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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 27, 1937

BOARD OF EDITORS

Rotanp W. Brown Espen H. Tooie FREDERICK D. RossIN1

U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

RAYMOND J. SEEGER C. F. W. MvueEsEesBeck

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

E. A. GoLDMAN W. W. RusBey

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

AGNES CHASE Henry B. Cotuins, Jr.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

FranNK C. KRAceEK

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY as f

_ nai M use

BY THE .

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

450 AHNAIP St.

AT Mrenasua, WISCONSIN

ERRATA

Vol. 27, 1937

Page 4, line 23: for ‘‘Acetocina” read ‘‘Acteocina.”’

Page 4, line 32: for ‘‘Noetica”’ read ‘‘Noetia.”’

Page 4, line 35: for ‘‘mulrilineatus” read ‘“‘multilineatus.”’

Page 4, line 36: for ‘‘murtcatus” read ‘‘muricatum.”

Page 12, line 14: for ‘‘Dupoin”’ read “‘Duplin.”

Page 63, line 48: delete ‘“‘found.”

Page 82, line 19: for ‘‘Birsson” read ‘‘Brisson.”’

Page 83, line 8: for “‘olarctic” read ‘‘Holarctic.”’

Page 128, line 39: for ‘‘MacCullum’s” read ‘‘MacCallum’s.”’

Page 381, line 7 from bottom: for ‘‘Mosoa”’ read ‘‘Mocoa.”’

Page 407, second letter from left in Fig. 1: for ‘‘F” read ‘“B.”

Contents, March 15 issue, line 8: for ‘“‘Gyradactyloidea”’ read ‘“‘Gyrodactyloidea.”

No.

Espen H. Tooie

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

Pa tee: Siig Morrison ,

eo SOCIETY ates es | ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ‘

| - a 3 z i W. Ww. RUBEY . ;

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Re as:

ata Cai Le «dL. R. Swanrow :

BOTANICAL socter c aie AN : mt ANTHROFOLOGIOAL SOCIETY eae yet

= 2 *

Fs eT he

Eps

Wy a

1p .

see oe IS ods

Journal of the Washington ntadeniy of Sciences

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ame if

JOURNAL

OF THE

W ASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 27 JANUARY 15, 1937 No. 1

GEOLOGY.—The Pleistocene Horry clay and Pamlico formation

near Myrtle Beach, S. C.\ C. WytHE Cooks, U. 8. Geological

Survey.

In my recently published report on the geology of the Coastal

Plain of South Carolina, the statement is made that late Pleistocene

Pamlico time, during which the sea stood about 25 feet above its

present level, was preceded by a time of lower sea level.” This state-

ment was based on evidence that came chiefly from outside of South

Carolina, for I had not seen a contact of the Pamlico formation with

underlying beds within the State. Since that report went to press,

the canal of the Intracoastal Waterway mentioned on page 125

has been completed through Horry County. The following instruc-

tive section on it yields evidence that corroborates that statement.

SECTION WEST OF THE RAILWAY BRIDGE ACROSS THE INTRA-

COASTAL WATERWAY 23 MILES NORTHWEST OF

MYRTLE BEACH, S. C.

Feet

Pamlico formation:

3. Fine leached marine sand including a few thin beds of clay in

the middle part and merging upward into clayey loam.......

2. Fine sand loaded with sea shells, many of which have both

valves in juxtaposition. The upper part contains many oysters’ 6

Horry clay:

1. Very dark brown clay containing comminuted plant fragments

and woody tissues and diatoms. Cypress stumps and knees are

rooted at the top. Some of the stumps extend a few inches above

the clay into the overlying shell bed. The top of the clay is per-

forated by tubular holes, presumably made by boring creatures.

Weencitby watenatmich. tides 2 8 ee rw ae we ee en 3

The presence of rooted tree stumps beneath a thick marine de-

posit that evidently accumulated in quiet water gives conclusive

evidence that the sea stood lower on the land when they grew than

in the immediately succeeding epoch.

The name Horry clay, here used for the first time, is proposed

- 1 Published by permission of the Director of U. S. Geological Survey. Received

October 6, 1936.

2 CooxEe C. W., U. S. Geol. Survey Bull 867: 157. 1936.

PARE : a

JAM 9.6 1097

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 1

for bed 1. It is-pronounced O-ree, with the accent on the last syl-

lable, as in Horry County, 8S. C., from which it is adopted.

The Horry clay contains a large flora of diatoms. A small sample

studied by Kenneth E. Lohman of the U. 8. Geological Survey

yielded the 53 species in the following list:

A—abundant; C—common; F—few; R—rare; *—now living in fresh or

brackish water; species not preceded by an * are marine.

Melosira cf. M. recedens Schmidt (F), M. sulcata (Ehrenberg) Kiitzing

(C), Podosira stelliger (Kiitzing) Mann (C), Cyclotella striata (Kiitzing)

Grunow (F-C), C. striata bipunctata Fricke (F), C. sp. (F), Coscinodiscus

denarius Schmidt (F), C. excentricus Ehrenberg (F), C. nitidus Gregory (F),

C. oculus-iridis Ehrenberg (F), C. radiatus Ehrenberg (F), Actinoptychus

parvus Mann (R), A. splendens (Shadbolt) Ralfs (R), A. undulatus Ehren-

berg (F), Polymyxus coronalis Bailey (A), Aulacodiscus argus (Ehrenberg)

Schmidt (F), Hupodiscus cf. HE. decrescens Rattray (R), Auliscus pruinosus

Bailey (R), Actenocyclus ehrenbergii Ralfs (F), Triceratium favus Ehrenberg

(F), T. reticulum Ehrenberg (F), Biddulphia cf. B. rhombus (Ehrenberg)

Wm. Smith (F), B. sp. (R), Grammatophora sp. (R), Plagiogromma sp.

(R), Rhaphonets amphiceros Grunow (C), R. belgica (R), R. aff. R. angularis

Lohman (C), R. surirella Grunow (R), Synedra investiens Wm. Smith (R),

Leudugeria janischit (Grunow) Van Heurck (R), *Hunotta monodon Ehren-

berg (R), Cocconets scutellum Ehrenberg (R), *Diplonets elliptica (Kiitzing)

Cleve (R), D. griindlert (Schmidt) Cleve (R), D. weissflogiz (Schmidt)

Cleve (F), *Frickea lewisiana (Greville) Heiden (R), Trachyneis aspera

Ehrenberg (R), *Navicula peregrina (Ehrenberg )Kiitzing (R), N. aff. N.

spectabilis Gregory (R), N. sp. (R), *Caloneis formosa (Gregory) Cleve (R),

*Gyrosigma acuminatum (Kiitzing) Rabenhorst (R), *G. ef. G. balticum

Ehrenberg (R), G. sp.,. Pleurostgma sp. (F), Amphora pediculus (Kitzing)

‘Grunow (R), *Epithemia zebra porcellus (Kiitzing) Grunow (R), *£. zebra

saxonica (Kiitzing) Grunow (R), *Rhopalodia gibberula (Ehrenberg) Miiller

(R), *Netechia granulata Grunow (R), *N. cf. N. plana Wm. Smith (R),

*N. tryblionella Hantzsch (R).

Mr. Lohman comments on this flora as follows:

“The facts that the fresh- and brackish-water species are all rare in the

Horry clay and that the marine species are abundant indicate a marine to

slightly brackish environment at the time of deposition, such as would be

found in the seaward part of an estuary or bay beyond the influence of any

major fresh-water stream that may have emptied into it. The most abundant

species, Polymyxus coronalis, is now known to be living only in the tropics,

and this is true also of several of the others, strongly suggesting that the

Horry clay was deposited under conditions at least as warm, and most prob-

ably warmer, than those existing in the same region today.

“Polymyxus coronalis occurs abundantly in the Pleistocene beds pene-

trated by a well drilled at Wildwood, N.J., at a depth of 78-180 feet. It also

occurs sparingly in the ‘‘blue clay’’ at Philadelphia, which represents its

northernmost known occurrence. This species is extinct along the Atlantic

coast of North America, and so far as known is living only off the mouths

JAN. 15, 1937 COOKE: PLEISTOCENE HORRY CLAY 3

of the Para and Amazon rivers. It has never been found in rocks older than

Pleistocene. Another common species, T'riceratiwm favus, has a known range

of Pleistocene to Recent. Many other species in the assemblage also occur

in Pleistocene beds in the Atlantic Coastal Plain, but most of them are

long-ranging species having little significance for age determination.”’

The peaty appearance of the clay and the cypress stumps rooted

in it would lead one to suppose that the clay had accumulated in a

cypress swamp; but all the trees are rooted in the top of the de-

posit, and all the common species of diatoms are marine. It is there-

fore evident that the clay was deposited in salt water. Before the

cypress trees could have taken root there must have been either a

lowering of sea level or a freshening of the water due to other causes.

The clay may represent the deposits of a salt marsh that eventually

was changed into a fresh-water swamp by the building of barriers

across the tidal inlets.

As the diatom flora includes several tropical species, it is hardly

likely that the clay could have been deposited during a glacial

stage. It more probably represents part of an interglacial stage,

presumably the early part of that including Pamlico time, after

sea level had risen from the low of the preceding glacial stage to

approximately its present height but before it had attained its

maximum of 25 feet above the present level. The trees may have

grown in a flooded estuary freshened toward the end of a brief

pause in the submergence.

Further flooding of the estuary in which the Horry clay was

deposited widened it into a V-shaped bay opening towards the

southwest. The bay was separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a

low, narrow peninsula composed (at Myrtle Beach) of coarse red-

dish-brown sand containing disc-shaped, flat pebbles. In the ‘‘Geol-

ogy of the Coastal Plain of South Carolina’ I interpreted this

peninsula and the higher land across the bay as having been built

above water by the waves and winds of Pamlico time. In the light

of newer evidence it seems more likely that they are of Talbot age

and that the Horry estuary occupied a valley in the Talbot plain.

A somewhat similar occurrence of diatomaceous clay and cypress

stumps overlain by marine fossiliferous sand (Pamlico formation)

is reported by Mansfield? on the Neuse River about 10 miles below

New Bern, N. C. At this place, however, Nitzschia scalaris, a fresh-

water species, predominates. The presence of at least two marine

3 U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 867: 7, 153: pls. 1, 4,17. 1936.

* MANSFIELD, W. C., U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 150: 134. 1928.

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 1

species there indicates that the deposit was formed in an estuary

to which salt water had occasional access. Although the incomplete

list of the diatoms on the Neuse includes no species listed from the

Horry clay near Myrtle Beach, the two deposits are probably con-

temporaneous, for both are estuarine, both underlie the marine

Pamlico formation, and they stand at the same level. If they are

contemporaneous, they yield further evidence that there has been

no tilting of late Pleistocene deposits in the Carolinas.

The lower part of the Pamlico formation at the railroad bridge

near Myrtle Beach (bed 2 of the section) is highly fossiliferous.

Many of the fossils are well preserved and larger than the usual

sizes that the same species attain along the Carolina coast today—

an indication of warmer water. Among the organisms represented

are unidentified corals; unusually large sand dollars (Mellita quin-

quiesperforata); and more than 60 species of mollusks, some of

which (e.g. Rangia cuneata) no longer live in the Atlantic Ocean.

For the identification of the mollusks listed below I am indebted

to Dr. W. C. Mansfield. The collection is especially valuable be-

cause all of the specimens were found in place, without possibility

of contamination from other beds. As many of the bivalves retain

both shells in juxtaposition, it is unlikely that any of them were re-

worked.

Acetocina canaliculata (Say), Terebra dislocata (Say), T. concava (Say),

Mangelia cerina Kurtz & Stimpson, Marginella sp. (immature), Olivella

nitidula Dillwyn, Oliva sayana (Ravanel), Busycon caricum (Gmelin), B.

caniculatum (Linnaeus), Cantharus cancellaria (Conrad), Alectrion acuta

(Say), A. travittata (Say), Ilyanassa obsoleta (Say), Anachis avara Say, A.

obesa C. B. Adams, Mitrella lunata (Say), Urosalpinz cinerius (Say), Odo-

stomia sp. Turbonilla sp., Secla adamsi (H. C. Lea), Littorina irrorata Say,

Crepidula fornicata (Linnaeus), C. fornicata ponderosa H. C. Lea, Polinices

duplicatus (Say), Tectonica pusilla (Say)?, Sinum perspectivum (Say), Gly-

cymeris sp. (young), Argina pexata Say, Arca transversa Say, Noetica ponder-

osa Say, Fossularca adamsi Dall, Ostrea virginica Gmelin, Pecten gibbus gibbus

Linnaeus, Anomia simplex d’Orbigny, Modiolus sp. (fragment), Pandora

trilineata Say, Venericardia tridentata Say, V. perplana Conrad, Phacoides

mulrilineatus Tuomey & Holmes, P. radians (Conrad), P. trisculatus Con-

rad, Divaricella quadrisulcata (d’Orbigny), Rochefortia sp., Cardium murica-

tus Linnaeus, C’. robustum Solander, Dosinia discus Reeve, Chione cancellata

(Linnaeus), Venus mercenaria Linnaeus, Gemma purpurea H. C. Lea?,

Tellina sp. ef. T. sayz Deshayes, Semele proficua Poulteney, Abra aequalis

(Say), Donax variabilis Say, D. sp., Spisula similis Say, Mulinia lateralis

Say (very abundant), Rangia cuneata Gray, Ervilia concentrica Gould,

Corbula contracta Say, Barnea costata Linnaeus.

The contact between beds 2 and 3 of the section near Myrtle

Beach apparently marks the location of the top of the saturated

Jan. 15, 1937 MANSFIELD AND MACNEIL: MOLLUSKS )

zone before the canal was dug. The absence of shells above this

level may be attributed to the leaching action of rain water that,

in percolating downward, dissolved the shells. The absence of shells

from terrace deposits higher than the Pamlico has been advanced

as an argument against the marine origin of the higher terraces;

but most of the higher terrace deposits are porous and have been

subjected to leaching for a longer time than the Pamlico formation.

The sequence of late Pleistocene events that can be inferred from

the sections near Myrtle Beach, on Neuse River, and from other

evidence is as follows: First, a lowering of sea level from the 42-foot

Talbot stage to a depth estimated by Stearns® as about 60 feet be-

low the present level; next, a rise of sea level to approximately its

present position and deposition of the Horry clay in estuaries filling

valleys cut in the Talbot terrace during the preceding epoch; then,

continued rise of sea level to a height of 25 feet, expansion of the

Horry estuaries, and deposition of the Pamlico formation; next,

fall of sea level to a depth at least 25 feet lower than the present,

indicated by submerged channels in Pamlico Sound and elsewhere;

finally, rise of the sea to its present level, drowning the valleys and

lowlands of the preceding epoch to form the existing sounds and

estuaries.

I have elsewhere® tentatively correlated the Pamlico formation

with the last major interglacial stage, commonly called Peorian—

a correlation that seems to be confirmed by the studies of Mac-

Clintock and Richards.’ The Horry clay apparently represents the

early part of the same stage.

PALEONTOLOGY.—Pliocene and Pleistocene mollusks from the

Intracoastal Waterway in South Carolina.t W. C. MANSFIELD

and F. 8. MacNsEit.

In June, 1935, and again in April, 1936, the writers visited the

Intracoastal Waterway at North Dam (Location Contract 195)

about 3 miles west-southwest of Little River and about 15 miles

northeast of Myrtle Beach, 8. C. The canal here traverses a low

plain, which as interpreted by Cooke,? is the southward continua-

5 Strarns, H. T., Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 46: 1941. 19385. ,

§ Cooks, C. W. Tentative ages of Pleistocene shore lines. This JouRNAL 25: 333.

7 MacCuintock, Pau, and Ricuarps, H.G. Correlation of late Pleistocene marine

and glacial deposits of New Jerseyand New York. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.47:317. 1936

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received

October 12, 1936.

2 Cookr, C. W. Geology of the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. U.S. Geol. Survey

Bull. 867: 125-126. 1936.

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 1

Fig. 1.—Intracoastal waterway canal, June, 1935, at North Dam (Location contract

195) about 3 miles west-southwest of Little River and about 15 miles northeast of

Myrtle Beach, 8. C. The rock on which the senior author stands is referred to the Plio-

cene epoch (see No. 1 of section).

tion of the Pamlico terrace plain of North Carolina. The purpose

of this paper is to record the species of mollusks collected at North

Dam, both those in place from the different beds in the canal banks

and those thrown out by the dredge along the spoil banks. These

faunas are compared with those from other areas and certain spe-

cies not heretofore recorded from this area are indicated.

The section exposed at this locality is as follows:

Recent: Feet

6. Cross-bedded white to tam. sand! 22. >..552 ae ee eee 8+

Pleistocene (Pamlico formation):

5. Dark gray, rather fine clayey sand, carrying many fossils (U.S.

GeolsSurvey nos. 13424, 138135 5.. oy. eens 2. oe 3+

A> and .(ol une Origin’)... cP... ah ee eee, 3+

3. Alternating layers of cross-bedded sand and peat, the peat in

places grading laterally intovsand. @ieece ee ens o> a. a2

2. Dark gray clayey sand, some of the sand grains large and ir-

regular, carrying many individuals of Mulinia lateralis, Ostrea

virginica and other shells; this bed changes laterally in char-

acter and thickness, being more clayey and fossiliferous where

it occupies depressions in the underlying bed and more sandy

and cross-bedded as it becomes thinner; in places the lower

JAN. 15, 1937 MANSFIELD AND MACNEIL: MOLLUSKS

part of the carbonaceous bed (no. 3) rests directly on the Plio-

cene (cu. 0) (Wes. Gear survey Nos P3425). . fs. So. oo se. 0-3

Unconformity.

Pliocene (Waccamaw formation):

1. Indurated, light gray, highly calcareous marl with a minor

amount of rather fine quartz sand, carrying fragmental and en-

tire mollusks, corals, encrusting bryozoa and echinoderms

(U. 8. Geol. Survey no. 13426)..... (above water level)

The species collected from layers 1, 2, and 5, and from the spoil

bank are listed below.

LIST OF SPECIES FROM LAYER 9

Aceteocina canalicula (Say), Terebra dislocata (Say), Terebra concava (Say),

Ilyanassa obsoleta (Say), Anachis avara Say, Epitonium angulatum Say,

Melanella sp., Turbonilla, 2 or more species, Sezla adamsiz (H. C. Lea),

Crepidula fornicata (Linnaeus), Nucula proxima Say, Arca transversa Say,

Noetia ponderosa (Say), Argina pexata (Say), Ostrea virginica Gmelin (?),

Anomia simplex D’Orbigny, Mytilus sp., Lyonsia aff. L. floridana Conrad,

Phacoides multilineatus Tuomey and Holmes, Cardiwm robustum Solander,

Cardium muricatum Linnaeus, Chione cancellata (Linnaeus), Venus sp.,

Venus mercenaria Linnaeus, Gemma purpurea H. C. Lea, Tellina ef. say

(Deshayes) Dall, Semele proficua Pulteney, Cumingia tellinoides (Conrad),

Tagelus gibbus (Spengler), Tagelus divisus Spengler, Mulinza lateralis Say,

Anatina canaliculata (Say), Barnea (Scobina) costata (Linnaeus).

This fauna is of very late Pleistocene age. Of the 26 species all,

or nearly all, are now living somewhere along the Atlantic coast.

LIST OF SPECIES FROM LAYER 2

Acteocina canaliculata (Say), Cylichnella bidentata (D’Orbigny), Terebra

sp., Mangelia cerina Kurtz and Stimpson, Olivella nitidula Dillwyn, Margin-

ella apicina Menke, Marginella sp., Busycon caricum (Gmelin), Busycon

perversum (Linnaeus), Cantharus tinctus Conrad, Alectrion acuta Say, Alec-

trion trivittata (Say), Ilyanassa obsoleta (Say), Anachis obesa C. B. Adams,

Mitrella lunulata Say, Urosalpinz cinertus Say, Eupleura caudata Say, Epi-

tontum sp., Turbonilla, 2 or more sp., Semicassis inflata Shaw, Ficus papy-

ratia Say, Triphora nigrocincta C. B. Adams, Cerzthiopsis subulata Montagu,

Vermicularia spirata (Philippi), Turritella sp., Crepidula fornicata (Lin-

naeus), Crepidula plana Say, Calyptraea centralis Conrad (?), Polinices

(Neverita) duplicatus (Say), Diodora alternata (Say), Nucula proxima Say,

*Glycymeris americana Defrance, *Arca lienosa Say, Arca transversa Say,

Argina pexata (Say), Noetia ponderosa (Say), ‘‘Fossularca” adams Dall, Ostrea

virginica Gmelin, *Pecten eboreus solariodes Heilprin, *Plicatula marginata

Say, Cardita sp. (young), *Cardita arata (Conrad), *Venericardia granulata

Say, Chama sp., *Phacoides cf. P. waccamawensis Dall, Diplodonta semi-

aspera Philippi, *Dzplodonta acclinis Conrad, Bornia cf. B. triangulata Dall,

Dosinia elegans (Conrad), Chione latilirata athleta Conrad, Venus sp., Tellina

sayt (Deshayes) Dall, Cumzngia tellinoides (Conrad), Abra aequalis (Say),

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 1

Tagelus gibbus (Spengler), Spzsula cf. S. similis Say, Mulinia lateralis Say,

Anatina canaliculata (Say), Corbula barrattzana C. B. Adams, Corbula con-

tracta Say, Coral.

The sediments of layer 2 were probably deposited during Pleisto-

cene time. Of about 62 species listed, 8 are believed to have lived

during Pliocene time (marked in the list with an asterisk*) and to

have been redeposited in the Pleistocene sediments.

The water level in the canal was about 4 feet higher during our

last than during our first visit and consequently the lower part of

layer 2, seen during our first visit, was under water. All of the pre-

sumably reworked Pliocene species were collected during our first

visit from depressions in the underlying Pliocene bed and at the

time were thought to have been in place in the base of layer No.

2. However, the possibility that they may have slipped down the

bank from overlying dredged material, is recognized.

The following species are not known to have lived earlier than

Pleistocene time: Busycon caricum (Gmelin), Cantharus tinctus

Conrad, Alectrion trivittata (Say), Ilyanassa obsoleta (Say), Uro-

salpinx cinerius Say, Semicassis inflata Shaw, Argina pexata (Say),

Noetia ponderosa (Say), Cumingia tellinoides (Conrad), Anatina

canaliculata (Say) and others.

LIST OF SPECIES FROM THE UPPER PART OF THE

PLIOCENE, LAYER NO. l

Olivella mutica Say, Fusinus ef. F. carolinensis Dall, Ilyanassa porcina

Say, Nucula proxima Say, Glycymeris americana (DeFrance), Pecten eboreus

senescens Dall, Crassinella lwnulata (Conrad), Venericardia abbreviata Con-

rad?, Phacoides multilineatus (Tuomey and Holmes), Diplodonta acclinis

(Conrad), Cardium sp., Laevicardium mortont Conrad, Venus sp., Tellina

sayt (Deshayes), Mulznia lateralis Say, Poromya sp., Corbula barrattiana

C. B. Adams, Corbula contracta Say.

LIST OF SPECIES FROM THE SPOIL BANK

Terebra dislocata (Say), Terebra aff. dislocata (Say), Terebra concava (Say),

Conus adversarius Conrad, Conus floridanus Gabb (C), ‘‘Drillia” ebenia

Dall (C), ‘‘Drillia’”’ aff. pagodula Dall (C?), Cymatosyrinx lunata (H. C.

Lea), Mangilia sp., Cancellaria ef. C. carolinensis Emmons, Oliva sayana

(Ravenel), Olivella nitidula Dillwyn, Marginella aff. M. limatula Conrad,

Scaphella (Aurinia) floridana (Heilprin) (C), Aurinia obtusa Emmons,

Fasciolaria sp. (N), Fasciolaria apicina Dall, Busycon carica Gmelin (P?),

Busycon perversum (Linnaeus), Busycon pyrum Dillwyn, Busycon sp. (N),

Fusinus carolinensis (Dall), Fusinus sp., Alectrion acuta (Say) (P), Alectrzon

vibex (Say) (C), Ilyanassa obsoleta (Say) (P), Ilyanassa trrorata Conrad,

Ilyanassa isogramma Dall, Alectrion aff. ambigua antillarum D’Orbigny

(C), Anachis avara caloosaensis Dall, Ocinebra alta Dall (C), Kupleura cau-

data Say (P), Murex pomum Gmelin, Murex rufus Lamarck, Purpura fluvi-

JAN Lo, 19357 MANSFIELD AND MACNEIL: MOLLUSKS 9

ana Dall (C), Coralliophila lepidota Dall, Urosalpinx cinertus (Say) (P),

Urosalpinx sp. (N), Ficus papyratia (Say), Petaloconchus trregularis D’-

Orbigny (P), Turritella subannulata Heilprin, Turritella sp. (P?), Crepidula

fornicata (Linnaeus), Crepidula cymbaeformis Conrad, Crepidula plana Say,

Polinices (Neverita) duplicata (Say), Natica canrena Linnaeus, Diodora cf.

D. alternata (Say), Nuculana acuta (Conrad), Glycymeris americana (De-

France), Glycymeris pectinata (Gmelin), Acar reticulata Gmelin (C), Arca

plicatura Conrad?, Arca transversa Say (P), Arca lienosa Say, Arca rustica

Tuomey and Holmes (N), Arca (Cunearca) incongrua Say (P), Argina

pexata Say (P), Navicula umbonata Lamarck (P?), Navicula wagneriana

(Dall) (C), Fossularca adamsi Dall, Noetia ponderosa (Say) (P), Ostrea sculp-

turata Conrad, Ostrea virginica Gmelin (P), Ostrea aff. O. trigonalis Con-

rad, Pecten eboreus senescens Dall, Pecten evergladensis cf. charlottensis

Mansfield (C), Pecten eboreus solarioides Heilprin (W), Pecten ernest-

smitht Tucker (N), Amustum mortont Ravenel, Plicatula marginata Say,

Anomia simplex D’Orbigny, Modiolus cf. M. gigantoides Olsson (W),

Astarte concentrica bella Conrad, Crassinella dupliniana Dall, Crassinella

lunulata (Conrad), ‘‘Eucrassatella” gibbesiz (Tuomey and Holmes), ‘‘Eucras-

satella”’ mansfieldi MacNeil (C, N,W), Cardita arata (Conrad), Venericardia

granulata Say, Venericardia tridentata Say, Chama striata Emmons, Echi-

nochama arcinella (Linnaeus), Phacoides radians (Conrad), Phacoides ano-

donta (Say), Diplodonta acclinis Conrad, Laevicardium sublineatum (Con-

rad), Cardiwm cf. tsocardia Linnaeus, Cardiwum muricatum Linnaeus (P),

Chione latilirata Conrad, Chione cribraria (Conrad), Chione cancellata (Lin-

naeus), Venus campechiensis permagna Conrad, Venus mercenaria Linnaeus,

Macrocallista reposta Conrad, Tellina cf. T. propetenella Dall, Macoma bal-

thica Linnaeus (P), Semele bella-striata Conrad (C), Semele proficua Pulte-

ney (P), Semelina nuculoidea Conrad (P?), Tagelus gibbus Spengler (P),

Spisula aff. similis Say, Mulinia lateralis Say, Corbula inaequalis Say,

Barnea costata Linnaeus (P).

The capital letters used in the preceding list are explained as follows:

(P) probably Pleistocene; (C) present also in the Caloosahatchee marl (Plio-

cene) of western Florida but not previously reported from the Waccamaw

formation in the adjacent area to the west of the canal; (N) present also in

the Pliocene at Neills Eddy Landing, 5 miles N. E. of Acme, N. C.; (W) pres-

ent also in the Pliocene in the upper bed at the north shore of Lake Wacca-

maw, N.C. Most of the species not followed by a letter probably came from

the Pliocene as many of the specimens are incrusted with a hard matrix.

The close relationship of the Pliocene fauna or faunas dredged

from the canal, to that of the Caloosahatchee marl of western

Florida, to that at Neills Eddy Landing on Cape Fear River, N.C.,

and to that in the uppermost bed on the north shore of LakeWacca-

maw, N.C., is indicated by the common occurrence at those locali-

ties of certain of the species as indicated in the list. The presence

of Navicula wagneriana (Dall) is of particular interest as it has been

known heretofore only in the Caloosahatchee marl.

No specimens of the genus Rangia were collected from the spoil

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. 27, NO. 1

banks. The apparent absence of this genus, which inhabits shallow

water, may indicate open and moderately deep water conditions

for this area, during Pliocene and Pleistocene time.

Three species of mollusks (identified by W. C. Mansfield)—

~ Pecten ernestsmitht Tucker, Pecten eboreus senescens Dall, and Scaph-

ella (Aurinia) floridana (Heilprin), and one species and three

specifically unnamed genera of echinoids—Rhyncholampus ever-

gladensis (Mansfield), a Clypeaster, an Encope and a Coelspleurus,

are recorded by Cooke? from this locality.

PALEONTOLOGY.—A new subspecies of Pecten from the upper

Miocene of North Carolina. W. C. MANSFIELD, U. S. Geo-

logical Survey.

In April, 1936, F. 8. MacNeil and the writer obtained additional

specimens of Pecten, among other material, from exposures along

the Chowan River in Bertie and Hertford Counties, eastern North

Carolina. The Pecten from certain localities, as noted below, was

referred by the writer? to P. (Chlamys) eboreus eboreus Conrad, but

he now believes, after procuring better specimens for comparison,

that it should be referred to a new subspecies—P. eboreus bertiensis,

described as follows:

Pecten (Chlamys) eboreus bertiensis Mansfield, n. subsp. Figs. 1-3

Shell large, thin, ovate, inequilateral; hinge line rather short; left valve

much more inflated than right; ornamented with 24 to 25 ribs. Right valve

of cotype low, ornamented with 25 flat ribs, which are medially shallowly

incised over the middle part of the disk and separated by shallow interspaces

which are a little narrower than the ribs. The concentric lamellae are mod-

erately coarse. Right ear shallowly insinuated and marked with 5 rather

strong radials, those near the hinge line being the stronger; left ear with 11

moderately strong radials. Left valve of cotype with 25 ribs, narrower than

interspaces and medially suleated over the middle part of the disk and nearly

_ flat ventrally. Both ears with about 7 radials.

Dimensions of cotypes (U.S.N.M. no. 496224): Right valve, length 86

mm; height 80 mm; convexity 11 mm; length of hinge line 44 mm. Left

valve, length 95 mm; height 88 mm; convexity 24 mm; length of hinge line

00 mm.

Type locality: Station 11999, from bed exposed at beach to 10 feet above

in right bank of Chowan River, three-fourths of a mile below Mount Gould

Landing, Bertie County, North Carolina.

3 CooxE, C. W. Geology of the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. U. 8S. Geol.

Survey Bull. 867: 126. 1936.

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Re-

ceived December 2, 1936.

2 MANSFIELD, W. C. Stratigraphic significance of Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene

Pectinidae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Paleontology 10 (3): 175, strati-

graphic position 17, 1936.

Jan. 15, 1937 MANSFIELD: PECTEN

Figs. 1-3.—Pecten (Chlamys) eboreus berttensis Mansfield. n. subsp.

Cotypes. 1, right valve. 2, 3, left valve. Slightly reduced.

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 1

The new subspecies intergrades with Pecten eboreus eboreus Conrad and

P. eboreus darlingtonensis Dall, but it is more closely related to the former

than to the latter. The left valve of the new subspecies is more inflated than

the same valve of either of the above subspecies, and it is marked with in-

cised ribs which neither one possesses.

Other occurrence in North Carolina: Station 12035 (lower bed), station

13814 (upper bed), Colerain Landing, Bertie County; station 1/1230, Tar

Ferry, Wiccacon Creek, Hertford County; station 13798, upper bed at

Beaver Dam Creek, Martin County; station 12004, Poplar Landing, Mar-

tin County.

The beds in which the new subspecies occurs are placed in the

uppermost Miocene of North Carolina and are believed to have

been deposited at a little later time than the Suffolk beds in Vir-

ginia at the north and about the same time as the Dupoin mar! at

the south.

ZOOLOGY.—WNotes on Chinese spiders of the families Salticidae and

Thomisidae.| IRvinc Fox. (Communicated by C. F. W.

MUESEBECK. )

The following notes and descriptions of new species represent

continuation of a report on several collections of Chinese spiders

in the possession of the United States National Museum. These

spiders were collected chiefly by Dr. D. C. Graham in Szechwan

Province, China, during the years 1923 to 1930. Several others

taken by Mr. N. Gist Gee at Soochow, Kiangsu Province, are also

considered in this paper.

Family SALTICIDAE

Myrmarachne grahami, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2

Female.—Total length, 7.13 mm. Chelicerae, .72 mm long. Carapace,

cephalic part, 1.39 mm long, 1.29 mm wide, thoracic part, 1.29 mm long,

1.09 mm wide. Pedicel, .59 mm long. Abdomen, 3.97 mm long, 1.98 mm wide.

Dorsum of the carapace dark brown, sides with a blackish tinge. The furrow

that separates the two parts bears white wedge-shaped marks. Chelicerae

brown, much lighter than the carapace. Endites orange with fringes of dark

hair anteriorly, labium dark basally, whitish distally. Sternum dark brown

contrasting strongly with the coxae which are yellowish. Legs orange;

upper portion of the femora, the patellae, and tibiae of legs I with distinet

dark longitudinal bands at the lateral surfaces; legs II having much less

distinct lateral bands; legs III without lateral bands but with the coxae

and femora darker at their distal ends. Dorsum of the abdomen blackish

with numerous golden hairs, basally with an indistinct transverse stripe.

