doses but failed

to do so against slightly larger doses. Sodium thiosulphate protected

against 1.62 minimum lethal doses. The combination of sodium thio-

sulphate and sodium nitrite was not tried with sheep.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1984 MATLACK: PUMMELO PIGMENT 385.

In the cattle experiments, sodium nitrite protected against a single

minimum lethal dose of cyanide but failed to do so when 1.5 minimum

lethal doses had been given. Sodium thiosulphate protected against

1.39 minimum lethal doses. With cattle the best results were obtained

with a combination of sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulphate which

protected against 2 minimum lethal doses. Methylene blue and so-

dium tetrathionate were not used with poisoned cattle.

The results strongly indicate that in administering any of the sub-

stances tried as remedies it is of the utmost importance that they be

given very promptly after symptoms of poisoning develop and before

the period of respiratory paralysis sets in.

Aside from these remedies no other treatment was given the sick

animals. It is our opinion based on our observations of the course of

the sickness that in several cases additional treatment such as the

stimulation of respiration and general supportive measures would

possibly have altered the final result of the cases. It is suggested that,

in cases of cyanide poisoning, treatment with the remedies used in

this study could well be supplemented by other measures with better

chances of success.

Two experiments indicate that the remedial action of nitrite and

tetrathionate is physiological rather than chemical.

LITERATURE CITED

. Cutstont, A. and Forssti, B. L’Ateno Parmense. 3: 441-475. 1931.

. Draizz, J. H. Science. 78: 145. 1933.

Eppy, N. B. Jour. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 41: 449-464. 1931.

. Forst, A. W. Arch. Exp. Path. Pharm. 128: 1-66. 1928.

Hue, E. Compt. rend. Soc. Biol. 111: 87, 89, 519. 1932.

Hue, E. Ibid. 114: 87, 711. 1933.

Kuosuxorr, N. von. Ber. d.d.c. Ges. 18: 1869-71. 1885.

Lane, 8. Arch. Exp. Path. Pharm. 36: 75-99. 1895.

. SAHLIN, Bo. Skand. Archiv. f. Physiol. 47: 284-291. 1926.

TRAUTMAN, J. A. Public Health Rep. 48: 1443-1447. 1933.

. Turner, B. B. and Huupigu, H. R. Jour. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 48: 445-469.

1933.

. WENDEL, W. B. Jour. Am. Med. Assoc. 100: 1054. 1933.

mS © 00 NI Ou 09 BOP

CHEMISTRY.—The pigment of the India red pummelo (Citrus

grandis Osbeck).1 M. B. Martiacx, Bureau of Chemistry and

Soils. (Communicated by J. A. LECLERC.)

Through the courtesy of Dr. Walter T. Swingle of the Bureau of

Plant Industry, the writer obtained three fruits of the India red pum-

melo from tree CPB 10058 of the Eustis Experiment Garden, Eustis,

Florida. Since the pink grapefruit is a close relative of this fruit it was

thought of interest to determine the nature of the pigment. Previ-

1 Received May 21, 1934.

386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

Fig. 1—Left, A. Tomato lycopene; B. India red pummelo lycopene. Right,

India red pummelo lycopene crystals X 180.

ously the writer had shown by microchemical crystallization methods

that the pigment of the India red pummelo and that of the pink

grapefruit were the same, namely, lycopene.” Microchemical evidence

is not so positive as actual isolation, however, and since the oppor-

tunity was at hand the pigment of the three fruits was isolated. The

total amount isolated was probably not much more than a milli-

gram, but the material was not dryed and weighed for fear of losing it.

Although there was some pigment in the peel this was discarded,

since it was desired to avoid contamination with the volatile oil. Only

the pulp and locular membranes were used. The separated material,

after being crushed in a mortar in order to break up the pulp cells,

was treated with 95 per cent alcohol and pressed to remove the ex-

cess. It was then treated again with 95 per cent alcohol and dried at

room temperature. The dried material was extracted with carbon di-

sulfide, the carbon disulfide evaporated almost to dryness and ab-

solute ethyl alcohol added, producing a precipitate of red crystals.

These were purified by dissolving in a small amount of carbon di-

sulfide and precipitating with petroleum ether. Identification was

made by comparison of the absorption spectrum? of the pigment with

that of an authentic sample of lycopene from the tomato.

Fig. 1-A shows the spectrogram of tomato lycopene and Fig. 1-B

that of the pigment of the India red pummelo taken at liquid air

temperature. Fig. 1 (right) shows a photomicrograph of lycopene

crystals from the India red pummelo.

2 Some preliminary observations on the coloring matter of Citrus fruits. Amer. Journ.

Pharm. 100: 243-246. 1928.

’ The writer is indebted to Dr. G. E. Hilbert and E. F. Jansen of the Bureau

of Chemistry and Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, for the spectrograms.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE REMAINS 387

PALEONTOLOGY .—Pleistocene remains found near Lake Tacarigua,

Venezuela.1 CHARLES T. BERRY. (Communicated by Epw. W.

BERRY.)

In the past few years some very interesting archaeological work has

been done around the eastern end of Lake Tacarigua, commonly

noted on some recent maps as Lake Valencia or Lake Maracay, a part

of which is in the State of Aragua, Venezuela. Lake Tacarigua is

situated about 25 miles inland from the northern coast of Venezuela

at an altitude of about 1400 feet. Dr. Rafael Requena, who conducted

the archaeological work, has brought to light many finds which sug-

gest a lake-dwelling type of people. With these human remains were

found many shells both marine and terrestrial, all well preserved.

These shells and several small samples of the material in which they

were found, were collected from Bennet Mound near La Mata and

were forwarded to me from Dr. Requena through Dr. J. A. Tong of

Caracas, Venezuela. It is this material which forms the basis of the

present paper.

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Henry A. Pilsbury of

the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for identifying the

shells sent him. To K. E. Lohman of the United States Geological

Survey I am indebted for the determination of the diatoms and

sponge spicules found in the marl bed. Also I wish to thank Dr. C. H.

Blake of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for the identifi-

cation of the ostracods found in the marl bed.

It is common knowledge that most prehistoric people had trade

routes by means of which they traded implements and ornaments.

The marine organisms found near Lake Tacarigua had been used for

two purposes; food, and the shells for ornamentation. This fact means

that the people of that time must have made the trip in a compara-

tively short time from the sea coast to their homes or else the food

would have spoiled in the tropical climate.

The complete list of marine shells that I received, which were found

in the upper bed are:

Codakia orbicularis

Fissurella rosea Fischer.

Fissurella nodosa Born.

Cittartum pica Linné.

Nerita versicolor Gmel.

Tectartus muricatus Linné.

Strombus gigas Linné.

Oliva recticularis Lam.

1 Received Nov. 11, 1933.

388, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

The shells of Strombus gigas are broken in such a manner as would

occur only if the animal had been used for food. Of the two different

species of limpets (/7ssurella spp.) those belonging to Fissurella rosea

show undoubtedly that they were used as ornaments. The edges of

the shells are smooth and show evidence of having been shaped. The

slit in the apex of the shell was very useful for stringing on some

variety of cord, thus making a necklace. Requena? pictures several

such necklaces of limpets and other shells. Oliva recticularis has a

straight hole running through the shell lengthwise from the apex to

the lower end of the aperture. Again in both Nerita versicolor and

Tectarius muricatus the shells have a small oblong hole in the first

whorl, just opposite the aperture. In T. muricatus the holes are worn

smooth along the edges and in N. versicolor the teeth on the outer lip

of the aperture are nearly all worn away.

The fossils which I have received have come from two successive

beds. The upper one—which is covered by about 8 feet of top soil

consisting of sand and clay—is from 2 to 3 feet thick. The lower bed—

which has been penetrated to a depth of 2 feet by the archaeological

excavations—is of unknown thickness. This lower bed is a freshwater

marl, consisting entirely of calcareous material. The areal extent of

this bed, however, is as yet not known. Innumerable shells of Planor-

bis pronus are the dominant organisms found in the lower bed. Ap-

parently at the time this bed was deposited the waters teemed with

ostracods, for it now contains literally millions of them. However,

there seem to be only a limited number of species represented. They

belong to the following genera; Cryptocandona, Dolerocypris, Spino-

cypris, Cyridopsis, Potamocypris, Darwinula, and Cytheridella. Numer-

ous fish scales, ribs, and vertebral ossicles were found which have been

determined as belonging to Geophagus brasiliensis. This fish seems to

have been the most common, if not the only one, which inhabited the

lake at that time. It is a species that inhabits freshwater in tropical.

regions of both South America and Africa today. It is similar in size,

color, and habits to our common sunfish of North America. Many

scales, ribs, and vertebral ossicles were found in the upper bed also.

Some small Unio shells were also found, but were too young to be

definitely determined.

The following is the complete list of all the different organisms

found in the lower or marl bed;

Fishes

Geophagus brasiliensis Quoy & Gaimard

2 Requena, R. Vestigios de la Atlantida. Caracas. p. 47. 1932.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE REMAINS 389

Mollusea

Planorbis pronus v. Mart.

Potamopyrgus parvulus Gldg.

Unio sp.

Snail teeth

Eucrustacea

Cryptocandona valencia n.sp. Blake

Dolerocypris berryi n.sp. Blake

Spinocypris macracanthos n.g. et n.sp. Blake

Cypridopsis fuhrmanni? Mehes

Potamocypris sp.

Darwinula sp.

Cytheridella tacarigua n.sp. Blake

Diatoms

Melosira cf. M. ttalica (Ehrenberg) Kiitzing

Melosira cf. M. sulcata (Ehrenberg) Kiitzing

Cyclotella meneghiniana var. rectangulata Grunow

Stephanopyzis corona (Ehrenberg) Grunow

Fragilaria brevistriata Grunow

Fragilaria construens (Ehrenberg) Grunow

Sceptroneis sp.

Synedra ef. S. ulna (Nitzsch) Ehrenberg

Navicula cf. N. halophila (Grunow) Cleve

Navicula ef. N. occoneiformis Gregory

Pinnularia ef. P. dactylus Ehrenberg

Anomoeoneis sphaerophora (Ehrenberg) Pfitzer

Gomphonema ventricosum Gregory

Cymbella ventricose Kiitzing

Epithemia sp.

Rhopolodia gibba (Kiitzing) Miller

Rhopolodia ventricosa (Kiitzing) Miller

Nitzschia cf. N. dubia Wm. Smith

Nitzschia sp.

Seeds

Chara requena n.sp.

Chenopodium sp.

Eupatorium sp.

Sponge spicules

Ephydatia aufiora J. Frenguelli

Ephydatia aufidiscos J. Frenguelli

All the diatoms are found living in fresh or brackish water with the

exception of three species. These three species, which appear to be

very rare and much broken, are; Melosira sulcata, Stephanopyzis

corona, and Sceptroneis sp. (probably S. caduceus). The first of these

lives in marine and brackish water today and has been found in the

Middle Miocene of North America along with Stephanopyxis corona

and Sceptroneis caduceus. The last two species, however, are both ex-

tinct. The presence of these Miocene diatoms in the fresh-water mar]

bed probably means that they were reworked from some Miocene

390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 24,NO.9

deposit in the region of Lake Tacarigua. Although no Miocene de-

posits are known very close to Lake Tacarigua the minuteness of

these diatoms makes it easily possible for them to be carried great

distances before they are redeposited. The sponge spicules have been

found in tripoli deposits of Quaternary age from Chile.

I was able to determine a few of the seeds found in this marl bed;

one, a new species of Chara and one each of Chenopodium and Eupa-

torium. However the majority had to be left undetermined for want

of comparative material.

Chara requena n.sp.

Figs. 6, 7.

The oogonium is very minute, being 79.8u long and 52.5u broad. It is

elliptical in profile and circular in cross section. There are 12 convolutions

which form a low spiral. The spiral cells are concave making a deep furrow

between the extended keels of the cell margins. The width of the cell taken

from keel to keel is 5.8u in the center region of the oogonium. There is a

round hole at the basal end while the cells unite in a low nondescript

rosette at the apical end.

Six specimens of Chara oogonia were found in the lower fresh-water marl

bed and only one in the overlying bed. They appear to be all of the same

species; however, the lone specimen from the upper bed is somewhat larger

than the rest. Most of the specimens have their apical or basal end broken

so I have therefore taken the most perfect one as the type and described it

above. I have given this Chara oogonium the specific name of requena in

honor of Senor Rafael Requena. |

James Groves’ states that Chara perpusilla is the smallest charophyte

that has been found in the Tertiary deposits. The dimensions for the

oogonium of this species he gives as 275-300yu long and 200—-250y broad.

These dimensions greatly exceed those of the above described species.

With these Chara oogonia were found numerous pieces of stems, all simi-

lar in appearance. One piece (Fig. 7) was preserved showing two nodes. On

the upper node there are the remains of six branches while on the lower node

there appear to be seven branches. It is safe, I think, to say that these pieces

of stem belong to the same species as the oogonia do, as only one type of

oogonium is present in these deposits.

CHENOPODIUM sp.

Figs. 1-4.

In the lower fresh-water marl bed I found four seeds which belong to the

genus Chenopodium. All these seeds are very small and poorly preserved.

In most of them the outer black coating—which is made up of a hard thick

material, irregularly pitted—has been partly broken off thus showing the

§ Groves, J. The Bembridge Flora. Cat. Cainozoic Plants by E. M. Reip and

M.E.J. CHanpuErR. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1: 173. 1926.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE REMAINS 391

Figs. 1-4.—-Seeds of Chenopodium sp. X19. 5 Seed of Hupatortum sp. X19. 6 Seed

of Chara requena n.sp. X42. 7 Stem of Chara requena n.sp. X29.

gray fibrous underlying layer. One end of the coiled embryo can be seen

clearly, for it has broken away from the general elliptical profile of the seed.

The groove which runs down from the crest to the periphery of the seed

can be partly discerned. This groove marks the position of the embryo on

the inside.

Chenopodium is a very wide spread herb, which in certain regions reaches

the size of a small shrub. It is found growing in South America today and

this fossil species is probably represented by some present day species of

Chenopodium living in the same region. With such poorly preserved seeds

it is not possible to identify them with living species.

EUPATORIUM sp.

Fig. 5.

One poorly preserved seed of Hupatortwm was found in the lower fresh-

water marl bed. This seed is partly covered by a white calcareous material

so that only a portion of the outside surface is exposed. The entire outside

surface of the seed—which is divided into five long flat rectangular areas by

longitudinal ridges—is covered by a minute semi-rectangular network of

ridges. The seed is about four times as long as it is broad and both of its ends

are broken open. ;

Eupatorium is a very wide spread genus of plants, found in both North

and South America. I am certain that the same species now lives in the

region of Lake Tacarigua, but I have been unable to procure any compara-

392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 9

tive material which would permit one to give a specific name to this lone

seed.

Apparently this lower marl bed was being deposited, or had just

been deposited, when the lake dwellers came to the region; for in this

bed have been found piles upon which the people constructed their

houses. However, no artifacts of any kind were found. What climatic

or earth changes took place to alter what was apparently a clear,

freshwater lake into one full of mud, I do not know. But evidently

this alteration took place about the time the lake dwellers came.

The upper bed, which is 2 to 3 feet thick, is the type of deposit that

would be laid down in muddy water containing much vegetable mat-

ter. Some of the animals which appeared in the underlying marl still

survived, but most of the fauna of the upper bed is different. The same

Ostracods are present, but their number has decreased almost to the

vanishing point. Also Planorbis pronus, which was so abundant in

the lower bed is very scarce in this upper bed. Large gastropods pre-

dominate and it is a question whether they are indigenous or had

been used as food and the shell remains thrown overboard. The same

fish (Geophagus brasiliensis) inhabited the water. Small pieces of

wood, which are carbonized, have their structure well enough pre-

served so that one is able to say that they belong to some dicotyle-

don similar to many Lauraceae. This, or similar tropical hard wood,

probably formed the piles upon which the lake dwellers built their

houses. It is within this bed that human remains have been found,

proving that this deposition was contemporaneous with, or just ante-

cedent to, the time of the lake dwellers.

The following is a list of the different forms (omitting the marine

fauna) found in the upper bed:

Fishes

Geophagus brasiliensis Quoy & Gaimard

Mollusca

Planorbis lugubris Wagner.

Planorbis pronus v. Mart.

Labyrinthus plicatus Born.

Auris dictorta Brug.

Pomacea glauca Linné.

Pomacea glauca dubia Guilding.

Pomacea cinqulata Philippi.

Pomacea aurostoma Lea.

Strophochetlus oblongus Miiller.

Plekochielus venezuelensis Nyst.

Unio sp.

Cerion uva Linné.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 BERRY: PLEISTOCENE REMAINS 393

Eucrustacea

Cryptocandona valencia n.sp. Blake.

Dolerocypris berryi n.sp. Blake.

Spinocypris macracanthos n.g. et n.sp. Blake.

Cypridopsis fuhrmanni? Mehes.

Potamocypris sp.

Darwinula sp.

Cytheridella tacarigua n.sp. Blake.

Seeds

Chara requena n.sp.

The most difficult question in connection with these deposits is

their age. The marine forms which were used both as food and orna-

ments, inhabit the present day Venezuelan shore. The terrestrial

forms also are found in the region, with the exception of Cerion wva.

Traces of color patterns can be observed in individuals of both classes

of shells, but there is also undoubted evidence that most of the shells

have been buried for a great number of years.

Requena/‘ lists the following fossils as having been found with the

human remains:

Marine

Triton variegatus

Strombus pugilis

Cypraea exantema

Lucina tigerina

Lucina jamaicensis

Oliva jaspidea

Fissurella sp.

Nerita sp.

Terrestrial

Pachychilus laevissimus

Planorbis olivaceus

Ampullaria glauca

Ampullarva urceus

Bulimus pardalis

Bulimus distortus

Strophia uva

The above list shows some evident differences from mine. These

differences can be due either to the fact that there may have been

some mistake in the identification in the older list that Requena has

published or to the fact that I did not receive a complete representa-

tion of the fauna which is to be found there. I am of the opinion that

probably both explanations are true.

The only outstanding shell which could give any clue to the age of

the deposits is a small worn shell of the land mollusc, Cerion uva. This

land snail is an inhabitant of the Island of Curacao and has never

4 Requena, R.—Op. cit. p. 242.

394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

been reported from the mainland before. Curacao is a small island off

the coast of Venezuela, 130 miles in a direct line northwest of Lake

Tacarigua. Did it live in the region of Lake Tacarigua in these pre-

historic times and since become extinct, except on this one island, or

was it imported by humans for some object of ornamentation such as

for necklaces or the like, or did it come on drifting objects brought

by the sea currents? |

Of the three alternatives which present themselves as an explana-

tion of why Cerzon uva is present in these deposits, one can be ruled

out with considerable assurance. That is, that ocean currents acted

as agents for transportation. This is impossible for the Southern

Equatorial Current which travels westward across the Atlantic

divides into two parts at Cape San Roque. One part which travels

northward is the Guiana Current, the other which flows southward,

the Brazil Current.’ The current which skirts the northern shore of

South America is called the Main Equatorial Current, but as it nears

the West Indies it is known (by some authors) as the Guiana Cur-

rent. This current enters the Caribbean Sea between the Lesser

Antilles and the mainland of South America and skirts the northern

shores of Venezuela. Thus there could be no drifting of material in an

eastward direction as would be necessary if ,Cerion wva originated on

the Island of Curacao. This leaves the two other questions to be

discussed—man as the sole agent of transportation; or—the speci-

men is indigenous. Both explanations are quite plausible. For, as we

have already seen, these prehistoric people traveled and brought in

marine organisms for food. They may very well have traveled the

entire distance from the Island of Curacao to Lake Tacarigua. The

last question is—is Cerzon uva indigenous? That is possible, but I

have very little definite evidence—one badly worn specimen—to base

such an assumption on. However, included in Senér Requena’s list*®

of the fossils found in the region is Strophia uva which is just another

name for Cerion uva. This shows that there was more than one speci-

men of the shell present in these deposits. This fact lends a somewhat

greater probability to the hypothesis that Cerzon uva is indigenous to

the region of Lake Tacarigua. However, the evidence is inadequate

to decide between the two possibilities.

The fossils now at hand throw little light on the age of these beds.

Most of the fossils found live in the same region today with the ex-

5 Guppy, H. B. Plants, seeds and currents in the West Indies and Azores, p. 60.

1917.

6 Requena, R. Op. cit., p. 242.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 DRECHSLER: FUNGUS CAPTURING RHIZOPODS 395

ception already noted. However, I think one can be fairly safe in say-

ing that these deposits were laid down during the late Pleistocene

epoch. It is always necessary to bear in mind while discussing the

Pleistocene of the tropics that no pronounced change between it and

the Recent took place. Probably the age of these deposits could be

more surely determined if one had a complete collection of all the fos-

sils which are to be found in the two beds.

BOTAN Y.—Pedilospora dactylopaga n.sp., a fungus capturing and

consuming testaceous rhizopods.t CHARLES DRECHSLER, Bureau

of Plant Industry.

In permitting the development of a microscopic fauna, however

restricted in variety of types, agar plate cultures made for the pur-

pose of isolating fungi from diseased rootlets and other decaying

plant materials, often afford a tolerably abundant growth of ad-

ventitious fungi destructive to different species of the more minute

terrestrial invertebrates. As the destruction takes place in a trans-

parent substratum the parasitic and predacious relationships are con-

veniently exposed to view. Fungi that on a natural substratum show

only their aerial conidial apparatus, and would therefore ordinarily

be taken, indeed, in some cases have long been taken, for saprophytes,

are revealed in their true carnivorous character. Very probably be-

cause nematodes and amoebae of various species multiply most freely

in agar plate cultures, instances of predacious and of parasitic activity

involving these animals as prey or as hosts can be more frequently

seen than instances of destruction of other microscopic animals. The

capture of two species of testaceous rhizopods identified as Difflugza

globulosa Duj. and Trinema enchelys Ehrenb. that I had opportunity

to observe recently, provides therefore an element of novelty which

is accentuated by the curious morphology of the fungus concerned.

As on agar plate cultures at least, the two rhizopods mentioned,

like most other shelled protozoans, are decidedly sluggish in move-

ment, their capture entails no violent struggle. That Trinema en-

chelys does not accept its fate altogether passively is indicated in the

overturned posture of many a specimen, the mouth of which is di-

rected upward rather than downward as normally. Except for such

abnormal posture, captured animals are to be distinguished for the

most part only by what on cursory examination would seem to be

ordinary contact with a short branch on one of the superficial fila-

1 Received June 18, 1934.

VOL. 24, No. 9

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

396

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Fig. 1. Pedilospora dactylopaga. For explanation see opposite page.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 DRECHSLER: FUNGUS CAPTURING RHIZOPODS 397

ments that make up the sparse mycelium of the fungus. On closer

examination the reason for the persistence of the contact, and the re-

sultant immobility of the rhizopod, becomes sufficiently evident in

that the branch is revealed as not merely being in contact with the ani-

mal at the unprotected mouth region, but as having penetrated into

the protoplasmic interior and developed there a branched endozoic

mycelium. This endozoic mycelium, which, as might be expected, at-

tains a greater extension in the bulky Difflugia (Fig. 1, A, B) than in

the smaller Trinema (Fig. 1, C, D, E), gradually exhausts the proto-

plasm within which it ramifies, until the crumbling or collapse of the

enveloping testa announces the completed destruction of the prey.

Though Difilugia globulosa and Trinema enchelys are sluggish in

movement it is yet hardly to be supposed that they could in their

normal progression be successfully invaded even by a rapidly growing

fungus, much less by a form as slow in linear extension as the one here

concerned. The animals evidently must be held in their tracks by

some special means until internal mycelial development is well

started. This means is clearly provided in the digitate or elliptical

diverticulations that are attached to the superficial mycelial fila-

ments at moderate intervals (Fig. 1, A-D, F, G), or, following de-

velopment somewhat analogous to germination, project in closer ar-

rangement and in numbers, usually up to a half-dozen from detached

conidia (Fig. 1, E, 8S). Frequently the membrane at the tip of the

diverticulation appears as if thickened somewhat, but this appear-

ance is better interpretable as due to a deposit of adhesive material

than as resulting from local reinforcement of the wall. The branch

connecting a well invaded animal with a mycelial filament is usually

considerably longer than an undisturbed diverticulum (Fig. 1, A,

C-—E). An engaged diverticulum manifestly grows out a variable dis-

tance before penetration is effected.

Fig. 1. Pedilospora dactylopaga, drawn from material developed in mixed culture

on maizemeal agar, with the aid of a camera lucida, at a uniform magnification; x 1000.

A.—Diflugia globulosa, shown in lateral aspect, captured on a hypha of the fungus with

endozoic mycelium partly visible. B.—Another specimen of Dzifflugia globulosa

captured on a hypha, but shown in dorsal aspect; internal mycelium partly visible;

the two irregularly globose bodies representing adhering cysts of a smaller protozoan.

C, D.—Captured specimens of Trinema enchelys, the mycelium developed internally

partly showing through the testa of each animal. E.—Trinema enchelys captured on

a conidium beset with organs of capture. F.—Portion of hypha bearing 4 organs of

capture and a conidiophore on which is borne an immature conidium. G.—Portion of

hypha with 3 organs of capture and 3 conidiophores, each of the latter bearing a coni-

dium, @, b, c, respectively. _H-P.—Conidia of usual bifurcate type showing variations

in sizeandshape. Q, R.—Conidia of less frequent tridental type. S.—Conidium bear-

ing 6 organs of capture resulting from a process analogous to germination.

398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

Here and there from the prostrate hyphae of the sparse mycelium

arise singly or in small groups delicate erect conidiophores, about .1

mm. high, on which solitary pluriseptate bifurcating conidia with

parallel or slightly divergent lobes are borne terminally. The char-

acteristic shape of the conidia clearly refers the fungus to Pedilo-

spora, a genus erected by Hohnel (10) on a species, P. parasitans, that

he had found presumably parasitic on an ascomycete identified pro-

visionally as Helotiwm citrinum (Hedw.) Fr. A similar biological re-

lationship was attributed to two congeneric forms described later,

P. ramularioides Bubak being recorded by its author (2) as a para-

site on the mycelium of Bispora pusilla Sace., and P. episphaeria

Hohnel (11) as possibly a parasite of Nectria cucurbitula Fr. It would

be easy to infer that the three described species differ widely in bio-

logical relationship from the predacious form under consideration,

yet the possibility is hardly to be ignored that the parasitism noted

by Hohnel and by Bubék may have been more apparent than real.

Fruiting bodies of such ascomycetes as H. citrinum and N. cucurbi-

tula often harbor a respectable microscopic fauna especially under

moist conditions and in stages following maturity; and a filamentous

fungus destructive to representatives of this fauna could hardly fail

to present much the appearance of a parasite on the underlying living

substratum.

However, from a consideration of morphological features there can

be little doubt that the present fungus is indeed different from any

of the three previously described congeners. The range in length of

conidium is given as 13 to 16u in Pedilospora parasitans, as 12 to 18u

in P. ramularioides, and as 11 to 18u in P. episphaeria; whereas in the

present form this dimension varies usually between 20 and 40y, with

the average lying close to 30u. More important perhaps than the

mere excess in length is the fact that most of this excess is accounted

for in a proportionately much greater length of the basal portion of

the conidium. In P. parasitans this part is described as obconical;

in P. episphaeria as biconical and as measuring 3 to 3.54 both in

length and in width; in P. ramularioides as usually tetrahedral, the

figures accompanying the text showing approximate equality of

length and width. Obviously, in the species dealt with by Hohnel and

by Bubdk the basal part of the conidium consists of a small isodia-

metric cell just large enough to serve as junction of the two lobes that

together make up by far the greater bulk of the spore.” In the fungus

2 Since the present paper was submitted for publication, a contribution by Z.

Gizhitska (Novitates pro flora mycologica. Visnik Kiivs. Bot. Sadu [Bull. Jard. Bot.

SEPTEMBER 15, 19384 DRECHSLER: FUNGUS CAPTURING RHIZOPODS 399

under discussion, it is usually rather little inferior in length or in bulk

to either of the lobes (Fig. 1, G, a, b, c; H-M; O; P; 8) and sometimes

equals (Fig. 1, N, R) or even slightly exceeds (Fig. 1, Q) the latter in

these respects. Associated with the greater length is the presence

usually of 1 and less frequently of 2 (Fig. 1, H, L, R) cross-walls. The

2 or 3 axial segments resulting from this septation are of about the

same size as the 2, 3 or 4 cells into which each of the lobes is divided

moreueh the insertion of 1 (Fig. 1, EH; G,c; J; N; O; P; R), 2 (Fig. I,

I, L, S) or 3 (Fig. 1, M) septa respectively. As in the congeneric spe-

cies each of the lobes is constantly delimited from the axial part by a

septum. The number of cells in a conidium thus varies from 5 to 11,

with 8, distributed as in the specimen shown in Figure 1, I—2 in the

basal part and 3 in each lobe—representing the condition to be re-

garded as perhaps most nearly typical.

Although bilobate conidia having the general shape of a tuning-

fork easily predominate, specimens with 3 lobes and thus suggestive

of a trident, are not of rare occurrence (Fig. 1, Q, R). Similar tridental

conidia were described and figured by Bubak for Pedilospora ramu-

larioides, and were mentioned as occurring occasionally also in P.

episphaeria. The monopodial development of the conidiophore as-

cribed to these two species has never been observed in my fungus, but

might possibly occur under conditions encouraging more abundant

sporulation than was afforded by the somewhat scanty supply of

shelled rhizopods available in my cultures. In pure culture on arti-

ficial media like maizemeal agar, sporulation is generally even more

meager than in mixed culture, and sometimes is completely absent.

In pure culture, moreover, the undisturbed mycelium and conidia are

entirely devoid of the digitate protuberances that evidently repre-

sent special organs of capture, a fact not only of much biological

interest in itself, but expressive, too, of a physiological parallelism

with the various nema-capturing species of Trichotheciwm, Dactylaria,

Arthrobotrys, Dactylella and Monacrosporium whose consistent failure

to produce captivating apparatus in pure culture was referred to

earlier (6). In spite of the protuberances being dependent for their

production on special ecological conditions, a specific term having

reference to them may appropriately bring into relief the predacious

Kyiv] 16: 43-44. 1 pl. 1933) has been received, wherein a new species is described

under the binomial Pedilospora jaczewskii. In this species, as in the three described

earlier, the two conidial lobes arise from a single, short, relatively small, pentagonal

basal cell. Accordingly the same considerations setting the American fungus apart

from the species described by Hoéhnel and by Bubdk, serve to set it apart also from the

Ukrainian species.

400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

character of the fungus, which seemingly deserves recognition as a

new species.

Pedilospora dactylopaga sp. nov.

Mycelium sparsum, repens, parce ramosum; hyphis sterilibus 1.2-2.2u

crassis, hyalinis, mediocriter septatis, hinc inde saepius ad intervalla 15—-50u

tubera digitiformia vel elongato-ellipsoidea 2.5-5X1.2—-2.2u verisimiliter

glutinosa emittentibus, his tuberibus animalcula capientibus, in eadem

penetrantibus et ramos intus evolventibus; hyphis fertilibus paucis, hyal-

inis, parce septatis, plus minusve erectis, 75-125y altis, basi 2-3 crassis,

sursum attenuatis, apice circa lu crassis. Conidia acrogena, solitaria, hy-

alina, 20-40y (saepius circa 30u) longa, 4-10-septata (typice 7-septata),

bilobato-furcata vel interdum trilobato-furcata; parte infera continua vel

bi- vel triloculari (typice biloculari), saepius nonnihil breviore quam lobis

sed interdum eisdem aequali; lobis 2.5-3.5u crassis, raro continuis, saepius

bi- usque quadrilocularibus (typice trilocularibus), parallelis vel nonnihil

divergentibus.

Habitat in radicibus putrescentibus, Difflugiam globulosam et Trinemam

enchelyn capiens et consumens, in Washington, D.C.

Mycelium sparse, creeping, rather scantily branched; the vegetative hy-

phae 1.2 to 2.2u wide, hyaline, septate at moderate distances, bearing at

intervals usually of 15 to 50u digitate or elongate-elliptical, apparently ad-

hesive protuberances, and by means of these protuberances capturing

protozoans, penetrating into them and giving rise to branches inside;

conidiophores rather few in number, sparingly septate, hyaline, more or less

erect, 75 to 125u in height, 2 to 3u wide at the base, tapering toward the tip

to an apical diameter of about lu. Conidia acrogenous, solitary, hyaline, 20 to

40u (mostly about 30u) long, 4- to 10-septate (typically 7-septate), bilobate-

furcate or occasionally trilobate-furcate; the lower part consisting of 1 to 3

cells (typically of 2 cells), usually somewhat shorter than the lobes but oc-

casionally equal to them in length; the lobes parallel to or slightly divergent

from one another, 2.5 to 3.5u wide, rarely continuous, mostly consisting each

of 2 to 4 (typically of 3) cells in linear arrangement.

Isolated from agar plate cultures started from decaying rootlets collected

in Washington, D.C., in which cultures it was found capturing and con-

suming Difflugia globulosa and Trinema enchelys.

Hohnel held that Pedilospora parasitans could perhaps be most

advantageously included in the Mucedineae-Staurosporae. This

opinion was carried into effect by Saccardo (14) to whom among

compilers the problem of disposing of the genus Pedilospora seems

first to have presented itself. A similar disposition was made, though

with expressed misgivings, by Lindau (12), and more recently again

by Clements and Shear (3). In all probability only the outward shape

of the conidium was considered by these authors, yet suggestions are

not absent that some of the genera with which Pedilospora was thus

brought into juxtaposition are in whole or in part naturally related

to it. The original description of T’rinacrium subtile Riess given by

Fresenius (8), for example, makes mention of sparse mycelial growth

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 DRECHSLER: FUNGUS CAPTURING RHIZOPODS 401

overlying a more robust fungus (Sézlbospora sp.), thereby supplying

a parallelism in habit as well as in habitat to supplement the morpho-

logical resemblance between the typically triradiate conidia distinc-

tive of Trinacrium and the trilobate conidia occurring, even if only

occasionally, in P. ramularioides, P. episphaeria and P. dactylopaga.

The delicate, scarcely visible effuse mycelium and the trident-shaped

conidia mentioned by Preuss (13) in his diagnosis of T'ridentaria alba

suggest likewise a general parallelism which is not contradicted in the

reported occurrence of the fungus on moist decaying stems of Bras-

sica oleracea Linn.,—a substratum that could be expected to favor the

development of an abundant microscopic fauna, and therefore to pro-

vide a rich field for predacious activity.

While for the present the relationships of Pedilospora to other es-

tablished genera in the Mucedinaceae-Staurosporae remain con-

jectural, there can be no reasonable doubt that P. dactylopaga is a

close relative of the nema-capturing form having broad conidia with

four divergent lobes that was figured earlier (4: Fig. 9, A, C). In

mycelial as in sporulating habit, both in pure and in mixed cultures,

the similarity between the two forms is unmistakable. Through

further comparison the similarity is seen to extend to the delicate

nema-capturing fungus figured in another publication (6: Fig. 16) and

later discussed (7) as a species of Monacrosporium, the conidia of

which, it may be noted here, are occasionally distally bifurcate in a

manner suggestive of Pedilospora. Evidently P. dactylopaga and pre-

sumably also its three previously described congeners, might be re-

garded as having been derived through modification of the narrow-

spored type of Monacrosporium. Likewise the predacious form with

regularly broad quadrilobate conidia could be looked upon as de-

rived from the wide-spored type of Monacrosporium represented, for

example, in the nema-capturing fungus (4: Fig. 7) apparently first

described by Grove (9) as Dactylella ellipsospora and later by Bubék

(1) as M. leporinum. The latter fungus shows such close correspond-

ence in morphology and predacious character to the loosely capitate

nema-capturing form (4: Fig. 6) identified (7) as Dactylaria candida

(Nees) Sacc., that an intimate natural relationship is sufficiently

obvious. Equally evident from the many conspicuous resemblances

would seem a close relationship of D. candida to some loosely capi-

tate, monocephalous, long-spored species of Arthrobotrys (4: Fig. 4;

5: Fig. 13); and through them to some compactly capitate, mostly

monocephalous shorter-spored species of Arthrobotrys (4: Figs. 2, 3),

and finally to the densely capitate, short-spored, repeatedly nodose

402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

A. oligospora Fres. In fine, the fungus herein described as new is to

be reckoned among the group of intimately interrelated predacious

Hyphomycetes exemplified in the last-named species, whose ready ap-

pearance on decaying organic substrata has helped to make its re-

markable conidial apparatus familiar to mycologists everywhere.

LITERATURE CITED

BusAk, F. Neue oder kritische Pilze. Ann. Myc. 4: 105-124. 1906.

Bupik, F. Achter Beitrag zur Pilzflora von Tirol. Ann. Myc. 14: 145-158. 1916.

CLEMENTS, F. E. and C. L. SHear. Genera of fungi. 496 p., 58 pl. New York.

1931.

DrecHsuteR, C. Morphological diversity among fungi capturing and destroying

nematodes. This JOURNAL 23: 138-141. 1933.

DrecustEeR, C. Morphological features of some more fungi that capture and kill

nematodes. This JOURNAL 23: 267-270. 1933.

DreEcHSLER, C. Several more fungi that prey on nematodes. This JOURNAL 23:

355-357. 1938.

DreEcHsLEeR, C. Organs of capture in some fungi preying on nematodes. My-

cologia 26: 135-144. 1934.

Fresenius, G. Bettrdge zur Mykologie. Hefte 1, 2. 80 p. Frankfurt. 1852.

Grove, W. B. New or noteworthy fungi.—Part III. Jour. Bot. 24: 129-137, 197-

206. 1886:

See aig CUM ocala ONS)

10. H6HNEL, F. von. Fragmente zur Mykologie (UI. Miutthetlung). Sitzb. Akad.

Wien. 111: 987-1056. 1902.

11. H6uneEL, F. von. Studien tiber Hyphomyzeten. Centralbl. Bakt. II. 60: 1-26.

1923. (Edited by J. Weese).

12. Linpau, G. Die Pilze Deutschlands, Oesterreitchs und der Schweiz. VIII. Abteilung:

Fungi imperfecti: Hyphomycetes (erste Halfte). In Raspennorst L. Krypto-

gamen-Flora. Ed. 2, 18: 1904-1907.

13. Preuss, G. T. Uebersicht untersuchter Pilze, besonders aus der Umgegend von

Hoyerswerda. Linneae 25: 71-80. 1852.

14. Saccarpo, P. A. Sylloge fungorum 18: 559. 1906.

BOTANY.—The dental plant of the Citard Indians in Colombia."

W. ANDREW ARCHER. (Communicated by E. P. KI.uip.)

In March, April, and May of 1931 a visit was made by the author

to the Intendencia del Chocé, an area in northwestern Colombia but

slightly known scientifically, for the purpose of collecting herbarium

material. 3 |

In the vicinity of Quibd6, the capital of the Chocé, lives the Citara

tribe of Indians, who are noted for their jet black teeth, a condition

which is produced by chewing the young shoots of a liana. The plant

is known to the Indians as ‘‘quera,” or ‘‘queda,’’ these terms being

derivatives of the word quidaz, meaning tooth.

The use of the ‘‘quera”’ plant is an integral part of the life of these

Indians, just as the use of a toothbrush and dental paste is a part of

American hygiene. The Citara children are taught to chew the plant

until a complete blackening of the teeth occurs, but after that time

1 Received May 28, 1934. Much credit is due Sr. Rudolfo Castro of Quibdé who

rendered great service in securing data and flowering material of the plant.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 ARCHER: DENTAL PLANT 403

the plant is used only occasionally, or on the average of every six

months, to restore the worn spots in the black film. Whether or not

this black film actually prevents caries is, of course, a matter to be

demonstrated under proper scientific conditions.

It is not known definitely how extensive is this practice, but ac-

cording to reports the Indians of the Uraba section of Colombia,

along the Caribbean Sea, also have black teeth. It is said that ex-

cavated ancient graves in the region yield skulls with blackened well-

preserved teeth. Mr. Guillermo Klug, of Iquitos, Peru, has recently

sent the National Museum specimens of Neea parviflora Poepp. &

Endl., with the note that it is used by the Indians of the Putumayo

and Caqueta regions as a dental preservative, having the same black-

ening effect on the teeth. This plant is called by the natives “yana

muco.”’

The Citara Indians told the author of another plant which they

used in the same manner and for the same purpose as “‘quera,’’ but

unfortunately no material was seen. Robledo mentions? a species of

Manettia as a tooth preservative in Antioquia, but the source of his

information is not known.

The author’s collections of ‘‘querd’’ were submitted to Mr. Paul C.

Standley, of the Field Museum of Natural History, who recognized

them as representing an undescribed species of Schradera, of the

Rubiaceae. Mr. Standley has supplied the following technical de-

scription of the species:

Schradera marginalis Standl., sp. nov.

Frutex alte scandens 3-10 m. altus omnino glaber, ramulis crassis olivaceis

obtuse tetragonis, internodiis elongatis; stipulae caducae ovali-obovatae 2

cm. longae 1 cm. latae apice rotundatae; folia satis magna opposita coriaceo-

membranacea petiolata, petiolo crassiusculo 1-2 cm. longo; lamina oblongo-

ovalis vel elliptica 11-16 cm. longa 5.5-9 em. lata apice abrupte acuta vel

breviter acuminata, acumine triangulari acutiusculo, basi late rotundata vel

obtusa, supra fusco-olivacea, costa venisque manifestis sed non elevatis,

subtus fere concolor, costa crassa elevata, nervis lateralibus utroque latere

ca. 13 prominentibus angulo lato divergentibus subcurvis ante marginem in

nervum collectivum fere regularem conjunctis, nervis intermediis minus

conspicuis parallelis interpositis, nervulis obsoletis; inflorescentia terminalis

capitata pedunculo crasso recto 14 cm. longo stipitata dense multiflora 3

em. lata; involucrum breve truncatum 4-5 mm. tantum altum fere 2 cm.

latum, floribus sessilibus; hypanthium anguste urbinatum 4-5 mm. longum

glabrum, calyce aequilongo truncato; corolla extus glabra, tubo cylindraceo

superne vix dilatato intus piloso 8-10 mm. longo 2.2 mm. diam., lobis 4-5

oblongo-ellipticis obtusis patentibus intus dense papillosis; filamenta brevia,

antheris oblongo-linearibus 6 mm. longis; stigmata 2 lineari-oblonga 2.3

mm. longa.

2 EmILio Rosiepo. Botdénica Médica (Medellin) p. 357. 1924.

404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

Type in the Field Mus. Nat. Hist. no. 642,439, collected at the headwaters

of Rio Tutunendo, east of Quibdé, Intendencia del Chocé, May, 1931, W.

A. Archer 2204. Represented also by Archer 1951, from La Concepcién, 15

km. east of Quibdé.

‘Flowers 4—5 parted, green below, waxy white above, opening one by one

in each head.’’ Among the South American species of Schradera this is easy

to recognize because the nerves are united to form a nearly regular collective

nerve remote from the margin. The leaves are larger than in most species

of the genus.

ZOOLOGY .—WNotes on fossil and recent Bryozoa.1 R. 8. BASSLER,

U.S. National Museum.

In his presidential address’ delivered at the anniversary meeting of

the Linnaean Society of London, May 28, 1931, Sir Sydney 8S. Harmer

discussed rather severely the taxonomic studies on fossil and recent

Bryozoa by Mr. F. Canu and myself.’ His criticism is meant kindly

and is well founded in some cases so that a reply would not be neces-

sary if our volumes were consulted only by the bryozoan specialist.

As we have compiled our works for the beginner in the science and

general student, who are not so conversant with the subject, Mr.

Canu and I felt that an answer, or at least an explanation of the cir-

cumstances concerning their preparation, should be forthcoming. Mr.

Canu wished me to write a reply and expected to furnish me with

notes, but his lamented death in February of 1932 prevented this.

At this point I should state for the benefit of the non-specialist that

the fossil and recent Bryozoa have suffered from nomenclatorial

troubles perhaps more than any other group of animals or plants, and

as a result generic synonyms abound. The criteria for classification

have changed from time to time and new genera have accordingly

been proposed by one generation only to be discarded by the next.

One celebrated case is that of D’Orbigny, the French naturalist of the

nineteenth century, who based many bryozoan genera upon method of

growth, a unilamellar form being distinct from a multilamellar one

and both of these again different from the bifoliate zoarium, even

though experience shows that all three styles of growth forms can

exist in the same genus and even in the same species. The subject is

further complicated by the failure of many of the earlier authors to

cite a genotype.

Comparatively little work had been done upon the Post-Paleozoic

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived May 1, 1934.

2 Proc. Linnaean Soc. London Sess. 1438, 1930-31, pt, 8, pp. 113-168.

3 North American Early Tertiary Bryozoa. Bull. 106, U.S. National Museum. 1920.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 BASSLER: NOTES ON BRYOZOA 405

Bryozoa of North America up to the time Mr. Canu and I took up

their study at the request of the U. 8. Geological Survey and the

Smithsonian Institution, particularly to secure the stratigraphic data

that it was believed these organisms would furnish. The opportunity

to publish several works upon the subject was seized by us as a means

not only of making the faunal and stratigraphic information known,

but also of revising as many genera as possible and presenting the

essential features of each as worked out by previous authors and our-

selves. At this point it should be stated that Mr. Canu’s knowledge

of English was rather slight and mine of French even less. Much of

our manuscript was written in French, and in our earlier works there

was always a danger that the exact meaning was not properly trans-

lated into English. Practically all of our work also was done with us

separated by the Atlantic, so that again errors could creep in. Dif-

ferences of opinion between us, particularly as to the recognition of

genera and the application of the rules of nomenclature, for the same

reason could not be thrashed out thoroughly and our results some-

times had to be a matter of compromise. For example, the type spe-

cies of a genus in which the nature of the ovicell is the most essential

generic character may not have shown an ovicell. In such cases Mr.

Canu preferred to use such a generic name for the reception of species

of that particular group which could not be more closely classified.

In case the ovicells were later discovered, the question arose whether

the genus should become valid dating from its original author or

from the time its real definition was published.

Previous to Dr. Harmer’s review, a vigorous statement against our

methods of classification of the Cyclostomata was presented by Dr.

Folke Borge in his academical dissertation of 1926, where after quot-

ing us to the effect that ‘‘a natural classification can be built up by a

study of the physiologic functions of the organs,’’ he states that fol-

lowing such a principle the fishes and whales would belong to the

same group. Dr. Harmer also writes at length concerning this, but a

little tolerance on the part of both would certainly have led them to

add the understood words “in the same group of organisms.”’ Mr.

Canu and I have probably not used the word physiology as carefully

as we should, but in our minds physiology deals with the organic

functions or vital phenomena of the living being and has an effect

upon the anatomy or structure of the organism which in turn gives

rise to its form or morphology. The physiological processes are cer-

tainly reflected in the anatomy and morphology. For example, in the

Bryozoa, calcification of the walls producing the variously marked

406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 9

cell surfaces upon which species and genera were founded in former

times, is surely the result of a deposit of the organism itself, in other

words, a physiological effect. Likewise, the form of the aperture, a

purely morphological structure, is determined by the operation of the

hydrostatic system and extrusion of the polypide, both certainly

physiological in nature. I think, therefore, this criticism is far fetched

and beside the point.

Again, we were not distressed when Dr. Harmer observed that ‘‘the

physiology of Canu and Bassler is not that of observation and ex-

periment, but that it is a physiology of inference.” It is true that we

were unable to review and digest every published observation, but

we thought it our duty as paleontologists to try to resurrect the fos-

sils by inferring the meaning of their characters from a study of re-

cent forms. Without such inferences it is impossible ever to hope to

build up a natural classification of fossil forms. Here again I should

state that in some instances in stating our deductions or so-called

inferences we have failed to add the words “‘in our opinion,” but that

surely should be evident to the tolerant reader. I am sorry that we

laid stress upon the larval characters for the establishment of fami-

lies, for as Dr. Harmer says, ‘“‘that was singularly unfortunate.” As a

matter of fact, our family classification is based upon more informa-

tion than the larvae and we only hoped that in time the larval char-

acters would give the final distinguishing feature. I also regret that

the two new suborders Hexapogona and Pentapogona were pro-

posed; the latter at the last moment in the course of our 1927 work.

The Mamilloporidae and five related families classified in the latter

suborder certainly form a division distinct from the other two sub-

orders, the Anasca and Ascophora of the Cheilostomata, but I would

not wish to retain Pentapogona as a term for the last two.

Our critics have stated that often we did not follow the rules of

nomenclature in our treatment of old, poorly defined, or otherwise

unrecognizable genera. Dr. A. M. Waters, the most eminent of all

bryozoologists, has repeatedly shown how impracticable it is to re-

vert to old genera based on characters now known to be valueless.

Dr. Harmer too has occasionally dropped generic names which, quite

correctly in my estimation, he thought would be disadvantageous to

the science to retain. Following such authorities, Mr. Canu and I

tried to use common sense in nomenclatorial matters, but now after

reviewing the entire field and completing the bryozoan chapter for

the Fossilium Catalogus, I have to admit that if stability is to be

maintained the rules must be followed no matter how illogical they

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 BASSLER: NOTES ON BRYOZOA 407

seem or how silly or unjust the effect. Many genera which by com-

mon consent have been dropped must now be recognized and re-

defined with no basis other than that of some obscure name selected

as the genotype or occurring in the original list of species. I have fol-

lowed this course in the Fossilium Catalogus and I trust that the fore-

going remarks will explain our nomenclatorial heresies of the past.

The changes made by this procedure will sadden the hearts of the

older students, but the bryozoologists of the future can readily adapt

themselves to the new arrangements. For example, the oft quoted

Paleozoic genera Fenestella and Monticulipora must now go by the

board for good reasons and many little known names now become

valid. Some of these generic and other changes and new names for

some preoccupied species are indicated in the following notes.

NEW GENERIC AND SPECIFIC NAMES

Chiastosella (Canu and Bassler) new genus (Cheilostomata, family Schizo-

porellidae). The ovicell is hyperstomial, not closed by the operculum; its

external portion is surrounded by a punctate ectooecium more or less de-

veloped, and by an endooecium adorned with small pores arranged radially.

The aperture bears on its proximal border a narrow rectangular sinus; the

peristome bears distal spines. The frontal is a pleurocyst bordered by a

double row at least of areolar pores. It bears two long, thin zooecial avicu-

laria transversely oriented exteriorily.

Genotype.—Schizoporella daedala MacGillivray, 1882, in McCoy, Prod.

Zool. Victoria, dec. 14: 146, pl. 138, fig. 4. Recent of Australia.

Codonellina new name (Cheilostomata, family Smittinidae). Proposed to

replace Codonella Canu and Bassler, 1927, preoccupied by Haeckel, 1873.

Fistuliphragma new genus (Cyclostomata, family Fistuliporidae). This

new genus, based upon a common, ramose Devonian species, differs from

typical Fistulipora in that hemiphragms or semidiaphragms are developed

in the zooecial tubes.

Genotype.—Fistulipora spinulifera Rominger, 1866, Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sci. Philadelphia, p. 121. Devonian (Traverse group) of Michigan.

Hippomonavella (Canu and Bassler) new genus (Cheilostomata, family

Schizoporellidae). The ovicell is hyperstomial. The frontal is a pleurocyst

surrounded by a row of areolar pores. The aperture bears two cardelles more

or less median. In front of the aperture there is an oral avicularium placed

on the median axis of the zooecium.

Genotype.—Lepralia praeclara MacGillivray, 1895, Trans. Roy. Soc.

Victoria 4: 73. Tertiary of Australia. Lepralia radiata Maplestone, 1901 and

Lepralia elongata MacGillivray, 1895, also belong to this new genus.

HIppoPpoRELLA Canu, 1917 (Cheilostomata, family Schizoporellidae).

As pointed out by Miss Hasting in 1930, this genus created by Mr. Canu in

1917 with Lepralia hippopus as the genotype, has suffered some vicissitudes.

Forgetting the original note in which it first appeared, we introduced the

same name as a new genus in 1920 with a fossil species H. perforata as the

genotype and further complicated the matter by naming Hippoponella new

genus with L. hippopus as its genotype. Our only excuse is that at that time

we were involved in the great mass of our 1920 work and mistakes would

408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

creep in. Suffice it to say that Hippoponella becomes a synonym of Hip-

poporella Canu, 1917, and Hippoporella Canu and Bassler, 1920, must be

dropped as a homonym.

Monticuliporella new name (Order Trepostomata). Proposed for Monti-

culipora D’Orbigny, 1850 and subsequent authors (not D’Orbigny, 1849).

Genotype.—Monticulipora mammulata D’Orbigny, 1850 (not Monticulz-

pora D’Orbigny, 1849, Rev. Mag. Zool., ser. 2, vol. 1: 503). In founding

Monticulipora in 1849, D’Orbigny clearly states the genotype as Ceriopora

pustulosa Michelin, 1846, a synonym of the genotype of Cerizocava of the

family Ceriocavidae (Cyclostomata). Cerzocava thus becomes a synonym of

Monticulipora and Ceriocavidae of the Monticuliporidae. For the reception

of Monticuliporella and allied genera of the Trepostomata, the family

Prasoporidae proposed by Simpson in 1897 is available.

Pachythecella new name (Cheilostomata, family Porinidae). Proposed

for Pachytheca Canu, 19138, preoccupied by Schliiter, 1885.

Semicytella new genus (Cyclostomata, family Cytisidae). Proposed for

Semicytis Canu and Bassler, 1922, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 61: 74.

Genotype.—Semicytis disparilis D’Orbigny, 1850 (not Semicytzs D’Or-

bigny, 1854, Bry. Cret., p. 1048. Genotype (selected by Gregory, 1909)

Tone rugosa D’Orbigny, 1850, a synonym of Desmepora Lonsdale,

1850.

Smittinella (Canu and Bassler) new genus (Cheilostomata, family Smit-

tinidae). The ovicellis hyperstomial, not closed by the operculum; it opens

into a peristomie. The aperture bears a lyrule and two cardelles. The per-

istome is indented by a sinus or bears a spiramen when it is complete. The

frontal is a tremocyst in which the number of pores depends on the zooecial

width. A large zoarial avicularium can be found occasionally on the longi-

tudinal axis of the zooecium.

Genotype.—Eschara tate Tenison-Woods, 1876, Proc. Roy. Soc. New

South Wales 10: 149, fig. 3. Tertiary. of Australia. This genus differs from

Smittina in that the proximal sinus of the peristomice is completely covered

by the peristome which is then pierced by a spiramen.

Tubitrabecularia (Canu and Bassler) new genus (Cheilostomata, family

Tubucellariidae). Tubucellariidae in which the zooecial frontal is an olocyst.

The peristomie is strengthened by a trabecular net-work supporting a more

or less thickened epicalcification. The ovicell is peristomial. Exterior aspect

of the zooecia irregular and quite different from the true zooecial form ob-

served in the interior. Ascopore visible with difficulty at the exterior but

clearly seen in the interior.

Genotype—Tubitrabecularia (Eschara) elevata Tenison-Woods, 1876,

Trans. Roy. Soc. New South Wales 10: 2, jig. 10. Tertiary of Australia.

Centronea americana new name. Proposed for Centronea micropora Canu

and Bassler, 1920 (not Reuss) of the Eocene of North Carolina. The Ameri-

can species is more robust and has larger micrometric dimensions.

Lagenipora lacunosa new name. Proposed for Lagenipora verrucosa Canu

and Bassler, 1930, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 76: 35, pl. 6, fig. 1 (Galapagos Is-

lands), not Lagenipora verrucosa Canu and Bassler, 1928, Proc. U.S. Nat.

Mus. 72: 137, pl. 21, figs. 5-8 (Gulf of Mexico).

cag ames (3

SEPTEMBER 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 409

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

U. S. Department of Agriculture-—Drought-resistant grasses, to be used

in rebuilding the depleted rangelands of the West, will be sought in central

Asia by an expedition of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. On the edge

of the Gobi Desert there are great natural grasslands, which have been

pastured for thousands of years by nomad tribes, without any sign of ex-

haustion. In this region the temperature ranges from 100 degrees Fahren-

heit in the summer to 40 degrees below zero in the winter, and severe

droughts are frequent. Yet the grasses survive, and the herds of livestock and

game thrive on them. The leader of the expedition will be NicHoLAas Rosr-

RICH, veteran explorer of interior Asia, from Kashmir to the Altai mountains.

With him will be his son, GrorGE ROoERIcH, an expert in Central Asiatic

languages, and two Bureau of Plant Industry agrostologists, H. G. Mac-

Mian and J. L. STEPHENS.

The drought is charged with guilt in the 66 per cent increase in forest fires

for 1934 over the average for three years. If the number of fires increases at

the same rate throughout this year the total number will exceed the total

of 140,722 fires recorded for 1933. The area burned last year was 43,889,820

acres, with a total damage, estimated as accurately as possible by the Forest

Service, at $60,274,960.

The unparalleled drought in the Midwest, soon to enter its fifth month, is

showing up in the water levels of the great rivers—the Mississippi, the

Missouri, the Arkansas and the Red, which are approaching new low marks

at many stations. The Great Lakes also reflect the dry spell in lower levels.

Only Lake Superior is higher than the ten-year June average.

Seeds that refuse to sprout when planted can be roused from their

dormancy by first soaking them and then exposing them to light for a short

time—in many cases as little as a few seconds. L. H. Fuint has discovered

this in extensive experiments on lettuce seeds, and in less elaborate tests on

lespedeza, a clover-like forage plant important in the South, and on the

weeds, mullein and curled dock. It is only the longer wave lengths of light,

Dr. Flint discovered, that have this stimulating power. Seeds exposed to

light at the blue-violet end of the spectrum refused to germinate. Even seeds

that had been given the stimulating treatment with the longer wave lengths

at the red end, and then were exposed to blue or green light, would not

sprout. Apparently something in the shorter wave length rays reverses the

process set up by the longer ones.

Organization of new Division of Game Management.—The recently created

Division of Game Management in the Bureau of Biological Survey will be

organized as follows, under StanLey P. Young, in charge: In the new set-up,

four sections will have care of the four distinct branches of the divisional

operations. W. E. Croucu, of the old Division of Predatory Animal and

Rodent Control, will head the section dealing with the activities of law-

enforcement officials and supervisors of game preserves and bird refuges.

ALBERT M. Day, also of the old Predatory Animal and Rodent Control

Division, will head the section on the control of injurious mammals. F. P.

CALLAGHAN, of the old Division of Game and Bird Conservation, will head

the section dealing with the prosecution of violators of Federal migratory-

bird laws. R. W. Wiuuiams will head the section dealing with importations

of foreign wild species and issuance of Federal permits under laws admin-

410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

istered by the Bureau, as formerly. Eight administrative regions have been

established, covering the United States, each to be in charge of a regional

director.