At the basal third clear transverse light bands, one on each side, extend

laterad from the dorsum, broaden at the sides and finally are lost in the light

1 Received April 11, 1936.

JAN. 15, 1937 FOX: CHINESE SPIDERS 13

venter. The venter bears a broad dark longitudinal band extending from

the epigastric furrow to the spinnerets.

First row of eyes recurved, the eyes more or less contiguous, the median

twice as large as the lateral. Ocular quadrangle wider than long (31/28),

occupying about one-third the total length of the carapace. The eyes of the

second row very small, closer to the anterior laterals than to the posterior

laterals. Upper margin of the chelicerae armed with six teeth of which five

are robust while the basal is weak, lower margin armed with seven teeth of

which the basal five are close together while the other two are separated.

First pair of legs with 2-2-2-2 spines on the tibiae below, and 2-2 on the

metatarsi below. Second pair of legs with 2-2-2 spines on the tibiae below

and 2-2 spines on the metatarsi below. The third and fourth pairs are with-

out spines. Legs, I, 4.18 mm; II, 2.96 mm; III, 3.52 mm; IV, 5.16 mm. For

the structure of the epigynum see Fig. 2.

Type Locality China: female holotype from Suifu, Szechwan, Province

1000 ft., April 25, 1930 (D. C. Graham). Female paratype from Soochow,

Kiangsu, Province (N. Gist Gee). Type: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 1168.

This spider is related to M. japonica (Karsch) and resembles it in general

coloration. It differs from that species, however, in the structure of the

epigynum.

Myrmarchne gisti, n. sp. Figs. 4, 9, 12, 14

Female.—Total length, 8.02 mm. Chelicerae, .8 mm long. Carapace,

cephalic part, 1.20 mm long, 1.16 mm wide, thoracic part, 1.36 mm long,

.92 mm wide. Pedicel, 1.12 mm long. Abdomen, 3.86 mm long. 2.57 mm wide.

Dorsum of the carapace dark and reddish brown, the cephalic part much

darker than the thoracic and contrasting strongly with it. In the furrow

that separates the two parts is found a wedge shaped mark on each side.

Chelicerae concolorous with the thoracic part being reddish brown. Palpi

with the basal joints brown while the distal have a bluish tinge and are dis-

tinctly iridescent. Labium and endites brown, sternum somewhat darker.

Legs I clear whitish yellow above and below, with distinct bands on the

prolateral surfaces of the basal portion of the femora, the patellae, tibiae,

and metatarsi. Legs II the same as I except that the lateral bands are less

distinct. Legs III with the coxae, trochanters, and femora dark brown above

and below, the other joints concolorous with legs I and II except for a dark

spot at the junction of the patella and tibia above. Legs IV with the coxae

and trochanters clear whitish yellow above and below but darker at the

sides; the femora, distal portions of the patellae, tibiae, and metatarsi brown.

Basal third of the abdomen whitish or buff, giving off posteriorly a more or

less triangular mark which is bifurcate at the broad side. Middle third of

the abdomen dark brown, outlined anteriorly by the whitish basal third

and posteriorly by a broad buff portion which is as wide as the dorsum at

that place (Fig. 4). Distal portion of the abdomen dark brown, concolorous

with the middle third. Venter of the abdomen with a wide median dark

band that begins at a point farther than usual below the epigastric furrow

and extends to the spinnerets. The space between the epigastric furrow and

the beginning of the median band is clear white in color.

First row of eyes slightly recurved, the median eyes contiguous and more

than twice as large as the lateral. Ocular quadrangle wider than long (32/25),

wider behind than in front (32/29), and occupying about one-third the

total length of the cephalothorax. Eyes of the second row very small, closer

14. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 1

to the anterior lateral than to the posterior lateral. Upper margins of the

chelicerae armed with seven well separated teeth of which the basal three

are diminutive while the distal four are robust; the animal’s left chelicera

armed with eight teeth on the lower margin of which the basal five are close

together, animal’s right chelicera armed with seven teeth. Legs, I, 4.08 mm;

IT, 3.32 mm; IT], 3.68 mm; IV, 5.60 mm.

First pair of legs with 2-2-2-2 spines on the tibiae below, and 2-2 on the

metatarsi below. Second pair of legs with 2-2-2 spines on the tibiae below,

and 2-2 spines on the metatarsi below. The third and fourth pairs are without

spines. For the structure of the epigynum see Fig. 14.

Male.—Total length, 8.71 mm. Chelicerae, 2.02 mm long, Carapace,

cephalic part, 1.70 mm long, 1.50 mm wide, thoracic part, 1.82 mm long,

1.14 mm wide. Pedicel, .35 mm long. Abdomen, 3.07 mm long, 1.06 mm wide.

Carapace light brown above, the cephalic part somewhat darker than the

thoracic, the eyes on dark spots. Sides lighter, bearing at the furrow that

separates the two parts a wedge-shaped mark consisting of white hairs.

Chelicerae light brown, concolorous with the thoracic part of the carapace.

Sternum and endites light brown, the labium darker, these parts contrasting

| strongly with the coxae and trochanters of the anterior pairs of legs which

are almost white. Dorsum of the abdomen like the female in its coloration

having a broad buff portion distally and a dark brown middle third, the de-

sign at the basal third not so distinct as in the female (Fig. 9). Abdomen

constricted anteriorly and bearing light bands which run laterad in the

margin of the constriction. Venter lightest at the epigastric furrow, there-

after darkening posteriorly, bearing evidences of a median longitudinal dark

band.

First row of eyes recurved, the anterior median closer to each other than

to the anterior lateral and about twice the size of the latter. Eyes of the

second row very small, closer to the anterior lateral than to the posterior

lateral being removed from the former by a distance about five-sevenths as

large as that which separates them from the latter. Ocular quadrangle wider

than long (30/24), occupying more than one-third the total length of the

cephalothorax, about as wide in front as behind. Chelicerae roughly wedge

shaped, without a distinct lower margin, upper margin armed with ten

teeth, of which the most distal points foward while the others are directed

inward. For further details regarding the arrangement of the teeth see Fig.

12. The first pair of legs lacking, the second bears Ir-1r spines on the tibiae

below. Legs, II, 3.27 mm; III, 4.10 mm; IV, 5.86 mm.

The palpal organ is characteristic of the genus, and presents little or no

distinguishing features.

Type Locality.—China: female holotype and male allotype from Soochow,

Kiangsu Province (N. Gist Gee). Type: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 1164.

The unique design on the dorsum of the abdomen of this spider will serve

to distinguish it from other oriental species of the genus.

Fig. 1—Myrmarachne grahami, n. sp., female, dorsal view. Fig. 2—Myrmarachne

grahami, n. sp., epigynum. Fig. 3.—Xysticus ephippiatus Simon, epigynum. Fig.

4.—Myrmarachne gisti, n. sp., female, dorsal view. Fig. 5.—Xysticus sicus, n. sp.,

epigynum. Fig. 6—Myrmarachne vehemens, n. sp., male, dorsal view. Fig. 7.—

Plexippus optabilis, n. sp.,epigynum. Fig. 8.—Thomisus transversus, 0. sp., epigynum.

Fig. 9.—Myrmarachne gisti, n. sp., male, dorsal view. Fig. 10.—Myrmarachne

vehemens, n. sp., male, right chelicera. Fig. 11.—Xysticus croceus, n. sp., epigynum.

Fig. 12—Myrmarachne gisti, n. sp., male, left chelicera. Fig. 13.—Rhene candida,

n.sp., male palpus. Fig. 14.—Myrmarachne gisti, n. sp., epigynum. Fig. 15.—Rhene

tpis, nN. sp., male palpus.

JAN. 15, 1937 FOX: CHINESE SPIDERS 15

. ie

\ Wipe 4“

Yara yaya LE YL

SSNNV ISS /7 SLE

Mkt St fd SII,

SPS

For explanation of Figs. 1-15, see bottom of opposite page.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 1

Myrmarachne vehemens, n. sp. Figs. 6, 10

Male.—Total length, 7.62 mm. Chelicerae, 2.48 mm long. Carapace,

cephalic part, 1.54 mm long, 1.63 mm wide, thoracic part, 1.19 mm long,

1.45 mm wide. Pedicel, .13 mm long. Abdomen, 2.90 mm long, 1.45 mm wide.

Carapace uniform dark brown above, the sides and the suture separating the

two parts somewhat lighter. Eyes on dark spots, the spaces between those

of the anterior row and the clypeus densely clothed with white hairs. Cheli-

cerae lighter, of a reddish-brown hue, oblong and parallel extending directly

forward. Sternum, coxae, and endites light brown, labium somewhat darker.

Legs light brown above, the tibiae of the first and last pairs darker than the

other joints. Abdomen dark brown above and at the sides, anteriorly with

a well defined constriction whose margins are much lighter than the dorsum

and the sides. Venter with a broad longitudinal dark band extending from

the epigastric furrow to the spinnerets.

First row of eyes recurved, the anterior lateral separated from the anterior

median, which are subcontiguous, by about three-fourths their diameter

and much smaller than the latter (5/8). Eyes of the second row very small,

closer to the anterior lateral than to the posterior lateral being removed from

the former by a distance about five-eighths as large as that which separates

them from the latter. Ocular quadrangle wider than long (82/27), somewhat

wider behind than in front (32/30), occupying more than one-third the total

length of the carapace. Upper cheliceral margin armed with eight robust

teeth, lower margin armed with nine smaller teeth (Fig. 10). The legs are

without spines below. Legs, I, 5.24 mm; II, 3.66 mm; III, 4.40 mm; IV,

6.42 mm.

Palpus characteristic of the genus presenting no important distinguishing

features; in general it is similar to that of M. lugubris (Kulez.).

Type Locality —China: male holotype from Soochow, Kiangsu Province.

(N. Gist Gee). Type: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 1165.

This species is allied to M. patellata Strand, but differs from it in the dental

armature and in lacking spines on the first tibiae below.

MyYRMARACHNE INNERMICHELIS Bosenberg and Strand

Myrmarachne innermichelits Bosenberg and Strand. Abh. Senckenb. Ges.

30: 329 pl. 9, fig. 128, pl. 14, fig. 382, 1906.

Record.—China: Kiangsu Province, Soochow, male (N. Gist Gee).

MYRMARACHNE 7-DENTATA STRAND

Myrmarachne maxillosa var. 7-dentata Strand. Zoologischer Anzeiger 31:

568, 1907.

Record.—China: Szechwan Province, Suifu, 1000 ft. October, 1930, male

(D. C. Graham).

Plexippus optabilis, n. sp. Fig. 7

Female.—Total length, 7.32 mm. Carapace, 3.27 mm long, 2.38 mm wide.

Abdomen, 3.76 mm long, 2.47 mm wide. Dorsum of the carapace blackish

for about a third of the length where the black region ends in an inverse

triangle which provides an apex for a much lighter portion at the middle

third. In this lighter portion are indications of a longitudinal line which gives

off several branches on each side. The basal third of the carapace dark brown,

expanding laterad along the sides giving them a brownish color. Clypeus

JAN. 15, 1937 FOX: CHINESE SPIDERS 17

light with numerous long hairs. Chelicerae, sternum, and endites light

brown, labium darker; coxae concolorous with the sternum but bearing dark

markings at the sides. Legs orange, more or less annulate at the distal ends

of the femora, patellae, and tibiae above; femora of the third and fourth

pairs of legs with broad dark longitudinal bands on the prolateral surfaces.

Dorsum of the abdomen with a median light band having anteriorly a longi-

tudinal dark line, and breaking posteriorly into four large spots. Sides of the

abdomen black and white, the white forming three more or less distinct

stripes. Venter light with a distinct longitudinal dark band which is herring-

bone in pattern posteriorly.

First row of eyes slightly recurved, the medians closer to each other than

to the laterals and about twice their size. Eyes of the second row midway

between the anterior lateral and posterior lateral. Ocular quadrangle wider

than long (43/32), about twice as wide before as behind, occupying more

than one-third the total length of the carapace. Posterior lateral eyes about

as large as the anterior lateral. Clypeus narrow, one-third the diameter of

an anterior lateral eye. Each chelicera armed with a robust black tooth on

the lower margin.

Tibiae I and II with 2-2-2 spines below, 1-1 on the prolateral surfaces,

none above, metatarsi I and II with 2-2 spines below, none elsewhere;

tibiae III and IV with 1-2 spines below, 2-2-2 above, metatarsi III and IV

with 2-2 spines below, 2-2 above and 1 apical spine on each lateral surface.

Legs, I, 5.00 mm; IT, 4.24 mm; III, 5.56 mm; IV, 5.44 mm. For the structure

of the epigynum see Fig. 7.

Type locality.—China: female holotype from Suifu, Szechwan Province,

1000 ft., October, 1930 (D. C. Graham). Type: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 1166.

This species is referred to Plexippus because of its resemblance to P.

setipes Karsch in general character. It differs from that species in the struc-

ture of the epigynum which is wider than long.

PLEXIPPUS CRASSIPES Karsch

Plexippus crassipes Karsch. Berliner Entom. Zeitschrift. 25:38. 1881.

Record.—China: Szechwan Province, Gongoshien, August 1, 1934, female

(D. C. Graham).

PLEXIPPUS SETIPES Karsch

Plexippus setipes Karsch. Verh. Ver. Rheinl. 36:89. 1879.

Record.—China: Kiangsu Province, Soochow, 6 females (N. Gist Gee).

PLEXIPPUS PAYKULLI (Audouin)

Attus paykulls Audouin in Savigny, descr. Egypte 22: 172. 1827.

Hyllus mimus Chamberlin. Proce. United States Nat. Mus. 63: 33, pl.

7, fig. 50, 1924.

Records.—China: Szechwan Province, Suifu, 1000, ft., June 1925, female;

Kiating, June, 1924, female (D. C. Graham). Kiangsu Province, Soochow,

male (N. Gist Gee).

TELAMONIA BIFURCILINEA Bésenberg and Strand

Telamonia bifurcilinea Bésenberg and Strand. Abh. Senckenb. Naturf.

Ges, 303331 ple 9) fic. 153) pl. 13; fie. 357, 1906:

Record.—China: Szechwan Province, Chungking, 2000 ft., May 6, 1930,

female (D. C. Graham).

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 1

EVARCHA ALBARIA (L. Koch)

Hasarius albarius L. Koch. Verh. Zool-Bot. Ges. Wien 27: 780 pl. 16,

fig. 39, 1877.

Record.—China: Szechwan Province, South of Suifu, March 25, 1930,

male (D. C. Graham).

Rhene ipis, n. sp. Fig. 15

Male.—Total length, 5.74 mm. Carapace, 2.38 mm long, 2.87 mm at the

widest place. Abdomen, 3.37 mm long. 2.47 mm wide. Dorsum of the cara-

pace with a median dark brown portion which is as wide as the first row of

eyes anteriorly, and which tapers thereafter to the third eye row where it

‘expands again so that it has almost its anterior width at the caudal end of

the carapace. The regions about the posterior eyes are reddish. Surrounding

all the eyes but present most thickly at the anterior row are numerous white

hairs. Sides of the carapace dark brown with white hairs. Clypeus thickly

covered with white hairs. Sternum, basal portion of the endites, and labium

dark brown, distal portion of the labium and endites light brown. Legs more

or less concolorous with the sternum below, the coxae are somewhat lighter.

First pair of legs much heavier and darker than the others. Femora of the

posterior legs contrasting strongly with the other joints which are lighter.

Abdomen light brown above, with three pairs of large dark pits, posteriorly

are indications of lateral white hairs. Sides of the abdomen with white hairs,

more concentrated anteriorly. Venter light brown, sparsely clothed with

white hairs.

First row of eyes recurved, the medians closer to each other than to the

laterals and more than twice their size. Eyes of the second row small, very

close to the anterior lateral eyes being removed by about a diameter of the

latter. Third row of eyes slightly smaller than the width of the carapace at

that place, the eyes somewhat larger than the anterior lateral. Ocular quad-

rangle wider than long (56/42), much narrower in front than behind (40/56),

occupying about four-fifths of the entire length of the cephalothorax. Cly-

peus equal in height to about one-half the diameter of an anterior lateral

eye. Chelicerae with a single dark robust tooth on the lower margins. An-

terior tibiae and metatarsi with 2-2 spines below. Legs, I, 6.60 mm; II,

3.92 mm; III, 4.00 mm; IV, 4.56 mm.

The tibia of the palpus bears a small black apophysis distally. The bulb

itself is provided with two processes anteriorly which are arranged so as to

ue pincer-like. For further details regarding the structure of the palpus see

12, 15,

Type locality.—China: male holotype from between Kiating and Yachow,

Szechwan Province, July 29, 1929; male paratype from Suifu, Szechwan

Province, September, 1929; two male paratypes from Mupin, Szechwan

peewince, 3500 ft., July, 1929 (D. C. Graham). Type: U.S.N.M. Cat. No.

67.

This species is allied to R. atrata (Karsch), but differs from that species

in lacking a distinct and conspicuous design on the dorsum of the abdomen.

Rhene candida, n. sp. Fig. 13

Male.—Total length, 5.44 mm. Carapace, 2.67 mm long, 2.67 mm wide.

Abdomen 2.97 mm long, 2.28 mm wide. The coloration of the carapace is

similar to that of the previous species, R. 7pis, but the central portion is not

JAN. 15, 1937 FOX: CHINESE SPIDERS 19

so clearly demarcated from the lateral. In general the dorsum bears much

fewer hairs, and in the alcoholic specimen these are not white. Sides of the

carapace with distinct marginal stripes of white hairs. Each chelicera bears

at its basal third a broad transverse band of white hairs. Sternum, coxae,

labium and endites dark brown, labium with the distal portion lighter. The

first pair of legs much darker and heavier than the others which are light

brown below. The tarsi lighter, with black spots at the basal and distal ends.

Dorsum of the abdomen light brown with indications of characteristic dark

pits. The caudal end of the abdomen bears a pair of white bars on each lat-

eral surface. Venter light brown with a white pubescence.

First row of eyes recurved, the medians closer to each other than to the

laterals and about twice their size. Eyes of the second row very small, re-

moved from the anterior lateral eyes by a distance greater than the diameter

of the latter (6/5). Third row of eyes as wide as the carapace at that place,

the eyes the same size as the anterior lateral. Ocular quadrangle wider than

long (55/42), much narrower in front than behind (87/55), occupying about

two-thirds the total length of the cephalothorax. Clypeus equal in height to

three-fifths the diameter of an anterior lateral eye. Chelicerae with a single

dark robust tooth on the lower margins. Tibiae and metatarsi I with 2-2

spines below. Legs, I, 5.20 mm; II, 3.80 mm; III, 3.68 mm; IV, 4.32 mm.

The bulb of the palpus is similar to that of R. cpzs, but differs in the pos-

session of a single, poorly defined process anteriorly rather than two processes.

The tibial apophysis is pronounced and hook-like. For further details re-

garding the palpus see Fig. 13.

Type Locality.—China: male holotype from Suifu, Szechwan Province.

September, 1929, (D. C. Graham). Type: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 1168.

This species is readily identifiable by the broad, transverse bands of white

hairs on the chelicerae.

Family THOMISIDAE

Xysticus croceus, n. sp. Bie.

Xysticus ephippratus Bésenberg and Strand. Abh. Senckenb. Naturf. Gesell.

30: 261, pl. 10, fig. 161, 1906 (not Xysticus ephippiatus Simon).

Female.—Total length, 7.92 mm. Carapace, 3.86 mm long, 3.17 mm wide.

Sternum, 1.56 mm long, 1.16 mm wide. Abdomen, 4.65 mm long, 4.55 mm

wide. Carapace with a median longitudinal light band about one-third its

width which encloses two reddish brown parallel lines that originate be-

tween the posterior median eyes and extend to the middle of the cephalo-

thorax. Sides of the carapace reddish brown, interrupted by a light sub-

marginal stripe on each side. Sternum yellow with reddish maculations,

labium and endites concolorous with the sternum, maculations on the coxae

more dense except for clear basal and median portions. Femora of the an-

terior legs heavily punctate with reddish brown, those of the posterior legs

much lighter, with large red spots on the preaxial surfaces; nearly all the

joints with reddish brown spots at their distal ends. Each leg bears above a

more or less distinct light stripe extending its length. The abdomen, which is

in poor condition, is reddish brown with thin indistinct stripes at the edges,

the venter and sides are lighter.

Kye rows strongly recurved, the first narrower than the second (40/45).

Ratio of eyes: ALE:AME:PLE:PME=5.5:3:4:3. Anterior median eyes

separated by more than three times their diameter, twice their diameter

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, No. 1

from the laterals. Posterior median eyes removed from each other and from

the posterior lateral eyes by more than three diameters. Median ocular area

slightly wider than long (17/16), as wide in front as behind. Clypeus about

two and one-half times the diameter of an anterior median eye.

Legs heavily spined; tibiae I with 2—1p—2—2—2—1p—2-2-2 spines of vari-

ous sizes below; tibiae II with six pairs of spines below; metatarsi I and II

with 2—2—1r—2-—2-2 spines below. Legs, I, 9, 12 mm; II, 9.12 mm; III, 5.88

mm; IV, 6.36 mm.

Epigynum broader than long, transverse, the sides heavily chitinized.

There is no chitinized portion extending caudad almost to the epigastric

furrow.

Type locality —China: Female holotype from Suifu, Szechwan province,

1922 (D. C. Graham). Type: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 1169.

This species was regarded as X. ephippiatus Simon by Bésenberg and

Strand, the differences in the epigyna and spinal armature being explained

on the basis of injury and technique of handling. The discovery of a Chinese

spider that corresponds closely with the description of Simon’s species to-

gether with another that appears to be identical with that of Bosenberg and

Strand makes it apparent that two species are involved. These two spiders,

X. croceus, new species, and X. ephippiatus Simon differ greatly in the struc-

ture of the epigyna, and are readily distinguished by these characters alone.

Below X. ephippiatus Simon is redescribed, and details regarding the two epi-

gyna are shown in Figs. 3 and 11.

XYSTICUS EPHIPPIATUS Simon Fig. 3

Xysticus ephippratus Simon. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 10 (Ser. 5): 107, pl. 3,

fig. 6, 1880.

Female.—Total length, 9.40 mm. Carapace, 3.46 mm long, 3.46 mm wide.

Sternum 1.36 mm long, 1.16 mm wide. Abdomen, 6.14 mm long, 6.44 wide.

Carapace reddish with the characteristic median light band bearing three

reddish streaks that originate between the posterior median eyes and extend

to the thoracic groove. From the groove a reddish bar extends obliquely

cephaled on each side. Sides of the carapace reddish with lighter submarginal

stripes and darker marginal ones. Clypeus and chelicerae with robust black

hairs of various size projecting forward. Sternum reddish brown, the

labium, endites, and coxae much lighter being yellowish. Legs concolorous

with the sternum, the posterior pairs lighter than the anterior, all the legs

lighter below than above. Abdomen dark reddish brown above, venter

somewhat lighter.

Eye rows recurved, the first narrower than the second (39/46). Ratio of

the eyes ALE: AME:PLE:PME=6:3:4:3. Anterior median eyes removed

from each other by more than three and one-half diameters, from the

anterior lateral by two diameters. Eyes of the second row equidistant, sep-

arated by less than four times the diameter of a posterior median eye.

Median ocular quadrangle wider than long (17/15), as wide in front as be-

hind. Clypeus equal in height to about three times the diameter of an

anterior median eye.

JAN. 15, 1937 FOX: CHINESE SPIDERS 21

Legs heavily spined with the spinal armature irregular. The animal’s

right tibia I with 2-2—1p—2-—2-2, right metatarsus I with 1p—2—2-—1p—2-2-2

spines below, the animals left tibia I with 2—2—1p—2—2—2-2, left metatarsus I

with 1p—2—2—2—2-2 spines below. Tibiae II with 2—2—2-—2-2 spines below,

right metatarsus II with 2—2—2—2—2-2, left metatarsus II with 1p—2—2-1p-—

2—2-—2 spines below. Legs, I, 9.88 mm; II, 9.88 mm; III, 5.96 mm; IV, 6.20

mm.

Epigynum oval, with a chitinous extension extending caudad about half

the distance to the epigastric furrow. For further details regarding the epi-

gynum see Fig. 3.

Record.—China: Szechwan Province, Yao- Gi, Mupin, 8000 ft., July 14,

1929, female (D. C. Graham).

Xysticus sicus, n. sp. Fig. 5

Female.—Total length, 7.62 mm. Carapace, 2.67 mm long, 2.77 mm wide,

1.62 mm wide in front. Abdomen, 5.04 mm long, 4.95 mm wide. Carapace

with a broad median whitish band beginning at the anterior median eyes,

expanding to include the lateral eyes, narrowing behind them, and then ex-

panding again making the anterior portion shield-like. Posteriorly the band

gives off wings so that the caudal border of the carapace is provided with a

broad submarginal stripe; at the junction of each lateral wing with the cen-

tral band is a large black spot above and below. The cephalic portion of

the band with a complex design consisting of a reddish lanceolate of dagger-

shaped mark on a brownish shield-shaped background. Sides of the cara-

pace reddish with white spots. Clypeus brown below the lateral eyes, but

whitish below the median. Chelicerae tan with whitish spots basally, much

lighter distally. Labium and endites reddish brown lighter at the centers.

Sternum whitish, maculate with red. Legs white and reddish, with the red-

dish predominating, distal portion of the femora with noticeable black spots

above. Abdomen whitish, densely provided with red spots and markings.

First row of eyes recurved, the median much closer to the lateral than to

each other, about half as large as the lateral. The posterior row recurved,

the median eyes nearer to each other than to the laterals, and about two-

thirds as large. Anterior and posterior eyes on well developed tubercles.

Median ocular quadrangle broader than long (15/12), slightly wider in

front than behind, the eyes subequal. Clypeus much higher than the di-

ameter of an anterior lateral eye (8/5).

Legs spinose, although there are absences due to injury the arrangement

seems to be as follows: the first two tibiae armed below with five pairs of

robust spines, the last two with three pairs of weak ones, the first two meta-

tarsi with five pairs beneath, the last two with two pairs of spines of which

one pair is apical. Legs I, 8. 71 mma PiGatiemmar bile 5: SSamm: PV 715mm:

For the structure of the epigynum see Fig. 5.

Type locality —China: female holotype from Mupin, Szechwan Province,

3900 ft., July, 1929. Type: U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 1170.

This species is closely allied to Xysticus lateralis atrimaculatus Bosenberg

and Strand, but differs from that species in having the epigynum provided

with a pair of heavily chitinized orifices that almost completely fill the basal

half of the atrium.

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 1

XYSTICUS TUNICATUS Boésenberg and Strand

Xysticus tunicatus Bésenberg and Strand. Abh. Senckenb. Naturf. Ges.

30: 263, pl. 10, fig. 176, 1906.

Record.—China: Szechwan Province, Summer, 1930, 3 females (D. C.

Graham).

XYSTICUS SAGANUS Bésenberg and Strand

Xysticus saganus Bésenberg and Strand. Abh. Senckenb. Naturf. Ges. 30:

261 pl. 10, fig. 155, 1906.

Record.—China: Szechwan Province, between Kiating and Yachow, 1200

ft. July 29, 1929, male (D. C. Graham).

Thomisus transversus, n. sp. Fig. 8

Female.—Total length, 8.91 mm. Carapace, 3.86 mm at the widest place,

2.28 mm wide in front, 3.56 mm long. Abdomen, 6.04 mm long, 10.00 mm

wide. Carapace reddish with a longitudinal median white band which di-

verges anteriorly giving off a thin stripe on each side of which is a semi-

circular mark. Sides of the carapace with indications of lighter stripes.

Sternum, labium and endites yellowish brown. Legs concolorous with the

sternum except for the tibiae of the posterior pairs which are dark brown

contrasting strongly with the other joints. Abdomen yellowish white, darker

at the anterior edges, with a dark median stripe. The five characteristic

spots are present, one at the anterior edge of the dark median stripe and two

on each side. Venter somewhat darker than the dorsum, bearing two longi-

tudinal rows of three spots in the space between the epigastric furrow and

the spinnerets.

First row of eyes recurved, narrower than the second row, which is also

recurved, in the ratio of 5:6. Anterior median eyes two-thirds as large as

the anterior lateral, and removed from each other by a distance eleven-

fifteenths as great as that which separates them from the anterior lateral.

Posterior median eyes two-thirds as large as the posterior lateral, and re-

moved from each other by a distance greater than that which separates them

from the posterior lateral (24/15). Median ocular quadrangle wider than

long (28/16), narrower in front than behind (17/28). Clypeus slightly less

in height than the length of the median ocular quadrangle (13/16).

Legs sparsely spinose; tibia I with 1p—1p—1p—2-1p spines below, Tibiae II

with 1p—2 spines below. Legs, I, 10.74 mm; II, 10.64 mm; III, 6.37 mm, IV,

lacking.

Epigynum small, resembling that of T. onwstoides Bésenberg and Strand,

but differing in the possession of a narrower septum which arises at the

caudal border rather than the anterior. For further details regarding the

epigynum see Fig. 8.

Type locality.—China: female holotype from Shin kai Shi, Szechwan

province, 4000 ft., July 6, 1984 (D. C. Graham). U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 1171

THOMISUS ONUSTOIDES Bésenberg and Strand

Thomisus onustoides Bésenberg and Strand Abh. Senckenb. Naturf. Ges.

30: 251, pl. 10, fig. 166, 1906.

Record.—China: Szechwan Province, between Suifu and Kiating, June 2,

1930, male (D. C. Graham).

JAN. 15, 1937 TREADWELL: POLYCHAETOUS ANNELIDS 23

MISUMENA TRICUSPIDATA (Fab.)

Aranea tricuspidata Fabricius. Systema entomologia, p. 433, 1775.

Records.—China: Szechwan Province, Suifu, 1000 ft. May 25, 1930, 2

females; October, 1930, one male; Chungking, 2000 ft., May 6, 1930, 2

females (D. C. Graham).

ZOOLOGY.—Polychaetous annelids collected by Captain Robert A.

Bartlett in Greenland, Fox Basin, and Labrador.’ A. L. TREAD-

WELL, Vassar College. (Communicated by Watpo L.

SCHMITT.)

This report is based on the polychaetous annelids collected by

Captain Robert A. Bartlett on the east and west coasts of Green-

land, Fox Basin, and the coast of Labrador. It has earlier been

noted (Moore 1902) that the Greenland polychaets have been thor-

oughly studied by European investigators and, as was to be ex-

pected, few new species appear in the present collection. Many

species of the regions visited occur on both the east and west shores

of the Atlantic, as recorded in the elaborate monographs on the

British Annelids by Wm. C. McIntosh. For most of the species

listed below I have attempted to give only the references to the

original description and to McIntosh’s account. The collection com-

prises sixteen families, twenty-five genera, and twenty-nine species,

of which four, Harmothoe levis, Oophylax minuta, Nereis (Ceranto-

nereis) bartlettt and Pista groenlandica are new to science.

Because of the presence of numerous setae in the stomach of a

bearded seal, EHrignathus barbatus, from Fox Basin a portion of

the contents was submitted to me for examination. This material

contained a good deal of what in land mammals we would call

‘“‘hair balls,’’ composed in this case chiefly of agglomerated setae.

Of these the larger number are identical with the setae of Hunoe

nodosa and undoubtedly belong to that species. There are also a

few large black setae characteristic of the Aphroditacea, but I am

uncertain of the species. Half of a Nerezs jaw, badly corroded, was

also noted in the material. I do not know that worms in the con-

siderable quantities indicated by this sample have ever been re-

ported as the food of marine animals before. The saved contents of

the stomach of this seal totalled a full three-quarters of a gallon of

similarly matted and setae-filled material, intermingled with one or

two dozen gasteropod mollusk feet and operculae, several large

shrimp, Sclerocrangon boreas, and the remains of perhaps six holo-

thurians, Cucumaria frondosa, two to three inches long.

1 Received October 16, 1936.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 1

e_ emidde,

Figs. 1-5.—Harmothoe levis. 1,prostomium X28. 2, parapodium X35. 3, elytron

X12. 4, seta X250. 5, seta 250.

Figs. 6-7.—Oophylax minuta. 6, anterior end X280. 7, posterior end X280.

Figs. 8-13.—Nereis (Ceratonereis) bartletti. 8, anterior end X10. 9, anterior

parapodium X100. 10, median parapodium X100. 11, heterogomph neuroseta

500. 12, posterior notoseta X500. 13, posterior falcigerous neuroseta 500.

Figs. 14-16.—Pista groenlandica. 14, ventral view anterior end X7.5. 15, lateral

view anterior end X7.5. 16, uncinus X250.

JAN. 15, 1937 TREADWELL: POLYCHAETOUS ANNELIDS 25

Family AMPHINOMIDAE

SPINTHER Johnston

SPINTHER CITRINUS (Stimpson).

Cryptonota citrina Stimpson 1854. p. 36.

Spinther citrinus Verrill 1873-74, p. 502.

A rare species. Stimpson’s species came from Grand Manan, Verrill’s from

the Gulf of Maine, and the U. 8. National Museum has some taken in the

Bay of Fundy. The Bartlett specimen was taken at Fox Basin.

Family KUPHROSYNIDAE

EUPHROSYNE Savigny

EUPHROSYNE BOREALIS Oersted

Euphrosyne borealis Oersted 1843, p. 18, pl. 2, figs. 23-27.

A fairly common species in the region covered by the collections. It was

recorded by Wesenberg-Lund (1934, p. 24) as a new record for East Green-

land. In the Bartlett collection it was taken at E. end of Cobourg Id., Baffin

Bay, 75°40’N., 78°50’W., Aug. 1935.

Family POLYNOIDAE

GaTTYANA McIntosh

(Nychia Malmgren name preoc.)

GATTYANA CIRROSA (Pallas)

Aphrodita cirrosa Pallas 1766, p. 95, pl. 8, figs. 3-6 (teste McIntosh).

Nychia cirrosa Malmgren 1865, p. 58, fig. 1.

Gattyana cirrosa McIntosh 1900, pp. 285-291, pl. 25, fig. 3; pl. 27, fig. 5;

pl. 31, fig. 1; pl. 37, figs. 16-19; pl. 42, fig. 27.

Collected 8. of Cape Martineau, Melville Peninsula, Aug. 9, 1933; Fox

Basin (N & B) 1933; E. end of Cobourg Id., Baffin Bay, 75° 41’N., 78° 20’W..,

Aug. 3, 1935; Murchison Sd., N. Greenland, Aug. 20, 1926.

EVARNELLA Chamberlin

(Evarne Malmgren name preoc.)

EVARNELLA IMPAR (Johnston)

Polynoe impar Johnston 1839, p. 463, pl. 22, figs. 3-9 (teste McIntosh).

Evarne impar McIntosh 1900, pp. 353-358; pl. 27, fig. 13; pl. 30. fig. 7; pl.

32, fig. 18; pl. 39, figs. 20-22.

Collected E. end of Cobourg Id., Baffin Bay, 75° 40’N., 78° 50’W., Aug.

3 and 4, 1935; 4 mi. east of Cape Dorchester, Fox Channel, Aug. 4, 1927;

3 mi. 8. from Salisbury Id., Hudson Strait (N & B)? July 25, 1933; Duckett

Cove, Hurd Channel, Aug. 11, 1933; between Hurd Channel and Melville

Peninsula, Aug. 7, 1933; S. of Cape Martineau, Melville Peninsula, Aug. 9,

1933; 66° 30’N., 80°W., Aug. 10, 1927.

2 Norcross-Bartlett Expedition, 1933.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, No. 1

HarMOTHOE Kinberg

HARMOTHOE IMBRICATA (Linnaeus)

A phrodita imbricata Linnaeus 1766, p. 1084 (teste McIntosh).

Harmothoe imbricata Malmgren 1865, p. 66, pl. 9, fig. 8; McIntosh 1900, pp.

314-327, text figs. 25-30; pl. 25, fig. 6; pl. 30, fig. 1; pl. 32, fig. 10; pl.

38, figs. 14-16; pl. 26a, figs. 1, 3-8, 12.

A very widely distributed species showing a considerable degree of vari-

ability. Collected at Bight, Shannon Id., N.E. Greenland, July 29, 1930; N.

Omenolu, North Star Bay, N. Greenland, July 28, 1932; Cape Alexander,

Smith Sound, N. Greenland, Aug. 26, 1932; Cape York, N. Greenland, in

dredge ‘‘between glacier and bill of Cape,” 76° 50’N., July 21, 1926; Cape

York, N. Greenland, 76° 0’N., July 21, 1926; Parker Snow Bay, N. Green-

. land, July 17, 1935; S. part of Fox Basin, 66° 43’N., 80° 07’W., Aug. 27,

1927; 3 mi. from Southampton Id., Hudson Strait, July 31, 1933; Sturges

Bourne Strait, W. end of Hurd Channel, Melville Peninsula (N & B), Aug.

18, 19383; Duckett’s Cove, Melville Peninsula, Aug. 11, 1933; N.E. end of

Melville Peninsula, entrance to Fury and Hecla Straits, Aug. 5, 1933 (N

& B); N.E. of Cape Dorchester, Fox Channel, Aug. 4, 1927; between Hurd

Channel and Melville Peninsula, Aug. 7, 1933; E. end of Cobourg Id., Baffin

Bay, 75° 40’N., 78° 50’ and 45’W., Aug. 3 and 4, 1935; Cove, N. shore of

Lyon Inlet, Melville Peninsula (N & B), Aug. 24 and 25, 1933; 8. of Cape

Martineau, Melville Peninsula, Aug. 9, 1933; 66° 30’N.; 80°W., Aug. 10,

1927; Labrador, no year given; Saglek Bay, Labrador, Sept. 25, 1925;

Coast of Labrador, summer 1925.

Harmothoe levis n. sp.

The type specimen is 15 mm long and, measured from the outer borders

of the elytra on opposite sides, 5 mm wide. The elytra overlap on the dorsal

surface and extend laterally so as to cover the basal third of the dorsal cirri.

In the type the protruded pharynx is 4 mm long. Under low magnification

the elytra have a smooth appearance, tinted faintly-pinkish gray, each be-

ing marked near the center (fig. 3) by a group of brown pigment granules.

To the naked eye this smooth surface with the prominent pigment is the

most characteristic feature of the animal. In the type the pigment is present

on all elytra, smallest anteriorly and gradually increasing in size in the fol-

lowing ones. In others the color may be absent in the most anterior elytra.

The prostomium is characteristic of the genus in that each half terminates

anteriorly in a peak beneath which, and invisible from above, are the large

anterior eyes. The posterior eyes are also large and lie near the postero-

lateral angle of the prostomium. The cirrophore of the median tentacle is

large and fills the dorso-median prostomial cleft. Its length is about equal

to that of the prostomium (fig. 1). The median tentacular style is about

two and one half times as long as the cirrophore, very faintly swollen near

the tip, and terminates in a slender filament. The prostomium is colored like

the elytra, the cirrophore of the median tentacle is a darker brown, the basal

half of the style is colored like the cirrophore, beyond this there is a lighter

area, then a darker one of about the same length, then the slight swelling

which is colorless. At the base of the filament is a dark spot, the remainder

being colorless. The lateral tentacles are scarcely longer than the cirrophore

of the median and are colored like it. Their slender apical regions are about

as long as the stouter basal portions. The palps are of moderate size and

JAN. 15, 1937 TREADWELL: POLYCHAETOUS ANNELIDS 27

taper uniformly to their apices, their general coloration being like that of

the median tentacle, the apices white. The tenacular and dorsal cirri are

like the median tentacle in form and color but in general are somewhat

smaller. The last three pairs of dorsal cirri are very long. Anal cirri had been

lost.

The protruded pharynx has dorsally ten and ventrally nine soft marginal

papillae. The teeth are very sharp pointed and light-brown in color with

darker margins. |

The first two pairs of elytra are nearly circular in outline, the others

kidney-shaped (fig. 3). The pigment patch is located postero-dorsally to the

elytrophore scar. Except for a very few clavate cilia on the posterior border,

the margin is smooth. Near the outer lateral margin are a few larger stout

spines and the whole surface is densely studded with minute spines not

shown in the figure.

A parapodium from the middle of the body (fig. 2), has a very long dorsal

cirrus, both dorsal and ventral cirri lying near the posterior parapodial

border, while the notopodial lobe is a little anterior to the neuropodial. The

notopodium is composed of a broadly rounded anterior and a very narrow

sharp-pointed posterior lip, with a fan-shaped row of heavy setae arising

between them. The acicula extends into the posterior lip. The neuropodium

is considerably longer and larger than the notopodium. It has a rounded

posterior lip, posterior to which the setae arise. The anterior lip is almost

rectangular in outline but has a narrow dorsal prolongation into which the

acicula extends.

The notopodial setae vary in size, the one at the ventral end of the series

being hardly one-half as wide or one-eighth as long as the dorsalmost one.

They are all (fig. 4) heavy, blunt-pointed, and have rows of toothed plates

extending nearly to the ends. The neuropodial setae have long slender

stalks widened toward the outer ends. Distally they gradually narrow again

so that the apices are about half as wide as the narrowest portion of the

stalk. Each (fig. 5) terminates in a terminal hook and a subterminal tooth.

Toothed plates extend nearly to the base of the tooth.

The type, No. 20222 U.S.N.M., was taken at Angmagssalik, E. Green-

land, on Aug. 31, 1931. Another specimen was secured between Capes

Martineau and McLaren, at the south end of Melville Peninsula on Aug. 19,

1933, and a third at 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 27, 1927.

This species is closely related to Harmothoe imbricata Linn.

EunorE Malmgren

EUNOE NODOSA (Sars)

Polynoe nodosa Sars 1860, p. 59.

Eunoe nodosa Malmgren 1865, p. 64, pl. 8, fig. 4; McIntosh 1900, pp. 291-

296, pl. 27, fig. 9; pl. 32, fig. 3; pl. 37, figs. 20, 22, 24, 26, 27; pl. 42, fig. 28.

Collected at Clavering Fiord, N.E. Greenland, Aug. 2, 1930; 66° 30’N.,

80° W., Aug. 10, 1927; Fox Basin, Aug. 26, 1927; Center of Fox Basin, Aug.

24 and 25, 1927; 8. part of Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80° 07’ W., Aug. 12, 1927;

coast of Labrador, Sept.—Oct. 1925; Fox Basin (N & B), 1933.

EUNOE OERSTEDI Malmgren

EKunoe oerstedi Malmgren 1865, pl. 8, fig. 3.

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, No. 1

A species related to E. nodosa and considered by Fauvel (1914, p. 51) as

synonymous with it. One important distinction in the specimens in the Bart-

lett collection is that H. oerstedi has very prominent spines on the elytra

which are not found in FE. nodosa.

Collected at Cape Alexander, Smith Sound, N. Greenland, Aug. 26, 1932;

Hurd Channel between Bushman Id. and Melville Peninsula, Aug. 17, 1933;

S. end of Cobourg Id., Baffin Bay, 75° 40’N., 78° 58’W., Aug. 4, 1935; 66°

36’N., 78° 58’W., Aug. 10, 1927.

Family NEPHTHYDIDAE

Neputuys Cuvier

NEPHTHYS CILIATA (Miiller)

Nereis ciliata Miller 1789, p. 114, pl. 89, figs. 1-4 (teste McIntosh); Malm-

gren 1865, p. 104, pl. 12, fig. 17; McIntosh 1908, pp. 24-27, pl. 66, fig. 9;

Dla te ties. 6, Fe

Collected between Capes Martineau and McLaren, 8. end of Melville

Peninsula, Aug. 19, 1933; Duckett’s Cove, Hurd Channel, Aug. 11, 1933;

King Francis Joseph Fiord, N.E. Greenland, Aug. 4, 1936; North Fiord,

N.E. Greenland, Aug. 2, 1936.

Family PHYLLODOCIDAE

PHYLLODOCE Savigny

PHYLLODOCE GROENLANDICA Oersted

Phyllodoce groenlandica Oersted 1842-438, p. 121 (teste McIntosh) ; McIntosh

1908, pp. 86-88, pl. 58, fig. 5; pl. 68, figs. 4, 5, 6; pl. 78, fig. 7.

Collected at Clavering Fiord, N.W. Greenland, July 29, 1930; Disco Id.,

July 17, 1935 (this specimen is badly macerated and is recorded as taken

from a cod’s stomach); at entrance to Straits of Fury and Hecla, Sept. 3, ~

1933. One bottle, marked simply ‘‘Labrador’”’ contained a much injured

specimen too badly broken for identification. It possibly is of this species.

Family SYLLIDAE

SYLLIS Savigny

SYLLIS ARMILLARIS (Miiller)

Nereis armillaris Miller 1776, p. 217 (teste McIntosh).

Syllis armillaris Oersted 1842-43, p. 118 (teste McIntosh); McIntosh 1908,

pp. 188-191, pl. 60, fig. 1; pl. 70, fig. 14; pl. 80 (1910), figs. 8, 8a.

Collected at 70° 04’N., 17° 58’W. (N & B); 66° 30’N., 80°W.; and at S.

part of Fox Basin, 66° 43'N., 80°07" W.., Aug. 12,1927.

Por poem ents Oersted

POLYBOSTRICHUS (AUTOLYTUS) LONGOSETOSUS Oersted

Polybostrichus longosetosus Oersted 1843, p. 183, pl. 5, figs. 62, 67, 71 (teste

Quatrefages).

Collected at 8S. part of Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80° 10’ W., Aug. 27, 1927.

JAN. 15, 1937 TREADWELL: POLYCHAETOUS ANNELIDS 29

OopHyLax Ehlers

Oophylax minuta n. sp.

The type and only specimen is very small, hardly 2 mm in length. It was

found clinging to another annelid, but this association evidently was acci-

dental. The prostomium has a width of nearly twice its length (fig. 6), and

near its posterior border are four large eyes, the lateral ones being slightly

the larger. The lenses of the median eyes are directed dorsally, those of the

lateral ones dorso-laterally. Anterior to these on either side is a much

smaller eye. The palps are short and are fused nearly to their ends, this

fusion being more complete dorsally than ventrally. Focussing below the

level shown in the figure shows a definite cleft between them. The tentacles

are heavy, each having a swollen basal portion which abruptly narrows into

a cylindrical terminal region, the latter ringed in such a way as to resemble

articulations.

The first somite is rather short and has on either side a tentacular cirrus

which is slightly smaller than the tentacle but is otherwise similar to it in

shape. There are twenty-five pairs of parapodia, all prominent, the first one

rounded in outline but later ones become gradually more sharp pointed

toward the ends. In anterior somites the dorsal cirri are larger than the

tentacular but similar to them in form. Beginning at about the sixth para-

podium, these begin to narrow toward their bases and throughout the greater

part of the body they are cylindrical and extend beyond the ends of the

parapodia. There is one pair of short, thick, anal cirri (fig. 7). I was unable

to see clearly the anterior ventral cirri but posterior ones are slender and

cylindrical and reach about half way to the ends of the parapodia. The para-

podia are conical, each having at its apex a small, colorless, posteriorly

directed cirrus (see figs. 6, 7). The setae are all compound and prominent,

the largest reaching beyond the parapodium to a distance equal to the length

of the latter. The basal joint is slender, expanding noticeably at the hetero-

gomph outer end. There are two kinds of terminal joints in each somite

differing from one another only in length. Their ends are curved to sharp

hooks. I was unable to decide whether their concave margins are merely

roughened or carry excessively minute hairs. The pharynx has anteriorly a

single median tooth and extends as far as the posterior border of the third

setigerous somite. The crop extends through four somites.

The unique type, No. 20223 U.S.N.M., was collected four miles east of

Cape Dorchester in Fox Channel on Aug. 4, 1927.

Oophylax is diagnosed by Ehlers (1864, p. 252) as having ‘‘four paired

head appendages and eyes, palps more or less fused, seta-bearing para-

podium of the first somite similar to later ones.’’ Chamberlin (1919, pp. 166,

167) stated that Oophylaz, with some other genera, is synonymous with

Exogone, which he defined (p. 165) as having palps completely fused and

rudimentary tentacular cirri, with all tentacles and cirri cylindrical. The

specimen agrees more closely with Ehlers’ than with Chamberlin’s diagnosis

and I have therefore described it as Oophylaz.

Family NEREIDAE

NereEIs Linnaeus

NEREIS PELAGICA Linnaeus

Nereis pelagica Linnaeus 1746, p. 2096; McIntosh 1910, pp. 267—280, pl. 52,

figs. 1, 2; p. 160 (1908), figs. 6-6b; pl. 71, figs. 7—7i; pl. 80, figs. 25, 25b.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 1

A very widely distributed species but no great number of specimens ap-

peared in the Bartlett collections. Collected at 63° 16’ 09’’ N., 84° 21’ 15” W.,

Aug. 1, 1933; 3 mi. 8. of Salisbury Id. (N & B), July 27, 1933; mouth of Bay

of Gods Mercy, Southampton Id., Hudson Bay (N & B), Aug. 5, 1933; a

much mutilated specimen in epitokous condition was taken at Duckett’s

Cove, Melville Peninsula, Aug. 13, 1933; Coast of Labrador, 1925; 74° 04’

No Al 58 We. (Nie B), July 20,1930.

NEREIS ARCTICA Oersted

Heteronereis arctica Oersted 1848, p. 179. pl. 4, figs. 50, 51; pl. 5, figs. 65,

68, 69—-70* (teste Quatrefages).

Collected at 8.E. corner of Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 13,1927.

NEREIS (CERATONEREIS) Kinberg

Nereis (Ceratonereis) bartletti,’® n. sp.

The type and only specimen is 28 mm long and 0.75 mm wide at the

prostomium. The prostomium is colorless. On the peristomium is a faint

dusting of brown pigment which becomes slightly more intense in the follow-

ing somites and noticeably so on the region from the sixth to the thirtieth,

being densest from the fifteenth to the twentieth. Behind the thirtieth this

pigmentation continues in a gradually decreasing intensity to nearly the

posterior end of the body. Except where it is more intense it is limited to a

transverse dorsal band in each somite as long as one half the dorsal body-

diameter and leaving uncolored the intermediate regions. In more deeply

pigmented somites there are lateral patches on the parapodial bases sep-

arated from the dorsal ones by a distinct colorless line.

The prostomial length is about equal to its breadth (fig. 8), rather broadly

rounded on the anterior border. The tenacles are relatively rather heavy

and are well separated from one another. The basal joints of the palps are

heavy and extend well beyond the tentacle ends, the terminal joints being

mere knobs. Two pairs of prominent eyes are situated well toward the poste-

rior border. In the preserved specimen the posterior eyes are about one half

covered by the overlapping margin of the peristomium. The posterior dorsal

tentacular cirrus reaches to the anterior border of the seventh somite, the

anterior dorsal to the anterior border of the fourth, the ventral ones are

hardly longer than the prostomium. The dorsal ones are more slender than

the ventral and show a small amount of jointing. All dorsal cirri are slender,

unjointed, and not especially long. The two anal cirri are as long as the last

ten body somites.

In the protruded state of the pharynx the peristomium is much wider

than the prostomium. In the mid-dorsal line it is about twice as long as

somite 2. The following somites increase in length and width as far as the

region of the twentieth, while posterior to that they gradually decrease

toward the posterior end.

The protruded pharynx (fig. 8) has large teeth, each with a terminal fang

and five heavy denticulations. The paragnath formula is I, absent; II, not

more than ten, in two rows, the larger lying on the inner row; III, a few ob-

scure denticles rather widely separated; IV, on either side a roughly tri-

angular patch whose apex extends as two rows nearly to the bases of the

jaws; V, VI, VII and VIII absent.

3 In honor of the discoverer, Capt. R. A. Bartlett.

JAN. 15, 1937 TREADWELL: POLYCHAETOUS ANNELIDS al

Anterior parapodia (fig. 9) have a heavy dorsal cirrus extending for about

one-third its length beyond the end of the dorsal lobe. This dorsal lobe is an

elongated oval in outline, its outer half only slightly narrower than its inner.

The setal lobe is a small elevation on the dorsal surface of the ventral lip

and the acicula ends in it. The ventral lip of the notopodium is roughly tri-

angular in outline, its base extending beyond the end of the dorsal lobe. In

the neuropodium the setal lobe has a vertical posterior and a conical an-

terior lip, the large acicula ending in the latter. The ventral lip is heavy and

shorter than the setal lobe. A parapodium from the middle of the body (fig.

10) has much the same structure as the anterior ones, except that the lobes

are more pointed. This general structure persists posteriorly, the only

change being that the lobes become still more pointed.

In anterior parapodia there are few notopodial setae (three in the para-

podium drawn, fig. 9), each having a very slender homogomph basal portion,

the terminal joint long and slender and finely toothed along one margin. The

neuropodial setae are in two tufts, one above and one below the acicula. In

each tuft are two kinds of setae, one form being like those of the notopodium,

the other having heterogomph basal joints, the terminal joint a flattened

blade that narrows regularly from base to apex which is rounded and slightly

curved. Along one margin is a row of bristles (fig. 11). On the second and

third parapodia in front of the pygidium are setae not found farther forward.

On the specimen examined there is in the notopodium one shown in figure 12.

This has homogomph basal joint. The terminal joint is elongated-oval in

outline, one end being inserted in the notch at the end of the basal. In the

neuropodium are two like figure 13. The basal joint is heterogomph, the

terminal short and thick, curved slightly and has a row of bristles for about

half its concave margin. Both of these forms of setae are much larger than

any in anterior somites and have much darker basal joints.

Type, No. 20224, U.S.N.M., was taken in a dredge at 129 fathoms at

74° 04’ N., 17° 58’ W., on July 30, 1931.

Family LEODICIDAE

LUMBRINEREIS Blainville

LUMBRINEREIS FRAGILIS (Miller)

Lumbricus fragilis Miller 1788, p. 22, pl. 22, figs. 1-3.

Lumbriconereis fragilis Audouin et Edwards 1833, vol. 28, p. 244; McIntosh

1910, pp. 372-376, pl. 62, figs. 1, la; pl. 72, figs. 8—-8ce; pl. 82, figs. 2—2b.

All of the specimens in the collection were badly macerated and the identi-

fication was made mostly through the structure of the jaws.

Collected in summer of 1925, coast of Labrador; Saglek Bay, Labrador,

Oct. 1, 1925; Coast of Labrador, Sept.—Oct. 1925.

OnvupuHis Audouin et Edwards

ONUPHIS CONCHYLEGA Sars

Onuphis conchylega Sars 1835, p. 61, pl. 10, figs. 28 a-e; McIntosh 1910, pp.

410-413, pl. 63, fig. 9; pl. 64, figs. 1-la; pl. 75, fig. 7; pl. 84, figs. 5—-5e.

In the identification I have followed MeIntosh’s description. The only

differences I could find are that the frontal tentacles are more prominent

and the nuchal cirri longer than in his statement. There is much variation

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 1

in the coloration from practically no color at all to a dense brown dorsal

pigmentation.

Collected at 74° 04’ N., 17° 58’ W., July 30, 1931 (N & B); 74° 21 N°

16° 30’ W., July 29, 1931; E. end of Cobourg Id., Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N.,

78° 50’ W., Aug. 3, 1935; 75° 40’ N., 78° 55’ W., Aug. 3, 1935.

Family GLYCERIDAE

GLYCERA Savigny

GLYCERA LAPIDUM de Quatrefages

Glycera lapidum de Quatrefages 1865, pp. 187, 188; McIntosh 1910, pp. 477—

481, pl. 55, fig. 4; pl. 64, figs. 9-9a; pl. 76, figs. 1-1b; pl. 85, figs. 3—-3b.

Collected at S. end of Cobourg Id., Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 58’ W., Aug.

4, 1935.

Family OPHELIDAE

OPHELIA Savigny

OPHELIA LIMACINA Rathke

Ophelia limacina Rathke 18438, p. 190, pl. 10, figs. 4-8 (teste MeIntosh);

McIntosh 1915, pp. 9-14; pl. 88, fig. 1; pl. 95, figs. 1, 1d.

Collected at Hakluyt Id., Whale Sound, 77° 26’ N., 72° 30’ W., July 30,

1935; E. end Cobourg Id., Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 56’ W., Aug. 4, 1935;

and at latter locality but at 58’ W. on Aug. 4, 1935.

Family CHLORHAEMIDAE

Brapba Stimpson

BRADA GRANOSA Stimpson

Brada granosa Stimpson 1854, p. 32.

E. end Cobourg Id., Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 50’ W., Aug. 3, 1935;

King Francis Joseph Fiord, N.E. Greenland, Aug. 4, 1936.

Family AMPHICTENIDAE

PEcTINARIA Lamarck

PECTINARIA GRANULATA (Linnaeus)

Sabella granulata Linnaeus 1766, p. 1268.

Cistenides granulata Malmgren 1865, p. 359.

Collected at Angmagssalik, E. Greenland, Aug. 28, 1931; Parker Snow

Bay, off Cape York, July 17, 1935; N. Omenolu, near North Star Bay, N.

Greenland, July 28, 1932; Cape York, N. Greenland, Aug. 28, 1932; 5 mi.

S. of Cape Chalon, N. Greenland, July 27, 1932; between Capes Martineau

and McLaren, Aug. 19, 1933; cove N. shore Lyon Inlet, Melville Peninsula,

Aug. 24 and 25, 1933; Duckett’s Cove, Hurd Channel, Aug. 11 and 12, 1933;

Hurd Channel, between Bushman Id. and Melville Peninsula, Aug. 17, 1933;

S. of Cape Martineau, Melville Peninsula, Aug. 19, 1933; King Francis

Joseph Fiord, N.E. Greenland, Aug. 4, 1936.

JAN. 15, 1937 TREADWELL: POLYCHAETOUS ANNELIDS 30

Family AMPHARETIDAE

AMPHARETE Malmgren

AMPHARETE GROENLANDICA Grube?

Ampharete groenlandica Grube 1860, vol. 26, pp. 106-107, pl. 5, figs. 3, 3a, 3b.

A single female with eggs. All of the tentacles have been lost and I have

provisionally identified it as above.

Collected at 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 27, 1927.

Family TEREBELLIDAE

THELEPUS Leuckart

THELEPUS CINCINNATUS (Fabricius)

Amphitrite cincinnata Fabricius 1780, p. 286.

Thelepus cincinnata Malmgren 1865, p. 387, pl. 22, fig. 58.

Thelepus cioncinnatus Verrill 1874, vol. 7, p. 499; McIntosh 1922, pp. 170-

177, pl. 120, fig. 1; pl. 126, figs. 6-6d (var. andreneae).

Abundant in the collections associated with Pista groenlandica. The

tubes differ from those of P. groenlandica in that Thelepus uses larger

and a more heterogeneous collection of pebbles to cover the surface than

does Pista.

Collected at 74° 04’ N., 17° 58’ W. (N & B), July 30, 1931; 74° 21’ N.,

16° 30’ W. (N & B), July 29, 1931; North Omenolu, North Star Bay, N.

Greenland, Aug. 26, 1932; 5 mi. S. from Cape Charles, N. Greenland, July

27, 1932; E. end of Cobourg Id., Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., Aug. 3,

1935; at entrance to Strait of Fury and Hecla, Sept. 3, 1933; 3 mi. S. from

Salisbury Id. (N & B), Hudson Strait, July 25, 1933; cove to windward of

Cape Charles, W. side of Lyon Inlet, Melville Peninsula, Aug. 18, 1933; be-

tween Capes Martineau and McLaren, S. end of Melville Peninsula, Aug.

19, 1933; S. of Cape Martineau, Melville Peninsula, Aug. 19, 1933; 66° 30’

INE. 307 W, Aug. 10, 1927.

Pista Malmgren

PIsTA FLEXUOSA (Grube)

Terebella fleruosa Grube 1860, vol. 26, pp. 102-103, pl. 5, figs. 2 and 2a.

Scione flecuosa Wesenberg-Lund 1934, p. 29.

The arrangement of the gills puts this species in the genus Pista.

Collected at E. end of Cobourg Id., Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 58’ W.,

Aug. 3, 1935.

Pista groenlandica n. sp.

Common in the collection in association with the commoner Thelepus

cincinnatus Fabricius. Their tubes may be distinguished by the fact that

they are somewhat smaller than are those of the latter species and the sur-

faces of the tubes are covered with sand grains which are smaller and more

uniform in size than is the case with T. cincinnatus.

The type is 70 mm long and has a prostomial width of 3 mm. So far as

can be determined on preserved material the body width is fairly uniform

throughout except that there is a noticeable narrowing at the posterior end.

04 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 1

The cephalic margin is not very pronounced and on its latero-ventral side

is largely covered by a large latero-ventral lobe of the first somite. Ventrally

it is separated by a notch from the high and rather narrow supraoral fold.

None of the specimens had been preserved outside of the tube and it was

found quite impossible to remove them from the tubes without injuring

the tentacles and only a few of these remain on the type. They occur in a

dense tuft and when contracted show grooving. No eyes were visible. Dor-

sally the first somite is very short, its two halves separated in the mid-dorsal

line by a forward expansion of the second somite that carries the gills. A

prominent lateral lobe is present on either side of the first somite. Ventrally

the two lobes are united by a transverse bridge (fig. 14), and posterior to

this each lobe sends out a rounded process, the two nearly meeting in the

mid-ventral line. The second somite is very short on the mid-ventral line

but widens laterally and is continued dorsally as a larger area carrying the

gills. The third somite carries ventrally the first shield which extends over

the second somite and is divided into two by a transverse line. Laterally

the third somite carries a free lobe which extends forward nearly as far as

the anterior border of the first somite (fig. 15). There is one pair of gills

situated on the dorsal surface of the second somite. Each (fig. 15) has a heavy

base and divides into five (in the one figured) branches which subdivide

toward the ends. There is no indication of a spiral arrangement such as has

been described in other species of this genus.

On the type are twelve well defined ventral shields and behind them a row

of very much smaller ones that at about the twentieth somite fade away

into a deep groove. A row of ten cirri, of which the two ventral ones are the

largest, surround the anus.

The first seta tuft is on the fourth somite and there are sixteen pairs. The

setigerous ridges increase in size from anterior to posterior ones, the later

ones being prominent. The uncini begin on the fifth somite, the tori being very

low as far as the setae extend and behind this they protrude considerably

from the body. They continue to the posterior end of the body, the latest ones

being smaller. The setae are all long and slender, very fine-pointed, and

gently curved at the ends. They are bilimbate, the wings being noticeably stri-

ated. An uncinus (fig. 16) has a broadly rounded base and one large hook. At

the apex there isa much smaller hook and on either side one larger than the

apical one. A hook-like projection lies between the uncinal base and the

largest hook. In anterior tori the uncini are in single rows but at about the

tenth the rows become double with alternate uncini facing in opposite direc-

tions.

The type, No. 20225, U.S.N.M., and a paratype deposited in the American

Museum of Natural History were collected at the east side of Cobourg Id.,

Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., Aug. 3, 1935. Others were taken 5 miles

S. of Cape Charles; at entrance to Straits of Fury and Hecla; at Duckett’s

Cove, Hurd Channel; at 74° 04’ N., 17° 58’ W.; and at 74° 21’ N., 16°30’ W.

Pista cristata O. F. Miller appears in a number of lists of polychaetous

annelids collected from the northeastern coast of North America and

MelIntosh (1922, p. 160) lists the species from Canada (Whiteaves), New

England and Atlantic coast (Verrill), and Virginia (Webster). In his diag-

nosis of the species, McIntosh (p. 158) states that the gills arise from the

anterior border of the fourth somite, but later (p. 161) he locates them on

the third. In P. groenlandica they are on the third. Other differences are

that in P. cristata there are three pairs of lateral lobes on the second, third,

and fourth somites, respectively, while P. groenlandica has only one pair on

JAN. 15, 1937 TREADWELL: POLYCHAETOUS ANNELIDS 30

the second. The arrangement of anal papillae is quite different, as is the

structure of the uncini. Verrill (1882, pl. 11, fig. 2) figures P. cristata, but

his figure seems to correspond more closely to P. groenlandica, and McIntosh

does not record any personal observations on any American forms, basing

his descriptions solely on the European. It seems to me quite possible that

the ones described from North America are P. groenlandica. I cannot find

that the papers show anything more than a relisting of the species without

any critical examination. The relationship between the two species is close.

TEREBELLIDES Sars

TEREBELLIDES STROEMI Sars

Terebellides stroem2 Sars 1835, p. 48, pl. 18, fig. 31 (teste McIntosh) ; McIntosh

1922p. 209-215,pl. 127, fies. 5,9) (oa,10a', ob.

A single entire specimen which agrees in all respects with the description

given by McIntosh, except that it has only one pair of gills on the second

somite, while McIntosh describes two pairs on somites 2 and 3. His figure,

however (pl. 120, fig. 3), shows only one pair.

Collected at Cove, N. shore of Lyon Inlet, Melville Peninsula, Aug. 24,

1933.

Family SABELLIDAE

CHONE Kroyer

CHONE DUNERI Malmgren

Chone dunert Malmgren 1867, p. 116, pl. 13, fig. 75; McIntosh 1923, pp.

295-297, pl. 130, figs. 3— 30.

Distinguished from C. infundibuliformis, which is Lene commoner in this

region, by the fact that in C. dunerz the thoracic spatulate setae have long

sharp points, while in C. znfundzbuliformis they have rounded ends.

Collected at E. end of Cobourg Id., Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W.,

Aug. 3, 1935.

Family SERPULIDAE

SPIRORBIS Daudin

SPIRORBIS SPIRILLUM (Lamarck)

Serpula spirillum Linnaeus 1758, p. 786.

Sptrorbis spirillum Lamarck 1818, p. 359; McIntosh 1923, pp. 391-396, pl.

122, figs. 9-9b; pl. 132, figs. 6—6f.

Collected in considerable numbers on floating sea weed at mouth of Bay

of Gods Mercy, Southampton Id., Hudson Bay, Aug. 5, 1933 (N & B).

LITERATURE CITED

Aupbouin, J. V. et Mitnze-Epwarps, H. Classification des Annélides et description des

especes qui habitent les cétes de la France. Vols. 28-30. Paris. 1832-36.

CHAMBERLIN, Rautpo V. The annulata Polychaeta. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zodl., Har-

vard Univ. 48: 1-514, 80 pls. 1919.

EHLERS, Ernst. Die Borstenwiirmer, Pt. 1, pp. 1-290, 11 pls. Leipsic. 1864.

Fapricius, OTHo. Fauna groenlandica. Hafniar et Lipsiae. 1780.

FauveE.L, Pierre. Annélides Polychétes. Résultats des Campagnes Scientifiques Ac-

complies sur son Yacht par Albert 1°. pp. 1-431, 31 pls. Monaco. 1914.

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 1

GruBe, ApouteH E. Beschreibung neuer oder wenig bekannter Anneliden. Archiv f.

Naturgesch. 26: 71-118, pls. 3-5. 1860.