U.S. Public Health Service.—During July and August, the U.S. Public

Health Service was called upon to concern itself with two serious outbreaks

of disease: typhoid fever in several parts of the country, and bacillary dy-

sentery in New York City and New Jersey; although the direct combating

of these threatened epidemics was competently taken care of by state and

local health authorities. The increase in typhoid appears to have been an

indirect consequence of the drought; smaller communities whose normal

water supplies failed were compelled to turn to secondary sources, which

were in some cases insufficiently safeguarded. An interstate problem arose

when several members of a leading circus troupe became ill with typhoid

fever. After determining that none of the food handlers connected with the

circus were carriers, the Public Health Service decided that the continued

travel of the organization did not constitute a danger to public health.

Children’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor.—In a critical review of

child health, 1933-1934, prepared for the Journal of Pediatrics by MartHa M.

EtoT, director of the child hygiene division of the U.S. Children’s Bureau,

certain pertinent facts regarding effects of the depression on child health

are analyzed and attention is called to steps already taken to attempt to

safeguard child health in the future. Quoting reports from official and un-

official sources Dr. ExiorT concludes that ‘‘there would seem to be little doubt

any more that the depression has been having an adverse effect on the health

and nutrition of many of the five or six million of children affected by the

lowering of living standards due to unemployment or underemployment,”

and suggests that since the effects are apparently cumulative, it is likely that

they will continue to be felt for a considerable period after the depression

has passed, unless more active steps are taken to combat them than are pos-

sible with the present limited child-health budgets and relatively low stand-

ards of relief still prevalent in many communities.

Office of the Surgeon General, War Department.—The United States Army

Medical Department Research Board, which has been functioning in Manila,

P.I., for the past 33 years, has been transferred to the Canal Zone, Panama.

This step was taken for two reasons: first, it is believed that the activities

of the Army will be greatly curtailed in the Philippine Islands in the near

future; second, many problems confront the Army stationed in the Panama

Canal Zone. Therefore, it is believed that the board should attempt to solve

some of these problems at an early date.

During the winter and spring maneuvers, involving 3,000 troopers,

atabrine and quinine were used as prophylactic measures against malaria.

After a period of three months following maneuvers in the Bataan peninsula

no cases of malaria occurred in the experimental batallion. Among the en-

tire 3,000 troops only about 20 cases of malaria in all occurred during and

following the maneuver period. These are by far the most encouraging re-

sults that have ever been obtained with troops in the field in the Philippine

Islands.

National Bureau of Standards.—Studies by Mitton Harris indicate that

samples of silk fabric if exposed to daylight for four months while enclosed in

an evacuated container, have as much tensile strength as they had at the

a ee

SEPTEMBER 15, 1984 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 411

start. Similar samples of silk exposed to the same light, but in moist oxygen

showed a 10 per cent loss of strength in the same time. The increase of the

amount of nitrogen in the form of ammonia present in the silk during the

chemical deterioration of the fabric by light is further evidence that the reac-

tion is one of oxidation.

A recent study of old newspapers made by B. W. ScriIBNER indicates that

the rag fiber paper on which news was printed before 1868 was more resist-

ant. The older newspapers were found to be still in excellent condition.

Most of the editions appearing after that date, however, contained a crude

ground-wood fiber. They were generally found to be in an advanced state

of decay. The resumption in 1927 of printing permanent library editions on

paper composed of high-grade fibers will probably preserve some of the

later records. Tests showed that satisfactory papers have been developed for

this purpose.

A new device for measuring the small amounts of air passing through

membranes of such varied nature as cigarette paper, builders’ sheathing

paper, leather, and food wrappers has been invented by 8S. T. Carson.

The Bureau has conducted an investigation of a number of ‘‘gas savers,”

‘“‘orease absorbers,” ‘‘burner protectors,’ and similar appliances that are

sold over the doorsill by canvassers. All of the ‘‘gas savers,’’ it stated, af-

fected the operation of a satisfactory gas range in such a way as to increase

the tendency to form carbon monoxide, which even in very small amounts

is injurious to health. The “‘burner protectors,”’ the report continued, keep

the burners clean but do so at the expense of cooking efficiency. None of the

water backs tested proved satisfactory while some of them caused the forma-

tion of carbon monoxide. ‘‘The ‘grease absorbers,’ ’”’ the report states,

“should be called grease diffusers, because they merely distribute the

grease more uniformly around the kitchen.”

WiiuiaM F. Muacers, chief of the spectroscopy section, attended the

Spectroscopy Conference at Massachusetts Institute of Technology during

the week of July 16-21. Dr. Mraccrrs presented two papers, one on specifica-

tions for wave length standards, and the other on measurements of standard

wave lengths in the spectra of the noble gases.

LauRINSON 8. Taytor, in charge of the X-ray laboratory, attended the

Third International Congress on Radiology at Zurich, Switzerland.

Huex L. Drypen, chief of the aerodynamical physics section, attended -

the Fourth International Congress for Applied Mechanics, at Cambridge,

England.

News BRIEFS

Daily releases of small balloons to carry automatic radio meteorographs

into the stratosphere are contemplated. Lt. W. H. Wenstrom of the Signal

Corps, U.S. Army, has been making studies at the California Institute of

Technology with this object in view.

Extensive repairs are being made on the Washington Monument, which

during its 86 years of existence has developed extensive cracks and spalling.

The recent Congress, just before its adjournment, authorized the ex-

penditure of $500,000 for the construction of a thoroughly modern fisheries

research ship.

Seattered Indian legends of a tremendously large long-haired animal

with a “very big nose” which it used for pulling up trees are being investi-

412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OFSCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 9

gated by W. D. Strona of the Bureau of American Ethnology, to sift the

possibility of survival of the hairy mammoth into post-pleistocene time, and

until human migration into North America had taken place.

An unusually large concentration of earthquakes, seventeen of them in a

five-day period ending July 21, was reported by the cooperative agency for

collecting seismologic data maintained by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic

Survey, the Jesuit Seismological Association and Science Service.

An improved motion picture for aerial combat target practice has been

adopted by the U.S. Navy; in appearance and handling weight it closely

duplicates an actual machine gun.

The outer atmosphere of Venus contains 10,000 times as much carbon

dioxide as is present in the atmosphere at the earth’s surface, it is indicated

by recent studies by WaLTER 8. ADAMS and THEODORE DUNHAM, JR., of the

Mt. Wilson Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

America’s most striking natural wonders are made the basis of the designs

of the new National Parks series of postage stamps. The one-cent stamp bears

a picture of El Capitan, in Yosemite; the two-cent, a view of the Grand

Canyon of Arizona; Mount Rainier appears on the three-cent stamp; the

Cliff Palace of Mesa Verde on the four cent; Old Faithful geyser on the five-

cent; Crater Lake on the six-cent; Mount Desert, in Acadia National Park,

on the seven-cent; the Great White Throne, in Zion National Park, on the

eight-cent; Mount Cleveland, in Glacier National Park, on the nine-cent,

and a scene in the Great Smoky Mountains on the ten-cent.

PERSONAL ITEMS

General Hucu S. Jounson, chief of the N.R.A., delivered the closing

address at the Fourth Annual Economic Conference of Engineers at the

Stevens Engineering Camp, Johnsonburg, N.J., on August 19.

J. BARTELS, research associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington

and professor at the Forstliche Hochschule, Eberswalde, Germany, arrived

in Washington early in August. He will remain at the Department of Ter-

restrial Magnetism for about three months, engaged on research work in

terrestrial magnetism.

On Sept. 1, 1934, O. W. Torreson will succeed J. E. I. Cairns as observer-

in-charge of the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory in Peru. The latter, hav-

ing completed his three-year term of service at the Observatory, will return

to Washington. W. E. Scorr has been appointed an observer on the staff

of the Observatory and will leave Washington for Peru on Sept. 1.

Auice C. Evans of the National Institute of Health discussed certain

biological and chemical aspects of the bacteriophage in a recent issue of

Science. 4“

ROBERT 8. CAMPBELL, formerly in charge of the Jornada Experimental

Range of the Southwestern Forest and Range Experiment Station, has been

appointed senior conservationist in the division of range research of the U.S.

Forest Service, with headquarters in Washington.

CONTENTS —

Ontomvat PAPmRS

i ae —Pleistocene remains mee near Tale Pree

CHARLES T. PRR ee

testaceous rhizopods. CHARLES Drecusumr... stoma Oe cae ;

Botany.—The dental plant of the Citar& Indians in Calnaroia” i,

AnoapR) 205,'p, 00 (21, ce a eee

Zoolozy.—Notes on fossil and recent ee R. S. Bassuar. ‘ee

Scrmntiric Nores AND ae ee

Vou. 24

¥.

OcToBER 15, 1934 No, 10

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 24 OcTOBER 15, 1934 No. 10

GEOPHYSICS.—Earthquakes associated with the 1933 eruption of

Mauna Loa, Hawaii! Austin E. Jones, Geological Survey.

(Communicated by T. A. Jaggar.)

A relation between volcanic outbreaks and accompanying earth-

quakes has long been noted. In this connection there is presented here

a series of 77 earthquake locations recorded during the 11 months

preceding the Mauna Loa eruption of December 2, 1933, followed

by 19 locations recorded during and after the outbreak. | |

During the year 1933, a double network of seismograph stations

was maintained by the U. S. Geological Survey and the Hawaiian

Voleano Research Association as follows: <

TABLE 1.—SEISMOGRAPH STATIONS IN Hawall IN 1933.

Name sabe Name : sya

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory....V 1 G1 Coo ale S ae a Oe ae ore ene megre H

“JST E2012, TIE Da Sa cr a U Kealakekua®...... ee cee nee ae K

Balemaumaw. .... (Pit) 2... .... .... P Weenies tea Sc ea as W

® Two of these stations were kept going by volunteers.

The main station of this group (V) recorded 232 earthquakes, about

1,800 spasmodic tremors, and about 2,300 minutes of harmonic

tremor. Spasmodic tremors are in many cases very small records of

the secondary waves of small local shocks and in other cases may

have been generated by moving lava. The harmonic or continuous

voleanic tremor usually accompanies eruptions and is thought to be

generated by the flowing lava, much as similar vibrations elsewhere

are generated by water-falls. |

About 40 per cent or 96 earthquakes were located. Those in Kilauea

crater have been left out to avoid crowding. In July 1933, 35 quakes

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received

July 6, 1934.

413

414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

and tremors were located in and about Kilauea crater. About half

of the located earthquakes were felt. It is rarely possible to locate an

earthquake in Hawaii by drawing isoseismals because only the fringe

of the island below 4,000 feet elevation is settled.

The earthquakes are located by distances from the several stations

shown on the map. The stations used in finding the epicenter are

listed in the table for each numbered earthquake. Poor epicenters are

located with the aid of only one or two stations. Good epicenters are

located from three or four stations.

Depths less than 10 kilometers are not listed. The errors in depth

are large when near the surface of the earth and far from a station.

It is believed that other depths are too small. They should indicate

any tendency of earthquakes to get progressively shallower or deeper.

The distances from each station are found by measuring the

“duration of the preliminary’”? for each earthquake from each station

record. The laws connecting the S—P time interval and the distance

as found for the Hawaiian islands are:

Sr ak eae i, =9./ +0.143A —5.7e-°-*4

ro ike? Glee rea a t* =1.7+0.098A

pois rene Re t, =0.3 +0.092A

where ¢=time in seconds and A= distance in kilometers.* These

distances are first used on a mechanical focus finder,* which consists

of an inverted relief map with distances on strings from each station.

The epicenter located in this way is checked by a graphical method,’

and the epicenter plotted on the map. In 1932 one focus was located

that appeared deeper than any in the table, namely 70 kilometers.

A slight tendency for the quakes to get progressively shallower up

to the time of the eruption was noted. |

Approximately one seventh of the located epicenters were under

the sea, usually on the submarine slopes of the island. The first one

in the table occurred in 15,000 feet of water at the SE edge of a 6,000

foot rise in the sea floor. Numbers 0, 2A and 61 occurred where the

sea is 16,000 to 18,000 feet deep. Approximately one third of the

epicenters were on the quiescent volcanoes of Hualalai, Mauna Kea,

2 S-P interval in seconds.

3 Unpublished manuscript.

4 Voleano Letter No. 351, published by the Hawaiian Volcano Research Associa-

tion.

5 Physics of the Earth, Seismology. National Research Council. p. 162.

6 It is interesting to note that these earthquakes originating under the sea bottom,

where the island materials consisting of piled-up lava flows are very thin or even lack-

ing, give rise to multiple P and S waves. This indicates a layered condition of the sea

bottom near the island chain. The numbers of P and S waves found in each of the above

four quakes is 3, 2, 3, and 4.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 JONES: EARTHQUAKES 415

and Kohala. The remainder were on the active volcanoes of Kilauea

and Mauna Loa.

A small number of the located earthquakes of 1933 occurred on the

known island rifts. It is to be expected that the rifts would show

greater seismic activity in the neighborhood of volcanic centers.

HAWAII

Aare aes

Fig. 1—Map of the Island of Hawaii giving location of recorded earthquakes pre-

ceding and following the 1933 eruption of Mauna Loa.

Groups of epicenters fell in lines to the SE, NE, and N of the

summit crater of Mauna Loa. These lines of epicenters may define

rifts. No topographic features have been found to indicate that these

are rift lines.

A number of earthquakes occurred within craters. More than 40

small shocks, chiefly instrumental, were recorded from Kilauea crater

during the year. At times these crater shocks definitely precede and

accompany eruptions. More often they are caused by movements

deep in the voleano. These movements are sometimes accompanied

by surface changes such as opening of cracks and changes of tilt.

416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

TABLE 2.—EaARTHQUAKES PRECEDING AND FOLLOWING THE 1933 ERuUPTION oF

Mauna Loa.

Map Date Tat Noo Wliongs W. o| cording a ieebenta Remarks

° / ° /

Jan. 11 19 158 VHKW Not felt

0 Jan. 11 20 17 | 154 42 | VHK Not felt

1 Jan. 31 19 34 | 154 27 | VH Not felt

2 Feb. 10 19 22 | 155 26 | VHK 53

2A | Feb. 4 18 42 | 155 11 | VHK Felt by few in scattered

positions

3 Feb. 13 20 11 | 155 50 | VHKW Not felt

4 Feb. 16 19 49 | 155 28 | VHKW 37 | Felt at Honokaa

5 Feb. 18 20 02 | 155 17 | VHW 12 Felt at Honokaa

6 | Feb. 18 19 31 | 155 36 | BKW 57 Not felt

7 Feb. 21 19 23 | 155 31 | VHKW 28 | Not felt

8 Feb. 22 19 03 | 155 25 | VHK Not felt

9 Feb. 27 V Felt at Honokaa

10 Feb. 28 19 43 | 156 05 | VK Not felt

11 Mar. 8 19 33 | 156 18 | KW Not felt

12 Mar. 8 19 17 | 155 15 | VH 10 Not felt

13 Mar. 8 V Near no. 12

14 Mar. 9 19 08 | 155 27 | VHW Felt at Pahala

15 Mar. 25 19 22 | 155 09 | VHK 13 Not felt

16 Mar. 28 20 09 | 155 43 | VHKW Felt in north of Island

17-20 Near or in Kilauea crater,

not felt.

21 Apr. 9 19 54 | 155 53 | KWVH 23 Not felt

22, Apr. 16 19 13 | 155 03 | VWHK 37 =| Felt lightly in Hilo

23 Apr. 30 19 13 | 155 18 | VAKW 19 | Not felt

24 Apr. 30 19 21 | 155 17 | VAKW 33 | Felt near Volcano, V.

25 May 2 19 37 | 155 438 | VHKW Approximate location, not

felt

26 May 9 19 32 | 155 27 | VHKW Felt at Volcano and near

epicenter

27 May 17 19 54 | 155 06 | VHW Felt near epicenter

28 May 20 19 32 | 155 22 | VW Not felt

29 May 24 19 49 | 155 37 | VAKW Felt at W & Honokaa

30 May 24 20 02 | 155 31 | VHW Felt in Honokaa

31 May 25 19 55 | 155 35 | HKW Not felt

32 May 27 19 25 | 155 27 | VHKW Felt lightly

33 May 28 19 33 | 156 05 | VK Felt near epicenter

34 June 7 19 53 | 155 28 | VHW Not felt

35 June 9 19 273 \ 155 742) VoEK 10 Slopped water from tanks

near epicenter

36 June 15 19 36 | 155 16 | VHK Not felt

37 June 19 19 18 | 155 25 | VHKW 10 Not felt

38 June 20 Vv Near or in Kilauea crater

39 June 22 20 03 | 155 33 | VHKW 11 Felt near epicenter

40 June 25 19 24 |} 155 15 | VUP Notfelt —

4] June 29 19 40 | 155 48 | VHKW Felt lightly over Island

42 July 2 V In Kilauea crater, not felt

43 July 14 V In Kilauea crater, not felt

OCTOBER 15, 1934 JONES: EARTHQUAKES 417

TABLE 2.—Continued.

aap Date Lat. N. Long. W. Recording Pepin Remarks

44 July 19 19 20 | 155 20 | VHW 40 Felt in Hilo

45 July 20 Vv In Kilauea crater, not felt

46 July 22 Vie? In Kilauea crater, not felt

47 July 31 19 20 | 155 30 | VHK 16 Felt sharply near epicenter

48 Aug. 7 19505) |) lod) 397), Vike Felt near epicenter

49 Aug. 31 19 48 | 155 12 | VAKW 39 Not felt

50 Sept. 2 19 02 | 155 40 | VHK Not felt

51 Sept. 7 19.18 | 155 27 | VHK 45 Felt

52 Sept. 11 19 02 | 155 58 | VHK Not felt

53 Sept. 11 19 23 | 155 28 | VHK 11 Felt near epicenter

‘53A | Sept. 14 19 23 | 155 40 | VK Not felt

54 Sept. 14 19.10) |) 155,05») VE Not felt

55 Sept. 16 19 43 | 155 35 | VH Not felt

56 Sept. 20 TORS Se lS a2) Vr. Not felt

57 Sept. 21 19/24) 155 01 | VEU Not felt

58 Sept. 26 19 42 |.155 23 | VHK 11 Felt slightly

59 Sept. 28 197227 1.155-27 | Vi EK 15 Felt near epicenter

60 Sept. 30 19 43 | 155 26 | VK W Not felt

61 Oct. 13 19 12 154 23 | VH Felt slightly in Hilo

62 Oct. 19 19°37 | 4155 25) | VEIOW 15 Felt slightly in Hilo

63 Oct. 20 1OP22 0 155et2 41 P Felt near epicenter

64 Oet, -21 19 21 | 155 31 | VHK Felt generally

65 Oct. 21 19 25 | 155 30 | VHK 15 Felt generally

66 Nov. 10 19 16] 155 43 | VK Felt in district to NW

67 Nov. 13 19 50?} 155 40?) W Felt at Waikii

68 Nov. 25 20 15?) 155 50?) VW Felt in Kohala

69 Nov. 25 19 22°) 155 26 | VHK Not felt

70 Nov. 26 1912 top 41 OVC Not felt

=f Nov. 28 19925°>| 155 16°) VUP In Kilauea crater

72 Nov. 30 19 23 | 155.17 | VUP Not felt

73 Dec. 1 19530) 55733) |p VE Not felt

74 Dec. 2 19 30 | 155 35 | VAKW 14 Felt

75 19 34 | 155 37 | VW Not felt

76 19 30.5) 155 34.5| VHKW Not felt

77 19 29 | 155 37 | VKW Felt

78 19 32 | 15532.5, VHKW Felt

79 19 29.5) 155 37 | VK W Not felt

80 Dec. (2 19 23 | 155 28 | VAKW Not felt

81 Dec. 7 19 12 | 155 46.5) VK W Felt near epicenter

82 Dec. 12 19 25 | 155 20 | VPU 7 Not felt

83 Dec. 14 19 30 | 155 25 | VAKW 25 Felt near Kilauea

84 Dec. 20 OT SI LoS) 7 | VEL W. 5 Not felt

85 Dec. 20 19 24.5; 155 18 | VUP Not felt

86 Dec. 20 19 45.5] 155 14 | VHW Not felt

87 Dec. 27 1OV4ASR 15521) | Virb Felt near epicenter

88 Dec. 27 19 44 | 15515.5| VH Felt near epicenter

89 Dec. 27 19 47 | 155 20 | VH Felt near epicenter

90 Dec. 27 19 36 | 155 19 | VH Felt near Kilauea

91 Dec. 30 19 26 | 155 33 | VHKW N76 Felt in Hilo

92 Dec. 31 OPS oo 19s) VW Not felt

418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

Earthquakes have been reported felt by parties on Mauna Loa,

usually while in or near the crater or near the rifts. These quakes

often give small instrumental records or none at all. It may be in-

ferred that Mauna Loa earthquakes equal if not surpass the numbers

recorded from Kilauea.

The Mauna Loa eruption of 19147 was preceded, during two months,

by earthquakes more than 20 kilometers away from the Observatory.

In October 1933 a similar seismic disturbance occurred. There was a

notable increase in the earthquakes in the range of 20 to 100 kilo-

meters. This swarm of earthquakes preceded the outbreak of Mauna

Loa by six weeks. |

Nearly coincident with the outbreak and probably caused by it,

were 13 quakes recorded in slightly more than two hours. Only three

of these were felt as far away as Hilo. A party staying at the rest

house on the Mauna Loa northeast rift, elevation 10,000 feet, re-

ported that the shocks were quite alarming. Of the 13 shocks, six

were large enough and well enough recorded at all stations to be

located. The depth of the first was 14 kilometers. The measurements

suggest that the following quake (No. 75) was 6 kilometers deep, the

next two were near sea level or above, no. 78 was at 4 kilometers

depth (possibly above as the elevation of the mountain is 4.2 kilo-

meters), and no. 79 was at 9 kilometers depth. It should be remem-

bered that there were seven smaller unlocatable shocks at this time.

One preceded and six followed the six located shocks. It is probable

that they were of such high focus as not to record completely at any

other station. It is quite likely that they were located in the south-

east section of the crater of Mokauweoweo, as the located shocks do

not quite coincide with the eruption fissures.

During and after the eruption the known seismic activity migrated

away from the volcanic center, the direction being SW, SE, E, and

NE. The larger numbers of epicenters were on the NE rift of Mauna

Loa and to the east of Mauna Kea.

A list of the recorded earthquakes is given in Table 2 and their

location noted on the map (Fig. 1).

7H. O. Woop. The seismic prelude to the 1914 eruption of Mauna Loa. Bull.

Seis. Soc. 5, No. 1. 1915.

OCTOBER 14, 1934 GORANSON: PROPERTIES OF ROCKS 419

GEOPHYSICS.—A note on the elastic properties of rocks Roy W.

GorRANSON, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of

Washington.

Variations in the physical and chemical constitution of rocks are

found to produce observable changes in their elastic properties. This

fact constitutes an important resource in geophysics because the

elastic properties of material at depth in the earth can be evaluated

from seismologic data if the density is known. When these elastic

properties determined within the earth are compared with the known

properties of rocks determined from laboratory measurements 1m-

portant information concerning the nature of the material is at once

available. However, in order to make such correlations it is assumed

that a simplified form of the elastic theory is valid, that rock speci-

mens are representative of the rock body from which they were re-

moved, that elastic data are independent of the method employed,

and that the functional relations are sufficiently well known so that

laboratory data can be safely extrapolated beyond the experimental

pressure limit. It is well known that these assumptions are not fulfilled

exactly, but they approximate to the actual conditions in many

cases; in other cases they do not. The addition of new data has re-

opened the problem of reconciling the elastic properties of rocks

calculated from seismic data with those obtained from laboratory

measurements.

The elastic symmetry of perfectly annealed, homogeneous glass

is isotropic, but that of crystals is not isotropic (anisotropic) and

varies with the crystalline symmetry. An aggregate of randomly

oriented crystalline grains, such as is present in some rocks, should

behave isotropically as a whole if no other variables entered into the

scheme of things, but an analysis of the experimental results shows

that, under certain conditions, to ignore such other variables would

lead to serious error because directional variations apart from mere

crystallinity have been observed in the same specimen. Even though

we assume that the stress-strain relations are calculable by the class-

ical theory of elasticity the mechanics and contributions of such varia-

bles are not sufficiently known at present to be evaluated, and so for

purposes of calculation in correlating different data, isotropy is gen-

erally assumed as an approximation. If such calculations lead to results

consistent with other data general experience is that they will be

fairly trustworthy, if not, then these variables cannot be neglected.

1 Received July 24, 1934.

420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. 24, No. 10

If homogeneity of constitution and isotropy be assumed there are

simple functional relations** between the compressibility 6 or bulk

modulus K (K =1/8), modulus of rigidity R, Young’s modulus £,

Poisson’s ratio a, the velocity of the distortional wave V, (V.2=R/p)

and the velocity of the compressional wave V, (V,”—4V.”/3 =K/p).

These relations are such that if the density p, and any two of the

quantities are known the others can be evaluated.

The actual determination of elastic properties of rocks can be

divided into two types, namely, dynamic methods involving adiabatic

changes of state and static methods involving isothermal changes

of state.2»

In the first group fall all data of seismic origin and some few labo-

ratory data at low pressure obtained by setting the specimens into

vibration. All other laboratory data have been derived by static

methods. F. D. Adams and Coker? determined EF and o by measuring

the longitudinal compression and lateral extension under unidirec-

tional thrust (mean stress of 350 bars). The Watertown Arsenal?

has made similar measurements on rock materials. Nagaoka> de-

termined # and R by measuring bending and twisting of specimens.

Zisman® determined EF and o under unidirectional thrust (to a mean

stress of 55 bars) and 8 under hydrostatic pressure (to 700 bars) by

measuring changes in linear dimensions. Nagaoka’s values of EF and

R would lead to negative compressibilities, an absurdity. Zisman’s

values of EF and o are not consistent with his compressibilities. More-

over, his determinations of 6 =(1/l,)dl/dp (where | denotes length, J,

being the initial length, and p the pressure) are not in general equal

to 48 which would be true for isotropy. At low pressures rocks cannot

therefore be treated a priori as if they were homogeneous isotropic

substances.

Because rocks can differ widely not only in mineral composition

but also in grain size and orientation, grain boundary bonding, and

kind and amount of open spaces (pores, cracks, etc.) it does not seem

surprising that inconsistencies occur when different methods are

used. If the seismic disturbance as registered on a seismograph repre-

sents that portion which has lost the least amount of energy in its

2 Roy W. Goranson. Thermodynamical relaitons in multi-component systems.

Carnegie Inst. Washington. Publ. 408. 1930: p. 128; » p. 122.

3 F, D. Apams and E.G. Coker. An investigation into the elastic constants of rocks

more especially with reference to cubic compressibility. Carnegie Inst. Washington

Publ. 46. 1906.

4 Watertown Arsenal Report, 1894.

§H. Nacaoxa. Phil. Mag. 50: 53. 1900.

6 W. A. Zisman. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 19: 653. 1933.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 GORANSON: PROPERTIES OF ROCKS 421

travel, and therefore must have followed paths of high elasticity,

there is present here a type of discrimination entirely lacking in

static methods. The inhomogeneities stated above could then give

widely different results for static and dynamic methods at low pres-

sures which would become ironed out at high pressures.

Rock composition, grain size, type of bonding, and porosity will

be functions of the conditions at the time of formation and so may

be more or less uniform over a relatively large area. Open spaces

other than pores will depend on the later history of the region and can

be extremely localized. The act of removing a specimen for test may

contribute by introducing stresses sufficient to open up cracks and

loosen the rock structure. If seismic disturbances as registered are

propagated along paths of high elasticity and therefore in effect

ignore the open spaces, as Zisman concludes from his data, the bulk

modulus will be dependent only on the kind of mineral grains, their

orientation, and bonding. The mineral grains may be intimately

interlocked, touching at only a few points, or separated by a bond

of cementing material. A close knit interlocking structure of randomly

oriented grains should have elastic properties approaching the mean

of the constituent mineral grains whereas the largest deviation should

be found in rocks of loosely aggregated grains. This is corroborated

by general experience.

The idea that stresses accumulate mainly in the neighborhood of

surfaces of discontinuity of physical properties might lead one to

consider changes in geometric shape arising from complicated non-

hydrostatic internal strains in the neighborhood of such grain con-

tacts. If such effects were noticeable they would show up in linear

measurements as hysteresis or as anisotropic behavior, but in volume

measurements only plastic flow with increase in density (permanent

set) occurred. Such an effect would be most apparent in highly com-

pressible heterogeneous materials such as granite.

Zisman has determined the compressibilities of several rocks to

pressures of 700 bars by measuring linear changes with pressure and

calculating the volume changes from them. In some of his experiments

he has made independent sets of measurements on three separate

pieces from the same specimen but cut at right angles to each other.

Even such precautions do not seem to have been sufficient to give

a truly representative compressibility because, with the exception of

one specimen in which the feldspar/quartz ratio was highest and

therefore by this criterion should have been the most incompressible,

his compressibilities of uncovered granites average less than the com-

422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

pressibilities calculated from the volume average of the component

minerals; this seems hardly probable because the latter represent

minimum value curves to which the experimentally determined values

approach asymptotically at high pressures. His compressibility value

for uncovered Vermont marble is less than the compressibility of

calcite and in line with his results on granite. He has also made

measurements on a rock which he calls dolomite but describes as

having 98 per cent calcite; it may have been incorrectly described but

if not it should have a compressibility equal to or more than calcite,

his actual value of 6 is about 14 per cent less than that of calcite.

It might be concluded from such results that a very low form of

elastic symmetry is present in such rocks and that when they are

strained there is involved not only a change in linear dimensions

but also a change in angular dimensions. For example, a cube of

granite would not remain a cube or even a rectangular parallelopiped,

but deform into some non-rectangular configuration. A measure of

the compressibility could not then be obtained, in general, from three

linear changes at right angles to each other. From Zisman’s results,

the change in configuration of such rocks should differ enough quanti-

tatively from a simple contraction of the linear elements to be readily

apparent. This low form of symmetry, if it exists, must be confined

largely to low pressures, at moderate to high pressures there is fair

agreement between linear and volume measurements, and between

laboratory and seismic data.

There are, however, other effects at low pressures which must

first be taken into consideration. Hysteresis, which implies irreversi-

bility in the sequence of states through which the specimen passes

is indicated by elastic afterworking and permanent set in the results

of the Watertown Arsenal, Adams and Coker, and Zisman. Elastic

afterworking is a term used when the strain produced in a specimen

under load is not in general independent of time and when the extent

of elastic recovery depends on the length of time a strained specimen

is free from load. The results of Adams and Coker and of the Water-

town Arsenal show clearly that there is an increase in resistance of

rock to deformation from repeated loading and unloading of forces.

Permanent set, generally grouped under plastic effects, is the term

used for ultimate deformation, the specimen never returning to its

original condition. These all indicate that the instantaneous state of

a rock depends not only on the external conditions prevailing at the

instant but also on the previous states. The classical theory of elas-

ticity is, moreover, restricted to conditions in which the strain result-

OCTOBER 15, 1934 GORANSON: PROPERTIES OF ROCKS 423

ing from a load disappears on removal of the load, and this necessary

condition is violated by the above hysteresis phenomena.

A rock specimen is probably not in the same state of strain as the

parent rock body from which it was obtained. The mere separation

of the specimen from the parent body can alter its state of strain by

a rearrangement and release of accumulated stresses. Some disturb-

ance, generally by impact, also follows from the removal, and strains

induced by a force suddenly applied may be twice those induced by

the same force applied slowly. These stresses may be sufficient to

further complicate the history of the specimen by opening cracks

and loosening the rock structure. The strain history of the rock body

will not be known because the conditions existing at the time of its

formation will not be those of today, and during the intervening

time loading and unloading, aided by shearing forces, will have acted

to modify the original stress-strain relations. It can generally be

assumed, however, that the. rock body will be in a state of ease for a

higher state of strain than the specimen (that is, it can be strained

without permanent set to a higher limit of strain). In this connection

it is interesting to note that experimental results obtained at high

pressure do not exhibit any of these irreversible phenomena. Bridg-

man observes a linear hysteresis but this is a true elastic hysteresis in

which the stress-strain diagram is a closed, reproducible curve.

It is suggested that if the specimen be first seasoned, perhaps re-

peatedly, at rather high hydrostatic pressure, the experimental re-

sults obtained at low pressure would become more reproducible, more

amenable to theoretical treatment and probably more representative

of the rock body. For this seasoning the specimen should be made

impervious to the pressure fluid in order that the pressure may act

on the specimen as a whole.

In the high-pressure range Bridgman’ has determined 6=(1/1,)dl/dp

from linear measurements and L. H. Adams® and his co-workers

8 =(1/V.)0V /dp by obtaining volume changes from piston displace-

ments. It is indicated that at high pressures rocks become more

amenable to treatment as isotropic bodies since the compressibility

values of Bridgman and of Adams are generally in good agreement.

However, even for high-pressure data a postulation of isotropy

can lead to serious error. It has been stated in this article that per-

fectly annealed homogeneous glass is isotropic but this is not true

for strained glass. In order to obtain basalt glass or tachylite it is

7P. W. Bripeman. Am. J. Sci. 7: 81. 1924 (rocks); ibid. 10: 359. 1925 Ceheitey,

8. H. Apams and E. D. Witutamson. J. Franklin Inst. 195: 475. 1923. _L.

ApaMs and R. E. Gipson. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 12: 275. 1926 (tachylite).

424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 10

necessary to cool the melt rapidly because it crystallizes readily.

Rapid cooling means steep temperature gradients and this treatment

yields a strained glass. Bridgman’ has determined 6 and Adams and

Gibson® have determined 8 of Kilauea tachylite in the pressure range

of 2 to 12 kilobars. Adams and Gibson’s mean value of 6 at 25°C

for this pressure range is 1.45 X10-° reciprocal bars. Also, from their

residuals, it is apparent that over this range of pressures A@ is negative

and not more than 3 per cent of this value. Bridgman’s value of 6 at

30°C is 0.45 X10-* reciprocal bars to 7350 bars, at pressures above

7350 bars the slope is about the same but negative, i.e., the specimen

elongates under pressure. On the assumption of isotropy 8 would be

1.35 X10-* reciprocal bars to 7350 bars and then become negative

by about the same amount, which of course cannot be true. The

reversal point is affected by temperature, which is what we should

expect if temperature strains were involved; at 75° there is no reversal,

and he finds 08/dp, assuming A® =3A6, negative and about 14 per

cent of the compressibility at 7 kilobars for the pressure range of 2

to 12 kilobars. But isotropy cannot be assumed here and 8B is not

equal to three times the change of one linear dimension with pressure

at any pressure. A representative 6 from linear dimensions can only

be obtained from the measurements along each of the three principal

directions of the strained glass. It would seem reasonable then to

assume that 6 and 06/dp obtained from volume measurements, such

as those of Adams and Gibson, will be more reliable than from meas-

urements on one linear dimension of such non-isotropic material,

and although it is possible that 8 might decrease more rapidly at high-

er pressures, there is no a priori reason for such a conclusion. The

extrapolations Daly? makes of Bridgman’s data at 75° could there-

fore be in error.

Rock specimens sealed so that they do not come in contact with

the compression fluid have a much higher compressibility at low

pressures than specimens open to and therefore penetrable by the

pressure fluid as is indicated by Zisman’s measurements. This would

be expected because a certain penetration of fluid into the open spaces

of the ‘‘uncovered”’ rock specimens would occur and so prevent these

cavities from closing under pressure. In sealed specimens the paths

of least resistance are the openings in the rock specimen, the first

effect of pressure will be to close up these openings and therefore

they will contribute less and less to the compressibility of the speci-

9R. A. Daty. Igneous rocks and the depths of the earth. (McGraw-Hill Book Co.,

New York, N. Y.) 1933, pp. 189-190.

OCTOBER 15, 19384 - GORANSON: PROPERTIES OF ROCKS 425

men as pressure is increased, consequently the measurements at high

pressure of sealed and unsealed specimens would approach one an-

other in value, which is what L. H. Adams and Williamson found to

be the case. However, anomalous behavior can occur in uncovered

rock specimens because, for a certain pressure fluid, a certain range

of differential pressures will be needed to fill the rock cavities with

the fluid. These differential pressures may be inappreciable or may

be so high that the openings are closed by pressure before they can

be filled with the fluid. The effect from openings which lie between

these two extremes might result in a compressibility which is high

for increasing pressure and low for decreasing pressure. Bridgman

concluded that some of the reverse hysteresis he observed in his

measurements on changes of length in rock with pressure might be

due to this effect. |

By way of summation, it would seem from an analysis of the results

that a linear method which demands much more in the way of homo-

geneity and perfection of elastic properties than does a volume method

is not as well adapted as the latter method for such heterogeneous

materials as rocks, particularly at low pressures.

Secondly, low-pressure experimental results will not be reproducible

or strictly applicable to treatment by the classical theory of elasticity

unless the irreversible phenomena of plasticity (permanent set) and

elastic afterworking be eliminated. Again, a rock specimen will not

be representative of its parent rock body because the state of strain

is a function not only of the external conditions prevailing at the

time but also of the past strain history or conditions. A remedy for

both might be obtained by giving the sealed specimen a preliminary

seasoning at a high hydrostatic pressure, perhaps of the order of ten

or twelve kilobars.

Thirdly, rock structure plays an important role in low-pressure

compressibility but becomes less important as pressure is increased;

at 12 kilobars the rock compressibility does not differ very markedly

from the volume average of the mineral compressibilities. The slope,

08/dp, to 12 kilobars includes then practically the major effect of

the rock structure. Compressibilities obtained by extrapolating experi-

mentally determined slopes of crystalline rocks to much higher

pressures will therefore be too low. A more representative slope,

08/dp, for high-pressure extrapolation will be the average 06/dp of

the component minerals (averaged by volume percentages).

Fourthly, Zisman found that low-pressure elastic moduli resulting

from dynamic methods are higher than those from static methods.

426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

An explanation of this discrepancy, namely, that there is a discrimina-

tion by the former resulting in data that in effect ignore the presence

of cracks and cavities in rocks, seems reasonable. The first impulse,

for example, of a compressional train of waves recorded on a seismo-

graph will be the strongest because it will have lost the least amount

of energy. Since this is taken as the travel time of the compressional

wave there is introduced a kind of discrimination which is observa-

tional in character. Elastic moduli obtained from such data will rep-

TABLE 1.—ComPRESSIBILITY OF GRANITE IN RECIPROCAL BaRs.

Pressure in bars

1 700 2000 10,000

Mean, calculated from F. D. Adams

and Coker’s measurements (mean

stress 350 bars) 3.30

Zisman, covered

Quincy 8.32 2.41

Rockport 9.17 2.66

Zisman, uncovered

Quincy 2.17 1.84

Rockport 1.95 1.73

Calculated from minerals 2.03 2.01 1.98 bell,

L. H. Adams and Williamson

(average of three)

Covered (2.15) (2.13) 2.08 1.79

Uncovered (2.23) (2.20) 2.14 1.79

Calculated from Leet and Ewing’s

seismic measurements 2.28

resent paths of high elasticity in rocks, that is, paths which include

a minimum of open spaces. In order to duplicate seismic data, then,

the effect of such cracks and cavities must be eliminated from static

measurements. For closely bonded mineral grains such as are found

among igneous rocks an extrapolation from high-pressure experi-

mental data should agree with low-pressure seismic data. Such a

comparison is made in the following table and diagram using granite

as the example because the data for it are rather complete, and fur-

thermore the salic rocks as exemplified by granite yield more typical

results than do the femic rocks. They are probably also of more inter-

est geologically in the low-pressure field of experimentation.

From the table and diagram it is seen that the best agreement with

the near-surface compressibility calculated from the seismic data of

OCTOBER 15, 1934 GORANSON: PROPERTIES OF ROCKS mi 427

Leet and Ewing’ is the value obtained (in parentheses) by direct

extrapolation downwards of Adams and Williamson’s high-pressure

measurements.

The femic rocks are more unstable than the salic rocks when ex-

posed to weathering, and this weathering by loosening the rock struc-

ture and by alteration of the original minerals can have a large effect

Z - av. COV.

kL Seismic

(+)

ts)

‘

_ —

— —

_-_—

-—-—.

—~

—

—_—

--_ _

__—_

—_—— — —____

Compressibility- Reciprocal Bars x/0

0.5 1 ian D 25

Pressure - Ktlobars

Fig. 1—Compressibility of granite plotted as a function of pressure; compressi-

bility 8 in reciprocal bars X10, pressure in kilobars (1 kilobar=10° dynes cm”).

Z-av. cov refers to average of Zisman’s results on covered granites; Sezsmic refers to

Leet and Ewing’s seismic results on granite; A W-unc and A W-cov refer to averages of

Adams and Williamson’s results on uncovered and covered granites respectively,

broken lines are extrapolations downwards from high-pressure results; Z-Q. unc and

Z-R. unc refer to Zisman’s results on uncovered Quincy and Rockport granites re-

spectively.

on the compressibility of the rock. Measurements made on various

diabases result in compressibilities which vary from 1.2 to 1.8 x10-®

reciprocal bars at 2 kilobars, the freshest rock having the smallest

compressibility. This range of values is very materially reduced at

higher pressures (at 10 kilobars it is 1.1 to 1.38 X10-°) but indicates

10, D. Lert and W. M. Ewrna. Physics. 2: 160. 1932. L. D. Lunt. Physics.

4: 375. 1933.

428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10 —

that for low pressures, which mean shallow depths and therefore

more or less weathering of the rock, a satisfactory average compressi-

bility cannot be obtained. The seismic compressibility of Sudbury

norite, from Leet and Ewing’s measurements, is 1.56 X10-* which

corresponds with a downward extrapolation of the mean of values

given above, but this is probably merely a coincidence.

Laboratory data comparable with near-surface seismic data cannot

be obtained for loosely consolidated rocks such as some sandstones,

shales, etc., by any kind of high-pressure extrapolation because here

looseness of mineral bonding plays a large role.

PALEONTOLOGY .—The pelecypod genus Vulsella in the Ocala lime-

stone of Florida and its bearing on correlation.! F. StmarNs Mac

Nett, U. 8. Geological Survey. (Communicated by W. C.

MANSFIELD.)

This paper records from the Eocene Ocala limestone of Florida a

new species belonging to the pelecypod genus Vulsella. Though well

known in other parts of the world, the genus has been nearly unknown

in the Americas, in fact, the specimens here described constitute only

the second reported occurrence in the western hemisphere. The first

record was based on a small specimen of Vulsella found living off

the Pacific coast of Nicaragua and now in the U. 8. National Mu-

seum (U. 8. Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 101935). Dall? made this specimen

the type of a new species, Vulsella pacifica Dall, though there can be

but little doubt that it is identical with a form now inhabiting oriental

seas, and that it arrived in the eastern Pacific in comparatively recent

times. Commenting on the distribution of the genus Vulsella, Dall

reported the find as the first known occurrence of the genus in the

Americas. His remark may be extended to include the entire family.

The species of Vulsella are extremely variable. Of the many Recent

forms described as species, probably only three or four are valid.

Smith’ retains four in his revision of the genus, whereas Cox‘ after

an examination of a large number of specimens from the Eocene of

Somaliland believes that even some genera proposed on the basis of

fossils may represent mere individual variations.

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Re-

ceived April 6, 1934.

2 Datu, W. H. U.S. Nat. Mus. Proc. 52: no. 2183, p. 403. 1917.

3 Smitu, E. O. Malacolog. Soc. London Proc. 9: 306. 1910-11.

4 Cox, L. R. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh Trans., pt. 1 (no. 2). 1931.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 MAC NEIL: GENUS VULSELLA 429

9 rr

Fig. 1.—Vulsella deperdita Lamarck, X13. Calcaire grossier.

Ully St. George, Oise, France.

Figs. 2-4.—Vulsella woodt Teppner, after Wood. Bartonian. Barton, England.

Figs. 5-11.—Vulsella ocalensis Mac Neil, n. sp. 5-6.—Juvenile form, X3. Cotype,

2 miles northeast of Sumpterville, Sumpter County, Fla. 7—9.—Young adult, X14.

Paratype, 1; miles south of Newberry, Alachua County, Fla. 10—-11.—Adult, X14.

Cotype, same locality as Figs. 5-6.

430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

There is probably not sufficient material in collections in America

to permit a satisfactory systematic study of the species or possible

genera of the Vulsellidae. To the writer, however, the suggestion is

strong that the Ocala species forms with Vulsella deperdita Lamarck?®

(Fig. 1), from the Calcaire grossier of France, and Vulsella woodi

Teppner® (Figs. 2-4), from the Barton beds of England, a small

group whose pronounced aviculid characters may warrant separation

as a distinct genus.

Deshayes’ made the following remarks on the peculiarities of

Vulsella deperdita:

“Hille se distingue de ses trois congénéres du bassin de Paris [V. minima,

V. angusta, V. anomala] par ses crochets obliques et méme divergents, for-

mant dans le jeune 4ge, un commencement de spire. Le bord de la fossette

se détache sous le forme d’une créte tranchante qui suite le movement

spiral du crochet et l’accompagne jusqu’au summet.”’

The ‘“‘bord de la fossette”’ is, more correctly, the pe dorsal

margin of the shell.

The group of V. deperdita is the only group of vulsellids in which

the posterior dorsal margin remains alate or sub-alate in the adult

and, with the exception of the enigmatical Nazadina herbertt Munier-

Chalmas, the only group showing a tendency to anterior inflation or

elongation. Furthermore, Recent shells of the genus Vulsella consist

of vertical prismatic crystals on a thin internal nacreous layer, where-

as the new species from Florida has an external layer of very oblique

fibro-lamellar elements. The prisms of V. deperdita are also oblique

to the surface.

The writer believes that the next revision of the Vulsellidae, which

should be made from Old World collections, should make use of the

differences here pointed out.

Curiously enough, confusion has run riot in the orientation of the

shells of the Vulsellidae. We are certainly at a loss to know why

Bernard® disregarded his own principles of morphology and incor-

rectly designated the anterior and posterior ends of his fine sketch

of an extremely young shell of Vulsella rugosa Lamarck. Stoliczka®

ran aground on the assumption of a byssus. Vaillant!® readily saw the

true axial relations upon the dissection of living specimens of V.

5 DesHayEs, G. P. Animaux sans vertébres dans le Bassin de Paris. Texte I], p. 51.

1864.

6 TmePpPpNER, W. Centralbl. Mineralogie, Geologie, Palaontologie, 16: 501. 1914.

7 DesHayeEs, G. P. Op. cit. p. 51.

8 BERNARD, F. Annales sci. nat., Zoologie. 8th ser., 8: 124, pl. 8, figs. 6, 7. 1898.

2 STOLICZKA, F. Palaeontologia "Indica, p. 396. 1871.

10 VAILLANT, L. Annales sci. nat., Zoologie, 5th ser., 9: 284. 1868.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 MAC NEIL: GENUS VULSELLA 431

rugosa Lamarck, and Fischer follows him in his Manuel de Conchylio-

logie. Munier-Chalmas" and Douville” seem to be in correct accord

over Recent forms and fossils most nearly related to them, but the

anterior marginal inflation of Vulsella deperdita Lamarck they con-

fused with the posterior marginal notch of certain Recent and fossil

forms.

The new species offered in this paper may be described as follows:

Vulsella ocalensis Mac Neil, n.sp.

Figures 5-11

Shell sub-ostreiform, anteriorly inflated and elongate, thin except at

umbo, where it is thickened or camerate; exterior shell layer composed of

oblique fibro-lamellar elements, inner layer laminar and compact, probably

nacreous, but possibly laminar calcitic; adult sculpture roughly concentric;

umbo sub-spiral and opisthogyrate; posterior dorsal margin sharply alate

and following the rotation of the beak; ligament area depressed, acute and

posteriorly directed in extremely young shell but becoming wider and more

anterior in adult; ligament area containing a single deep ligament pit, at

first directed posteriorly along the hinge line but swinging anteriorly with

the widening of the ligament area; muscle scar just anterior to the beak

and close to the ventral margin; anterior ventral corner of ligament area

forming a toothlike projection on the otherwise edentulous hinge line.

All of the types are right valves.

Dimensions of larger cotype: length 48 milimeters, height 19 millimeters,

convexity 7 millimeters.

Type localities: Cotypes (U. 8. Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 373052), Sumpter

Rock Co. quarry, about 2 miles northeast of Sumpterville, Sumpter County,

Fla. (U. S. G. 8. Sta. No. 12751); collectors: W. C. Mansfield and G. M.

Ponton, 1932. Paratype (U. S: Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 373053), Cummer

Lumber Co., 14 miles south of Newberry, Alachua County, Fla. (U.S. G.S.

Sta. No. 6812); collector: C. W. Cooke, 1913.

The point of greatest interest in the new Ocala species is the fact that it

provides what is probably as good a criterion as any now known for trans-

Atlantic correlation. Vulsella wood: from the Bartonian and V ulsella ocalensts

from the Ocala limestone, both rare but intimately related species with a

limited geologic range, are not clearly related to any other species of V ulsella

except their probable prototype, Vulsella deperdita from the Calecaire gros-

sler.

A very striking series is seen as we pass from the ventrally elongate, sub-

alate Vulsella deperdita through the intermediate Vulsella woodi to the an-

teriorly elongate, conspicuously eared Vulsella ocalensts.

11 Munrer-Cuatmas, M. Linnean Soc. Normandie Bull. 8: 100. 1863.

#2 Dovuvitie, H. LHtude sur les Vulsellidés. Annal paléontologie. 2: 1907.

432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

BOTAN Y.—WNew Asteraceae from Guatemala collected by A. F. Skutch.

S. F. Buaxe, Bureau of Plant Industry.

This paper contains descriptions of the new Asteraceae (except the

tribe Eupatorieae and the genus Senecio) contained in a collection

amounting to about 650 numbers made by the ornithologist, Dr.

Alexander F. Skutch, in the mountains north of Tecpam (Teecpdn),

Department of Chimaltenango, Guatemala, in 1933. From the

southern base of the mountains, at about 2135 meters elevation

(7000 ft.), to about 2745 meters (9000 ft.) the woods are made up

mainly of oak, alder, and pine; above 9000 ft. the virgin forests

are nearly pure cypress (Cupressus benthami Endl.), with a slight

admixture of pine and dicotyledonous trees, but no oaks. Lumbering

operations above the 9000 ft. level have been followed in some cases

by the growth of secondary forest composed of mixed dicotyledonous

trees; other areas have grown up again to nearly pure stands of

cypress. Below the 9000 ft. level the sporadic but extensive and waste-

ful native cultivation has left much cleared land and bushy pastures;

the most conspicuously abundant composite in such areas throughout

the region, but particularly below the 9000 ft. level, is Baccharis

vaccinioides H. B. K., which sometimes reaches a height of about 10

meters. The two principal localities at: which collections were made

by Dr. Skutch, Chichavae and Santa Elena, are haciendas in the

mountains north of Tecpam, the former three miles from the town

and at about 2440-2745 meters altitude, the latter six miles north

and at about 2745-3050 meters elevation.

Archibaccharis prorepens Blake, sp. nov.

Herba erecta ca. 5 dm. alta, rhizomate repente; caulis tenuis striato-

angulatus pilosulus pilis crispatis multilocularibus; folia oblongo-elliptica

v. lanceolata ca. 4 cm. longa acuta basi cuneata argute serrata triplinervia

breviter petiolata utrinque in nervis et venis sparse crispo-pilosula; capitula

staminea pauca cymosa mediocria ca. 5 mm. alta.

Rhizome slender, about 1.5 mm. thick, 30 cm. long and more; stem about

54 cm. high, 1.5 mm. thick, straight or essentially so, simple below the in-

florescence, green, sharply several-striate, not densely pilosulous, especially

above, with brownish hairs; leaves alternate; internodes 0.6—2 cm. long;

petioles about 2 mm. long, pubescent like the stem; blades 2.5—4 cm. long,

9-12 mm. wide, merely acute, sharply serrate above the entire or subentire

lower third or quarter (teeth slender, acuminate, antrorse, 0.5-1.5 mm.

long), above deep green, sparsely brownish-pilosulous on the chief nerves

and veins (these impressed), beneath paler green, sparsely brown-pilosulous

on nerves, veins, and veinlets, definitely but not strongly triplinerved and

prominulous-reticulate beneath; some of the upper leaves with short leafy

1 Received June 25, 1934.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 433

branchlets in their axils; heads 8, cymosely arranged, the pedicels slender,

angulate, finely crisped-pilosulous, 8-15 mm. long, naked or with a minute

bract; heads subcampanulate, 5-6 mm. high and thick, 15-flowered; involu-

cre about 3-seriate, graduate, 4.5-5 mm. high, the phyllaries linear or linear-

oblong, acute or subacuminate, loosely and not densely rather long-ciliate

especially toward apex, with green l-ribbed center and narrower subscari-

ous whitish margins, often purple toward apex; flowers in the head all

staminate; ovaries abortive; corollas whitish, about 4.8 mm. long (tube

sparsely puberulous with clavellate hairs, 2-2.2 mm. long, throat campanu-

late, nearly glabrous, 0.8-1 mm. long, teeth triangular, sparsely puberulous,

spreading, 1.5-1.8 mm. long); style branches slender, subulate-tipped,

hispidulous, 1 mm. long.

GUATEMALA: Clearing in the forest, Santa Elena, Dept. Chimaltenango,

alt. 2400-2700 m., 22 Jan. 1933, A. F. Skutch 190 (type no. 1,494,847, U.S.

Nat. Herb.). |

Archibaccharis prorepens is related to A. simplex Blake, of Hidalgo, in

which the stem is sparsely incurved-hispidulous and the leaves larger

(3.5-7 cm. long, 1.3—2.2 em. wide), feather-veined, and cuneate-oblanceolate

to elliptic-obovate.

Archibaccharis hirtella var. taeniotricha Blake, var. nov.

Rami eglandulosi dense et sordide patenti-pilosi pilis articulatis.

Oaxaca: Climbing over shrubs to 15 ft. in oak woods, Sierra de Clavel-

linas, alt. 2745 m., 18 Oct. 1894, Pringle 4988; Sierra de Clavellinas, alt.

2745 m., 16-19 Oct. 1894, C. L. Smith 259. GuaTEMALA: Woody vine, scram-

bling over other vegetation in the cypress forest, sometimes epiphytic and

rooted on moss-covered trunks, Santa Elena, Dept. Chimaltenango, alt.

2400-2700 m., 24 Feb. 1933, A.F. Skutch 276 (type no. 1,494,938, U. S.

Nat. Herb.) (pistillate); woody vine, cypress woods, Santa Elena, alt. about

2900 m., 24 Dec. 1933, Skutch 769 (staminate).

Dr. Skutch’s two collections of this plant differ so much in pubescence

from most of the material of A. hirtella (DC.) Heering available that I

have been led to make a reexamination of all the specimens of this species

in the U. 8. National Herbarium. It proves to be divisible into three forms,

two of which are very distinct, the third less so. In 1925 I examined in the

Prodromus Herbarium the type of Baccharis hirtella DC., collected by Haen-

ke at some unknown locality in Mexico on his journeys between Acapulco

and the City of Mexico, and noted that it was very closely matched by

Pringle 11483, from mountains above Eslaba in the Federal District. In

this form the branches and inflorescences are densely puberulous with short _

spreading hairs, nearly all of which are gland-tipped; longer eglandular

hairs are wanting or very few. The midrib of the leaves beneath is similarly

glandular-pubescent or sometimes pilose with eglandular hairs. The follow-

ing specimens in the U. 8. National Herbarium are referable to this typical

form:

State OF Mexico: Bourgeau 955 in part; Purpus 18, 1499. FEDERAL

District: Pringle 11483. Moretos: Juzepczuk 820. Guerrero: H. W.

Nelson 2237, 2238. Oaxaca: Nelson 2336 (by error listed as 2236 in my paper

434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

Fig. 1—Adenocaulon lyratum Blake.—a, plant, <4; b, flowering head, X3; c, sub-

mature achene, X23; d, pistillate flower, <4; e, style of pistillate flower, X15; f,:her-

maphrodite flower, <6; g, style of hermaphrodite flower, X10; h, two stamens, X15.

——

OCTOBER 15, 1934 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 435

on Hemibaccharis in 1924). Mexico without definite locality: Ehrenberg

1408.

The other extreme form of the species, with the branches and inflores-

cences, as well as the midrib of the leaves beneath, densely spreading-pilose

with many-celled brownish hairs and essentially eglandular, has been de-

scribed above. The third form, less distinct than the two others, is

Archibaccharis hirtella var. intermedia Blake, var. nov.

Rami eglandulosi puberuli vel breviter pilosuli pilis articulatis antrorse

curvatis v. incurvis interdum subpatentibus.

Tepic: Without definite locality, Jan—Feb. 1892, Palmer 1846. VErRa-

cruz: Shaded banks near Orizaba, alt. 1280 m., 25 Jan. 1895, Pringle 6108

(type no. 252873, U. S. Nat. Herb.). Morntos: Mountain canyons above

Cuernavaca, alt. 1980 m., 11 Nov. 1902, Pringle 9853. Oaxaca: ee: of

Oaxaca, alt. 1675-2285 m., 20 Sept. 1894, Nelson 1471.

Adenocaulon lyratum Blake, sp. nov.

Caulescens parce erecto-ramosum; caulis anguste alatus eglandulosus;

folia lyrato-pinnatifida; achenia cuneato-obovoidea compressa apice late

rotundata; antherae apice vix appendiculatae.