JOHNSTON, GEORGE. The British Aphroditacea. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. Vol. 2.

London. 1839.

LAMARCK, J. B. Anim. sans Vert. Vol. 2. 1818.

LinnakEvs, Cary. Fauna Suec., Ed. 2. 1746.

Systema naturae, ed. 10. 1758.

——— Systema naturae, ed. 12. 1766.

McInrosu, Wm. C. British Annelids. Ray Soc. Monographs. Vol. 1, Pt. 2, Amphinom-

idae to Sigalionidae, pp. 215-242, pls. 24-42, text figs. 15-33, 1900; Vol. 2, Pt. 1,

Nephthydidae to Syllidae, pp. i-viii, 1-232, pls. 43-50, 57—70, text figs. 34—57,

1908; Vol. 2, Pt. 2, Syllidae to Ariciidae, pp. 233-524, pls. 51-56, 71-87. text figs.

58-94, 1910; Vol. 3, Pt. 1, Opheliidae to Ammocharidae, pp. i—viii and 1—368, text

figs. 95-135, 1915; Vol. 3, Pt. 2, pls. 88-111, 1915; Vol. 4, Pt. 1, Hermellidae to

Sabellidae, pp. i-viii and 1—250, pls. 112-114, 118-127, 1922; Vol. 4, Pt. 2, pp. i-xii

and 251-539, Sabellidae to Serpulidae, pls. 115-117, 128-138, 1923.

MauMGRreNn, A. J. WNordiske Hafs-Annulata. Ofvers Kung. Vetensk. Akad. Forh.,

pp. 55-110, 181-192, 355-410, 22 pls. 1865.

Moors, J. Percy. Description of some new Polynoidae with a list of other polychaeta

from North Greenland Waters. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 54: 258-278, pls. 13,

14. 1902.

Mutuuer, O. F. Zoologiae Danicae Prodromus. Hafniae. 1776.

Zoologiae Danicae. Hafniae. 1788.

OrrstED, A. 8. Conspectus genarum species unique Naidium ad faunam Danica

pertinentum. Naturhist. Tidschrift, Kroyer. 1: 128-140, 3 pls. 1842-43.

— Groenlands Annulata Dorsibranchiata. Copenhagen. 1848.

Patuas, O. S. Miscellanea Zoologica. 1766.

QUATREFAGES, A.de. Histoire naturelles des Annelés marins et d’eau douce. Annélides

et Gephyreans. Vol. 2, Pt. 1, pp. 794. Paris. 1865.

RatTHKE, H. Beitrage zur Fauna Norwegens. Nov. Acta Leopold Na. Cur., Vol. 20,

pl. 1-12. 1848.

Sars, M. Beskrivelser og Jagttaegeler over nye eller merkelige i havet ved den N. Mag.

Hist., Vol. 10. Christiana. 1835.

——— Om de ved Norges forekommenden Arter of Annelides loegten Polynoe. Forh.

de Vid Selek. Christiana. 1860.

STIMPSON, WILLIAM. Synopsis of the Marine Fauna of Grand Manan. Smithson.

Contrib. to Knowledge. 6: 5-67, 3 pls. 1854.

VERRILL, ADDISON E. Brief Contributions to Zoology from Museum of Yale College.

Am. Jour. Sci. 7: 498-505. 1873-74.

WESENBERG-LUND, EuisE. Gephyreans and Annelids from the Scoresby Sound Com-

mittee’s 2nd East Greenland Expedition in 1932 to King Christian’s Land. Med-

deleser om Groenland, Vol. 104, Pt. 14, pp. 1-38, 8 figs., 1 chart, 1 table. 1934.

ZOOLOGY .—Resistance to intestinal trichinosis in experimental ani-

mals induced by feeding metabolic products of encysted trichinae.*

L. A. SPINDLER, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. 8. Department

of Agriculture (Communicated by BENJAMIN SCHWARTZ).

Administration of vaccines by mouth has been found to be of

value in some cases in the treatment of certain diseases, and in

view of this, it occurred to the writer that metabolic products elab-

orated by trichina larvae might be used in a similar manner to

produce a resistance to intestinal infestation with this parasite.

Attempted immunization by injection of trichina proteins has

yielded negative results.” In order to determine, therefore, whether

the ingestion of metabolic products of trichina larvae would pro-

1 Received October 7, 1936.

2 McCoy, O. R. Amer. Jour. Hyg. 21: 200. 1935.

JAN. 15, 1937 SPINDLER: TRICHINOSIS oO”

tect animals against infection with this parasite, carcasses of rab-

bits containing encysted trichinae were digested in artificial gastric

juice thus liberating into the digestive fluid possible metabolic

products of the larvae present within the capsules.

The digestive fluid was prepared and the digestive process car-

ried out as outlined by Ransom.’ The fluid obtained following the

digestion of trichinous’ meat was filtered through a Mandler filter

to remove all trichina larvae and coarse undigested particles; be-

TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF FEEDING METABOLIC PRODUCTS OF ENCYSTED TRICHINAE

No. of Days Percentage of

No. of trichinae Neutralized digestive duration Average No. of trichinae in

Test animals used given per fluid per animal (ce) Coke trichinae per animal test suns

No. animal infection os corel

test and control tosh and test control tetand test control

1 4 rats 1,850 8to 12 0 3 663 1,100 60.3

2 4 rats 5,200 10 to 15 0 3 3,910 4,630 84.4

3 4 rats 10,150 G toy 8 0 6 3 , 560 4,950 71.9

4 4 rats 10,000 50 to 70 0 4 1,750 3,300 53.0

5 4 rats 500 | 140 to 200 0 3 128 400 32.0

5a | 2 rats 500 95 to 1001; O 3 170 398 42.7

5b] 2 rats 900 90 to 1107} O 3 395 400 98.8

6 2 rabbits 25,000 | 110 to 125 0 6 5,075 | 12,950 39.1

fi 2 rabbits 26,375 65 to 80 0 4 7,470 | 18,522 40.3

8 2 rabbits? 4 ,000 30 to 60 0 3 200 1.200 16.6

8a | 2 rabbits 4,000 30 to 60 0 3 187 2 15.6

9 | 4 guinea pigs‘ 555 | 100 to 125 0 3 220 55.0

9a | 4 guinea pigs? 555 | 120 to 130 0 3 175 400 43.8

9b| 4 guinea pigs? 555 | 115 to 145 0 3 400 100.0

10 | 3 guinea pigs® 800 60 to 80 0) 3 325 600 54.2

10a | 3 guinea pigs® 800 50 to 85 0 3 563 93.8

1 Digestive fluid heated before feeding.

2 Fluid obtained after artificial digestion of carcass of trichina-free rabbit.

3 Two control rabbits were used in these tests.

4 Four control guinea pigs were used in these tests.

5 Three control guinea pigs were used in these tests.

fore administering the fluid, it was neutralized with decinormal

sodium hydroxide, using phenolphthalein as an indicator. Rats,

rabbits and guinea pigs were the host animals used in the experi-

ments.

Both test and control animals were infected with equal numbers

of trichina larvae, and the test animals were given the neutralized

digestive fluid by mouth throughout the duration of the experi-

ment; the control animals received distilled water instead of the

digestive fluid. ,

A post-mortem comparison, made 38 to 6 days after infection, of

the number of adult trichinae in the test animals with those present

‘Ransom, B. . Jour Agric. Res. 5:819. 1916.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, No. 1

in the controls was the criterion for determining whether or not a

resistance had been brought about by ingestion of the digestive

fluid. The technic involved in these examinations was the same as

that outlined by McCoy.*

To determine whether animals would be protected from an ex-

perimental infection with trichinae by ingesting artificial gastric

juice in which trichina-free rabbit meat had been digested, animals

in tests 5b, 9b, and 10a were fed fluid obtained by artificially digest-

ing uninfected rabbit carcasses. It will be noted that these animals

were not protected, since they harbored practically as many tri-

chinae as the controls that received no digestive fluid.

Ten tests were carried out and the results are summarized in

Table 1. These data show that the test animals were protected to a

greater or lesser extent against experimental intestinal trichinosis,

since the test animals harbored only from 15.6 to 84.4 percent of

the numbers of trichinae present in the controls. In tests 5a and 9a

the digestive fluid was heated at 50°C for 30 minutes, and in test

8a it was heated at 60°C for 30 minutes, before administering it

to the animals. As shown in Table 1, the animals which received

the heated digestive fluid harbored from 15.6 to 43.8 percent of the

number of trichinae harbored by the controls, showing that the

immunizing principle was not destroyed by heating at these tem-

peratures.

From the tests reported in this paper, it may be concluded that

artificial gastric juice in which trichinous meat has been digested

contains a substance capable of protecting to a certain extent, rats,

rabbits, and guinea pigs from an experimental intestinal infection

with trichinae. This protective substance is associated with the

presence of trichinae, and is not destroyed by moderate heating.

Additional investigations of this problem are in progress.

4 McCoy, O. R. Amer. Jour. Hyg. 21: 200. 1935.

JAN. 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 39

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

BOLANICAL: SOCIETY

270TH MEETING

The 270th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club, January 7, 1936, President Joun W. RoBeErts presiding; attendance

100. Mary ExvizaBeTH Pierce, ARTHUR F. SIEVERS, and JEssE D. DILLER

were elected to membership.

Notes and reviews.—CHARLES THOM called attention to a very complete

Medical Mycology by C. W. Dodge. C. R. Baw called attenton to the

diamond willows and passed around an interesting example from Alaska.

Program.—Notes on the annual meetings of the American Association for

the Advancement of Science at St. Louis were given by: H. A. Epson for

pathology; A nice M. ANnpzERSEN for physiology; S. L. EmMsweuunr for

genetics; Nuit EK. Stevens for general botanical matters; W. J. Zav-

MEYER for virus diseases.

N. R. Situ gave notes on the bacteriological meetings at New York City,

and EK. A. HoLLOWELL on the agronomy meetings at Chicago.

2718T MEETING

The 271st regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club, February 4, 1936, President Jonn W. RopeErts presiding; attendance

93. THora N. Puirr and Drwry Stewart were elected to membership.

Notes and reviews.—GEORGE M. Darrow called attention to a new book,

entitled Gardens of Color by Henslow, head of Kew Gardens.

Program.—Miriam L. Bomuarp: Leaf venation—a useful criterion for

distinguishing the poisonous water hemlocks from the harmless angelicas. Pub-

lish in this JouRNAL 26: 102-107. 1936.

SHIO SAKANISHI: Japanese flower arrangement.

Mrs. Hersert H. Grecor: Demonstrations of Japanese flower arrange-

ment.

272ND MEETING

The 272nd regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club, March 3, 1936, President Joun W. RoseErts presiding; attendance

137. Orto Brown, F. J. Criper, Guy C. FuLuer, Ernest G. Hott,

WattTer V. Kevi, WituiAmM R. Van DERSAL, and Rosert L. WEINTRAUB

were elected to membership.

Notes and reviews.—C. R. Batt called attention to the use of willow trees

as roosting places for blackbirds. M.A. Ratnus gave a description of sheet

culture technique for growing young plants.

Program.—CHARLES R. ENLow: The agronomy program of the Soil

Conservation Service. In the United States, 300,000,000 acres are affected

by soil erosion. Of this acreage, 50,000,000 are essentially destroyed,

50,000,000 practically destroyed, 100,000,000 almost depleted of topsoil,

and another 100,000,000 now eroding. The Soil Conservation Service has

at present 141 projects in operation in 41 states, covering 46,600,000 acres

of land. Of this acreage, 39,700,000 are Federal land, and 6,900,000 agri-

cultural farm lands. The extent of the agronomic work on this acreage is

well illustrated by the fact that 65% of the land on the projects in seven

southeastern states is in crops and pastures, and the percentage is still

larger in other sections of the country.

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 1

The difficulty encountered in developing a national agronomic policy is

well illustrated by the varying conditions in Region 7 (Nebraska, Kansas

and Oklahoma). This region has a rainfall of from 14 to 50 inches; soils

ranging from alkaline to acid; has both water and wind erosion; dryland

agriculture, wheat growing, cotton growing, corn production, and general

farming. The method of erosion control in use at present by the Agronomy

Section consists of rearranging the farm lands to retain soil and moisture. In

attempting erosion control, proper rotations, strip cropping, contour farm-

ing, pasture management, winter and summer cover crops, change in tillage

methods, contouring of pastures, and reseeding of abandoned land, blow

land and gullies with commercial and native grasses and other plants, are

some of the principal methods of attack. Results of experiments in strip

cropping and contour farming from the soil erosion Experiment Stations at

Temple, Texas, Tyler, Texas, and Guthrie, Oklahoma, show these practices

save much soil and water. At Guthrie, Oklahoma, cotton lost eleven times

as much water by runoff as Bermuda grass and 670 times as much soil.

Burton F. Kittrz: Native grasses of the prairies and plains. <A recent

need has appeared requiring much of the land that has been plowed in the

plains states to be returned to grass. Since ordinary introduced grasses are

not adapted, a study was started to determine the possibilities of the native

species already present. Most of these species, contrary to popular belief,

produce viable seed and have great promise for such purposes. Seed has

already been collected in considerable quantities, sufficient at least to permit

rather extensive tests next year. Tests already made indicate that the seed

of most species can be planted successfully. The important native species

that show promise are: Blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), Buffalo (Buchloe

dactyloides), Little bluestem (Andropogon scoparius), Big bluestem (Andro-

pogon furcatus), Western wheat (Agropyron smithiz), and Switch grass

(Panicum virgatum). Various machines are being given a trial in the col-

lection of seed of these grasses. Machinery ordinarily used in collecting tame

grass seed appears to be satisfactory when used on native grasses.

Wm. R. VanDersaL: Moving pictures of seed collecting in the northeastern

states.

273RD MEETING

The annual banquet and 273rd regular meeting of the Botanical Society

was held in the ball room of the Kennedy-Warren Hotel, April 14, 1936; at-

tendance 142.

Program.—H. H. BarTLeTtT gave an address entitled Experiences of a

plant collector in Oceania. He also showed two movie films of Sumatra scenes.

A special meeting of the Botanical Society was held jointly with the

Washington Academy of Sciences in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club

April 16, at which E. D. Mperritu gave an address entitled Plants and Civi-

lizations.

274TH MEETING

The 274th regular meeting was held May 5, 1936, at 8 p.m., at George

Washington University, in connection with its 4th Annual Spring Wild

Flower Show; attendance 142.

Program.—EveErettT F. Davis: Some aspects of black walnut toxicity, its

cause and effects.

P. L. Ricker: Wald flower cultural preferences. The majority of wild

flowers grow in neutral soil and many do equally well in a slightly acid or

JAN. 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY ALS

alkaline soil. A number of species require an acid soil if they are to succeed.

Azaleas, Trailing Arbutus and Pink Ladyslipper are the best examples.

Most plants found in oak or pine woods require acid soil and a partially

shaded condition. Most native plants must be transplanted to the same

growing conditions in which they are found but a number of plants like

Oswego Tea, almost always found in wet places, do equally well in dry

places. The Fringed Gentian prefers a wet, gravelly, acid soil covered with

grass so the seedlings will be shaded the first year. It is a biennial and sowings

must be made two successive years. It is difficult to transplant unless pot-

grown, and then, if its taproot is broken, it will not live. The bluebonnet

is an annual, prefers a sandy, acid soil and disturbing the roots seems to be

fatal to it, as is the case with the northeastern Lupine, which is a perennial.

The American Pasque-flower must have a very light, well-drained soil to

succeed, and this should preferably be slightly acid.

Paut W. Bowman: Remarks on the 4th Annual Spring Wild Flower Show

at George Washington University.

The formal meeting was followed by a visit to the flower show in another

room.

275TH MEETING

The 275th regular meeting was held October 6, 1936, in the assembly hall

of the Cosmos Club; attendance 125. Epwarp P. Carter was elected to

membership.

Notes and Reviews.—W. W. Di§ruHt reported on the summer Mycological

Foray at Mountain Lake, Va., which took place Sept. 3-5, 1936. M. B.

WaiTE reported that some cherry trees around Haines Point had root in-

jury due to flood and some showed winter injury. C.R. Bau called atten-

tion to two new books: Wild flowers of California by Thurston, and Pollen

Grains by Wodehouse.

Program.—W. A. Dayton: The range plant handbook of the Forest Service.

Now in page-proof. Consists of 339 write-ups, 58 generic and 281 specific,

including brief notes on 651 other species of western range plants; illustrated

by 294 pictures, mostly original. A novel feature is the lining up of the simple

botanical descriptions of the key characters with the appropriate parts of

the illustration, so as to be usable by persons without botanical training.

Chief purpose is to evaluate for busy field administrative men of the Service

the relative importance of these range plants as regards grazing, watershed

protective, recreational, and other uses, and to enable ready field identifica-

tion. The looseleaf feature facilitates selection and arrangement of material,

as well as possible later revision and extension.

R. Kent Beattie: The Dutch elm disease in Europe. The Dutch elm

disease was found in the United States for the first time in 1930. It was

brought in elm logs imported from Europe. The U. 8. Bureau of Plant In-

dustry in cooperation with the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine

maintains a Dutch elm disease laboratory at Oxford, England.

The elm disease was first noted in England in 1927 though it had been

present for several years. It was soon found to be widespread and all efforts

to eradicate or control it were soon abandoned. No research is being con-

ducted by the British other than an annual survey to determine its rate of

intensification. Serious losses have occurred. The disease has invaded the

mile-long elm rows at Windsor Castle. Eighty per cent of the beautiful trees

at Buxted Deer Park are dead or dying. Roadside rows in the Worcester

region are rapidly going. Southeast of Cambridge the disease has already

imparted a more or less treeless appearance to the region. The disease has

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 1

moved north to within 30 miles of the Scottish border. All this destruction

is in spite of the fact that the English elm is not as susceptible as the Ameri-

can elm.

The Dutch began research on the elm disease when it was first found

southeast of Rotterdam in 1919, but have made no serious effort to eradicate

it. An extensive and somewhat successful program aimed at theslowing

down of the disease was begun 5 years ago. This will permit more economical

utilization of the dead timber.

Belgium is carrying on no research and is doing nothing to control the dis-

ease, although it is widespread in the long roadside rows of elms.

The disease was found in France in 1919 near Chalons-sur-Marne north-

east of Paris. It has spread over the whole country. It is very noticeable from

the railroad trains in northwest France. It is rapidly destroying the fine old

elm rows at Versailles. Little research and no control measures are being

undertaken in France.

276TH MEETING

The 276th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club Nov. 4, 1936, President Jonn W. Rosmrts presiding; attendance 108.

GEORGE Y. YouNG was elected to membership.

Notes and reviews.—R. F. Griaes showed specimens of a sensitive plant

(Leptoglottis nuttalli D C) new to the flora of Washington. D. H. Ross,

s . B.S. Norton and G. H. SHULL called attention to plants blooming in the

all.

Program.—GrorGE M. Darrow: Berry breeding. A report was given of

the progress of the raspberry and blackberry breeding work at Corvallis,

Oregon, which is under the direction of George Waldo of the U. 8. Depart-

ment of Agriculture. The object of the work is particularly to obtain much

hardier and larger and firmer red raspberries and much higher flavored black-

berries.

In red raspberry crosses hardiness was found to be dominant and nearly all

of the seedlings were hardier than the standard variety grown in the North-

west. In size of berry, over half of some crosses were larger than the

standard variety of the Northwest and some more than twice as large. Data

on inheritance of resistance to ‘‘streak’”’ virus disease and other inherited

characteristics were presented. Some discussion was given on crosses with

Asiatic raspberries and a rather full discussion of crosses with the Logan and

its wild relative, which has a higher flavor than all other blackberries. In-

heritance of thorniness was also discussed.

KENNETH B. Raper: Why study a slime mold. Dictyostelium discoideum is

a member of the Acrasiales, a group of slime molds characterized by pseudo-

plasmodia into which great numbers of myxamoebae aggregate but do not

fuse. Dictyostelium discoideum is unique in possessing migrating pseudo-

plasmodia that typically form bacteria-free fruiting structures, or sorocarps,

outside the limits of the bacterial colonies in which the myxamoebae vegetate

and in which the pseudoplasmodia originate. Because of the ease with which

bacteria-free spores may be obtained this species is particularly well adapted

for studies upon the inter-relation between slime molds of this group and

the bacteria which accompany them.

Employing pure spores and pure cultures of bacteria, D. discoideum was

grown upon hay infusion agar in pure-mixed culture with forty-eight differ-

ent species of bacteria including saprophytic forms and some plant and

animal pathogens. Upon richer media containing peptone the growth of the

JAN. 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY . 43

slime mold was dependent upon a favorable H-ion concentration in the

colonies of ‘“‘host’’ bacteria, the optimum reaction being approximately pH

6.2+. The manner in which this favorable reaction is obtained is unim-

portant and can be attained by incorporating in the medium a sugar which

the host bacterium can ferment, or by buffering and adjusting the reaction

of the culture medium prior to inoculation with bacteria.

Fractions of pseudoplasmodia of different origin can be grafted together

and by employing pseudoplasmodia of different color (e.g., red pseudo-

plasmodia produced in cultures grown upon Serratia marcescens and white

pseudoplasmodia produced with Escherichia colt) the organization of the

pseudoplasmodium was studied. The organization center of the pseudo-

plasmodium was found to reside in the apical region; it was likewise from

this region that the supporting stalk of the mature fruiting structure was

formed. (A uthor’s abstract.)

277TH MEETING

The 277th regular meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos

Club December 1, 1936, President John W. RosBeErts presiding; attendance

68. H. A. Jones, H. A. Bortowick, Karu C. Hamner, LAWRENCE A.

ScHAAL, LAWRENCE Pau BatyER, JoHN W. McKay, ALFRED HE. CLARKE,

and E. V. JorTrer were elected to membership.

Program.—Address of retiring President, Joann W. Roserts: The spray-

ing of plants, botanically considered. Spraying for the control of plant dis-

eases became practical only after botanists had worked out the life histories

of fungi causing the diseases. Much of this work was done by members of

the Botanical Society of Washington. It was pointed out that while valuable

work is being done on how sprays kill fungi and the effect of sprays on higher

plants, much remains to be done. In work on fungicides there are many in-

teresting and difficult problems that are strictly botanical in nature.

36TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 36th annual meeting was held immediately following adjournment of

the 277th regular meeting, Joon W. RoBeERtTs presiding.

Mrs. AGNEs CHasE read an obituary for A. 8. Hitcucock. E.H. WALKER,

C. L. SHear, and J. R. SwaLuen gave additional information regarding

Dr. Hitchcock and his work.

E. O. Wooton was elected to honorary membership.

The following officers were elected for 1936: President, Gzo. M. Darrow;

Vice-President, G. F. Gravatt; Recording Secretary, H. H. McKinney;

Corresponding Secretary, ALIcE ANDERSEN; Treasurer, ANGIE BECKWITH.

Nominated for Vice-President Washington Academy of Sciences, JoHNn W.

STEVENSON.

G. F. Gravatt, Recording Secretary

CONTENTS

GroLtocy.—The Pleistocene Horry clay and Pamlico formation 1

Myrtle Beach, 8. C. C. WytHEr Cooxkk.......:... sah

PAaLEONTOLOGY.—Pliocene and Pleistocene mollusks from ‘he

pyle Waterway in South Carolina. W.C. MANnsFIELD and F

ACINEUTE hoa er ed ke anes 5 as a ae

PALEONTOLOGY.—A new subspecies of Pecten from the upper Mic oceneé

of North Carolina. W.C. MANSFIELD............. L Yue e

ZooLocy.—Notes on Chinese spiders of the families Salticidae a

Thomisidee,. IRVING Fox...) ..': Avy. scum ie

ZooLocy.—Polychaetous annelids collected by Captain Robert A. | sart-

lett in Greenland, Fox Basin, and Labrador. A. L. TREAD - -

Abeuale: Pi astince to intestinal trichinosis in experimental animal mals

induced by feeding metabolic sabre wis of encysted trichi inae.

aA PUMITIMAES Ses... Daub Sree, pe a Rega gan eee ad

PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY. ......... ee oa WY ty ee

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

yes

Vou. 27 FEesRuary 15, 1937 No. 2

JOURNAL ©

OF THE “lenat

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

F. G. BricKWEDDE Rotanp W. Brown Espen H. Toore

BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

H. T. WENSEL Harotp Morrison

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

E. A. GoLDMAN W. W. Rusey

BIOLOGICAL SOOIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

%5 AGNES CHASE J. R. SWANTON

BOTANICAL SOOIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

R. E. Gipson

CHEMIOAL SOOIETY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 27 FEBRUARY 15, 1937 No. 2

GEOLOGY.—The emergence of ideas as illustrated from geology.'

GEORGE H. ASHLEY, State Geologist of Pennsylvania. (Com-

municated by RoLtanp W. Brown.)

Geologic ideas emerged slowly because primitive man was curious

only in matters affecting his personal welfare; because the earth’s

major features seemed too permanent to suggest that they had

evolved from other forms or conditions; and because some peoples

held the concept of a God able to create the heavens and the earth

and to control or change them at will—a concept not yet extinct.

On the other hand the Greeks, Romans, and some others, wor-

shipped a galaxy of gods until they tired of them. These gods, like

the genii of the Arabian Nights, had magical but limited powers

which did not include creating stars or upheaving continents. So,

thrown on their own resources, the Greeks and Romans began to ob-

serve nature and theorize on her ways. As a result many ideas of vast

import today first emerged over 2,000 years ago. As early as the sixth

century B.c. Xenophanes finding sea shells far inland saw evidence

that the sea had once covered that area. Aeschylus in 525 B.c.

glimpsed the idea of progress when in Prometheus Bound he described

primitive man as living “like silly ants beneath the ground in hollow

caves unsunned.”’ Before 400 B.c. Herodotus, Democritus, and others

were arguing that the earth was round, the center of a revolving uni-

verse, composed of atoms and subject to natural law. They recognized

changes produced by erosion and sedimentation. Later Plato, Aris-

totle, Pliny, and others added their bit although all their contribu-

tions made only a slight beginning.

Then came the Dark Ages. The Greco-Roman world was conquered

from the northeast by the barbarians and from the southeast by the

Christians. The Christian concept of an all-powerful God did not en-

courage the study of earth forces and laws. For a time culture passed

to the Arabs, and in Europe the partly formed ideas concerning the

earth awaited a more auspicious time for further development. Start-

ing with their rebirth let us trace the evolution of a few of these ideas.

1 Address delivered before a joint meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences

and the Geological Society of Washington, November 19, 1936. Received December

15, 1936.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

EROSION AND THE EARTH’S SURFACE

That rivers dig their own valleys is one of the large and useful con-

cepts of modern geology. As with other ideas I shall take up, this has

not yet completely emerged, and 100 years ago Benjamin Silliman,

of Yale, one of America’s great scientists, refused to accept it. The

Greeks recognized more than two thousand years ago that valleys

were silting up, deltas were extending, that floods produced minor

changes along stream-channels and so on. These ideas though lost

sight of in Europe, were preserved among the Arabs of North Africa.

Thus in 1000 a.p. Avicenna, an Arab, translated Plato into Arabic

and seems to have been the first to recognize that while some moun-

tains were upthrust to the accompaniment of earthquakes, some were

left in relief as erosion etched away the softer rocks surrounding them.

Europe was not then reading Arabic.

The Crusades brought a change. The forest dwellers of western and

middle Europe saw in the East a civilization superior to their own,

some of which they brought back. Trade with the East developed

and wealth accumulated, especially in Italy. Then came the Renais-

sance. Men began to explore the earth. The classics of Greece were

restudied. Outstanding at that time was Leonardo da Vinci, born in

1452, who to his other accomplishments added a study of the earth.

Thus he recognized that the river Po was building the plain of the Po

valley; that high-level gravels were deposited when the river ran at

that elevation long ago.

The idea that valleys were carved by the rivers in them encoun-

tered two almost insurmountable obstacles: first; the earth’s obvious

stability and lack of change as far back as man’s memory or tradi-

tions went; and second, the concept of a six-day creation dating about

4000 B.c. Specifically the Mediterranean and the lands around it had

not changed materially in the memory of man. Roman bridges 1,500

years old revealed no change in the river banks. The individual man

saw no change in his landscape.

Two hundred years passed before the idea began to make headway

that rain and rivers might produce major changes in the earth’s sur-

face. Nicholas Steno and John Ray saw that, given time enough, these

forces would ultimately reduce the land to sea level. But lack of avail-

able past time still handicapped a proper concept of the origin of the

earth’s present features. Only catastrophic events would serve. An-

other century passed before observers here and there saw and re-

corded changes going on before their own eyes. De Saussure in

Fup. 15, 1937 ASHLEY: GEOLOGIC IDEAS 47

Switzerland, Guettard in France, and others began to realize that

erosion gradually modifies the face of the earth.

Then Buffon broke the chains of time and finally James Hutton in

1785 boldly declared that given time enough the forces at work about

us were adequate to account for all we could read in the rocks. Even

then another half century passed before many leading geologists com-

pletely accepted the idea.

Hutton clearly pointed out that not only was erosion molding the

face of the earth today but that rocks revealed many previous periods

of long erosion followed by sinking and the laying down of thousands

of feet of additional sediments. At the beginning of the twentieth

century W. M. Davis recognized that sometimes, after a long period

during which the earth’s surface was reduced almost to a plane or

“‘neneplane,”’ uplift instead of sinking might follow, with the gradual

destruction of the plane, which however might still be recognized in

flat mountain tops or in other flat highlands bevelling rocks of differ-

ent hardnesses. Then for a time every flat surface anywhere and at

many elevations was called a peneplane until there was a veritable

plague of peneplanes.

Within recent years came a clearer recognition that though erosion

works slowly it takes no vacations and slights no parts of the earth’s

surface, even peneplanes. It was recognized that flat mountain tops

often coincide with flat-lying resistant strata, or with upturned strata

so uniform in character, thickness and structure that though reduced

hundreds of feet they may still reflect a former peneplane. Evidence

is clear that some monoclinal mountains have retreated many miles

without losing their level summits. So most of the peneplanes have

faded out, though many parts of the earth still reveal one or more.

Coming to the present. What next? Next we must reduce our

qualitative knowledge of erosion to quantitative. The history of a

river is revealed in the contours of its valley. At present we are con-

tent to name the changes that have taken place. The next logical step

is to measure them. That will require care in the selection and evalua-

tion of the criteria but offers no insurmountable obstacles. In par-

ticular we need to study the differential effect of erosion. If we say

that, based on studies in the Mississippi, the surface of that basin is

lowered one foot in 4,000 years, we do not mean that the whole sur-

face is lowered that much. Flat, gravel-covered areas may be lowered

very little, a fraction of an inch; intermediate areas may. be lowered

a foot; areas of high relief may be lowered several feet and river

channels in areas of recent uplift may be cut down many feet; as in

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

the San Juan Mountains where 2,500 foot canyons were formed be-

tween two uplifts, both of Pleistocene age. As another example, Sir

Arthur Keith makes the Piltdown skull a million years old. It was

found in plateau gravels 80 feet above the Ouse River cut in rocks of

Cretaceous age. If that is a region of recent uplift, it is conceivable

that the Ouse River might have deepened its valley 80 feet in 20,000

to 100,000 years, depending on all the factors involved. The matter

should be completely solvable, as should be any other questions in

which erosion is involved. But the answer demands vastly more facts

than we now have.

FOSSILS AND WHAT THEY TELL

Passing the Greeks and Romans who correctly interpreted fossil

shells as the remains of past life and as indicating the former presence

of the sea where they were found, and skipping the succeeding Dark

. Ages, we come again to Leonardo da Vinci in the fifteenth century,

who recognized the true organic nature of fossils. To account for sea

shells hundreds of miles inland involved changes in the earth’s face

contrary to all human experience and tradition; and so for several

hundred years a royal battle raged between those standing for their

organic character and those finding other explanations, some even

charging that the devil put them there to confound the pious. But as

knowledge of fossils grew, there could be only one outcome of such a

battle and by the end of the eighteenth century their organic origin

was acknowledged by all except Werner, a mineralogist, and his

disciples.

Meanwhile Guettard and others had found that fossils commonly

characterized certain rocks, that they revealed the climate and

physiographic conditions under which the rock was laid down, and,

using fossils, they began to make geologic maps showing the outcrop

of the strata. William Smith thus made a geologic map of England;

but American geologists, many of them influenced by Werner, were

slow to take advantage of fossils until the New York State Survey

was established.

But fossils were leading down other roads. They revealed the former

existence of plants and animals now extinct. Soon the outlines of the

long ascent of life began to emerge. As vast numbers of fossils were

found and men noted that in places the whole fauna changed from

one layer of rock to the next, they began to speculate on the origin of

these new and later forms. Some saw successive faunas and floras

wiped out by catastrophies, followed by a wholesale creation of new

Fra. 15, 1937 ASHLEY: GEOLOGIC IDEAS 49

faunas and floras. Others, like Lamarck, felt that somehow the later

faunas had evolved from the earlier. The idea was not new. By the

middle of the nineteenth century that idea had become dominant,

though as yet no one had suggested how it could be brought about.

Then Darwin and Wallace offered a mechanism that seemed adequate

to account for the origin of the new species.

I need not tell you of the quick acceptance of that idea by the few

and its general rejection by the many even to this day. We come to

the present. What next? You know the tremendous importance of

fossils today in all stratigraphic work, but I believe that they may

perform another large service. I may be stepping on the toes of some

if I suggest that biologists experimenting with fruit flies or other

living forms miss entirely the fundamental factors in evolution, one

of which is time. Marble is not flexible in the laboratory but I have

seen thin marble slabs in cemeteries bend under their own weight—

with time. In the laboratory time may be simulated for some things

by “‘speeding up”’ processes, but not for others. Recent biological

studies are valuable for a better knowledge of heredity; but the evi-

dence is clear that while all life tends to adjust itself to its environ-

ment, it reveals no tendency to advance toward man. It is suggested

that the steps in the ladder to man have been unique, each step

occurring only at one place and at one time. It is not clear yet whether

these steps were large, by mutations, or small and infinite in number.

In either instance the question naturally arises as to their cause.

Chance or purpose? Any attempt to get help from science on the

answer to that question demands more knowledge of fossil life. It

alone reveals the full play of time. Again we need more facts.

GEOLOGIC TIME

One of the astounding ideas given the world by geology is that of

the enormous duration of earthly time. This was the missing factor

in all early thinking about the earth. First estimates were based on

supposed genealogic records, traditions and what not. All early

peoples reckoned human history as very short, a few thousand years

at most, and earth history as still shorter. The two periods were like

the time it takes a man to build his house and the time he lives in it.

The earth was built for man; the sun and stars were its exterior

decorations. Even in the seventeenth century when Nicholas Steno,

followed by others, first began to read successive events in the rocks,

they felt impelled to compress them into the accepted span of earth

history. Descartes and Leibnitz, who postulated the earth as derived

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 2

in molten condition from the sun and as having cooled since, seem

not to have committed themselves to time figures. Apparently that

remained for Buffon, in the eighteenth century, after testing the rate

of cooling of cast iron balls. He frankly declared that the six days of

Scripture meant periods, to be as long as the facts demanded. He

estimated 75,000 years from the beginning of the earth. Probably

James Hutton was the first to realize that his interpretation of the

rocks demanded vast stretches of time. As Playfair wrote, after seeing

a cliff section with Hutton and Sir James Hall in a boat: ‘““The mind

grows dizzy looking so far into the abyss of time.”’

From then on an increasing number of people grasped the idea of

geologic time, as illustrated by Lamarck’s statement: ‘‘For nature

time is nothing.”’ While most geologists contented themselves with

pointing out the evidence of vast time, a few dared to make estimates

in years. As far back as 1715, Halley suggested determining the age

of the Caspian sea by noting its increased saltiness over a period of

years and computing its age from the total saltiness. As such an ex-

periment might take centuries, it was not tried. In 1860 John Phillips

started off with 38 million to 96 million years. But about the same

time Lord Kelvin, Tait, and others, calculating the rate of the earth’s

radiation of heat, argued for 5 to 10 million years. Lyell had estimated

the time required to lay down the Joggins coal measures in Nova

Scotia at from 375,000 to 2,000,000 years. Later he estimated or

guessed at 240 million years as necessary for historic geologic time.

For a generation the dispute raged, estimates by geologists in the

1890’s ranging as a rule under 100 million years, though Geikie in

1899 estimated from 100 to 400 million years.

In the early 1900’s new means of estimates came from two direc-

tions, Sollas, Becker, and others, using the salt of the sea, contented

themselves with small numbers, 30 to 80 million years; while Ruther-

ford, using an entirely new method, in 1908 announced 500 million

years as the time from the beginning of the Cambrian. The new

method was based on studies of radioactive minerals and is today

too well known to require more than reference here. As continued

research appears to give concordant results, there is today a tendency

to accept the general figures supplied by these studies, which indicate

an age of roundly 500 million years from the beginning of Cambrian

time.

Today, however, we are asking for more accurate measures for

geologic time, especially, as previously suggested, in matters bearing

on the antiquity of man. While many methods have been used in

Fes. 15, 1937 ASHLEY: GEOLOGIC IDEAS 51

these studies, most satisfactory results are being achieved by cor-

relating records of rhythmic sedimentation. These are of several

kinds: the simplest and most satisfactory are varves or the annual

layers of sediments deposited in ponded waters. Varves reveal not

only the number of years represented by any such deposit but may

reveal a seasonal record from year to year that permits correlating

the varves of one area with those of another. Similar studies are now

being made of fine deposits of all geologic ages and are not only

yielding time estimates but in some instances are helping to identify

key horizons in stratigraphic sections otherwise apparently homo-

geneous. In highly folded strata, the detection of such key horizons

is essential to eliminate re-counting beds repeated by the folding.

Recently attempts have been made to identify larger cycles. Thus

the four or more glacial advances suggest some kind of rhythmic

series. The large number of coal beds usually found in coal measures

accompanied by the underclay and other beds has suggested a cycle

of events, climatic perhaps or of rhythmic earth movements. These

are being studied to determine, if possible, the cause of the seemingly

rhythmic movements. Efforts are also being made to determine if

there may not be some cause for those still larger movements that

result in geosynclines with heavy sedimentation, followed by appar-

ent contraction with rock folding and mountain making.

Few results have yet appeared except with varves. But there is a

growing feeling that more knowledge will reveal the interaction of

great forces, perhaps astronomic in character and therefore measur-

able as to time, that will ultimately permit us to refer all geologic

history to a definite and complete time scale, much as we do human

history since man began to keep records of his comings and goings.

But here again our crying need is for facts.

GLACIERS

Let us turn for a moment to something lighter. One reason why

many early geologists refused to accept the idea that rivers had cut

their valleys, was the presence over all of northern Europe and north-

ern America of great bodies of debris called ‘‘The Drift’’ or ‘“‘Di-

luvium,”’ sand, gravel, clay and rock, piled helter-skelter over the

land. The only plausible explanation was a vast flood. Why should

not such a flood also have gouged out the valleys? True, Playfair in

1802 suggested ice; but the drift covered hills and mountains as well

as valleys. Ice was inconceivable as a cause. But about 1830 two

Frenchmen, Venetz and Charpentier, traced the tracks of ancient

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

Alpine glaciers from the Alps far out over the Swiss plains. In 1836

Louis Agassiz went over the ground with them and at once noted the

resemblance of these deposits to the drift of other areas. Visiting

England he was convinced that ice—glacial ice—had once pushed

over all the British Isles. Von Buch, it is said, ‘‘could hardly contain

his indignation’ at the idea. But once delivered, the idea would not

down. Agassiz persuaded Buckland, the English geologist, to visit

the Swiss area with him and Buckland returned converted. Lyell

followed. But it took many years to convert all geologists to the

idea.

Then came the question: Whence and why the ice? Two theories

arose; one that the drift had been deposited by floating icebergs while

the drift-covered land was submerged beneath the sea. The other

that from whatever cause, ice had accumulated at centers of dis-

tribution to such depth that it flowed outwards hundreds of miles

over land and sea. Lyell in 1845 suggested a compromise that islands

of floating ice had encroached on sinking lands. He assumed that

from some cause glacial cold existed all over the northern hemisphere.

Many theories were offered to account for this condition, from land

changes affecting the Gulf stream and other oceanic currents to

Croll’s theory relating it to the shifting of the polar axes or variations

in the heat of the sun. Obviously the localized character of the centers

of ice accumulation, both in the recent Ice Age and in previous ice

ages, ruled out any theory that affects the earth as a whole. On the

other hand the existence of great mountain glaciers in the Alps,

Sierras and other mountains outside the glaciated areas during the

Ice Age rules out purely local causes. Recent physiographic studies

revealing 10,000-foot canyons of Pleistocene age off our coasts and

elsewhere, growing knowledge of other tremendous earth movements

in Pleistocene time, as revealed in the Himalayas, Andes, Atlas, and

other mountains, evidences that between the several glacial advances

our coasts were flooded, are all throwing new light on the problem

and may lead to its solution. But in the meantime we need more facts.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Finally, for I do not want to keep you here until the opening of the

Quinternary Age, it may be of interest to trace briefly the emergence

of present ideas about the structure of the earth. Early man took the

earth for granted as it was. If he stumbled over the protruding edge

of a layer of rock he probably swore in Egyptian, Hebrew or Greek as

the case may be and let it go at that. Just when men began to observe

Fes. 15, 1937 ASHLEY: GEOLOGIC IDEAS 53

layers of rock, other than layers of sand and gravel, is unknown.

When they did they took them for granted as we probably do the

mechanism of our new radio. If the rocks stood up on end, men

assumed that they were made that way.

But the finding of fossils in certain rock layers suggested that these

rocks had been deposited as sediments in the sea. At first it was

thought that these beds and their enclosed life remains were laid

down by the Flood. Apparently it was not until Nicholas Steno in

1669 published his treatise on the rocks of Tuscany describing six

episodes in the geologic history of that area that men began to realize

that the rocks were the result of earth forces and revealed a story.

This idea made headway slowly. Here and there men began to observe

distinctions in rocks and in the eighteenth century Peter Pallas, not-

ing granite and schists in the center of the Urals, flanked by highly

dipping rocks and those in turn by other rocks having low dips, dis-

tinguished the three series as primary, secondary and tertiary. Still

it was commonly held that steeply dipping strata were formed that

way. A theory to account for the many layers of rock at all elevations

assumed that in the beginning an ocean as deep as the highest moun-

tains covered the earth. As its surface gradually sank layers of rock

were deposited. Where the water went to nobody knew, but pre-

sumably into the earth to form vast reservoirs as a source of springs.

Steno held that the collapse of these reservoirs turned the overlying

rocks on end, as they were often observed to be. But though this

explanation was wrong, Steno had insisted that the upturned strata

had been turned up by earth forces and, though generally denied,

the idea slowly took hold, until Hutton in 1785, 150 years ago, pre-

sented clear evidence that granite and other igneous rocks had pushed

their way up through the overlying beds, and not only penetrated

them but turned them up on end and even exerted such a tremen-

dous side thrusting effect as to fold them some distance from the

upthrust.

As Rogers in Pennsylvania, Heim in the Alps and others began to

describe and figure wide areas of highly folded beds many thousands

of square miles in extent, often with overturned folds or thrust faults

driven many miles over the tops of the other rocks, it became obvious

that other factors besides igneous intrusion were involved. This led

to the theory that, due to loss of heat from the interior, the earth’s

core was shrinking while its crust, maintained at a constant tempera-

ture was not, and that therefore it must in time buckle on the interior

as does the skin of a dried apple.

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

Meanwhile, however, the discovery of tillites or ancient glacial de-

posits, some of Pre-Cambrian age, upset the idea of continuous cool-

ing. Then came the discovery of radioactivity and the conclusion that

radioactivity would not only explain the slow cooling of the sun but

also the slow cooling of the earth and suggested that the earth was

not actually cooling at any such rate as had been assumed. Calcula-

tion had indicated that, cooling by heat radiation alone, the sun

should have become chilly long ago and that the earth could not be

over ten or twenty million years old. Other difficulties also arose,

such as enormous thrust folds in the Alps, and evidence of crustal

extension or stretching, as indicated in rift valleys.

Then isostasy came into the picture—the idea that there is an

isostatic balance between sectors of the earth’s crust, so that light

rocks in elevated areas are balanced by heavier rocks in relatively

low areas, as under the sea bottom. The only way such a balance can

be maintained under changing surface load is by the transfer of rock

below the surface from one area to another. Thus, as a mountainous

area is lowered by erosion, its weight is reduced, while the area re-

ceiving the sediments has its weight increased. According to isostasy,

a flow of deep seated plastic rock from the area of sedimentation to

the area of erosion, will not only maintain the balance but will account

for the gradual and continued elevation of the area of erosion and the

gradual, continued sinking of the area of sedimentation. But which

movement came first and what started it?

Recently isostasy has been criticized from many angles. All through

past time shores have advanced and retreated; but an advancing

shore means uplift in the region of loading and a retreating shore

means sinking in the region of unloading. Furthermore our growing

knowledge of stratigraphy has shown tremendous gaps in the sedi-

mentary record during which the area of sedimentation either stood

stationary over long periods and received no sediments or was lifted

above sea level and actively denuded. These facts raise questions as

to whether surface loading and unloading is a primary or secondary

factor. Isostasy does not seem to account for the vast surface over-

thrusts such as the 75-mile Alpine thrust, the 35-mile or more Ban-

nock overthrust of Idaho and Wyoming, the overthrusts of Glacial

National Park, and many others.

I will not attempt to lead you through the mazes of the “‘undation”’

theory of Stille and others, in which, starting with a variable differ-

entiation of the acidic from the basic rocks in a subsurface gabbro-

Fes. 15, 1937 ASHLEY: GEOLOGIC IDEAS 55

like mixture, there follows a theoretic succession of events producing

the surface features we observe, even to the great overthrust faults.

It is certainly an ambitious attempt to explain the earth’s major

crustal features but it needs more study of all the facts involved, not

overlooking the factor of friction. According to this theory the medial

ridge of the Atlantic is the beginning of a new continent.

Recently Alfred Wegener, struck by the resemblance of the east

shore line of the Americas to that of the west shore line of Europe and

Africa, suggested that at sometime in the past these continents were

united, but subsequently drifted apart. He found some resemblances

in the direction and age of the mountains on both sides of the At-

lantic. This theory helped to explain how in many ages animals and

plants living on the east side of the Atlantic could have left their re-

mains on the west side also, before the days of arks or other boats,

and obviated the building of land bridges. The physicists, however,

raised questions of friction and other mechanical difficulties so that

the theory has not been widely accepted.

Tokuda, of Japan, noting chains of islands or chains of mountains,

making great arcs, as in the Aleutian islands, has been experimenting

to show that these might have been formed by great sliding crustal

fans. Imagine an old land bridge between Alaska and Asia taking a

slide southward, pushing up the Aleutian Islands at its toe and leay-

ing a depression behind now filled by the Behring Sea. The Okhotsk

Sea, Sea of Japan, Kast China Sea, South China Sea and Philippine

Sea, are each thought to fill the voids left by other great slides, not to

mention the Caribbean Sea and others. It may be true but at first it

takes your breath away.

No other field of geological investigation is today more active in

producing new ideas, many quite startling and upsetting to old con-

clusions. One of the old ideas now before the court of inquiry is that

great periods of mountain building were of limited duration. It is

generally recognized today that most of our mountains are not simple

mountains of folding, but are due to subsequent and recent uplift,

sometimes with faulting, of old areas of land, underlain or not by

folded rocks. Nearly all the high ranges bear traces of past pene

tion on their shoulders.

But back of that, evidence of persistence of structures is accumu-

lating all over the world. We have long known that the Cincinnati

Arch, as we call it, was not a single uplift. The Himalayas began to

form in Cretaceous time at the north, continued to form in Eocene

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

and lower Miocene time and have reached their present height only

recently. In England we find Cretaceous folding in places following

the underlying Carboniferous folding, with peneplanation between.

In the Appalachians, evidence is accumulating that folding began in

Ordovician time or earlier, and it begins to look as though the eastern

Appalachians had largely been folded by the beginning of Silurian

time or continued to be folded during Post-Ordovician time and thus

became the source area for the later Paleozoic rocks. Finding Devon-

ian fossils in ‘‘Pre-Cambrian’”’ schists in New England is only one

of the disturbing new facts.

This is not the time or place to go into details. I only mention some

of the new theories, to show how ideas on orogeny are struggling to

emerge. These studies are revealing new patterns or a framework in

the earth’s major features. New facts are complicating old problems,

but they also serve to define more clearly those problems, until, as

C. F. Kittering would say, ‘‘Some day we will have defined our prob-

lems so exactly that we shall have solved them.”’

Without pursuing the matter further, we realize today that our

urgent need in every geological field is for facts and more facts. Our

knowledge of the earth is just about where the knowledge of the

body was two or three hundred years ago. Unfortunately our efforts

to penetrate the mysteries of the earth’s interior are comparable to

attempting to make an autopsy of a man’s body with his clothes on.

PALEONTOLOGY.—A specimen of ‘“‘Crassatellites’” from the St.

Marys formation of Maryland W. C. MANSFIELD.

Dr. 8. F. Blake, U.S. Department of Agriculture, recently collected

a left valve of the genus ‘‘Crassatellites’”’ from the St. Marys forma-

tion at Chancellor Point, St. Marys River, Maryland, and kindly

turned it over to me for identification. The bluish sandy clay deposit

at Chancellor Point was referred by Shattuck? to zone 24, or the

highest zone, of the St. Marys formation of Maryland.

The specimen in hand is interesting because no species or subspecies

of ‘‘Crassatellites,”’ to my knowledge, has heretofore been identified

from the St. Marys formation of Maryland, although two subspecies

—“C.” meridionalis surryensis Mansfield and ‘‘C.”’ undulatus urban-

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received

December 24, 1936.

2 SHATTUCK, G. B., Maryland Geol. Survey, Miocene, p. Ixxxv, 1904.

Fes. 15, 1937 MANSFIELD: CRASSATELLITES 57

naénsis Mansfield (formerly called a subspecies of meridionalis),

have been obtained from the St. Marys formation of Virginia, the

former taken from the basal bed consisting of a blue sandy clay ex-

posed in the right bank of the James River, 13 miles below Clare-

mont Wharf; and the latter from a stratigraphically higher sandy de-

posit at Urbanna.’? The Maryland specimen, though slightly corroded

in the umbonal region, appears either to be “‘C.”” meridionalis surry-

ensis Mansfield or a closely related form. The slight differences ob-

served between the Maryland form and the Virginia subspecies is

that the Maryland form is smaller, thinner, more quadrate, and the

nepionic undulations extend radially about 3 mm farther. The dimen-

sions of the Maryland specimen are: length, 70 mm; height, 50 mm;

distance of umbo to the anterior end, 30 mm.

With only one specimen in hand from the St. Marys formation at

Chancellor Point, I do not think a new subspecific name is warranted

unless more specimens are collected from this horizon that show the

assumed differences to be constant.

A right valve of a ‘‘Crassatellites,’’ so far unidentified, was taken

a number of years ago from a well at a depth of 130 feet at Crisfield,

Sommerset County, Maryland. This specimen is corroded in the um-

bonal region; however, relying on the other better preserved parts of

the shell, it appears to be the same as the subspecies from Virginia—

“C.” meridionalis surryensis. The base of the St. Marys formation in

this well is estimated to be at a depth of about 240 feet.

At present the following species or subspecies of ‘‘Crassatellites’’

are represented at different horizons of the Chesapeake group: ‘‘C.”’

melinus (Conrad), Calvert formation; ‘‘C.” turgidulus (Conrad),

Choptank formation, zone 17; ‘“‘C.”’ marylandicus (Conrad), Chop-

tank formation, zone 19; “C.”’ meridionalis surryensis Mansfield, St.

Marys formation, Maryland (?) and Virginia; “‘C.” undulatus urban-

naénsis Mansfield, uppermost St. Marys formation, Virginia; “C.”’

undulatus cyclopteras Dall, Yorktown formation, zone 1 and later;

“C.” undulatus (Say), Yorktown formation, zone 1, to Duplin marl

(uppermost Miocene).

The name ‘“‘Crassatellites’’ is placed in quotation marks here as the

nature of this name has been indicated by Iredale (Mal. Soc. London

Proc., vol. 14, p. 206, 1921) to be unsatisfactory. Consequently, the

correct generic names to be applied to the east coast Miocene forms

cannot be given until a study of the family Crassatellidae is made.

3 MANSFIELD, W. C., U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc., vol. 74, art. 14, pp. 8-9, 1929.

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

STRATIGRAPHY.—The stratigraphic significance of Kummelia, a

new Eocene bivalve genus from New Jersey. Luoyp W. STEPHEN-

son, U. 8S. Geological Survey.

The tube of a boring bivalve mollusk from the Vincentown sand

(Rancocas group, Eocene) was described by Gabb (1) in 1860, under

the name Gastrochaena americana. At that time the Vincentown was

classed as Upper Cretaceous, and it was not until 1928 that Cooke

and Stephenson (2) reassigned the formation, together with the

underlying Hornerstown marl of the Rancocas group, and the over-

lying Manasquan marl, to the Eocene. Tubes of boring mollusks

found in beds of undoubted Upper Cretaceous age, in the Atlantic

and Gulf Coastal Plain, were referred to Gabb’s species by Gabb

himself and by Weller and others, but, as shown below, this identifica-

tion was erroneous.

In 1861 Gabb reassigned his Gastrochaena americana to his new

genus Polorthus in the belief that the tube was a conch and pertained

to a gastropod near Vermetus. In 1872 Gabb reassigned Polorthus

americanus to the Cephalopoda and made it the type of a new family,

Polorthidae; this was done because he had come to believe that the

suture-like grooves separating the annulations on the exterior of the

tube indicate a chambered, septate conch.

That Gabb was mistaken in both of these reassignments, and that

his Polorthus americanus is an external, protective calcareous tube

secreted by a boring bivalve mollusk, can now be demonstrated. The

present author has had the good fortune to find in the tubes speci-

mens of the bivalve mollusks responsible for the construction of the

tubes, both those in the Vincentown sand and those in the Upper

Cretaceous sediments; the evidence afforded by these shells demon-

strates clearly that the animal that secreted the Eocene tubes is both

generically and specifically distinct from the one that built the Cre-

taceous tubes. The differences which serve to separate the two kinds

of shells and tubes are indicated in the formal description given be-

low. The Cretaceous shells and their tubes are strikingly like those of

the true Gastrochaena Spengler, a Recent bivalve inhabiting the

waters of the Indian and West Pacific Oceans, whereas both the

Eocene shell and its tube are essentially different from Gastrochaena.

Although the shells found in the tubes from the Eocene are similar

in form to Roscellaria Blainville, a Recent shell, the Eocene tube is

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington,

D.C. Received December 18, 1936.

Fes. 15, 1937 STEPHENSON: KUMMELIA 59

strikingly different from that of Roscellaria, for which reason, and

also because of the great separation in time, it seems reasonable to

assign the Eocene shell to a new genus. The name proposed is Kum-

melia.

One incomplete tube of a boring mollusk, found by Dr. John B.

Reeside, Jr., September, 1931, in the Piscataway member of the

Aquia formation (Eocene), in a road cut just east of the West Branch

of Patuxent River three fourths of a mile west of Oak Grove, 2.6

miles west of Leeland, Prince Georges County, Maryland (8), is

essentially like that of Kummelia americana (Gabb); the shell itself

was subsequently uncovered within the tube and it confirmed the

identification. The shell and tube are shown in Figures 6-8. The road

cut exposes about 15 feet of greensand, several layers of which are

indurated. The tube was found in a loose fragment of one of the in-

durated layers; associated with the tube in the same piece of rock

were several shells of Terebratula harlani Morton.

The finding of Kummelia americana (Gabb) in the Aquia formation

of Maryland affords further confirmatory evidence of the Aquia

(Hocene) age of the Rancocas group of New Jersey. The Oak Grove

locality is stratigraphically well below a zone in the Paspotansa mem-

ber of the Aquia formation (3) from which 23 species of Bryozoa

have been recorded by Canu and Bassler (4); 6 of the 23 species are

common to the Vincentown sand. Since the Vincentown has yielded

85 species of Bryozoa, this relatively small number of common species

does not necessarily indicate exact age equivalency of the containing

beds in Maryland and New Jersey; but there is a reasonable presump-

tion that they do not differ greatly in age, and the position of the Oak

Grove locality below the bryozoan zone suggests that it is of Horners-

town age.

In the summer of 1936, Mr. P. E. Cloud of the U. 8. National

Museum, made a collection of fossils from the Hornerstown marl in

a pit of the Zeolite Chemical Company, 2 miles north of Medford,

Burlington County, N. J. The fossils are mainly in the form of in-

ternal molds and include: An unidentified coral (common); an un-

identified sponge (numerous) ; Cucullaea sp. (numerous) ; Venericardia

(of the planicosta group); Meretrix?; Polinices sp.; Pleurotomaria?,

and several unidentified gastropods. Of the forms. mentioned the

Venericardia may be accepted as satisfactory evidence of the Eocene

age of the Hornerstown marl. The Cucullaea, though specifically in-

. determinate, has a form suggestive of C. macrodonta Whitfield from

the Midway group (Eocene) of the Gulf region.

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

In recording this new evidence of the Eocene age of the Rancocas

group, it is appropriate to call attention to evidence presented in

three papers that have appeared since the publication by Cooke

and Stephenson (2).

In 1930, Wetmore (5) critically reviewed the stratigraphic occur-

rence of eight species of fossil birds from supposed Cretaceous beds

in New Jersey. He found that all came from the Hornerstown marl,

the lower of the two formations composing the Rancocas group,

and he concludes:

From what has been said above it is evident that all of the supposed

Cretaceous birds of the New Jersey marl beds are in reality from Tertiary

deposits since they appear to come from the Eocene. They will be so indi-

cated in the list of fossil birds to be included in the fourth edition of the

“A.O.U. Check-List’’ now in course of preparation. With these forms allo-

cated in the Eocene there is more logic in including them under families

of birds with species existing today, procedure that to the writer has seemed

dubious while they were considered of Cretaceous age since it is his present

belief, based on what is known of the Hesperornithiformes and the Ich-

thyornithiformes, the only Cretaceous birds in which the skulls have been

found, that all Cretaceous birds possessed teeth, and were for this and other

reasons not so closely allied to living species as to permit their inclusion in

living families.

In 1935 Miller and Thompson (6) discussed the significance of

Aturoidea in the Hornerstown, Vincentown and Manasquan forma-

tions of New Jersey as follows:

Although representatives of the genus Aturoidea have been found in beds

which are clearly Upper Cretaceous in age, the Upper Cretaceous and the

so-called Danian forms from India and northern Africa are very much more

primitive than are the definitely Eocene forms, A. parkinsoniz and A. spathi.

As can be seen by comparing the figures on plates 65 and 66, A. paucifex

and A. pilsbryz are strikingly similar to A. parkinsoni of the London clay

(Yprésien), which has been correlated by some authors with the Aquia

formation of Maryland and the upper portion of the Wilcox group of the

Gulf Coastal Plain. Aturoidea spatht of the Eocene Ranikot series of India

also appears to be very closely related, and although these four species came

from three widely separated localities, the fact that they are very closely

similar indicates that the beds which yielded them are probably not greatly

different in age.

Jennings’ (7) conclusions (1936), based on the microfauna of the

Monmouth group and of the Hornerstown marl of the Rancocas

group, add confirmatory evidence of the Eocene age of the Horners-

town.

Kummelia Stephenson, n. gen.

Type species: Gastrochaena americana Gabb.

The proposed new genus Kummelza is a sand-boring pelecypod that se-

creted an inclosing, long, tapering, more or less irregular tube characterized

Fes. 15, 1937 STEPHENSON: KUMMELIA 61

by rather widely spaced annular grooves of somewhat irregular trend around

the tube. The spacing of the grooves ranges from 2 to 7 millimeters, and the

angle of divergence of opposite sides of the tube is approximately 6 degrees.

The small end of the tube is not complete in any of the available material.

The large end of the tube is sealed over in adults. The shell found within

the tube is elongated, subtrigonal in outline, and is widely gaping posteriorly,

ventrally and anteriorly. In form it closely resembles the shell of the Recent

genus Roscellarza Blainville, whose tube in contrast is short, irregular,

roughly bottle- or jug-shaped, and is rendered even rougher in appearance

_by the adherence to its outer surface of sand grains, fragments of shells, and

other extraneous matter.

In its habit of growth this bivalve began at a young stage to bore in the

sand and to construct a protecting tube of calcium carbonate around itself.

As it bored deeper and grew larger it gradually increased the size of its tube

and eventually reached a size such that it could not escape backward out

of its self-constructed prison; however, it maintained connection with the

outer world, that is with the water above the small end of the tube, by means

of an elongated siphon. As shown by the position of the shell in the large

incomplete tube illustrated in Figures 6-8, the animal was able to back up

a distance of at least 34 millimeters from the basal, or large end. In other

tubes the shell is at the base. In all cases observed the forward end of the

shell is directed toward the large end of the tube.

For further details see the following description of the type species,

Kummelia americana (Gabb).

The genus is named in honor of Dr. Henry B. Kummel, Director

of the Department of Conservation and Development of New Jersey.

Kummelia americana (Gabb), n. comb. Figs. 1-8

1860. Gastrochaena americana Gabb, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Jour.,

2d ser., vol. 4, p. 393, pl. 68, fig. 20.

1861. Polorthus americana Gabb, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Proc., vol. 13,

p. 367. (In part.)

1872. Polorthus americanus Gabb, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Proc., vol.

24, p. 259, pl. 8, fig. 8. (In part.)

1885. Gastrochaena americana Gabb. Whitfield, U. 8. Geol. Survey Mon.,

vol. 9, p. 203, pl. 26, figs. 17, 18 (in part). (New Jersey Geol. Survey,

Paleontology, vol. 1, p. 203, pl. 26, figs. 17, 18, 1886.)

1905. Gastrochaena americana Gabb. Johnson, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia

PEOC.,-VOl..of, p. 18.

1907. Gastrochaena americana Gabb. Weller, Geol. Survey New Jersey,

Paleontology, vol. 4, p. 649, pl. 73, fig. 18.

The following is Gabb’s original brief description of the tube of this

species: ‘‘Elongated conical; transversely wrinkled; termination of widest

end, round. Length 2.5 in., greatest diameter 0.5 in. Common in the yellow

limestone [Vincentown] of Timber Creek, and found with the above species

aoe irregularis] in the brown marl [Hornerstown] of Burlington Co.,

In the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia is a

tray containing 8 incomplete internal molds of tubes apparently represent-

ing as many individuals, labeled Gastrochaena americana Gabb (A.N.S.

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES \VOL. 27, NO. 2

Figs. 1-8.—Kummelia americana (Gabb). 1, a tube, the largest among the 8 co-

types (A.N.S.P. no. 13403); this is probably the specimen which served as the principal

basis for Gabb’s original drawing, which, however, appears to have been partly re-

stored at the small end on the basis of the smallest cotype. 2, one of the cotypes

(A.N.S.P. no. 13403), a tube with impressions of the two valves of the shell, uncovered

at the large end. 3, 4, tubes from the Vincentown sand of New Jersey (U.S.G.S. Coll.

17282), showing the characteristic annulations (U.S.N.M. 496382). 5, a tube in the

same lot as the preceding, showing impressions of the two valves of the shell, uncovered

at the large end. 6, 7, an incomplete tube and shell from the Aquia formation 34 mile

west of Oak Grove, Prince Georges County, Md. (U.S.G.S. Coll. 16014); just prior to

the animal’s death it had backed up a distance of 34 mm from the large end of the tube

(U.S.N.M. 496381). 8, an enlarged view of the shell, a right valve, in the tube shown

in the two preceding figures.

No. 13403). I am indebted to Dr. Henry A. Pilsbry for the privilege of

examining and redescribing Gabb’s types. The largest of the specimens,

marked “‘type’”’ in faded ink, is 69 mm long, 12.5 mm in greatest diameter,

and 7 mm in least diameter (Fig. 1); this tube is shorter than the original

figure, which is 76 mm long, but is longer than the dimensions (2.5 inches)

given by Gabb. The small end appears to be freshly broken and the tube

may have met with an accident subsequent to the drawing of the original

figure, which appears to represent a tube more symmetrical and smoother

than the supposed type; however, the drawing may have been somewhat

generalized. A small label in the tray in Gabb’s handwriting reads: “Gastro-

Fes. 15, 1937 STEPHENSON: KUMMELIA 63

chaena americana Gabb, Timber Creek, N. J. Types.” The word Gastrochaena

has been crossed out in pencil and the word Polorthus written below it,

apparently in the same handwriting. All the specimens have the character-

istic annular rings more or less clearly impressed upon them. The large end

of the tube marked ‘‘type’”’ bears indistinct markings which appear to per-

tain to the forward end of the inclosed shell. On the large end of another

specimen in the lot the forward end of the shell was unmistakably exposed

and was subsequently uncovered by the present author (Fig. 2); it is rather

poorly preserved. These evidences of the presence of shells within the tubes

were not recorded by either Gabb or Whitfield.

_ _ The following description is based on the type material, supplemented by

7 specimens in the U. 8. National Museum labeled ‘ ‘Vincentown sand”

(without further locality description), one specimen collected by the writer

from the Vincentown sand on Crosswicks Creek, N. J., and one specimen

from the Aquia formation near Oak Grove, Md.; the shell is best preserved

on the last mentioned specimen.

Tube long, slender, tapering, circular in cross section, with sides diverging

downward at an angle of approximately 6 degrees. The tubes vary from

nearly straight to slightly and irregularly sinuous, and are marked by a

series of transverse, irregularly spaced, suture-like grooves, at vertical in-

tervals of 2 to 7 mm; the outer surface is more or less rough and irregular.

The tubes have a maximum measured diameter of 18 mm and an undeter-

mined minimum diameter of less than 4 mm. Complete adult tubes may

have exceeded a length of 120 mm. The large end of the tube of adults is

sealed over with a layer of calcium carbonate; it is broadly rounded, becom-

ing more sharply rounded on its perimeter. On corroded specimens the

grooves are seen to mark the edges of transverse septum-like walls similar

to the convex calcitic layer sealing the large end of the tube; these walls may

have sealed the tube at the successive growth stages indicated by the

grooves, and were centrally resorbed or mechanically removed sufficiently

to permit the animal to advance during each new growth stage.

In the incompletely labeled lot in the National Museum the large end of

a small tube contains the impression of a bivalve shell with both valves

intact in a fair state of preservation (Fig. 5), and a better preserved shell

is contained in the tube from near Oak Grove, Md. (Figs. 6-8). The shell

is elongated subtrigonal in outline; although the valves appear to be partly

spread apart ventrally, the shell was obviously widely gaping posteriorly,

ventrally and anteriorly. The beaks are situated about 1.5 mm back of the

sharply rounded anterior extremity; they are small, incurved, and proso-

gyrate. The umbonal region is broad and only moderately prominent, de-

scending steeply in front; it forms a broadly rounded inflation which extends

backward and slightly downward, broadening and fading out toward the

lower posterior extremity.