Erect perennial herb, about 75 cm. high, the very short rootstock bearing

a cluster of fleshy fibrous roots; subterranean portion of stem about 5 em.

long, bearing a few small scales; stem slender, sparsely erect-branched,

thinly arachnoid-tomentose, glabrescent or glabrate, narrowly winged

throughout except in branches of inflorescence by the decurrent leaf-bases

(wings arachnoid-tomentose on one side, 2 mm. wide or less) ; principal leaves

6-8, crowded near base of stem, lyrate-pinnatifid, obovate in outline, 20-27

cm. long, 6-10.5 cm. wide, above thinly arachnoid, quickly green and

glabrate except for short subglandular hairs along the veins, beneath thinly

and persistently canescent-arachnoid-tomentose, feather-veined, the ter-

minal lobe pentagonal-deltoid, slightly cordate, acute or obtusish, shallowly

repand and minutely mucronulate on margin, the lateral lobes 2—4 pairs,

decreasing in size toward base of leaf, broadly oblong to obovate or sub-

orbicular, acute to very obtuse, spreading or retrorse, the broadly mar-

gined petioliform base of leaf entire, 3-9 cm. long; leaves above base of stem

few (about 3-4), the lower similar to the basal but smaller and with shorter

more broadly margined petioliform base, the upper with only 1-2 pairs of

lobes; inflorescence branches thinly arachnoid, glabrescent, eglandular, with

minute subulate bracts, the heads solitary or paired in the axils, their

peduncles erect, at first thickly arachnoid-tomentose, becoming 4 cm. long;

heads 10—16-flowered, in flower 2-3 mm. thick; phyllaries subuniseriate,

6-8, subequal, ovate, acute, 1.5-2 mm. long, 0.8-1.2 mm. wide, thin-her-

baceous, thinly arachnoid outside, reflexed in age; pistillate flowers 5-8,

their corollas white, 0.7-1 mm. long (tube 0.2-0.3 mm. long, teeth 4-5, re-

curved-spreading, ovate-oblong, acutish, 0.5-0.7 mm. long); hermaphrodite

flowers 5-8, the ovary abortive, glabrous, 1.2 mm. long, the corolla white,

about 2.2 mm. long (tube cylindric, 0.8 mm., throat funnelform, 0.3-0.4

mm., teeth 5, oblong-ovate acutish, papillose outside at the slightly thick-

ened apex, 0.8-1 mm. long; achenes (not mature) cuneate-obovoid, com-

pressed, green, about 3-nerved on each side, stipitate-glandular, 5.6 mm.

long, 3 mm. wide.

436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

GUATEMALA: In open oak woods, Chichavac, Dept. Chimaltenango, alt.

2530 m. (8300 ft.), 20 Sept. 1933, A. F. Skutch 622 (type no. 1,587,623,

U.S. Nat. Herb.).

This plant is a most distinct and unexpected addition to one of the most

distinctive genera of the family Asteraceae. Only five? nominal species of

the genus have hitherto been recognized from the western United States

and Canada, eastern Asia, and southwestern South America. In the best

known species, Adenocaulon bicolor Hook., ranging from British Columbia

to south-central California, eastward to Montana and sparingly to Michigan,

the stem is stipitate-glandular, especially above, and the leaf blades are

deltoid or ovate-deltoid, from subentire to shallowly sinuate-toothed or

-lobed, usually hastate at base, and borne on a narrowly winged petiole

usually much longer than the blade. The leaves are chiefly basal or subbasal,

although sometimes extending half way up the stem. Two species have

been described from eastern Asia, A. himalaicum Edgew. of the Himalayan

region, at about 1830-3660 meters elevation (6—12000 ft.), and A. adhaeres-

cens Maxim. of Japan. The two are generally considered identical, and are

so closely allied to A. bicolor that they have been combined with it as a

variety (var. adhaerescens (Maxim.) Makino) or even united outright, as

by Hooker in the Flora of British India. The material at hand, although in-

sufficient to settle the status of the Asiatic forms, indicates that the plant

of China and Japan is specifically distinct from A. bicolor. Two species have

been described from southern Chile and the Magellan region, A. chilense

Poepp.’ and A. lechleri Sch. Bip. The material available is again too slight

to enable me to form an opinion as to the distinctness of the supposed species.

Reiche, who combines them under the name A. chilense, assigns the species

a range “‘en los montes claros de Nothofagus pumilio”’ from the cordilleras of

Nahuelbuta and Chillan to the Strait of Magellan. In this plant the stem

and inflorescence are purple-glandular, and the leaves oblong or elliptic-

oblong, faintly crenate-denticulate, cuneate-rounded to subcordate at base,

and narrowly decurrent on the upper part of the petiole, which is about

equal to or much shorter than the blade. The Guatemalan A. lyratum,

constituting the third distinct group in this obviously relict genus, is readily

distinguished by its lyrate-pinnatifid leaves, its leafy, winged, eglandular

stem, and its comparatively broad, cuneate-obovoid achenes.

The floral details of the species of Adenocaulon have not been sufficiently

noticed. Bentham and Hooker, in the Genera Plantarum, described the co-

rollas as all regular and tubular, and the anthers as entire or barely minutely

2-dentate at base. They placed the genus in the Helianthoideae-Millerieae.

2 Not coun ting Adenocaulon integrifolium Nutt., universally regarded as identical

with A. bicolor.

3 This species is universally attributed to Lessing, but was published by him as of

Poeppig. An interesting commentary on the un-Composite-like appearance of the

plants of this genus is furnished by the synonym Boerhaavia nudicaulis Phil., cited by

eiche under A. chilense.

a *

OCTOBER 15, 1934 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 437

Gray,’ in his notes on Bentham’s work, called attention to the fact that the

anthers are strongly sagittate at base, and referred the genus to the Inuleae

as a separate subtribe, the Adenocauloneae. Some years later® he stated,

after examining all the species, that ‘“‘the basal auricles of the sagittate

anthers are manifestly produced into a slender acumination or small tail,

the adjacent ones connate,” and suggested that Carpestum might be associ-

ated with Adenocaulon in this subtribe, the name of which he emended to

Adenocauleae. In the Synoptical Flora’ he described the anthers as ‘‘mi-

nutely but evidently caudate, connate,’ and noted that the corollas of the

pistillate flowers are bilabiate in the Chilean species, with the outer lip

3-lobed; those of the Californian species he regarded as regularly 4-lobed.

Adenocaulon chilense is, in its floral details, the most highly developed

species of the genus. The corollas of the pistillate flowers are, as described

by Gray, bilabiate. The outer lip is oval, at first erectish and somewhat

boatshaped, later recurving, and is merely 3-dentate or 3-denticulate; the

inner is sometimes entire and apparently made up of a single linear lobe, some-

times 2-dentate, sometimes 2-parted to base. The anthers have ovate or

triangular-ovate terminal appendages of normal size and at base are deeply

sagittate and provided with linear papillose tails, connate as in the other

species, the adjoining ones often decidedly unequal. The style branches in

the pistillate flower are rather smaller than elsewhere in the genus, and ovate

or quadrate, obtuse; the style in the hermaphrodite flowers is slightly

clavate and papillose above, and is barely notched or sometimes bifid.

In Adenocaulon bicolor, of western North America, the corollas of the

pistillate flowers are usually 4-lobed, sometimes 3-lobed, and are either es-

sentially regular, or slightly irregular with somewhat smaller inner lobe.

The anthers have conspicuous triangular-ovate or almost subulate terminal

appendages and at base are provided with usually inconspicuous tails, these

short- or elongate-triangular. The style branches in the pistillate flower are

relatively large, quadrate or even subflabellate, and are subtruncate or

broadly rounded with somewhat wavy margin; the style in the hermaphro-

dite flowers is cylindric or slightly clavate, papillose above, and entire.

The material at hand from eastern Asia consists of 10 sheets, all from

Japan and China, no material from the Himalayas, the type region of A.

himalaicum Edgew., being available. In general appearance this plant, A.

adhaerescens Maxim., is similar to A. bicolor of western North America, but

the heads are larger and more numerously flowered and the leaves, at least

in the Chinese material, are reniform or reniform-orbicular rather than

deltoid. Most of the Japanese material, however, has the leaves shaped more

as in the North American plant, but with conspicuously winged petioles

which are often considerably dilated at the base. Better and more mature

material (all these specimens except one being without fruit) might make it

* Proc. Amer. Acad. 8: 653. 1873.

5 Proc. Amer. Acad. 17: 214. 1882.

6 Syn. Fl. 12: 59. 1884.

438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

possible to distinguish more than one Asiatic form. At any rate, as a group

they differ sufficiently in floral details to indicate that they are not specificaily

identical with the North American plant. The pistillate corollas are usually

5-lobed (rarely 4-lobed) and are distinctly irregular, the 2 inner lobes being

shorter than the 3 outer and sometimes united to well above the middle.

The style branches in the pistillate flower are smaller than in A. bicolor, and

more or less quadrate; the style in the hermaphrodite flowers is not distin-

guishable from that of A. bicolor. The principal difference, already indicated

by Edgeworth for his A. himalaicum, is that the terminal appendages of the

anthers are greatly reduced, varying from a short deltoid tip to a mere

convexity or a blunt mucro. The basal appendages, also, are less developed

than in A. bicolor.

In Adenocaulon lyratum the pistillate corollas are regularly 4-5-lobed,

with spreading lobes. The style branches in the pistillate flowers are broadly

oblong and truncate; the style in the hermaphrodite flowers is slightly

clavate and minutely indented at the papillose apex. The anthers have

short triangular basal tails and are provided at apex with the minutest

blunt mucro or are essentially without appendage. Even before the corolla

opens, the anthers are already dehiscent and connate only in their lower

half.

The corollas of the pistillate flowers in this genus frequently bear abortive

anthers.

Calea skutchii Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex v. arbor parva; rami et ramuli dense et sordide sublanatopilosi;

folia ovata petiolata serrata acuminata basi cuneata submembranacea

triplinervia ca. 1.2 dm. longa supra scaberula subtus in venis et venulis

omnibus pilosula in pagina glanduloso-adspersa; capitula parva radiata

aurea cymoso-paniculata; involucri ca. 4-seriati ca. 6 mm. alti phyllaria

exteriora oblongo-lanceolata interiora oblonga v. cuneato-obovata obtusa

apice aureoscariosa pilosula et plusminusve ciliolata; achenia anguste

cuneata hirsutula pappo duplo longiora; pappus eum Viguierae simulans, e

aristis 2 subpaleaceis et squamellis ca. 6 subduplo brevioribus sistens.

Shrub or small tree, reaching 7.5 m. in height; branches stoutish, terete,

striatulate, about 6 mm. thick, densely pilose with brownish many-celled

somewhat matted hairs; internodes 3-8 cm. long; leaves opposite; petioles

1.5-3 em. long, pubescent like the stem; blades of the larger leaves 10-17.5

cm. long, 4.5-6.5 em. wide, acuminate and somewhat falcate, usually long-

cuneate at base, serrate above the entire base (teeth about 15-25 pairs, 2-5

mm. apart, depressed-triangular, mucronulate, the mucro callous, about

0.3 mm. long), tripli-nerved 1-3.5 cm. above the base or sometimes 5-

plinerved, somewhat bullate above, prominulous-reticulate beneath, above

scabrid with short slightly tuberculate-based antrorse-curved hairs, beneath

slightly paler, densely pilosulous on all the veins and veinlets with loosely

spreading whitish hairs and along costa spreading-pilose; heads about 1.4

cm. wide, very numerous, forming a ternately divided convex or flattish

panicle 18-28 cm. wide, about equaled by the leaves; pedicels slender,

densely sordid-pilosulous, mostly 4-10 mm. long; disk slender-campanulate,

9-11 mm. high, 4.5-7 mm. thick (when moistened); involucre not strongly

OCTOBER 15, 1934 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 439

graduated, the few outermost phyllaries oblong or oblong-ovate or -lanceo-

late, about 2.5-3.5 mm. long, about 0.7 mm. wide, obtuse or acutish, with

subindurate body and short somewhat loose greenish apex, the others nar-

rowly oblong to oblong- or wedge-obovate, obtuse or apiculate, about 2

mm. wide, sometimes purple-dotted or -lineolate above, with subindurate

more or less vittate body, narrow yellow subscarious margin, and broad

scarious rather loose yellow tip; receptacle convex; rays 8, pistillate, golden

yellow, the tube 2 mm. long, stipitate-glandular, the lamina oval, 2-3-

denticulate, 6—7-nerved, 5 mm. long, 3 mm. wide; disk flowers about 28-32,

their corollas golden yellow, 5 mm. long (tube stipitate-glandular, 1.7 mm.,

throat slender-campanulate, finely stipitate-glandular, 2.5 mm., teeth ovate,

slightly stipitate-glandular, 0.8 mm. long); pales narrow, about 7 mm. long,

1-nerved, pilosulous along keel especially above, puberulous toward apex,

the somewhat ampliate, obtuse or apiculate, scarious, golden-yellow or

sometimes brownish tip slightly spreading; achenes (immature) narrowly

cuneate, compressed-quadrangular, 3.5 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide, blackish

brown, 1l-ribbed and usually 2—3-nerved on each side, hirsutulous on the

angles and toward apex; pappus awns 2, lanceolate, acuminate, hispidulous-

ciliolate, about 1.5 mm. long; squamellae on each side about 2-4, linear to

oblong, acute or lacerate, 0.5-0.8 mm. long, one sometimes joined to the

awns on each side at base; style branches with short triangular finely his-

pidulous appendages.

GUATEMALA: Hardwood forest, Chichavac, Dept. Chimaltenango, alt.

2400-2700 m., 27 Feb. 1933, A. F. Skutch 294; bushy second growth on

mountain side by the ‘““Camino real”’ above Tecpam, Dept. Chimaltenango,

alt. oe 2745 m., 4 Dec. 1933, Skutch 729 (type no. 1,587,727, U.S. Nat.

Herb.).

Although the pappus of this plant is so similar to that of Viguiera as to

be practically indistinguishable, the fertile rays and scarious-tipped phy]l-

laries show that it is really a Calea of the subgenus Tetrachyron, deviating

somewhat in pappus character from the generally accepted definition of that

group. It is quite distinct from any of the half dozen members of that group

already described.

Alepidocline Blake, gen. nov.

Herba annua ramosa pubescens et parum glandulosa, foliis oppositis

ovatis petiolatis serratis triplinerviis membranaceis, capitulis heterogamis

radiatis mediocribus cymosis, radiis parvis albis denique roseis v. pur-

pureis, disco aureo. Involucri ovoidei v. hemispherici gradati ca. 5—6-seriati

phyllaria elliptico-oblonga v. ovalia v. intima lanceolato-oblonga viri-

descentia subsicca vittata obtusa v. intima acuta anguste subscarioso-

marginata intima apice purpurascentia. Receptaculum convexum hirsu-

tulum nudum vel interdum prope marginem paleis paucissimis linearibus

integris onustum. Radii 1-seriati feminei fertiles, tubo elongato tenul,

lamina parva patente 3-dentata. Flores disci numerosi hermaphroditi fer-

tiles, corollis tubulosis, tubo limbo longiore, faucibus campanulatis, den-

tibus 5 brevibus. Stamina 5, antheris basi obtuse sagittatis, apice appendice

oblongo-ovata obtusa munitis. Styli rami lineares ad apicem minute his-

piduli, appendice deltoidea obtusa papillosa praediti. Achenia obovoidea

obcompressa plano-convexa parva glabra nigra lucida, apice annulo brevis-

simo subintrorso donata. Pappus caducus e aristis ca. 8-10 1-seriatis seti-

440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

by ad f

oy SNE,

> ‘ j

p24) te \

AN ie 1

\\ f

OY AS

ee ~

: RS

Fig. 2.—Alepidocline annua Blake.—a, plant, <4; b, head, X34; c, receptacle,

5; d, ray flower, <5; e, disk corolla, <8; f, two stamens, X15; g, style branches of

disk flower, X15; h, disk achene, ventral view, <8; 7, same, lateral view; 7, same in

cross section; k, apex of achene, enlarged; 1, pappus awn, 13.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 441

formibus parum inaequalibus hispidulis sistens.—Species typica Alepido-

cline annua, sp. nov.

Alepidocline annua Blake, sp. nov.

Character ut supra donatus.

Slender erect annual, 6-8 dm. high, with opposite erectish or spreading-

ascending branches; stem 2.5-5 mm. thick, terete, striatulate especially

above, purplish, sparsely spreading-pilose especially just below the nodes

with several-celled, acuminate, white, not tuberculate-based hairs and in the

region of the inflorescence with some shorter gland-tipped hairs; internodes

6.5-16 cm. long, petioles slender, flattened, pilose on margin and back, 5-30

mm. long, connate in a line at base; blades 4.5-7.5 cm. long, 2.5—4.5 em.

wide, acuminate and often somewhat falcate, cuneate at base, serrate above

the entire or subentire cuneate base (teeth about 9-18 pairs, 2-4 mm. apart,

usually depressed-deltoid, with short obtuse callous usually purplish mucros),

triplinerved a little above the base and lightly prominulous-reticulate be-

neath, above rather light green, sparsely and uniformly pilose with few-

celled spreading white hairs (the basal cell short, somewhat swollen, and

subglandular) and on the veins sparsely pilose with shorter many-celled

hairs, beneath scarcely paler green, similarly but somewhat more densely

pubescent; heads about 5-8 mm. wide, in small cymes of 2-4 at tips of stem

and branches, together forming a loose leafy panicle, the pedicels naked,

1.5-4 em. long, spreading-pilosulous and with sparse shorter gland-tipped

hairs; disk 6-7 mm. high, about 5-6 mm. thick; involucre 5-6.5 mm. high,

in the dried state hemispheric, 6-10 mm. thick, when moistened bluntly

ovoid (in young flower, then 5 mm. thick) to campanulate-hemispheric

(when submature, then 6 mm. thick), the outermost phyllaries elliptic or

oblong, about 2.5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, obtuse, about 3-nerved, slightly

ciliolate, the middle ones oval, 2.5-3 mm. wide, 6—7-nerved, the inner ob-

long-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, obscurely ciliolate, the inner and often

the middle with purplish tips, all appressed; rays 10-17, the tube spreading-

pilosulous, 3.2-5 mm. long, the lamina quadrate-oblong, white turning pink

or purplish with age, 1.5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, 3-dentate, 5—7-nerved; disk

flowers numerous, their corollas yellow, 3-3.5 mm. long (tube spreading-

pilosulous, 2—2.2 mm. long, throat slender-campanulate, essentially glabrous,

0.7-1 mm. long, teeth ovate, hispidulous, 0.3-0.4 mm. long); achenes obo-

void, 1.5 mm. long, 0.8 mm. wide, black, shining, glabrous, finely and rather

obscurely several-striatulate, plano-convex or sublenticular, the outer face

rounded, the inner flattish or somewhat rounded, sometimes sulcate or

bluntly 1—2-ribbed; pappus awns whitish, 1.5-1.8 mm. long.

GUATEMALA: Weed in cornfield, Chichavac, Dept. Chimaltenango, alt.

2430 m. (8300 ft.), 2 Dec. 19383, A. F. Skutch 722 (type no. 1,587,766, U.S.

Nat. Herb.).

Although only a cornfield weed, this plant evidently represents a new

genus allied to Schistocarpha, but differing in its essentially naked receptacle

and in its obcompressed achene with rounded summit and slightly introrse

apical annulus, much narrower than the achene and bearing a pappus of

fewer, slightly stouter, setiform awns. In Schistocarpha the receptacle is

paleaceous throughout, with a usually trifid pale at the base of each flower,

and the achenes are slenderly obovoid-oblong, subterete or slightly 3-5-

442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

angulate, truncate at apex, and bearing a short slightly expanded collar

terminating in a disk composed of the united bases of the numerous pappus

bristles, from which the fragile bristles themselves are readily deciduous.

In its general appearance, Alepzdocline is suggestive of the tribe Heliantheae.

The generic name is derived from a, privative, eis, a scale, and kXivn, a

bed.

Cirsium guatemalense Blake, sp. nov.

Bienne 1.5 m. altum, radice tenui elongato; caulis arachnoideo-lanatus

supra pauci-ramosus; folia oblonga v. lanceolato-oblonga sessilia breviter

decurrentia acuminata usque ad vel ultra medium pinnatifida supra tenuiter

arachnoidea mox glabrescentia v. glabrata non setosa subtus canescenti-

tomentosa submembranacea, lobis ca. 11-jugis oblongis sinuato-dentatis v.

sinuato-lobatis saepe subbifidis modice spinosa, spinis tenuibus albidis 3-5

mm. longis; capitula ca. 8-10 majuscula ca. 3-4 cm. alta 4-5 cm. crassa ut

videtur nutantia saepius solitaria in ramis elongatis foliosis; involucri

2.7-3.5 cm. alti valde et regulariter gradati ca. 8-seriati basi bracteis paucis

parvis spinoso-pinnatis donati phyllaria erecta v. appressa anguste tri-

angularia integra sensim acuminata margine infra spinam dense et pulchre

canescenti-arachnoideo-tomentosa nigrescenti-viridia anguste et pallide

subscarioso-marginata, omnia (intimis innocuis exceptis) spina erecta sub-

valida albida 3-7 mm. longa donata; corollae albidae, limbo tubo paullo

breviore paullum infra medium 5-fido.

Evidently biennial, the rather slender scarcely branched root 14 cm. long

and more; stem rather stout, 8-14 mm. thick, striate, erect, hollow, rather

thinly brownish-arachnoid-lanate; internodes 2-6 cm. long; principal leaf

blades 15-30 em. long, 5-12 cm. wide, decurrent for 0.5-3 cm. (the wings

spiny-lobed), soon bright green above and nearly or quite glabrous except

for some sordid pilosity along costa and chief lateral veins, beneath densely

canescent-tomentose and along the costa brownish-lanate, the terminal lobe

slender, acuminate, 2.5-4.5 cm. long, tipped with a spine about 3 mm. long,

the lateral lobes about 2-4 em. long and about 1.2-3 cm. wide, their teeth

and tip bearing rather weak whitish spines 2-4 (—8) mm. long; heads solitary

(rarely in 3’s) on erectish leafy branches or peduncles 18-30 cm. long, their

leaves similar to those of main stem but much smaller (4.5-8 em. long) and

with only about 5-7 pairs of teeth or short lobes, their spines up to 10 mm.

long; involucre (in dried state) hemispheric, umbilicate at base, the phyl-

laries 1.2-2.5 mm. wide below, 1-ribbed at apex, not glandular, the inner

purplish toward base of spine, ‘the inmost with very narrow erectish entire

purplish subscarious tip; corollas 2.1-2.7 em. long (tube 12-14 mm., throat

distinct, 4-6 mm., teeth linear, acute, slightly thickened subapically, E=(

mm. long) : achenes oblong, blackish with whitish apex, glabrous, shining,

4.5 mm. long; pappus whitish, 2 em. long, the awns all plumose, about 10 of

the inner slightly thickened at apex; anthers light purple, with narrowly tri-

angular, slenderly acuminate tips; node of style obscure.

GUATEMALA: Edge of oak woods, Chichavac, Dept. Chimaltenango, alt.

2530 m. (8300 ft.), 10 Nov. 1933, A. F. Skutch 660 (type no. 1,587,661—3,

one plant mounted on three sheets).

Cirsium guatemalense finds its nearest ally, apparently, in C. radians

Benth., also Guatemalan. In that species, however, according to Petrak’s

description,’ the phyllaries are more or less dimorphous, the outer longer

7 Beih. Bot. Centralbl. 27: Abt. 2: 240. 1910.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 LEONARD: SPECIES OF ELYTRARIA 443

and subrecurved, with a long spreading spine, the inner erect and not

spinose. In C. guatemalense the phyllaries (except the inmost) are all simi-

lar, erect, and strongly graduated in length from the short outer to the long

inner.

BOTANY.—The American species of Elytraria.1 E. C. LEONARD,

U. 8. National Museum.- (Communicated by E. P. Kiturp.)

Elytraria, a genus of Acanthaceae, subfamily Nelsonioideae, was

described? by Michaux in 1803. He published at this time a single

species, H. virgata, citing as a synonym Tubiflora carolinensis Gmel.3

Although antedating Hlytraria, Tubiflora is rejected by the Inter-

national Rules. Since Michaux’s publication about 30 species have

been described by various authors, though most of these have been

reduced to synonymy.

The name Elytraria is derived from the Greek edurpoy (elytron,

sheath), in reference to the firm coriaceous bracts which sheathe the

scapes and subtend the flowers. When herbaceous and having a rosette

of basal leaves, fibrous roots, and simple scapes tipped by cylindric

spikes, these plants superficially resemble the common plantain

(Plantago). The flowers are white or blue, and inconspicuous. In E.

tuberosa, here described as new, the roots are thick-fusiform, resem-

bling those of Ruellia tuberosa. In all other species of the genus the

roots are fibrous.

The genus, as here regarded, consists of seven species, all native

of temperate or tropical America, except E. acaulis (L. f.) Lindau,

which is found chiefly in Africa. Elytraria syuamosa (Jacq.) Lindau,

widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical America, is

found also in Asia and the Philippine Islands.

KEY TO THE AMERICAN SPECIES

Flower bracts, or at least some of them, tridentate, the lateral teeth scarious,

triangular or rhombic, the middle tooth awn-shaped; plant usually

SABC SCCM ee pig ura! Mic er hase) Sa AR lar ele Soest 1. E. squamosa.

Flower bracts entire; plant acaulescent.

Scapes 15 to 35 cm. long, much exceeding the leaves.

Leaf blades oblong-elliptic, usually more than 2 em. wide.

2. E. caroliniensis.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived June 12, 1934.

2 Fl. Bot. ee. POL ple SO3:

3 J. F. GMELIN, Syst. Nat. 27. 1791.

444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

Leaf blades linear-spatulate, less than 1 em. wide.

3. E. angustifolia.

Scapes 2 to 8 cm. long, rarely exceeding the leaves.

Leaf blades ovate, rounded or cordate at base, easily distinguish-

able from the winged petiole........... 4. E. tuberosa.

Leaf blades oblong-elliptic or spatulate, gradually narrowed into

the winged petiole.

Flower bracts acute, 3 to 4 mm. long; leaves densely pilose.

5. E. shaferi.

Flower bracts long-attenuate, 1 cm. long; leaves glabrous or

sparingly pilose... s4 eee 6. E. bromoides.

1. Elytraria squamosa (Jacq.) Lindau, Anal. Inst. Fisico-Geog., Costa Rica

8: 299. 1895.

Verbena squamosa Jacq. Pl. Hort. Schoenbr. 1:3. pl. 5. 1797.

Elytraria tridentata Vahl, Enum. Pl. 1: 107. 1804.

Elytraria frondosa H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 2: 234. 1817.

Elytraria fasciculata H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 2: 235. 1817.

Elytraria ramosa H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 2: 235. 1817.

Elytraria scorpioides Roem. & Schult. Syst. Veg. Mant. 1: 128. 1822.

Elytraria apargiifolia Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 65. 1847. |

Elytraria microstachya Oerst. Nat. For. Kjé6benhavn Vid. Medd. 1854:

114. 1854.

Elytraria pachystachya Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1854:

116. 1854.

Tubiflora squamosa Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500. 1891.

Tubiflora pachystachya Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500. 1891.

Elytraria tridentata wrighttt Gomez, Anal. Hist. Nat. Madrid 23: 280.

1894.

The type locality of Verbena squamosa is unknown. The other species

listed above were all based on specimens from tropical America.

Rance: Arizona and Texas; Mexico and Central America; West Indies;

northern and western South America; India; Philippine Islands.

A widely distributed species, extremely variable in its habit of growth.

Although occasionally acaulescent and composed of a single spike-tipped

scape arising from a rosette of basal leaves, the plant commonly develops

a subligneous stem reaching several decimeters in length. From the tip of

the stem there usually branches a cluster of scapes bearing from one to

several spikes, or instead of spikes a cluster of leaves and secondary scapes,

a proliferous condition, thus resulting. The scapes and stems may be simple,

or branched in an irregular fashion. This method of growth often produces

plants composed of an intricate mass of scapes and spikes which may be,

at maturity, entirely devoid of foliage.

A marked variation is to be found also in the leaf blades. Typically oblong

to oblong-obovate and 1 to 2 cm. wide, they become at times narrowly

linear. Again, very broad leaves essentially ovate in outline are sometimes

produced. The margin may be entire or sinuate-dentate. Other marked

OCTOBER 15, 1934 LEONARD: SPECIES OF ELYTRARIA 445

variations in size and shape are to be found in the spikes and flower scales.

The scarious lateral teeth of the flower bracts may be conspicuous and well

developed, or almost if not entirely obsolete.

Fig. 1.—Elytraria tuberosa Leonard, sp. nov. A, plant X34; B, flower

bract <2; C, calyx X2

2. Elytraria caroliniensis (Walt.) Pers. Syn. Pl. 1:23. 1805.

Anonymos caroliniensis Walt. Fl. Carol. 60. 1788.

Tubiflora caroliniensis Gmel. Syst. Nat. 27: 1791.

Elytraria virgata Michx. F]. Bor. Amer. 1: 9. fig. 1. 1803.

Elytraria cupressina Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 65. 1847.

Elytraria virgata vahliana Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 65. 1847.

Elytraria virgata latifolia Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 65. 1847.

TYPE LOCALITY: Carolina.

RaNnGE: Coastal plain from South Carolina to Florida.

A species well marked by its large basal leaves and stout virgate scape,

tipped by one or more spikes. It is a pine-barren plant frequenting damp

sandy woods or thickets.

3. Elytraria angustifolia (Fernald) Leonar

Elytraria virgata angustifolia Fernald, Bot. Gaz. 22: 169. 1896.

Elytraria caroliniensis angustifolia Blake, Rhodora 17: 131. 1915.

Tubiflora angustifolia Small, Fl. Miami 168. 1913.

446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

TypPrE Locaity: Thin calcareous soil near Biscayne Bay, Florida. Type

collected by A. H. Curtiss (no. 5494).

RanGE: Southern Florida.

Easily recognized by its long, very narrow leaf blades, but in other re-

spects scarcely distinguishable from F. caroliniensis. A plant of low swampy

regions.

4. Elytraria tuberosa Leonard, sp. nov.

Herba, radicibus tuberiformibus; foliis cum petioli late alato undulato,

ovatis, apice obtusatis, basi subcordatis, margine undulato; bracteis oblongis

acuminatis.

Acaulescent; roots fusiform-tuberous, 4 mm. thick; leaf blades ovate,

2 to 7 cm. long, 1.5 to 5.5 cm. wide, obtuse at apex, subcordate or occasion-

ally truncate at base, thin, undulate, glabrous except the costa and lateral

veins (usually six) which are sparingly pilose; petiole broadly winged, 3 to

15 mm. wide at apex, gradually narrowing to base, the margins undulate;

scape up to 4 cm. long, clothed with firm clasping oblong-ovate acuminate

ciliate scales about 6 mm. long and 2 mm. wide; spikes solitary or several,

terminal, up to 3.5 cm. long and 1 cm. wide; bracts oblong, 8 to 9 mm. long,

2.5 mm. wide, acuminate, firm, faintly 3-nerved, ciliate; bractlets lanceo-

late, about 5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, carinate, the keel and margin ciliate;

calyx segments lanceolate, 7 to 8 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. wide, acuminate,

thin, faintly nerved, pilose at tip, the outermost segment bidentate; corolla

1 cm. long, the tube slender, the upper lip rounded, the lower 3-parted, the

segments lobed; capsule oblong, 5 mm. long, 2 mm. broad at base, conical.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,320,344, collected at El

Recreo, Province of Manabi, Ecuador, by H. von Eggers (no. 15405).

Easily recognized by its thin ovate subcordate leaf blades and thickened

fusiform roots. This and FE. squamosa are the only species of Hlytraria re-

ported from South America.

5. Elytraria shaferi (P. Wils.) Leonard

Tubiflora shafert P. Wils. Mem. Torrey Club 16: 111. 1920.

TYPE LOCALITY: Pinelands, Sierra Nipe, near Woodfred, Oriente, eee:

Type collected by Shafer (no. 3562).

RANGE: Cuba.

Elytraria shaferi is closely affiliated with E. bromoides, but can be sepa-

rated from that species by its small bracts and pilose leaf blades. In #.

bromoides the bracts (5 or 6 mm. long and 1 mm. wide) taper to a slender

point, and the leaf blades are glabrous throughout or the costa and lateral

veins sometimes sparingly pilose. The bracts of H. shaferz are, in contrast,

merely acute and only half as large.

6. Elytraria bromoides Oerst. Nat. For. Kjébenhavn Vid. Medd. 1854: 115.

1854.

Tubiflora acuminata Small, Fl. Southeast. U.S. 1082. 1903.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 BERRY: ATTALEA OLSSONI 447

TYPE LocaLitTy: Pital, Mexico. Type collected by Liebmann. The type

locality of Tubzflora acuminata is Texas.

i RANGE: Texas, Mexico.

The entire bracts readily distinguish this from E. sguamosa, the only other

species found within its range.

PALEOBOTAN Y.—Extension of range of Attalea olssoni.1 Epwarp

W. Berry, The Johns Hopkins University.

A single specimen of Attalea olssonz sent to me recently by Dr. A.

A. Olsson extends the range from near the top of the middle Eocene

into the Oligocene of northwestern Peru, and also discloses something

of the character of the seeds.

The species was described in 1926 and referred to the genus

Astrocaryum.” Subsequent material which showed more complete

Fig. 1.—Aittalea olssoni Berry. Natural transverse section.

preservation led to its being transferred to the genus Attalea, and

the present specimen serves to confirm this identification.’

All of the specimens of this species hitherto collected by myself

or others have shown no trace of internal structure and have been

filled with matrix or partially occupied by crystallized calcite or

geodes. The present specimen is a natural section exposing two seeds

and clearly indicating that three were normally present. This con-

firms the identification of the specimens as belonging to the genus

Attalea instead of to Astrocaryum with which they were at first con-

fused.

The present specimen shows the base and peduncle scar and the

characteristic surface features corresponding to those shown by the

1 Received August 20, 1934.

2 Berry, Epwarp W. U.S. Natl. Museum Proc. 70?: 1, pl. 1, figs. 1-4. 1926.

S BERRY, Epwarp W. Pan-Amer. Geol. 51: 242, figs. Ps 0. 19329.

448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

type material from the Restin formation. The distal part of the fruit

is gone so that the general form is undeterminable, although it could

hardly have been as elongated as in some of the Restin specimens.

However there is a large amount of variation in this feature among

the latter. It would be possible to differentiate several species if form

were considered to have any specific value which, from the actual

evidence of the fossils and from the analogous variation in the fruits —

of Recent palms, it clearly has not.

Among the existing species, of which there are more than a score,

there may be 1, 2, or 3 seeds, and in some cases as many as 6 are

said to be present. One is justified in considering that 3 seededness

is a more primitive condition than a less or greater number.

The present specimen is of interest in addition to the evidence it

furnishes regarding the seeds, since it shows a considerable extension

of the range. All of the previous specimens were collected from an

exposure Just south of Punta Arena which was referred to the Restin

formation, and is considered to be of late middle or early upper

Eocene age. 7

The present specimen comes from a locality some 20 miles further

south in the Chira Valley, northwest of Casa Saman, which is referred

to the lower Mirador sandstone of the Mancora formation, and con-

sidered to be of Oligocene age.

ETHNOLOGY.—A negro peyote cult.1. Mrs. Mauricr G. SMITH,

Bureau of Indian Affairs. (Communicated by JoHn R. SwAn-

TON.)

Those who have been interested in the fortunes of the religious

organization revolving about the use of peyote have been alert for

indications that it might have taken root at some time either among

whites or negroes who live in close proximity to one of the peyote

groups. Nowhere has an entire group of white people been found

devoting themselves to the cult though frequently individuals have

been interviewed who have attended meetings, and who profess

devotion in varying degrees to the peyote religion.? These persons

are usually impressed by the cures that the herb appears to effect.

Some have apparently experienced the peculiar state, the nature of

1 Received June 16, 1934.

2 Among the notes left by James Mooney in the Bureau of Ethnology is a very in-

teresting manuscript entitled The peyote road: An exegesis of the religion and mystic

rites of the North American Indian, by C. S. Simmons. Mr. Simmons lived at Cache,

Oklahoma and having attended many meetings over a period of years had become well

versed in the doctrines of the cult. Chapter VIII on Physical and psychical phenomena

is particularly interesting.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 SMITH: PEYOTE CULT 449

which has been described by some investigators? and which the

Indians almost invariably describe as ‘‘feeling good.”’ In how many

cases this is accompanied by visionary experiences, auditory-visual

impressions, or the other sensory illusions mentioned by Kliiver,*

Ellis’ and others the present state of our knowledge does not permit

us to say.

In the fall of 1930 an Iowa Indian gave Dr. Smith a lead regarding

a negro peyote group which the writer endeavored to follow up in the

spring of 1931. After much fruitless inquiry in both Oklahoma City

and Tulsa, Okla., the daughter of the negro leader was finally located

in the latter city. Her father, John Jamison, had died in 1926 as a

result of concussion of the brain after being struck by ‘‘a half-crazed

negro.’ The cult did not survive his death.

From the daughter Mabel it was learned that the cult never be-

came very popular outside of a small group, though now and then the

meetings were attended by persons who were attracted by the heal-

ing and doctoring which Jamison sometimes attempted just as the

Indians do. Even some of the devoted ones became suspicious of the

new religion when they learned that the government had taken steps

to prohibit the transportation of peyote. ‘““They figured there must be

something wrong with it or the government would not prohibit its

transportation,’’ Mabel remarked. This attitude on the part of the

negroes is doubly interesting in view of the rebellious attitude which

the Indians displayed under the same circumstances, and their resort

to illegal procedures to obtain peyote.

Jamison was born in Lincoln County, Oklahoma. Both of his par-

ents were evidently alloted and, consequently, Jamison grew up

among Indians. He had worked for a number of them, including

the Iowa who first gave us the lead, and who seemed to resent the

fact that negroes were taking up “the old Indian religion.’’’ His

daughter claimed that he spoke several Indian languages mentioning

particularly Iowa, Pawnee, and Comanche. She also testified to the

3 KLUvEeR, HernricH. Mescal: The divine plant. London. 1928.

Dixon, W.E. The physiological action a the alkaloids derived from Anhalonium

lewrnt. Journ. of Physiology. 25: 69-86. 18

4 Kutver, Hernricu. Mescal visions Bey videtic viston. Jour. of Amer. Psychol-

ogy 37: 502-515.

5 Euuis, HAvELocK. A note on the phenomena of mescal intoxication. Lancet,

London. 1: 1540-1542.

eal Euuis, Havevock. Mescal: A study of a divine plant. Popular Sci. Monthly 61:

6 During the delirium which preceded his death he sang Indian songs and prayed

all the time, the nurses in the hospital informed Mabel.

7 My informant remarked that the older Indians were more friendly toward the

colored people than the younger Indians.

450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

fact that he was “‘some talker” and that he was a devoutly religious

man.

The ritual of the negro cult was very similar to the Indian ritual,®

though there were, of course, some important omissions and more

use of the white man’s hymns and bible than is customary in Okla-

homa. The meeting was continued all night, preferably in an Indian

tipi. Jamison carried a canvas cover of his own along with the other

paraphernalia which consisted of a drum, sacred dishes for the food

served for breakfast, gourd rattle, medicine feathers, cane, sage, cedar

and chief peyote button. He sometimes dressed in Indian costume, con-

sisting of a feather head-dress (chief’s bonnet), blanket, and sometimes

moccasins. Whether or not he dressed thus when attending the Indian

meetings or only after he himself became a leader and had his negro

group, I did not ascertain. Nor do I know how he became a leader.

Mabel said he did not become a healer and doctor till about three

years before he died, but that he had meetings as far back as “‘before

the riot’’ (1920, I believe) attended by both Indians and colored people

which he sometimes led. At other times an Indian would be the leader.

Occasionally the Indians would send for Jamison to lead their meet-

ings.

In the center of the tipi was a fire built in front of an earth crescent.

On the center of the crescent mound was the chief peyote button which

remained there till midnight. At that time the leader ate it. The

chief button is never eaten during the Indian ceremony as far as I

know. The meetings began between eight and nine o’clock with the

members filing in in a prescribed order to certain places. The leader

faced the door of the tipi, four “‘sisters’’ on his right who took care

of the morning repast, and four “‘brothers’’ on his left, the first being

designated the drummer, the next the cedar man, the other two

having no equivalents in the Indian ceremony. The ‘‘fireman’’ was

placed at the right of the door and also served as doorkeeper. Jamison

always had the same doorkeeper, if possible, which was in line with

the relationship existing between an Indian peyote chief and his

fireman. The meeting proceeded as follows:

1. The leader sang a song, usually a hymn, but if Indians were present

he sang an Indian song. The leader, sitting ‘“‘goat fashion,’’® then announced

the purpose of the meeting and prayed.

8 Cf. Ginter Wagner’s study of the peyote cult entitled, Entwicklung und Verbreit-

ung des Peyote-kultes, ein Beitrag zum problem der Akkulturation, Hamburg, 1931.

® The manner of sitting while the leader is opening the meeting is considered very

important by the Indians. He must sit resting on his knees. This is also the position

which everyone must take when eating the peyote any time during the night and is

known as “goat fashion.”

OCTOBER 15, 1934 SMITH: PEYOTE CULT 451

2. Scripture passage read by the leader or one of the male helpers. Toward

morning one of the members talked on this passage.

3. Peyote passed to everyone by one of the sisters and eaten. The order

of passing was from right to left. The order among the Indians is from left

to right, but Mabel was certain she was correct on this point.

4. Then followed a period of speaking, praying, and singing. Questions of

a religious nature might be asked and answered. At midnight the leader

ate the chief peyote button, but I do not know whether this was done before

or after 5.

5. At midnight the leader burst the heart of the fire. This signified the

end of the day and was done in the following manner: As the sticks of the

fire burned down the ashes assumed a rough heart shape, though it was

very open at one end. While the midnight song was being sung, the leader

took the fireman’s fire-sticks and made these ashes more heartshaped after

which he deliberately destroyed the heart by smoothing the ashes to the

sides except for a few live coals with which a new fire was built. In the

Indian ceremonies no one but the fireman ever touches the fire.

6. Water which had been standing near the door during the first part of

the ceremony was now passed to the chief who drank and passed it right.

This was equivalent to the Indian ‘“‘Midnight water ceremony.”

7. A recess for 15 or 20 minutes followed. Participants might leave the tipi

via the right and eat fruit or anything else provided it was not salty. No In-

dian ceremony I have attended makes allowance for formal recess though

the participants may leave when they desire if they ask permission of the

leader.

8. Drummer summoned devotees by beating on the drum when the

leader signified that the recess was ended. The rest of the night was spent in

singing and praying and eating peyote if anyone wished more. It had been

passed perhaps several times before midnight. When the leader saw the sun

rising the door was thrown open and everybody stood and sang the closing

song which was usually T72ll we meet again, if Jamison was running the meet-

ing. In the Indian ceremony the leader always sings the Quitting Song alone.

Incidentally, the fire was supposed to be built so that the sun’s rays struck

the center of the ‘‘heart”’ of the fire. The four sisters then departed, but soon

returned with the morning repast which had been prepared the evening be-

fore and consisted of four dishes, all of which must be saltless and sweetened.

First there was fruit, then beef prepared in the Indian way, either fresh

roasted meat ground up and sweetened, or dried meat soaked, stewed,

ground up, and sweetened. Next, cereal or mush and last, dried corn parched,

soaked, and sweetened. The order of partaking of these foods does not seem

to have been as important as in the Indian ceremonies. The service ended

with another drink of water passed ceremoniously as before and “‘every-

body was happy.”’

The negro ritual differed from the Indian in a few other details. In the

first place, there was no ceremonial smoking of cigarettes and very little

smoking with cedar. Both of these customs bulk large in most of the peyote

rituals. By the latter I refer to the practise of throwing cedar on the fire at

intervals and the members wafting the smoke which arises back upon them-

selves by means of the feathers. Cedar was only put on the fire once in the

negro service by the cedar man appointed by Jamison for this purpose. It

was done when the first pile of sticks on the fire had burned completely

down. Feathers were always part of Jamison’s regular equipment but they

served more important functions in his ‘“‘doctor’’ meetings. The drum was

452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

used for all the singing, but the rattle only for the Indian songs. The leader

held the ceremonial cane in his left hand during the entire ceremony, while

the Indians pass the cane along with the drum and rattle around the circle

to those who sing.

Jamison always took epsom salts Friday night before the meeting on

Saturday and a hot bath before going to the meeting. This was in the nature

of a purification rite and in line with various similar practises among the

Indians.!® He ate no salt in the evening meal before the meeting. ‘‘If these

rules were followed they didn’t see spooks or crazy things,’ Mabel re-

marked.

Further evidence of the syncretization process will be seen in the following

confession of faith which was printed and hung framed in Mabel’s parlor.

All the devoted ones possessed such a form.

David Walker

Director

Our Motto: ‘‘The World for Christ’’

Christ the Good Shepherd

picture!

Church Covenant

of the Church of the First born

“Hebrews 12th Chapter, 23rd verse”’

We, the undersigned believers in Christ Jesus, do by virtue of Scriptural

Faith submit ourselves to the cause of Christ and the gospel; to live therein;

to walk therein; to teach therein; to sing therein; to pray therein; to preach

therein; to baptise therein; to observe all the ordinances of Him who has

called us to peace, that God may have the glory thereof.

In testimony whereof we the undersigned hereunto set our hands, by

virtue of our own free will.

John C. Jamison

Conductor in Charge

Mrs. Lucinda Walker Mrs. J. L. Ramsey

Mother of the Household of the Faith Assistant

Katie Hoggins Mrs. Polly Marshall

Secretary of the Household of the Faith - Assistant

It will be noticed that there is no mention of peyote in this covenant. But

this is no different from the practise followed by the Indians in incorporating

their peyote cult under the name of the Native American Church. Jamison

had not succeeded in getting his group incorporated.

10 The Osages build a sweathouse as an integral part of their peyote Church set-up.

This is situated directly east of the octagonal-shaped church building and still farther

east and in direct line with the center of the altar inside the church is the fireplace

upon which the stones are heated.

11 This is a picture of the negro group sitting goat-fashion or standing around the

little ceremonial fire. In the foreground may be seen the peyote drum and other para-

phernalia.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 453

Those acquainted with the variations in the peyote ceremony in

the different tribes, both in and out of Oklahoma, will recognize the

many similarities and other differences which I have not mentioned

in this interesting attempt to adapt the religious cult of one racial

group to the needs of another.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

257TH MEETING

The 257th meeting of the AcAaDEMY was a joint meeting with the Philo-

sophical Society, held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club on Saturday,

March 3, 1934. About 115 persons were present. President TuckzERMAN

called the meeting to order at 8:20 and introduced Prof. JaMEs FRANCK,

Nobel Laureate, formerly head of the Second Physical Institute, University

of Gottingen. His subject was Remarks on Catalysis.

As an introduction, explanations were given of the conceptions: heat of re-

action and catalysis.

It is possible, for a few catalytic reactions, to follow the intermediate

stages of the reaction and thus to make clear why catalytic reactions do not

involve larger heats of activation than is found to be the case. Two types of

reactions were presented to illustrate this:

(1) The heterogeneous catalysis of reactions between hydrogen and other

molecules on the surface of palladium, nickel, iron, ete.

(2) The catalytic influence of ions of heavy metals in auto-oxidation

processes as presented in papers of Franck and Haber, and Haber and

Wilstatter.

Type 1.—Coehn has shown that hydrogen absorbed in palladium is dis-

sociated and ionized. This occurs to some extent in nickel and iron. Using

a cycle-process, it is possible to calculate the energy liberated by the ab-

sorption of protons in palladium. The result is a large excess of energy. To

account for the greater part of this energy, it was proposed to assume that

there is a condensation of a cloud of free electrons around the proton, anal-

ogus to the Debye cloud formation of ions in strong electrolytes. The as-

sumption agrees well with recent determinations of the ratio of the mobility

of these ions to their diffusion (Duhm). In accordance with Schmidt, the

conclusion was drawn that metals with small values of atomic volume have

high values for the heat of condensation of electrons and protons. This heat

of condensation is available for dissociation and ionization of the hydrogen

in the metallic solution. The metals act as catalyzers because the formation

of hydrogen in the gaseous state from the dissolved state takes place very

easily. The transition begins with the formation of atoms from protons and

electrons. The atoms in the region of the surface are unstable and here re-

act with small heats of reaction with other molecules if these are present,

that is, if they are absorbed.

Type 2.—The catalysis of SO;—— ions to SO. ions in the presence of

Cutt ions was discussed in greater detail. This process explains also the

auto-oxidation of organic substances in the presence of Fett* ions in aque-

ous solutions.

454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

Cut* and Fet** ions in water are at their upper limit of stability. Im-

pacts with molecules only slightly less stable than water will produce an

exchange of an electron, the metal ion, thereby, having its charge decreased,

and the molecule becoming a radical. These radicals react. with oxygen form-

ing new radicals, and chain reactions result. The metal ions are oxidized

back to their states of higher electric charge. (A uthor’s abstract.)

258TH MEETING ,

The 258th meeting of the AcaDEmy was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m., on Friday, April 20, 1934. About fifty persons

were present. President TUCKERMAN introduced Dr. Kurt GopsEt, Privat

Dozent, University of Vienna, who spoke on the subject, Can mathematics

be proved consistent?

CHARLES THOM, Recording Secretary

RECENTLY ELECTED TO MEMBERSHIP IN THE ACADEMY

ErRrREtTT C. ALBRITTON, professor of physiology, George Washington Uni-

versity, was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to

physiology.

Ernst ARTSCHWAGER, pathologist, Division of Sugar Plants, Bureau of

Plant Industry, was elected to membership in recognition of his contribu-

tions to plant anatomy and cytology.

NoRMAN BEKKEDAUHL, assistant chemist, National Bureau of Standards,

was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to electro-

chemistry and to the thermodynamics of rubber, and in particular of his

study of the phase changes in rubber.

Paut W. Bowman, assistant professor of botany, George Washington

University, was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions

to botany and in particular of his studies of peat bogs.

FREDERICK E. Brascu, chief, Smithsonian Division, Library of Congress,

was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to the history

of science and astronomy, and for the preparation of bibliographies of

scientific literature.

RonaLD BULKLEY, physical chemist, Socony-Vacuum Corporation,

Paulsboro, N. J., was elected to membership in recognition of his contribu-

tions to rheology and lubrication, and particularly of his researches on ex-

tremely thin films and the thixotropy of lubricants.

BENJAMIN G. CHITWOOD, assistant zoologist, Bureau of Animal Industry,

was elected to membership because of his contributions to nematology,

parasitology, and animal histology.

VINCENT Dv VIGNEAUD, professor of biochemistry, and executive officer,

Department of Biochemistry, George Washington University, was elected

to membership in recognition of his contributions to the chemistry of car-

bohydrates, insulin, and cystine and its homologues.

Henry E. Ewine, entomologist, Bureau of Entomology, was elected to

membership in recognition of his achievements in the field of applied ento-

mology, taxonomy of mites, and parasitology.

ARNO Caru FInLpNER, chief engineer, Experiment Stations Division,

U.S. Bureau of Mines, was elected to membership in recognition of his con-

tributions to the technology of fuels.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 455

GrorGE R. GREENBANK, associate chemist, U. 8. Department of Agri-

culture, was elected to membership in recognition of his studies on the

oxidation of fats and oils.

LAWRENCE R. Harsrap, associate physicist, Department of Terrestrial

Magnetism, Carnegie Institution, was elected to membership in recognition

of his contributions to the field of nuclear physics.

FRANCIS E. JOHNSTON, associate professor of mathematics, George Wash-

ington University, was elected to membership in recognition of his con-

tributions to the field of algebra and particularly the theory of finite groups.

WENDELL H. KRULL, assistant parasitologist, Bureau of Animal Industry,

was elected to membership in recognition of his work in parasitology.

M. B. Martuack, associate chemist, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, was

elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to phytochemis-

try.

M. A. McCat1, principal agronomist in charge, Division of Cereal Crops

and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry, was elected to membership in

recognition of his contributions to agronomy and botany, particularly for

his discoveries in the structure of the embryos and young plants of wheat.

Ear B. McKIntey, dean of the School of Medicine, George Washington

University, was elected to membership in recognition of his publications

relating to bacteriophage, immunology, tropical diseases, encephalitis,

leprosy and syphilis.

Epwin T. McKnicut, associate geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, was

elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to stratiography

and areal geology.

LELAND W. Parr, associate professor of bacteriology, School of Medicine,

George Washington University, was elected to membership in recognition

of his contributions to the application of immunological methods to the

anthropology of the near East and for work with the International Health

Board.

Emmett W. Price, parasitologist, Bureau of Animal Industry, was

elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to helminthology,

especially the taxonomy of trematodes.

CHARLES F. Ross, director of research, National Recovery Administra-

tion, was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions to

the mathematical theory of economics.

J. H. St. JoHn, major U.S. A., director, Department of Protozoology,

Army Medical School, was elected to membership in recognition of his con-

tributions in protozoology.

Tuomas D. Stewart, assistant curator, Division of Physical Anthro-

pology, U. S. National Museum, was elected to membership in recognition

of his contributions to physical anthropology, particularly Eskimo osteology

and primate myology.

Lawson E. Yocum, assistant professor of botany, George Washington

University, was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions

to plant physiology, especially in the field of seed and seedling physiology.

DonnELL B. Youna, professor of zoology, George Washington Univer-

sity, was elected to membership in recognition of his contributions in the

field of protozoology.

456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No: 10

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

_ Nortss

Smithsonian Institution.—The Smithsonian Institution commemorated

on August 22 the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Samur, PinrPont

LANGLEY, for many years its secretary, and noted pioneer in the science of

aerodynamics and the art of aviation.

Dr. Aures Hrpuicka, curator of physical anthropology at the U. S.

National Museum, led a party of five students in archaeology to renew his

explorations of early culture sites on Kodiak island.

Austin H. Cuark, curator of echinoderms at the U. 8S. National Museum,

has re-discovered the long-lost caterpillar of the gold-banded skipper butter-

fly, which had not been seen since it was first described by JoHN ABBOT in

1790. tae ae ; :

Studying the killing effects on algae of eight different wavelengths in the

ultraviolet, FLORENCE E. Merrer discovered that each had its own specific

‘“‘radiotoxic spectral sensitivity,” that is, its minimum quantity that would

sooner or later result in death. Each wavelength also had a specific ‘‘radio-

toxic virulence’’; that is, the measure of time required to produce the killing

effect. The two qualities are not necessarily combined in the same wave-

lengths.

A large collection of Plestppus fossils, from Pliocene strata near Hager-

man, Idaho, has been excavated by C. Lewis Gazin of the U.S. National

Museum. They are being brought here for preparation.

U. S. Department of Agriculture—Dr. JoHN R. Moutusr, chief of the

Bureau of Animal Industry, was elected president of the Twelfth Interna-

tional Veterinary Congress, held in New York City August 13 to 18. Six

members of the Bureau presented papers, among them Dr. Maurice C.

Hau, who urged international action in combatting the spread of animal

parasites, and Dr. A. E. WicHtT, who upheld the American method of eradi-

cation as a means for the control of bovine tuberculosis.

Gonad transplantations had relatively little effect when tried on cattle in

a series of experiments performed by Dr. Frep W. Miuumr, R. R. Graves

and Dr. G. T. Crercu of the Department. Their results are not in accord

with the claims made for the Voronoff operation on livestock, which has

been widely used especially in France and the U.S.S.R.

Implants of normal ovarian and testicular tissue from cattle and pigs

were made respectively in cows and bulls of various ages and conditions

of health. Results were almost completely negative.

The destruction of all wild mammals except deer over an area of 192,000

acres in Maine, necessitated because of an epidemic of rabies among the

foxes, will be made the occasion for a special study by members of the

Bureau of Biological Survey, on the response of game and song birds to the

total suppression of predators that normally keep their numbers reduced.

The Weather Bureau, with the aid of over 200 temporary employees

furnished by the Civil Works Administration, has completed the compilation

of a great mass of normal rainfall data for about 4,500 stations, based on

the 35-year period 1898-1932. The compilation will probably not be pub-

lished in its entirety in the near future, but the information is now accessible

in Washington to any student who can use it.

U. 8. National Park Service.—Director ARNO B.~-CAMMERER returned to

OCTOBER 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 457

Washington early in September from the West, where he inspected a num-

ber of the parks and monuments. Director CAMMERER has been named to

represent the United States on the International Commission on Historical

Monuments. This commission was authorized at a conference of experts of

the International Museums Office, at Athens in 1931, and a working pro-

gram was approved by the Assembly of the League of Nations in October,

1933.

Rocer W. Tout, superintendent of Yellowstone National Park, is now

in Washington in connection with the preparation of the recreation section

of the Natural Resources Board report, which must be in the hands of the

President by December 1 of this year. Ben H. THompson of the Service’s

Wildlife Division at Berkeley, California, is also in Washington aiding with

this report.

ELBERT Cox, assistant park historian on the Colonial National Monu-

ment staff, who has been on detail to the Washington Office for the past

year supervising the historical research staff and assisting chief historian

CHATELAIN in the preparation of educational programs in the historical

parks and other military areas, has been appointed superintendent of the

Morristown National Historical Park in New Jersey.

Children’s Bureau, U. 8S. Department of Labor.—A-study of the compara-

bility of maternal mortality rates, dealing particularly with similarities and

differences in different countries of assigning cause to deaths certified to be

associated with pregnancy and childbirth, and the effect of such differences

upon the comparability of the figures of the United States and 16 foreign

countries has been completed and the report, written by Dr. ELizaBETH

C. Tanpy, director of the Statistical Division of the Children’s Bureau, is

ready to go to press.

- In an effort to determine the effect of various forms of treatment during

the early weeks of life, the child and maternal health division of the Chil-

dren’s Bureau is making a study of the care and treatment of premature in-

fants born at the New Haven Hospital during the past 74 years. Careful

analysis of the cause of death is being made in the case of those infants who

died. As approximately half of the 85,000 neonatal deaths occurring each

year in the United States are due to prematurity, it is apparent that study

of the problem of prematurity and provision of better care of the premature

infant are urgently needed.

During the month of September a physician from the staff of the Chil-

dren’s Bureau will examine 200 Indian children in the pueblos near Santa

Fe, New Mexico, as part of a three-year investigation being carried on by the

Santa Fe Anthropological Laboratories and the Office of Indian Affairs of

the Interior Department. The children will be studied from the point of

view of growth and development and physical health. In addition special

studies of dental development and the incidence of tuberculosis will prob-

ably be made. The pediatrician from the Children’s Bureau will make the

physical examinations and assist with the tuberculosis studies.

Carnegie Institution of Washington—Arrangements have been made

through the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institu-

tion of Washington for the latter’s Cosmic-Ray Committee, in cooperation

with the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, to install an automatic-

recording cosmic-ray meter at the Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory,

Maryland, in September or October 1934.

458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

Dr. L. R. Harstap of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism sailed

September 5 to attend the meeting of the International Union of Scientific

Radiotelegraphy in London (September 12-19) and the joint meeting of the

International Union of Pure and Applied Physics with the London Physical

Society, also in London (October 1-6). He will take part in a symposium

on nuclear physics during the latter meeting and will present several com-

munications for the Department on investigations of the ionosphere to the

former. .

Prof. G. Gamow of the Polytechnical Institute, Leningrad, spoke on some

new conceptions of the structure of the nuclei at the Department of Ter-

restrial Magnetism, September 4 and 10.

Development of standards.—An examination of the first 496 codes approved

by the National Recovery Administration reveals that 195 of them, or 41

per cent, have provisions for standards of some sort, according to a report

to the American Standards Association, cooperating with the National

Bureau of Standards. Ninety-three industries desire standards but have yet

to obtain them.