Hinge line long and straight, antero-dorsal margin short, slightly descend-

ing; anterior margin sharply rounded above, curving less sharply into the

long, broadly rounded, slightly sinuous ventral margin; posterior margin

sharply rounded below, curving broadly into the dorsal margin above. The

dorsal margins of the two valves found form a keel of moderate prominence

toward the posterior end of the hinge. Hinge and interior features not un-

covered. Surface of shell marked by irregularly developed, low, moderately

coarse, concentric wrinkles which are strongest anteriorly below the um-

bonal inflation.

The incomplete tube from near Oak Grove, Md., is larger than any of

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

the available New Jersey specimens. It measures: Length 61+ mm, maxi-

mum diameter at the large end 18 mm. The right valve of the shell in this

tube has been uncovered in a fair state of preservation; at the time of the

animal’s death it had backed up until the front end of its shell was 34 mm

above the large end of the tube. The shell is 17 mm long and 9 mm high.

The tube exhibits the same sort of irregular annulations as those on the

tubes from the Vincentown sand; although the Maryland specimen is in-

complete and imperfectly preserved, both the tube and shell characters are

essentially like those of the New Jersey specimens, and there is no reason-

able doubt of their specific identity.

The shell of Kummelia americana lacks the square anterior truncation of

Gastrochaena and has a broadly rounded ventral margin instead of a nearly

straight one. The tubes of the two genera are also markedly different.

Gastrochaena has a straight, regularly tapering tube marked by numerous

closely-spaced, regular annulations; the tube of Kuwmmelia has-a rougher

exterior, is more or less sinuous, and is characterized by much wider annula-

tions separated by grooves of irregular spacing, which pass around the tube

in an irregularly sinuous trend. The genotype of Gastrochaena is G. mumia

Spengler, a Recent species.

The known material of K. americana includes the following:

A.N.S.P. no. 13403 (types). Vincentown sand on Timber Creek, N. J.;

this creek forms the boundary between Camden and Gloucester Counties.

U.S.N.M. 496380 (U.S.G.S. Coll. 17279). Vincentown sand on a small

east-flowing branch of Crosswicks Creek 0.7 mile north by west of New

Egypt, Ocean County, N. J.; fragment of the large end of a tube 33 mm

long, from within 10 feet of the base of the formation. Collected by the

author, October 10, 1936.

U.S.N.M. 496382 (U.S8.G.S. Coll. 17282). Three figured specimens labeled _

‘Vincentown sand,” with no additional information as to locality; the ma-

terial doubtless came from New Jersey. U.S.N.M. 496383 (U.S.G.S. Coll.

17282). Four unfigured specimens from the preceding lot.

U.S.N.M. 496381 (U.S.G.S. Coll. 16014). Aquia formation in a road cut

on the west-facing slope of the valley of the West Branch of Patuxent River,

3/4 mile west of Oak Grove, 2.6 miles west of Leeland, Prince Georges

County, Md. Collected by J. B. Reeside, Jr., 1931.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Gass, Wm. M. Descriptions of new species of American Tertiary and Cretaceous

fossils. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Jour. 2d ser. 4: 393, pl. 68, fig. 20, 1860.

2. Cooks, C. Wytus, and StrerpHEeNson, Ltoyp W. The Eocene age of the supposed

late ope Craacion greensand marls of New Jersey. Jour. Geology 36 (2): 139-

148. 1928.

. CuarK, W. B., and Martin, G. C. The Eocene deposits of Maryland. Md. Geol.

Survey, Eocene: 1—92 (esp. 74-81). 1901.

. Canu, FERDINAND, and BAssLER, Ray S. The bryozoan fauna of the Vincentown

limesand. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 165: 8,9. 1938.

. WETMORE, ALEXANDER. The age of the supposed Cretaceous birds from New Jersey.

The Auk 47 (2): 182-186. 1930.

. Miuuer, A. K., and THomeson, M. L. The nautiloid genus Aturoidea in America.

Jour. Paleontology 9 (7): 563-571, pls. 65-66, 1935.

. JENNINGS, Poinip H. <A microfauna from the Monmouth and basal Rancocas groups

of New Jersey. Bull. Am. Paleontology 23 (78): 3-76, pls. 1-7, 1936.

JID Oo —P W

Fes. 15, 1937 SANDHOUSE: BEES 65

ENTOMOLOGY.—The bees of the genera Augochlora, Augochlorop-

gis, and Augochlorella (Hymenoptera; Apoidea) occurring in the

United States! Gracrt A. SANDHOUSE, Bureau of Entomology

and Plant Quarantine. (Communicated by C. F. W. MunEss-

BECK.)

This study of the brilliant, blue-green halictine bees of the genera

Augochlora, Augochloropsis, and Augochlorella occurring in the United

States was undertaken to facilitate their identification. The collec-

tions representing these genera in the United States National Mu-

seum have served as a basis for this revision and were supplemented

by loans from other institutions and private collections.

I am greatly indebted to Mr. Robert B. Benson, of the British

Museum, for comparison of specimens with the types of Smith’s

species; to Dr. C. R. Jones for information about the types in the

collection of the Colorado Agricultural College; and to Messrs. Pierre-

Georges Roy and Noel Comeau of the Musée de la Province de

Quebec for comparisons of material with Provancher’s types.

These genera may be separated by the following key:

1. First and second abdominal tergites each with apical fringe of simple

bristles Gf the fringe is worn off, an apical row of punctures visible) ;

pubescence of tergites uniform and directed posteriorly; tegula large,

metallic blue-green, caudal margin nearly truncate, inner margin

emarginate; carinae on posterior-lateral angles of propodeum parallel,

extending almost to dorsal surface. Female: Apical portion of labrum

semicircular; posterior calear of hind tibia pectinate. Male: Labrum

with a median basal groove; first three abdominal segments more

strongly developed than the others, the caudal segments usually par-

tially retracted within the third; fourth sternite concealed under third,

posterior-lateral angles extending into long processes, caudal margin

with median projection, margin of fifth emarginate................

= 2g RS lees ace gai a ei ch pete) 16 Augochloropsis Cockerell

First and second abdominal tergites each without apical fringe of simple

bristles, apical margins impunctate; tergites with long hairs directed

posteriorly and short hairs laterally; tegula small, oval, brown or tes-

taceous, usually without metallic tints; carinae on posterior-lateral

angles of propodeum converging below, extending less than half way

to dorsal surface. Female: Apical portion of labrum narrowly triangular;

posterior calear of hind tibia serrulate. Male: Labrum without a median

basal groove; abdominal segments more uniformly developed, caudal

segments not retracted; fourth sternite without posterior-lateral proc-

esses, caudal margin truncate or emarginate, margin of fifth usually

RUC ABC fr ee en ean eee ele teed seta en erwin Se GAO, 2 eutad age tthe 2

2. Head broad, ocellocular line one and one-half times as ice as postocellar;

- vertex gradually declivous behind postocellar line to the sharply de-

fined occipital carina, the carina extending to hypostomal carinae;

1 Received December 28, 1936.

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

mesopleura punctate; metapleural suture carinate; apex of radial cell

truncate, with appendiculate vein. Female: Mandible apically bi-

dentate, the teeth subequal; first sternite usually with median carina

or tooth, sixth with median triangular polished area; inner surface of

hind femur with single row of long pinnately branched hairs. Male:

Second flagellar joint distinctly longer than first; sides of propodeum

deeply, nearly contiguously punctured; caudal margin of fourth stern-

ite dmncate nara eee aclelas.c ol. ke eee Augochlora Smith

Head narrow, ocellocular line subequal to postocellar; vertex abruptly

declivous behind postocellar line to the more weakly defined occipital

carina, the carina obsolescent some distance from hypostomal carinae;

mesopleura irregularly foveolate, indistinctly punctured; metapleural

suture not carinate; apex of radial cell pointed. Female: Mandible with

large rounded inferior tooth and smaller superior tooth separated by

narrow emargination; first sternite without carina or tooth, sixth with-

out triangular polished area; inner surface of hind femur with several

rows of short unilaterally branched hairs. Male: First and second

flagellar joints subequal; sides of propodeum indistinctly and rather

sparsely punctured; caudal margin of fourth sternite usually emar-

MLCT ck el tls aetert aS TD ee Augochlorella, n. gen.

Augochlorella, n. gen.

Augochlora F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 73. 1853 (part).—Pro-

vancher, Natur. Canad., 13: 205. 1882 (part).—Petit, Faun. Ent.

Canad., p. 705, 1883 (part).—Robertson, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 20:

147. 1893 (part).—Dalla Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 93. 1896 (part).—

Cockerell, Canad. Ent., 29: 4. 1897 (part).—Robertson, Canad. Ent.,

29: 64. 1897 (part).—Cockerell, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 24: 162. 1897

(part).—Ashmead, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 26: 91. 1899 (part).—

Cockerell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 374, 1900 (part).—Trans.

Amer. Ent. Soc., 31: 356. 1905 (part) (mew synonymy).

Oxystoglossa Robertson, Canad. Ent., 34: 244. 1902 (part) (new synonymy).

Halicti falcati groupe Oxystoglossa Vachal, Misc. Ent., 19: 14. 1911 (part).

Genotype: Augochlora gratiosa Smith.

This genus is similar in general appearance and color to Augochlora, and

the species assigned here were previously placed in that genus. The char-

acters of the genus follow:

Head: In facial view nearly triangular, with angles rounded. Eyes large

and bare, with their inner margins weakly emarginate, forming the lateral

boundaries of the head for most of its length. Front slightly convex, con-

tiguously punctured, occupying about half the space between anterior

~ocellus and apex of clypeus; a fine median carina on lower half. Vertex

sparsely punctured, rather abruptly declivous to occipital carina. Postocellar

line subequal to ocellocular. Occipital carina moderately well developed,

obsolescent some distance from hypostomal carinae. Clypeus as broad as

long in female, narrower in male, extending about half its length beyond

lower margin of eye, apical margin truncate; clypeus and postclypeus

strongly convex, with large punctures separated by more than their diam-

eter; postclypeus shorter than clypeus. Basal portion of labrum of female

broadly subrectangular, medially tumescent, apical portion narrowly tri-

angular, medially sharply carinate, margins fringed with simple bristles.

Labrum of male broadly subrectangular, convex, apical margin slightly

curved and fringed, the bristles shorter than in the female. Gena obsolete.

Fes. 15, 1937 } SANDHOUSE: BEES 67

Post-gena declivous from outer margin of eye to occipital carina, striato-

punctate above, finely tessellate and nearly impunctate below. Hypostomal

carinae well developed, nearly parallel, without modifications. Mandible

rather strongly curved; of female, with large rounded inferior tooth and

smaller superior tooth separated by narrow emargination; of male edentate,

tapering to pointed apex. Maxillary palpi six-jointed, labial palpi four-

jointed. Antennae inserted about half way between apical margin of clypeus

and postocellar line; scape of female about one-third length of antenna,

flagellar joints progressively longer to apex; scape of male subequal to com-

bined length of flagellar joints 4 to 6, joints 3 and 4 subequal, distal joints

progressively longer.

General structure of thorax similar to that of related genera, more robust

in female. Pronotum not modified. Mesoscutum broader than long, puncta-

tion usually varying specifically; parapsidal furrows as long as tegula,

parallel; mesoscutellum nearly twice as long as metanotum, punctation

similar to that of scutum. Mesopleuron, metanotum, and metapleuron ir-

regularly foveolate-punctate. Propodeum extending horizontally for a short

distance, then abruptly declivous to attachment of abdomen; dorsal surface

or ‘‘disk”’ subcrescentic, the sculpture varying specifically ; posterior-lateral

angles carinate on lower third; posterior and lateral surfaces irregularly

foveolate-punctate. Tegula small, oval, anteriorly with fine setiferous punc-

tures.

Wings hyaline, yellowish infumate, veins brownish testaceous; venation

of the usual type for the Halictinae; radial cell pointed at apex; second

cubital cell higher than wide, always narrower in males. First recurrent

nervure antefurcal or interstitial with second transverse cubital nervure.

Legs typical for the subfamily and constant within the genus. Female: Inner

surface of hind femur with several rows of short, unilaterally branched hair

(similar to Augochloropsis); outer surface with long, pinnately branched

hairs; knee-plate of hind tibia subovate, not so sharply defined as in Augo-

chlora; inner tibial calear serrulate. Male: Inner margin of hind basitarsus

with fringe of hairs, which sometimes vary in length specifically.

Abdomen of female broadly ovate, of male more slender; tergites rather

uniformly punctured except that the caudal margins are impunctate; shorter

hairs directed laterally, longer ones posteriorly. Female: Fifth tergite with

median rima, laterally densely pubescent; pygidial area of sixth narrow,

sides parallel, apex truncate, apical-lateral angles rounded. Male: Sternites

unmodified except the median emargination of caudal margin of fourth,

which varies specifically.

Male genitalia: Basal ring cupuliform dorsally, much narrower ventrally

and extending posteriorly as two processes which are attached to the bases

of the coxopodites, instead of meeting medially. Coxopodites broad, shorter

than the parameres, the distal ends with modifications which are constant

for the species. On the ventral surface and near the distal end of the coxopo-

dite is a flat, somewhat plate-like process, the caudal margin of which bears

ribbon-like processes. Volsellae nearly flat, lying between the coxopodites

distad of their ventral basal processes. Parameres narrow at bases, rather

broadly expanded just before bending ventrally, apices pointed; on the

ventral surface and just basad of the expanded portion is a slender projection

with truncate apex. A figure of the entire genitalia of only one species (gra-

tvosa (Smith)) is given and for the other species, a ventral view of the distal

portion of the coxopodite, as that portion varies most between the species,

(See Figs. 4, 5, 6, 9, 10.)

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27 , NO. 2

A oS raw

For explanation of Figs. 1-18, see bottom of opposite page.

Fas. 15, 1937 SANDHOUSE: BEES 69

Species brilliant blue-green, with sternites and legs largely brown; tarsi

of male sometimes paler. Pubescence inconspicuous, white or yellowish.

KEY TO SPECIES OF THE UNITED STATES

1. Disk of propodeum carinate to caudal margin, median apical portion

slightly depressed, median length subequal to that of metanotum, or

slightly less, carinae longitudinal, radiating slightly. Mesoscutum an-

Becrionly ang laterally TUeOse-pumectate.... 02,050.) foes bela ee es 2

Disk of propodeum not carinate to caudal margin, median apical portion

not depressed, median length always distinctly greater than that of

metanotum, carinae very irregular. Mesoscutum closely and uniformly

(OULD MELA Le rR Ed Ee Os pS ee ee ee er 3

2. Disk of propodeum with many fine, slightly irregular carinae. Male:

Hairs at base of hind basitarsus distinctly more than half its length;

caudal margin of fourth sternite with deep median emargination....

re eo ig Ye a pA REE th ST We ashe gratiosa (Smith)

Disk of propodeum with few coarse, regular carinae. Male: Hairs at base

of hind basitarsus distinctly less than half its length; caudal margin of

fourth sternite with shallow median emargination................

Lyn as 5a ene Anne Rl a 2% striata (Provancher)

3. Tegula testaceous; caudal portion of disk of propodeum polished; caudal

margins of abdominal tergites testaceous; species 5.5 to 6 mm long.

Male: Caudal margin of fourth sternite with rather shallow median

emargination; flagellum and tarsi testaceous; second flagellar joint

hardly longer than first, shorter than third.......... aurata (Smith)

Tegula dark brown; caudal portion of disk of propodeum dull, micro-

scopically tessellate; caudal margins of abdominal tergites narrowly

margined with black; species 9 to 10 mm long. Male: Caudal margin

of fourth sternite subtruncate; flagellum and tarsi dark brown; second

flagellar joint distinctly longer than first, subequal to third........

ee tae test oat Ma Ro ee ee ees pomontella (Cockerell)

Augochlorella gratiosa (Smith), n. comb.

Augochlora gratiosa F, Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 80. 1853.—Dalla

Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 95. 1896.

Augochlora austrina Robertson, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 20: 147. 1893.—

Dalla Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 94. 1896 (new synonymy).

Fig. 1.—Augochlora nigrocyanea Cockerell. Distal portion of coxopodite, ventral

view. Fig. 2.—A. aztecula Cockerell. Distal portion of coxopodite, ventral view.

Fig. 3.—A. transversalis Sandhouse and Cockerell. Distal portion of coxopodite, ven-

tral view. Fig. 4-—Augochlorella striata (Provancher). Distal portion of coxopodite,

ventral view. Fig. 5—A. pomoniella (Cockerell). Distal portion of coxopodite, ven-

tral view. Fig. 6.—A. aurata (Smith). Distal portion of coxopodite, ventral view.

Fig. 7.—Augochlora pura (Say). Male genitalia, ventral view of right half. Fig. 8.—

A. pura. Male genitalia, dorsal view of right half. Fig. 9—Augochlorella gratiosa

(Smith). Male genitalia, dorsal view of left half. Fig. 10.—A. gratiosa. Male genitalia,

ventral view of left half. Fig. 11—Augochloropsis cuprea (Smith). Distal portion of

coxopodite, ventral view. Fig. 12.—A. caerulea (Ashmead). Male genitalia, dorsal

view. Fig. 13.—A. caerulea. Male genitalia, ventral view.

Bk, Basal Ring; GF, Genital Foramen; Coz., Coxopodite; Vol., Volsella; Par.,

Paramere. The illustrations were made by Mrs. Eleanor A. Carlin of the Bureau of

Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 2

Augochlora festiva Graenicher (not Smith), Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., 23: 157.

1930 [erroneous determination ].

Type: Female, from Georgia, in the British Museum, where it was com-

pared with material submitted by the writer. The type of austrina is in

Robertson’s collection. The species can be distinguished by the char-

nee of the disk of the propodeum and the hairs on the basitarsus of the

male.

Distribution: Apparently limited to the southeastern part of the United

States. Specimens have been seen from the following States: New Jersey,

North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama.

Augochlorella striata (Provancher), n. comb.

Augochlora striata Provancher, Addit. Faun. Canad. Hym., p. 317, 1888.—

Dalla Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 96. 1896.

Augochlora pura Robertson (not Say), Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 20: 146.

1893 [erroneous determination].

Augochlora matilda Robertson, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 20: 147. 1893.—

Dalla Torre, Cat. Hym. 10: 95. 1896 (new synonymy).

Augochlora confusa Robertson, Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, 7: 324. 1897

(new synonymy).

Oxystoglossa confusa (Robertson), Canad. Ent., 34: 247. 1902.

Augochlora (Augochlora) coloradensis Titus, Canad. Ent., 33: 133. 1901

(new synonymy).

Augochlora confusa coloradensis Cockerell, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7), 12:

442. 1903.

Halictus asaphes Vachal, Misc. Ent., 19: 49. 1911 (new synonymy).

Halictus (Oxystoglossa) purus Vachal, Misc. Ent., 19: 50, 53, 111. 1911 (new

synonymy).

Augochlora pseudopurella Strand, Archiv. Naturg., Abt. A., 80: 163. 1914.

(Proposed for Halictus purus Vachal, not Say) (new synonymy).

Halictus (Oxystoglossa) confusus Viereck, Conn. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv.,

22°) (05. 1916,

Augochlora coloradensis Hicks, Canad. Ent., 63: 176. 1931.

Types: Female and male, from Quebec, Canada, in the Musée de la

Province de Quebec, where through the courtesy of M. Roy they were com-

pared with material submitted by the writer. The types of confusa and

matilda are in Robertson’s collection. The type of coloradensis is in the

collection of the Colorado Agricultural College. The female is sometimes

rather difficult to separate from that of gratvosa, as the regularity of the

carinae on the disk of the propodeum varies somewhat, but these are always

much coarser in striata; the males are readily separated by the characters

of the hind basitarsus and fourth sternite.

Distribution: United States east of the Rocky Mountains, from Maine to

Florida and from South Dakota to New Mexico. Specimens have been seen

from the following States: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu-

setts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Dis-

trict of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,

Georgia, Florida, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,

Iowa, Missouri, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Alabama, Mississippi,

Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado, and New Mexico. The

species is also known to occur in Ontario and Quebec, Canada.

Fes. 15, 1937 SANDHOUSE: BEES cl

Augochlorella aurata (Smith), n. comb.

Augochlora aurata F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 82. 1853.—Dalla

Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 94. 1896.

Augochlora similis Robertson, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 20: 146. 1893.— -

Dalla Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 96. 1896 (new synonymy).

Augochlora confusa Cockerell (not Robertson), Bull. New Mex. Expt. Sta.,

24: 25. 1897 [erroneous determination].

Augochlora neglectula Cockerell, Bull. New Mex. Exp. Sta., 24:48. 1897 (new

synonymy).

-Oxystoglossa similis (Robertson), Canad. Ent., 34: 247. 1902.

Halictus (Augochlora) auratus Viereck, Rept. New Jersey State Mus., p.

688, 1910.

_ Halictus (Oxystoglossa) persimilis Viereck, Rept. New Jersey State Mus., p.

688, 1910. (Proposed for Halictus similis (Robertson), not Smith)

| (new synonymy).

?Halictus (Oxystoglossa) xystris Vachal, Misc. Ent., 19: 50. 1911 (new

synonymy).

Type: Female, from St. John’s Bluff, eastern Florida, in the British

Museum, where it was compared with material submitted by the writer.

The type of szmzlzs is in Robertson’s collection. The type of neglectula is in

Cockerell’s collection; a “‘cotype’”’ (paratype) is in the U. 8S. National

Museum. The present location of the type of zystrzs is unknown to the

writer. This species differs from pomoniella in size, color of tegulae and

caudal margins of abdominal tergites, and sculpture of disk of propodeum.

Distribution: Apparently limited to the United States east of Rocky

Mountains and south of the forty-second degree of latitude. Specimens

have been seen from the following States: Maryland, Virginia, District of

Columbia, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota,

Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado,

and New Mexico.

Augochlorella pomoniella (Cockerell), n. comb.

Augochlora pomontella Cockerell, Pomona Jour. Ent. & Zool., 7: 232. 1915.

=ran-Pac, Ent., 3: 162. 1927.

Type: Female, from Aliso Canyon, California, is in the U. 8S. National

Museum. Of the species included in this genus, pomoniella approaches most

nearly to Augochlora by the slightly wider head, dark caudal margins of the

abdominal tergites, and shape of the fourth sternite of the male. It can be

separated from aurata by the characters mentioned under that species.

Distribution: Apparently limited to the extreme southwestern part of the

United States. Specimens have been seen from the following States: Arizona,

Utah (southwestern part), and California (southern half).

Augochloropsis Cockerell

Augochlora (Augochloropsis) Cockerell, Canad. Ent., 29: 4. 1897.—Proe.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 374, 1900. Genotype: (Augochloropsis subsgnita

Cockerell) = Augochloropsis ignita (Smith) (original designation).

Augochlora F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 73; pl. 3, fig. 10, 1853 (part).

—Robertson, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 20: 147. 1893 (part).—Dalla

Torre, Cat. Hym., 19: 93. 1896 (part).—Robertson, Canad. Ent., 29:

64. 1897 (part).—Cockerell, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 24: 162. 1897

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

(part).—Robertson, Canad. Ent., 29: 176. 1897 (part).—Ashmead,

Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 26: 91. 1899 (part).—Robertson, Canad. Ent.,

34: 245. 1902.—Cockerell, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 31: 356. 1905 (part).

Halictt vibrissatt groupe Augochlora Vachal, Misc. Ent., 11: 126. 1903.—

Misc. Hints 107 1a. 190 1,

Augochloropsis (Paraugochloropsis) Schrottky. Zeit. Syst. Hym. Dipt., 6:

312. 1906. Genotype: Augochloropsis (Paraugochloropsis) lycorias

Schrottky (monobasic).

Tetrachlora Schrottky, Deut. Ent. Zeit., p. 481, 1909. Genotype: Augochlora

(Tetrachlora) multiplex Vachal (monobasic).

Augochoropsts Schrottky, Deut. Ent. Zeit., p. 540, 1910.

This genus can be separated from the other genera of the Halictinae in

the Nearctic fauna by the fringes of hair on the caudal margins of the first

and second abdominal tergites (not to be confused with the preapical fasciae

in Halictus s. str.) and by the large tegulae with truncate caudal margins.

In general structure similar to Augochlorella, but differing in that the inner

margins of the eyes are more deeply emarginate; labrum of female with

basal portion broad, medially with longitudinal furrow, apical portion sub-

semicircular with high median carina, labrum of male with median furrow

on basal portion; scape of male subequal to combined length of flagellar

joints 3 to 6, fourth as wide as long, distal joints a little longer than wide.

Pronotum laterally laminately produced, varying specifically. Posterior-

lateral angles or propodeum with carinae extending nearly to caudal margin

of disk. Female with knee-plate of hind tibia obsolete, inner calcar pectinate.

Pubescence of abdominal tergites uniform and directed posteriorly; caudal

margins of first and second tergites each with a single row of punctures and

a fringe of coarse simple bristles; caudal segments of male usually retracted;

posterior-lateral angles of fourth sternite produced into long processes.

Male genitalia: In general structure similar to those of Augochlorella but

differing as follows: Volsella with slender process on inner caudal angle.

Coxopodites longer than parameres, distal ends tapering and strongly con-

vergent, ventral surface without a plate-like process. Apices of parameres

broader. An illustration of the entire genitalia is given for A. caerulea

(Ashm.), but for the others only a ventral view of the distal portion of the

coxopodite, as that portion varies the most between the species. (See Figs.

ie, 12. 13.)

Only two species are known to occur in the United States. They may be

separated as follows:

Humeral angles of pronotum prominently developed, especially anteriorly;

thoracic and abdominal tergites dull and microscopically tessellate

between punctures; punctures on pleura and sides of propodeum con-

tiguous; disk of propodeum dull, with fine irregular carinae; vertex

elevated behind ocelli; postocellar line less than ocellocular; species

usually 12 to 138 mm long; wings strongly infumated. Male: Fourth

sternite with median caudal projection apically truncate, caudal margin

of third truncate, of fifth with shallow emargination; tarsi dark brown

Cyt BEA OO eel Bh Alva eae aa ee ann cee gem etc he Baek caerulea (Ashmead)

Humeral angles of pronotum less prominently developed; thoracic and

abdominal tergites shining between punctures; punctures on pleura and

sides of propodeum separated by at least the diameter of a puncture;

disk of propodeum shining, without carinae; vertex not elevated behind

ocelli; postocellar line greater than ocellocular; species usually about

10 mm long; wings slightly infumated, yellowish. Male: Fourth sternite

Fes. 15, 1937 SANDHOUSE: BEES 73

with median projection apically pointed, caudal margin of third broadly

convex, of fifth with broad deep emargination ; tarsi yellow... ..2..:.

OR Sa oe Re A 4 0 ge ee cuprea (Smith)

Augochloropsis ignita (Smith), n. comb.

Augochlora ignita F. Smith, Jour. Entom., 1: 147. 1861.—Dall Torre, Cat.

Hym., 10: 95. 1896.

Augochlora subignita Cockerell, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 24: 145. 1897 (new

synonymy).

Augochlora (Augochloropsis) subignita Cockerell, Canad. Ent., 29: 145. 1897.

?Augochlora fulvfimbriata Friese, Stett. Ent. Zeit., 77: 315. 1916, male only

(new synonymy).

Type: Female, from Mexico, in the British Museum, where it was com-

pared with specimens submitted by the writer. The type of subsgnita is in

the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; a paratype, in the U. S.

National Museum. This synonymy is based on a study of material compared

with the type of zgnzta and a part of the type series of swbzgnita. The synon-

ymy of fulvofimbriata which is tentatively suggested is based upon the study

of a male specimen identified by Friese. Reference to zgnzta, which does not

occur in the United States, is included only to give the synonymy of the

genotype.

Augochloropsis caerulea (Ashmead)

Augochlora humeralis Patton, Bull. U. 8. Geol. & Geogr. Surv., 5: 365. 1879.

—Dalla Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 95. 1896.—J. B. Smith, Jour. New York

Ent. Soc., 9: 52-72; text-figs. 1-3, pls. 3-5, 1901 (new synonymy).

Agapostemon caeruleus Ashmead, Bull. Colo. Biol. Assoc., 1: 7. 1890.—Dalla

orce, Cat. Hym., 10: 97:. 1396.

Augochlora (A ugochloropsts) humeralis Cockerell, Canad. Ent., 29:5. 1897.

Augochlora (Augochloropsis) caerulea Titus, Canad. Ent., 33: 136. 1901.

Augochlora caerulea Crawford, Proc. Nebr. Acad. Sci., 7: 165. 1901.

Halictus (Augochlora) patton: Vachal, Mise. Ent., 11: 1382. 1903; 12: 12.

1904. (Proposed for Halictus (Augochlora) humeralis Patton, not Halzc-

tus humeralis Sichel) (mew synonymy).

Augochlora sumptuosa bolliana Cockerell, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8), 4: 31.

1909 (new synonymy).

Halictus (Augochlora) humeralis Viereck, Rept. New Jersey State Museum,

p. 688. 1901.

Augochlora lacustris Cockerell, Proc. U. 8. N. M., 60 (18): 14. 1922 (new

synonymy). |

Augochlora floridica Cockerell, idem, 1922 (new synonymy).

Augochlora fulgida Graenicher, (not Smith), Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., 23: 157,

167. 1930 [erroneous determination].

Type: Male [not a female, as designated in the original ec pon,

labeled ‘Col.’ [although the type locality is cited as Denver, Colorado], i

the U. S. National Museum. The types of humeralis are in the Academy of

Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, where they were seen by the writer. The

types of sumptuosa bolliana, lacustris, and floridica are in the U. 8. National

Museum, where they have been compared with caerulea and found to be

identical. The name humeralis is a secondary homonym only in Halictus,

but it has seemed best to follow the International Rules strictly in this mat-

ter. This species varies considerably in color, but is usually more bluish than

cuprea; specimens from Florida are frequently deep purplish blue, as are also

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

representatives of other species. In an account of the nesting habits (J. B.

Smith, 1901) it is said to make deep and complicated burrows in the ground.

It may be readily distinguished from cuprea by the characters given in the

key, particularly the angles of the pronotum, the more strongly elevated

vertex, and the brown tarsi of the male.

Distribution: Apparently limited to the southeastern and central parts of

the United States, extending from New Jersey south to the tip of Florida

and west to South Dakota and Texas. Specimens have been seen from the

following States: New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,

Georgia, Florida, Illinois, Minnesota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas,

Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, and Colorado.

Augochloropsis cuprea (Smith), n. comb.

Augochlora cuprea F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 79. 1853.—Dalla

Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 94. 1896.—Graenicher, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer.,

23::157, 167.1930:

Augochlora fulgida F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 79. 1853.—Dalla

Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 95. 1896 (new synonymy).

Augochlora viridula F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 81. 1853.—Cresson,

Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., suppl. vol., p. 293, 1887.—Dalla Torre, Cat.

Hym., 10: 97. 1896.—Cockerell, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7), 19: 533.

1907 (new synonymy).

Augochlora fervida F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1:81. 1853.—Robertson,

Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 22: 118. 1895.—Dalla Torre, Cat. Hym., 10:

95. 1896.—Robertson, Canad. Ent., 29: 64. 1897.—Cockerell, Canad.

Ent., 38: 162. 1906. (new synonymy).

Augochlora lucidula F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 81. 1853.—Dalla

Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 95. 1896 (new synonymy).

?Augochlora sumptuosa F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 82. 1853.—

Dalla Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 96. 1896.—Cockerell, Canad. Ent., 29:

5. 1897 (new synonymy).

Augochlora (Augochloropsis) luctdula Cockerell, Canad. Ent., 29: 4. 1897.

Augochlora (Augochloropsis) cleomis Titus, Canad. Ent., 33: 135; fig. 6, 1901

(new synonymy).

?Halictus (Augochlora) chorisis Vachal, Mise. Ent., 11: 136. 1903; 12: 13.

1904 (new synonymy).

?Augochlora chorisis Cockerell, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 31: 361. 1905.

Halictus (A ugochlora) cupreus Viereck, Rept. New J ersey State Mus., p. 688,

1910.

Halactus (Avigachiora) fervidus Viereck, Rept. New Jersey State Mus., p.

688, 1910.

nore (Augochlora) viridissimus Viereck, Rept. New Jersey State Mus.,

p. 688, 1910. (Proposed for Halictus (Augochlora) viridulus F. Smith,

not Halictus (Agapostemon) viridulus Fabricius) (new synonymy).

Augochlora fulvofimbriata Friese, Stett. Ent. Zeit., 77: 315. 1916, female only

(new synonymy).

Augochlora anonyma Cockerell, Proc. U. S. N. M., 60 (18): 15. 1922 (new

synonymy).

Augochlora (Augochloropsis) fervida Cockerell, Univ. Colo. Studies, 16: 101.

1928.

Type: Female, from North America, in the Oxford Museum, where it was

seen by Mr. Benson and its identity confirmed by comparison of specimens

Fes. 15, 1937 SANDHOUSE: BEES 15

submitted by the writer. The types of fulgzda, viridula, fervida, and lucidula

are in the British Museum; their synonymy with cuprea was confirmed by

comparisons in connection with notes and specimens submitted. The type of

sumptuosa could not be located, but the synonymy tentatively made is based

on a specimen in the British Museum identified by Smith. The type of anon-

yma is in the U.S. National Museum. The type and allotype of cleomzs are

in the collection of the Colorado Agricultural College, but the species can

be identified with certainty from characters given in the description. A

specimen of fulvofimbriata, labeled ‘‘typus” by Friese and in the National

Museum, is identical with cuprea. The present location of the type of choriszs

is unknown to the writer. This species varies in color in a manner similar to

caerulea but is usually more golden green; it also differs in the angles of the

pronotum, the less strongly elevated vertex, and the yellow tarsi of the male.