Out of the 496 codes examined, 63 demand standardization on the basis

of the work of some government agency. The specific agencies cited as au-

thorities for standards include: the National Bureau of Standards, The

American Standards Association, The American Society of Testing Ma-

terials, Federal Trade Commission, U. 8. Public Health Service, U. S. De-

partment of Agriculture and the Interstate Commerce Commission, to-

gether with trade associations which have done prior pioneer work in es-

tablishing their own industrial standards.

New type beacon reflector —The slash in the budget of the Bureau of Air

Commerce a year ago led to the development of a new type reflector for air-

plane beacons which enables a 500 watt electric light bulb to outshine the

1,000 watt bulbs formerly used. Last year the beacons on the Federal Air-

ways system used 1,000 watt, 1,600,000 candlepower lamps with prismatic

cover glasses. The order for economy came through and the lamps were

changed to 500 watt bulbs. The candlepower went down to 750,000. At the

same time, however, the National Bureau of Standards was ordered to in-

vestigate ways of increasing the lighting power of the 500 watt lamps. F.

CHAPIN BRECKINRIDGE, of the Bureau, made tests on various types of 500

watt lamps, cover glasses and auxiliary reflectors. The final result is a beacon

with a 500 watt bulb, plain cover glass and a new type auxiliary reflector

which yields 2,000,000 candlepower—about 25 per cent more than the old

1,000 watt bulbs.

Is the United States getting wider?—The distance between Washington,

D. C., and San Diego, Calif., showed an apparent increase of about forty

feet in 1933 as compared with measurements made seven years earlier. This

discrepancy was reported at the meeting of the American Astronomical

Society at Connecticut College by C. B. Watts of the U. S. Naval Observa-

tory. Mr. Warts stated that he suspected some systematic error; it appears

easier for astronomers to make an error of forty feet in measuring a line

3,000 miles long than for the United States to grow forty feet “fatter” in

seven years.

OCTOBER 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 459

News BRIEFS

Sodium vapor lamps have no special advantages or disadvantages when

used by persons engaged in clerical work indoors, Dr. Jamus E. Ivzs, senior

physicist of the U. 8. Public Health Service has reported, after a three

months’ test conducted in New York City. C.W.A. clerical workers partici-

pated in the test.

Installation of special radio receivers at filling stations and other points

along motor routes to supply autoists with weather information is sug-

gested by the Bureau of Air Commerce. Every hour 68 airways broadcast

stations in the United States send out the latest weather news for the benefit

of fliers. This information, often valuable for motorists, could be made

available by the installation of 200 to 400 kilocycle receivers at places

motorists frequent on a cross country trip.

Radio talks given under the auspices of Science Service, over the network

of the Columbia Broadcasting System, were as follows: August 15, Fighting

plant diseases, by F. C. Mrizur, U.S. Department of Agriculture; August 22,

Can you live without water? by ABEL WoLMAN, State of Maryland Depart-

ment of Health; August 29, Health and the depression, by GEORGE St. J.

Perrott, U. 8. Public Health Service and Milbank Memorial Fund; Sep-

tember 5, Is America about to lose her elms? by StanuEy B. FrRacksEr, U. 8.

Department of Agriculture; September 12, Harnessing scientific discoveries,

by P. G. Agnew, American Standards Association.

PERSONAL ITEMS

Lt.-Col. Jutes VoNCKEN of the medical service of the Belgian Army and

director of the Military Hospital at Liége, arrived in Washington Septem-

ber 5 for a three-day visit. He is en route to Tokyo, where he will represent

his country at the International Conference of Red Cross Societies. Colonel

VONCKEN visited the Surgeons General of the Army, Navy and Public

Health Service, as well as the various Government medical establishments.

On September 6 a luncheon was held in his honor at the Army and Navy

Club.

Dr. IsatanH Bowman, secretary of the National Research Council, was

president of the International Geographical Congress which met in Warsaw

during the last week in August. In his presidential address, Dr. BowMAN

emphasized the need for competent geographic information, if efforts to

adjust present mal-distributions of natural resources among nations are ever

to receive equitable readjustment.

Prof. Joun M. Coorsmr of the Catholic University of America returned

early in September from an anthropological expedition among the Indians in

the territory east of Hudson Bay. Father Coopnr is obtaining from the older

members of these primitive tribes a record of the religious beliefs they held

before the coming of European missionaries.

Dr. C. F. Marvin, former chief of the Weather Bureau, U. 8. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, retired on August 25, after fifty years’ service as a

meteorologist. He had been chief of the bureau for twenty-one years.

460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 10

Dr. C. F. Marsvut, chief of the division of soil survey of the Bureau of

Chemistry and Soils of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, who was re-

cently appointed honorary professor of soils at the University of Missouri,

left at the end of August for a conference on soils in Barcelona, after which

he will participate in an excursion of soil specialists over the Spanish penin-

sula and part of North Africa. He plans later to spend a few months as ad-

viser on soils to the Geological Survey of China, returning to the United

States in the spring, after having spent some time in India.

Obituary

Karu FREDERIC KELLERMAN, principal bacteriologist, in charge of the

Division of Plant Disease Eradication of the Bureau of Entomology and

Plant Quarantine, in the Department of Agriculture, died August 30, at

Washington, D. C. Dr. KeLLERMAN was born in Gottingen, Germany,

December 9, 1879. After attending Ohio State University, 1896 to 1899,

he received the degree of B.S. from Cornell in 1900 and served as assistant

botanist at that institution in 1901. Joining the Bureau of Plant Industry

in the same year, he served successively as assistant physiologist, physiolo-

gist in charge of the Laboratory of Plant Physiology, physiologist in charge

of soil bacteriology, assistant chief (1914), and associate chief (1917), re-

maining in the latter position until 1933 when he took up the work of direct-

ing plant disease eradication projects for the Bureau of Plant Quarantine.

Dr. KELLERMAN was instrumental in founding the Journal of Agricultural

Research and served for 11 years as chairman of its editorial board. During

the War he was a member of the National Research Council. He was also

a member for a number of years of the Federal Horticulture Board and took

an active part in the work of that organization in carrying on plant quaran-

tine activities. In addition to the Washington Academy of Sciences, Dr.

KELLERMAN was a member of the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science, the Botanical Society of America, the Botanical Society

of Washington, the Society of American Bacteriologists, the Society of

Naturalists, International Society of Soil Science, and Sigma Xi. He re-

ceived the degree of Doctor of Science from Kansas College in 1923.

CONTENTS —

oe a ae Papers | = es -

Hawaii. “Austin B. RE Raa.

Geophysics ——A note on the elastic properties of rocks.

Paleontology. —The pelecypod genus Vulsella i in the Oem limestone

and its bearing on correlation. F. Stmarns ey N EIL.. + o wiek

ee po

oo me —The American species of Blytraria, E. ‘C. Leowanp. tele

Ethnology. —A negro peyote cult. Mrs. Tee G See : - 2 :

PROCEEDINGS Ws

TE ASADEME Sos aS

Scmtiric Notes 4np Nuws.4i05 0 oe eee

~ eis AL

Oprruary.—Karu FREpERic Kenumewan, PA he cee

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Sica eae

]

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 No. 11

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

= | 7 BOARD OF EDITORS

8 Joun A. STEVENSON F. G. Brick WEDDE

“A 4 BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS

. ASSOCIATE EDITORS

RS H. T. WensEx Harotp Morrigon

he PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

E. A. GOLDMAN W. W. Rusay

ye BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

4 AGNES CHASE J. R. Swanton

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President: L. B. TuckKERMAN, Bureau of Standards.

Corresponding Secretary: Pau E. Hows, Bureau of Animal Industry.

Recording Secretary: CHARLES THoM, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

Treasurer: Hunry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey. |

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 24 NOVEMBER 15, 1934 No. 11

PHYSICS.—The wirial theorem for nonholonomic systems. R. J.

SEEGER, The George Washington University.

The original statement? of Clausius’ Virial Theorem is as follows:

Die mitilere lebendige Kraft des Systems ist gleich seinem Virial. This

is the same as is usually given in modern textbooks’ despite the fact

that it has been extended to include systems involving frictional

forces,‘ relativistic mechanics® and wave-mechanics.® What has not

been noted, however, is that each of these cases is a special form of a

much more general theorem. And this is the very reason an analogous

theorem can be derived that holds equally well for holonomic and

for nonholonomic systems. The following proofs are given on the

basis of relativistic mechanics.

Consider a holonomic dynamic system composed of m particles

with mass m; and velocity v;. If there are n degrees of freedom, La-

grange’s equations of motion (of the second form) may be written

in terms of the generalized coérdinates q., the generalized forces Q.

and the relativistic function 7” as follows:

oun) ol

“{ =-)- =Q. a =1, 2, Se ae gia

dt\ Og Oda

m ee

T’=- >> moee(1 —").

i=1 O

In this expression for 7” the velocities v; must be expressed as func-

tions of the generalized codrdinates and of the generalized velocities

(c represents the velocity of light). Multiplying each of Lagrange’s

equations respectively by D*q., where

1 Received August 13, 1934.

2 Cuausius, R. Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem. 2: 124. 1870.

3 JEANS, J. H. The dynamical ineory. a gases (4th ed. 1925). 1380. Loss, L. B.

Kinetic theory of gases (2nd ed. 1934).

4 Miune, HE. A. Phil. Mag. 50: 469. G08,

5 RuarkK and Urry. Atoms, molecules and quanta (1930). 739.

Wee STEEN, B. Zs. f. Phys. 50: 293. 1927. Fock, V. Zs. f. Phys. 63: 855.

where

461

462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. I1

DEC.

adt*

D5q,.=

and using the identities

d /oT’ d

(D¥qu) — y= D

dt\ 0ga/ dt

d oT”

SEX (DES - a5 DEtq,

ae Qo) A \

oT’ aT

alae \ (Deeg,

da 0

we have

= (D¥q.)Qa

Adding these n equations, we multiply the result by the differential

of the time and integrate over a long period of time 7. Hence,

fe » 5 (ota) St di— | a (Dk+1q,

-{- » (D*q.) =

op 2 (D¥q.)QaAt.

Dividing by the time 7, we have

[wot Bow te

+f" Xorg) a= f" Y weg.rQude

If we now restrict the codrdinates and velocities within a region of

finite values, i.e., a steady state, we can take the time 7 sufficiently

long that the first term becomes relatively negligible, whereas the

other terms represent average values. Thus

oT”

= Ewer.) = ants X (D%q.) 5 =

1 n

Bias yy (D¥q.)Oz-

The expression on the am may be called the generalized virial and

the entire relation the general virial theorem. It is customary to con-

sider the special case for K equal to 0. Therefore

n oP: n oT’

De Ge = dt

2 a=] OGa

l n

Ses a Gan

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 SEEGER: VIRIAL THEOREM 463

If T’ is a homogeneous quadratic function of all the velocities g., the

first term becomes simply 7’. And in non-relativistic mechanics,

where TJ’ reduces to the kinetic energy T, it signifies the average

energy of the system. We note, however, that this is not usually

equal to the generalized virial on account of the non-momental part

Pay se ee 1 ee ene

of the effective forces, which give rise to the term 5) DS Ge is To be

a=1 Va

sure, we can formally modify our definition of the generalized virial

to include this term. But regardless of the particular choice we make,

the fact remains that it must be taken into account some place. The

usual form of the viriai theorem is accidental in that Cartesian

coordinates are employed for which ——=0. All the same, its sim-

plicity of form and ease of physical interpretation render it more

useful than the theorem in terms of generalized coordinates. As for

the general virial theorem (K any value), it is still less convenient

here, but very desirable for nonholonomic systems. Incidentally, we

note that this theorem holds, not only for a steady state, but also

for a periodic system if the average is taken over a time 7 equal to an

integral multiple of the fundamental period.

Let us now consider a nonholonomic dynamic system, 1.e., one in

which the essential minimum number of codrdinates r is h more than

the number of degrees of freedom n on account of h non-integrable

relations, viz.,

D> dapdda +bsdt =0 B= 2 eh

a=1

where a. and b; are functions of the codrdinates q, and the time ¢t. We

can write Appell’s equations of motion’ in terms of n generalized

coordinates q, (selected in a certain way from the all the r codrdinates),

modified forces Q, and the relativistic energy of the accelerations A

as follows:

0g,

=". Vii, aoe

7 SEEGER, R. J. This JouRNAL. 20: 481. 1930.

464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

where

3 2 an a cee 2,7).

tae

The energy of the accelerations must be expressed as a function of the

coérdinates q,, the velocities g, and the accelerations q,. Proceeding

in the same as in the proof for holonomic systems, we finally obtain

=D (WsHq), = -> S (Da) ,.

y=1 OFy 2 y=1

Let us call the expression on the right the generalized virzal of the

accelerations. Then we have a new form of the virial theorem, which

is superior to that deduced from Lagrange’s equations in that it

holds for both holonomic and nonholonomic systems (the former is a

special case of the latter for h equal to zero). We find it convenient

to take K equal to one this time. Therefore

on i

ES q coy aa ay ea

9 = a, 2

> dyQy-

For, if A is a homogeneous quadratic function of q,, the term on the

left becomes A. And our theorem states that the average relativistic

energy of the accelerations is equal to the wrial of the accelerations.

This is always true for Cartesian codrdinates in nonrelativistic me-

chanics. This theorem is as simple as the usual virial theorem. But

we conclude that in both cases the simplicity is not so much inherent

in the dynamic system as it is the result of a judicious choice of the

type of codrdinates and of the value assigned to K.

CHEMISTRY.—4-Chloroveratralhippuric acid and some of its deriva-

tives.1 RayMonp M. Hann. Private Laboratory of J. P.

Wetherill, Washington, D. C. (Communicated by R. E. Grs-

SON.)

In prior communications the condensation of 5-chloroveratric

aldehyde with aliphatic and aromatic amides,” and its conversion to

3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chlorobenzoic acid through hydrolysis of the nitrile

formed by acetylation of the syn form of its oxime,’? have been de-

1 Received September 8, 1934.

2 Hann. This JOURNAL, 24: 125. 1934.

3 Hann. This JOURNAL, 24: 329. 1934.

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 HANN: ACID DERIVATIVES 465

scribed. The present paper records the condensation of this aldehyde

with hippuric acid to form the azlactone of 5-chloroveratralhippuric

acid, and the utilization of the latter in the preparation of some of the

simpler derivatives of 5-chloroveratralhippuric acid. Further study

is being made of the azlactone as an intermediate in the synthesis of

3, 4-dimethoxy-5-chlorophenylpyruric acid.

EXPERIMENTAL

§-Chloroveratralhippuric acid azlactone.—A solution of 5 g. 5-chloro-

veratric aldehyde, 4.5 g. of hippuric acid and 2 g. of pulverized fused

sodium acetate in 25 cc. of acetic anhydride was heated under reflux

on the steam bath. The solution rapidly changed in color from straw

yellow to deep red and a yellow precipitate formed almost at once,

completely filling the solution at the end of one-half hour, when the

suspension was cooled and 100 cc. of water added. The yellow solid

was filtered, washed with water and dried. Yield 6.9 g. (80% of

theory).

5-Chloroveratralhippuric acid azlactone crystallizes from 95%

alcohol (1 g. in 200 cc.) in radiating clusters of golden yellow glisten-

ing needles which melt at 161°C. (corr.) to a clear yellow oil.

Anal.—o0.1591 g. consumed 4.82 ce. 0.1 N acid equivalent to 4.24%

nitrogen. Theory for C:sHi,0O,NCl is 4.08% nitrogen.

5-Chloroveratralhippuric acid.—A suspension of 3 g. of the azlactone

in 80 ce. water and 7 ce. of 10% NaOH was refluxed for one-half

hour when a clear solution resulted. The cold solution was acidified

with dilute hydrochloric acid and the precipitated acid filtered,

washed with water and dried. Yield 2.7 g. The acid was practically

insoluble in water and was recrystallized from twenty parts of 50%

alcohol for analysis.

5-Chloroveratralhippuric acid crystallizes in colorless, glistening

needles melting at 192°C.

Anal.—0.1493 g. consumed 4.12 cc. 0.1 N acid equivalent to 3.86%

nitrogen. Theory for CisHisO;NCI is 3.87% nitrogen.

5-Chloroveratralhippuramide.—A suspension of 2.5 g. of azlactone

in 20 cc. of 95% alcohol and 10 ce. of strong ammonia solution in

water was gently heated on the steam bath. The solution rapidly

lightened in color and the yellow needles of azlactone were replaced

by shining, colorless leaflets. After one-half hour 50 cc. of water was

added and the precipitate filtered off and recrystallized from 150 cc.

of 95% alcohol. Yield 2.1 g.

The substituted hippuramide crystallizes in microcrystalline, glist-

466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

ening platelets melting at 213-4°C. (corr.) to a red oil with consider-

able decomposition. It is colorless when first crystallized, but becomes

slightly yellow on standing.

Anal.—0.1687 g. consumed 9.44 cc. 0.1 N acid equivalent to

7.84% nitrogen. Theory for CisH1;0,N2Cl is 7.77% nitrogen.

5-Chloroveratralhippuramide.—One gram of the hippuramide, de-

scribed above, was refluxed with 20 cc. of 10% sodium hydroxide

and 30 cc. of water, the amide dissolving to give a clear intensely

yellow solution. At the end of five minutes a yellow precipitate came

down; the heating was discontinued, the cooled solution acidified to

congo red by addition of 1:1 hydrochloric acid, and the precipitate

filtered off and dried. It was recrystallized from 350 cc. 95% alcohol

and was obtained in brilliant yellow needles melting at 286—7°C.

(corr.) to a red tar-like liquid; this melting point remained unchanged

by further recrystallization. The imide dissolves in sulfuric acid with

production of an intense red color.

Anal.—0.1438 g. consumed 8.38 cc. 0.1 N acid equivalent to 8.16%

nitrogen. Theory for C:sH,;03;N.2Cl is 8.18% nitrogen.

Methyl 5-chloroveratralhippurate-—Three grams of 5-chlorovera-

tralhippuric acid azlactone were boiled under reflux with 30 cc. of

anhydrous methyl alcohol and a granule of solid sodium hydroxide

for eight minutes. Rapid solution and partial decolorization of the

azlactone resulted and after cooling, water (18 cc.) was gradually

added to bring about crystallization of the methyl ester. The yield

of 2.5 g. was recrystallized from 50 ce. of 50% alcohol to constant

melting point.

The methyl ester of 5-chloroveratralhippuric acid crystallizes in

colorless, shining needles which melt at 185°C. (corr.) to a clear,

colorless oil.

Anal.—Caled. for CyH:s0;NCI: C, 60.70: H, 4.83.4 Found: C,

60.69: H, 4.73, .1669 g. consumed 4.56 cc. 0.1 N acid equivalent to

3.83% nitrogen. Theory for C,.His0;NCl is 3.73% nitrogen.

Ethyl 5-chloroveratralhippurate.—This ester was prepared in the

same manner as the methy] ester and crystallized in colorless, brilliant

needles melting at 104°C. (corr.) to a clear oil.

Anal.—0.1546 g. consumed 3.95 cc. 0.1 N acid equivalent to 3.58%

nitrogen. Theory for CooH2OsNCl is 3.60% nitrogen.

SUMMARY

5-Chloroveratralhippuric acid, its azlactone, amide, imide, and

methyl and ethyl esters have been prepared and described.

4 Appreciation is expressed to Dr. E. L. Jackson for this analysis.

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 467

BOTAN Y.—Additional Costa Rican Mosses, III.) Epwin B. Bar-

TRAM, Bushkill, Pennsylvania.

During the past three years many collections from various sources

have added many new and interesting species to the Costa Rican

moss flora. The number and variety of these additions indicate very

plainly that the mosses of this comparatively small area are still

imperfectly known. Undoubtedly further exploration, especially in

the more inaccessible mountain regions, will expand the list of local

species to a considerable extent. Under these circumstances it seems

unwise to make up even a tentative list just yet, but I am hopeful

that with the continued help of some of the active resident botanists

it may be possible in the course of a few years to produce a fairly

complete outline of the mosses of this rich and interesting region.

Professor Manuel Valerio, Director of the Museo Nacional in

San José, continues to collect as far as his activities in the Museum

will permit and expects shortly to make a trip to the Cerro del

Chirripé, a practically unexplored region, from which much may be

expected. As a direct result of the sustained activity and interest of

Professor Anastasio Alfaro during the past year we owe the addition

of many valuable records. To Senior Fed. Gutierrez, whose collections

have been transmitted through the kindness of Professor Alfaro, we

are indebted for an unusually valuable series of collections from the

Banana River, in the low country along the Atlantic coast, which

includes many novelties. The collections of C. W. Dodge and W. 8.

Thomas were kindly entrusted to me by Dr. Dodge for determination

and a small series, including a new species of Squamidium, was sent

in by the collector, Professor H. E. Stork of Carleton College, North-

field, Minnesota. To these gentlemen I wish to express my profound

thanks. It is mainly through their efforts and cooperation that the

results detailed in the following list have been made possible.

FISSIDENTACEAE

FISSIDENS MOLLIS Mitt.

Banana River, 80 m., May 238, 1934, F. Gutzerrez; San Luis de Turribares,

450 m., Prov. San José, July 15, 1933, M. Valerio 359.

The agreement between these specimens and collections from the Antilles

is reasonably complete, and I have but little hesitation in crediting the

species to Costa Rica.

FIssIDENS KEGELIANUS C. M.

Banana River, 80 m., May 14, 19384, May 23, 1934, June 9, 1934, FP.

Gutierrez.

1 Received July 28, 1934.

468 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

This is one of the few minute species of the section Bryoidium that seems

to be fairly well defined. The enlarged, lax areolation of the duplicate blades

contrasts sharply with the smaller hexagonal cells of the apical and dorsal

blades and appears to be a good diagnostic character. It is an interesting

addition to the local flora.

FISSIDENS GARBERI Lesq. & James.

Roadsides south of Liberia, 100 m., Prov. Guanacaste, Jan. 16, 1930,

C. W. Dodge & W. S. Thomas 6595.

Fissidens Garberz is new to the Costa Rican flora, but these plants are not

exactly typical. The costa ends considerably below the apex, which is

broadly rounded in many leaves, and the leaf cells are rather obscure and

more coarsely papillose with sharp papillae. As these distinctions may not

be of much consequence in such a large and intricate group of species, I am

inclined to refer this collection here as an unusual form.

DICRANACEAE

TREMATODON LONGICOLLIS Michx.

Tilaran, 700 m., March 15, 1934, A. Alfaro; La Fuente, 1200 m., Dec. 27,

1933, A. Alfaro 47.

This is one of the smaller forms that might be referred to T. reflecus C. M..,

but, as Mrs. Britton has remarked? this species is probably only a small

form of 7. longicollis. It is an interesting new record for Costa Rica and helps

to bridge the gap between Guatemala and the South American stations in

Brazil and Bolivia.

DICRANELLA STANDLEYI Bartr.

Additional records for this endemic species are as follows: La Fuente,

1200 m., Oct. 16, 1933 and Dec. 27, 1933, A. Alfaro.

DICRANELLA BARBENSIS Ren. & Card.

Coronado, 1500 m., Jan. 7, 19384, A. Alfaro.

Although the peristome is up to 270u high, almost twice the height given

by Mr. Williams in North American Flora, this collection, which is in prime

fruit, seems without much doubt to belong here. The teeth are coarsely

papillose, not vertically striate, cleft to about the middle into 2 or 3 unequal

prongs, and the leaf blade is produced nearly or quite to the apex so that the

costa is barely percurrent.

CAMPYLOPODIUM PUSILLUM (Schp.) Williams.

Volean Pods, 2500 m., Jan. 4, 1934, A. Alfaro 52a.

A number of fruiting plants of this attractive little species were separated

from tufts of Ceratodon stenocarpus. This is the only collection I know of from

Costa Rica.

2 North American Flora, 15: 53. 1913.

NOVEMBER 15, 19384 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 469

CAMPYLOPUS FRAGILIS (Dicks.) Bry. Eur.

San Jerénimo, 1400 m., Nov. 15, 1933, A. Alfaro.

Not previously known from Costa Rica. This species will be separated

from C. flexuosus (Hedw.) Brid. by the absence of any differentiated alar

cells; also the leaf base is more contracted to the insertion.

LEUCOLOMA TORTELLUM (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Upper slopes of Cerro San José de Libano, 500-960 m., Prov. Guanacaste,

Feb. 15, 1930, C. W. Dodge, R. Hanckel, & W. S. Thomas 7918.

The range of this unique species seems to be gradually expanding. Mr.

Williams restricts it to Guadeloupe and Trinidad in North American Flora.

It was later found by Mr. Paul C. Standley in the Lancetilla Valley, Hon-

duras.* The locality in Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica, not only helps

to outline more clearly the area in which it may be looked for but also adds

another interesting species to the local flora.

CALYMPERACEAE

SYRRHOPODON GUADICHAUDII Mont.

La Fuente, 1200 m., Dec. 4, 1933, A. Alfaro 37.

These collections are in fine fruit and add a second locality to the Costa

Rican record.

Syrrhopodon aculeo-ciliatus Bartr., sp. nov.

Figure 1.

Gracilescens, caespitosus, caespitibus laxiusculis, pallide viridibus. Caulis

ad 2.5 cm. longus, basi radiculosus, dichotome ramosus vel simplex. Folia

ad 2mm. longa, sicca contorta, humida patentia, e basi vaginante auguste

linearia, obtusa, limbata, limbo angusto hyalino sub apice evanido; mar-

ginibus incurvis, argute serratis, in parte superiore vaginae et summo apice

dentibus aculeiformibus instructis; nervo tenui, infra apicem folii evanido,

dorso scabro; cellulis laminalibus minutis rotundatis, dorso minutissime

papillosis, ventri mamillosis; cancellina supra rotundata. Caetera ignota.

Dioicous? Slender plants growing in small lax tufts, pale green above,

brownish below. Stems up to 2.5 cm. high, simple or forked above, sparingly

radiculose near base. Leaves about 5 mm. long, flexuose, spreading, twisted

and contorted when dry, widely spreading when moist, linear-lanceolate

from a white, erect, narrow clasping base about 2 mm. long, gradually con-

tracted to a linear, channelled or subtubulose point, blunt at apex, bordered

from just below the apex to the base with 1-3 rows of elongate hyaline cells;

margin erect or incurved, spinose-ciliate at shoulders of leaf and at apex,

distantly spinose in median part of blade; costa pale and thin, about 45y

wide toward base, ending just below the apex, spinose on back toward apex,

smooth below, spinose on ventral side about half-way down, in cross section

near midleaf showing a median row of about 6 guide cells with stereid bands

on both sides, the outer layer of cells on ventral surface well differentiated;

’ Field Museum of Natural History, Bot. Series, 4: 352. 1929.

470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

AVN

> ()

OOO

5o = @)

Ovvv0

SOOGSS0c

DOOQGOD0OG

va /

Fig. 1.—Syrrhopodon aculeo-ciliatus Bartr. a—Plant X1. b.—Leaf X14. ¢.—

Apex of leaf in profile X80. d.—Apex of leaf from upper side X80. e.—Upper leaf

cells and margin X400. f.—Cells and margin near leaf shoulder X400. g.—Frag-

ee ot cross section from upper part of leaf 400. h.—Part of leaf from upper

side X80.

cells of leaf blade rounded, incrassate, 6-8 in diameter, mamillose on inner

surface, minutely papillose on the back; cancellinae filling nearly all the

leaf base, rounded or ending in obtuse angles above, in 8-10 rows. Sporophyte

unknown.

Type: La Hondura, Costa Rica, August 15, 1933, M. Valerio 369a.

This species seems to be closely allied to S. Leprieurt Mont., but is notic-

ably different in the pale green color, the mamillose leaf cells, and the

spinose margins of the leaf blade.

SYRRHOPODON PARASITICUS (Sw.) Besch.

Tilaran, 700 m., March 15, 1934, A. Alfaro.

Even though the leaves of the Costa Rican plants seem to lack entirely

the narrow hyaline border of elongated cells, they agree perfectly in other

particulars with collections from Florida and Yucatan and evidently repre-

sent a form of S. parasiticus. The characteristic filiform propagula are

abundant on the inner faces of the comal leaves.

NOVEMBER 15, 1984 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 471

CALYMPERES LONCHOPHYLLUM Schwaegr.

Banana River, 100 m., April 27, 1934, F. Gutierrez.

An interesting but not unexpected addition to the local flora which assists

in consolidating the geographical range of the species. This species extends

to northeastern Guatemala and British Honduras.

| POTTIACEAE

HYMENOSTOMUM MEXICANUM Card.

Pirtbi, 1100 m., Oct. 28, 1933, A: Alfaro.

LEPTODONTIUM ORcuTTI Bartr.

Potreros between Guayabillos and Cabeza de Vaca, 2150-2350 m., Prov.

San José, Nov. 4, 1929, C. W. Dodge & W. S. Thomas 4922.

Evidently this species is confined to fairly high altitudes in Costa Rica.

The only other local station known is at an altitude of 3300 m., on Volcan

Irazu.

BARBULA SUBULIFOLIA Sull.

Syn.: Barbula subulirostre Bartr. in herbaria.

San Pedro, 1170 m., Sept. 1933, A. Alfaro 4, 27; Banana River, 100 m.,

April 27, 1934, F. Ginveme:

It did not occur to me to associate these collections with B. subuliolia

Sull. until after I had distributed several packets under the new name. Fur-

ther study has convinced me that all the above collections are clearly refer-

able to B. subulzfolia Sull., which does not seem to have been noted in Cen-

tral America before. The long subulate operculum, often appreciably longer

than the urn, the long, tightly twisted peristome teeth, the subulate leaf

points (usually obtuse and toothed at the apex), and the smooth quadrate

leaf cells are fairly stable characters in the aggregate, but the leaves vary

considerably in outline and it is probable that a number of nearly related

“species” from the Antilles will eventually find their way into the synonymy

of B. subulifolia.

BARBULA CRUGERI Sond.

Banana River, 80 m., May 20, 1934, F. Gutzerrez.

New to Costa Rica, so far as I know. This well known and easily recog-

nized species is common in the Antilles but apparently very rare in Central

America. It appears again, like so many other Caribbean types, in the

Andes of South America. The geographical distribution of these species

seems to be in the form of a narrow band extending directly north and

south through Colombia, western Venezuela, eastern Costa Rica, and the

Greater Antilles to Cuba, with a few extensions to Florida and the northern

shores of the Gulf of Mexico.

472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

TORTULA MNIIFOLIA (Sull.) Mitt.

Banana River, 80 m., May 23, 1934, F. Gutierrez.

Only the second local record for this attractive species, which ranges from

Cuba to Peru.

TORTULA CAROLINIANA Andrews.

San Ildefonso, 1500 m., Jan. 21, 1934, A. Alfaro; Volcan Barba, 2250 m.,

March 11, 1934, A. Alfaro.

In these collections the propagula are often scattered over the ventral sur-

face of the leaf toward the apex, rather than congested in apical clusters,

but in other respects the plants agree perfectly with the species.

SPLACHNACEAE

SPLACHNOBRYUM OBTUSUM C. M.

Banana River, 80 m., April 27 to May 20th, 1934, F. Gutzerrez.

Five packets are included here in a collective sense without any great

assurance that they are all representative of one specific type. The plants

with leaves from 1 to 1.2 mm. long, are all more robust than S. Ber-

noullit C. M., but there is considerable variation in the length of the stems,

the crenulation of the leaf margins, the relative length of the costa, and the

shape of the apex.

BRYACEAE

BRACHYMENIUM STANDLEYI Bartr.

Coronado, 1500 m., Jan. 7, 1934, A. Alfaro; San Ildefonso, 1500 m.,

Jan. 21, 1934, A. Alfaro.

Brachymenium bulbiferum Bartr., nom. nov.

Syn.: Brachymenium viviparum Bartr. Cont. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 26: 77.

1928. Not B. viviparum Ren. & Card. 1898-99.

Fuente, 1200 m., Dec. 8, 1933, A. Alfaro.

M. Theriot has kindly called my attention to the fact that the name B.

viviparum Bartr. is preoccupied. Unfortunately the above collection fails to

show any mature fruit, although the setae are well developed. Until the

peristome characters are available its systematic position must remain

uncertain.

ANOMOBRYUM SEMIOVATUM (Brid.) Jaeg.

San Pedro, 1170 m., Jan. 20, 1934, A. Alfaro 68.

Although this species has been credited to Costa Rica this is the first local

collection I have seen. Through the kindness of Mr. R. 8S. Williams I have

been able to compare the local plants with Spruce’s collection from Ecuador.

They are apparently exactly alike. The percurrent or slightly excurrent

costa and the relatively thin-walled upper leaf cells are characters which will

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 473

readily distinguish this species from most of its allies. It forms an interesting

and suggestive link with Bryum.

Bryum insolitum Card. var. brachycarpum Bartr., var. nov.

Theca brevior, ovalis.

Tiribi, 1100 m., Oct. 28, 1933, A. Alfaro 21.

This unique species is a nice addition to the local list. Apart from the

obviously shorter, more ovoid capsules these plants and those from Mexico

seem to be identical.

BRYUM ANDICOLA Hook.

Syn.: Bryum rosulicoma Ren. & Card.

Cabeceras del Rio Jorca, 1500 m., Oct. 22, 1933, A. Alfaro; Sarchi,

1980 m., Feb. 20, 1934, A. Alfaro 78.

There is no doubt in my mind but that this is one of the widely distributed

types, similar to Tortula fragilis Tayl. and Anacolia subsessilis (Tayl.)

Broth., ranging from the southwestern United States through Mexico,

Central America, and western South America along the Cordilleran chain.

B. rosulicoma Ren. & Card. and B. rosulatum C. M. are only two of what

may prove to be an extensive list of synonyms.

BARTRAMIACEAE

PHILONOTIS UNCINATA (Schwaegr.) Brid.

La Fuente, 1200 m., Dec. 27, 1933, A. Alfaro.

The long setae and falcate leaves with long-excurrent costa seem to place

this collection here rather than with P. sphaericarpa. Apparently not pre-

viously reported from Costa Rica.

ORTHOTRICHACEAE

MACROMITRIUM MEXICANUM Mitt.

Northwest slope of Cerro Carpintera, above La Unidén de Tres Rios, 1320—

1700 m., Prov. Cartago, Nov. 1, 1929, C. W. Dodge & W. S. Thomas 4789.

This appears to be the first species in the section Macrocoma to be re-

corded from Central America. The upper leaf cells are small, 5—7y in diame-

ter, as in M. filuforme (Hook. & Grev.), but the capsules are distinctly

plicate in the upper half and the peristome teeth are not in pairs but are

united in a low coarsely papillose ring extending a little above the rim, as in

well-fruited plants of M. mexicanum collected by C. A. Purpus near Zacua-

pan, Vera Cruz. The agreement in peristome characters together with the

crenulate leaf margins, especially in the lower half, suggests that the local

collection may better be referred to M. mexicanum. Whether or not M.

mexicanum is specifically distinct from M. filiforme is another question that

may be deferred until better material of the latter is available for com-

parison.

474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

MACROMITRIUM MUCRONIFOLIUM (Hook. & Grev.) Schwaegr.

Banana River, 80 m., May 20, 1934, F. Gutzerrez.

Although not listed in any of the previous papers relating to Costa Rican

mosses, this species proves to be not uncommon. I had confused it with

M. apiculatum, without having a clear understanding of the relative dis-

tinctions between these two species as illustrated on Schwaegrichen’s Plate

no. 170.

MACROMITRIUM HIRTELLUM Bartr.

Tilaran, 700 m., March 15, 1934, A. Alfaro 110.

This species is probably only a trivial form of M. pentastichum C. M.

The uniform arrangement of the leaves around the stem, instead of in 5

rows, is not a very tangible character. The leaves are less widely spreading

when moist, and more sharply pointed, but the structural details are nearly

identical. :

MICROMITRIUM FRAGILE (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Santa Maria, Guanacaste, 825 m., Feb. 9, 1934, A. Alfaro.

I have been thoroughly unsuccessful in finding any characters to separate

this species from M. Schlumbergeri Schp., and believe that the latter name

can safely be relegated to synonymy.

SCHLOTHEIMIA OERSTEDIANA C. M.

Guanacaste, 825 m., Dec. 25, 1933, A. Alfaro 50; Potreros near farmhouse

at Hacienda Santa Marfa and source of Rio Liberia, Prov. Guanacaste,

Jan. 21-24, 1930, C. W. Dodge & W. S. Thomas 6944, 6958, 6967; Roadside

north of Tilaran, Prov. Guanacaste, Pacific slope, 500-690 m., Feb. 20, 1930,

C. W. Dodge & W. 8S. Thomas 6579; Volcan de Barba, 1800 m., 1931, Ruben

Torres 145. |

These collections have not been referred here without considerable dis-

trust. I have not succeeded in finding the narrowly lanceolate-acuminate

inner perichaetial leaves described by Miller, but on the other hand the

only inference I can draw from a careful comparison of a considerable series

of specimens from southern United States, eastern Mexico, British Hon-

duras, and Guatemala is that S. Sullivantii C. M., S. Oerstediana C. M.,

S. Mohriana C. M. and S. Sartorii C. M. are in reality only minor variants

of one specific type. In this group the perichaetial leaves are only slightly

longer than the stem leaves, longitudinally plicate, either smooth or trans-

versely wrinkled in the upper half, and either mucronate or short-acuminate

at the apex. As the differences are too slight and unstable to separate the

forms clearly, I strongly suspect that S. Sullivantii C. M. may be used in an

inclusive sense to cover the plants ranging from the southern United States

to Costa Rica. A comparative study of the respective types is essential be-

fore any definite conclusion can be made.

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 475

CRYPHAEACEAE

ACROCRYPHAEA GARDNERI (Mitt.) Jaeg.

San Ildefonso, 1500 m., Jan. 21, 1934, A. Alfaro; Banana River, 80 m.,

May 17, 1934, F. Gutrerrez.

The strongly reflexed leaf margins definitely associate these collections

with A. Gardneri rather than A. julacea (Hornsch.). I know of no previous

record of A. Gardneri from north of Colombia.

LEUCODONTACEAE

LEUCODONTOPSIS FLORIDANA (Aust.) E. G. Britt.

Laurel, Banana River, 100 m., May 2, 1934, F. Gutzerrez.

This is the first collection of this species I have seen from Costa Rica,

although it has been credited to the local flora.

METEORIACEAE

Squamidium crispipilum Bartr., sp. nov.

Figure 2.

Dioicum? Sat robustum, superne lutescenti-viride, intus fuscescens,

nitidum. Caules elongati, penduli, inordinate et brevissime pinnatim ramosi.

Fig. 2.—Squamidium crispipilum Bartr. a.—Part of plant X1. b.—Branch leaf

X16. c.—Apex of branch leaf X80. d.—Basal angle of branch leaf X80. e.—Apex

of stem leaf X80. f.—Stem leaf X16.

476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

Folia dimorpha, caulina ovato-lanceolata, appressa, apice in acumen

elongatum flexuosum canaliculatum argute serratum producta; nervo tenui,

supra medium producto; cellulis linearibus, laevibus, ad angulos pluribus

quadratis; ramulina ovalia, valde concava, apice galeata, nervo angusto

sub apice evanido. Caetera ignota.

Dioicous? Rather robust plants growing in intricate masses, pale yellow-

ish green at the tips, brown or blackish below, glossy. Stems long, flexuose,

tangled, ending in slender flagellaceous tips; branches short, distant, blunt,

sometimes in clusters. Stem leaves and branch leaves strongly differentiated.

Stem leaves about 3.5 mm. long, erect or slightly spreading, concave, ovate-

lanceolate, abruptly narrowed to a flexuose, crisped point, this slightly

shorter than the leaf blade; margins erect, entire below, coarsely toothed

from the base of the acumen to the apex, irregularly inflexed in the acumen;

costa single, faint, ending about two-thirds up; leaf cells linear, 3-44 wide

by 12 to 16 times as long, shorter in several rows across the insertion with

sinuose, pellucid lateral walls; alar cells numerous, sharply differentiated,

short-rectangular, yellowish, in 8 or 9 rows, extending about half-way to

the costa; branch leaves closely imbricated, strongly concave, indistinctly

seriate, ovate, about 1.8-2 mm. long, contracted just below the rounded

galeate apex; costa ending below the apex; margin erect, entire or very

faintly denticulate above; leaf cells short and irregular at the extreme apex

with pellucid, slightly pitted lateral walls, otherwise as in the stem leaves.

Fruit unknown.

TypEe: Two miles southwest of Agua Caliente, 1050 m., April 1, 1928,

H. E. Stork 1338.

The long, crispate hair points of the stem leaves are in bold contrast to

the rounded, helmet-shaped leaves of the short lateral branches and clearly

distinguish this species from any of its congeners. It is an unusually hand-

some moss. The rich, deep shades of brown in the tangled older parts make

a fine background for the glossy stramineous tips of the younger growth.

METEORIOPSIS RECURVIFOLIA (Hornsch.) Broth.

Banana River, 80 m., May 17, 1934, F. Gutierrez.

An interesting extension in the range of this species, which has not been

known previously north of Panama.

NECKERACEAE

NECKEROPSIS DISTICHA (Hedw.) Fleisch.

Siquirres, 60 m., Dec. 23, 1933, A. Alfaro.

Evidently not a common species in Costa Rica. This is the first local

collection I have seen.

PINNATELLA MINUTA (Mitt.) Broth.

Banana River, 80 m., May 20, 1934, F. Gutierrez.

Only a few plants of this rare little moss were segregated from a mixture

of other species, but the leaf characters are so obviously distinct from any-

thing else in the region that its identity is almost certain. I doubt if it has

ever been re-collected since the original gathering by Wright in Cuba.

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 477

HOOKERIACEAE

DALTONIA TENUIFOLIA Mitt.

Coronado, 1400 m., Dec. 17, 1933, A. Alfaro; Cabeceras del Rio Jorco,

1500 m., Oct. 22, 1933, A. Alfaro.

Both of these collections are in good fruit and are interesting local records

for a rare species.

CROSSOMITRIUM OERSTEDIANUM C, M.

Banana River, 80 m., May 4, 1934, F. Gutverrez.

I have not seen the type, but the above collection agrees perfectly with

Miiller’s description of this species. The very flat stems, closely appressed to

the substratum with the leaves scarcely shrivelled when dry, give the plants

the appearance of an hepatic. The lateral leaves are suborbicular, with a

very short, blunt, oblique point, and show the characteristic paired teeth on

the upper margins. The general aspect of the plants is very different from

that of the group with arcuate, sharply pointed leaves, shrivelled when dry,

which Brotherus groups in the section Phyllophila and to which the follow-

ing species belongs. A critical study of the species of this strictly American

genus is badly needed.

CROSSOMITRIUM PATRISIAE (Brid.) C. M.

Laurel, Banana River, 100 m., May 2, 1934, F. Gutzerrez.

Lepidopilum apiculatum Bartr., sp. nov.

Figure 3.

Dioicum, nitide lutescenti-viride. Caulis secondarius ascendens, compla-

natus, 2-3 cm. longus, circa 4 mm. latus. Folia sicca contorta, vix plicata,

ovato-oblonga, abrupte breviterque apiculata, 2 mm. longa; marginibus

anguste revolutis, superne planis minute denticulatis; nervis supra medium

evanidis; cellulis superioribus rhombeis, marginalibus uniseriatis angustiori-

bus, basilaribus longioribus; capsula in pedicello superne scabro 6-8 mm.

longo erecta; operculo subulato-rostrato; calyptra ramentosa; peristomii

dentibus margine sinuosis, strato ventrali angustissimo; sporae laeves,

diam. 20—25y.

Dioicous, densely tufted, glossy yellowish green plants. Antheridial

plants mixed with the fruiting stems. Male buds 1.5 mm. long, axillary on

the lower half of the stem. Secondary stems ascending, complanate, 2-3 cm.

long, about 4 mm. wide with leaves. Leaves slightly contorted when dry,

ovate-oblong, 2mm. long, abruptly contracted to a short, half-twisted apicu-

lus; margins plane and minutely denticulate above, narrowly revolute on

one or both sides below; costae slightly divergent, ending above the middle;

upper leaf cells oval and rhomboidal, 10-15. wide, with firm, yellowish walls,

one row at the margins linear, forming a very narrow inconspicuous border;

basal cells more elongate, linear-rhomboidal. Seta 6-8 mm. long, flexuose,

scabrous above, smooth below; capsule erect, ovoid-cylindrical; lid subulate-

rostrate; calyptra sparingly ramentose; peristome teeth sinuose on the mar-

478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

Fig. 3.—Lepidopilum apiculatum Bartr. a.—Fruiting plant X1. b.—Antheridial

plant X1. c.—Lateral leaf X35. d.—Calyptra X12. e—Capsule and upper part

of seta X12. f—Tip of leaf X80. g.—Upper leaf cells and margin X400. h.—

Basal leaf cells and margin xX 400.

gins, the outer plates much wider than the inner layer; spores brownish,

smooth. 20—25u in diameter.

Type: Banana River 80 m., F. Gutierrez.

This species is probably nearest L. cubense Sull., but is clearly distin-

guished by the more broadly pointed leaves (which are abruptly contracted

to a short, partly twisted apiculus), the longer costae extending well above

the middle of the leaf, the minutely and distantly denticulate upper margins,

and the narrower basal cells, which are not as lax as in L. cubense.

THUDIACEAE

THUIDIUM INVOLVENS (Hedw.) Mitt.

Banana River, 80 m., May 4, 1934, F. Gutzerrez.

BRACHYTHECIACEAE

BRACHYTHECIUM STEREOPOMA (Spr.) Jaeg.

Coronado, 1400 m., Dec. 17, 1933, A. Alfaro; Alajuelita, 1600 m., Dee.

18, 1933, A. Alfaro 33; San Ildefonso, 1500 m., Jan. 21, 1934, A. Alfaro;

Moravia, 1300 m., Feb. 11, 1934, A. Alfaro.

The authors indicate that B. costaricense Ren. & Card. may be easily

distinguished from B. stereopoma by the leaves strongly excavate at the base

on each side of the nerve and by the more robust branches. These differences

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 BARTRAM: COSTA RICAN MOSSES 479

are not at all well defined when a broad series of specimens is compared, and

I am unable to find any stable characters by means of which the two species

may be clearly separated. Like all widely distributed species B. stereopoma

is variable within reasonable limits, but I doubt if these varations can be

correlated with any distinct specific concepts.

ERIODON RADICALIS Spruce

Asseri, 1400 m., Feb. 4, 1934, A. Alfaro.

This is an unusually interesting collection and, so far as I know, the first

time the species has been discovered since Spruce’s original collection in

Keuador. The Costa Rican plants are identical with those from Ecuador

and add a new genus to the North American moss flora.

ENTODONTACEAE

ERYTHRODONTIUM SQUARROSUM (C. M.) Par.

Guadalupe, 1200 m., Dec. 2, 1933, A. Alfaro.

CAMPYLODONTIUM ONUSTUM (Hpe.) Jaeg.

Pejivalle, 600 m., Sept. 30, 1933, A. Alfaro.

The above collection is identical with authentic specimens from Colombia

and Venezuela. Apparently it is the first record of the species in North

America.

ENTopON Bryricuit (Schwaegr.) C. M.

Asseri, 1400 m., Feb. 4, 1934, A. Alfaro; Alajuelita, 1380 m., Jan. 20,

1934, A. Alfaro; Jorco, 1200 m., Oct. 21, 1933, A. Alfaro; Tiribi, 1100 m.,

Oct. 28, 1933, A. Alfaro.

This species has a wider distribution than Brotherus indicates. It has been

collected in Jamaica and Haiti, and apparently the specimens from Costa

Rica recorded in my previous papers under the names of E. erythropus Mitt.

and HE. Bernoullit C. M. are all referable here. There is nothing in the de-

scription of H. Bernoulliit C. M. to distinguish it from H. Beyrichit and I

suspect that it should be reduced to a synonym of this species.

PLAGIOTHECIACEAE

STEREOPHYLLUM RADICULOSUM (Hook.) Mitt.

Santa Maria, Prov. Guanacaste, 825 m., Dec. 25, 1933, A. Alfaro.

Although this species does not seem to have been reported from Costa

Rica before, it is not an unexpected addition to the local flora. The leaf

cells are often clearly unipapillate on the back, rather than consistently

smooth as indicated by Brotherus.

SEMATOPHYLLACEAE

PTEROGONIDIUM PULCHELLUM (Hook.) C. M.

Banana River, 80 m., May 4, 1934, F. Gutierrez.

480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

The only local record that I know of for this delicate little species.

HYPNACEAE

ISOPTERYGIUM SUBTRICHOPELMA Ren. & Card.

La Fuente, 1200 m., Dec. 8, 1933, A. Alfaro; Cabaceras del Rio Jorco,

1500 m., Oct. 22, 1933, A. Alfaro.

It seems very doubtful if this species is anything more than one of the

variants of I. tenerum (Sw.) Mitt.

TAXIPHYLLUM PLANISSIMUM (Mitt.) Broth.

Asseri, 1400 m., Feb. 4, 1934, A. Alfaro.

Another interesting but not unexpected addition to the local list, the

species having been known previously from Mexico, the West Indies, and

Ecuador.

VESICULARIA CRASSICAULIS (Mitt.) Broth.

Banana River, 80 m., May 20, 1934, F. Gutzerrez.

The slenderly acuminate, falecate-secund leaves clearly separate these

plants from both V. amphibola and V. vesiculare. It extends the range of the

species considerably to the southward and is a fine addition to the local flora.

BOTAN Y.—Two new grasses, one from Tennessee, one from Argentina’

A. 8. Hircucock, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Recently Mr. Stanley A. Cain, of the Indiana Academy of Sciences,

Bloomington, Indiana, sent to me a specimen of an apparently new

grass which he had collected in the mountains of eastern Tennessee.

This proved to be a new species of Calamagrostis, allied to C. porteri

A. Gray and C. perplexa Scribn.

About the same time I received from Dr. F. C. Hoehne, of the

Instituto Biologico, SAo Paulo, Brazil, a dwarf grass collected by Dr.

A. Burkart in the high mountains of the Province of Tucuman,

Argentina. This also proved to be undescribed. It is one of the smallest

species of the genus Catabrosa, of which there are a few in southern

South America. The genus is represented in the United States and

northern Eurasia by C. aquatica (L.) Beauv., a relatively large widely

distributed species, found in mountain meadows, bogs, and wet

places.

Calamagrostis cainii Hitchc., sp. nov.

Perennis, dense caespitosa, rhizomatibus brevibus; culmi graciles, erecti,

infra paniculam scabri, 30—40 cm. alti; vaginae glabrae; ligula 1-2 mm. longa;

laminae planae, longe acuminatae, infra glabrae, supra scabrae, 20-35 cm.

longae, 1-2 mm. latae, suprema 5-10 cm. longa; panicula pauciflora, pat-

1 Received September 21, 1934.

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 HITCHCOCK: NEW GRASSES 481

ula, pallida, 6-10 cm. longa, axi scabro, ramis 1-2 cm. longis; glumae an-

gustae, acuminatae, 5-6 mm. longae; lemma acuminatum, pilis calli 1-2

mm. longis, infra medium aristatum, arista medio geniculata, inferne torta,

glumas paullum excedente; processus rachillae brevis, villis 1-2 mm. longis.

Perennial, densely cespitose, with short rhizomes; culms slender, erect,

scabrous below panicle, 30—40 cm. tall; sheaths glabrous; ligule of culm leaves

thin, rounded or obtuse, finely dentate, becoming lacerate, 1-2 mm. long;

blades erect, flat, more or less involute toward the finely attenuate tip,

glabrous beneath, scaberulous on the upper surface, narrowed toward base,

the basal ones as much as 35 em. long, 1-2 mm. wide, the uppermost culm

blade 5-10 cm. long, about 1 mm. wide; panicle pale or whitish, loose, 6-10

cm. long, the axis scabrous, the branches ascending or somewhat spreading,

verticillate, scabrous, 1-2 cm. long, bearing 1-few spikelets, the whorls

7-15 mm. apart, the pedicels scabrous-pubescent; glumes narrow, nearly

equal, acuminate or slightly aristate, glabrous except the scabrous upper

half of the keels, 5-6 mm. long, the first l-nerved, the second 3-nerved;

lemma narrow, acuminate, 5-nerved, glabrous below, minutely scaberulous

near the finely toothed summit, the callus hairs about 1 mm. long, the awn

about 1 mm. from base, somewhat geniculate, twisted below, the tip bent

to one side and somewhat exceeding the glumes; palea a little shorter than

the lemma; prolongation of the rachilla very short but the hairs 1-2 mm.

long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,611,706, collected on the

shrubby summit of Mt. LeConte, Tennessee, alt. about 2000 meters, August

10, 1929, by Stanley A. Cain (no. 48). Later Mr. Cain sent specimens (no.

1016) from the same locality, with the statement that the species grew

abundantly on cliffs in spruce-fir formation.

Catabrosa Burkartii Hitche., sp. nov.

Perennis, pusilla; culmi caespitosi, erecti, 1-3 cm. alti; vaginae glabrae;

ligula 1-2 mm. longa; laminae planae vel plerumque complicatae, glabrae,

graciles, 5-20 mm. longae; panicula angusta, pauciflora, 5-8 mm. longa;

spiculae 3-4 mm. longae, 2-flores, glabrae; leommata oblonga, obtusa, circa

3 mm. longa.

Dwarf cespitose perennial; culms glabrous, erect, 1-3 cm. tall; sheaths

glabrous, striate-nerved, rather loose, the uppermost somewhat inflated;

ligule thin, 1-2 mm. long; blades mostly folded, rather firm, somewhat fal-

cate, glabrous, 5-20 mm. long, about 0.3 mm. thick as folded, the rounded

or boat-shaped tip cartilaginous, the lower blades sometimes flat and 1 mm.

wide; panicle narrow, 5-8 mm. long bearing a few yellowish short-pediceled

spikelets, the branches slightly scabrous on the angles; spikelets 3-4 mm.

long, 2-flowered; glumes about equal, broad, rather obscurely nerved, glab-

rous, rounded at the somewhat erose tip, 2.5-3 mm. long; lemmas glabrous,

the first oblong, obtuse, a little more than 3 mm. long, the upper part with

a yellowish zone below the rounded minutely erose summit, the palea nar-

row, shorter than the lemma; second lemma similar to the first but slightly

shorter, the summit about as high as that of the first, the internode of the

rachilla between the florets being very short.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,539,407, collected on the

summit of Calchaquies, Dept. Tafi (Prov. Tucum4n), Argentina, alt. 4200

meters, January 30, 1933, by A. Burkart (no. 5348). Part of the type in the

herbarium of the Instituto Biologico, S40 Paulo, Brazil.

482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

PALEOBOTAN Y.—Three additions to the Pleistocene flora of Tennes-

see.t Epwarp W. Brrry, The Johns Hopkins University.

In the fall of 1931 Walter F. Pond, State Geologist of Tennessee,

sent me some samples of impure lignite encountered in a well 5

miles east of Dayton in that state. The country rock is Knox dolomite

and it seems probable that the silty lignite was formed in a sink in

the dolomite. The age of the lignitic deposit is a matter of consider-

able interest. Fortunately I am now able to determine the age with

considerable certainty. On one specimen of the lignitic clay there is

an excellent impression of two-thirds of a leaf which after extensive

comparison with recent material I am convinced is a leaf of the exist-

ing button-bush, honey-ball, or globe-flower, Cephalanthus occi-

dentalis Linné, a shrub of swamps and low ground, ranging from

eastern Canada to Mexico, and common in the Tennessee region. This

means that the lignite is Pleistocene in age.

Interestingly enough Cephalanthus occidentalis has been reported

by Auer (1930, p. 31) from the peat of Marsh Hill and Welland in

southeastern Canada. Other than this the genus has never been re-

ported as a fossil, although the 6 existing species are found in eastern

Asia, North and South America, and West Africa, and this distribu-

tion is fair evidence that the genus has a Tertiary history.

In March, 1933, I received from E. L. Spain, Jr., of Vanderbilt

University, a small amount of clay underlying a peaty layer in terrace

deposits on a tributary of the Cumberland River, central Stewart

County.

This clay was silty and broke down readily in water, and was found

to contain characteristic fragments of Quercus alba Linné and Quercus

umbricaria Michaux.

Quercus alba has been recorded from Ontario Interglacial deposits,’

from the Port Kennedy cave in Pennsylvania,’® from the Chowan

formation of North Carolina,‘ from Buena Vista, Virginia,’ from post

Pleistocene deposits in Massachusetts,® and is probably represented

in the Sunderland formation of Maryland by what Hollick called

Quercus pseudoalba.’ It ranges in the recent flora from Maine, Ontario

and Minnesota to Florida and Texas.

1 Received August 20, 1934.

2 PENHALLOW, D. P. Amer. Nat. 41: 448. 1907.

3 Mercer, H.C. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 11: 281. 1899.

4 BERRY, E. W. Jour. Geol. 15: 342. 1907.

’ BERRY, KE. W. Am. Jour. Sci. 34: 221. 1912.

6 EMERSON, B. K. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 597: 148. 1917.

7 Houuicx, A. Md. Geol. Surv. Pliocene & Pleistocene, p. 227, pl. 70, fig. 2, pl. 71,

figs. 1-6. 1906.

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 KRULL: EXPERIMENTAL HOSTS 483

Quercus wmbricaria has been recorded from Bridgeton, N. J. by

Lesquereux® from beds which I consider as probably Pleistocene in

age, although they have usually been considered somewhat older.

In the recent flora it ranges from Pennsylvania to Michigan and

Arkansas, Georgia and Tennessee.

8 LesQuEREUX, L. U.S. Nat. Mus. Proc. 10: 39. 1887.

ZOOLOGY.—WNew experimental hosts for Brachylaemus virginiana

(Dickerson) Krull.1 WrNDELL H. Kruuu, Bureau of Animal

Industry.

The white rat, dog, cat, and chicken have been infected experi-

mentally with Brachylaemus virginiana, a fluke normally parasitic in

the opossum, Didelphis virginiana, and mature flukes have been re-

covered from these hosts. Eggs of B. virginiana collected from the

feces of one of the experimentally infected dogs were used to infect

the normal first intermediate host, Polygyra thyroides. Consequently,

it is assumed that some, at least, of the new hosts are potentially

capable of disseminating the parasite in regions where the opossum

and its snail host are found.

The metacercariae of B. virginiana used in the following infection

experiments were obtained from laboratory raised and infected snails,

P. thyroides; an extensive account of these infection experiments is

being given by the writer in a paper now in press. Every snail used

in the subsequent experiment contained hundreds of metacercariae,

all of which were 7 months old.

Two puppies, litter mates, were used in the present experiment.

A puppy 5 weeks old was given approximately 200 metacercariae,

and when it was killed, 7 days later, 111 mature specimens of Brachy-

laemus virginiana, 2.05 to 2.60 mm. long when stained and mounted,

were recovered from the intestine. The uterus in each of these flukes

was extensive and filled with apparently normal, brown colored eggs.

The second puppy, when 6 weeks old, was given approximately 400

metacercariae. Eggs were recovered in the feces of the dog 12 days

after the metacercariae were administered; eggs were quite common

in the feces a day later, abundant 5 days after that, and fewer in

number 9 days later, or 27 days after the dog was infected. Since

there was an apparent decrease in the number of eggs it was suspected

that the infection was being lost; however, when the animal was killed

349 flukes were recovered. These were large and equal in size to any

1 Received August 24, 1934.

484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

recovered from an opossum. The trematodes were localized in a com-

paratively small area in the posterior part of the small intestine. They

were very conspicuous because of the numerous dark colored eggs

in the extensive uterus which occupies the greater part of the inter-

cecal field. On 3 previous occasions metacercariae of B. virginiana

have been given to adult dogs and no infections ever developed, and,

while not enough dogs were used for the results to be significant,

the experiment indicates that adult dogs apparently are not easily

infected.

Eggs of Brachylaemus virginiana from the feces of the second puppy

in the present experiment were used to infect the normal first inter-

mediate host, Polygyra thyroides. Four snails were subjected to in-

fection, and 2 of them became infested.

Two kittens, litter mates, were used in infection experiments. A

suckling kitten, 2 weeks old, was given approximately 100 metacer-

cariae and when it was examined postmortem, 7 days later, 74 mature

flukes, 1.95 to 2.25 mm. long when stained and mounted, were re-

covered. The uterus in each fluke was extensive and filled with normal

brown colored eggs. A second kitten, 3 weeks old, was given about

200 metacercariae, and eggs of the fluke appeared in the feces 14

days later. Eggs were common in the feces of the host 3 days later,

and fewer after 10 more days, or 27 days subsequent to the time the

animal was subjected to infection. The kitten was weaned while it

was infested and when examined postmortem, 27 days after receiving

the metacercariae, 50 adult flukes were recovered; they were in the

posterior part of the small intestine, as in the case of the dog.

Two chicks were used in infection experiments; these were less than

24 hours old when subjected to infection. One chick was given 50

metacercariae, and when destroyed, 2 days later, 5 immature flukes

were recovered from the posterior part of the small intestine. These

flukes had grown considerably and had attained adult shape. The

other chick received 75 metacercariae and 5 days later 6 mature

flukes, 1.95 to 2.85 mm. long when stained and mounted, were re-

covered postmortem from the intestine. All flukes had normal colored

eggs in the terminal part of the descending branch of the uterus.

On previous occasions attempts to infect 4 chickens with B. vir-

giniana had been unsuccessful. These chickens were fully feathered

at the time they were subjected to infection. Since the cause of the

failure to infect these chickens is not known, and since the diet may

have had something to do with the negative results, it should be

stated that these chickens were fed on grain, while the chicks which

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 KRULL: EXPERIMENTAL HOSTS 485

became infested in the present experiment were given bits of raw

beef.

A small rat, which had just been weaned, was given 75 metacer-

cariae, and when examined, 3 days later, 2 mature flukes, each con-

taining a couple of eggs were recovered from the small intestine. A

second rat, fully grown, received approximately 100 metacercariae,

and when killed 4 days later, 5 mature flukes were recovered post-

mortem from the small intestine. The flukes from this rat contained

numerous normally colored eggs.

Previously it was found by the writer that Brachylaemus virginiana

would live in the white rat only 3 days. In view of the small number

of parasites recovered from the rats in the present experiment, in

spite of the comparatively large numbers of metacercariae which

were administered, it is suspected that previous failure to obtain

adult flukes in white rats resulted from using too few metacercariae

in attempts to infect them.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The experiment shows that the dog, cat, chicken, and white rat

may serve as definitive hosts of Brachylaemus virginiana of which

the opossum is the natural definitive host. It is apparent from the

data presented that there may be a difference in the rate of maturity

and growth after maturity of the flukes in the different hosts. More

data, however, are necessary to verify this point. A comparison of

flukes of the same age from a kitten and a puppy, however, showed

a striking difference in size, the flukes in the puppy being larger than

those in the kitten. Young dogs and cats become infected easily, and

practically all of the metacercariae establish themselves, which fact

is not apparent in the case of chickens and rats.

The results of these experiments suggest that some of the described

species in this genus, which are morphologically similar, are not good

species, but have been recognized as valid largely because of host

relationship. It is also apparent that, since B. virginiana has been

established in several hosts, it may be a suitable trematode with which

experiments relative to age resistance, longevity, and the relation

of the fluke to food habits of the host may be undertaken.

486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

510TH MEETING

The 510th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Jan. 10, 1934, President H. G. Frrcuson presiding.

Program: LAWRENCE Martin: A standard map of the maxima of Pletsto-

cene glaciation 1n North America. Discussed by Messrs. Marrurs and

CAPPS.

W. G. Hoyt: Forests and stream flow.—Following the deforestation (re-

moval of trees by cutting) of a high mountain area in the vicinity of Wagon

Wheel Gap, Colorado, the average annual run-off of the deforested area was

increased 15 percent, the maximum peak discharge was increased 46 per-

cent, and the summer and fall run-off was increased 12 percent.

Following the denudation (destruction by fire of all ground cover and

tree litter) of a coastal mountain drainage basin in southern California,

the average annual run-off of a denuded area was increased 29 percent. The

maximum peak discharge of the first four floods following denudation was

increased about 1,700 percent, and the summer and fall run-off was increased

475 percent.

The increase in the annual run-off was distributed rather uniformly

throughout the year, 52 percent of the increase from both areas occurring

during periods of non-flood run-off and 48 percent during periods of flood

run-off.

In the Colorado area there was practically no evidence of erosion after

deforestation and this was to be expected because there was little direct

surface run-off either before or after deforestation. In the southern California

area complete denudation increased erosion as a direct result of increased

surface run-off and deposition of eroded material and ash carried by the

stream the first year after the fire was materially injurious to agricultural

lands and transportation rights of way.

Conclusive evidence showed that on these two areas (1) forests and brush

cover substantially lower stream flow at practically all seasons and all

stages, including flood, minimum and total flow; (2) forests and brush cover

substantially lessen erosion where readily eroded material is available, and

(3) new vegetative growth exercises an effect similar to the original cover in

retarding erosion, but without so detrimental an effect on annual run-off

and summer low-water flow.

In watershed protection studies it is therefore necessary to determine the

type of cover which will best protect the soil, minimize the water losses and

provide for the most economical use of the watershed area and of the water

yield. The cover may be forests or other plant species depending on the soil,

topography, climate, and nature and amount of water supply requirements

of the dependent region. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. FERGu-

son, BripGr, Cookr, MENDENHALL, TRASK, BRADLEY, SPENCER, RUBEY,

MertI£, and THOMPSON.

E. T. McKnieut: Origin of zinc and lead deposits of northern Arkansas.

Discussed by Messrs. FeRacuson, Trask, BripGr, GOLDMAN, SPENCER,

BraDLey, Henpest, and RuBEY.

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 487

511TH MEETING

The 511th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Jan. 24, 1934, President H. G. Fereauson presiding.

Informal communication. R. W. BRown exhibited a specimen from Peru,

described by F. H. Knowlton as Zea antiqua, a supposed new species of

fossil corn. Restudy of the specimen by means of thin sections showed it

to be baked pottery.

D. F. Hewett called attention to the analyses of the wall rocks of Vir-

ginia caves listed on page 143 of W. M. McGill’s Caverns of Virginia. Of

samples from 13 developed caves, 6 contain less than 1 percent MgCOs; 3

contain between 1 and 3 percent; 3 contain between 5 and 14 percent; and

one contains 30 percent of MgCO;3. The predominant non-dolomitie char-

acter of the cave-forming rocks lends strength to the hypothesis that the

dolomitic zinc-bearing breccias of the Appalachians are of tectonic origin.

Discussed by Messrs. KrirH, Butts, and BEVAN.

M. I. GOLDMAN reviewed a recent monograph on fossil Protozoa by Otto

WeTZEL entitled Die 7n organischer Substanz erhaltenen Mikrofossilien des

Baltischen Kreide-Feuersteins mit einem sedimentpetrographischen und strati-

graphischen Anhang which appeared in 1933 as vol. 78, part A of Paleonto-

graphica. He showed slides of two of the plates illustrating flagellate and

radiolarian-like organisms. GOLDMAN also called attention to an early paper

by M. C. Wuirts, appearing in the American Journal of Science in 1862,

which described similar forms. Discussed by Messrs. RESSER and HEss.

Program: C. Lewis Gazin: A marsupial from the Florissant beds of Colo-

rado.—In 1929 the U. S. National Museum purchased from G. F. Stern-

berg fossil remains of a mammal collected by him in the Florissant beds of

Colorado. These beds, renowned for their fossil flora and insect fauna, have

heretofore produced no identifiable mammalian remains, although a few

birds and fish have been described. The didelphid mammal discovered in the

Florissant beds apparently represents the extinct genus Peratherium, a

small marsupial resembling the murine opossum Marmosa now living in

southern Mexico, Central and South America. Peratherium is known in the

Tertiary of North America in several stages from the Fort Union Paleocene

to the middle John Day horizon of upper Oligocene or lower Miocene age,

but has never been recorded from later beds in this country. Of the various

forms described the Florissant specimen seems to correspond most closely

to the species Peratherium huntizi from the Cedar Creek beds of Oligocene

age in northeastern Colorado.

On the basis of the known distribution of Peratherium it is suggested that

the Florissant beds may be of earlier age than the upper Miocene stage cur-

rently assigned to them. From the similarity between the Florissant Pera-

therrum and P. huntii it is further suggested, but not certainly demon-

strated, that the age is Oligocene. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Mr.

LOVERING.

C. R. Lonawey: Some structural problems in central Connecticut and

Massachusetts. Discussed by Miss Jonas and Messrs. STOSE, GOLDMAN,

G. O. SmitH, MENDENHALL, LOVERING, and BowlIE.

512TH MEETING

The 512th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Feb. 14, 1934, President H. G. FeRauson presiding.

Informal communications: T. A. Henpricxs exhibited and discussed

488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

specimens of rolled siltstone from Pennsylvanian strata of the Oklahoma

Coal fields. Discussed by G. A. Coorer.

R. B. Stewart reviewed critically Bucher’s Deformation of the Earth’s

Crust. Discussed by W. W. Rusey.

Program: L. K. WENnzEL: Thiem’s method of determining permeability and

pumping-test method of determining specific yield of water-bearing materials.—

A pumping test was made in the summer of 1931 near Grand Island, Ne-

braska, to determine the usefulness of Thiem’s method for determining per-

meability and the pumping-test method for determining specific yield. An

irrigation well was pumped continuously for 48 hours during which time the

drawdown of the water table was measured in 81 observation wells spaced

from 2 to 1,200 feet from the pumped well. Data were also obtained on the

discharge of the pumped well, the thickness of the water-bearing formation,

and the normal slope of the water table.

It was found that the coefficients of permeability computed by Thiem’s

formula, instead of being constant, varied through a wide range because the

conditions observed in the field did not correspond to the theoretical condi-

tions assumed in the development of the formula. However, a constant and

accurate value of the permeability of the material was finally obtained by

substituting in Thiem’s formula only the drawdown of the water table where

the cone of depression had reached approximate equilibrium in form—from

about 50 to 200 feet from the pumped well. This procedure was adopted

because Thiem’s formula is based on the assumption that the cone of de-

pression has attained an equilibrium condition. Certain other modifications

in the use of the method were made which resulted in a more accurate deter-

mination of the true permeability. It is now thought that this method is the

best method for determining permeability.

The specific yield of the water-bearing material was obtained by applying ~

Darcy’s law to the flow of water through concentric cylindrical cross-sections

of material around the pumped well. The values of specific yield increased

with the period of pumping because all of the water did not immediately

drain out of the unwatered material. A final value for the specific yield was

obtained by plotting the values of specific yield against the period of pump-

ing and by extending the curve drawn through these points. The final value

compared closely with the specific yield obtained by laboratory analyses of

samples of the material. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. THomp-

son, Mrertnzur, Frrauson, and LEGGETTE.

T. B. Notan: The geyser area near Beowawe, Nevada (by title).

EK. N. Gopparp: The relation of Tertiary intrusives to ore deposits of

Jamestown, Colorado.—In the Jamestown mining district, in the Colorado

Front Range 35 miles northwest of Denver, there are two Tertiary (Hocene?)

stocks and numerous dikes that seem to have a genetic relation to the ore

deposits. These Tertiary ‘‘porphyries’” have been intruded into a pre-

Cambrian complex of schist and granite. The earliest is a large approxi-

mately rectangular stock (about 14 by 23 miles) of hornblende granodiorite,

having a N. 12° E. trend. On its north border is a small stock (about three

quarters of a mile in diameter) of quartz monzonite porphyry, and to the east

of these stocks are northeast dikes of quartz monzonite, bostonite, and

alaskite porphyry. These porphyries were intruded after the greater part of

the regional deformation of the Laramide revolution had taken place.

In the district there are two systems of post-porphyry fault fissures that

are occupied by the ore deposits; a northwest system (in general, the earlier)

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 489

and a northeast system. The northwest system comprises breccia zones and

veins that are confined to a narrow belt on the southwest border of the

quartz monzonite stock. The northeast system consists of N. 60—-70° E.

fissures, and is largely confined to the east sides of the stocks.

The ore deposits show a rough zonal arrangement around the quartz mon-

zonite stock. Fluorspar, the earliest of the ore deposits, occurs in the north-

west system of fractures and breccia zones close to the southwest border of

the stock. Lead-silver deposits occur in pipes or veins in or near fluorspar

deposits in a small area of about a half square mile on the west side of the

stock. Pyritic gold veins occupy the northeast fault fissures 1 to 2 miles east

of the stock. Gold telluride veins occupy northeast fault fissures 2 to 24 miles

east of the stock, and a few 4 to 1 mile west of the stock. This description

shows an unsymmetrical and rather irregular arrangement of the ores around

the quartz monzonite stock.

In an attempt to account for this irregular distribution of the ores, the

Cloos’ method of mapping the internal structures of igneous masses was ap-

plied to the porphyry bodies. In the large granodiorite stock the platy and

linear structures indicate a roughly elliptical cylindrical mass which pitches

60 to 70° south-southwest. During its emplacement, it probably moved up-

ward in a N. 15° E. direction at an angle of about 65°. The magma appar-

ently came up along a fracture-like opening and widened its channel by

pushing outward in a S. 75° E. direction against a weak zone of granite and

schist. In response to this force, the rocks tended to break at angles of

slightly less than 45° to the direction of force. Both N. 65° E. and N. 35° W.

fractures were actually formed, but since the schistosity trends N. 65° E.,

strong persistent fractures were developed in this direction, and short weak

ones in the N. 35° W. direction. The strong northeast fractures were first

filled with porphyry dikes, and later by successively younger ore deposits.

In the quartz monzonite stock the platy and linear structures indicate a

somewhat funnel-shaped mass which pitches southwest at about 55°. Ap-

parently, during emplacement, the magma moved upward at this angle in a

northeast direction, and came up along the underside of the granodiorite

mass. It seems probable that the northwest belt of breccia zones and frac-

tures was formed as a result of combined upward force and drag in a north-

east direction, developed during emplacement of the quartz monzonite

stock.

Thus in the Jamestown district, and perhaps in other districts, the map-

ping of internal structures of intrusive masses related to ore deposits affords

a valuable aid in attempting to solve the structural problems of ore distribu-

tion. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. LoucuHuin, FERGusoN, and

LOVERING.

513TH MEETING

The 513th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Feb. 28, 1934, President H. G. Fereuson presiding.

Program: EK. T. ALLEN: Types of rock leaching by thermal waters in Yellow-

uae Park. Discussed by Messrs. Huss, R. C. WrEtus, GoLpMAN and

RASK.

A. I. Jonas: Hypersthene granodioritein Virginia; its change to unakite and

ats age.—Hypersthene granodiorite occurs in three main belts in the western

part of the Catoctin-Blue Ridge anticlinorium of Virginia. It is a grayish

green rock made up of potash and plagioclase, feldspar, pyroxene, and

quartz. Along the western side of the granodiorite areas it contains a varying

490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

amount of pink feldspar, secondary epidote, and quartz. It has been called

unakite where pink feldspar, epidote, and quartz are the chief constituents.

Microscopic study shows the granodiorite has been subjected to a series of

hydrothermal changes. It is thought that these hydrothermal changes were

produced by action of residual magma extracts upon consolidated portions

of the granodiorite. The changes include addition of silica to form quartz,

of sodic solutions to form myrmekite and chessboard albite, and in part of

the area, of the lime-iron silicate epidote and of ferric iron to form fine

hematite flakes that color the feldspars pink. Unakite has been produced

from the grayish green granodiorite by replacement of hypersthene and

other constituents by epidote, change of gray-green feldspars to pink, and

introduction of quartz filled with fine rutile needles, which impart blue color

to the quartz.

In southwest Virginia the green schistose facies of the granodiorite with

pink feldspars has been called the Grayson granite. It is bounded on the

southeast by the Independence overthrust which has carried Lynchburg

micagneiss northwestward over Grayson granite and infolded Unicoi quartz-

ite. The Great Gossan lead occurs along this zone of thrust faulting.

The granodiorite is believed on stratigraphic grounds to be pre-Cambrian

in age and older than the metabasalt flows which cap it in northern Virginia.

In Nelson and Amherst counties the granodiorite contains allanite-bearing

pegmatite. Analysis of allanite from the Friar, a granodiorite peak in north-

ern Amherst County, gives a lead ratio that indicates an age of about 900

million years for the allanite, and it is probably middle pre-Cambrian in age.

(Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Miss Bascom, and Messrs. FERGUSON,

StossE, and LovERING.

J.S. WiuuraMs: Correlation of the Louisiana limestone with beds at Kinder-

hook, Illinois, and Burlington, Iowa.—The Louisiana limestone (lower

Mississippian) is one of the formations of the Kinderhook group. Its type

locality is in northeastern Missouri, and its outcrops are limited to this

part of Missouri and to a small area in western Illinois. It occurs only in one

of the four Kinderhookian provinces of Missouri, the northeastern province.

The formations of this province, including two which may properly belong

below the Kinderhook, are, in ascending order, the Grassy Creek shale, the

Saverton shale, the Louisiana limestone, the Hannibal shale, and the

Chouteau limestone. These formations are best exposed along the Missis-

sippi River from central Lincoln County, Missouri, to central Marion

County, Missouri. Most of them are, however, also recognizable in Illinois

in counties east of and adjacent to the southern part of the Missouri outcrop

area.

The type region for the Kinderhook group is in Illinois, near the town of

Kinderhook, about 12 miles east of Hannibal, Missouri. Hannibalisin Marion

County, Missouri, and is close to the northern edge of the northeastern

Missouri Kinderhookian province. The best known and most fossiliferous

Kinderhookian section in this region is, however, at Burlington, Iowa, about

80 miles north of Hannibal. It is not difficult to identify by lithology the

beds at Kinderhook in the section at Burlington. It is, however, despite the

proximity of these two sections to the northeastern Missouri province, im-

possible to correlate the Missouri beds with the beds at Kinderhook and

Burlington by the ordinary physical means of correlation, a fact that has

been stressed by nearly every investigator who has studied the sections.

Direct tracing is impossible, well logs and other subsurface data are in-

adequate, and matching of lithologic units and successions, or of uncon-

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 491

formities does not give decisive results. Microscopic and chemical methods

of physical correlation have not been attempted, but because of differences

in the lithologies of the beds, they appear to promise little.

Faunal data are, when critically examined, of but little more correlative

value than known physical data. This is especially true of correlations be-

tween the Missouri beds and beds at Burlington or Kinderhook. It is, how-

ever, less true in the correlation of the only really fossiliferous bed at Kinder-

hook with the Burlington section. Most faunal correlations that have been

made appear not to have considered some of the unusual conditions that ob-

tain in this area, or to have been actually based more on physical than on

faunal data. Among the unusual conditions likely to affect the reliability of

faunal correlations are the following: (1) common species are too few for

definite conclusions (a change of an identification or two or of a stratigraphic

range or two would very materially affect correlations) ; (2) work under way

by Dr. G. H. Girty and the writer indicates that published ranges of

several species are too narrow; (3) the total number of species (the fauna)

varies greatly as between different beds in the sections; (4) the extent of a

clearly demonstrated facies influence is not known; (5) the beds are thin and

facies changes were rather frequent; (6) the lack of recent descriptive work

and the composite origin of some of the fossil lists affects the reliability of

the lists; and (7) differences in generic and specific concepts between various

contributors to the available lists and changes in the application of these con-

cepts by individuals from class to class and from time to time over a rather

long period of years, render the use of lists on correlation uncertain.

The writer’s study of the Louisiana fauna together with his observations

on a considerable number of species from the Burlington section, and from

nearly every one of the Kinderhookian beds of Missouri, influences him to

agree with those parts of recent correlations that place beds 2 (of Weller) at

Burlington and at Kinderhook stratigraphically above the Louisiana lime-

stone. This conclusion is supported by the matching of species, the appear-

ance of ‘“‘new”’ genera and “new”’ species, and the relative percentages of

species in the various beds. The writer cannot agree, however, that there are

adequate faunal data for determining the age relation of the Louisiana lime-

stone to beds | at either Kinderhook or Burlington or that there are adequate

data for correlating strictly on a faunal basis, beds 2, 3, and 4 at Burlington

or beds 2 or 3 at Kinderhook with any one bed in the Missouri section.

Most of the faunas appear to be local ones. The Louisiana fauna is cer-

tainly not represented as a fauna in either the Burlington or Kinderhook

sections. The Louisiana limestone may have been eroded from the Burling-

ton or Kinderhook regions or these areas may have been the sites of non-

deposition or of deposition of different types of sediment during Louisiana

time. A contemporaneous restudy of the faunas of all three sections is

needed to make correlations more certain or to show definitely that under

conditions such as obtain here, thin beds cannot be individually correlated.

(Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. Butts and STANTON.

514TH MEETING

The 514th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Mar. 14, 1934, President H. G. Frreuson presiding.

Informal communications: Mr. SPENCER exhibited and discussed a polished

pebble from Gainesville, near Bull Run, Virginia.

Program: P. D. Trask and H. F. Hammar: Preliminary study of source

492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

beds in the Mesozorc rocks on the west side of the Sacramento Valley.—This

paper presents results arising from an investigation of source beds of petro-

leum, sponsored both by the United States Geological Survey and the

American Petroleum Institute. The paper is a preliminary report of a special

investigation that has arisen in connection with the general study of source

beds. An area on the west side of the Sacramento Valley in northern Cali-

fornia underlain by a thick sequence of rocks of late Mesozoic age—that is,

the Shasta series (Lower Cretaceous) and the Chico formation (Upper

Cretaceous)—has recently been considered as prospective oil territory by

several oil companies. Seeps of oil and gas are present and favorable struc-

tural features and reservoir rocks are known, but no oil in commercial quan-

tity has yet been found. As the strata attain a thickness of 40,000 feet, the

distribution of adequate source beds throughout this thick section is a very

important question. The problem of the distribution of source beds was at-

tacked by the writers by means of preliminary analyses of the organic con-

tent of 480 samples distributed fairly uniformly in the section, and by

means of detailed analyses of the organic constituents of eight samples se-

lected as being representative of these 480 samples. Definite conclusions

about the possibilities of source beds in this area are difficult to reach be-

cause of the paucity of knowledge about the diagnostic characteristics of

source beds. Nearly all the results that were obtained, however, lead to an

unfavorable consideration of the sediments as source beds. The organic

content is low and fairly uniform throughout the entire sequence of beds.

The average organic content of the Shasta series is .87 percent and of the

Chico formation .6 percent. The composition of the organic constituents of

samples from the oil seeps is different from that of the sediments in the

general section. This phenomenon suggests that sediments of the type that

generate the oil at the seeps are not widely distributed through the general

section.

The uniformity in quantity and character of the organic content of the

Shasta and Chico sediments leads to the inference that almost any part of

this sequence of strata is as likely to be favorable for source beds as any other

part. Because of the failure to find oil in the wells that have already been

drilled in this area, the uniformity of the organic content is not a favorable

indication of the presence of adequate source beds of petroleum in the area.

This inference about the uniformity of the organic content, however, is

more encouraging with respect to source beds of gas, as significant quantities

of gas have been reported from the Buttes well of the Buttes Oilfields Inc.,

and also from the Guinda well of the Nigger Heaven Dome Oil and Gas Co.

However, despite the discouraging aspect indicated by the results of this

investigation, the evidence is not very positive in character, and in no way

condemns the area. It is entirely possible that adequate source beds may be

present. (Authors’ abstract.) Discussed by Miss STADNICHENKO, and

Messrs. Huss, WHITE, and RoBINSON.

T. S. Loverine: Physiography of the Colorado Front Range. Discussed

by Messrs. MatrHes, WHITE, TRASK, KoscHMANN, and Burts.

515TH MEETING

The 515th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Mar. 28, 1934, President H. G. FrRauson presiding.

Informal communications: H. D. Miser announced and discussed an

angular unconformity on the northeast side of the Arbuckle Mountains.

Discussed by Messrs. HENBEST and GOLDMAN.

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 493

H. G. Frrceuson on behalf of Mr. SHzenon described fissures developed in

the recent earthquake in Utah.

Program: J. C. MituEr: The relation of geology to unit operation of oil and

gas fields. Discussed by Messrs. Loverine and Gazin.

R. W. Brown: The pronunciation of geologic terms.—Above all other in-

fluences operating in the English language, the tendency to shift accent in a

polysyllabic word from a root element to a new syllable that is meaningless,

is the chief cause for diversity in the pronunciation of geologic and other

scientific terms. Thus we hear ki-lom-eter for kilo-meter; ba-rom-eter for

baro-meter; psi-lom-elane for psilo-melane; am-phib-olite for amphi-bolite;

Dry-op-teris for Dryo-pteris; Quer-cox-ylon for Querco-xylon; Gas-trop-oda

for Gastro-poda;tril-oba for tri-loba. The remedy for this situation is held to be

a general agreement among scientists to disregard classical rules, for the

most part, and to pronounce scientific terms so that the root elements can be

heard as distinct units. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. Matruss,

TRASK, SPENCER, LoverRING, Miser, and BOWMAN.

R. M. Leacette: Varved clay in Ogden Valley, Utah.—Ogden Valley lies

in the Wasatch Mountains about 10 miles east of the city of Ogden, Utah.

It is a graben valley formed in early Tertiary time and is filled with more

than 600 feet of unconsolidated gravel, sand, and clay. During the Bonne-

ville stage of Lake Bonneville (5,200 feet) an arm of the lake extended east-

ward through a narrow canyon in the Wasatch Mountains and flooded

Ogden Valley. Sediments were deposited during this high water stage that

completely filled the valley up to an altitude of about 4,900 feet. With the

overflow of Lake Bonneville and the cutting down of its outlet about 400

feet to the Provo stage, the Ogden Valley was drained and the streams

began entrenching the 4,900-foot bench.

A deposit of varved clay, about 70 feet thick, underlies a considerable por-

tion of the valley. A count of the varves on a number of specimens shows

about 370 years per foot of varved clay. The more silty portions show about

160 years per foot. When these figures are applied to the clayey and silty

portions of the total thickness of varved material it is found that about

23,000 years is represented by the 70 feet of varved clay. This does not

represent an accurate figure, but should be considered only as indicating

the general order of magnitude, perhaps 25,000 years.

The upper part of the varved clay lies above the level of the Provo stage

of Lake Bonneville, and the clay, therefore, could not have been deposited

during the Provo stage. The clay could not have been deposited in a small

lake occupying Ogden Valley that was not connected to the main Lake

Bonneville, because the varved clay lies higher than the overflow point of

the valley through Ogden Canyon. The early Pleistocene stage of Lake

Bonneville was high enough to allow the formation of the varved clay. How-

ever, there is no major break represented in the sediments above or below

the varved clay and it is, therefore, believed that the varved clay and the

overlying and underlying sand and gravel were deposited during the Bonne-

ville stage of Lake Bonneville. The Bonneville stage presumably represents

only a part of Wisconsin time and the varved clay which was deposited in

about 25,000 years therefore represents only a part of Wisconsin time.

(Author’s abstract.) Discussed by Messrs. ALDEN, BRADLEY, FERGUSON,

and THOMPSON.

516TH MEETING

The 516th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, Apr. 11, 1934, President H. G. Ferguson presiding.

494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

Informal communications: R. M. LeGcEtte discussed the recent earth-

quake in Ogden Valley, Utah, with epicenter at northeast corner of Great

Salt Lake. The quake was recorded at well stations by water stage recorders

and pressure recorders. Graphs were exhibited showing effects of earthquake

registered by both types of recorders. The data suggest that the pressure re-

corders offer a new line of attack in earthquake study.

Program: H. D. Miser: The Carboniferous rocks of the Ouachita Moun-

tains.—The Carboniferous rocks of the Ouachita Mountains are a great

succession of sedimentary strata, chiefly shale and sandstone, measuring

18,000 to 20,000 feet in thickness in most parts of the region. The great

quantity of sediments for these rocks was derived from the Paleozoic land

Llanoria of Louisiana and eastern Texas and accumulated in the adjoining

geosynclinal belt, which is concealed by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits,

except for the exposure in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Okla-

homa, and other exposures in the Marathon and Solitario regions of Texas.

All of the above thickness of Carboniferous rocks is of Pennsylvanian age,

except for a few hundred feet of Mississippian shale (Caney shale) that is

exposed in Ti Valley and at Wesley, Okla. If to this thickness of Pennsy]l-

vanian strata there be added the thickness of the younger Pennsylvanian

rocks of the Arkansas Valley, the grand total reaches about 25,000 feet. The

Ouachita Mountains and the adjoining Arkansas Valley, therefore, reveal

the thickest known section of Pennsylvanian rocks in the United States.

In the past there has been much discussion about the age assignment of a

large portion of the Carboniferous sequence. There has seemed to some

geologists, including myself, to be some evidence for a Mississippian age

assignment for the Hot Springs sandstone, Stanley shale, and Jackfork

sandstone, and for a portion of a boulder-bearing shale on top of the Jack-

fork sandstone. On the other hand, there has seemed to other geologists, in-

cluding Ulrich, to be much evidence for a Pennsylvanian age assignment for

these formations whose combined thickness is about 12,000 feet.

The age significance of the plant evidence, which has been critically re-

viewed and studied by David White, is discussed by him in a manuscript

paper given before the Dallas meeting of the American Association of

Petroleum Geologists. An invertebrate fauna obtained by me recently from

the Jackfork sandstone seems to be the first one to contain identifiable fossils

of value. A statement concerning the age indications of the fauna has been

given me by G. H. Girty. The evidence of the invertebrate and plant fossils

is in agreement for indicating a Pennsylvanian age for the Hot Springs sand-

stone, Stanley shale, and Jackfork sandstone. A Pennsylvanian age assign-

ment for the boulder-bearing shale has already been demonstrated by Bruce

Harlton on the basis of microfossils.

With a Pennsylvanian age assignment for these formations it now be-

comes possible for me to reach a more satisfactory conclusion than I have

been able to reach hitherto, concerning the nature and origin of the boulder-

bearing shale which rests upon the Jackfork sandstone. This shale is here

designated Johns Valley shale, in accordance with E. O. Ulrich’s usage pro-

posed in 1927. The deposits of erratic boulders are found along and near the

northern margin of the Ouachita Mountains and lie within the Oklahoma

structural salient, whose northern frontal margin marked by the Ti Valley

fault has been thrust toward the northwest, a distance of 20 miles or more

over rocks of the Arbuckle Mountain facies. The boulders have, I believe,

been derived from an early Pennsylvanian uplift which has been largely, if

not entirely, concealed by the northwestward overthrust of the Oklahoma

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 495

structural salient in late Pennsylvanian time. My ideas of the location of the

uplift thus accord with those as expressed by Sidney Powers.

I question the ice-rafting hypothesis for the transportation of most of the

erratic boulders because of the great size of the erratic masses of Caney

shale (Mississippian) measuring as much as 600 feet across, that are em-

bedded in the Johns Valley shale (Pennsylvanian), because of the great size

of many limestone blocks measuring as much as 370 feet long that are found

in the Johns Valley shale, and because of the apparent local source of the

exotic material. E. E. L. Dixon’s hypothesis that the boulders represent sub-

marine land slips from high scarps on the uplift that has been postulated by

Powers, seems to accord with most of the available evidence. The hypothesis

for the origin of the boulders by thrust faulting seems to have fatal objec-

tions. There are no repetitions in the sequence, as would be expected from

overthrust faulting. Nor are any of the boulders found along the faults that

bound the northwestwardly overthrust sheets of the Oklahoma structural

salient. Instead, the boulders are confined to a single formation, the Johns

Valley shale.

The orogeny forming the hypothetical uplift from which the erratic

boulders may have been derived in early Pennsylvanian time appears to have

taken place coincident, or nearly coincident, with a widespread early Penn-

sylvanian orogeny that, according to C. W. Tomlinson, Sidney Powers, and

Robert H. Dott, affected a large region in southern Oklahoma, including

the Criner Hills and Arbuckle Mountains. (Author’s abstract.) Discussed

by Messrs. ULRicH, ForRsTE, STOSE, and FERGUSON.

Davin Waitt: The age of the Stanley and Jackfork formations. Discussed

by Messrs. Miser and ULricu.

517TH MEETING

The 517th meeting of the Society was held in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club, April 25, 1934, President H. G. Frreuson presiding.

Program: A. H. KoscHMann: The geology of the new deep tunnel of the Crip-

ple Creek District. Discussed by Mr. MANSFIELD.

G. F. LovuGHuin: Groundwater and deep ore reserves of the Cripple Creek

District. Discussed by Messrs. GiLLuLyY, LINDGREN, FERGUSON, and

GOLDMAN. )

— W. H. Bucuer: Limestone blocks in volcanic breccia on Shoshone River,

Wyoming. Discussed by Messrs. LouGHuIn, KoscHMANN, FERGUSON,

WooprinG, LarsEN, GILLULY, Bripcr, Hess, TRask, ALDEN, and MIseEr.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture —Jay N. DaRuine and

W. C. Henverson, chief and associate chief, respectively, of the Bureau of

Biological Survey, on September 11 addressed the International Association

of Game, Fish and Conservation Commissioners at their annual meeting in

Montreal. Outlining the Bureau’s program for national wildlife restoration,

Mr. Daruine spoke on Conserving and restoring waterfowl. Mr. HENDERSON

in a paper entitled The waterfowl crisis summarized the results of the exten-

sive studies recently made by the Biological Survey.

On September 6, Mr. HenpERsoN discussed wildlife and forestry at a for-

estry-and-land-use session of the annual forestry conference held in Plym-

outh, N. H., by the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests in

496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

cooperation with the New Hampshire Forestry Commission. W. L. McATEE

and J. Paut MILueErR also represented the Biological Survey at the con-

ference.

National Bureau of Standards.—On recommendation of the Department

of State, Dr. J. H. Dexuinecsr, chief of the radio section, was appointed

chairman of the American delegation to the International Radio Consulting

Committee which met in Lisbon, Portugal, from September 22 to October

10. The other official delegates were Major Rocrr B. Cotton, Signal Corps,

United States Army; G. C. Gross, Federal Communications Commission;

Captain StanrorD C. Hooprr, United States Navy; and W. VALE

WuiTINGTON, Treaty Division, Department of State.

The International Radio Consulting Committee was established in 1927

to advise the radio administrations of the world on technical questions, the

principal objective being the reduction of radio interference. Shortly after

the committee convened in Lisbon, Dr. DELLINGER was elected one of the

vice presidents.

Dr. DELLINGER also attended a session of the International Scientific

Radio Union in London, September 11 to 19. This is one of the organizations

in the International Council of Scientific Unions in which the United States

is represented through the National Research Council. The London meeting |

dealt with radio measurements and standards, propagation of waves, atmos-

pherics, and radio physics. Four reports were presented by Dr. DELLINGER

on radio frequency standards, analysis of continuous records of field inten-

sity at broadcast frequencies; frequency distribution of the intensities of

radio atmospherics, and report on Polar Year observations.

The American Congress of Physical Therapy has announced the award of

its gold key, ‘“‘the highest honor within the power of the Congress to bestow,”

to Dr. W. W. Cosuentz, chief of the radiometry section of the National

Bureau of Standards, and member of the Council on Physical Therapy of

the American Medical Association, ‘‘for meritorious service to medical sci-

ence in the field of ultra-violet radiation.”

National Park Service, U. 8. Department of the Intertor.—Director ARNO

B. CamMeErER, Assistant Director HaroLtp C. Bryant, and Chief Natural-

ist EarL A. TRAGER have returned to Washington from extensive western

park trips.

Former Director Horace M. ALBricut of the Service has been honored

in the naming, as Albrightia, of one of our genera of algae segregated and

identified by Dr. Josrrpu J. CopELanpD, New York scientist, while in Yellow-

stone National Park during the past summer. Another newly indentified

genus has been given the name Coulterza, for the late Prof. JoHN COULTER

of the University of Chicago, who began his botanical career as a member of

the Hayden Expedition of 1872.

Children’s Bureau, U. 8. Department of Labor.—Cooperating with the

Institute of Human Relations and the Pediatric Department of Yale Univer-

sity School of Medicine, the Children’s Bureau is undertaking this autumn a

three-year study of the physical fitness and growth of a group of school chil-

dren in the public schools of New Haven. The purpose of this study is to

evaluate certain indices of nutrition and development of children. It is

proposed to examine approximately 1,200 six-year-old children entering the

schools in September. A series of physical measurements will be made. At

NOVEMBER 15, 19384 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 497

the end of three months the children will be reweighed, and thereafter every

three months during the year. The same group of children will be re-exam-

ined in the fall of 1935, and again in the fall of 1936 by the same physician.

At the request of the National Industrial Recovery Administration, the

Children’s Bureau, together with the Women’s Bureau of the U.S. Depart-

ment of Labor, is making a study of industrial home work in different locali-

ties. Field work has been carried on in Maine, New York, New Jersey, and

Philadelphia and will be continued in Connecticut, Iowa, Illinois, and Texas.

Tabulation of findings has already begun. Home work industries studied

include those in which home work is still permitted without regulation, those

in which it is regulated, and those in which it is now prohibited, information

from the last being obtained in order to show how the manufacturers and

employers have adjusted their industries to the prohibition of home work.

The information obtained in this study will cover hours worked and rates

paid for home work, the number of children engaged in these occupations,

and other data which will provide a basis for dealing with this problem by

the NRA.

Bureau of Fisheries, U. S. Department of Commerce.—At the twenty-first

meeting of the North American Council on Fishery Investigations, held at

Halifax, N. S., on September 19, the United States delegation consisted of

Dr. H. B. BigELow, chairman of the Council, CHarLEs EK. JAcKsoN, deputy

commissioner of fisheries, and ELMer Hiaains. Also in attendance from the

Bureau of Fisheries were O. E. Serre and W. C. Herrinatron. The meeting

was uniquely notable, in that it was the first one of the Council in its four-

teen years of activity to be held on what is technically French soil. The

sessions were held on board the new French fisheries research vessel Pres?-

dent Theodore Tissier. The next meeting of the Council will be held in Wash-

ington, D. C., in September, 1935.

Recent researches by Dr. P. 8S. Gautsorr, chief oyster investigator,

assisted by J. F. Rnppun, indicate that while spawning of the females of the

native North Atlantic oyster species can be stimulated by the presence of

sperm from Japanese oysters, such spawning will not occur in response to

sperm from a number of other mollusks or from echinoderms. Dr. GALTSOFF

has also shown that the oyster sperm contains an active principle or hor-

mone-like compound which can be isolated. A quantity of this compound

has been prepared and is being used in biological studies.

The Venezuelan Legation has arranged with the Bureau of Fisheries for a

consignment of miscellaneous river fishes to be shipped to Venezuela,

where an effort will be made to propagate them for introduction in the fresh-

water bodies of that country.

American Chemical Society—Five Washington men have been elected to

fill posts in the American Chemical Society. They are: Dr. Witu1am D.

AppEeL of the Bureau of Standards, who will head the Division of Dye

Chemistry; Dr. Horace T. Herrick of the Color and Farm Waste Division,

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,

secretary of the Dye Division; Dr. Cartes A. Browne, also of the Bureau

of Chemistry and Soils, member of the Executive Committee of the Divi-

sion of History and Chemistry; Dr. ALDEN H. Emery of the U.S. Bureau of

Mines, re-elected secretary-treasurer of the Division of Gas and Fuel Chem-

istry, and Dr. CLaupE 8. Hupson of the Hygienic Laboratory will serve on

the Executive Committee of the Division of Organic Chemistry.

498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 11

Georgetown University School of Medicine-—The Rev. Davin A. McCavu-

LEY, 8.J., chairman of the department of biology was appointed to succeed

Rev. Joun L. Grppricu, 8.J., as regent of the Schools of Medicine and Den-

tistry. Father McCautey is a native of New York City and entered the

Society of Jesus in 1913. He was successively assistant professor of biology

at Fordham University, professor of biology at Holy Cross, and later at

Canisius College, and finally he was for the past three years professor of

empirical psychology and biology at the Jesuit Seminary at Woodstock,

Maryland. Father McCauL.ey is a morphologist by training, and his special

field of interest in the field of exact sciences is neuro-anatomy.

Mr. Grorcsr A. BENNETT resigned as professor of anatomy. Dr. JosEPH

L. ScHwinp formerly of Cornell University College of Medicine was ap-

pointed professor of anatomy and acting chairman of the department. The

following appointments have also been made in the department of anatomy:

Dr. Joun J. Lawusss, and Dr. Russrniut L. Jonus, both formerly of the

University of Minnesota, as instructors in anatomy.

The following special lecturers have been appointed in the department of

bacteriology: Dr. R. E. Dyer, assistant director, Dr. CHARLES ARMSTRONG,

surgeon, Dr. EDwarD FRANCIS, medical director, and Dr. R. R. SPENCER,

surgeon, all of the National Institute of Health. They will give lectures on

rickettsia, smallpox vaccination, tularemia, and dysentery respectively.

The department of pathology purchased a new sledge microtome for

cutting sections of whole organs. Prof. WHITMORE is continuing his work on

the biologie action of radiant energy and the endocrine origin of lesions in

bones and in the breast. Associate Professor DARDINSKI has just completed

the anatomical study of the ampulla Vater in different morbid conditions.

The department of pharmacology purchased apparatus for extensive

toxicological research and for the study of placental permeability of drugs.

Prof. T. A. Koppanyi and his associates published numerous papers on the

colorimetric estimation of veronal derivatives and on the action of barti-

turates in the living tissue. As a result of these researches a new conception

of anesthesia was developed. Dr. Koppanyi and his associates also succeeded

in the experimental production of lasting intracranial hypertension.

George Washington University School of Medicine-—The School cele-

brated the opening of the one hundred tenth academic year on September 19.

Addresses were delivered by President CLoyp Hrck Marvin president of

the University and Dr. Wi1Lu1am J. Matuory, professor of medicine. Among

the distinguished visitors and guests present were Prof. JOHN REENSTIERNA,

department of bacteriology, University of Upsala, Sweden; Capt. HaroLp

SmitH, Commandant, United States Navy Medical School, and Col. P. W.

HuntTINGTON, Commandant, United States Army Medical School. Dr.

E. B. McKintey, dean of the School of Medicine, announced the following

new appointments to the teaching staff: Dr. HerBerT P. Ramsey, assis-

tant professor of obstetrics and gynecology; Dr. Wapr H. MarsHatt, in-

structor, department of physiology; ALMA FoGELBERG, instructor, depart-

ment of physiology; Dr. Ranpaut L. THompson, research associate in bac-

teriology; Dr. Inmaarp DREsEL, instructor, department of pathology; Dr.

EvizABETH RAMSEY, instructor, department of pathology; Dr. DUANE CASE

RICHTMEYER, research assistant in experimental medicine; Dr. G. Louis

WELLER, Jr., clinical instructor in medicine; Dr. Harry F. Dow.ine,

clinical instructor in medicine; Dr. Russevu F. Fievps, clinical instructor

in dermatology and syphilology; Dr. Byron Rineat, research assistant in

NOVEMBER 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 499

biochemistry; Dr. ALEXANDER SIMON, clinical instructor in neurology; Dr.

KATHERINE E.. PARKER, instructor in obstetrics and gynecology.

News Bri£rFrs

The thirty-fourth annual conference of the Federation Aeronautique In-

ternationale was held in Washington, October 6 to 11. The program included

a visit, on October 7, to the laboratories of the aeronautic instruments sec-

tion of the National Bureau of Standards. Dr. W. G. BRomBacueEr, chief of

the section, had some interesting instruments and testing equipment to show

the visitors. The Federation is the aviation sport governing body of the

world, the United States being represented through the National Aero-

nautic Association. In all, twenty-one nations were represented at the con-

ference.

Because of the adverse ruling of Comptroller McCarl, the Forest Service

will be unable to begin the immediate development of the great shelter-belt

project in the West. Approximately one million dollars at present available

will be expended in research, exploratory work, and the expansion of nur-

sery stocks, to be used in the event that the next Congress makes an ap-

propriation for this purpose.

A strong appeal for the rescue of the almost extinct trumpeter swan has

been issued by Secretary of the Interior Harotp F. Ickss. At present, the

remnant of the species is confined almost entirely to the waters of Yellow-

stone National Park and the immediate vicinity.

Preliminary studies are under way at the Catholic University of America

looking to the possible establishment of an ‘‘alphabet grove,”’ a famous in-

stitution in ancient Ireland, in which each of the eighteen letters of the

Irish alphabet was represented by its ‘‘name tree.”

PERSONAL ITEMS

Under Secretary of Agriculture Rexrorp G. TUGWELL was official repre-

sentative of the U.S. Department of Agriculture at the autumn meeting of

the International Institute of Agriculture, at Rome.

Dr. AcEsILuau Birancourt, associate director of the plant division of the

Biological Institute of the Department of Agriculture of the State of Sao

Paulo, Brazil, was the guest of the U. S. Department of Agriculture during

the latter part of September.

Dr. Hans Laver, professor of ophthalmology, the University of Warsaw,

_ Poland, addressed the faculty and students at the school of medicine,

George Washington University, on Tuesday, October 2. Dr. Lauer’s subject

was, Heredity, particularly in relation to the eye.

Dr. J. E. I. Cairns, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Car-

negie Institution of Washington, who has been stationed at the Huancayo

Magnetic Observatory, in Peru, since August 1931 and in charge of the Ob-

servatory since December 1, 1932, returned to Washington, D. C., on Sep-

tember 27.

F. T. Daviss, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie In-

stitution of Washington, who has been on furlough since February 16, 1932,

500 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. Il

in order that he might take part in the Polar Year work at the Canadian

station at Chesterfield Inlet, and afterwards participate in the reduction of

the observations at the Meteorological Service, Toronto, returned to take

up his duties at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism in October.

Miss Rutu O’Brien, chief of the division of textiles and clothing, bureau

of home economics, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, spoke on Standards

for consumers’ goods before the meeting of the Conference on Distribution,

Boston, on September 25.

Dr. CHARLES F’. Roos, chief of the research and planning division of the

NRA, and from 1930 to 1932 permanent secretary of the American Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science, has been appointed professor of eco-

nomics at Colorado College.

Correction.—With reference to the paper Pleistocene remains found near

Lake Tacarigua, Venezuela by Charles Berry, published in this JouRNAL 24:

387-395, October 1934, the author wishes to add a statement to the effect

that the term Pleistocene was used in a loose sense for everything from

Pleistocene to Recent, since there was no means of making a distinction at

that locality.

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Decemser 15, 1934 _ No. 12

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PHYSICS.—The beginnings of physics. 1I.—The quest for general

principles. RAYMOND J. SEEGER, The George Washington

University.

When, where and how did physical science begin? To answer these

questions, we must first of all specify what is meant by physical

science. This we can do only by tracing its outline in historical per-

spective to the central focus of all ages. But considerable care must

be exercised in allowance for the distorted lines of particular periods

and for the faint marks of primitive times. Shall we seek the origin

of science in the early use of tools? If so, archaeological history assigns

the drill and the potter’s wheel to some time before 3000 B.C. Even

as to-day, however, a child acquires mastery of a hoop without per-

ceiving the latent dynamical principles, so too the ancients had no

knowledge commensurate with their mechanical skills. It would seem

better to seek for the beginnings of science in the first conscious in-

vestigations of nature. At once, we think of the early cosmogonies

of mythology. But we hesitate to ascribe to these the spirit of science.

Although both mythology and science start with keen observations,

the former regards men; the latter, things. Mythology interprets

nature subjectively in terms of human experience; science describes

it objectively in terms of its own. Such methods are incompatible.

Indeed, science could arise only if the old way of thinking were com-

pletely discarded. For mythology could be modified in no simple

manner, inasmuch as anything new would have to be added to the

old for safety’s sake. Consequently, a different attitude had to be

developed—not a broadening, but a narrowing of animistic views—

so that objective study would be ultimately possible. Such a reac-

tionary method necessitated an intellectual revolution for its incep-

tion. And this is just what took place in Greece about 600 B.C. when

thinkers began the quest for general principles which would describe

nature without recourse to caprice.

New ideas germinate readily in a new country. And in a certain

sense Greek Ionia, which was the western part of what is now Asia

1 Received July 2, 1934.

501

502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

Minor, was ‘‘a country without a past.” Its inhabitants were ad-

venturers who had come from Attica after the Dorian invasion from

the north. They had left behind the decadent religion molded by

Hesiod’s Theogony. The Ionians, therefore, were free to explore un-

restricted realms of thought. Their curiosity created pure research,

that disinterested search for truth which is immortalized in the oath

of Hippocrates? of Cos (c.400 B.C.). To be sure, vestiges of Olympian

polytheism always remained. For example, Thales, one of the seven

wise men of Greece, said with reference to magnetism, which he had

discovered, ‘‘All things are full of gods.’’ But this is trivial compared

with the magnificent conception of a first cause, which the Ionian

philosophers proposed as materialistic in nature. Later this was ex-

tended to the Aristotelian hierarchy of four causes, in which teleology

humanized logic with ethics. Hence, in time, philosophy became a

way of life and the “lovers of wisdom’ adopted this new raison

d’étre for their studies. Their criterion was so universally accepted

that a divergence between professional philosophy and science has

been perpetuated to this day.

Claims have been made that science was transmitted in the con-

tacts of the sea-loving Ionians with Chaldean astronomers and

Egyptian geometers. There is no doubt that the acquisition of many

facts is to be attributed to the excursions of these men from Eastern

Greece. But the philosophical interpretation of the facts was pecul-

larly their own. The astronomy of Chaldea was mainly astrology

interspersed with some practical methods for predicting eclipses.

The geometry of Egypt was, at first, no more than empirical mensura-

tion. It took a Pythagoras to realize the significance of the 3-4-5

rule used by the “‘rope-stretchers” along the Nile. As for the older

civilizations of India and China, the historical facts are too few to

warrant more than vague conjectures. What is definitely known is

that an entirely different approach to the understanding of the

universe was begun in Greece more than a century before the ‘‘golden

age’’ of Pericles.

The scientific method of the Greeks has often been ridiculed be-

cause of its lack of experimental justification, not to mention its

permeation with speculation. We note, however, that even the latter

is decidedly experiential. Do not savages fear the potentially evil

spirits lurking in the clouds because storms actually do rage? The

Greeks could hardly be said to be less observant. Indeed, the literary

2 Dates and spellings of Greek names are taken from the Jntroduction to the history

of sclence—GEORGE SARTON (1927).

DECEMBER 15, 1934 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 503

descriptions of Homer and the delicate sculpture of Phidias are

eternal evidence of their attention to minute details. The biological

classifications and records of Aristotle still excite the admiration of

naturalists. What amateur of science has not been thrilled by Hip-

parchos’ discovery of the precession of the equinoxes? As a matter

of fact, such instances can be so readily multiplied that the specu-

lative character of Greek conclusions can not have been inherent in

their observations. On the contrary, it grew out of their unobserved

significance. How else can one account for nature being accepted as

the giver, but not as the judge of theory? Induction, it is true, was

used. But in what way? Solely as the grouping together of similar

observations. Nature was never examined as to the reason for their

similarity or the possibility of their not being universal. The facts

were regarded as concrete symbols of abstract reality; they were

looked upon as incidental expressions. Accidental impressions were

overlooked; for epistemology with its incisive analysis of mind itself

was yet to come. Even Protagoras’ hint that man is a measure of all

things and Xenophanes’ earlier application of it to the anthropo-

morphic gods were but eddies in a tide of self-satisfaction. And so

when objections to any hypothesis were made on the basis of new

facts, the tendency was to deny these rather than to modify the

theory.

To-day we can understand all this psychologically as the ‘“‘will-to-

live’ of their newly born enthusiasm, the supreme power of thought.

Sublime as this may have been in the mind of Plato (or later of Hegel),

however, it has been found to take too little cognizance of man’s

abilities and of nature’s intricacies. Modern physicists very guardedly

refrain from any semblance of finality in their small restricted domain.

But in the childhood of science the intellect loomed as an all-powerful

giant. Had not the dialectic method of Socrates disarmed the sophisti-

cated sophists and freed truth from their mesh of error? The Greeks

were eager to apply it unreservedly to everything. Moreover, the

rational architecture of the universe seemed to them to call for an

investigation of the universal elements of design. So experiment was

cast aside as dealing with comparatively insignificant matters. Nor

did it adapt itself later either to the ethical philosophies of the Greek

world or to the Christian theology of the Roman empire. In an age,

therefore, when methods were being formulated, the a prior: method

won support because of its quick returns. The operation of a similar

natural selection can be observed to-day in newly developed fields

504 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

where the base achieving of results receives more plaudits than the

acid testing of methods.

The real contributions of Greece to physical science have been the

enunciation of general principles and the application of mathematical

symbolism. When we compare these advances with the blind igno-

rance of the preceding age and with the stereotyped knowledge of the

following one, we are almost converted to a belief in a “heroic age

of science.’? We shall examine the second contribution in Part II.

For the present, let us take up the general hypotheses in logical detail

in order that too many lacunae may not give them the appearance

of being merely a catalogue of desultory opinions. For one can trace

a definite trend toward a clarification of concepts. Indeed, in some

instances the final ideas seem almost identical with our own, but the

language expressing thoughts must always be understood in the con-

text of the age considered. In particular, it must be borne in mind

that whether or not any general theory is ultimately successful is

not indicative of its importance when first presented, inasmuch as the

success of speculation is no more to be credited than its failure.

Because of subtle inferences that can be made, true results by false

methods are just as confusing, as worthless results by genuine

methods.

Is it possible to give a unified materialistic explanation of nature?

In other words, can one rationally interpret phenomena on the basis

of a simple kinematical picture? The very question is startling. It

becomes more so when we pause to examine its tacit assumptions as

understood by the Greeks. In the first place, there is a belief in the

uniformity of nature, i.e., a certain regularity of sense-perceptions

that seems to invite the direct application of causality, as for example

the continual succession of day and night. Secondly, a faith in man’s

capacity for understanding such orderliness is affirmed. Finally,

quintessential truth is unreservedly sought. To-day we still ask the

same question, but our frank skepticism calls boldly for specific

qualifications. We feel free to consider the uniformity in certain

cases an average condition, as when a large lake appears calm be-

cause its playful ripples escape our notice. Then too, man’s ability

to synthesize his experiences, we believe, arises partly from his own

peculiar analyses. The strange imprint upon nature is his own. As

for the true explanation of the universe, this has been abandoned as

a scientific project per se, and has been replaced by the more modest

search for an adequate description of it. Perhaps, there is a unique

picture of the real world; then again, there may be several that are

DECEMBER 15, 1934 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 505

equally satisfactory. Science is concerned with the sufficiency of its

theories, not with their necessity; at present, of course, it will be con-

tent to find a single one. On the other hand, it is interesting to note

that several pictures may be necessary (cf. the wave-theory and the

corpuscular theory to-day). The following example may serve to

illustrate the modern viewpoint. One says, ‘‘He was a lion in the

fight.’’ We all understand what is meant. The picture aptly describes

a certain characteristic of the individual, but is the picture literally

true? Was there actually a metamorphosis? That is a matter which

cannot be settled without additional information. Furthermore, we

note that another picture might tell the story just as well. One might

also say, ‘He would not give up the ship.’”’ So, too, science leaves this

sense of the reality of its picturesque descriptions to be determined

by other means. Let us now examine the hazy pictures which were

sketched by the Greeks.

Thales of Miletos (n.624 B.C.), the father of physics, selected

water as the primordial substance. Despite the fact that none of his

writings are extant, we can reasonably attribute his choice to its

omnipresence. Water is everywhere; in the rains that descend upon

the earth, in the waters under the earth, in the oceans about the

earth. It permeates all substances so that their physical properties

are dependent upon their content of moisture. Even life is conditioned

by its presence. This universality of water served as the first requisite

of the basic material. Furthermore, the readiness with which water

transforms into solid and into vapor hinted at mobility, another

necessary characteristic, but Thales himself gave no particular ex-

planation of any such changes. In order to do so, his pupil Anaxi-

mander (c.610—545 B.C.) decided to introduce a different primary

substance which was an ‘‘ageless and deathless’’ substratum of mat-

ter. This unchanging reality, which he called dias (‘‘characteristic

property of something’’), had derivatives such as water and air re-

sulting from its natural dissociation into pairs of neutralizing com-

ponents (ef. the rainbow from sunlight). For as one observes phe-

nomena, one is impressed with the duality of changes; here drying

occurs, there moistening; now heating, then cooling. To be sure, this

is merely the twofold aspect of the reversibility of changes, but it is

susceptible to manifold interpretations. In the one we are considering,

the very constancy of such changes necessitated a continuous dis-

sociation of the primary substance so that it had to be more plentiful

than sand on a beach washed silently by time-telling tides. But no

common material is so abundant; hence, the need for something

506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 12

“boundless” and insensible. Thus for the first time an eternal sub-

matter (like the electrons, protons, ete. of modern physics) had to

be proposed. The significance for us lies in this choice of a hypothetical

substance to account for actual materials, an unseen universe to

represent the visible one. As for the principle of indestructibility

which was also suggested, it has been invoked in modern times for

the conservation of mass, the conservation of energy, and the con-

servation of electric charge. Challenged in the 20th century, it has

been merely transferred from matter (i.e., charge) to a more funda-

mental concept, viz., that of energy, so that matter itself is to be looked

upon as an accidental form of energy. It would be of interest to exam-

ine Anaximander’s doctrine of an eventual compensation of the

“opposites” to produce a changeless universe and his view of the

earth as freely supported. We prefer, however, to confine our atten-

tion more strictly to the development of ideas which to-day are the

tacit assumptions of physics (‘‘the study of dicts’’). Such is the pro-

posal of a unified, materialistic explanation of all phenomena, which

was a volcanic eruption in a world governed by the uncontrollable

passions of humanized gods and enveloped in the dark atmosphere

of ignorant superstition.