Distribution: In so far as is known, occurring throughout the eastern and

central parts of the United States from New Hampshire to Florida and from

South Dakota to Texas. It also occurs in Ontario, Canada, and the following

Central American countries: Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama;

but the distribution in these countries is yet inadequately known. Specimens

have been examined from the following States: New Hampshire, Massa-

chusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland,

District of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro-

lina, Georgia, Florida, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri,

South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkan-

sas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado, and Arizona.

Augochlora F. Smith

Augochlora F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 73, pl. III, fig. 10, 1853 (part)

—Jour. Entom., 1: 146. 1861.—Provancher, Natur. Canad., 13: 205.

1882.—Petite Faun. Ent. Canad., p. 705, 1883 (part).—Robertson,

Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 20: 147. 1893 (part).—Dalla Torre, Cat. Hym.,

10: 93. 1896 (part).—Cockerell, Canad. Ent., 29: 4. 1897 (part).—

Robertson, Canad. Ent., 29: 64. 1897 (part).—Cockerell, Trans. Amer.

Ent. Soc., 24: 162. 1897 (part).—Robertson, Canad. Ent., 29: 176.

1897 (part) —Ashmead, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 26: 91. 1899 (part).—

Cockerell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 374, 1900 (part).—Trans.

Amer. Ent. Soc., 31: 356. 1905 (part). Genotype: Augochlora pura (Say).

(By designation of Cockerell, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (9), 11: 448. 1923).

Ozxystoglossa F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 83, pl. III, figs. 8-9, 1853.

—Robertson, Canad. Ent., 34: 244. 1902 (part)—Schrottky, Deut.

aa ee p. 482, 1909. Genotype: Oxystoglossa decorata Smith (mono-

asic).

Odontochlora Schrottky, Rev. Mus. La Plata, 16: 14. 1909.—Deutsch. Ent.

Zeit., p. 482, 1909. Genotype: Augochlora muellert Cockerell (original

designation) (new synonymy).

Halicti falcati, groupe Oxystoglossa Vachal, Misc. Ent., 19: 14. 1911 (part).

The synonymy of Oxystoglossa was first proposed by Ashmead (1899), and

although I was unable to examine the genotype, decorata Smith, Mr. Benson

verified the presence of certain diagnostic characters and confirmed this

synonymy. Through the designation by Cockerell of pura as the genotype of

Augochlora, both Oxystoglossa and Odontochlora become direct synonyms and

can no longer be used, even as subgenera.

This genus is similar to Augochlorella in general appearance and color, but

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

differs as follows: Head broader, more gradually declivous to occipital carina,

the carina strongly developed and continued to hypostomal carinae. Mandi-

ble of female apically bidentate, teeth subequal; inferior margin convex

apically, varying specifically. Flagellum of male with joints beyond fourth

progressively longer. Transverse suture of metapleuron carinate. Apex of

radial cell truncate, with appendiculate vein. Lateral surfaces of propodeum

deeply, contiguously punctured. Female: Inner surface of hind femur with

a single row of long, curled, pinnately branched hairs (as in Halictus) ; first

sternite usually with median carina or tooth, sixth with median triangular

polished area. Male: First sternite with median furrow or carina, caudal

margins of second to sixth truncate.

Male genitalia: In general structure similar to those of Augochlorella, but

differing as follows: Coxopodites about as long as parameres. Distal portion

of coxopodite with a subrectangular process which is directed medially,

ventral surface without a plate-like process. An illustration of the entire

genitalia is given for A. pura (Say), but for the others, only a ventral view of

the distal portion of the coxopodite, as that portion varies the most between

the species. (See Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8).

KEY TO SPECIES OF THE UNITED STATES

1. Caudal margins of abdominal tergites black or tergites strongly melanic;

wings somewhat fuscous, not at all yellowish; species bluish green, fre-

quently with tendency to melanism also on head and thorax. Female:

First sternite with median tooth; first tergite microscopically aciculate;

mesoscutum anteriorly and laterally with contiguous punctures, pos-

teriorly microscopically tessellate; median carina of labrum low, with-

out basal notch. Male: Abdominal sternites 2 to 6 dull brown or black.2

Caudal margins of abdominal tergites brownish; wings yellowish infu-

mate; species golden or yellowish green with no tendency to melanism.

Female: First sternite with median longitudinal carina or furrow; first

tergite polished; mesoscutum and mesopleuron shining; median carina

of labrum apically strongly elevated, basally notched. Male: Third

and fourth abdominal sternites shining, strongly tinged with green. .4

2. Transverse carina of metapleural suture strongly produced into a lamelli-

form process. Female: Tooth on first sternite, from lateral view, taper-

ing but slightly to broadly rounded apex. Male: Labrum and mandibles

reddish brown; clypeus unicolorous; third flagellar joint longer than

broad, one and one-half times as long as second; first tergite apically

with sides parallel, then narrowed rather abruptly to base, caudal

margin constricted, punctures distinct, separated by about their di-

AMELED |e ciccase er eae transversalis Sandhouse & Cockerell

Transverse carina of metapleural suture not produced into a lamelliform

process. Female: Tooth on first sternite, from lateral view, tapering to

narrow apex. Male: Labrum and mandibles yellow; apical margin of

clypeus yellow; third flagellar joint broader than long, subequal to

second; first tergite narrowed gradually to base, caudal margin not

constricted, punctures rather indistinct, separated by at least twice

theircdiamMeter aij :u os ska aie Gees ay Gea ails Voie Rn ee 3

3. Disk of propodeum longitudinally carinate. Female: First tergite indis-

tinctly punctured; mesoscutum medially with some scattered punctures

nearly twice as large as the others. Male: Third flagellar joint and those

distad distinctly longer than wide, apical joint nearly twice as long as

Fes. 15, 1937 SANDHOUSE: BEES at

wide; first sternite with low median carina; caudal margins of second

and third slightly convex medially; first tergite finely aciculate; tarsal

FeMits mahi NOW. 5 Se wiper Mets Ap! ee Tes Pe nigrocyanea Cockerell

Disk of propodeum laterally with longitudinal, medially with very irregu-

lar carinae. Female: First tergite distinctly punctured; mesoscutum

uniformly punctured. Male: Unknown.............. azteca (Vachal)

4. Mesoscutum finely, uniformly punctured, the punctures separated by

more than their diameter, interspaces strongly polished; disk of pro-

podeum laterally and basally with longitudinal carinae, median apical

portion with carinae nearly transverse, extreme apex not carinate,

polished. Female: Median carina of first sternite obsolescent; angle of

hypostomal carina strongly produced; flagellum distinctly paler be-

neath. Male: Third flagellar joint subequal to fourth, the joints distad

as wide as, or wider than long, except that the apical joint is distinctly

longer; abdominal sternites obscurely tinged with green............

= 5 2 cok tear ae ae ete ace aca una Sh Caan hea Bebe aztecula Cockerell

Mesoscutum more coarsely punctured, the punctures laterally nearly con-

tiguous, medially separated by about their diameter, interspaces dull;

disk of propodeum with slightly irregular longitudinal carinae reach-

ing to apex. Female: Median carina of first sternite well developed;

angle of hypostomal carina not produced; flagellum uniformly dark

brown. Male: Third flagellar joint nearly one and one-half times as

long as fourth, joints distad distinctly longer than wide; third and

fourth abdominal sternites strongly tinged with green..... pura (Say)

Augochlora pura (Say)

Halictus purus Say, Boston Jour. Nat. Hist., 1: 395. 1837.—Le Conte, Writ.

Thomas Say, 2: 773. 1859.

Augochlora pura F. Smith, Cat. Hym. Brit. Mus., 1: 80. 1853.—Provancher,

Natur. Canad., 13: 206. 1882.—Faun. Ent., Canad., Hym., p. 706. 1883.

—Dalla Torre, Cat. Hym., 10: 96. 1896.—Robertson, Trans. Acad.

Sci. St. Louis, 7: 323. 1897.—Crawford, Proc. U. S. N. M., 45: 243.

1913.— Blackman & Stage, Tech. Publ. 17, New York State Coll. For.,

Syracuse Univ., 24 (22): 198. 1924—Graenicher, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer.,

Za5 857, 167. 1930.

Augochlora labrosa Robertson (not Say), Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 20: 146.

1893.

Augochlora robertsont Cockerell, Canad. Ent., 29: 69. 1897.

Oxystoglossa pura Robertson, Canad. Ent., 34: 246. 1902.

Augochlora banksiella (pura subsp. ?) Cockerell, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7),

19: 533. 1907.

Halictus (Oxystoglossa) purus Viereck, Rept. New Jersey State Mus., p. 688,

1910.

Halictus (Oxystoglossa) muellert Vachal, Misc. Ent., 19: 45. 1911 (part) (new

synonymy).

Halictus (Oxystoglossa) astios Vachal, Misc. Ent., 19: 44. 1911. .

Halictus (Oxystoglossa) astios var. (?) fuscatipes Vachal, Misc. Ent., 19: 45.

1911 (new synonymy).

Augochlora mostert Cockerell, Proc. U. 8. N. M., 60 (18): 15. 1922 (new

synonymy).

Augochlora palmarum Cockerell, idem, 1922 (new synonymy).

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

Types: Female and male, from the United States, probably destroyed, but

the species can be placed with certainty from the description and the account

of its habits. The type of festzva is in the British Museum, where it was com-

pared with specimens of pura submitted by the writer. The types of bank-

stella, mosterz, and palmarum are in the U.S. National Museum and have

been found to be identical with pura. The present location of the types of

astios and its variety fuscatipes are unknown to the writer, but the characters

given by Vachal definitely place them here. This species nests under the

bark in decomposing sapwood of hickory and oak. It is the only species of

the genus found in the United States outside of Texas. From other species of

similar appearance the female may be readily distinguished by the median

carina on the first sternite, the male by the strongly punctured sides of the

propodeum and the truncate caudal margin of the fourth sternite.

Distribution: This species is distributed in the eastern and central parts of

the United States from Massachusetts west to Minnesota and south to

Texas and Florida. Specimens have been seen from the following States:

Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mary-

land, District of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South

Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin,

Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Ar-

kansas, Louisiana, and Texas. It is also known to occur in Quebec and On-

tario, Canada.

Augochlora aztecula Cockerell

Augochlora aztecula Cockerell, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7), 19: 534. 1907.

Type: Female, from Tlacotalpam, Vera Cruz, Mexico, in Cockerell’s col-

lection. It can be separated from the other species of the genus occurring in

the United States by the following: Apex of disk of propodeum polished;

mesoscutum rather sparsely punctured, with interspaces strongly polished;

carina of first sternite obsolescent in female; angle of hypostomal carina

strongly produced.

Distribution: The only specimens taken in the United States that have

been seen are from the region near Brownsville, Texas; the species appar-

ently belongs to the Neotropical rather than to the Nearctic fauna.

Augochlora azteca (Vachal)

Halictus (Oxystoglossa) azteca Vachal, Misc. Ent., 19: 45, 110. 1911.

Augochlora (Odontochlora) azteca Cockerell, Proc. U. S. N. M., 63 (8): 4.

1924.

Type: Female, from Mexico, is probably in the Musée National d’Histoire

Naturelle, Paris. The female may be distinguished from pura and aztecula

by the tooth on the first sternite and the black caudal margins of the ter-

gites, from transversalis by the weaker carina on metapleural suture, and

from nigrocyanea by the punctation of the tergites and the differences in the

carinae on the disk of the propodeum.

Distribution: Apparently similar to that of aztecula. Reference to the oc-

currence of azteca in Lower California by Sandhouse and Cockerell (1924)

was erroneous; the specimens mentioned there belong to transversalis.

Augochlora transversalis Sandhouse & Cockerell, new status

Augochlora azteca var. transversalis Sandhouse & Cockerell, Proc. Calif.

Acad. Sci., (4). 13: 838. 1924.

Fes. 15, 1937 CHEN: MELANIA 79

Augochlora azteca Sandhouse & Cockerell (not Vachal), Proc. Calif. Acad.

Sci., (4), 13: 339. 1924 [erroneous determination].

Type: Female, from La Paz, Lower California, is in the Museum of the

California Academy of Sciences. In both sexes it can be readily separated

from the other species of the genus by the lamelliform process on the meta-

pleural suture.

Distribution: Although apparently limited to Lower California, the species

is included here in order to show its relationship to azteca and to correct the

distributional records for that species.

Augochlora nigrocyanea Cockerell

Augochlora nigrocyanea Cockerell, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., 24: 144. 1897.

Augochlora (Odontochlora) nigrocyanea Schwarz, Amer. Mus. Novit., 722: 6.

1934.

Type: Female, from San Rafael, Vera Cruz, Mexico, in the collection of

the U. 8S. National Museum. It can be separated from the other species oc-

curring in the United States by the following characters: From transversalis

by the weaker carina on the metapleural suture, from azteca by the greater

tendency to melanism and the more weakly punctured abdominal tergites;

the female, from those of pura and aztecula by the toothed first sternite; the

male, from pura by the dark abdominal sternites and from azteca and aztecula

by the larger size and more slender flagellum.

Distribution: Apparently similar to that of aztecula.

SPECIES NOT RECOGNIZED

Augochlora obliqua Provancher

Type: Female, from Vancouver, in the Musée de la Province de Quebec.

Upon comparison by M. Comeau with material submitted by the writer, it

could not be recognized as belonging to any of the known species of the gen-

era considered in this paper; nor are these known to occur in that region. It

may be referable to Agapostemon, but further information on the type is

necessary before a definite assignment can be made.

MALACOLOGY.—A new species of Melania from Szechuan Province,

China.t Sur Fone Coen. (Communicated by PAut Bartscu.)

In a collection of Chinese fresh water mollusks received by the

U. 8S. National Museum from the Rev. D. C. Graham is an un-

described species which is here named.

I wish here to express my appreciation to the authorities of the

U. S. National Museum and to Dr. Paul Bartsch, the Curator of the

Division of Mollusks, for the privilege of studying the Chinese

Melanias in their collection.

Melania (Plotiopsis) grahami, n. sp. Figs. 1-7

Shell thin, elongated, ovate, turreted, greenish yellow with more or less —

irregularly interrupted reddish brown axial bands which are most conspicu-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived December 16, 1936.

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 2

ous on the last whorl and the base, and may be seen in the aperture. Nuclear

whorls eroded in all the specimens before me. The type has 4.5 whorls re-

maining, which are moderately convex and angulated at the anterior end of

the concave shoulder. Thirteen axial ribs are present on all the postnuclear

whorls. They are most prominent on the last and the penultimate whorls,

Figs. 1-7.—Melania (Plotiopsis) grahami, n. sp. 1, holotype, 2, young specimen,

<3; 3, operculum, <7; 4, rachidian tooth, 5, lateral tooth, 6, inner marginal tooth, 7,

outer marginal tooth, 500.

evenly spaced, and project conspicuously at the shoulder as spinose tubercles

continuing feebly across the shoulder to the summit. The spiral sculpture

consists of lirations, of which 6 are present on the shoulder between the suture

and the summit; 13 between the shoulder and the periphery on the last whorl

and 10 on the base. Those on the base are the strongest, next to this are

those between the shoulder and the periphery, while those between the suture

and the summit are the least strong. Suture strongly constricted. Periph-

ery of the last. whorl well rounded. The aperture is elliptical; the peristome

Fes. 15, 1937 . PETERS: NESASIO 81

thin, slightly expanded, and adnate to the preceding turn at the parietal

wall, which is glazed with a thin callus. The columella is arched, and cal-

loused almost to the base with a grayish white deposit. The operculum is

thin, elliptical with 2.5 turns and with subcentral nucleus. The radula has

the formula: 3-1-3 : 2-1-3: 7:10.

The type, U.S. N. M. Cat. No. 467600, was collected by Rev. D. C. Gra-

ham at Me-wang, Lam-ping, Szechuan Province, China, and gives the fol-

lowing measurement: No. of whorls, 4.5; height 14.2 mm; diameter 7.0 mm;

length of aperture 6.1 mm.

Thirty-eight specimens derived from the same source from which the type

was obtained, yield the following additional information: They have an aver-

age number of 4.8 whorls; the greatest number of whorls is 5.9, and the least

3.7. They present an average height of 9.7 mm; the greatest height is 12.2

and the least 7.1 mm. Their average diameter is 5.0 mm; the largest 6.2 and

the least 3.5 mm. The length of the aperture averages 4.2 mm; the largest

length of aperture is 5.3 and the least 2.9 mm.

This species most nearly resembles Melania balonnensis Conrad, from

southeastern Australia. It differes from it in being a little smaller and more

ovate.

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new genus for Pseudoptynx solomonensis

Hartert. JamMEs L. Peters, Museum of Comparative Zoology,

Harvard University.

The name Pseudoptynx was proposed by Kaup in Oken’s Jsis, 1848,

col. 770 for the segregation of Syrnium philippense Gray. However

the generic name was without diagnosis and the name of its single in-

cluded species was a nomen nudum, hence Pseudoptynz is not nomen-

claturally available from this citation. In the Archive fiir Naturge-

schichte, 17, Bd. 1, 1851, p. 110, Kaup validated both his own generic

name and Gray’s nude specific name; Pseudoptynx philippensis there-

fore dates from 1851 and the authority is Kaup.

Tweeddale described Pseudoptynx gurneyi (Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon-

don, 1878, p. 940, pl. 58) from Mindanao; Hartert named Pseudop-

tynz solomonensis (Bull. B. O. C., 12, 1901, p. 25) from Ysabel Island,

Solomon Islands; and lastly Ogilvie-Grant added Pseudoptynx

mindanensis (Bull. B. O. C., 16, 1906, p. 99) with type locality south-

eastern Mindanao. P. mindanensis is conspecific with P. philippensis;

Hachisuka has proposed Mimizuku (Bds. Phil. Ids., pt. 3, 1934, p. 50)

as a monotypic genus for P. gurneyz and in this paper I advocate the

generic separation of the Solomon Island bird. P. philippensis and

M. gurneyi belong to the subfamily Buboninae in which the external

ear opening is small, dermal ear flaps absent and ear opening not

crossed by a ligamentous bridge.

Hachisuka was quite right not only in removing Pseudoptynx gur-

1 Received January 27, 1937.

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 2

neyi Tweedd. from Pseudoptynz, but also in creating a monotypic

genus for it. The bird is not at all closely related to P. philippensis,

but is far more closely related to Otus. In diagnosing Mimizuku,

Hachisuka gave only the characters that could immediately distin-

guish it from Pseudoptynzx. Compared with Otus, Mimizuku stands

out by reason of its larger size; bill with culmen strongly rounded,

upper mandible decidedly convex in lateral outline (viewed from

above) with distinct festoon or tooth on cutting edge; feet and claws

relatively and absolutely larger and stronger than in even the largest

species of Otus; wing very much rounded, longest primaries exceeding

secondaries by little more than one-half the length of tarsus; outer-

most primary shorter than 10th, 2nd shorter than 9th, 5th longest;

frontal feathers, ear tufts, emargination of primaries and tarsal

feathering as in Otus. P. solomonensis on the other hand is not a

bubonine owl at all, but belongs to the Striginae, characterized by a

large auricular opening with well developed dermal ear flaps and

crossed by a ligamentous bridge. It may be called

Nesasio, n. gen.

A medium sized strigine most nearly allied to Asio Birsson, but body

plumage more decomposed and silky; feet and claws extremely large and

powerful; tarsi feathered; toes naked; middle toe three-fourths length of

tarsus (about one-half in Aszo); claw of inner toe longer than claw of middle

toe (reverse in other species of Aszo except madagascariensis) ; bill very stout

and heavy with culmen arched and strongly decurved; nostril more rounded

less oval; wing much rounded; the longest primaries exceeding the tips of

the secondaries by less than 20 mm; 4th? primary longest (by a strange co-

incidence the distal portion of 5th primary is missing in both wings of the

single specimen available); outer primaries weakly emarginated; bristles at

base of bill strong, though relatively not as well developed as in Aszo; no

trace of ear tufts. Two other characters noted may be due to the preparation

of the skin, namely, facial dise not clearly defined; eyes much larger.

Type, Pseudoptynx solomonensis Hartert.

This genus is probably derived from an offshoot of Asio flammeus stock,

the underlying color pattern of both suggesting this probable ancestry; its

sedentary habits and insular habitat have resulted in a considerable shorten-

ing of the primaries, at the same time there has been a development in size

of bill and feet, these members greatly exceeding in strength the correspond-

ing parts of those representatives of the genus Aszo characterized by strong

bill and feet, namely abyssinicus, madagascariensis and helvola. A. mada-

gascariensis, which is undubitably an offshoot of A. aszo, also exhibits a

tendency towards larger bill and feet and more rounded wing, but the char-

acters are not sufficiently marked in this instance to warrant generic separa-

tion. An even closer parallelism is found in Pseudoscops, a monotypic genus

confined to the Island of Jamaica. This bird, originally of A. aszo stock, also

Fes. 15, 1937 OBITUARY: FREDERICK V. COVILLE 83

has the increased size of bill and feet coupled with much shorter wing tip and

weakly emarginated primaries.

In concluding I feel that a word of explanation is in order concerning

feathering on tarsi and toes as a generic character in owls. Especially as re-

gards the toes, my feeling is that this character is of subspecific importance,

but no more. Of the genera confined to the tropics, practically not a single

species has feathered toes, though in many cases the dense tarsal feathering

ends abruptly at the base of the toes. On the other hand all the olarctic

genera invariably have feathered toes, Nyctea being an example of extreme

development in this direction. Where a genus is widely distributed with

representatives in both temperate and tropical regions the feathering on the

toes of the tropical forms varies from sparse to bristly and in some species

of Otus for instance, the toes are quite bare. Among the Strigidae it therefore

seems best to drop the feathering of the toes as a generic criterion, since it

not only is of no generic significance, but its use in the past has resulted in

the wrong allocation of species in their systematic position.

Thanks are due to Dr. Witmer Stone of the Academy of Natural Sciences

for the loan of a specimen of Mimizuku gurneyt (Tweedd.) and to Dr. Ernst

Mayr for the loan of a specimen of Nesasio solomonensis (Hart.).

@Pbituary

FREDERICK VERNON CovVILLE, botanist in the U. S. Department of Agri-

culture since 1888, and an ex-president of the Academy, died of coronary

thrombosis at his home, 1836 California Street, on January 9, 1937, after a

brief illness. Dr. Coville was born at Preston, N. Y., on March 23, 1867. He

received his A.B. at Cornell University in 1887, and the honorary degree

Doctor of Science from George Washington University in 1921. After serv-

ing as instructor in botany at Cornell in 1887-88, he entered the U. 8. De-

partment of Agriculture as assistant botanist in 1888, becoming botanist in

1893 on the death of Dr. George Vasey, senior botanist in 1924, and principal

botanist in 1928. When the present Bureau of Plant Industry was established

in 1901, he became the head of the Office of Botanical Investigations and

Experiments (later, after various transient changes in title, the Office of

Economic and Systematic Botany, still later the Division of Botany), a

position he held until the office was merged in 1934 into the Division of

Plant Exploration and Introduction. He became curator of the National

Herbarium in 1893, and so continued after its transfer to the custody of the

Smithsonian Institution in 1896. He was active in promoting the establish-

ment of a National Arboretum, and was acting director from 1929, when the

project took definite form.

Dr. Coville’s first professional field work was as botanical assistant in the

Arkansas Geological Survey in 1887, resulting in the publication of A List

of the Plants of Arkansas (by J. C. Branner and F. V. Coville) in 1891, which

is still the only list of the plants of that state. His most important field work

was as botanist of the Death Valley Expedition in 1891, the results of which

were published in 1893 as Botany of the Death Valley Expedition. For several

years prior to his death he had again been active, in cooperation with M.

French Gilman, in the collection and study of the plants of Death Valley,

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 2

and was preparing a popular flora of that region. In 1899 he and Dr. T. H.

Kearney were botanists of the Harriman Expedition to Alaska. Although he

described new plants in many other families, his taxonomic interests were

primarily in the Juncaceae, in which he was the recognized American author-

ity, and the Grossulariaceae, of which, in collaboration with Dr. N. L. Brit-

ton, he prepared the treatment for North American Flora. From almost the

beginning of his career he was interested in the useful plants of the North

American Indians, and he published several papers on this subjects.

Through his position in the Department of Agriculture from an early date,

and through his association with the National Geographic Society and the

Carnegie Institution, Dr. Coville’s influence in practical problems of agricul-

ture and forestry was extensive. The foundation, in 1903, of the Desert

Botanical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution at Tucson, Arizona, was

largely due to his efforts. As Chairman of the Research Committee of the

National Geographic Society for many years, he was influential in its choice

of fields for exploration. In the Department of Agriculture he was instru-

mental in the formation of the Seed Laboratory with its seed investigations

and in the initiation of grain-grading investigations. He formulated the

policy for the use of National Forests as grazing lands which, with minor

changes, is in effect today.

Dr. Coville’s most important recent work in economic botany was con-

cerned with the blueberry, which he developed from a wild fruit into a cul-

tivated crop of commercial significance in the acid, sandy soils of our eastern

coast. The largest berries produced by his plants, after 30 years of cultiva-

tion and hybridization, reached 25.9 mm in diameter, contrasting with the

12-15 mm maximum of their wild progenitors. In connection with his cul-

tivation of blueberries, he demonstrated that this group and many other

Ericaceae require acid soils for proper development. His work with cultivated

plants led also to the scientific recognition of the importance of a period of

chilling temperature for the normal flowering and fruiting of plants of the

temperate zone. With assistance from members of his office, particularly

W.F. Wight, he prepared or rewrote the botanical definitions in the supple-

mentary volumes and the revised edition of the Century Dictionary; he had

also taken an active part, under Dr. Lester F. Ward, in the preparation of

the definitions in the first edition. With F. L. Olmsted and H. P. Kelsey, he

was coauthor of Standardized Plant Names, a work which sought to establish

standard names, both scientific and vernacular, for the plants in the North

American nursery trade.

Dr. Coville was president of the Biological Society of Washington in 1899—

1900, of the Botanical Society of America in 1903-04, of the Washington

Academy of Sciences in 1912, of the Cosmos Club in 1915, of the Washington

Biologists’ Field Club in 1919-21, and of the Arts Club of Washington in

1927-29. In 1903 he was vice-president of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science. He received the George Robert White Medal of

Honor from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1931, in recognition

of his outstanding work with blueberries.

- me

CONTENTS

GroLoay.—The emergence of ideas as illustrated from geolog

GEORGE H. a 4

PaLEONTOLOGY.—A specimen of ‘Craseabellgiet™ from the St. :

formation of Maryland. W.C. MANSFIELD.............. a ;

STRATIGRAPHY.—The stratigraphic significance of Sens an

Eocene bivalve genus from New Jersey. Luoyp W. STEF

Entomotocy.—The bees of the genera Augochlora, Augoc

and Augochlorella (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) ‘urea Pe: the

United States. Grack A. SANDHOUSE.......-.+eceeeeeeeeess

Matacotocy.—A new species of Melania from Szechuan Pro ir ce,

China. Sur Fone CHEN........... i hs a ar

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new genus for _ eee sonny = +.

Jamns La. PRTERBS . 4 Paes. soo + ere Bie “ ‘

OBITUARY: FREDERICK V. CovILLE........ Peer 8

Marcu 15,1937. No. 3

)

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 27 Marcu 15, 1937 No. 3

HYDROLOGY.—Our water supply.:. Oscar E. Merinzir, U. 8S.

Geological Survey.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS |

Water in relation to physical processes.—In the physical and bio-

logical evolution that has taken place on the face of the earth, water

has had a unique function as the principal vehicle for the transfer of

matter and energy. It appears that all evolution, whether physical or

biological, requires, on the one hand, sufficient rigidity to supply a

degree of stability and permanence, and on the other hand, sufficient

fluidity or plasticity to permit more or less gradual change in response

to applied energy. In the physical evolution of the earth there have

been two major complimentary processes. One has been the repeated

raising of parts of the solid exterior of the earth to considerable eleva-

tions above sea level through deformation and the intrusion or

extrusion of fluid or plastic rock material; the other has been the

reduction and modification of the raised parts, chiefly though not ex-

clusively, through the agency of the water acting in its role as the

transporter of matter and energy. Thus the development of-the geo-

logic structure of the outer part of the earth and the creation and re-

creation of the land areas in all their characteristic detail, have been

accomplished chiefly because the earth is surficially rigid but funda-

mentally plastic, and because there is a supply of water which has

served as the principal agent in mechanical weathering, as the carrier

of oxygen and other elements that are active in chemical weathering,

and as the transporter of the weathered materials in suspension or

solution with subsequent deposition of these materials and forming

of the sedimentary deposits.

Although the poet may regard mountains as the symbol of eternal

permanence, the geologist knows that they are ephemeral features

which stand majestically for but a brief period, only to disappear

under the erosive work of the water. To the geologist the work of the

1 Address of the retiring president of the Washington Academy of Sciences delivered

January 21,1937. Received January 23, 1937.

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

water is almost everywhere in evidence—in the sculpture of the land,

in the character of the soil and subsoil, in the vast succession of sedi-

mentary formations with their numerous unconformities witnessing

to repeated cycles of uplift and erosion, in the texture of the rocks,

and even in the mineral deposits within the rocks.

Water in relation to life-—The work of water is no less evident in the

evolution of the plant and animal kingdoms. The Cambrian strata

contain the record of abundant marine life. In the half billion years

that have elapsed since the Cambrian period both plant and animal

kingdoms have undergone vast evolution, with extensive and effective

adaptation for life on the land and even in the most arid regions. How-

ever, in this long process of radical adaptation to different environ-

ments no species of plant or animal has escaped from the fundamental

requirement of a water supply in order to carry on its life processes.

Deprived of water, all plants and animals would perish. Deprived of

water, the human race, with all its thought and emotion and spiritual

aspiration, would come to prompt oblivion.

When consideration is given to the narrow range of temperature

and other conditions that are required to provide a utilizable supply

of water to living creatures, it seems evident that relatively few

heavenly bodies are adapted to support life as it is known to us.

Nevertheless, in the inconceivably large multitude of heavenly bodies

there may be, in the aggregate, many that have the proper conditions

for a water supply and that support living creatures comparable with

those that exist on this earth, or that existed in the Cambrian period,

or that will exist in ages yet to come. Moreover, it seems reasonable

to believe that there is a spiritual character to the universe which has

a reality and means of expression that are not limited by the special

physical conditions found on this earth. But, however incidental

water may be in the ultimate plan of the universe, for life on our own

earth its need is fundamental and inescapable.

As the plant and animal kingdoms moved in large part from the

sea to the land, radical adaptations to their changed water supply

resulted. Thus it became necessary for both the land plants and the

land animals to adapt themselves to the use of fresh water instead of

salt water, and this adaptation has become so thorough that now salt

water means death to nearly all land life. Thus also was developed

the constant-temperature adaptation of the warm-blooded animals,

operated by means of water acting as the medium for transporting

energy in the form of heat, and this has led to parental care and pro-

Marcu 15, 1937 MEINZER: WATER SUPPLY 87

longed adolescence, and ultimately to the fruition of intellectual and

social evolution in the human race.

Water in relation to human activities —With advancing civilization

the human race has found water to be a most convenient substance

for a large and ever enlarging list of uses. Indeed, its several proper-

ties, such as its solvent properties, its high specific heat, its occurrence

in the solid, liquid, and gaseous states within convenient temperature

intervals and with high latent heat in passing from one state to an-

other, lend themselves so remarkably to the needs of civilized man

in his multitudinous domestic and industrial operations, recreational

activities, and therapeutic applications that it seems as if these prop-

erties had been providentially designed for the benefit of man. It is

an interesting exercise to make a list of the uses to which water is

put by man, many of which are analogous to the physiological uses

of water by living organisms, as for example, the conveyance and

storage of material and energy, often with resultant chemical changes,

the regulation of temperature, and the elimination of waste. It will

be noted that in most of these uses, water serves as the vehicle for

conveying either matter or energy. It is not surprising that water

has acquired a unique religious significance as the symbol, in the rite

of baptism, of spiritual cleansing and regeneration by the washing

away of all sin.

The average per capita consumption of water in the cities and

towns of the United States amounts to more than 100 gallons a day.

Some of this water is wasted but most of it is used for beneficial pur-

poses. In the future the volume so used will be increased and new

uses will be developed. Thus, the rapid advance in air conditioning

of buildings is producing an almost alarming increase in the demand

upon our public water supplies. It may therefore be expected that,

even with reduction in waste, the consumption of water will increase

with advancing civilization. One of the truly great achievements of

civilized man is that of providing, for human use, abundant, con-

venient, and reliable supplies of water of good quality. Indeed, the

improvement of the quality of the water supplies has been a major

factor in increasing the average length of human life. However, con-

sidering the less advanced countries of the world and the rural sec-

tions of our own country, it is evident that the task is still far from

being completed.