Another important step in the search for unity was made by

Anaximenes (f1.546 B.C.), an associate of Anaximander. Retaining

the idea of the ‘“‘boundless,’”’ he decided it was air, but rejected An-

aximander’s other views as so indefinite as to be meaningless. The

reason he chose air in preference to water is evident in his way of

accounting for the derivatives of the ‘‘boundless.’’ When one whis-

tles, the air is cool; when one yawns it is warm. He reasoned,

therefore, that condensation produced cold air, whereas rarefaction

produced warm. The variety of materials could thus be explained in

terms of the variations of a single substance, e.g., ice, water, water-

vapor. But to ascertain, in general, whether materials are fundamen-

tally distinct or different forms of some single identity is a theoretical

problem which cannot be uniquely solved. Then, too, what may ap-

pear simple at first sight may prove too complicated to establish as

such. And so we must regard the entire proposal of Anaximander as

a simple hypothesis which failed of a simple proof. For he advanced

the notion that fire was air in a very rare state. Upon condensation

it became first wind and then cloud. Obviously, condensed cloud

gave rise to water which disappeared into earth itself, and condensed

finally into stone. Hence, the process of transformation, which his

predecessor had left indeterminate, he was able to trace in the varying

DECEMBER 15, 1934 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 507

conditions of air. Above all, the states of heating and of drying which

had previously been logical hybrids of indeterminateness and mobility

could be stated by use of condensation and rarefaction (cf. the whis-

tling example, above). Although the advantages of thus describing

qualitative differences by quantitative variations in state is too com-

mon to-day to be fully appreciated it was a clear-cut departure from

the current meanderings at that time. For fluid theories are usually

the first conceived in any age—perhaps, because of their ease of

apprehension. One still recalls the phlogiston of the 18th century and

the caloric of the 19th (it is strange that Lavoisier disproved the

former, but approved of the latter)—not to mention the ‘“‘neutrinos’”’

of 1934. And so it is to the credit of the Greeks that the philosophy

of Anaximenes became the accepted one of the Milesian schoo! at an

early stage.

Heraclitos of Ephesos (f1.500 B.C.), who desired to be considered

apart from the other Ionian philosophers, perceived in the constancy

of change, not so much a transformation of a single substance, as a

single transforming. In other words, he sought unity in the activity

rather than in the passive object. For example, consider the burning

of wood. The flame plays from place to place while the burning stead-

ily proceeds. It is change alone which is lasting; all else is ephemeral.

And what is the most spectacular producer of change but fire? Out

of fire, therefore, comes everything, as when the burning wood yields

smoke and ashes as by-products. To Heraclitos this illustrated the

essential nature of the universe. For from the fire of the sun leaped

“fiery water-spouts,’’ which burned and left earth as a residue. The

earth was then carried away to the sea where it returned to the sun

by the evaporation of the water. The cycle was repeated. More than

that, it was reversible so that at any instant the sea should be con-

sidered a mixture of fiery water-spouts becoming earth and of earth

becoming fiery water-spouts. These opposing transformations so

balanced each other that one might appropriately speak of their

harmony from the analogy of a note produced by the pull and strain

on a string of a lyre. For is not the warm ever cooling; the cool, warm-

ing? Each is only a different aspect of the same equilibration. Fan-

tastic as this may appear, Heraclitos made a real contribution in his

emphasis upon dynamic equilibrium, viz., his subjecting mobility,

as well as matter, to definite laws. We note in all these speculations

a gradual insistence upon logical application rather than poetic

license. But weak spots of analogies were often left unprotected and

became sores for later irritation. In this case, by the way, what was

508 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

the exact relation between fire and its by-products (not solved until

the 18th century)? This question soon absorbed the attention of the

philosophers until two answers came into vogue; one denied the very

existence of change, the other affirmed the existence of several pri-

mary substances instead of a single one. In fine, the quest for a pri-

mordial substance and the emphasis upon motion were found to be

incompatible.

It was Parmenides of Elea (c.539 B.C.), who pointed out that the

“real’? must be uncreated and indestructible if matter alone could

be thought, but how, then, could one interpret the transformations

of the ‘‘real’’? Manifestly on a monistic view these were incredible.

All appearance of change was necessarily an illusion of the senses, as

well as any sensation accompanying it. This meant that the world

was one homogeneous body of matter without any space whatsoever

and that motion was impossible. This strange attitude, which was only

the logical development of a purely monistic view, was responsible

for the subsequent abandonment of monism. Pluralism of some kind

was adopted—until reality was assigned not only to sub-matter, but

even to the non-corporeal. Our chief concern lies in the discrediting

of the senses and the insistence upon logical consistency. For he

stressed the need of differentiating between primary matter and its

secondary qualities. The world of nature became even more a world

of the mind.

The first attempts to use more than one funadmental substance

were in the form of combinations of those which had already been

proposed for a single one. Oenopides of Chios (c.500—480 B.C.) chose

fire and air; Xenophanes of Colophon (f1.540 B.C.) preferred water

and earth. It remained for the Dorian philosopher, Empedocles of

Acragos (c.490—435 B.C.), to combine all four. Indeed, this was not

wholly unreasonable inasmuch as this group included a solid, a

liquid, a gas and ethereal fire. He really introduced the idea of

“elements” (a name employed first by Plato), which were constit-

uents of all materials. Strictly speaking, the early Greek philosophers

recognized six. For in addition to fire, air, water and earth, love and

strife were considered to have certain corporeal properties such as

length and weight. These last two elements (like our modern attrac-

tive and repulsive forces) were supposed to set the others in motion.

Combinations of any number or of all six were assumed to produce

the various kinds of matter. To cite an instance, ‘‘bone consists of 4

parts of fire, 2 parts of earth and 2 parts of water.’ Of course, a

priori methods were used to determine the relative amounts in a

DECEMBER 15, 1934 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 509

composition. But the idea of combinations of a few elements to account

for many substances proved very potent throughout the growth of

science; and we must remember that it was the atomists who first

took up this problem of the way elements combine in order to explain

the secondary characteristics of matter composed of similar particles.

The same foundations of physics were laid carelessly on the shifting

sands of speculation, before they were laid critically on the bed-rock

of experiment. |

In the meantime, another philosopher, Anaxagoras of Clazomenae

(c.499—-428 B.C.), one of the first martyrs of the freedom of thought,

suggested at Athens the very opposite extreme to the unity advocated

by Parmenides. The following quotations* epitomize his viewpoint.

“How can hair come from what is not hair, or flesh from what is not

flesh?” (The argument is still used by opponents of certain biological

theories.) ‘‘For there is no least of what is small; there is always some-

thing still smaller. For it is impossible that that which is should cease

to be by being divided. In everything there is a portion of everything

except mind.” Although this proposal was diametrically opposed to

that of Parmenides, it was raised to solve the same dilemma, viz.,

that creation and change were impossible because matter could not

come from nothing. There is no doubt that Anaxagoras offered a ra-

tional, though not reasonable, answer. For there were just as many

seeds (to borrow the name used by Aristotle) as substances. If one

asked, then, how bread could become flesh upon digestion, the ready

reply was that bread had flesh latent in it. To be sure, the ‘“‘flesh-

seeds’ had to be very minute and sparsely scattered throughout the

bread. Otherwise, as Anaxagoras might note, one would have to ex-

pect wood shavings when cutting hair. The seeds were to be regarded

as infinitely divisible, but never lost. Thus the permanence of sub-

stances was maintained despite disruptive changes. Somewhat apart

from other seeds were those of the mind. Like Empedocles’ strife and

love these corporeal bits caused motion. Certainly Anaxagoras’

solution of the problem of change was naive. It was not satisfactory,

however, in that the sufficiency of an explanation is not the only ob-

jective of natural philosophy. It must be simple also. (Recall the

remark of Kepler: ‘‘Nature loves simplicity and unity’’—or at least,

mankind loves them.) And so atomism arose out of a desire to re-

duce the number of basic substances and to refute the Eleatic notion

that phenomena were illusions. Let us turn again to Parmenides’ views.

Zeno of Elea (f1.402 B.C.) introduced an entirely new method of

3 Source book in ancient philosophy—CuHARLES M. BAKEWELL (1907) 51.

510 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

proof in defense of Parmenides’ monism. It was essentially a reductto

ad absurdum. The object was to show that an opponent’s arguments

were erroneous by deducing some absurd conclusion, or better, to

obtain incompatible conclusions from the same hypothesis. Zeno

used this method chiefly to disprove the pluralistic mathematics of

the Pythagoreans, e.g., that space was made up of a number of

mathematical units. “A point is unity having position.’”’ His famous

paradoxes hinted at the great caution that must be employed, not

only in the technical application of mathematics to physical problems,

but also in the philosophical interpretations. For mathematics can

express only what it has been asked to express. The paradoxes’ them-

selves illustrate most clearly Zeno’s method.

(1) “You cannot cross a race course. You cannot traverse an infinite num-

ber of points in a finite time. You must traverse the half of any given dis-

tance before you traverse the whole, and the half of what remain before

you can traverse the whole. This goes on ad infinitum, so that there are an

infinite number of points in any given space, and you cannot touch an

infinite number, one by one, in a finite time.

(2) “Achilles will never overtake the tortoise. He must first reach the place

from which the tortoise started. By that time the tortoise will have got

some way ahead. Achilles must then make up that, and again the tortoise

will be ahead. He is always coming nearer, but he never gets up to it.

(3) “The arrow in flight is really at rest. For if everything is at rest when

it occupies a space equal to itself, and what is in flight at any given moment

always occupies a space equal to itself, it cannot move.

(4) ‘Half the time may be equal to double the time. Let us suppose three

rows of bodies, one of which (A) is at rest, while the other two (B, C) are

moving with equal velocity in opposite directions. (See the following dia-

gram.) By the time they are all in the same part of the course B will have

passed twice as many bodies in C as in A. Therefore, the time which it takes

to pass C is twice as long as the time it takes to pass A. But the time which

B and C take to reach the position of A is the same. Therefore, double the

time is equal to the half.”

Beginning End

0000 A 00000 A

0000 -—-> B 00000 B

The mathematical subtleties involved in these problems are con-

tinuity, infinitesimals and absolute infinity or transfinite numbers so

that even to-day the explanations are far from simple. The funda-

4 Early Greek philosophy—JouN BuRNET (8rd ed. 1920) 318.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS Silat

mental question is whether or not the limit of the variable is reached

by it, e.g., whether Achilles ever does overtake the tortoise. But

mathematically, this must be defined to suit the physical observation,

and so Zeno’s difficulty is removed. Here we are face to face with a

typical example of mathematical logic transcending intuitive physics

or, in other words, a method of analysis which cannot be analyzed

into simple, physical commonplaces just as the recent quantum

mechanics cannot be understood by reduction to familiar de-

scriptive models. As for Zeno, he was content with having vitiated

the arguments for more than one “‘real,’’ by showing that motion

could not be conceived in terms of a finite number of space-units.

Of course, infinite divisibility of space was rejected because it seemed

to lead to an infinite number of finite parts (again a question of the

meaning of a limit such as zero).

It may seem strange that a theory of invisible atoms should have

its origin in a refusal to disbelieve what is seen. Yet this has always

been the case from the time they were first proposed by Leucippos

of Miletos (c.460 B.C.) to the 20th century. Starting with a firm

belief that knowledge is acquired through the senses, he proceeded

to solve the logical difficulties encountered by Anaxagoras and by

Zeno. First of all, he assigned existence to the non-corporeal and

classified space as such so that motion was no longer an illusory ex- |

perience, but again an accepted fact. Secondly, he postulated atoms

(“uncut bits’’), which were all of one substance, homogeneous, hard

and indivisible. But why, we may ask, these particular attributes?

The first two made it possible to retain the unifying principle of a

single material. Instead of the one plenum of Parmenides, however,

each atom now possessed such properties. The hardness of the atoms

insured their changelessness and timelessness. Finally, their indivisi-

bility relieved everyone of any fear that matter might fritter away

into dust like the seeds of Anaxagoras. Let us consider the reasons

adduced to support the atomic hypothesis. It was natural to suppose

that there is a physical limit to the cutting of any body. The knife

itself guarantees that. Such an undivided portion could usually

be seen, so that one had to think of the cutting as being repeated in-

definitely until the next cutting could not even be imagined. This final

uncut residue, with its finite magnitude to account for the size of

ordinary bodies, was an atom. Although this argument from analogy

cannot be said to be tenable, for many centuries it was the only one

that prevented the atomic hypothesis from being chimerical. All the

same, an elaborate theory was soon developed.

512 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

In order to explain nature’s infinitude of forms, Leucippos postu-

lated that the atoms were infinite both in number and in variety of

shapes. A special reason for not limiting the number of shapes was

his inability to find any particular shapes that seemed appropriate

for atoms. Likewise he failed to discover any proper motions of the

atoms; hence, he concluded that they could move in any direction.

The celebrated example of the sun and the motes depicting atomic

chaos is believed to have been given first by the early atomists al-

though Lucretius’ account® is the only one extant: “Of this truth,

which I am telling, we have a representation and picture always

going on before our eyes and present to us: observe whenever the

rays are let in and pour the sunlight through the dark chambers of

houses: you will see many minute bodies in many ways through the

apparent void mingle in the midst of the light of the rays, and as in

never-ending conflict skirmish and give battle combating in troops

and never halting, driven about in frequent meetings and partings.”’

Some moderns have taken this indefiniteness as an implication that

chance was inherent in his system, because a similar postulate of a

random distribution is basic in statistics to-day. But this was far

from beng true. Indeed, Leucippos, was the first to enunciate what

Leibniz later emphasized as his raison suffisant or “there is a sufficient

reason for every happening”? and what Swann‘ recently called the

‘intelligent design’’ of the universe. Of course, the atoms jostled one

another in their motions so that entanglements inevitably ensued

on account of the variety of shapes. These clusters became larger

and larger until ordinary matter resulted. In these formations three

ill-defined possibilities were recognized as is illustrated by the figures

of a square and a parallelogram in Fig. 1.

Waa ee 9

(2) Elements.

(b) Rotation

a a

(¢) Translation

Fig. 1.—For explanation see text.

5 Lucrettus—On the nature of things—translated by H. A. J. Munrok (1919) Book II.

6 The architecture of the universe—W. F. G. Swann (1934) 401.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS 513

That such arrangements were highly fanciful is not to be denied.

And yet, what about the hooked atoms of John Bernoulli and of the

nineteenth-century chemists? Certainly all these elaborate theories of

the structure of matter were presumptuous before the atomic hy-

pothesis had met an experimentum crucis such as Einstein’s equation

for Brownian movements later offered.

Greek speculation became rampant in the subsequent history of

atomism. Democritos of Abdera (c.460-370 B.C.), changing only a

few minor matters, discussed in even greater detail the various types

of arrangement so that he was finally able to give an explanation

of sensation itself on this basis. And then using this as the foundation

for a theory of knowledge and of ethics, as well as for the usual cos-

mology, he formulated a complete philosophic system. The distinctive

physical feature of his type of atom was its unrestricted size, e.g.,

an atom could be as large as a house. In other words, there was an

infinity of both shapes and sizes. From our viewpoint, however, the

significance of Democritos’ work can be judged best from two state-

ments of his own. In the first place he reaffirmed the dictum of

Melissos that “nothing is created out of the non-existent, or is de-

stroyed into the non-existent.’’ This is the gist of our modern prin-

ciple of continuity, which has so many special forms, e.g., Kirchhoff’s

first law for an electric circuit. He stressed also that absolute de-

terminism that follows logically any mechanical representation of

the universe. ‘‘By necessity are foreordained all things that are and

are to come.”’ Any failure to trace the mechanical process results

merely from ignorance. So he noted the possibility of a plurality of

causes for a final state that alone is observed, e.g., here is the earth,

what is its origin? But the ethical implications of his system already

foreshadowed the approaching abandonment of the study of natural

philosophy for its own sake—an ironical turn, for the “laughing

philosopher”’ scorned utilitarian motives.

Greek atomism culminated in the work of Epicuros’ of Samos

(c. 341-270 B.C.), whose system has been carefully preserved in that

immortal poem of Titus Carus Lucretius (c.98 or 95-55 B.C.), De

Rerum Natura. Once more the reality of sensation was made the sine

qua non of all knowledge. Indeed, empiricism was extended to a re-

jection of the infinite divisibility of matter. For the strength of

materials did not seem to warrant the inevitable destruction that the

constant breaking up of matter would cause. Epicuros proceeded to

modify the atomic theory by assigning another property to the atom

7 The Greek atomists and Epicurus—CyRiu Bat.Ley (1928).

514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

—weight. We are to understand this, not as technically differentiated

from inertia, but as vulgarly used for either. It was this weight which

caused the atoms to move, not promiscuously throughout space, but

all downward with the same speed. Yet, how could such a rain of

atoms bring about the clustering entanglements? Occasional swerv-

ings had to be allowed so that collisions could take place. As a matter

of fact, even upward motion could be realized by the squeezing of a

light atom in contact with two heavy swerving ones (cf. Fig. 2). It

N uatae |

Fig. 2.—For explanation see text.

is interesting to note that the speed of the atoms was supposed to be

invariable. (This same assumption was made by Rudolph Clausius

[1822-1888] in his kinetic theory, notwithstanding his recognition of

its invalidity owing to collisions.) The notion of swervings, for which

no reason was assigned, appears strangely arbitrary in a deterministic

system. And yet, it was not an accidental choice. On the contrary, it

was a deliberate attempt to permit freedom of the will in a system

which had only a single hypothesis—the atom. And again we see the

increasing influence of ethical ideals upon physical ideas. This rela-

tionship has never been severed although it is most common now in

an inverted form, i.e., physical laws are sometimes regarded as caba-

listic expressions of ethical principles. One recalls the popular philoso-

phies of freedom which found support in the spontaneity of Bohr’s

electronic transitions—not to mention the mysticism’ concomitant to

Heisenberg’s “uncertainty principle.’’ Truly the relation between

swerving atoms and wavering ethics is as suggestive to-day as when

it allowed for Epicurean delights and for Lucretius’ suicide. |

Epicuros retained Leucippos’ view that atoms did not lose their

speed while in an entangled array. He explained the usual varying

velocities by a preponderance of atoms in a certain direction of

motion—a sort of balancing effect. For example, a body, consisting

of 100 atoms all moving to the left momentarily and of 50 more all

moving to the right momentarily, would move to the left with less

speed than that common to the atoms. (It is difficult to apprehend

this in our modern terms of force and inertia.) The possibility of rest

resulting from a combination of moving particles is illustrated by

8 The nature of the physical world—A. S. EppINGTON (1928) 3382. The mysterious

universe—J AMES JEANS (19380) 31.

DECEMBER 15, 19384 SEEGER: BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICS DLS

Lucretius’ classical picture® as follows: ““Thus often the woolly flocks

as they crop the glad pastures on a hill, creep on whither the grass

jewelled with fresh dew summons and invites each, and the lambs

fed to the full gambol and playfully butt; all which objects appear

to us from a distance to be blended together and to rest like a white

spot on a green hill.’’ There is still another fact which should be added

to our description of Epicuros’ atomism. He rejected Democritos’

atoms of unlimited size. Furthermore, he postulated only a finite

number of shapes for a given magnitude. Just as an atom was con-

ceived to be the physical limit of divisibility, so, too, a surface was

to be regarded as having a minimum part that could not be divided.

And all surfaces had to consist of an integral number of such parts.

To use Brieger’s illustration, suppose the minimum part is a square.

Now consider an atom made up of three cubes, of which each face

is such a minimum square. Then there are only two possible shapes

for this type of atom (cf. Fig. 3). (The condition is that each surface

‘Tene

Fig. 3.—For explanation see text.

of the atom must consist of an integral number of these squares.)

Thus the limit of size itself sets a limit to the number of shapes.

A final remark, the atoms of air were looked upon as being very

loosely arranged; those of a liquid were regarded as more permanently

restrained by an outside shell; those of a solid were believed to be

closely interlocked. Our modern view would show a similar picture.

The atomism of the Greeks can hardly be said to be like that of the

present even though certain conclusions appear identical. Indeed, we

have given the above description to emphasize the fact that any such

notion can be the result only of gross misconceptions. We are im-

pressed, however, by the similarity between the operation of the

human mind then and now. The same thought-mold is evidentally

essential to any given theory, whether it is speculative or experiential

in origin. For principles we deem peculiar to our modern scientific

world are found to be the underlying hypotheses of Greek surmises.

But what stands out unique in their view of nature is the grandeur

516 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

of the possibility of a unified explanation. This intellectual vision

looms far above the shadowy horizons of Egypt, Chaldea and India.

Again and again, their esthetic desire for a coherent whole asserted

itself in philosophic systems, which we find puzzling without access

to the scaffolding used in the constructions. But even to-day they

tower above our own world to remind us that mankind is still in

quest of unity.° Somehow the sober light following the flushed dawn

of enthusiasm has revealed to us that metaphysics (uera dvorka) must

always come after physics and that physics itself is not too amenable

to a unified rationalization. But with many of the Greek hypotheses

coloring our scientific fabric and with many of their threads yet to

be unentangled we, too, seek to weave a universal design.

9 A survey of physics—Max Puanck (The unity of the physical universe is the title of

one of a collection of essays).

PHYSICS.—Pressure-volume-temperature relations for six orls.3

RicHarp B. Dow, Research Laboratory of Physics, Harvard

University. (Communicated by Mayo D. HErsEy.)

The physical properties of lubricating oils at high hydrostatic

pressures have not been extensively studied. The viscosity of oils at

high hydrostatic pressures has, however, been studied? ** at this

laboratory and is being further investigated for it has long been recog-

nized that viscosity is the significant physical property in thick film

lubrication. The study of the thermodynamic properties of oils under

pressure has been neglected except for the pressure-volume data that

were obtained by Hyde’ at one temperature. It is well known that

the pressure-volume relations must be observed at more than one

temperature in order that a thermodynamic analysis be complete.

The present technical advances in the production of mineral oils

wherein considerable attention is devoted to the chemical properties

of crudes other than those of a paraffinic base, and the increasing

use of the method of dimensional analysis® in predicting physical re-

lations that may depend on the properties of lubricants, make desir-

1 This investigation has been financed by the Special Research Committee on

Lubrication, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, as a part of their research

program and was carried out in this laboratory with Professor P. W. Bridgman’s high

pressure apparatus. It is a pleasure to acknowledge his interest and kindness as well as

the codperation of Professor Theodore Lyman. Received August 10, 1934.

2M.D.HeErsty. This JourNAaL6: 525. 1916.

3M. D. Herspy and H.SHore. Mech. Eng. 50: 221. 1928.

4R. V. KiEINScHMIDT. ‘Trans. A.S.M.E., APM-50-4. 1928.

'J.H. Hyp. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 97: 240. 1920.

‘M.D. Hersey. This JOURNAL 23: 297. 1933. Also Proc. World Petroleum Con-

gress, London: 1934, p. 389.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 DOW: SIX OILS 517

able at this time a survey of some of the thermal functions of typical

oils that are used in lubrication. While it is realized that a complete

understanding of these thermal properties, such as one obtains for a

pure, comparatively simple liquid, will probably never be attained, it

is believed that it would be of interest to have some of them recorded

and a comparison made with the corresponding properties of simpler

liquids.

This investigation ae the pressure-volume-temperature data

obtained on six oils up to hydrostatic pressures approaching apparent

solidification at temperatures of 25°, 40°, and 75°C, and includes a

discussion of the thermodynamic characteristics’ which are derivable

from the fundamental data.

THE METHOD AND APPARATUS

The isothermals at the three temperatures were determined by the

sylphon method of Bridgman.® A liquid is sealed within the sylphon

to which is attached a slide-wire and the sylphon, mounted in a suit-

able holder, is placed within a pressure chamber of conventional

type.’ When hydrostatic pressure is applied the change of volume is

proportional to the change of resistance of the slide-wire which is

part of an external potentiometer circuit.!° Once the constants and

the corrections of the sylphon are known, it is a simple matter to

compute the relative volumes from the corresponding resistance

measurements. The pressure is computed from the change of resist-

ance of a manganin coil, and the temperature is the corrected ther-

mometer reading of a thermostatically controlled water bath.

DESCRIPTION AND CHOICE OF OILS

The six oils used for this study were from various sources. The four

light mineral oils of approximately equal viscosity at 30°C, but from

different crudes, were obtained from the Atlantic Refining Company

through courtesy of Dr. J. Bennett Hill. The following characteristics

were furnished by Dr. Hill (Table 1).

The Pennsylvania oil was a distillate from a crude of the same name

which had been percolated through clay to obtain the final color.

The Mid-Continent was made from a distillate from a mixed base

7 The thermodynamic characteristics of a substance, whose state is defined by ¢

and p, are completely determined when the following are known: (1) (dv/dt), and

(dv/dp): over an extended range of ¢ and p; (2) v at an arbitrary ¢ and p within the

range of (1); and (8) Cp along some line not an isothermal, ¢ is the thermodynamic

SETS VENUE

8 P. W. BripamMan. Proc. Amer. Acad. 66:185. 1931.

9P. W. Bripeman. The physics of high pressure, Chap. 2: Macmillan. 1931.

10 P, W. BripGMAN. Proc. Amer. Acad. 56:64. 1921.

518 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

TABLE 1.—PuysicaLu Constants oF OrLs!

Type of Oil ones ieee Univ. ee VGC. Hieak

Pennsylvania 31.1 145 42.0 0.818 385

Mid-Continent 29.2 137 40.2 0.832 375

Renown Engine 25.7 145 39.1 0.856 375

Gulf Coast P4350 ( 130 38.0 0.872 320

Texas crude by pressing, redistilling, acid treating and percolating

through clay. The Gulf Coast was a distillate from a Texas crude,

acid treated and neutralized.

The remaining samples were fixed oils, lard and sperm, having

somewhat greater viscosity at 30°C. The lard oil was a clear, trans-

lucent product from a local source while the sperm oil was furnished

by Mayo D. Hersey from his collection of oils tested by Hyde’ at

the National Physical Laboratory some fourteen years earlier.

It is well known that the principal constituents of Pennsylvania

oil are the paraffines, C,Hy12, and that the Gulf Coast crudes consist

mainly of the napthenes or cycloparaffines, C,H2,. The fatty oils

are composed of glycerides and a mixture of acids belonging to the

series C,H2,4:-COOH.

It would appear that the above choice of oils is such that any

significant structural features related to volume would be exhibited

at high pressures. This reasoning, more or less speculative, is based

on the numerous results that Bridgman® has obtained with pure

liquids. For example, he has shown that the liquids of the methane

series have considerably different compressibilities from those of

the benzene series. Hyde’s work showed that the compressibilities

of oils of wide difference in viscosity at 40°C differ slightly, but his

results were insufficient to give all the information one would like

and, also, his choice of mineral oils was not the one best suited to

exhibit the relation between the structural features and the molecular |

volume of the different basic crudes when subjected to high pressures.

COMPUTATION OF DATA AND OTHER FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

Volumes.—The fundamental data consist of the volumes of oils at

definite pressures and temperatures. These data are collected in

Table 2. All further information of thermodynamic interest can be

11 The abbreviations used in Table 1 have the following meanings: Gr. A.P.I., The

American Petroleum Institute’s specific gravity scale; Saybolt Univ. Vis., the viscosity

as indicated by the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter; V.G.C., the viscosity-gravity con-

stant (J. B. Hiuu and H. B. Coats, Ind. Eng. Chem. 20: 641. 1928) to indicate the

degree of paraffinicity; Flash, the A.S.T.M. flash point or temperature at which the

vapor of the oil ignites.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 DOW: SIX OILS 519

TABLE 2.—RE.wATIVE VOLUMES

Hi 40° 7S 25° 40° - 15°

Pressure SS

kg/cm? Pennsylvania Oil Mid-Continent Oil

(p10= 0.8524) (p:0=0.8663)

1 0.9901 1.0000 1.0178 0.9894 1.0000 1.0197

50 0.9869 0.9966 0.9861 0.9964

100 0.9839 0.9934 0.98382 0.99380

250 0.9752 0.9841 1.0040 0.9746 0.98388 1.00388

500 0.9632 0.9711 0.9908 0.9625 0.9704 0.9895

750 0.9529 0.9599 0.9786 0.9526 0.9594 0.9768

1000 0.9440 0.9504 0.9672 0.9441 0.9497 0.9659

1250 0.9418 0.9572 0.9412 0.9561

1500 0.93840 0.9485 0.9336 0.9476

2000 0.9196 0.93830 0.9199 0.9329

2500 0.9196 0.9204

3000 0.9082 0.9094

3500 0.8983 0.8995

4000 0.8891 0.8900

Gulf Coast Oil Renown Engine Oil

(ps0o=0.8937) (p10o=0.8842)

1 0.9902 1.0000 1.0182 0.9905 1.0000 Oia

50 0.9868 0.9966 0.9874 0.9967

100 0.9888 0.99385 0.9845 0.9936

250 0.9757 0.9845 1.0041 0.9761 0.9847 1.0037

500 0.96438 0.9714 0.9909 0.9642 0.9723 0.9907

750 0.9544 0.9605 0.9788 0.9544 0.9615 0.9791

1000 0.9457 0.9512 0.9678 0.9461 0.9522 0.9687

1250 0.9431 0.9578 0.9487 0.9589

1500 0.9354 0.9492 0.93859 0.9504

2000 0.9218 0.9342 0.9219 0.9352

2500 0.9216 0.9226

3000 0.9106 0.9115

3500 0.9010 0.9018

4000 0.8925 0.8931

Lard Oil Sperm Oil

(p10=0.9009) (p10=0.8945)

1 0.9902 1.0000 1.0190 0.9894 1.0000 1.0227

50 0.9872 0.9965 0.9864 0.9966

100 0.9844 0.9936 0.98385 0.9934

200 0.9781 0.9876 1.0099

250 0.9763 0.9850 1.0051

300 0.9730 0.9818

400 0.9685 0.9768

500 0.9647 0.9721 0.9921 0.9722 0.9925

750 0.9550 0.9615 0.9800 0.9618 0.9794

1000 0.9461 0.9523 0.9697 0.9525 0.9684

1250 0.9877 0.9440 0.9603 0.9437 0.9591

1500 0.9299 0.9366 0.9522 0.9510

2000 0.9229 0.9374 0.9368

2500 0.9111 0.9240 0.9241

3000 0.9120 0.9127

3500 0.9016 0.9021

4000 0.8927 0.8926

520 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

computed from them, assuming the specific heat at constant pressure

for atmospheric pressure to be known. The calculations were made in

the following manner: The equivalent slide-wire resistances were

plotted against pressure on large graph paper for the temperatures

25°, 40°, and 75°C, and smooth curves drawn. The changes of volume

were directly computed from the corrected changes of resistance,

read off at even pressure intervals, by applying the various conversion

and correction formulae.

For these computations and those which follow, the nomenclature

adopted by Bridgman” has been followed. The actual losses of volume

in cm’ were computed from the volume at atmospheric pressure at

40°C taken as unity. This method of expressing the data aids in a

quicker understanding of Table 2 and simplifies the calculation of

thermal quantities; thus, in computing the compressibility, (dv/dp),;

was used instead of the more common form (1/v)) (dv/dp);. In Table

2, p1o denotes the density at 40°C in grams/cm’.

The densities at atmospheric pressure were determined at three

temperatures by the use of a specific gravity bottle, for two reasons,

instead of relying on the sylphon measurements alone. First, the

measurement of the volume of the sylphon at atmospheric pressure

and 75° could not be made because of danger of the sylphon expand-

ing beyond a safe limit. This made it necessary that the thermal ex-

pansion between 40° and 75° be known in order for the pressure-

volume data at the highest temperature to start at atmospheric pres-

sure without extrapolation. Consequently, the volumes in Table 2

at atmospheric pressure and 75° are those volumes determined by

specific gravity measurements. Second, knowing the expansion be-

tween 25° and 40° as the result of an independent measurement, the

expansion between the same two temperatures as found by the

sylphon method could be checked. The two determinations for ther-

mal expansion differed by not more than 0.2 per cent. | |

Compressibility, Thermal Expansion, Specific Heat—The compres-

sibility was determined from the pressure-volume curves at constant

temperature as the average compressibility over small ranges of the

curves where departures from linearity were not important. The

thermal expansion was similarly derived. The variation with pressure

of the specific heat at constant pressure, might be calculated from

the data given, but it is believed that nothing is to be gained from it

122P, W. BripGMaNn. Proc. Amer. Acad. 49: 100. 1913; and also Chap. V of The

physics of high pressure.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 DOW: SIX OILS 621

for the time being. Twelve pure liquids examined in this respect by

Bridgman” showed such a bewildering variety of curves that he con-

sidered speculation hopeless as to the cause of all the variations.

a) .0 500 1000 1500

Pressure, k¢/cm

Fig. 1.—Average thermal expansion against pressure.

Thermodynamic Functions—The functions to be considered are:

the pressure coefficient, i.e., coefficient of pressure change with temper-

ature at constant volume, work of compression, heat of compression,

and change in internal energy. If the pressure coefficient (0p/dt), is

constant along some line of constant volume which cuts three iso-

thermals at temperatures f,, f2, and 3, the ratio of pressure differences

(3 — p2) /(P2—p1), Where in each case, the pressure at the same volume

is read off its respective isothermal, is equal to the ratio (¢;—te)/

522 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

(t,—t,). The pressure coefficient will be discussed in this sense. The

work of isothermal compression was calculated by the integral AW =

[—p(dv/dp).dp, and the corresponding heat of compression by

AQ = {t(dv/dt),dp; the integration was performed with sufficient

accuracy by plotting the functions against pressure and then inte-

grating with a planimeter. The change in internal energy is given by

the first law of thermodynamics as AE = —AQ+AW where AE =

E—E,, Ey being the internal energy at atmospheric pressure.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

A complete discussion of the thermal properties that can be derived

from Table 2 would mean considerable computation which does not

seem justified at present. Inasmuch as one can derive from the table

any function that particularly interests him, a considerable part of

the following discussion will be limited to general aspects.

e Mid-Continent

x Gulf Coask

.040

30 500 1000 1500

Pressure, kg /cme

Fig. 2.—Average thermal expansion 25°-75°C against pressure.

Relative Volume, Compressibility, and Thermal Expansion.—A brief

inspection of Table 2 shows that the relative volumes do not vary

greatly for the six oils. Consequently, the compressibilities and ther-

mal expansions of the different oils are not greatly different.

On computing the compressibility for the Pennsylvania sample at

40°, it was found that the compressibility at 1000 kg/cm? was 35.5 x

10-°, or about one-half its initial value of 68 x 10-5. This places the

compressibility of the oil at approximately the middle of the range

DECEMBER 15, 1934 DOW: SIX OILS 523

from the high value of n-pentane to the low value of glycerine. This

conclusion applies equally well for the remaining oils. As regards the

effect of temperature on the compressibility, the six oils behave as

normal liquids in that the compressibility increases slowly with

temperature at constant pressure.

For most substances the thermal expansion (1/v) (dv/dt), increases

with temperature; (0?v/dt?), is positive and decreases as the pressure

is raised. The behavior of the oils is not normal in this respect at

atmospheric pressure; the volume increases with temperature more

rapidly in the lower range from 25° to 40°. This means that the second

derivative is negative.

At the higher pressures and the lower temperature interval, the

average expansion decreases with increase of pressure for all oils

except the Gulf Coast which shows an increase in the range from 1

to 50 kg/cm? and then a decrease at higher pressures. Figure | reveals

the order of magnitude and the variation of the expansion for two

oils.

For the temperature interval 40° to 75°, the thermal expansion in

every case changes anomalously with pressure; increasing with pres-

sure to 300 kg/cm?, then decreasing for the rest of the range. This

effect is also illustrated for two of the oils in Figure 1. The reversal

of sign of 0?v/dtdp is interesting for this is not observed for pure

liquids.” Since the coefficient is much smaller to begin with in this

interval of temperature, the curves of expansion against pressure for

both intervals of temperature cross, giving the same expansion at a

certain pressure. This pressure is also close to 300 kg/cm’.

Finally, the average thermal expansion remains to be considered

over the entire range between 25° and 75°. The results of the compu-

tation can be seen by examining the pressure curves for three of the

oils in Figure 2. The expansion in this range of temperature is anom-

alous for Pennsylvania and Gulf Coast oils.

There seems little likelihood for an adequate explanation of the

complications in the thermal expansion at high pressures. Bridgman”

pointed out in 1913 the need for considering the shapes and orienta-

tions of the molecules and their assemblages in order to get even a

simple picture of some of the complicated effects of expansion in

pure liquids at high pressures. Undoubtedly, the effects of shape

and orientation play important parts in the complications, but the

molecular groups or aggregates are so complex in any oil that the

significance of structure is obscured. For example, one would expect

that the expansion of an oil of naphthenic base would be more com-

524 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

plicated than the expansion of one of paraffinic base, because in the

latter the chain compounds should show less tendency for haphazard

arrangement under pressure and the regularity of orientation should

increase with pressure. For the oil of ring-type molecules, the resulting

change in orientation with change of pressure would be expected to

be less regular because of the less orderly interlocking between groups

of molecules. However, these speculations are not substantiated by

the data of this paper. There seems to be no clear effect of structure

on the thermal expansion. While the pressure-expansion curve for the

interval 25°—40° appears to have a more uniform slope in the case

of the Pennsylvania oil than for the Gulf Coast oil, the same curve

if drawn for lard oil reveals a complexity comparable to that observed

for the Gulf Coast oil. The expansions for paraffinic and fatty oils

have smaller changes with pressure than the expansions for naphthen-

ic and mixed-base oils but the differences are small.

Work and Heat of Compression; Change in Internal Energy.—The

work and heat of compression were calculated for the Pennsylvania

sample and curves of these functions against pressure were examined.

The curves are similar in shape to those for pure liquids”. The curve

for the work done in compressing the oil starts out in a normal way

as the pressure is increased and the work done in the first 2000 kg/cm?

is about half that of a normal liquid. The heat of compression in-

creases uniformly with the pressure and amounts to about 1.5 kg.m.

against 3 or 4 kg.m. for pure liquids.

The change in internal energy of these oils is smal! because of the

limitation of the pressure range imposed by the relatively low freezing

pressures. The AQ and AW curves are normal in the pressure range

which is limited to 2000 kg/cm? at 40°, and the AF curve varies in

such a way that AH decreases uniformly with increase of pressure

under the same conditions.

The ratio AH /AW is of interest because it offers a means of esti-

mating the work done by the attractive forces between the molecules

TABLE 3.—RE.LATIVE VALUES OF THE Ratio AH/AW at 40°C

| (AE/AW)s00 (AE/AW)1000

Liquid

(AE/AW)1000 (AE/AW)2000

Acetone 1.92 1.84

Pennsylvania oil 1.84 1.50

Ethyl alcohol 1.65 1.84

Carbon disulphide 1.62 1.83

Ether Ibs IY)

DECEMBER 15, 1934 DOW: SIX OILS 929

when the substance is compressed. This ratio has been computed at

several pressures for the Pennsylvania oil and a few pure liquids.

The results are expressed in Table 3 as the change of AH/AW pro-

duced by pressure.

Pressure Coefficient—Bridgman*® has proved that (dp/dt), cannot be

a function of volume alone as had often been considered to be the

case. By evaluating the ratio of pressure differences as already ex-

plained, he found that instead of the ratio equaling 0.90, which should

be the case if the coefficient is a function of volume at 0°, 50°, and

90°, it varied considerably with all the pure liquids at low pressures.

At higher pressures, the departures from 0.90 were much greater.

In the following table the ratio (p3—p2)/(p2—p1) is listed for five

oils. The range of volume is unavoidably small. The pressures pu,

P2, p3, for different relative volumes were read off the isotherms for

25°, 40°, and 75°, respectively. The ratio (p3;—p:2)/(p2—p1) should

thus equal 2.33 for all volumes if the pressure coefficient is a function

of volume alone.

TABLE 4.—Eva.vaTion oF THE Ratio (p3—p2)/(p2—71)

, Rel. Pressure Rel. Pressure Rel. Pressure

Oil Vol. Ratio Vol. Ratio Vol. Ratio

Pennsylvania .890 2.42 . 980 2.58 .945 2.65

Mid-continent .988 2.50 . 980 2.09 .945 2.72

Gulf Coast . 990 Daal .980 2.40 .945 2.36

Renown .992 2.16 . 980 2.30 .945 D4 53:

Lard .991 2.50 .980 2.45 .945 2.69

Lard .920 ILS 7AG

The departures of the Pennsylvania and Renown oils from 2.33

increase with pressure. The Mid-continent and lard oils show more

irregularity.

Remarks on Sperm Oil.—The change in density of sperm oil with

pressure has been computed by Hyde.® As the oil used in the present

work was a sample of the same oil that had been tested by Hyde, it

was hoped that a means of comparison of the two investigations

would be had. The density at atmospheric pressure given by Hyde

was over 3 per cent less than the value found here, being 0.866 against

0.895. This is not surprising when one considers that the oil has prob-

ably oxidized during the interval of fourteen years. It is interesting,

however, to observe that when the pressure-density curves are

drawn for both tests, the slopes are approximately equal, hence the

compressibilities computed from them differ only by the initial value

taken for the density.

526 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

CONCLUSION

The relative volumes at three temperatures have been recorded

at pressures up to those approaching the apparent solidifying pres-

sures for six oils of different composition. It has been found that the

volumes and the derived thermal properties, in general, are similar

for all the oils. But of the variations determined the thermal expan-

sion varies the most with pressure and temperature, and in a manner

contrary to its behavior for pure liquids at low pressures.

It would seem desirable to obtain more detailed information about

the thermal expansion as well as data on the viscosity and thermal

conductivity at high pressures. In order to study the thermal effects

at high pressures in more detail, one of the mineral oils has been

fractionated and the present investigation is being continued for

some of the individual cuts from this oil.

CHEMISTRY .—p-Fluorophenacyl alcohol and some of its esters.

RaymMonp M. Hann and J. P. WETHERILL, Washington, D.C.

(Communicated by FrEpERIcCK H. GOLDMAN.)

Judefind and Reid,? in their study of p-halegon, substituted phen-

acyl bromides as reagents for the separation and identification of

acids, have indicated the superiority of the halogen compounds over

the unsubstituted phenacyl bromide because of the lower solubility

of the resulting halogenated esters.

A search of the available literature indicates that a p-fluorophen-

acyl halide has not been studied in this connection, and the purpose

of the present study was to isolate a suitable fluorine compound and

test its applicability as a reagent. The study has revealed that p-

fluoro-w-chloroacetophenone may be readily prepared in large yield

by the Friedel Crafts’ reaction. The fluorophenacyl esters so far ob-

tained possess no advantage over other already described p-halogen

esters, and the original cost of fluorobenzene mitigates against their

preparation.

Incidental to the preparation of the esters, p-fluorophenacyl

alcohol (also known as p-fluorobenzoyl carbinol) has been obtained

to complete the list of possible p-halogenated phenacyl alcohols.

EXPERIMENTAL

p-Fluorophenacyl chloride (w-chloro-p-fluoroacetophenone).—To a

constantly stirred suspension of 75 g. of anhydrous aluminum chloride

1 Received October 238, 1934.

2 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 42: 1043. 1920.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 HANN AND WETHERILL: ALCOHOL 927

in 150 ce. of carbon disulfide and 48 g. of fluorobenzene at room tem-

perature, 56 g. of chloroacetyl chloride were added dropwise during

the course of 1 hour. The reaction mixture was then gently refluxed

for six hours, during which time it assumed a yellow color, hydro-

chloric acid gas was evolved, and a somewhat darker colored heavy

oil separated. It was cooled and poured into a suspension of 90 g. of

concentrated sulfuric acid in finely crushed ice, the resulting crystal-

line precipitate filtered off, and the residual carbon disulfide separated

and evaporated to yield a further crystalline deposit. The combined

solids were recrystallized from two parts of 95 per cent alcohol, the

substituted phenacyl chloride obtained weighing 68.4 g. (79 per cent,

based on fluorobenzene). Appreciation is expressed to H. P. Newton

for assistance in carrying out this synthesis.

p-Fluorophenacy] chloride crystallizes in brilliant, glistening large

plates, melting at 48°C. to a clear oil without decomposition. Its

vapor has an intense lachrymatory action, and in warm weather it

is volatile enough to cause severe discomfort when handled in ordinary

manipulations.

anal. Caled: tor C,H,OCIF: Cl, 20.6.. Found, 20.5.

p-Fluorophenacyl acetate—A solution of 4 g. of p-fluorophenacyl

chloride, 3 g. of fused sodium acetate and 0.5 ce. glacial acetic acid

in a mixture of 5 cc. water and 20 cc. 95 per cent alcohol was refluxed

for 1 hour. On cooling, alcohol in small amounts was added to prevent

clouding, and after several days the acetate crystallized. Yield 3.9 g.

(87 per cent).

p-Fluorophenacyl acetate crystallizes in glistening colorless scales

from 60 per cent alcohol. It melts at about the same temperature as

the chloride; namely, at 48.5° to 49.0°, but upon admixture with the

halogen compound it liquefied.

Anal. Caled. for CioH,O3F: F, 9.7. Found, 9.5. Saponification

equivalent 196.1. Found, 194.2.

p-F luorophenacyl alcohol.—A suspension of 1 g. of p-fluorophenacyl

acetate and 0.6 g. of washed barium carbonate in 50 cc. of water was

refluxed for 1 hour; the acetate, an oil initially, gradually disappeared.

The warm reaction mixture was filtered through char, and upon

cooling the alcohol crystallized in colorless elongated plates melting

at 114°C. in a yield of 0.7 g. (90 per cent). The melting point was un-

changed upon recrystallization from 10 cc. of hot water. The acetate

was regenerated by treatment with acetic anhydride.

Ant me alcd 10m Cala Ook 7h 12.59 Hound, 12:1°

p-Fluorophenacyl nitrobenzoates——A solution of 1.2 g. of nitro-

528 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 12

benzoic acid, 5.9 cc. of IN. sodium hydroxide and 1 g. of p-fluoro-

phenacyl] chloride in 20 cc. of 95 per cent alcohol was refluxed for 1

hour and the reaction product obtained on cooling or by precipitation

with small amounts of water. The esters may be readily recrystallized

from 95 per cent alcohol.

p-Fluorophenacyl-o-nitrobenzoate crystallizes in very slightly yel-

low microscopic needles, melting at 74.5°C. to a clear oil.

Anal. Caled. for Ci;Hi,O;NF: nitrogen, 4.6. Found, 4.5.

p-Fluorophenacyl-m-nitrobenzoate separates in colorless glistening

needles, melting at 105°C. to a clear colorless oil.

Anal. Caled. for CisHi,O;NF: nitrogen, 4.6. Found, 4.5.

p-Fluorophenacyl-p-nitrobenzoate crystallizes in slightly yellow

needles, melting at 134°C. to a clear oil.

Anal. Caled. for C;;sHiO;NF: nitrogen, 4.6. Found, 4.7.

SUMMARY

p-Fluorophenacyl] alcohol and several of its esters have been pre-

pared and described.

PHARMACOLOGY .—The nitrite-thiosulphate combination as a rem-

edy for cyanide poisoning in sheep. H. Bunyza, J. F. Covucu,

and A. B. CLawson, Bureau of Animal Industry.

In a former paper? the results of experiments with remedies for

cyanide poisoning in sheep and cattle were reported. It was found

that, of the remedies tried, a combination of sodium nitrite and so-

dium thiosulphate® was the most effective for cattle. The combination

was not used on sheep at that time, but the results of the cattle ex-

periments left little doubt that it would also prove to be the most

effective remedy in the case of poisoned sheep.

The experimental methods used were the same as those already

reported? and do not need extended repetition here. The cyanide was

administered per os as potassium cyanide solution, freshly prepared,

and the remedies were injected intraperitoneally, using 10 per cent

solutions for the smaller doses and 20 per cent for the larger.

The results are given in Table I. Twenty-two experiments were

performed with 18 animals of which 13 died. The doses were varied

beginning with 2 m.].d. calculated according to the figure previously

reported for the m.].d. (2.315 mg. per kg.), and rising gradually to

3.5 m.l.d. Table 2 is an analysis of these data and shows the effective-

ness of the remedy against the various doses.

1 Received November 1, 1934.

2 This JOURNAL 24: 369-395. 1934.

3 This remedy was first suggested by HE. Hug., C.r.Soc. Biol. 114: 711-714. 1933.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 BUNYEA, COUCH, CLAWSON: CYANIDE POISONING 529

TABLE 1.—NITRITE-THIOSULPHATE AS A REMEDY FOR CYANIDE POISONING IN SHEEP

Time from drench— Remedy

Date Sheep Weight Dose nae |. | (year ‘Sehicn | Segitran Effect

symptoms] collapse | remedy | nitrite | thiosul-

phate

1934 No. kg. m.l.d. min. min. min. g. g.

May 8 ub 49.9 | 2 1 2.5 DED 1 1 Survived

9 1113 50S e2e25 |) 15 Dao 1 2 Survived

8 1244 | 43.5 | 2.5 e523 1 2 Died

9 1111 49.9 | 2.5 0.5 2 4 1 3 Survived

8 1113 50.8 | 2.5 1 2 1 2 Survived

15 iu AGO 2eto 1085 150d) 74) 35) 1 3 Survived

15 TAS 5OSSal a2 econ el 5 2 1 3 Survived

23 1465 ZOE ONO aie heZ5.146 1 3 Died

23 1456 PAYS Ne P4eT (a). | 1 525 if 3 Died

23 1459 SOROTEAMVOMaOuToieiecon (ly 1 3 Survived

8 11730 SOUS 1 1s) 3 1 2 Died

8 1241 34.5 | 3 1 1 P45) 1 2 Died

Aug. 30 1507 3022) | 3 1 2 2 3 2 Died

30 LOZA| 32-6) 3 1 io 1S 1 2 Died

30 1578 40.35} 3 12 Dy ple zone leo 1 4 Died

31 1556 Bihar |e 1 eS eS 2 2 Survived

Sept. 11 1561 42.6 | 3 to 4 4.5 2 3 Died

VU 1560 33 ssa 1 ies 2 2 3 Died

ye 1572 35.8 | 3.5 15 2, 2 2 3 Survived

11 1487 39 3.5 15 2 2 2 3 Died

11 1479 AL 2) 3.0 0.5 15 Med 2 4 Died

JEN 1499 39.9 | 3.5 1 2 2 2 4 Died

It is plain that, if administered promptly, the remedy is reasonably

effective against 2.75 m.l.d. of cyanide in sheep as against 2 m.l.d.

in cattle. Of 5 sheep that received this large dose, three survived and

two died. In the latter cases the remedy was withheld until the ani-

mals were in the gasping stage and thus the test of the remedy was

very severe. One of the sheep that survived, No. 1459 was not given

the remedy until 15 minutes after the completion of the drench. This

animal was unusually resistant to the cyanide and after exhibiting

early symptoms began to improve instead of becoming progressively

worse. This condition persisted for some 12 minutes during which

TABLE 2.—EFFEcTIVENESS OF THE REMEDY AGAINST VARYING DOSES OF CYANIDE

ors ee Survived Die ae

3.5 4 1 3 25

3 8 1 u 1 ld)

2.75 5) 3 2 60

2.5 3 2 1 66

2.25 1 ih 0 100

2 1 1 0 100

530 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 12

time the sheep rose to his feet and remained standing a few seconds.

He then began to stagger, went down on the belly and exhibited the

usual train of symptoms shown by the other cases. Administration

of the remedy was now withheld until the sheep appeared to be in

a condition similar to that of the other sheep 3 to 4 minutes after

drenching.

In our work on cyanide poisoning we have occasionally found re-

sistant animals that show irregular behavior during the course of the

sickness. Two other cases of similar behavior were encountered re-

cently which will be reported in another paper of this series. Aside

from these cases the course of the sickness with the poisoned animals

was similar to that already described.

THE EFFECT OF AN INCREASED DOSE OF SODIUM NITRITE

Since little was known about the proper dose of sodium nitrite for

sheep the question arose whether a dose larger than 1 gram might not

be more effective. Nitrites are themselves quite toxic and there would

be a dosage above which the remedy might itself cause or contribute

to the death of the animal.

TABLE 3.—Toxicity oF Sopium NitTRItTE INJECTED INTRAPERITONEALLY

ue ee ee ee Be

Aug. 31 1471 Sila 47.3 Ne Died

Pail 1479 41.2 48.8 2 Survived

a 230 1521 34.45 58 2 Died

SL 1516 42.6 70.42 3 Survived

SPST 1482 Bil SZ 78.8 Dd 5 - Died

Bll 1480 34.9 84.8 3 Survived

Bi 1490 41.7 95.92 4 Died

BO L527 34.4 1113} .83 4 Died

~ RO 1504 38 .09 120.7 4 Died

40) 1499 39.9 150.3 6 Survived

Sept. 5 1499 39.9 150.3 6 Survived

Aug. 30 1467 40.8 195.9 8 Died

4 Plus 2g. of sodium thiosulphate.

As a preliminary measure several sheep were given varying doses

of sodium nitrite intraperitoneally. The data are detailed in Table 3.

It is apparent that the effect of sodium nitrite is quite variable since

four of the animals poisoned survived doses larger than proved fatal

with other sheep and one, No. 1499, on two occasions survived the

second largest dose given although 6 sheep were killed by much

DECEMBER 15, 1984 BUNYEA, COUCH, CLAWSON: CYANIDE POISONING 531

smaller doses and one died on one-third as much. Owing to the varia-

bility it was impossible to draw conclusions about the m.l.d. The

symptoms exhibited by the sheep consisted of depression and ac-

celerated respiration. In sheep No. 1521 the rate of respiration

reached 148 per minute within 10 minutes after injecting the nitrite

and in sheep No. 1504, 152 per minute. Two experiments were made

to obtain evidence as to whether the simultaneous injection of sodium

thiosulphate would influence the toxicity of sodium nitrite. In neither

case was there any apparent antagonism between the two salts.

The experiments led to the conclusion that a one gram dose of

sodium nitrite intraperitoneally is the safest for remedial use and two

grams is the largest dose that should be administered and then only

under exceptional circumstances.

There remained the possibility that in actual cyanide poisoning

the toxic effect of the nitrite might be counteracted by the cyanide

and warrant the use of larger doses of sodium nitrite. To test this

possibility eight sheep were given 3 m.l.d. of potassium cyanide and

4 were given 3.5 m.l.d. by mouth and immediately upon collapsing

were treated with varying doses of sodium nitrite combined with

sodium thiosulphate. The results are summarized in Table 4.

TABLE 4.—EFrrect or INCREASED DOSES oF SopIUM NITRITE

Hi Ae pear Buber of Survived Died

3 1 2 3 3

3 1 4 1 1

3 2 2 1 1

3 2 3 2 2

3 3 2 1 ]

3) li) 2 3 2 1 1

3365) 2 4 2 2

From these figures it is apparent that increasing the dose of sodium

nitrite did not alter the final outcome of the poisoning.

SUMMARY

The combination of sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulphate pro-

tects with reasonable certainty against 2.75 m.l.d. of cyanide par-

ticularly when the remedy is administered promptly.

Increasing the dose of nitrite to 2 and 3 g. did not result in improve-

ment while introducing an unfavorable element due to the toxicity

of the nitrite itself.

Increasing the dose of thiosulphate may have resulted in some

532 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

improvement and does not, of itself, introduce another toxicity factor.

The nitrite-thiosulphate combination was definitely more effective

with sheep than with cattle.

Doses of sodium nitrite above 95 mg. per kg. are likely to be fatal

and above 50 mg. per kg. are dangerous. The safest therapeutic dose

that can be recommended for cyanide poisoning is 1 g. intraperi-

toneally for a 75 to 90 pound (35 to 40 kg.) sheep and 2 g. is the largest

dose that should be given.

PALEONTOLOGY .—Celliforma spirifer, the fossil larval chambers of

mining bees... Rotanp W. Brown, U. 8. Geological Survey.

(Communicated by JoHn B. REESIDE, JR.) |

The 1930 Smithsonian expedition, led by C. W. Gilmore to the

Bridger Basin in southwestern Wyoming, brought back to the Na-

tional Museum among its collection of fossils a handful of curious,

solid objects (Fig. 3) that have remained unidentified. These speci-

mens were found by George B. Pierce in surface material weathered

from the lower strata of the fresh-water Bridger formation of upper

Eocene age, about 6 miles southeast of Mountainview, Wyo., in

sec. 18, T. 14 N., R. 14 W.

The natural size sketch (Fig. 3) illustrates several of the more

perfect specimens. They average 2.7 centimeters in length by 1.2

centimeters in diameter. They are greenish gray to white in color,

smooth, and round; but many are slightly flattened and bent like a

bean; most show the effects of former breakage and partial collapse

and now superficially resemble cracked but not disintegrated egg-

shells. The apex is a low dextral spiral of four or five turns making an

inconspicuously scalloped and pitted groove. In some examples the

apex is an almost flat spiral, in others the last turns form a narrow

prominent blunt point.

Numerous sections disclosed no internal cellular structure or or-

ganic remains of any kind. The matrix of the unbroken specimens is

calcite; that of the more or less broken specimens is calcite and

greenish clay. It is clear that the calcite crystallized in a cavity,

sometimes filling the cavity completely, sometimes leaving empty

pockets to be filled or not with clay.

Speculation about these objects ranged from snake eggs to date

seeds, on which latter probability they were referred to me for iden-

tification. A search of the literature and the seed collections, however,

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. 8. Geological Survey. Received Octo-

ber 30, 1934.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 BROWN: FOSSIL LARVAL CHAMBERS 533

failed to develop any definite clues suggesting relationship to plants.

Turning to animal fossils, I found that Scudder? had described and

figured a mass of insect eggs under the name Corydalites fecundum.

These eggs are minute, 2.6 millimeters long by 0.6 millimeter wide

but, when enlarged to a size comparable with the Wyoming speci-

mens, become somewhat like them. Nevertheless, the large size of the

Wyoming specimens, it seems to me, effectively precludes their

having been insect eggs.

The specimens compare best with material described and figured

by Dall? from the ‘‘silex beds”’ of the Tampa formation (now regarded

as of lower Miocene age) at Ballast Point, Tampa Bay, Fla. Accord-

ing to Dall, his Figure 4, Plate 24, which is almost identical with some

Wyoming specimens, represents the burrow of a fossil limestone-

boring bivalve mollusk, Lithophaga nuda Dall (his Fig. 7, Pl. 26).

After an examination of these types and all the similar material in the

National Museum collections from the ‘‘silex beds,’’ I am of the

opinion that a few may be molds of Lithophaga burrows; but with

respect to those having the characteristic spiral apex, I demur.

Inthophaga has no operculum, does not close its burrow, and possesses

no other mechanism that would account for the origin of the spiral

in the fossils.

There seems to be no question that the Wyoming and Florida

specimens represent relics of the same type of organism, though the

species may well be different, but not at present definitely separable.

The Florida specimens (Fig. 1) differ from the Wyoming specimens

chiefly as follows: They are composed of chalcedony and may be solid

or partially solid with free water in the unfilled space, visible when

the specimen is handled. They are somewhat shorter and stouter,

and the apical spire in most cases is narrower and longer. They are

found in sediments that were deposited in the marine or brackish

water of an estuary or bay. These differences in structure, com-

position, and occurrence, fortunately for the argument, are not mu-

tually exclusive and fatal, when it is remembered that the fauna of

the “‘silex beds,’’ besides some 300 marine and brackish-water mol-

lusks, also includes 24 species of land and fresh-water shells.* Evi-

dently land was close to the site of deposition of these beds. It seems

2ScuppER, 8. H. The Tertiary insects of North America. U. 8S. Geol. Survey

Terr. Rept. 13: 189-158, pl. 4, figs. 5-7, 13-16, 18-21, 23. 1890.

3 Dau, W. H. A monograph of the molluscan fauna of the Orthaulax pugnazx zone of

the puiguecne of Tampa, Fla. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 90: 129, pl. 24, fig. 4; pl. 26, fig. 7.

191

4 CooxE, C. WytHE, and Mossom, Stuart. Geology of Florida. Florida Geol.

Survey Ann. Rept. 20: 82. 1929.

534 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, NO. 12

therefore that any explanation that presumes to account for the

ultimate origin of these objects in one case must apply, perhaps with

some slight modification, to the other also.

No identification seeming acceptable at the time, these specimens

were temporarily set aside and did not claim attention again until

August 27 of this year (1934). On that day, geological field work

brought me to a locality one-half mile up Cove Creek from its mouth

on the Weiser River, 9 miles east of Weiser, Idaho. There, on the

Fig. 1.—Lower Miocene fossil molds from the “‘silex beds’’ of the Tampa limestone,

Tampa Bay, Fla. Fig. 2.—Apical interior of the larval chamber of Entechnia taurea

(Say) Patton. Fig. 3—Upper Eocene fossil molds from Mountainview, Wyo. The

left upright specimen retains a portion of the chamber and seal. Fig. 4.—Sandy larval

chamber of a living bee from a cliff near Weiser, Idaho. Fig. 5.—Interior of the larval

chamber of Emphor fuscojubatus Cockerell. The spiral is the reverse of that in Fig. 2.

All figures natural size.

east side of an irrigation ditch, I found an exposure of soft sandstone

the face of which was riddled with small holes, a centimeter or less in

diameter. When excavated, these proved to be the entrances to the

burrows leading to the larval chambers of a living species of mining

bee, presumably an anthophorid. The chambers were well-formed

with thin walls of fine sand held together by a dark brown cement.

Some were empty, some were filled with sand and other debris, but

a few were sealed and apparently perfect (Fig. 4). They contained,

however, only small masses of pollen and remnants of pupa cases,

principally of dermestid beetles. Further search did not produce an

unmolested, loaded chamber, so that the exact identity of the

DECEMBER 15, 1984 BROWN: FOSSIL LARVAL CHAMBERS 535

builder remains unknown. The opened chambers, though disappoint-

ing in contents, nevertheless revealed some startlingly arresting

characters. These were the size, shape, and smoothness of the interiors

and the faint spiral mark on the inside of the seal. Could such in-

teriors have been the molds from which nature by geological processes

cast the problematic objects peguaht back from Wyoming by the

Smithsonian expedition?

On my return to the Capital I eee the advice and assistance of

entomologists working at the U. 8. National Museum, in particular,

R. A. Cushman, J. C. Bridwell, and Grace A. Sandhouse, who

searched their collections and produced, among others, the larval

chamber of an anthophorid bee, Emphor fuscojzubatus Cockerell (per-

haps a form of Emphor bombiformis Cresson), collected at Chesapeake

Beach, Md., by Bridwell in 1920. The apical interior of this specimen

(Fig. 5) and that of a chamber of Hntechnia taurea (Say) Patton,

collected by Bridwell and the writer in an abandoned clay pit near

Arlington, Va., October 27, 1934, show the spiral feature of the seal

very clearly. These spirals are counterparts of those on the fossils in

that instead of having grooved turns they have turns whose surface

is convex toward the interior of the chamber. Examination of the

abundant material of Hntechnia taurea from Arlington indicates that

the spirals of the chambers containing well-developed healthy larvae

are almost always faint or completely obliterated; but that those in

cells which were not provisioned or that proved to be ‘‘duds’”’ for one

reason or another, are usually sharply defined.

Since the sealing of the chamber is an operation performed in the

privacy and semi-darkness of an underground burrow, there is some

excuse for the lack of precise recorded observations on the process.

A few papers? get close to it, but so far I have found only one publica-

tion® that figures the inside of the seal and speculates upon the tech-

nique of its construction. Wesenberg-Lund, however, pictures the

inside of the seal (his Fig. 4, Pl. 2) made by Anthophora parietina

Fabricius as showing concentric circles about a small hole through

which, he says, the bee thrust her tongue and coated the surface with

5 GrRossBECK, J. A. A contribution toward the ae history of Emphor bombiformis

Cresson. N.Y. Entomol. Soc. Jour. 19: 238-244. 1911

Nicuots, N. Lovutsr. Some observations on the nesting habits of the mining bee,

Emphor fuscojubatus Cockerell. Psyche 20: 107-112. 1913.

Biscuorr, H. Biologie der Hymenopteren. Biologische Studienbiicher 5: 229-230.

here Puit. The nesting habits of Emphor bombiformis Cresson. Brooklyn En-

tomol. Soe. Bull. 25: 28-34. figs. 1-5. 1930.

6 WESENBERG-LuUND, C. Traek af Linnes vaegge-bi’s (Anthophora parietina Fabr.)

biologi og anatomt. Entomolgiske Medelelser (Copenhagen) 2: 97-120, pl. 2. 1889-90.

536 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

a limy substance. I have not seen chambers of A. parietina, but those

of A. abrupta Say, a related species, do not suggest confirmation of

all Wesenberg-Lund’s conclusions. The cells of this species are lined

with a thin white coating, but it does not react with either hydro-

chloric or acetic acid, the latter being the reagent used by Wesenberg-

Lund. The minute hole may or may not be present, as is also the case

with Entechnia taurea, but the marks around it are the turns of a

spiral and not of concentric circles. Bischoff, cited above, also records

spirals in the genus Tetralonia. Lack of further adequate material

prevents an authoritative statement at this time as to how wide-

spread is the occurrence of the spiral seal among the mining bees, or

whether some species make more conspicuous spirals than others.

The existence of suggestive living forms from the predecessors of

which the fossils may possibly have been derived, having been

pointed out, it will now be necessary, since direct testimony is absent,

to marshal the circumstantial evidence in support of the probability

that the fossils may be the molds of the interiors of the larval cham-

bers of a hymenopteron. It is not my intention to tie the fossils to any

particular living genus and species, but rather to suggest that the

relations between the two phenomena are those of biologic affinity

and not merely of striking analogy.

The size and shape of the fossils with their spiral apices conform

to the interiors of the larval chambers of some anthophorid bees. In

these characters the bee chambers vary considerably. Some are long,

of medium width, and more or less slightly bent; others are short,

stout, and straight. Some are constricted rather sharply at the apex;

others are more wide-mouthed. The spirals of the seal are sometimes

perfect, sometimes crude, or perhaps absent altogether. They may

be high, low, or even depressed, that is, with the apex directed toward

the interior of the chamber. All these features and their variations

find counterparts in the fossils. In some instances the fossils have

irregular deposits of clay on their surfaces that apparently represent

portions of the wall and neck of the larval chambers in which they

were formed.

In conjunction with the characters already mentioned, the smooth-

ness of the fossil surfaces may be offered as additional corroborative

evidence. These smooth surfaces are the kind one would expect to

find on fossils derived from the polished interiors of bee chambers by

the infiltration of mineral substances. This smoothness suggests that

the fossils originated from bee rather than from wasp chambers,

because, according to well-authenticated observations, many digger

DECEMBER 15, 1934 BROWN: FOSSIL LARVAL CHAMBERS 537

wasps that store their larval chambers with animal prey, build rough,

unfinished chambers and do not seal them with a cemented plug but

merely kick sand and soil into a compact heap at the mouth of the

cell and continue thus to fill up the burrow to the exit at the surface

of the ground. On the other hand, the colonial mining bees that

gather nectar and pollen, polish and veneer their chambers, leaving

the surfaces smooth and, for a time, relatively impervious. This pro-

cedure is apparently necessary to prevent leakage from the interior

and damage from the exterior during the filling of the cell and the

development of the larva as it feeds upon the stored liquid or semi-

liquid provisions.

It may be objected, as an alternative explanation, that the spiral

apex of the fossils means relationship to a snail. This suggestion,

however, cannot be entertained because the spiral is the only snail

characteristic present in the fossils. The shell of no gastropod mollusk

of land, fresh water, or marine type fits either the form or the locality

requirements of these fossils.

Can a sequence of circumstances be imagined that would explain

the origin of these fossils from bee chambers without doing violence

to geologic principles? A satisfactory reply to this question must ob-

viously first account for the absence of actual insect remains in the

fossils. Since limestone strata in many parts of the world are noted

for their rich fossil contents, why should these calcite molds not

preserve the pupal skins or other parts of the former inhabitants of

the chambers? The explanation is empirical. The purer fossiliferous

limestone strata rarely, if ever, preserve the softer, phosphatic por-

tions of organisms but do preserve such hard parts as shells and

bones, or their impressions, from which most or all the phosphates

have been leached and been replaced by calcium carbonate. It is

therefore not surprising, at least to a paleontologist, to find no insect

remains in these almost pure calcite molds.’ |

The geologic method by which these molds originated is that illus-

trated by the formation of those geodes that are the result of cavity

fillings. It was necessary that a fortunate geologic incident cause the

bee chambers to be bathed for a time in waters charged with calcium

carbonate or bicarbonate, so that those infiltrating solutions could

fill the cavities. Since the exact source-bed from which the Wyoming

fossils were weathered is not definitely known, it seems almost idle

to speculate on the precise nature of the geologic incident or series of

7 See discussion of chitin in PacKaRp, A. S. A textbook of entomology, p. 29, 1898.

538 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

incidents that caused the influx of lime waters to the area of the bee

chambers. Was it faulting, land-slipping, subsidence, climatic change,

collapse of a sink, or some other event that brought the chambers

within the influence of such waters and permitted the infiltration and

precipitation of calcium carbonate? The habitats of living antho-

phorid bees are varied and it is not inconceivable or unreasonable

that in the relatively long course of Tertiary history a few favorable

accidents should have resulted in the production of fossils from bee

chambers.

The Florida specimens from the ‘‘silex beds’’ present an interesting

variation on this theme in that they are composed of chalcedony

instead of calcite. It is my opinion that the bee chambers here con-

cerned were originally located in a sea-cliff, stream bank, or elevated

mud flat near the coast. Weathering out of the cliff and falling into

the water, or with subsidence of the area, they were buried together

with marine and fresh-water debris, the whole forming what is now

known as the Tampa limestone. It is quite possible that calcite first

filled the unbroken chambers, but that later, with elevation of the

strata above sea level, it was replaced by silica, an exchange that -

seems even now in progress among the fossils in the upper layers of

the formation.

Since entomologists agree that the history of the solitary bees and

wasps extends backward at least to the Eocene, if not to the Cre-

taceous, there need be no objection on the score of geologic age to the

idea that these fossils may represent objects associated with the life

cycle of those Hymenoptera. The present geographic distribution

of the anthophorid bees is amply sufficient to include occurrences in

Wyoming and Florida, and by inference I judge that some species

may have been as widely distributed in upper Eocene and lower

Miocene time. I have not seen the photographs or specimens reported

by Buxton® of supposed bee chambers taken from a cave in Palestine.

They were, however, associated with remains of ancient man and are,

therefore, apparently of late geologic age.

If the identification of these fossils as stated here is correct, the

unbroken specimens with seal intact suggest, in effect, tragic incidents

of the insect world of 30 million years ago. Then, as now, on account

of parasitism and other causes, many bee larvae never matured to

break the seals of their earthen chambers and to emerge as adults,

The fossil molds are the only records of their frustrated lives.

®§ Buxton, P. A. Ancient workings of insects, perhaps bees, from Megiddo, Palestine.

Entomol. Soc. London Proc. 7: pt. 1: 2—4. 1932.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 HANNA: LAND SHELLS 539

For the purpose of convenient reference I have deemed it wise to

name these fossils but without implying identity with any living

species of bee. The name, Celliforma spirifer, is designed to mean

“the spiral-bearing form of a cell.’’

PALEONTOLOGY.—Land shells from the Upper Eocene Sespe de-

posits, California.1 G. Datuas Hanna, California Academy of

Sciences. (Communicated by JoHN B. REESIDE, JR.)

Fossil land shells have been found so seldom in the older Tertiary

sedimentary rocks of California that the small collection of specimens,

submitted to me by Dr. Chester Stock, seems well worthy of record.

The shells were found in the course of quarrying operations for fossil

vertebrates in the Sespe deposits and are preserved in a dark red

and green matrix, so characteristic of the Sespe in general. All of the

specimens are more or less imperfect. An association with fossil mam-

malian remains in the stratum in which they occurred, places their

age as upper Eocene.” This type may be described as follows:

Helminthoglypta? stocki Hanna, n. sp.

Figures 1 to 3a

Shell large, globose, narrowly umbilicate; whorls about 63 to 7, sutures

moderately impressed; aperture and peristome not preserved, but appar-

ently these are not expanded; shell extremely thin and sculptured only with

delicate evenly developed growth lines.

MEASUREMENTS

Altitude Diameter

Holotype 32 mm. 38.5 (Slightly immature)

Paratype INES 41 (Crushed)

Paratype 26.5 36.5 (Immature)

Holotype, No. 3244, and two paratypes, Nos. 3245, 3246, from the upper

Eocene Sespe deposits, north of the Simi Valley, Ventura County, Cali-

fornia. Field Locality 180 Calif. Inst. Tech. Vert. Pal. Shells in the in-

vertebrate collections of the California Institute.

The essential characters for diagnosis of the species in Helminthoglypta

are apparent. The moderately elevated spire and generally globose shape

are features found in no other west American species. In these characters

the Sespe shells resemble ‘‘Helix”’ lecdyi Hall and Meek® from the Oligocene

White River Group of the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. That

species, however, is usually smaller and somewhat more globose, according

1 Received November 8, 1934.

2 Stock, C. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 20: 150-154; 349-354. 1934.

3 Haut, J. and Mssrx, F. B. Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., n.s. 5: 394, pl. 3,

fig. 12. 1854. This species was placed in the new genus Pseudolisinoe by Wenz (Foss.

Cat. pt. 18, no. 2: 365. 1923), the type being Helix veterna Meek and Hayden.

540 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

to published figures and measurements’ and specimens in the California

Academy of Sciences. :

The only living species in California comparable to this in shape is a

large form belonging to the H. tudiculata group collected in 1933 by C. C.

Church in Tulare County. In a set of nine shells collected by Mr. Church,

the largest is 42 mm. in diameter and 29 mm. in altitude; the smallest is

Figs. 1-8a.—Helminthoglypta® stockt Hanna. Fig. 1.—Holotype, no. 3244, an-

terior view. Fig. 2—-3a.—Paratype, no. 3246. Fig. 2.—Basal view. Fig. 3a.—En-

largement of sculpture lines whose position is shown by rectangle in fig. 3.

36 mm. and 26 mm., respectively. Thus the shell is less globose than the

Sespe fossil; also the surface of the living form is heavily malleate. Messrs.

Church and A. G. Smith have the Tulare County shell under consideration

for description.

The Tejon form, H. obtusa Anderson and Hanna’ is much smaller (diam.

16 mm.), less depressed, and altogether a different shell. Micrarionta dallasi

Hanna,‘ from the Eocene of the San Diego region, is likewise smaller (diam.

10.5 mm.) and less globose. No other described fossil forms appear to be

sufficiently close to need comparison. Several small collections of land shells

have been obtained by various parties during recent years in the southeast

corner of Kern County, in a Tertiary formation which has been called

“Walker.” Preservation is usually rather poor and critical study has been

postponed in expectation that better material might be discovered. It is

possible that the present species may be there represented. The age of the

formation is somewhat uncertain, but it lies below the Temblor (middle

Miocene) and rests upon granite. The best specimen available was collected

by William Barbat, 1,000 feet west of Pyramid Hill, Kern County, in

sediments that were thought to belong to the lower Temblor. This shell has

a dome-shaped spire, closed umbilicus, and is considerably larger than any

of the Sespe specimens.

* CocKERELL, T. D. A. and HenpErRson, Junius, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 31:

232, pl. 22, figs. 1-8. 1912.

5 ANDERSON, F. M. and Hanna, G. D. Occ. Papers Calif. Acad. Sci. 11: 142, pl.

oy jigs. 12, 13. 1925.

6 Hanna, M,A., Univ. Calif, Publ. Geol. 16; 330, pl. 57, figs. 8,11. 1927,

DECEMBER 15, 1934 MCCLURE: SCHIZOSTACHYUM 541

The problem of allocation of fossil land shells to the proper genera has

been difficult for paleontologists to solve. The temptation is strong to create

new group names without tangible morphological characters and solely on

the basis of geologic or geographic position of the specimens. However, it

seems best in this regard, when no pronounced structural differences can be

found, to follow the work of such authors as Pilsbry,’ Cockerell and Hender-

son and refer the species to the genus which lives in the region today.

7 Piuspry, H. A., Manual of Conchology, ser. 2, vol. 9, p. XLIV. 1894.

PALEONTOLOGY.—Pleurotomaria pseudostrigillata nom. nov. and

Chonetes acanthophorus nom. nov... GEorRGE H. Girrty, U. S.

Geological Survey.

In the course of describing the Guadalupian fauna in 1908? I un-

wittingly named one of the species Plewrotomaria strigillata, over-

looking the fact that Herrick? had already described a Waverly

species under that name. The Guadalupian species should now be

known as Pleurotomaria pseudostrigillata. Furthermore, Mr. Ralph

H. King has considerately called my attention to the circumstance

that my Chonetes granulifer var. armatus? is virtually a homonym of

Chonetes armatus>? Norwood and Pratten 1854, a name even at that

time preoccupied by Bouchard.* I propose to substitute Chonetes

acanthophorus for the form found in the Wewoka formation. Acknowl-

edgment for some of these references is gratefully made to Mr. King.

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological survey. Received

November 8, 1934.

2 U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 58: pl. 24, figs. 21, 21a. 1908.

: Bull Se. Lab. Denison Univ. 3: 86, pl. 1, figs. 10, 15; pl. 2, fig. 25. 1888.

4 U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 544: 62, ol. 15 figs. 2-4. 1915.

5 Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Jour. 3: 38. (ga

oh 6 ES ea DE VERNEUIL, and KrysERLING, Geologie de la Russie, etc. 2:

1. 184

BOTANY.—The inflorescence in Schizostachyum Nees F. A.

McCuvure, Lingnan University. (Communicated by A. 5S.

HitTcHcock.)

During the course of a study of the Chinese species of Schizostach-

yum just completed, it became apparent to the writer from a com-

parison of numerous herbarium specimens with their published de-

scriptions, and from a study of various published descriptions of the

genus, that the structure of the inflorescence is not as well understood

as it should be. Reasons for this are not difficult to find. The fluid

and unusual nature of the inflorescence in this genus has caused no

1 Received July 27, 1934.

2 To appear shortly i in the Lingnan Science Journal.

542 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

end of confusion, and the terminology used in the descriptions has,

almost without exception, been inconsistent and misleading, largely

because of faulty interpretations of the component structures.®

Although Nees (1829) made allusion, in the name of the genus,’

to one of its fundamental characters, it would seem, judging from

his description, that he did not himself fully comprehend the sig-

nificance of the character in terms of the morphology of the in-

florescence.

The genus was briefly described by Nees on the basis of a single

species collected by Blume in Java. When Ruprecht (1839) prepared

his monograph two additional species were recognized. Ruprecht

revealed a sense of dissatisfaction with Nees’s terminology as well

as an uncertainty as to the correctness of his own, and for the most

part his description of the genus shows little improvement over

Nees’s. In fact, among other errors he made the mistake of calling

the spikelets 3-flowered. Nevertheless, in a footnote (op. cit., p. 134)

he arrives at a statement ‘“‘Glumae in descr. Neesii sunt nostrae

valvulae floram (in icone) vel rectius bracteae spiculas vel gemmas

includentes ...’’ (italics mine), which points the way to a better

understanding of the inflorescence. Judging from the terminology of

subsequent descriptions, however, no one seems to have given any

serious attention to this hint.

Nees’s original description of the genus (op. cit., p. 535) together

with an emended description prepared by the writer on the basis of

a study of the Chinese species, will provide a background for the

discussion that follows.

SCHIZOSTACHYUM }

“Spiculae teretiusculae, glomerato-spicatae, inferne compositae inter-

jectis inter glumas pedicellis sterilibus, uniflorae. Glumae inferiores al-

ternatim minores, aequinerviae; superiores tres aut quatuor majores, cir-

cumvolutae, aequinerviae, quarum suprema sola fertilis. Valvulae distinctae

nullae (nisi supremas squamas glumiformes valvulas existimes). Lodiculae |

nullae. Stamina sex, antheris linearibus erectis. Stylus simplex, longus;

stigmata tria, pubescentia. Caryopsis ignota.

“‘Inflorescentia: spicae terminales ramorum approximatae, simplices.

Spiculae in glomerulos dissitos congestae, spathis scariosis variis suffultae

et interstinctae. Gramina vere bambusoidea, arborescentia, foliis petiolatis.”

SCHIZOSTACHYUM BLUMIIT

‘“‘Species una nobis cognita, foliis est fere pedalibus oblongo-lanceolatis

acuminatis glabris, vaginis ore nudis, ligula brevissima.

“Habitat in Java Insula: cl. Blume.

3 It is probable that the neglect of the prophylls as constituting a category distinct

from the bracts and glumes, and the consequent failure to use them as orienting struc-

tures, are largely responsible for this faulty interpretation.

4 From the Greek: oxifey =split, and oraxus =sptke.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 MCCLURE: SCHIZOSTACHYUM 543

‘‘Adnot. Genus Beesha Kunth., Melocana [sic!] Tr. (Bambusa baccifera,

Roxb. (Beesha Rheed. H. Mal. V. t. 60), nostro quoad spiculas proximum,

differt inflorescentia, valvulis (si modo recte observata sint a scriptoribus)

diversa forma distinguendis, fructu bacciformi.”’

The following is the writer’s characterization of the genus based on a

study of the Chinese species.®

SCHIZOSTACHYUM Nees emend.

CLUMP HABIT dense or Open; RHIZOME sympodial,® with a tendency in

some forms to run a little distance laterally before turning upward to form

the culm, thus giving rise to a more open clump habit; cuLms erect or

ascending, terete, thin-walled, usually straight, sometimes somewhat zigzag,

the tips upright, drooping, or clambering; nodes not prominent, but usually

bearing a narrow ring of pithy tissue left from the base of the deciduous

sheaths; znternodes cylindric, each smooth and shining at its base, the

remaining portion with a siliceous covering which increases in thickness

toward the summit of the internode, the siliceous part at first variously

strewn with brittle, appressed, acicular hairs, ultimately more or less

glabrescent, a zone of varying width just below the nodes usually being

somewhat glaucous, more densely covered with these hairs, and more

tardily glabrescent; prophylls (at culm nodes) ovate, obtuse, flat, shining,

each containing numerous (up to 10) buds’; BRANCHES numerous, subequal,

in fascicles, slender, the basal 2 to 6 internodes short, closely clothed with

short, more or less persistent, imbricate sheaths, each sheath usually bear-

ing in its axil a prophyll containing dormant or active buds, the branches

rarely rebranching at their distal nodes; CULM SHEATHS cylindric, convolute,

coriaceous-chartaceous, usually more or less conspicuously striate or ribbed,

siliceous, usually more or less covered with brittle, acicular hairs and

ultimately glabrescent; auricles usually obsolete or nearly so; oral setae

usually prominent; pseudophylls reflexed, long and narrow with involute

margins and subulate tips; BLADES of widely varying size and shape, even

on the same plant, acuminate, subulate or acicular, usually more or less

rough to the touch on one or both surfaces, sometimes entirely glabrous on

one surface or the other, always with several scabrous veins along the outer

margin of the upper surface; the margins cartilaginous and more or less

scabrous; the secondary veins on the under surface often with a tessellate

appearance, especially in young leaves; INFLORESCENCES arising from soli-

tary buds’ but forming clusters, often in heads when older, sometimes more

lax and open, terminal or lateral on leafy or leafless branches of primary,

secondary or even higher order, sometimes (in S. dumetorum Munro at

least) borne directly on the nodes of the main culm; the main azis (of the

inflorescence) and the rachis branches of all subsequent orders, short, deter-

5 Hitherto only 2 species have been recorded from China: S. chinense (a rather aber-

rant species, concerning the vegetative characters and habit of which little is known)

and S. dumetorum. To these have been added S. lima, formerly known only from the

Philippine Islands, and two newly described, apparently endemic species.

6 Sympodial rhizomes are short and thick, with congested nodes, and are early

determinate, i.e., after growing horizontally for a short distance they turn upward to

form a culm. This type of rhizome gives rise to a more or less crowded or caespitose

type of clump. For a fuller definition of the meaning of this term as used by the writer,

see Lingnan Agr. Rev. 3: 40—47. 1925.

7 The examinations were made by ordinary dissection. This point should be checked

by means of serial sections of the branching structure during its young stages.

544 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

minate, ultimately much branched, the branching system being indeter-

minate, becoming predominantly sympodial with age, the individual rachis

branches each with a prophyll at its base and completely covered, in its

early stages, with crowded imbricate bracts, the terminal rachis joints

elongate, with expanded apices, each bearing a 1-flowered spikelet; prophylls

(of the inflorescence) 1-8 mm. long, triangular and obtuse to linear-lance-

olate and acute, the keels white-ciliate; bracts 1-several, gemmiferous, ovate

to sublinear, obtuse and awnless to acute and more or less definitely awned,

few- to many-nerved, sometimes with the central nerve forming a keel,

glabrous or variously pubescent, the upper ones approaching the lemmas

in size and shape; spzkelets 1-flowered, sessile, perfect, staminate or inter-

mediate (rudimentary perfect), the perfect ones promptly deciduous, the

intermediate ones more tardily so, and the staminate ones persistent;

glumes entirely lacking (except in S. chinense Rendle); sterzle lemmas want-

ing (except in S. chinense); lemmas convolute, resembling upper bracts of

the pseudo-spikelets, thin-chartaceous to more or less indurate, many-

nerved, obscurely to definitely awned, shorter than the palea in perfect

spikelets, longer than the palea and completely enveloping it in the stami-

nate and rudimentary perfect spikelets; paleas convolute, often more or less

spirally twisted, soft and flexible at the base, firm above, not obviously

keeled but bearing dorsally a slender rachilla-joint lying in a shallow, in-

conspicuous sulcus, the latter becoming wider and deeper near the notched,

or more or less prominently bifid, indurate apex; rachilla not disarticulating

(except the basal joint in S. chinense), the terminal joint (at back of palea)

pearly-white, flattened at the base, slender, bristle-like, often tipped with

a minute, bud-like or leaf-like structure (rudimentary floret?), the latter

being more conspicuous in staminate spikelets; lodicules wanting (except

in S. chinense); stamens 6 (sometimes 7), included or exserted, with flat

filaments, the anthers with blunt apices and unequally bifid bases; pzstzls

stipitate, with the narrow, linear ovary attenuate into a slender style

terminated by usually 3, sometimes 2, plumose stigmas; fruzt (in S. dumet-

orum; unknown for the other Chinese species) fusiform, with a long, slender

beak, the coriaceous pericarp separable from the grain or seed except at

the back.

The inflorescences of the Schizostachyums that have been studied by the

writer are borne at the distal nodes of leafy or leafless branches of primary,

secondary or even higher order, or they may sometimes be borne directly

upon the nodes of the main culm. The primary buds giving rise to the in-

florescences are apparently solitary, but each develops into a complicated, —

though usually short, branching system. The main axis and the individual

branches of the rachis are more or less promptly determinate, always ending

in a 1-flowered spikelet, which may be perfect, staminate, or intermediate.

Moreover, there is a tendency, more obvious in older inflorescences, toward

typical sympodial branching (fig. 1, A and B).

While the individual branches of the rachis are thus determinate in their

development, the inflorescence as a whole is entirely indeterminate, being

enlarged, or rather made more dense, by the continued development of new

branches from the buds in the axils of the bracts. The writer has records

which indicate definitely that in several species of this genus a given in-

DECEMBER 15, 1934 MCCLURE: SCHIZOSTACHYUM 545

florescence may produce new rachis branches and new spikelets in the

second year. This behavior is apparently common to all the species studied,

and it is probable that the process may go on for an even longer period than

has been indicated by the records. Camus (1913) p. 173, no doubt refers

to this same phenomenon when he says of S. Zollingeri Steud. ‘‘parfois les

fascicules inférieurs proliféres.” :

Pilger (1927) observed the presence of a similar branching system in the

Fig. 1.—A. Diagram of an inflorescence of Schizostachyum lima which may be taken

as typical for the genus. The Roman numerals indicate the order of the rachis branches,

counting the branch from which they originated as I. ¢ indicates fully developed per-

fect spikelets; ¢ indicates rudimentary perfect spikelets; o indicates staminate spike-

lets; x indicates a bud or an incompletely developed branch. The bracts, and the

sheath subtending the inflorescence, are indicated by simple curved lines, while the

prophylls are shown as curved lines with two short lines inserted at right angles at

their tips. B. A sketch of an inflorescence of S. lima. Some of the bracts, as well as

the sheath subtending the inflorescence, have lost their pseudophylls. X1. C. A por-

tion of the tip of a rachis branch (pseudo-spikelet) of S. ima in an advanced stage of

development. The lateral buds have produced branches which destroy its original

spikelet-like appearance. The perfect spikelet (terminal) is supported by a short

lateral branch (another little pseudo-spikelet) terminated by a staminate spikelet. The

subtending bract is indicated by broken lines. X3. D. A small pseudo-spikelet of

S. hainanense terminated by a staminate spikelet. X5. E. A pseudo-spikelet of S.

hainanense terminated by a perfect spikelet. Note the 2-keeled prophyll at its base.

Each of the four bracts bears in its axil a bud capable of developing into another

pseudo-spikelet. X65.

inflorescence of Guadua tessmannii Pilg., and Mébius (1898) recorded for

Bambusa vulgaris Wendl. the development, in the second year of its flower-

ing, of buds from a year-old rachis branch into new “‘spikelets.”’ It is prob-

able that this behavior is more common in other genera also than is generally

suspected.

546 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 24, No. 12

It is important to point out, at this juncture, that the fully developed

perfect spikelets are rather promptly deciduous, while the rudimentary

perfect ones fall much more tardily, the staminate ones being persistent.

This behavior, operating along with the continuous development of new

rachis branches, results in a growing preponderance, in specimens which

have been flowering for some time, of imperfectly developed (or rudimen-

tary) perfect spikelets, along with the staminate ones. In the course of

ordinary handling, any remaining perfect spikelets may easily be lost, as

well as many of the somewhat rudimentary ones. And when it is remembered

that the shape and relative size of the component parts of the spikelet vary

with the sexual state of the spikelet, it is easy to see how one may gain an

entirely different impression from the examination of young inflorescences

as compared with that to be gained from the examination of those which

have undergone a long development.

It is an easy matter to ascertain the relative, if not the actual, age of the

inflorescences of Schizostachyums in herbarium specimens or elsewhere.

As a result of the continued development of additional branches in a system

in which the main axis and all of the branches are very short, the older the

inflorescence, generally speaking, the more crowded it will have become.

In specimens in which flowering has continued for more than a year the

contrast between the new and the old parts will be readily apparent when

one looks for it. The older spikelets and structures will have a blanched

appearance and be brittle, and will probably be more or less damaged, while

those of the current year’s growth will have a fresher, firmer appearance,

and will often retain a greenish tinge. The relative number of bare rachis

tips in a given inflorescence will be an index to the number of perfect spike-

lets that have fallen. Furthermore, it should be remembered that in fully

developed perfect spikelets the palea always is exserted, however slightly,

beyond the tip of the lemma. If there are no spikelets in this condition, the

inflorescences are either very young (in which case there will be no naked

rachis tips) or they are very old (in which case the naked rachis tips will be

relatively numerous. 7

their buds have developed, these branches have the appearance of spikelets,

for which structures they have commonly been mistaken (fig. 1, D and E).

The presence, however, of a prophyll® (often described as a 2-keeled glume)

at the base of each, and of buds in the axils of the bracts (so-called gem-

8 In the very rare cases where a bud was not found in the axil of a bract, it seemed

likely that, being quite small, it was overlooked or lost.

® The prophyll has been largely neglected in the published descriptions of bamboos.

And while it is not entirely lacking in taxonomic value, Takenouchi (1931) has per-

haps over-emphasized the usefulness of its characters for distinguishing species. This

structure has been of the greatest value to the writer, however, as an orienting structure

leading to an understanding of the morphology of the inflorescence in Schizostachyum,

where the small size and the extremely crowded condition of the floral structures make

ordinary dissection particularly difficult. It is perhaps in connection with this aspect

of bamboo study that its usefulness should be more strongly emphasized.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 MCCLURE: SCHIZOSTACHYUM 547

miferous glumes), reveals their true nature immediately.!° As soon, however,

as the*lateral buds of a given rachis branch have developed to any extent,

it loses its spikelet-like appearance, and the terminal spikelet itself becomes

more evident. In those species which have the terminal rachis joints most

elongate, the true spikelet is likewise more easily discernible. In such species

the terminal perfect spikelets are typically seen to be supported on one side

by a short rachis branch terminated by a staminate spikelet (fig. 1, C).

Camus (1913), p. 177, would seem to be referring to this condition when he

says of S. latifolcwm Gamble, ‘‘Epillets ... groupés par 2...”

SUMMARY

1. The structure of the inflorescence in the genus Schizostachyum has

been misinterpreted since its first description, and the terminology used

has been inconsistent and misleading.

2. It is suggested that the neglect of the prophylls as constituting a

category distinct from the bracts and glumes, and the consequent failure to

use them as orienting structures are largely responsible for this faulty inter-

pretation.

3. As a background for the discussion Nees’s original description of the

genus and the type species is given, along with the writer’s own recently

prepared emended description of the genus based on a study of the Chinese

species.

4. The following sources of confusion in the interpretation of the in-

florescence of Schizostachyum are pointed out:

a. The indeterminate nature of the inflorescence as a whole, which grows

out of the successive development of additional rachis buds.

b. The unusual, spikelet-like form taken by the determinate rachis

branches (pseudo-spikelets).

ce. The fact that the spikelets terminating these branches of the rachis

may represent any sexual state from purely staminate, through rudimentary

perfect, to fully developed perfect, with corresponding discrepancies in the

shape and relative size of the different component structures.

d. The fact that there may exist, in a given inflorescence at a given

moment, spikelets (as well as the rachis branches which they terminate) in

various stages of development.

e. The prompt deciduousness of the fully developed perfect spikelets,

which leaves, in the older inflorescences, an impression that certain more

tardily deciduous forms of the spikelet are representative, because most

numerous.

10 As an aid in making clear the distinction between these structures and the real

spikelets, the term pseudo-spikelet has been used, in the descriptions recently prepared

by the writer, to indicate these bract-covered ultimate branches of the rachis. The

proper significance of this term, as well as the modern sense of the terms bract and

glume, (Chase, 1922 and Piper, 1906) should be kept in mind in comparing these with

the older descriptions. The structures referred to in the existing descriptions as “glumes”

or ‘‘gemmiferous glumes” are really, for the most part, bracts. Glumes, in the modern

sense, are lacking in all the Chinese species of the genus except S. chinense. This species

is also aberrant among the Chinese species in the possession of lodicules, a sterile

lemma, and a disarticulating rachilla.

548 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The present paper is the beginning of the fruition of field work on the

Chinese bamboos begun in 1921, and is based on herbarium material and

notes brought together chiefly by the writer and the staff of the Lingnan

University Herbarium. Full acknowledgment is made elsewhere of special

financial assistance for this work received from various outside sources, but

special mention is due the Rockefeller Foundation for its most recent grant,

which has made possible the purchase of hitherto unavailable literature and

equipment essential to the continued pursuit of this work.

The writer wishes to acknowledge his great indebtedness to Dr. A. 8.

Hitchcock and Mrs. Agnes Chase for assistance and advice, and for numer-

ous courtesies in connection with the use of their unexcelled private agrosto-

logical library, and the grass collections of the United States National

Herbarium.

LITERATURE CITED

ARBER, A. Studies in the Gramineae. 1. The flowers of certain Bambuseae. Ann. Bot.

50: 463, fig. 10, F. 1926.

BENTHAM, G. and Hooxsr, J.D. Genera Plantarum. 3:1214. 1883.

Brown, W.H. Minor economic products of the Philippine forests. 1: 263-265, pl. 21-33.

1920.

Camus, E.G. Les Bambusées. 171-179, pl. 95-98. 1913.

Camus, E. G. and Camus, A. Graminées, in Lecomtsz, H. and GaGanepatn, F. Flora

generale del’ Indochine. 7: 642-646. 19238.

CuHasE, AGNES. First book of grasses. 17-24. 1922.

GAMBLE, J. S. The Bambuseae of British India. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcutta.

7: 114-118, pl. 100-104. 1896.

GAMBLE, J. 8S. The bamboos of the Philippine Islands. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 5:

273-278. 1910.

GAMBLE, J. 8S. A new species of Schizostachyum. Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot. 6: 289.

1911.

GAMBLE, J. S. Some additional bamboos of the Philippine Islands. Philip. Journ. Sci.

Bot. 8: 205-206. 1913.

HackgE., E. Gramineae, in ENGuER, A. and PrRanttu, K. Pflanzenfam. 2:97. 1887.

Hancz, H. F. Bambusa dumetorum, in Walp. Ann. 3: 781. 1852-3. —

McCuure, F. A. Some notes on the bamboos of Kwangtung. Lingnan Agr. Rev. 3:

40-47, fig. 1-9. 1925.

Mostivus, M. Uber ein eigentiimliches Blihen von Bambusa vulgaris Wendl. Bericht.

Senckenb. Nat. Ges. 1898: 81-89, pl. 4. 1898. ee

Munro, Wm. A monograph of the Bambusaceae. Trans. Linn. Soc. 26: 135-138.

1868.

Nuss, C.G. Agrostologia Brasiliensis. 535. .. 1829.

Pinger, R. Uber die Bliitenstinde und Ahrchen der Bambuseen-Gattung Guadua

Kunth. Bericht. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 45: 562—570, fig. 1-2. 1927.

Pipgr, C. V. The terminology of the parts of the grass spikelet. Science 23: 789-790.

1906.

RENDLE, A. B. Bambuseae, in Forssus, B. F. and Hemsuey, W. B. Enumeration of all

the plants known from China Proper, etc. Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 36: 448-449.

1904.

Ruprecut, F. J. Bambuseae. Mem. Acad. St. Petersb. VI. Sci. Nat. 31: 43-47,

pl. 16 (fig. 44), pl. 17 (fig. 44.and 46). 18389."

TAKENOUCHI, Y. Systematisch-vergleichende Morphologie und Anatomie der Vegeta-

tionsorgane der japonischen Bambus-Arten. Mem. Fac. Sci. Agr. Taihoku Imp.

Univ. 3: 37-583, fig. 22-29, pl. 3. 1981.

11 This paper was first issued in 1839 as a separate with pagination 1-74. When it

appeared in the regular series in 1840 the pagination was changed to 91-164. Thus, in

the latter place our reference would be pp. 133-7.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 MAXON: PLEURODERRIS 549

BOTAN Y.—Pleuroderris, a new genus of Middle American ferns.!

WiuuiAM R. Maxon, National Museum.

The genus Hypoderris R. Br., first mentioned with a few words of

description in 1830,? was fully described and figured somewhat later

by Hooker?’ on the basis of a single species, H. Brownii J. Sm., from

Trinidad, which has since been found rather commonly in Porto Rico,

also in Hispaniola and Grenada, and very recently has been reported

from Venezuela.* This plant has the general habit and venation of

Tectaria trifoliata, and in fact closely resembles young individuals of

that species. It has been classified nevertheless as belonging not to

the Dryopterideae, but to the tribe Woodsieae, because of its curious

indusia. These are inferior in attachment and at first subglobose,

enclosing the sporangia, but soon become circular, pateriform and

flattish, and shallowly lobed on all sides, with fimbriate-ciliate

margins.

In addition, five other species have been described under Hypo-

derris, for the most part independently or upon scant material. The

latest of these, H. Stwebeli: Hieron.,° founded upon a sterile plant

from Ecuador, has since been referred to Leptochilus.® Of the remain-

ing four, two were described from Nicaragua by Fournier, one from

Nicaragua by Prentice, and one from Guatemala by Christ. All five,

though exhibiting great variation in leaf form according to age and

habitat, as well as in soriation, actually represent but a single species,

which departs widely in sorus characters from the genotype, H.

Brownw, and may be regarded tentatively as constituting a new

genus. However, this plant had previously been described from the

Darien region as Lindsaea (Dictyoxiphium) Michlerrana Eaton, which

is thus the name-bringing synonym. Because of the laterally attached

indusia its repeated description by several authors under Hypoderris,

in which, as already remarked, the indusium is truly inferior in

attachment, is hard to understand, whatever its true relationship

may be. Oddly enough the presence of any indusium whatever was

overlooked by Baker in describing in the Synopsis Filicum this species

once more as new, from Nicaragua, under the name Polypodium

(Dictyopteris) Tater. In the same volume also (p. 113) Baker re-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived October 30, 1934.

2 R. Br. (note) in Wall. Icon. Pl. Asiat. Rar. 1:16. 1830.

3 Gen. Fil. pl. 1. 1838.

4 Revista Sudamer. Bot. 1: 82. 1934.

5 Hedwigia 46: 323. 1907.

° Leptochilus Stuebelit (Hieron.) Maxon, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 46: 142. 1933.

550 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

described Lindsaea Michleriana under the genus Lindsaea, trans-

ferring it however to the subgenus Diellia, obviously on the basis of

specimens at hand. So we have the rare anomaly of his recognizing

one and the same species under three wholly different names, con-

temporaneously, viz., Lindsaea Michleriana, Hypoderris Seemanni,

and Polypodium Tate!

Type material of all six of the “species” just mentioned has been

studied by the writer in connection with a very ample recent series

of specimens from the lowland region of Juan Diaz, about 10 miles

east of Panama City. From this whole range of specimens the new

genus, consisting of a single highly variable species, is described

herewith. Its possible origin as a bigeneric hybrid is discussed below.

The name adopted relates to the lateral attachment and position of

the indusia.

Pleuroderris Maxon, gen. nov.

Rhizoma suberectum, paleis castaneis praeditum. Folia multa, stipitibus

suleato-angulatis rufo-castaneis inarticulatis; laminae variabiles anguste

deltoideo-oblongae, attenuatae, saepe asymmetricae, basi pinnatisectae vel

pinnatae, alibi grosse lobatae; segmenta majora pauca deltoideo-oblonga-

vel lanceolata, infima semiadnata vel sessilia plerumque repando-crenata vel

sinuata, media semiadnata vel adnata, repanda vel sinuata vel subintecra,

superiora gradatim minora late conjuncta, laminae apice lato elongato

sinuato. Costae subtus elevatae; nervi catadromi distantes obliqui sub-

flexuosi; venatio Tectariae, areolis inaequalibus saepe appendiculatis. Sori

submarginales vel inter nervos irregulariter et sparse dispositi, dorsales vel

compitales, magni, lunati vel vermiformes vel varie curvati, receptaculis

plerumque elongatis; indusia lateralia, integra vel interdum ut videtur

divisa, obscure ciliolata; sporangia numerosissima longe pedicellata ple-

rumque abortiva vel deformia, annulo incrassato ca. 13-articulato, sporis

perpaucis alte et tenuiter echinato-alatis; paraphyses nullae.

A terrestrial fern of wet forest ravines, the rhizome stout, suberect,

paleaceous. Fronds many, of medium size, ascending, the stipes firm, sulcate-

angulate, rufo-castaneous, not jointed to the rhizome; blades variable,

narrowly deltoid-oblong, attenuate, often asymmetrical, coarsely lobed, -

pinnatifid, or (at base) pinnatisect or fully pinnate; pinnae and larger lobes

usually few, simple, deltoid-oblong to lance-attenuate, the basal ones of

large blades semiadnate or rarely sessile, mostly sinuate to coarsely repand-

crenate, those above adnate to semiadnate, long-decurrent, repand to sub-

entire, the upper ones gradually reduced, broadly joined below the broad,

greatly elongate, sinuate apex. Costae strongly elevated beneath; veins

catadromous, distant, oblique, elevated, subflexuous, nearly reaching the

margin; intermediate veinlets freely anastomosing, the costal areoles elon-

gate, nearly or quite connecting the veins at base, the others broadly

polygonal, variable, often subdivided, the ultimate areoles with or without

simple or forked included veinlets. Sori irregularly disposed in a submarginal

zone or sometimes borne in 1 or 2 incomplete sparse rows between the veins,

dorsal or compital, mostly large, lunate to irregularly linear or variously

curved, the receptacle dark, usually elongate; indusia lateral, entire or (if

DECEMBER 15, 1934 MAXON: PLEURODERRIS 551

greatly elongate) sometimes appearing deeply few-lobed, dark, lustrous,

early thrust back and nearly concealed by the sporangia, obscurely ciliolate;

sporangia very numerous, long-stalked, mostly abortive or somewhat de-

formed, the annulus about 13-celled; spores very few, delicately echinate-

alate; paraphyses wanting.

TypE species: Lindsaea Michleriana Eaton, from Colombia, the syn-

onymy being as follows:

Pleuroderris Michleriana (Eaton) Maxon

Lindseya (Dictyoxiphium) Michleriana Eaton, Mem. Amer. Acad. n. s.

8: 213. 1860.

Dictyoxiphium Michlerianum Moore, Ind. Fil. 319. 1861.

Hypoderris Seemanni Prentice, Journ. Bot. Brit. & For. 7: 240. 1869.

Hypoderris marginalis Fourn. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 9: 260. 1872.

Hypoderris adnata Fourn. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 9: 260. 1872.

Polypodium (Dictyopteris) Tater Baker in Hook. & Baker, Syn. Fil.

ed. 2, 506. 1874.

Hypoderris heteroneuroides Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 6: 292. 1906.

TyprE Loca.ity: ‘‘Ad terram prope cataractum Truando Novae Granadae,

Schott n. 8.”

DisTRIBUTION: Northwestern Colombia to Guatemala, at low elevations.

ILLUSTRATION: Shimek in Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. Univ. Iowa 4: pl. 18,

jet toot- Hook, licon. Pl. 17: pl. 1670. 1886.

Of the following specimens examined all are in the U. 8. National Her-

barium (N), unless otherwise indicated:

CoutomsBia: Truando Falls, Intendencia de Chocd, Feb. 1858, Schott 8

(herb. D. C. Eaton; dupl. at N. Y. Bot. Gard.).

PanaMA: Muddy border of small stream near Tapia River, one-half mile

south of Pacora road, alt. 30 meters, Nov. 29, 1917, Killip 2706. Deep

woods along Pacora River, Dec. 23, 1917, Killip 2734. Deep woods along

Tapia River, Dec. 23, 1917, Killip 2746. Deep ravine north of Orange

River, along muddy banks of small stream, Jan. 13, 1918, Kullip 2787.

Ravines of upper Juan Diaz River region, Mar. 10, 1918, Killip 2855.

Forest along Juan Diaz River, about 4 miles above Juan Diaz, Jan. 13, 1918,

Mrs. L. R. Cornman 648. Wet forest along Tapia River, common, Dec.

1923—Jan. 1924, Standley 26171, 28211. Edge of waterholes and along

stream banks, in stiff clay soil often subject to inundation, near Tapia

River, June 1-3, 1923, Maxon & Harvey 6666, 6692, 6724.

Costa Rica: Llanuras de San Carlos, alt. 200 meters, in shade, Apr.—May,

1910, A. & C. Brade 487 (Berlin, N. Y. Bot. Garden; photo. and fragm., N).

NicaraGcua: Chontales, Seemann 206 (Br. Mus.; type of Hypoderris

Seemanni; photo. and fragm., N). Chontales, in forest, Lévy 501 (type of

H. adnata, at Paris, not seen; photo. and fragm., N). Chontales, Lévy

501 bis (type of H. marginalis, at Paris, not seen; photo. and fragm., N).

Chontales, Tate 41/235 (type of Polypodium Tatei, at Kew, not seen; dupl.

type at Br. Mus.; photo. and fragm. of latter, N). Near Castillo, ‘found

sparingly on the banks of a creek in deep woods,” Jan.—Feb., 1893, Shzmek

s.n. Region of Braggman’s Bluff, 1928, Engelsing 269.

GUATEMALA: Cubilquitz, Alta Verapaz, alt. 350 meters, von Tuerckherm

(J. D. Smith, no. 8821; type of H. heteroneuroides; 3 sheets, N).

Despite this wide array of material, Pleuroderris Michlerzana is rare in

552 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

Fig. 1.—Pleuroderris Michleriana (Eaton) Maxon. The

type specimen; about two-fifths natural size.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 MAXON: PLEURODERRIS 553

most herbaria, a single exception being the extensive series in the National

Herbarium from the Juan Diaz region, Panama. Many of the Panama num-

bers are represented by two or more sheets, which show not only ‘‘abnormal”’

variations in leaf form but numerous intermediate stages between the young

and adult conditions as well. Eaton’s type specimen (fig. 1) consists of two

fronds that are somewhat immature in leaf form. The well-developed,

mature but not extreme form is shown in an incomplete frond of Killip 2787

(fig. 2). Mrs. Cornman’s no. 648, from Panama, happens to be an exact

match for the type material of H. Seemanni and Polypodium Tatei, from

Nicaragua.

As to relationship, Pleuroderris is most like some species of Tectarza, but

with sori distinctly anomalous in their widely varying structure. The vena-

tion is obviously that of Tectaria, and the general aspect of the plant hardly

less so. The sori arise mostly at the angular intersection of the veinlets which

enclose the areoles, as in certain species of Tectaria, but they are unique in

that the sporangia usually extend in a continuous dorsal line some distance

along two or more of the boundary veinlets of an areole and commonly those

of an adjacent areole. The sori are thus, as a rule, elongate. Sometimes they

are merely lunate or irregularly curved-linear; again they may be T-shaped

or Y-shaped, according to the vein-pattern; occasionally they are hippo-

crepiform or nearly circular in outline. In the last case it will usually be

found, on dissection, that the heavy sporangial line runs nearly around the

areole and that the laterally attached indusium follows it throughout, being

linear in extent though not “‘linear’’ in form. Sometimes, also, two or three

sori, although of independent origin, arise closely from the same or adjacent

areoles and run together at maturity to form a composite “‘sorus,’’ in which

case the indusium may appear coarsely few-lobed. Rarely (e.g., Maxon &

Harvey 6692) the sorus is essentially that of Tectaria, with roundish-reniform

indusium, the sporangia arising from a short receptacle. Besides the types

just described, occasionally a sorus is borne also at the expanded tip of an

included veinlet.

Details of venation and soriation are shown rather imperfectly in the

illustrations by Shimek, but this author, in his interesting paper on the

ferns of Nicaragua,’ is apparently the only one to have questioned the

reference of the present plant to Hypoderris. Although his material was

inadequate he contrasted it with the type species, H. Brownz, directing

special attention to the ‘‘transverse’”’ indusium, which is vastly different

from the inferior cuplike structure in H. Brownzi, and concluded that the

Nicaraguan plant probably represented a new genus, which however he

mistakenly thought should be placed near Cystopteris.

The curious position and orientation of the sori in Plewroderris call for

comment also. Eaton describes the sori as intramarginal, interrupted, and

oblong or linear, and the indusia as slender, interrupted, and “‘non marginem

7 Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. lowa 4: 115-224. pl. 1-20. 1897.

MONTES STATES NATIONAL MUSEURI

PLADTS OF KARA &

Fig. 2.—Pleuroderris Michleriana (Eaton) Maxon. A well-developed

Panama specimen, Killip 2787; about two-fifths natural size.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 MAXON: PLEURODERRIS 555

frondis tegens.”’ Partly because of the submarginal position of the sori in

his sparingly fertile specimens he placed the species in Lindsaea, subgenus

Dictyoxiphium, owing to a supposed resemblance of the sori to those of

Dictyoxiphium panamense Hook., a newly described genotype which Met-

tenius,® knowing the plant only from description and figure, had reduced

to Lindsaea. However, Dictyoxiphium has long since come to be recognized

as a valid ‘‘monotypic”’ genus, differing widely in essential morphology

from Lindsaea. It is a plant having large, simple, sword-shaped fronds

similar in venation to Tectarza. In spite of similarity in habit and reticulate

venation, Dictyoxiphium panamense differs markedly from Pleuroderris in

soriation; the sporangia are borne in an unbroken submarginal line for

nearly the entire length of the frond, the sorus being provided with a con-

tinuous, delicate, extrorse indusium. No such general condition exists in

Pleuroderris. Here, it is true, the sori are largely borne in a marginal zone,

but of those that are actually submarginal a bare majority face outward,

some inward, and others in all directions; also they are of all shapes and

sizes, and they never form even a subcontinuous series. Moreover, in some

fronds the sori are borne far from the margins in a sparse double row between

the nerves nearly down to the midrib, as in TJectaria; as a rule also the

farther they are from the margin the more closely they resemble the sori

of that genus. Before the sorus characters were accurately made out, in fact,

several early specimens of Mr. Killip’s excellent Panama series were re-

ferred to Tectarza. Further evidence of relationship is afforded by Tectaria

rivalis,® of the Colombia-Panama region, in which the sori are occasionally

oblong and provided with a reduced somewhat chitinous indusium strongly

suggestive of the kind predominating in Pleuroderris.

But if affinity with Tectaria may be regarded as established, it appears

no less that Plewroderris departs from that genus definitely in the direction

of Dictyoxiphium, especially in its elongate and occasionally fused sori

which tend. to occupy a submarginal position. May it not be a hybrid be-

tween Dictyoxiphium panamense and Tectaria martinicensis, even though

these belong respectively to the tribes Davallieae and Dryopterideae?

Both species were collected in the Juan Diaz region, in very close association

with Pleuroderris, and both are companion plants of that throughout its

range. Additional support for hybridity is found in the highly variable and

pronounced asymmetrical shape of many of the blades in Pleuroderris and

in the sporangia, most of which are somewhat distorted or only partially

developed and apparently lack a normal sporogenous content. Coupled with

the extreme diversity in shape, position, and size of sori, the last feature is

of special importance. Because of the numerous young plants observed in

the Juan Diaz region it may be assumed that Pleuroderris is there fertile,

sparingly so at least, notwithstanding that after repeated examinations only

8 Fil. Hort. Lips. 105. 1856.

9 Aspidium rivale Mett.; Kuhn, Linnaea 36: 120. 1869.

556 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

a few mature spores have been found. Though not wholly convincing, the

points mentioned, particularly the intermediate character of variable soria-

tion, offer a good deal of ground in support of hybridity.

However, Tectaria itself, in the modern sense, embraces plants with

widely different sori and is seriously in need of revision as to American

material. And in this connection the phylogenetic relationship of several

genera should be considered. In particular, Hypoderris Brownii, though

placed by most authors in the tribe Woodsieae on account of its basal in-

dusia, was regarded by John Smith as allied to the group we now call

Tectarta. Thus Bower’s conclusions,!® upon morphological grounds, as to

the modified characters of Hypoderris and certain other genera of the

Woodsieae in the direction of the tribe Dryopterideae are of unusual

interest.

Similarly Amphiblestra, consisting of a single rare Venezuelan species,

A. latifolia (Humb. & Bonpl.) Presl, although classified by nearly all fern

writers as belonging to the tribe Pterideae, was associated by John Smith"

“with Dryomenes, Dictyopteris, and Aspidium, especially such as A. macro-

phyllum,”’ i.e., Tectarva. Kunze figured and redescribed it under Pteris,

dryly remarking that although in venation it treads upon Phymatodes,

Bathmium, Dictyoxiphium, and other genera he was well satisfied to place

it in Ptertzs. The habit, simply pinnate blades, and areolate venation are

those of a Tectaria with very freely appendiculate areoles, but the marginal

sori normally are fused to form a continuous longitudinal coenosorus which

lacks a true indusium, the slightly recurved but unmodified margin scarcely

functioning as such. Nevertheless, Fournier,!® working with imperfect

Nicaraguan material, redescribed the unique Dictyoriphium panamense as a

new species of Amphiblestra, so strong is the similarity in venation. Bower

discusses A mphiblestra in connection with progressive anastomosis in Pieris,

but leaves its systematic position in abeyance. It may indeed be a Pterzs

ally, but equally it may belong near Tectaria, in the Dryopterideae. It

should be borne in mind that if the existence of similar indusial structures

is not necessarily an indication of close relationship among the ferns, such

indusia having very probably developed independently and often relatively

late in various phyletic lines, so also their absence or even the development

of somewhat diverse types of indusia may not always be regarded as weigh-

ing heavily against the common evolutionary origin of plants otherwise

similar in structure and in habit. Amphiblestra is no more puzzling than

Dictyoxiphium. These and several other groups which in venation and habit

resemble Tectarza deserve close morphological study. Pleuroderris may not

be a bigeneric hybrid, as suspected, yet the remarkable intermediates be-

tween Tectaria and Hemigramma which Copeland" discusses and illustrates

10 The Ferns 3: 99-119. 1928.

11 Hist. Ferns 194. 1875.

12 Farrnkr. 2: 43-46. pl. 118. 1849.

13 Bot. Zeit. 31: 8. 1873, as Amphiblestra Hanae sp. nov.

14 Philippine Journ. Sci. Bot. 3:31. pl. 1-4. 1908.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 557

come to mind as a somewhat similar case. In any event it seems decidedly

worth while to place on record such facts as are known about the curious

plant here called Pleuroderris and to give it temporary status as a genus

intermediate between Tectaria and Dictyoxiphium.