The ultimate water supply.—The great residual reservoir of water is

the ocean, which contains all except a small percentage of the ex-

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

ternal water of the earth, the rest being on the surface of the land, or

in the interstices of the soil and rocks, or in the atmosphere. It is

necessary to distinguish between the external and the internal water,

for there is evidence that water is one of the constituents of the

magma that forms the interior of the earth, and the total quantity

of this internal magmatic water may be very great. The supply of

external water is apparently being augmented by the extrusion of in-

ternal water and possibly by acquisition from outer space. There are

also processes in operation which release water from chemical com-

bination, but these are compensated more or less by processes which

tie up some of the existing external water. Any attempt to evaluate

these several processes would be quite academic. It appears that any

changes which may have occurred in the total quantity of external

water have not had effects of major importance within the period of

definite geologic record. It also appears that no changes are in pros-

pect that will affect appreciably the future affairs of man. Although

the total quantity of external water has apparently not changed sig-

nificantly, fluctuations in sea level, probably due to other causes,

have been of primary importance throughout geologic history, in-

cluding relatively recent time. Indeed, many of the large cities of the

earth are at present situated below the levels of strands that have

been washed by the sea since the human race began to live onthe

earth.

The hydrologic cycle-—The water that is of principal concern to

man is the land water—the water in the lakes and ponds and in the

brooks and rivers, the water that forms the soil moisture, the water

in the rocks that supplies the springs and streams and wells. Any

natural or artificial change that increases the supply of land water

where it is needed, eliminates it where it is destructive, improves its

quality, or increases its availability is a distinct human gain; any

change in the opposite direction is human impoverishment.

The land water is not a stationary supply but forms a part of an

ever-recurring circulation of great complexity and variation, which is

known as the hydrologic cycle. The prime mover in this cycle is the

sun, which, in the last analysis, furnishes the energy that evaporates

water from the sea and conveys it as vapor to higher elevations on

the land, where it is precipitated, chiefly as snow or rain, with poten-

tial energy that tends, through the force of gravity, to carry it back

to the sea. The solar energy is also applied in causing evaporation

from the lakes, ponds, swamps, and streams, from the land surface,

from objects on the surface, from the soil, and, by transpiration, from

we em ee a — Game 4

— -~ Pa ge

Marcu 15, 1937 MEINZER: WATER SUPPLY 89

the leaves of growing plants, including the native and cultivated trees,

shrubs, and herbs. Indeed, the records of precipitation and run-off

show that only about a third of the water that falls as rain or snow

in the United States reaches the sea—about one-half in the eastern

part of the country, only a small percentage on the Great Plains, and

virtually none in the Great Basin.

In its return course, the water flows over the land surface and

through the stream channels and percolates through the interstices of

the soil and the water-bearing formations. In its course it performs

work of great variety, some of which is beneficial and some injurious

to man, and much of which has been modified for better or worse by

the intelligent or unintelligent activities of civilized man.

Thus the hydrologic cycle consists of two phases—one phase in-

cluding evaporation, atmospheric movement of the water vapor, and

ultimately its condensation and precipitation upon the land; the

other phase including the movement and temporary storage of the

precipitated water upon or under the land surface while on its way

to the sea or to points of re-evaporation on the land. Both phases are

very complicated.

FIRST PHASE OF THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Natural fluctuations in humidity and aridity.—Let us consider the

first of these two phases of the hydrologic cycle. The terms aridity

and humidity, as the opposite of aridity, are difficult to define in pre-

cise terms. In a widely accepted sense, however, the term aridity re-

lates to the deficiency of the precipitation in a given area for the

normal growth of mesophytic vegetation that is otherwise adapted

to the conditions of that area. In this sense the aridity of an area is

intensified by decrease in the amount of precipitation and also by

increase in the evaporativity of the area—that is, in the potential

rate of evaporation. Both precipitation and evaporativity vary radi-

cally from place to place and from time to time, largely because of

temperature variations, which are produced by a complex of different

causes.

The geologic record, covering some hundreds of millions of years,

seems to show that long ages of relatively warm and equable climate,

perhaps with a general tendency toward aridity, were at several times

interrupted by shorter periods of more variable climate including

some cold, humid stages. The latest of these variable periods began,

perhaps a million years ago, with the first of the Quaternary glacial

stages and is apparently still in progress. The geologic record shows

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

that the Quaternary, and perhaps also older periods of the same sort

consisted of several major glacial stages alternating with distinct

interglacial stages, and that the glacial stages, or at least the last one,

consisted of two or more substages involving considerable climatic

fluctuations. The greater humidity of the glacial stages was in large

part caused by decrease in evaporation. From biological evidence and

- the evidence of marine terraces, it appears that we are at present in

an intermediate position, having receded only part of the way from

the last glacial stage. From intensive study of geologic, archeologic,

and historical records it is, however, evident that recent time has not

consisted of a gradual change from glacial to inter-glacial conditions,

but rather of complicated fluctuations of climate, in part regional

rather than world-wide, between periods that were more humid and

periods that were more arid than the present.

All about us we have impressive evidence of climatic change, such

as the great sheets of glacial drift and trains of outwash gravel, the

scores of desiccated or partly desiccated lakes, including the extensive

Lakes Bonneville and Lahontan, and the great mantle of loess or

wind-blown silt that covers much of the interior of this country and

is largely responsible for its great fertility. Looking more closely at

the evidence of fluctuations furnished by existing lakes, glaciers, tree

rings, etc., and the available records of measured precipitation and

stream flow, we stand impressed by the great and irregular climatic

variations of the immediate past.

Thus at the end of the disastrous drought year of 1936, we in this

country look into the future somewhat bewildered and almost afraid,

the more so because we recognize that much of the productive part

of our country is not very far from the margin of semiaridity. We

must frankly admit that in spite of all our investigation we do not

know in which direction we are trending—toward greater humidity

or more severe droughts—in the ensuing year, decade, or century.

We can, however, make some predictions, which are in part reassuring

and in part otherwise. It is virtually certain that drought conditions

are not permanent but will be followed by years of abundant rainfall

and bounteous crops; on the other hand, it is almost equally certain

that the recent droughts are not abnormal but that in the course of

time other droughts of equal and even greater severity may be ex-

pected.

It is believed that the climatic fluctuations of the past have been

the underlying cause of much turmoil in human history. But it is

significant that the human race has not only managed to live through

Marcu 15, 1937 MEINZER: WATER SUPPLY 91

the times of drought and the intervening cold and wet times, but also

that it has had its notable evolution in this Quaternary Period of

strongly fluctuating climate. The climate of the present, as the

climate of the past, challenges man to greater effort and achievement.

The possible influence of artificial changes upon precipritation.—

When during periods of wet years the settlers moved into the semi-

arid region of our country and found to their delight that they could

raise good crops, they fondly developed the faith that rainfall follows

the plow. Now, after a series of years of drought and crop failure, this

faith has been sorely tried, and we are tormented with the fear that

on account of the acts of man in plowing and draining, our country

is rapidly becoming a desert. In the presence of such intense public

concern it is difficult to maintain a wholly judicial attitude. It is

reasonable to expect that fluctuations in humidity such as are known

to have characterized the past, should also occur, through wholly

natural causes, in the present and future. This logical inference, how-

ever, does not afford any reason for assuming that the very extensive

and radical changes which have been made by the white men on the

face of our country have produced no effects toward greater humidity

or aridity. Neither may it be assumed that such effects can be of no

practical consequence if they are obscured by natural fluctuations.

If the average annual contribution to the precipitation upon a

continent from water evaporated out of the sea remains the same,

then the drainage of swamps should reduce the average annual pre-

cipitation because some of the swamp water that would normally

be evaporated and reprecipitated is drained away into the sea. On the

other hand, the diversion of water from streams that flow into the

sea and the use of this water for irrigation should tend to increase the

precipitation. Moreover, any changes incident to cultivating and

cropping the land or to grazing the land should decrease or increase

the precipitation according as they increase or decrease the run-off

into the sea. It is generally believed that these artificially produced

changes in run-off cannot be quantitatively competent to produce

appreciable changes in precipitation. However, it is pertinent to in-

quire whether they may have significant effects in some critical areas.

It would seem that the subject deserves serious investigation.

SECOND PHASE OF THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Return flow and storage en route-—The other phase of the hydrologic

cycle consists of the flow of the precipitated water toward the sea or

toward places of re-evaporation from the land, and its storage en

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

route, chiefly as ice and snow, as surface water in the lakes, ponds,

and swamps, as moisture held by molecular attraction in the soil, and

as ground water in the subterranean reservoirs formed by the porous

rocks. To the extent that the storage facilities are inadequate, the

precipitated water is rapidly discharged into the sea through the

natural drainage channels as direct run-off. This direct run-off is of

little value to man and it produces most of the destructive floods and

most of the destructive erosion and sedimentation. If there were no

natural storage facilities there would be virtually no springs, no

perennial streams, and no trees, grass, or crops, and all stream chan-

nels would be subject to sudden and violent floods.

Near the close of the last century it became evident in this country

that accurate continuous records of stream flow were essential for

efficient utilization of the water resources and for effective flood con-

trol. Since that time a large amount of systematic stream gaging has

been done, with accuracy increasing from year to year. Intensive

studies have also been made to differentiate between the direct run-

off and the run-off derived from the several kinds of storage, and to

determine the laws of each and their relation to precipitation. In some

of the coastal regions large quantities of ground water are also dis-

charged into the sea without appearing at the surface, such discharge

being controlled by the geologic structure, the permeability of the

water-bearing formations, and the balance between the head of the

ground water and the back pressure of the heavier sea water.

Civilized man has made a notable achievement by supplementing

the natural storage facilities with many artificial reservoirs, both

great and small. Unfortunately, this achievement is likely to prove

less substantial in the long run than is popularly supposed, chiefly

because of the rapid accumulation of sediment brought to the reser-

voirs by the turbid waters of the direct run-off. Much careful study

has already been given and much more is needed to determine the

rates of sedimentation under different conditions and to devise fea-

sible methods of prolonging the life of reservoirs by by-passing the

most turbid waters, by sluicing out the sediments, or by other means.

Much progress has recently been made in the appreciation of the

great value of the natural storage facilities and the importance of con-

serving and utilizing them. The whole complex subject affords a large

field for future study and constructive effort.

Ice and snow storage.—Ice and snow have recently come into the

scientific limelight in different ways. One of these relates to the in-

terest of geologists in the relation of the Quaternary and older glacial

A Rg le SP i ea de EE EY TT RF ee get ey

Marcu 15, 1937 MEINZER: WATER SUPPLY 93

stages to fluctuations of sea level and to the cyclic character of some

of the stratified rocks of marine origin. Thus it is now believed that

in some of the glacial stages enough water was locked up as glacial

ice to depress the sea level as much as several hundred feet, and that,

on the other hand, many of the ancient sea terraces, such as occur

on the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, were formed during inter-

glacial stages when there was even less ice than at present. It has been

est mated that if all the ice that exists at present in the polar regions

were melted it would raise the sea level at least 100 feet and perhaps

200 feet or more. The advance and retreat of existing European gla-

ciers have long been recorded, but systematic observations on North

American glaciers have only recently been undertaken. Interest in

snow relates chiefly to the snow in the mountains, which supports the

summer flow of many streams, and to recently developed methods of

estimating the annual snowfall and predicting the resultant stream

flow.

Storage of water in the soiul—A soil may be regarded as a water

reservoir, its water being in the form of moisture adhering to the soil

particles. This water is under complicated stresses produced by com-

binations of the molecular attraction of the soil, the downward pull

of gravity, the absorptive energy of the plants, and the energy in-

volved in the relation between the soil moisture and the atmospheric

vapor. The slow movements of the soil moisture in response to these

stresses are of much importance in plant growth and in recharge of

the water-bearing formations, and they have properly been the sub-

ject of much study.

The value of a soil for producing crops depends largely on its

capacity to hold its water supply against the pull of gravity and yet

to yield this retained water to the roots of the plants. A clean dune

sand retains so little water that even in a humid region it may support

only cactus and other drought resistant plants; on the other hand, a

clay soil has a large water-retaining capacity but may hold most of

its water in dead storage in so far as the roots of the plants are con-

cerned. Between these extremes are the productive soils of inter-

mediate texture, such as the loams formed from the loess, which hold

considerable water against the pull of gravity and yield it freely to

the plants. : |

Dry farming methods consist largely in utilizing the reservoir ca-

pacity of a soil by storing in it the rain and snow water of one or more

years and making it available to a crop that is grown in a much

shorter period. Unfortunately, soils do not generally have the capacity

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

to store the quantity of water that is needed to produce a crop with-

out replenishment by rains or irrigation at more or less frequent

intervals during the growing season. In the eastern and especially the

southeastern part of this country it frequently happens that the soil

moisture is fully replenished early in the winter and that for many

weeks thereafter water from the rain and snow percolates through

the soil without adding to its water content. In the ensuing summer,

however, the soil moisture may become depleted long before the crops

have matured, and severe drought damage may result.

Agriculture is, from the viewpoint of this discussion, one of the

greatest of all achievements of man in the utilization of our water

supply, but soil erosion, like a dread disease, gnaws at its roots. The

erosion of the soil removes a part of the water reservoir that it uti-

lized in crop production, and especially the upper part, which gen-

erally has the greatest capacity for holding water available to plants.

Thus the measures undertaken to check soil erosion are measures of

water conservation.

Storage of water in the rock formations.—The systems of rocks that

form the outer part of the solid earth are the products of all the di-

verse and variable geologic processes that have been operative through

the ages. The description and interpretation of these rock systems,

with their almost infinite complexity, is the task of the geologists.

The rock systems constitute natural systems of waterworks with

many reservoirs of great variety, some of which have very large

capacity. The study of these natural waterworks and their operation

is a task of the hydrologists. It is a task that has required the develop-

ment of a distinctive technique in the application of the science of

fluid mechanics and hydraulic engineering to the geologic structure of

the rocks.

The porous and permeable rock formations which constitute the

underground reservoirs are saturated below a certain imaginary sur-

face that is called the ground-water table. In other words, the under-

ground reservoirs are filled to the level of the water table. In most

places the roots of the plants do not extend downward to the water

table or to the capillary fringe, which occurs directly above the water

table, and there is therefore an intermediate belt between the root

zone, or belt of soil moisture, and the zone of saturation.

Replenishment of the underground reservoirs—The underground

reservoirs are replenished, or recharged, with water from atmospheric

sources. Nearly all hydrologists believe that the recharge is essentially

all from rain and snow or from streams fed by rain and snow, but

there are still a few hydrologists who believe that subsurface con-

Marca 15, 1937 MEINZER: WATER SUPPLY 95

densation is a substantial source. The amount of recharge from a

given amount and kind of precipitation varies with the absorptive or

intake capacity of the soil or other surficial material and inversely

with the capacity of the soil to hold the water for plant use instead

of allowing it to percolate downward to the water table.

The intake capacity constitutes a large subject with many ramifi-

cations. It includes questions as to the effects of the vegetable mold

in the forested areas and of the natural sod, and, on the other hand,

the effects of grazing and of the cultivation of the soil. It includes

also the problems of artificial recharge by spreading stream water or

by other means, and of the silting up of the natural recharge channels

by surface storage or other manipulation. The surface conditions of

both forests and sod-covered prairies are favorable to intake by keep-

ing the rain and snow water clean and thus permitting it to percolate

downward through the available ducts and pores without clogging

them, whereas under some conditions the cultivation of the soil tends

to decrease the intake capacity, especially in heavy and prolonged

rains, by puddling the top layer of soil and choking the intake open-

ings. However, forests consume large quantities of water by transpira-

tion, which tends to offset their large intake. The conflicting results

obtained by different investigators as to the effects of forests on the

water table and on the flow of springs and streams, as compared to

the effects of cleared or cultivated land, are in part due to the fact that

in some places and at some times the balance is actually on one side

and in others on the other side. Relatively little investigation has as

yet been made of transpiration on the sod-covered prairies and of the

effects of breaking up and cultivating the prairie lands. It appears

probable that there is a basis in fact for the prevalent belief that the

advent of the white men in this country was attended by a certain

amount of lowering of ground water levels and of decrease in the flow

of springs and streams.

It appears that artificial recharge by water spreading, by impound-

ing of surface water and regulation of stream flow, and perhaps by

drainage into wells, has large possibilities for increasing the perennial

supply of ground water in certain specific areas of heavy consumption

in which the natural conditions are favorable. On the other hand, for

the country as a whole, recharge by such means will remain small in

comparison to the total natural recharge and the total discharge of

ground water through stream flow and through evaporation and

transpiration. Greater aggregate increase in recharge is likely to re-

sult from general improvements in agricultural practice and from

structures designed to retard soil.erosion.

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

Great as are the variations in precipitation from place to place and

from year to year in the same place, the variations in ground-water

recharge are still greater. It is now known, for example, that perennial

supplies amounting to many millions of gallons a day are available

to wells through natural recharge of the sand and gravel in the fill of

the coastal valleys and the Great Valley of California, the glacial out-

wash sands and gravels of Long Island, the Rhine Valley and the

plain of northern Germany, the dune sands of Holland, the creviced

limestone in the Roswell artesian basin in New Mexico, the broken

lava rocks of the Snake River Plain in Idaho and the Islands of Oahu

and Maui, and the water-bearing rocks of various other areas. On the

other hand, there are areas in which ground-water recharge is ex-

tremely small, either because the surface terrane is impermeable or

because the water absorbed from scant precipitation is nearly all

evaporated or utilized by plants before it reaches the bottom of the

root zone. Large areas in the arid and semi-arid parts of this country

have only very meager recharge because the precipitation is light and

occurs largely in the growing season. Yet many of these areas are

underlain by water-bearing formations that contain large stores of

accumulated water which they will yield freely to wells so long as the

supply lasts. In the coastal region of California and in the Great

Valley the soil normally becomes desiccated during the long dry sum-

mers. In winters of subnormal precipitation the precipitated water is

here largely required to restore the soil moisture, and there may be

little ground-water recharge; in exceptionally wet winters, however,

the water-retaining capacity of the soil is satisfied long before the end

of the rainy season and very large quantities of water percolate to the

water table, either locally through the soil or through the channels of

the influent streams. In the relatively humid eastern part of the

United States there is normally considerable recharge not only in

winter and spring but also in wet periods in summer, but in the drought

of 1930-31 some localities were devoid of recharge for nearly a year.

In cold regions with only moderate precipitation nearly all the re-

charge may occur in a very short time in the spring when the snow

melts and the frost leaves the soil. In such regions there are also great

differences in the annual crop of ground water.

Relation of the water table to the plant kingdom.—It has already been

pointed out that in most places the roots of the plants do not obtain

their water supply from the zone of saturation. Throughout the

greater part of the extensive and productive interior agricultural re-

gion of our country, the staple crops depend on the soil moisture

Marca 15, 1937 MEINZER: WATER SUPPLY 97

derived directly from the rain and snow and fail if that supply be-

comes exhausted, regardless of the quantities of water that are stored

below the water table. On the other hand, however, water from the

zone of saturation is utilized, either habitually or in times of drought,

by native and cultivated plants in many low places, including large

parts of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, the glaciated region, and

the stream valleys and structural valleys in other parts of the country.

Thus the relation of the water table to forest and fruit trees, staple

crops such as wheat, corn, and alfalfa, garden truck, and native

grasses is a subject of great consequence.

It is estimated that in the eastern part of the United States at least

one-third of the water discharged from the zone of saturation is dis-

charged by transpiration or evaporation, the rest being discharged as

stream flow. In some of the summer months the discharge by trans-

piration and evaporation may greatly exceed the discharge by stream

flow. In going toward the less humid parts of the country the total

annual supply of ground water decreases but the proportion dis-

charged by plants increases, until in some of the arid sections virtu-

ally all the water discharged from the zone of saturation is through

plants, and the phreatophyte vegetation, which taps the zone of

saturation, stands in striking contrast to the other desert plants.

Probably the greatest deficiency in hydrologic knowledge, espe-

cially in this country, is in the important practical subject of the rela-

tion of the native and cultivated plants to the water table. Not

enough attention has been given to the water table by botanists,

silviculturists, or agronomists, and adequate information is not avail-

able on such important subjects as the phreatophytic habits of trees

and their relation to forestation in the arid and semiarid regions, the

depth to which different cultivated plants will extend their roots to

reach the water table, the optimum depth to the water table, and

the increase in crop production resulting from use by the plants of

water from the zone of saturation. The intensive drainage develop-

ments that have been made in this country have been based too

largely on the concept that the water table is a detrimental feature,

and not enough consideration has been given to the value of the water

table to plants under proper conditions. On the other hand, the in-

adequacy of specific information on this subject is largely responsible

for exaggerated statements that are made from time to time as to the

disastrous results to agriculture from general lowering of the water

table.

Relation of underground storage to stream flow and to water supplies

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

from wells.—The principal function of a reservoir is to store water for

future use. The underground reservoirs function naturally like lakes

and ponds in equalizing the stream flow, but they are more effective

because of the retardation of the ground water by the friction of the

rock interstices. Underground reservoirs of some sort are almost uni-

versally present and are chiefly responsible for the sustained flow of

streams. The ground-water run-off carried by the streams is relatively

constant as compared with the very erratic uncontrolled direct run-

off, but it isnevertheless sensitive to various weather conditions and is

generally greatly reduced by severe drought. Streams differ greatly in

the quantity and fluctuation of their ground-water run-off according

to the geology and other natural conditions of the drainage basins.

A subject that has received little investigation but is of much scien-

tific and practical interest is the relation of geology to stream flow.

The underground reservoirs function like artificial reservoirs with

controlled outlets only when they are tapped by wells that extend

considerably below the water table. Shallow wells that merely skim

off ground water from the top of the zone of saturation are likely to

fail when the water table is lowered by drought, but the wells that

extend deeper into the water-bearing formations and have access to

their great stores of water are not appreciably affected by drought.

Reports of failure of such wells are commonly due to mechanical de-

fects in the wells or pumps, or to attempts made in times of drought |

to increase the rate of pumping beyond the normal capacities of the

wells. By drawing water from wells in proper amounts the storage

facilities of the underground reservoirs are utilized and ground-water

recharge is increased.

Yield of the artesian reservoirs.—A problem of great practical sig-

nificance relates to the perennial yield of the underground reservoirs.

To what extent is the water that is annually being drawn from

pumped or flowing wells derived from annual recharge and to what

extent is it taken out of storage, with the prospect of ultimate serious

depletion? From which of the water-bearing formations can addi-

tional perennial water supplies be developed and where can these de-

velopments be made? These questions are more intricate for the

artesian formations, which are under confining covers, than for the

water-bearing formations that have water-table conditions and hence

have their wells in or near their intake areas. They are also more

intricate for the extensive artesian sands and sandstones, which trans-

mit their water through small inter-granular interstices and exhibit

considerable volume elasticity, than for the artesian limestones and

i Se ee

Marcu 15, 1937 MEINZER: WATER SUPPLY 99

lava rocks, which have much larger water conduits and are more rigid.

Among the large artesian sandstones of the United States are the

Cambrian sandstones of the interior, the St. Peter sandstone, the

Dakota sandstone, and the series of thick sands or sandstones of the

Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain. In these sandstones centuries may

be required for water to percolate from the intake areas to the

localities of the wells. The total quantities of water that they hold in

storage are indeed very large, and the quantities that they will yield

from storage merely through the compression that results from the

release of artesian pressure of the confined water apparently may

amount to millions of gallons a day for many years. It is believed that

the phenomenon of compression with decrease in artesian pressure

has been demonstrated to be of primary importance in the study of

the perennial yield of these artesian sandstones, but the mode of com-

pression has not been given much investigation. Presumably compres-

sion occurs largely in the strata of relatively fine grain which feed

into the strata of coarser grain that supply the wells. The phenomenon

of reexpansion with increase in artesian pressure is also known to

occur to a considerable extent. It is more difficult to explain than the

compression but is probably also more characteristic of strata of rela-

tively fine grain than of the most productive water-bearing beds.

It appears that the spectacular discharge of artesian water from

the Dakota sandstone for more than half a century has been supplied

to a great extent from storage, largely as a result of the elastic or com-

pressive properties of the system. It remains to be determined

whether the more moderate withdrawals that are likely to be made in

the future will be replaced by recharge or will result in further pro-

gressive depletion. The 800-foot sand in the Atlantic City area has

yielded water freely for several decades and is currently yielding

several millions of gallons a day. It shows encouraging recovery of

head whenever the rate of pumping from wells is diminished. How-

ever, a thirteen-year record obtained by the investigators in that area

seems to show that the regional cone of depression is still expanding, ©

and that with the resulting compression some water is still being

taken from storage. Other great artesian sandstones, such as those

which for many years have furnished the water supplies of Memphis

and Houston, are known to have large annual recharge, but neverthe-

less further records are needed to determine definitely the source of

the current pumpage—to what extent the pumped water is replaced

by recharge and to what extent it is derived from storage by the

further development of the regional cones of depression.

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

About 6,500 public waterworks in this country are supplied from

wells. Many of these obtain their water from surficial formations

with true water-table conditions and many others from recognized

artesian formations. However, there is another large group of water-

works that are supplied from aquifers, largely in the glacial drift,

that are not usually regarded as artesian and yet underlie more or less

effective confining beds and are recharged by somewhat devious

percolation of the ground water. More attention ought to be given to

the problems of depletion and safe yield of these aquifers of inter-

mediate character.

EMERGENCE OF HYDROLOGY AS A RECOGNIZED SCIENCE

The hydrologic cycle, being of major scientific and practical in-

terest, has received the study of a large number of scientists, most of

whom have not called themselves hydrologists. In this country the

Weather Bureau long ago established a comprehensive and system-

atic program that has resulted in the accumulation of a great amount

of base data on precipitation and other weather conditions, the value

of which is beyond estimation. The Geological Survey has developed

a thorough technique for gaging streams and has accumulated a re-

markable body of systematic and exact data on stream flow. By sys-

tematic work through many years it has also made substantial

achievements in the chemical analysis of the natural waters, in a gen-

eral survey of the ground-water conditions, and in the development

and application of quantitative methods in ground-water investiga-

tion.

In addition to the work of these two scientific bureaus of the

Federal Government, there has been a vast amount of work by a great

number of governmental and private agencies and individuals that

has contributed in many ways to the base data and to the methods

and principles of hydrology. Thus many hydraulic engineers have de-

voted much of their time not to engineering work at all but to scien-

tific research relating to the natural waters; thus, also, many other

scientists, such as soil scientists, agronomists, geologists, botanists,

and foresters, have made distinct contributions to hydrology. There

has, however, been a lack of coordination, and developments have

been made which have had unfavorable effects that were not foreseen

because the scientists and engineers concerned did not have an ade-

quate appreciation of the unity and complexity of the hydrologic

cycle.

In recent years there has arisen a wholesome recognition of hydrol-

we <= “ow

Marcu 15, 1937 MURATA: COPPER COMPLEXES 101

ogy as a comprehensive science, and a general effort has been made to

correlate the different aspects of the subject. This trend has found

expression and stimulus in the organization, six years ago, of the Sec-

tion of Hydrology of the American Geophysical Union. More recently

an attempt has been made through the efforts of the Mississippi Val-

ley Committee, the National Resources Committee, the State Plan-

ning Boards, and other agencies to evaluate objectively the manifold

works of man that have affected the hydrologic cycle at some point

and to attain a clearer perspective for the future. Thus progress has

been made in an appreciation of the sensitivity of our water supply

to many complex controls. Looking to the future, we must insist that

engineering works or other developments shall be undertaken only

after their hydrologic consequences have been fully studied, and we

must resolutely set ourselves the task of building a science of hydrol-

ogy that will be adequate for the responsibilities that are involved.

CHEMISTRY.—Hydrogen ion concentration and the formation of

copper complexes.1 K. J. Murata, U. 8. Geological Survey.

(Communicated by R. C. WELLs.)

The exact function of the alcoholic hydroxyl groups of hydroxy

acids in the formation of complex compounds with metals has become

clarified in recent years by the physico-chemical investigations of

Smythe and Schmidt (1) and of Smythe (2). Although several chem-

ists working with these substances still ignore the role of the hydroxyl

groups, there can be little doubt that the metal atoms displace hydro-

gen from them, especially from those in the alpha position, and estab-

lish covalent links between themselves and the remaining oxygens.

The present trend in the interpretation of most of these substances is

to consider them as chelated complex compounds, the “innere Kom-

plexe’’ of Werner. Wark and Wark (3) who have made extended

researches on the copper complexes are inclining toward this view.

The modern electronic theory of valency provides a physical basis for

Werner’s coordination number, and emphasizes the importance of

this secondary valence in complex formation. Other viewpoints are

held by Mathieu (4) and by Dumanski and Chalisev (5).

As discussed by Smythe, the metal atoms in displacing hydrogen

from the hydroxyl groups are merely enhancing a tendency toward

acidic dissociation already possessed by the latter. Two interesting

studies of the acidic nature of polyols (sugars) which have been

1 Published by the permission of the Director, U.S. Geological Survey. Received

January 15, 1937.

102. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 3

recently reported are those of Urban and Shaffer (6) and of Ambler

(7).

Inasmuch as hydrogen ions are liberated when complexes of this

type are formed, the pH of the medium would be expected to have

a profound influence on the progress of the reaction. Smythe and

Schmidt explored the lower and upper pH limits of stability of dif-

ferent iron complexes. But there is evidence that the pH has an even

more intimate action than merely setting these boundary conditions.

The mechanism of complex formation outlined by these investigators

can be represented for the cupric glycollate complex by equation (a).

The bond between copper and the carboxyl groups m the parent salt

is very likely one capable only of slight dissociation, like that found

in copper malonate by Riley and Fisher (8) and in several tartrates of

the transition elements by Mathieu (4). When a certain threshold pH

is attained, according to the scheme of Smythe and Schmidt, the two

hydrogens of the hydroxyls are simultaneously ejected, and a quadri-

covalent copper complex anion is formed.

The object of this paper is to discuss evidence indicating that the

two alpha hydroxyls are not dissociated simultaneously but succes-

sively, thus giving rise to two different complexes which are stable in

different pH ranges. See equation (b).

(a)

0CO-Cu-0CO OCO-Cu-0CO {~~

| rime | U7) NO ee

H2COH HOCH, H,CO’ ‘OCH,

salt complex anion

(b) é wide

000-Cu-000 beta 000-Cu- als Bw)

HyCOH HOCH, ~*— |H5CO’ HOCH,| +H*+~*— |B2C0° ‘OCHa|+Ht

salt lst complex end complex

0¢0-Cu-000 0¢0-Cu-000 a

Ha GOH HOCH _, | 4200 HOCH, _, {8200 OCHe

Eocod HOCH, “— |H59COH OCH oA F200, | i

0CO-Cu-0CO OCO-Cu-0co | + 2H Oco-Ccu-0co | + 2H

salt lst complex end complex

The. instant that one of the hydroxyls loses a hydrogen ion, the

symmetry of the molecule is lost and a stepwise dissociation becomes

a possibility.

The report by Pickering (9) of a monopotassium cupriglycollate

ee ee

te Del ES ag,

. » . - =

i iii Naan

Marcu 15, 1937 MURATA: COPPER COMPLEXES 103

complex from a faintly alkaline solution and a dipotassium compound

from a strongly alkaline solution favors this view. However, a more

satisfactory proof is to be found in certain cupritartrate complexes,

which will next be briefly discussed.

THE CUPRITARTRATE COMPLEXES

Of the great number of different compounds of copper and tartaric

acid that have been reported, attention will be confined to those which

contain one atom of copper per mole of tartrate radical. These com-

prise a series which has been most recently examined by Gabiano (10)

and by deMallemann and Gabiano (11), who studied their remarkable

optical properties.

The first of two different complexes is formed when a sufficient base

is added to the salt, cupric tartrate, to just dissolve a given quantity of

it. On the basis of partial analyses, Gabiano has assigned to it the

formula, NaCuC.H.0,-2H.0.

The second complex is obtained in crystalline form from solutions

containing larger amounts of the base than required for the first

complex. deMallemann and Gabiano, by partial analyses, have fixed

its composition as Na,CuC.H.0,:2H.O. It has a deeper bluish color

than the first complex.

Copper tartrate differs from the tartrates of other divalent metals

studied by Mathieu in that it does not yield an insoluble basic com-

pound as the alkali is added to it. In this respect it behaves like

chromium tartrate investigated by him (12) and by Hakamori (13).

Packer and Wark (14), several years prior to the researches of

Gabiano, studied in great detail what has been called in this paper

the first complex. They made complete analyses of their crystalline

compound, and found the composition to be (NaCuC.H;0,);CuO -

11H,0. Though this work has been criticised by Dumanski and

Chalisev (5), subsequent checks (15) indicate that the result is es-

sentially correct. The 1:1:1 ratio of Na:Cu:T seems to hold both

here and in Gabiano’s formula, though the discrepancy of } CuO can-

not be accounted for satisfactorily. It is highly desirable that the re-

fractive indices and other optical properties of such synthesised ma-

terials be recorded so as to facilitate their identification by later

workers. The findings of Packer and Wark are of special theoretical

importance however, because they demonstrate that, in a certain pH

range, one of the two alpha hydroxyl] groups of the tartrate radical is

dissociated while the other is still intact. This fact offers strong sup-

port to the hypothesis of stepwise dissociation for these hydroxyls

briefly outlined above.

104. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 3

The molecular weight determinations carried out by Kahlenberg

(16) show that the first complex is a double molecule. This work has

not received the attention that it deserves.

The extensive researches of Bullnheimer and Seitz (17) on the

second complex present at higher alkalinities seem to have success-

fully avoided the sources of error which arise from the instability of

this substance, and which have been clearly set forth by deMallemann

and Gabiano. Complete analyses by them gave Na2zCuC.H.O,:-2H.0.

This