ZOOLOGY .—The histology of nemic esophagi. III. The esophagus of

Oesophagostomum dentatum (Rudolphi).! B. G. CuHitrwoop,

Bureau of Animal Industry and M. B. Currwoop.

This paper is the third of a series dealing with the structure of

nemic esophagi. In this paper the same nomenclature is used as in the

previous ones (Chitwood and Chitwood, 1934 and 1934). Some notes

on the esophagus of Oesophagostomum dentatum have been given

previously by one of the writers (B. G. Chitwood, 1931), but the

detailed structure of this organ was not given.

GROSS MORPHOLOGY

The gross morphology of the esophagus of the adult of Oesophagostomum

dentatum has been given previously by Goodey (1924). The esophagus of

this form is in general clavate, terminating posteriorly in an elongate swell-

ing. Regions such as corpus and isthmus are not grossly discernible, but the

regions homologous to the corpus and isthmus may be determined on the

basis of nuclear distribution. In the specimens studied by the present writers

the esophagus was from 360 to 400u long, 150 to 190u of this length com-

prising the corpus, 50 to 90u the isthmus, 80 to 90u the anterior part of the

bulbar region, and 40 to 60 the posterior part of the bulbar region. The

internal covering of the esophagus is very definitely modified in the various

regions. Throughout the length of the esophagus the walls of the lumen

forming the radii converge distally forming an acute angle instead of a

cylindrical tube as in oxyurids and rhabditids. At the extreme anterior end

the lumen is subtriangular and the walls simple; 10 to 15yu posterior to this

the lumen becomes much more clearly triradiate, and near the tips of the

radii 6 series of thickenings are present, these being attachment points of

the radial muscles. These attachment points are continued posteriad to the

beginning of the posterior part of the bulbar region. In the anterior region

of the corpus, minute spines project internally from the wall of the esopha-

gus. The dorsal esophageal gland opens at the anterior end of the corpus,

but the position of the orifices of the subventral glands has not been deter-

mined with certainty by the writers. Goodey (1924) stated that their

orifices were situated just anterior to the beginning of the bulbar region.

The esophagus of this species, like the esophagi of other members of the

Strongyloidea, undergoes many changes during development. In the first-

stage larva it consists of a corpus, isthmus, and valvulate bulb identical in

1 Received October 18, 1934.

558 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

appearance with that of adult rhabditids, while later in the development the

valves degenerate and the esophagus becomes much more elongated so

that at the third stage, though the regions are still apparent, the general

form differs entirely from that of the first larval stage (See Goodey, 1924).

NUCLEAR DISTRIBUTION

The corpus contains 47 nuclei which fall into two general groups cor-

responding to the precorpus and postcorpus of other forms. However, there

appears to have been some shifting of the relative positions of a few nuclei,

making it difficult to set a sharp line of demarcation between the two groups.

For practical purposes the first group of marginal nuclei are arbitrarily

considered as indicating the beginning of the postcorpus.

Precorpus. The precorpus contains 24 nuclei as follows: 17 nerve cell

nuclei (ny_17), 6 radial nuclei (r,.), and 1 asymmetric nucleus of questionable

significance (x,). The latter (x;) lies on the left side of the dorsal sector and

5 to 10u from the anterior end of the precorpus. The radial muscle nuclei

(r,s) lie near the middle of the precorpus, about 20 to 40u from its anterior

end. These nuclei are arranged as a group of 6, one being on each side of

each sector.

The nerve cell nuclei (nj ana2) lie near the middle of the dorsal sector, 1 on

each side of the duct of the dorsal esophageal gland, 20 to 30u from the

anterior end of the precorpus. Following these nuclei there is a series of

4 nerve cell nuclei? (nj3-15 ana1s) in the middle of the dorsal sector and ex-

ternal to the duct of the esophageal gland. Of these nis is usually situated at,

or posterior to, the level of the marginal nuclei (m;_3), and is therefore

grouped as part of the postcorpus. The nerve cell nuclei n3,4.5,10,11,1. in the

irregular chains extending throughout the length of the precorpus (Fig. 1),

these nuclei being situated near the middle of the subventral sectors. Quite

often the last two (njs_17) are posterior to the marginal nuclei (mj_3).

Postcorpus. The postcorpus contains 23 nuclei as follows: 6 radial nuclei

(r7_12), 3 marginal nuclei (m,_3), and 14 nerve cell nuclei (nis_3:). Of these

the marginal nuclei are considered as indicating the anterior end of the

postcorpus, 1 being situated to the side of each radius of the esophagus,

2 of these (m;3) usually being dorsal to the subdorsal radii, and the other

(m2) usually being on the right side of the ventral radius.

The first dorsal nerve cell, nis, is usually at about the same level as that

of the marginal nuclei. The second and third dorsal nerve cells (no3-24) are

situated about 50 to 60u from the anterior end of the postcorpus, while the

last dorsal nerve cell (nog) is situated 10 to 30u posterior to these. The sub-

2 Since the nerve cells in the precorpus follow one another so closely, there is con-

siderable chance of error, either by considering the same cell as two cells or consider-

ing 2 cells as one and the same. We believe that any error will not involve more than

1 cell for each sector.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 559

ventral nerve cells (n19,21, ana 20,22) are situated 10 to 20u posterior to the

marginals, while the following subventral nerve cells (Mos .27 ana 96,28) are

situated 10 to 30u posterior to the former (Fig. 1). The last subventral

nerve cells of the postcorpus (n3o,31) are situated at the posterior end of the

postcorpus, 10 to 30u posterior to the last dorsal nerve cell (ng9).

The second group of radial nuclei (17-12) is arranged like the first group

(r;_-.) and is situated 30 to 40u from the anterior end of the postcorpus.

Fig. 1—Diagrammatic representation of groups of nuclei of the esophagus. (a-b)

Precorpus; (c-e) postcorpus; (f-g) prevalvar region; (h) valvar and postvalvar region.

$, Z,7, m, and n indicate the various types of nuclei.

Isthmian region. This region contains no nuclei.

Prevalvar region. The prevalvar region contains 9 nuclei as follows:

3 marginal nuclei (mys), and 6 radial nuclei (ri3-1s). Of these nuclei the

marginals are most anterior, 1 situated near each of the esophageal radii;

usually the subdorsal nuclei (mz ana ¢) are located on the dorsal side of the

subdorsal radii, while the ventral nucleus (m;) is at the left side of the

ventral radius.

The 6 radial nuclei are arranged in 2 groups of 3 each, 1 near the apex

of each sector; the first group (ris_15) is situated at approximately the same

560 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

level as the marginals, while the second group (ryjs_1s) is situated 30 to 50y

posterior to the first.

Valvar and postvalvar regions. The posterior part of the bulbar region

contains 21 nuclei as follows: 3 gland cell nuclei (g:_3), 6 radial nuclei (119-4),

3 marginal nuclei (m7_9), 6 nerve cell nuclei (nz2_37), 2 nuclei possibly of

nerve cells (s;-2), and an additional nucleus (x2) observed in some series.

The radial nuclei are arranged in 2 groups of 3 nuclei each (119_21 ana 22-24),

one group being anterior to the other. The marginal nuclei (m;_3) are situ-

ated near the level of the last radial group or posterior to its level, 1 nucleus

situated at one side of each esophageal radius; the right subdorsal marginal

nucleus is usually situated on the dorsal side, the left subdorsal on the

ventral side, and the ventral on the right side of the corresponding esophag-

eal radii. The nerve cell nuclei n3._33 are situated on each side of the dorsal

sector near the nucleus of the dorsal gland (g1); nz4_35 are situated in the

middle of the subventral sectors, and (ng.) near the ventral side of the right

subventral sector. These 5 nuclei (ngo-35) are all situated near the same

level (Fig. 1). The other nerve cell nucleus (n37) is situated at about the

level of the marginal nuclei at the left side of the dorsal sector. The question-

able nerve cell nuclei (s}2) are symmetrically placed, 1 on each side of the

ventral esophageal radius very close to the posterior end of the esophagus.

Anterior to sp the nucleus x. was observed in some specimens.

Esophago-intestinal valve. It is difficult to be sure whether there are 5 or 6

nuclei present in the esophago-intestinal valve. This structure consists of

an internal lobed part usually containing 3 nuclei and an external part

containing 2 nuclei. Sometimes there appears to be an additional nucleus

in the lobed part.

CHARACTER OF NUCLEI

The radial muscle nuclei have a moderately basophilic nucleoplasm which

is nearly uniform and very finely granular. The nucleolus is often bilobed

(Fig. 2) or sometimes fragmentary (Fig. 2). In the first group of radial

nuclei (1,;-.) each nucleus is about 5.8 to 7.5u long and usually compressed

laterally; those of the second group (17-12) about 8u long and similarly com-

pressed; those of the third and fourth groups (113-15,15-1s3) about 9.34 long

and usually more rounded than those of the first and second group; those

of the fifth group (19-21) are about 3.3u long by 5.24 wide; and those of the

sixth group (1-94) are about 4.2u long by 2u wide, very much flattened in

a plane parallel with the axis of the esophagus (Fig. 2). Because of their

shape the nuclei of the sixth group were previously mistaken for commissural

nerve cells by one of us (B. G. Chitwood, 1931). The muscular tissue

associated with the nuclei of the sixth group at the level of these nuclei

appears as a narrow band.

The marginal nuclei are all rather similar to the radials, each containing

a single nucleolus which may be lobed (Fig. 2); the nucleoplasm is usually

DECEMBER 15, 1934 CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 561

less basophilic and less homogeneous than that of the radial nuclei. These

nuclei are generally somewhat subtriangular, the narrowest part projecting

toward the esophageal lumen. In cross section the nuclei of the first group

(m;_3) are approximately 8.3u long by 4.2u wide, those of the second group

(m4-s) 6.2u long by 4u wide, and those of the third group (m7_,) 6.2u long

by 2.5u wide.

The nucleus of the dorsal esophageal gland (g,) is extremely large, 19y

long by 14.54 in maximum width. Anteriorly it appears as a wide sub-

Fig. 2.— Nuclei of the esophagus. Labelled as in fig. 1.

rectangular body in the middle of the dorsal sector; it bends to the right

and a narrow lobe projects over the right subdorsal margin of the esophageal

lumen. It contains 1 lobed nucleolus or several fragmentary nucleoli. The

nucleoplasm is delicate, homogeneous and basophilic, and shows a rather

uniform scattering of coarse basophilic granules (Fig. 2). The writers are

not absolutely sure that the subventral nuclei (g2-3) actually belong to the

subventral glands, but these nuclei appear to be situated in glandular

plasma; these nuclei are 5u long by 2.3 wide and are similar in character

to the marginal nuclei (Fig. 2).

The nerve cells, as in other nematodes, differ markedly in size and shape.

Those in the precorpus, as well as the first dorsal nerve cell of the postcorpus,

are small; the nuclei (Fig. 3) are stained deeply and are about 1.65 to 2.7u

long by 0.9 to 1.654 wide. Most of the cells are apparently bipolar, very

thin, and spindle-shaped, but the first 2 dorsal nerve cells (n;-2) are sub-

triangular and may possibly be tripolar. The nerve cells of the postcorpus

are all relatively large, and the nuclei stain less deeply than those of the

precorpus; each nucleus contains a very small nucleolus and the surrounding

562 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

nucleoplasm contains irregular scattered chromatic granules. The nuclei are

1.89 to 4.79 long by 1.45 to 4.35u wide, the size varying with that of the

cell body. The nerve cells n2324 in the dorsal sector are anterior to the

commissure of the corpus, while nog is posterior to the commissure. Likewise

the 2 most posterior ventral cells of the postcorpus (n3o_31) are posterior

to the commissure.

The nerve cells of the bulb are in general similar to those of the postcorpus.

Of these n33_37 are apparently bipolar, entering into the bulbar commissure,

while ng ana 37 appear to be tripolar commissural cells.

elgg < ey

Fig. 3.—Nerve cells of esophagus. Labelled as in fig. 1.

The asymmetric dorsal nucleus (x:) of the precorpus is 2u long by 1.65u

wide, and stains somewhat similarly to the nerve cell nuclei of the post-

corpus. The nuclei si ana2 are about 1.894 long by 1.2u wide, and very

strongly basophilic (Fig. 3); these may possibly be nerve cells. The asym-

metric nucleus (x2) in the bulb is 3.3u long by 1.65u wide, and smaller than

the marginal nuclei, but stains in a similar manner.

Esophageal glands. Nothing can be added at the present time to the de-

scription previously given by Chitwood (1931). There is no proof that

functional subventral glands are present.

LITERATURE CITED

Cuitwoop, B. G. A comparative histological study of certain nematodes. Z. Morph.

u. Oekol. Tiere. 23: 237-284. 1931.

Cuitwoop, B. G., and Cuitwoop, M. B. The histology of nemic esophagi. Parts

I-II. Z. Zellforsch. u. microsc. Anat. (In press.)

Goopgy, T. The anatomy of Oesophagostomum dentatum (Rud.) a nematode parasite

of the pig, with observations on the structure and biology of the free-living larvae.

Journ. Helminth.11:1-14. 1924.

DECEMBER 15, 1934 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 563

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1071st MEETING

The 1071st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, May 26,

1934, President DRYDEN presiding.

Program: L. R. Harstap: Atomic disintegration by high energy particles.—

Our first knowledge of the atomic nucleus was obtained in the discovery

of the process of radioactivity by Becquerel in 1896. In 1919 a new branch

of unlimited possibilities was started by Rutherford when he produced

atomic transmutation for the first time by bombarding nitrogen with alpha-

particles. Still another branch was started by Bothe and Becker in 1930,

when they discovered that beryllium under alpha-particle bombardment

emitted uncharged radiation of extremely great penetrating power. This

observation stimulated experiments which led directly to proof of the exist-

ence of the neutron in 1932 and very recently, to the discovery of artificially-

produced radioactivity. Quite independently, from cosmic-ray studies, An-

derson in 1932 discovered the positive electron. As a result of these discov-

eries we are forced to admit the existence of nuclear processes and reactions

much more complex than those originally imagined, which were based on

only the proton and the electron as the elementary particles. At the present

time a fairly satisfactory theory of the nucleus is being built up but is

greatly handicapped by inconsistencies in experimental data. Even the

fundamental question as to the mass of the neutron, for instance, cannot be

considered as answered as yet for the experiments of Chadwick lead con-

clusively to the value 1.0067 while those of Curie and Joliot give just as

conclusively the value 1.010. The latter experiments also give support for

the hypothetical ‘‘neutrino.’”’ Experimental data are being rapidly accumu-

lated at the present time which will permit such questions to be settled in

the near future. Apparatus for the artificial acceleration of particles is

proving especially effective since projectiles of mass 1 and mass 2 may be

used in addition to alpha-particles for bombarding various elements. This

removes one of the great restrictions of the work with radioactive sources

in which only alpha-particles can be used. (A uthor’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Mouumr, Srecer, H. L. Curtis, DRypEN, R. E.

GiBson, TUCKERMAN, MrccGerrs, and BRICKWEDDE.

Informal Communication: H. L. Curtis.—There has recently been con-

structed at the National Bureau of Standards, a precision coil for a current

balance in which the winding consists of two strips of aluminum wound

simultaneously on an aluminum frame, and insulated from each other and

from the frame by aluminum oxide. The strips are 6 mm wide by 0.07 mm

thick, and the aluminum oxide coating, which was deposited on the strips

electrolytically, is a few microns in thickness. An arrangement was made for

wiping each strip with chamois just before it was wound on to the coil, thus

preventing short circuits between the turns. With 45 turns in each winding,

the insulation resistance between the windings, when the coilis dry, is several

megohms. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussed by Messrs. Mounier, GisH, and TUCKERMAN.

564 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

1072ND MEETING

The 1072nd meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October

13, 1934, President DRYDEN presiding.

Program: W. E. Dreminea: Curve fitting and tests for empirical formulas.—

A review was given of the sampling distributions of the mean # and the

standard deviation (S. D.) s in samples of n drawn from a normal parent

population of mean yw and 8. D. oc. When x’ is defined as ns?/o?, the sampling

distribution of x? can be found immediately from the distribution of s.

The single set of n observations constitutes the simplest possible problem in

curve fitting; the line x=a is to be fitted to the n observations to make s,

and hence x?, a minimum. No matter how complicated the formula, the

sampling distribution of x? (defined as the sum of the weighted squares of

the residuals, each residual being measured in units of oc, the r.m.s. error of

observations of unit weight) is always.a member of a certain one-parameter

family of curves, the single parameter being k, the number of degrees of

freedom, as it has been called by Fisher. k is the number of points fitted

diminished by the number of independent adjustable constants in the

empirical formula. From the distribution of x? it is found that the average

value of x? is k, the number of degrees of freedom in the problem.

An unusually high value of x? may arise from (a) pure chance; (b) the

wrong empirical formula; (c) lack of control, or the presence of constant

errors; (d) too low an assumed value of o, the 8. D. of observations of

unit weight. To decide just which cause or causes may be operating in a

given problem to give an unusually high value of x? is a matter that re-

quires caution and skill in interpretation, but it is important to note that a

statistical analysis of the situation often leads to the detection of causes

(b) and (c). In the case of a pair of means, the Chi-test is the same criterion

as the test derived from the normal distribution of the difference of two

means. In any problem the tables of P(x?) tell how unusual a given value

of x? is for different values of k.

When there is no opportunity of getting beforehand a reliable estimate

of o, another method of attack is by the analyszs of variance, as it is called

by Fisher. This consists of comparing the ratio w of two estimates of oc.

If o’ and o” denote the two estimates of o that are obtained respectively

by external and internal consistency (Birge, Phys. Rev. 40: 207 1932), the

ratio w=o'/o’’ may be unusually high from the same four causes as outlined

in the preceding paragraph, and the interpretation is exactly similar. Tables

are provided by Fisher’s Statistical methods for research workers and by

Pearson’s Tables of the incomplete beta function. In the case of a pair of means, -

this method reduces to the t-test devised by Student and Fisher.

Discussed by Messrs. WrERTHEIMER, McNisu, TucKkERMAN, NAIMAN,

WULF, SILSBEE, and GOLDBERG.

Informal Communication: L. B. TuckERMAN.—Mr. TUCKERMAN read a

translation of a part of a communication entitled Stzlarten mathematischen

Schaffens by L. Bieberbach in the July 1934 number of the Sztzungs Berichte

der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaft and a quotation from Hardy

in Nature, No. 3381, August 18, 1934, commenting on this communication

of Bieberbach.

¥F. G. Brickwedde, Recording Secretary

DECEMBER 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 565

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Prepared by Science Service

U. S. Department of Agriculture—More than 100 guests attended the

dedication services on October 20, of the new Zoological Laboratory build-

ing which has just been completed at the Beltsville Research Center, Belts-

ville, Md. Dr. Mavuricr C. Haut, chief of the Zoological Division of the

Bureau of Animal Industry, presided. Among the speakers were: Dr.

CooPEeR CurTICE, who was the first member of the division and is now re-

tired; Dr. CHARLES WARDELL STILES, who served as chief of the division;

Dr. ALBERT HAssALu, who until his recent retirement was assistant chief;

Dr. Henry B. Warp, permanent secretary of the American Association

for the Advancement of Sciences; Dr. W. E. Corton, superintendent of

the Bureau of Animal Industry Experiment Station at Bethesda, Md.;

Dr. LAwRENcE A. AVERY, superintendent of the new laboratory; and Ear

C. BUTTERFIELD, newly appointed superintendent of the Beltsville Research

center.

FREDERICK D. RicHry has succeeded KNowues A. Ryerson as chief of

the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture,

effective October 23, 1934. Mr. Rymrson has resumed his earlier work with

tropical fruits and will head a section of subtropical horticulture in the

Bureau. Mr. Ricury has been in the Bureau for more than twenty-three

years, having headed the corn-breeding project in the Division of Cereal

Crops and Diseases until January 1 of this year, when he was appointed

Associate Chief of the Bureau. Dr. M. A. McCatu, head of the Division

of Cereal Crops and Diseases, and Dr. E. C. Aucutsr, head of the Division

of Fruit and Vegetable Crops and Diseases, have been designated as assistant

chiefs of the Bureau, but will continue also to direct the work of their

respective divisions. H. E. ALLANSON, in charge of administrative operations,

will continue in the same capacity with the title of business manager.

At- the autumn meeting of the American Ornithological Union, held in

Chicago, October 22 to 26 inclusive, the Bureau of Biological Survey was

represented by the following: W. C. HmenpERson, W. B. Bruu, W. L. Mc-

Ate, F. C. LincoLn, CLARENCE Cottam, H. C. OBERHOLSER, E. A. PREBLE,

K. A. GotpmMan, A. H. Howe tt, C. H. M. Barrett, Miss PHOEBE KNAPPEN,

ano). PAUL MinLEr.

The following papers were presented by Biological Survey representatives:

W. B. Betu, Some sidelights on the waterfowl breeding grounds; CLARENCE

Cottam, The waterfowl situation; F. C. Lincotn, The four major waterfowl

flyways; E. A. PREBLE, Waterfowl breeding grounds of northern Canada;

Miss PHOEBE KNAPPEN, A neglected food resource.

National Bureau of Standards.—On the evening of October 27, Dr. LYMAN

_ J. Briges, director of the National Bureau of Standards addressed the

Washington Philosophical Society at the Cosmos Club on the stratosphere

flight of the balloon Explorer. He was followed by Dr. L. B. TucKERMAN

of the engineering mechanics section who spoke on the technical difficulties

in stratosphere ballooning. .

Dr. H. C. Dicktnson recently completed road tests which indicate that

on a highway where the speed limit is 45 miles an hour, and cars traveling

50 miles an hour are tolerated, a distance of 900 feet is needed for safe

clearance. Time of passing is found to be nearly constant at six seconds on

a level road and does not depend on the speed.

566 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

Dr. Pauut R. Heyu, chief of the sound section, was severely injured in

an automobile accident on October 20, suffering the loss of his right arm.

Dr. H. C. Dickinson, chief of the heat and power division, spoke before

the American Road Builders’ Association at the National Press Club on

October 30. |

V. B. PHELAN, of the specifications division, attended a preview of the

housing exhibition sponsored by the New York City Housing Authority at

the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, as well as conferences on

slum clearance and low-cost housing at Columbia University, on October

15 and 16. The Bureau prepared and installed an exhibit illustrating its

activities in connection with materials, equipment, and services used in

dwelling house construction. This exhibition opened on October 15 and

continued through November 7.

Dr. F. 8. Brackett of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics will devote

part of his time to studies of sources of ultraviolet radiation as a special

guest worker in the pyrometry section of the National Bureau of Standards.

C. J. Humpureys, formerly a member of the Bureau’s spectroscopy

section, has joined the physics department of the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology.

U. S. National Park Service.—A special session of the National Park

Educational Advisory Board was held in Washington, November 9 and 10.

This session was called primarily to enable the members of the board to

discuss national park wildlife problems with Grorcr M. Wriaut, chief of

the Service’s Wildlife Division, and Brn H. THompsov, also of that Division,

who have been in Washington preparing the Recreation Section of the Na-

tional Resources Board Report. The winter feeding grounds of the elk in

Yellowstone National Park and the Trumpeter swan in Yellowstone were

given special consideration at the meeting.

Invitations have been issued by Director CAMMERER to national park

superintendents, monument custodians, and field officials to attend a

Superintendent’s Conference in Washington, D. C., November 19, 20, and

21. It will be the purpose of the conference to consider important matters

relating to the areas under the Service’s jurisdiction and to discuss new

policies that should be put into effect, or to be considered for adoption, as

a result of changed conditions occasioned by the development of emergency

programs and the increased use of park and monument areas by the public.

National Zoological Park.—The first barless pit to be installed at the

National Zoological Park is now in use; at present it houses a number of

flightless cormorants and swans. New acquisitions include a male muntyjac,

the first in Washington since 1910, mates for the kiang and the Indian black-

buck, a pair of barking garcias and three terra-terras.

The Roerich pact.—President RoosrvELT has appointed Secretary of

Agriculture Henry A. WauLuLAcE as United States plenipotentiary to sign

the Roerich Pact. A treaty for American republics to sign has been drawn

based on Nicholas Roerich’s proposals. It provides that the nations regard

as inviolable all artistic and scientific institutions and historic monuments.

In event of fighting between American countries, the armies would respect

sites marked with a banner, to be known as the Banner of Peace. No bombs

would be dropped on cathedrals, museums, schools, universities, libraries,

DECEMBER 15, 1934 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 567

or other cultural sites. These would be neutral territory, respected by all

nations signing the treaty. The governments that have so far given notifica-

tion of signing are Panama, Honduras, Uruguay, Ecuador, Guatemala, and

the United States. The plan for protection of the world’s scientific and

artistic treasures against the destructiveness of war was presented by Roer-

ich as far back as 1904. Had it been acted upon then in Europe, the Banner

of Peace might have saved museums and other irreplaceable buildings and

their contents, that were needlessly destroyed during the World War.

Optical Society meeting —The Optical Society of America held its nine-

teenth annual meeting at the National Bureau of Standards, October 18

to 20. Among the outstanding contributions were papers by Dr. J. W.

Beams of the University of Virginia, who reported that the human eye

“sums up” or integrates into an apparent continuum the energy of a series

of exceedingly short light flashes; by Dr. Harotp Mestres of Yale Univer-

sity, who described a densitometer method for studying the increase of

bacteria in fluid cultures; and by Dr. Rocer 8. Estey of the Electrical

Testing Laboratories, New York City, on the use of heat-absorbing glass

in air-conditioning installations where solar radiation is a considerable

factor.

Child development meeting.—A meeting of the Society for Research in

Child Development was held at the headquarters building of the National

Academy of Sciences and the National Research Council, November 3 to

5. Among the speakers was Dr. Jutius H. Hiss of Chicago, who related

progress in reducing the deathrate among prematurely born infants. Death-

rate in such cases, born in hospitals, was reduced from 42 per cent in the

period 1922-26, to 22.5 per cent in 1930-383. Dr. RussELL W. BuntTING of

the University of Michigan reported a strong positive correlation between

low-sugar diet and low incidence of dental caries in children. Dr. Pau

Hanty Furrery of the Catholic University of America challenged the valid-

ity of much of the statistical analysis of child mentality measurement

methods at present in vogue.

Memorial meeting at Ames.—At a meeting held at Iowa State College,

Ames, on November 16 and 17, in commemoration of sixty years of modern

plant study, inaugurated by the late Prof. CHARLES EDWIN BEssEy, Secre-

tary of Agriculture Henry A. Watuace delivered an address on Sixty

Years of Corn Breeding. The Soil Erosion Service of the U. 8S. Department

of the Interior was represented at the meeting by R. E. UHLanp and Dr.

W. C. LowpERMILK, and the Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department

of Agriculture by A. F. Dopas.

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.—Dr. J. BARTELS, research associate

of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and professor of geophysics at

the University of Berlin, and at the Forstliche Hochschule in Eberswalde,

Germany, who has been engaged in research work at the Department of

Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, since early in

August, spoke at the staff meeting of the Department, October 17, on Ran-

dom fluctuations, persistence and quasi-persistence in geophysical and cos-

mical phenomena. He sailed from New York en route to Germany on October

19.

568 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

F. T. Davis, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, who was

granted a furlough in order that he might take charge of the Canadian

Polar- Year station at Chesterfield Inlet and assist in discussion of the results

at the Meteorological Service in Toronto, returned to duty at the Depart-

ment in Washington October 15.

News BRIEFS

The annual meeting of the Official Agricultural Chemists was held in

Washington, October 19 to 21.

A Committee on Hydrogen Isotopes has been organized under the

auspices of the National Research Council, with Prof. H. C. Urny of

Columbia University as its chairman. Drs. F. G. Brickweppe and M. A.

TuveE of the National Bureau of Standards are members of this committee.

Reorganization of Patent Office practice is advocated by D. H. KILLEFrER

of New York City, in a communication to the American Chemical Society.

Mr. KILLEFErR calls for less secrecy surrounding applications for patents,

and for better salaries and more privileges for searchers, with the aim of

building up a better trained and more permanent staff.

A shoal water fathometer has been perfected in the laboratories of the

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. It operates on the echo principle, already

in use in the deep water fathometer, but improvements in accuracy permit

measurements within a one-inch margin of error, and enable observers to

read soundings, if desired, for every foot of bottom traversed at a cruising

speed of ten knots.

The airship Los Angeles has been reconditioned as for cruising, but is to

be kept on the ground and used only for mooring tests.

The U. 8S. Naval Observatory has inaugurated a new time-broadcasting

schedule, putting the time signals on the air from the Station NAA, Arling-

ton, twenty times every day. The signals are sent out every hour on the

hour, except at 9 and 11 a.m. and 9 and 11 p.m., E.S.T., on a long wavelength

of 113 kilocycles. The code broadcasts hitherto in use are also being con-

tinued.

The U. S. Weather Bureau reports only two tropical disturbances of

hurricane force in West Indian waters during the past autumn, as compared

with an all-time record number of 21 during the corresponding season of

1933.

New measurements and calculations by Dr. E. O. Hutsurt of the U.S.

Naval Research Laboratory indicate that the atmospheric temperature

above the earth may be as high as 300 degrees Kelvin, or 80.6° Fahrenheit.

INDEX TO VOLUME 24

An * denotes the abstract of a paper before the Academy or an affiliated society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society of Washington.

Botanical Society of Washington.

Geological Society of Washington.

Philosophical Society of Washington.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

Proceedings: 187.

Proceedings: 145.

Proceedings: 188, 486.

Proceedings: 104, 323, 360, 563.

Proceedings: 144, 453.

AUTHOR INDEX

Apams, Oscar S. Flatland: Not a ro-

mance but a necessary expedient.

201.

AuicaTa, JoSEPH E. The development

of the Trichostrongyle, Nzppostron-

gylus muris, in rats following inges-

tion of larvae. 334.

Arcuer, W. A. *Botanical explorations

in Choco Province, Colombia. 145.

—— The dental plant of the Citara

Indians in Colombia. 402.

Batu, CARLETON R. Two new varieties

of Salix scouleriana Barratt. 73.

Bau, E. D. The genus Oliarus and its

allies in North America (Homoptera

fulgoridae). 268.

BaRTRAM, Epwin B. Additional Costa

Rican mosses, III. 467.

Bartscu, Paunt. New Philippine land

shells of the genus Obba. 318.

BassuteR, R. S. Notes on fossil and

recent Bryozoa. 404.

Berry, CHARLES T. Pleistocene re-

mains found near Lake Tacarigua,

Venezuela. 387.

Berry, Epwarp W. A pine from the

Potomac Eocene. 182.

—— Extension of range of Attalea ols-

sont. 447.

Pliocene in the Cuenca Basin of

Ecuador. 184.

Three additions to the Pleistocene

flora of Tennessee. 482.

—— A walnut from the Chesapeake

Miocene. 227.

BLACKWELDER, ELIOT.

Supplementary

notes on Pleistocene glaciation in the

Great Basin. 217.

Buaxe, 8S. F. New Asteraceae from

Guatemala collected by A. F. Skutch.

432.

Bow.ess, Epear. Early Tertiary species

of gastropods from the Isthmus of

Tehuantepec. 241.

BRoMBACHER, W. G. *Altitude in air-

plane and balloon flight. 364.

Brown, B. E. The ammoniation of waste

sulfite liquor and its possible utiliza-

tion as a fertilizer material. 1.

Brown, Rouanp W. Celliforma spirtfer,

the fossil larval chambers of mining

bees. 532.

—— *Genus Tempskya in western North

America. 191.

—— *The pronunciation of geologic

terms. 493.

The supposed fossil ear of maize

from Cuzco, Peru. 298.

BunyEes, H. The nitrite-thiosulphate

combination as a remedy for cyanide

poisoning in sheep. 528.

—— Remedies for cyanide poisoning in

sheep and cattle. 369.

Burcess, W. B. *Application of radio

direction finding. 106.

CALLAGHAN, EuGENE. *Some aspects of

the geology of the Cascade Range in

Oregon. 190.

CARLGREN, Oskar. Some Actinaria from

Bering Sea and arctic waters. 348.

CarRoLL, H. B. *Present theories of

photographic sensitivity. 107.

CHARLES, VERA K. Microsporum of cats

causing ringwormin man. 222.

Cuitwoop, B. G. The histology of

nemic esophagi III. The esophagus

of Oesophagostomum dentatum. 557.

CHRISLER, V. L. *Dependence of sound

absorption upon the area and dis-

tribution of the absorbent material.

323.

569

570

CuaRK, AusTIN H. A new sea-urchin

from Florida. 52.

Ciawson, A. B. Remedies for cyanide

poisoning in sheep and cattle. 369.

— The nitrite-thiosulphate combina-

tion as a remedy for cyanide poison-

inginsheep. 528.

Cops, N. A. An annotation on the

nematode genus Pontonema. 56.

Coucu, JAMES F. Remedies for cyanide

poisoning in sheep and cattle. 369.

— The nitrite-thiosulphate combina-

tion as a remedy for cyanide poison-

inginsheep. 528.

DAcCHNOWSKI-STOKES, A. P. Saline peat

profiles of Puerto Rico. 175.

Dane, C. H. *Fossil sink-holes in Cre-

taceous beds of Prowers County,

Colorado. 194.

Darrow, G. M. *Short daily light

periods the cause of the rest period

and regional adaptation in straw-

berries. 146.

Demina, W. EK. *Curve fitting and tests

for empirical formulas. 564.

DriaAMonD, Harry. *Recent develop-

ments in radio aids to air navigation.

105.

Dickinson, H. C. *The mechanism of

material prosperity. 360.

DizHi, W. W. *The lack of chlorosis in

some sterility diseases of grasses.

148.

Dow, RicHarp B. _ Pressure-volume-

temperature relations for six oils.

516.

DRECHSLER, CHARLES. Pedilospora dac-

tylopaga n. sp., a fungus capturing

and consuming testaceous rhizopods.

395.

Eakin, H.M. “*An accidental large scale

model of diastrophic action. 192.

ERLANSON, C. O. *A résumé of potato

investigations in Mexico and South

America. 147.

FENNER, CLARENCE N. Some magmatic

problems. 113.

FRANCK, JAMES. *Remarks on catalysis.

453.

FRIEDMAN, HERBERT. Bird bones from

Eskimo ruins on St. Lawrence

Island, Bering Sea. 883.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 24, No. 12

—— Bird bones from old Eskimo ruins

in Alaska. 230.

The hawks of the genus Chondro-

hierax. 310.

GARDNER, JuLIA. Early Tertiary species

of gastropods from the Isthmus of

Tehuantepec. 241.

Gazin, C. Lewis. *A marsupial from

the Florissant beds of Colorado.

487.

Girty, GEorcE H. New Carboniferous

invertebrates IV. 249.

— Pleurotomaria pseudostrigillata nom.

nov. and Chonetes acanthophorus nom.

nov. 541.

GLASSELL, StrEvE A. Affinities of the

Brachyuran fauna of the Gulf of

California. 296.

GopparpD, E. N. *The relation of Ter-

tiary intrusives to ore deposits of

Jamestown, Colorado. 488.

GoutpMaAN, E. A. A new pocket mouse

from Sonora. 267.

Goranson, Roy. A note on the elastic

properties of rocks. 419.

Goss, M. J. The ammoniation of waste

sulfite liquor and its possible utiliza-

tion as a fertilizer material. 1.

Griacs, Rospert F. The problem of

arctic vegetation. 153.

Hastap, L. R. *Atomic disintegration

by high energy particles. 563.

Hammar, H. F. *Preliminary study of

source beds in the Mesozoic rocks on

the west side of Sacramento Valley.

491.

Hann, Raymonp M._ 5-chloroveratral-

hippuric acid and some of its de-

rivatives. 464.

3, 4-dimethoxy—5-chloro-benzyli-

dene di-amides. 124.

p-Fluorophenacy] alcohol and some

of itsesters. 526.

—— The isomeric oximes

vanillin. 126.

The synthesis of 3, 4 dimethoxy—

5-chloro benzoic acid. 329.

Hanna, G. Dauuas. Land shells from

the Upper Eocene Sespe deposits,

California. 539.

Hey, P. R. *The composition of har-

monic motions. 362.

of ethyl

DECEMBER 15, 1934

Hitcucock, A. 8S. New species of Aula-

colepis and other grasses. 290.

— Two new grasses, one from Ten-

nessee, one from Argentina. 480.

Howe, MarsHauu, A. Hawaiian algae

collected by Dr. Paul C. Galstoff.

32.

Horn W. G.

486.

Hutsort, E. O.

light at sea. 325.

Hunt, Cuas. B. *Tertiary structural

history of parts of northwestern New

Mexico. 188.

Jonas, A. I. *Hyperstene granodiorite

in Virginia; its change to unakite and

itsage. 489.

JoNES, AusTIN E. Earthquakes associ-

ated with the 1933 eruption of

Mauna Loa, Hawaii. 413.

JORDAN, Louis. *The preparation of

metal single crystals and_ their

utilization in metallurgical studies.

104.

Kempton, ALINE F. Microsporum of

cats causing ringwormin man. 222.

Kinurp, Enitswortu P. New plants

mainly from western South America

—IV. 42.

Kincer, J. B. *Long-time temperature

trends: Are the old fashioned winters

gone? 148.

Kine, Puritie B. *The Cretaceous of

West Texas. 195.

KruuLL, WENDELL H. WNeodiplostomum

pricei nN. sp., a new trematode from a

gull, Laurus novaehollandiae. 353.

— Newexperimental hosts for Brachy-

laemus virginiana (Dickerson) Krull.

483.

LeceetTtTe, R. M. *Varved clay in Og-

den Valley, Utah. 493.

LEonaARD, E. C. The American species

of Elytraria. 448.

Linton, Epwin. A new genus of Tre-

matodes belonging to the subfamily

Allocreadiinae. 81.

LuckER, JoHN T. The morphology and

development of the _ preparasitic

larvae of Potertostomum ratzi. 302.

Luxens, R. R. *Sound ranging as ap-

plied to hydrographic survey. 324.

*Forests and stream flow.

*The polarization of

AUTHOR INDEX

571

MacNesit, F. Stearns. The pelecypod

genus Vulsella in the Ocala limestone

of Florida and its bearing on cor-

relation. 428.

Maensss, J. R. *The functioning of

fruit trees as influenced by moisture

supply. 148.

MANSFIELD, WENDELL C. A new spe-

cies of Pecten from the Oligocene

near Duncan Church, Washington

County, Florida. 331.

Marmer, H. A. *Tides that follow the

sun. 362.

MARSHALL, WILLIAM B. Two new spe-

cies of pearly fresh-water mussels.

78.

MartTIN, J. H. *Grohoma and other fake

grains: their origin and exploitation.

147.

Matues, F. E. *Wind-faceted pebbles

from the glacial drift of Nantucket.

195.

Matuackx, M. B. The pigment of the

India red pummelo (Citrus grandis

Osbeck). 385.

Maxon, Witiiam R. Pleuroderris, a

new genus of Middle American ferns.

549.

McBurney, J. W. *The indentation of

asphalt tile. 364.

McCuvre, F. A. The inflorescence in

Schizostachyum Nees. 541.

McKinney, H. H. *Time of sexual re-

production in wheat as influenced by

temperature and light. 148.

MEINzER, OscaR Epwarp. The history

and development of ground-water

hydrology. 6.

Mitton, CHARLES. *Stratigraphic cor-

relation of heavy minerals in Paleo-

zoic bedsin Idaho. 189.

Miser, H. D. *The carboniferous rocks

of the Ouachita Mountains. 494.

Netson, E. W. A new pocket mouse

from Sonora. 267.

PEREIR, CLEMENTE. Two new parasitic

worms of Didelphys aurita: Skrja-

binofilaria pricei n. sp. and Gon-

gylonema marsuptalis n. sp. 54.

Puituirs, Max. The ammoniation of

waste sulfite liquor and its possible

utilization as a fertilizer material. 1.

572 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

Pierce, W. G.. *Fossil sink-holes in

Cretaceous beds of Prowers County,

Colorado. 194.

Prick, Emmett W. New genera and

species of blood flukes from a marine

turtle, with a key to the genera of the

family Spirorchidae. 182.

Rawpon, H. 8. *The preparation of

metal single crystals and their utiliza-

tion in metallurgical studies. 104.

READ, CHARLES B. *Genus Tempskya in

western North America. 191.

REED, J. C. *Gravel-filled basins in the

Nez Perce National Forest, Idaho.

191.

Rep, F. R. The ammoniation of waste

sulfite liquor and its possible utiliza-

tion as a fertilizer material. 1.

Roserts, Ray C. Saline peat profiles of

Puerto Rico. 175.

Ross, C. P. *Stratigraphic correlation

by heavy minerals in Paleozoic beds

inIdaho. 189.

RussEuLL, Loris 8. New fossil fresh-

water Mollusca from the Cretaceous

and Paleocene of Montana. 128.

Scumitt, Wautpo L. Notes on certain

pycnogonids including descriptions

of two new species of Pycnogonum.

61.

ScHONLAND, B. F. J. *The thunder-

storm and its electrical effects. 366.

ScHwartz, BENJAMIN. The _ develop-

ment of the Trichostrongyle, Nippo-

strongylus muris, in rats following in-

gestion of larvae. 334.

SEEGER, Raymonp J. The beginnings of

physics I.—The quest for general

principles. 501.

*The magnetic moment of the

proton. 106.

—— *The physical nature of the chemi-

calbond. 368.

—— The virial theorem for nonholo-

nomicsystems. 461.

SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. Two new

species of Corophium from the west

east of America. 356.

SmitH, Mrs. Maurice G. A Negro

peyote cult. 448.

STEINER, G. An annotation on the

nematode genus Pontonema. 56.

— A new species of the genus A phel-

enchoides living in sugar came. 141.

SWANTON, JOHN R. Newly discovered

Powhatan bird names. 96.

Tayuor, J.H. *The processof generaliza-

tion in mathematics as exhibited in

the development of the Frenet for-

mulae. 364.

THom, CHARLES. *The arsenic fungi.

146.

THompeson, J. G. *The use of physical

methods for testing purity of metals.

104. ;

Trask, P. D. *Preliminary study of

source beds in the Mesozoic rocks on

the west side of the Sacramento Val-

ley. 491.

TREADWELL, AARON L. MSphaeropomatus

miamiensis, a new genus and species

of Serpulid polychaete. 338.

ZEFERINO. Two new parasitic

worms of Didelphys aurita: Skrjab-

nofilaria pricet n. sp. and Gongylo-

nema marsupialisn.sp. 54.

VEBLEN, OSWALD. Spinors. 281.

WaLKER, W. M. A variety of Caddo

pottery from Louisiana. 99.

WETHERILL, J. P. p-Fluorophenacyl

alcohol and some of its esters. 526.

Wenr, Everett E. Descriptions of

three bird nematodes, including a

new genus and a new species. 341.

WeLLs, W. F. Viability of bacteria in

air. 276.

WENZEL, L. K. *Thiem’s method of de-

termining permeability and pump-

ing-test method of determining spe-

cific yield of water-bearing materials.

488.

WiuuraMs, J. S. *Correlation of the

Louisiana limestone with beds at

Kinderhook, Illinois and Burlington,

Iowa. 490.

VAZ,

DECEMBER 15, 1934

SUBJECT INDEX

573

SUBJECT INDEX

Agronomy. *Grohoma and other fake

grains: their origin and exploita-

tion. J. H. Martin. 147.

Archeology. A variety of Caddo pottery

from Louisiana. W. M. WALKER.

99.

Biology. Viability of bacteria in air.

W. F. Wells. 276.

Botany. Additional Costa Rican mosses,

III. Epwin B. Bartram. 467.

*A résumé of potato investigations

in Mexico and South America.

C.O. ERLanson. 147.

*Botanical explorations in Choco

Province, Colombia. W. A.

ARCHER. 145.

Hawaiian algae collected by Dr.

Paul C. Galtsoff. Marsnauy A.

Howe. 32.

Microsporum of cats causing ring-

worm in man. VERA K. CHARLES

and ALINE F. Kempton. 222.

New Asteraceae from Guatemala col-

lected by A. F. Skutch. S. F.

BLAKE. 482.

New plants mainly from western

South American—IV. ELLSworTH

P: Kini. 42.

New species of Aulacolepsis and

other grasses. A. S. Hitcucock.

290.

Pedilospora dactylopaga, n. sp., a

fungus capturing and consuming

testaceous rhizopods. CHARLES

DRECHSLER. 395.

Pleuroderris, a new genus of Middle

American ferns. WILLIAM R.

Maxon. 549.

*Short daily light periods the cause

of the rest period and regional

adaptation in strawberries. G.

M. Darrow. 146.

The American species of Elytraria.

E.C. Lronarp. 448.

*The arsenic fungi. CHARLES THOM.

me LL46:

The dental plant of the Citard

Indians in Colombia.

DREW ARCHER. 402.

The inflorescence in Schizostachyum

Nees. F. A. McCuure. 541.

W. AN-

The lack of chlorosis in some sterility

diseases of grasses. W. W. DIEHL.

148.

The problem of arctic vegetation.

Rospert F. Griaes. 153.

“Time of sexual reproduction in

wheat as influenced by temperature

and light. H. H. McKinney.

148.

-Two new grasses, one from Tennes-

see, one from Argentina. A. S.

Hitcucock. 480.

Two new varieties of Salzx scouleri-

ana Barratt. CARLETON R. BAL.

Chemistry. 5-chloro-veratralhippuric acid

and some of its derivatives.

RayYMOND M. Hann. 464.

3, 4-dimethoxy — 5-chloro-benzyli-

dene di-amides. RaymMonp M.

Hann. 124.

p-Fluorophenacyl alcohol and some

of its esters. RayMonp M. Hann

and J. P. WETHERILL. 526.

The ammoniation of waste sulfite

liquor and its possible utilization

as a fertilizer material. Max Puit-

tips, M. J. Goss, B. E. Brown,

and F. R. Ret. - 1.

The isomeric oximes of ethyl vanil-

lin. Raymonp M. Hann. 126.

The pigment of the India red pum-

melo (Citrus grandis Osbeck).

M. B. Matuack. 385.

The synthesis of 3, 4 dimethoxy—

5-chloro benzoic acid. RAYMOND

M. Hann. 329.

Crystallography. *The preparation of

metal singlecrystals and their utiliz-

ation in metallurgical studies.

Louis JoRDAN and H. 8. Rawpon.

104.

Economics. *The mechanism of ma-

terial prosperity. H. C. Dick1n-

son. 360.

Entomology. The genus Oliarus and its

allies in North America (Homop-

terafulgoridae). E.D.Bauu. 268.

Ethnology. A negro peyote cult. Mrs.

Maurice G. SmitH. 448.

574 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

Newly discovered Powhatan bird

names. JOHN R. Swanton. 96.

Forestry. *Forests and stream flow. W.

G. Hoyt. 486.

Geology. *Anaccidental large scale model

of diastrophic action. H. M.

EakIn. 192.

*Correlation of the Louisiana lime-

stone with beds at Kinderhook,

Illinois and Burlington, Iowa.

J.S. Winuiams. 490.

*Fossil sink-holes in Cretaceous beds

of Prowers County, Colorado.

C. H. Dane and W. C. PIERCE.

194.

*Gravel-filled basins in the Nez Perce

National Forest, Idaho. J. C.

Reep. 191.

*Hyperstene granodiorite in Vir-

ginia; its change to unakite and its

age. A.I. Jonas. 489.

*Preliminary study of source beds in

the Mesozoic rocks on the west

side of the Sacramento Valley.

P. D. Trask and H. F. Hammar.

491.

*Some aspects of the geology of the

Cascade Range in Oregon. Ev-

GENE CALLAGHAN. 190.

*Stratigraphic correlation by heavy

minerals in Paleozoic beds in

Idaho. C. P. Ross and CHaRLes

MiutTon. 189.

Supplementary notes on Pleistocene

glaciation in the Great Basin.

Exiot BLACKWELDER. 217.

*Tertiary structural history of parts

of -northwestern New Mexico.

Cuas. B. Hunt. 188.

*The carboniferous rocks of the

Ouachita Mountains. H.D. Miser.

494.

*The Cretaceous of West Texas.

Puitie B. Kina. 195.

*The pronunciation of géologic terms.

R. W. Brown. 493.

*The relation of Tertiary intrusives

to ore deposits of Jamestown,

Colorado. E.N.Gopparp. 488.

*Thiem’s method of determining

permeability and pumping-test

method of determining specific

yield of water-bearing materials.

L. K. WeNzEL. 488. .

*Varved clay in Ogden Valley, Utah.

R. M. Leaeette. 493.

*“Wind-faceted pebbles from the

glacial drift of Nantucket. F. E.

Matues. 195.

Geophysics. A note on the elastic proper-

ties of rocks, Roy W. GoRANSON.

419. |

Earthquakes associated with the 1933

eruption of Mauna Loa, Hawaii.

Austin E. Jonzs. 418.

Horticulture. *The functioning of fruit

trees as influenced by moisture sup-

ply. J. R. Maaensss. 148.

Hydrology. The history and develop-

ment of ground-water hydrology.

OscaR EDWARD MBEINZER. 6.

Malacology. New Philippine land shells

of the genus Obba. Pauvuu Bartscu.

318.

Mathematics. *Curve fitting and tests

for empirical formulas. W. C.

Deminec. 564.

Flatland: Not a romance but a neces-

sary expedient. Oscar S. ADAMS.

201.

Spinors. OswaLp VEBLEN. 281.

*The process of generalization in

mathematics as exhibited in the

development of the Frenet for-

mulae. J. H. Tayutor. 364.

Meteorology. *Long-time temperature

trends: Are the old fashioned

winters gone? J. B. KINcmER.

148.

*The thunderstorm and its electrical

effects. B. F. J. ScHoNLAND.

366.

Necrology. ALDRICH, JOHN MERTON.

327.

KELLERMAN, Karu FREDERIc. 460.

NeEuson, Epwarp WILLIAM. 327.

SKEELS, Homer Coumuar. 112.

Oceanography. *Tides that follow the

sun. H. A. Marmer. 362.

Ornithology. Bird bones from Eskimo

ruins on St. Lawrence Island, Ber-

ing Sea. HERBERT FRIEDMAN. 83.

Bird bones from old Eskimo ruins in

Alaska. HERBERT FRIEDMAN.

230.

DECEMBER 15, 1934

The hawks of the genus Chondro-

hierax. HERBERT FRIEDMAN. 310.

Paleobotany. A pine from the Potomac

Eocene. Epwarp W. BERRY.

182.

A walnut from the Chesapeake

Miocene. Epwarp W. BERRY.

Extension of range of Atialea olssont.

Epwarp W. Berry. 447.

*Genus Tempskya in western North

America. CHARLES B. ReaD and

Routanp W. Brown. 191.

Pliocene in the Cuenca Basin of

Ecuador. Epwarp W. BeErRrRY.

184.

The supposed fossil ear of maize from

Cuzco, Peru. Rouanp W. Brown.

293.

Three additions to the Pleistocene

flora of Tennessee. Epwarp W.

BERRY. 482.

*A marsupial from the Florissant

beds of Colorado. C. Lrwis

Gozin. 487.

A new species of Pecten from the

Oligocene near Duncan Church,

Washington County, Florida.

WENDELL C. MANSFIELD. 331.

Paleontology. Celliforma spirifer, the fos-

sil larval chambers of mining bees.

Ro.tanp W. Brown. 522.

Early Tertiary species of gastropods

from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

JULIA GARDNER and EDGAR

Bow.es. 241.

Land shells from the Upper Eocene

Sespe deposits, California. G.

Datuas Hanna. 539.

New carboniferous invertebrates—

IV. Grorce H. Girty. 249.

New fossil fresh-water Mollusca from

the Cretaceous and Paleocene of

Montana. Loris SS. RUSSELL.

128.

Pleistocene remains found near Lake

Tacarigua, Venezuela. CHARLES

TI BERRY: oSe.

Pleurotomaria pseudostrigillata nom.

nov. and Chonetes acanthophorus

nom. nov. GerorGcE H. Girty.

541.

The pelecypod genus Vulsella in the

SUBJECT INDEX

575

Ocala limestone of Florida and its

bearing on correlation. F. STEARNS

MacNgEIL. 428.

Petrology. Some magmatic problems.

CLARENCE N. FENNER. 113.

Pharmacology. Remedies for cyanide

poisoning in sheep and cattle. A.

B. Ciawson, H. BunyEa, JAMES

F. Coucw. 369.

The nitrite-thiosulphate combination

as a remedy for cyanide poisoning

in sheep. H. Bunyga, J. F.

Coucu, and A. B. CLawson. 528.

Physical geography. Saline peat profiles

of Puerto Rico. A. P. DacHNow-

ski Stokes and Ray C. Roserts.

175.

Physics. *Altitude in airplane and bal-

loon flight. W. G. BRoMBACHER.

364.

*Application of radio direction find-

ing. W. B. Burasss. 106.

*Atomic disintegration by high en-

ergy particles. L. R. Harstap.

563.

*Dependence of sound absorption

upon the area and distribution of

the absorbent material. V. L.

CHRISLER. 323.

*Present theories of photographic

sensitivity. H. B. CARROLL.

107.

Pressure—volume-temperature rela-

tions for six oils. RicHarp B.

Dow. 516.

*Recent developments in radio aids to

air navigation. Harry DIAMOND.

105.

*Remarks on catalysis. JAMES

Franck. 453.

*Sound ranging as applied to hydro-

graphic survey. R. R. LUKENS.

324.

The beginnings of physics I.—The

quest for general principles. Ray-

MOND J. SEEGER. 501.

*The composition of harmonic mo-

tions. (PB) R. Hey. 362.

*The indentation of asphalt tile.

J. W. McBurney. 364.

*The magnetic moment of the pro-

ton, KR. J. Sercer: 106:

576 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 24, No. 12

*The physical nature of the chemical

bond. R. J. SEEGER. 368.

*The polarization of light at sea.

E. O. Hutsurt. 325.

*The use of physical methods for

testing purity of metals. J. G.

TuHompson. 104.

The virial theorem for nonholonomic

systems. R. J. Sercer. 461.

Scientific Notes and News. ‘170, 107, 149,

197, 238, 277, 327, 367, 409, 456,

495, 565.

Zoology. Affinities of the Brachyuran

fauna of the Gulf of California.

Steve A. GLASSELL. 296.

An annotation on the nematode

genus Pontonema. N. A. CoBB

and G. STEINER. 56.

A new genus of Trematodes belong-

ing to the sub-family Allocreadi-

inae. Epwin Linton. 81.

A new pocket mouse from Sonora.

E. W. Newson and E. A. Goup-

MAN. 267.

A new sea-urchin from Florida.

AustTIn H. Cuarx. 52.

A new species of the nematode genus

Aphelenchoides living in sugar

cane. G. STEINER. 141.

Descriptions of three bird nematodes,

including a new genus and a new

species. EVERETT E. WeEdr.

341.

Neodiplostomum pricei n. sp., a2 new

Trematode from a gull, Larus

novaehollandiae. WENDELL H.

Krouuu. 353.

New experimental hosts for Brachy-

laemus virginiana (Dickerson)

Krull. WrnbDELL He Keun:

483.

New genera and species of blood

flukes from a marine turtle, with

a key to the genera of the family

Spirorchidae. Emmett W. Price.

132.

Notes on certain pycnogonids in-

cluding descriptions of two new

species of Pycnogonum. WauLpo

L. Scumirr. 61.

Notes on fossil and recent Bryozoa.

R. S. Bassuter. 404.

Some Actinaria from Bering Sea and

arctic waters. OSKAR CARLGREN.

348.

Sphaeropomatus miamiensis, a new

genus and species of Serpulid poly-

chaete. AARON L. TREADWELL.

338.

The development of the Tricho-

strongyle, Nippostrongylus muris,

in rats following ingestion of lar-

vae. BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ and

JosEpH E. AnicaTa. 334.

The histology of nemic esophagi ITI.

The esophagus of Oecsophagosto-

mum dentatum. B. G. CHrTwoop.

557.

The morphology and development

of the preparasitic larvae of

Poteriostomum ratz. JoHN T.

Lucker. 302.

Two new parasitic worms of Didel-

phys aurita: Skrjabinofilaria pricer

n. sp. and Gongylonema marsupi-

alis n. sp. ZEFERINO Vaz and

CLEMENTE PeEREIR. 54.

Two new species of Corophium from

the west coast of America. CLAR-

ENCE R. SHOEMAKER. 356.

Two new species of pearly fresh-

water mussels. WiLuiaAm B.

MarRsHALL. 78.

CONTENTS

ORIGINAL PAPERS ah! Baie

Physics—The beginnings of physics. 1.—The quest for general principles.

RAYMOND Jo SEDGER 6 Oe SO ens a a ee ee “601

Physics.—Pressure-volume-temperature relations for six oils. RicHarp B. Dow 516

Chemistry.—p-Fluorophenacyl alcohol and some of its esters. RAYMOND M. Peony,

Hanw and. J. 2. WEtapRiu. 2 ke ak, ie ie oe ee ee 626

Pharmacology.—The Se Raa ee eae Cansbeant oul as a remedy for cyanide —

poisoning in sheep. H. Bunyna, J. F. Coucn, and A. B. CLAWSON popes ee Oee

Paleontology. Pe elt spirifer, the fossil larval clvmoee of mining bees. one

RODAND WisBROWNi oe fae Gee en ag ce ei mee isi gee - 632

Paleontology.—Land shells from the nee Eocene Sespe dens Calitannia,

GeiDaLtas ERANNAS Se os et ae ey a a ee ae 539

Paleontology.—Pleurotomaria paCudaatraticts nom. nov. and Chonetes acan-

thophorus nom: noy., GHORGE He Grrty 8.00 yas we Cee ee «641

Botany.—The inflorescence in Schizostachyum Nees. F. A. McCuure... ...... 541

Botany.—Pleuroderris, a new genus of Middle American ferns. ~Wiiiram R.

MAKON Sov 204. See Fe ie eas Be ie es 549

Zoology.—The histology of nemic esophagi. III. The esophagus of Oesophago-

stomum deniatum (Rudolphi). B.G.Carrwoop and M. B. Curtwoop...... 5aL*

PROCEEDINGS _ :

The Philosophical Society. 222 506 ee aie a ee ea Sienna

Sciantirid Notes AnD NEWS. tO l. ea. on a ee oy a ee Re Sur Nees: 565

Authorinde@s.. 6. 554 ei eS eee SS oS Ps Se Ee a 569

Subject index... 6... cece eect eee tee e ete ee es pn et 873

‘This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals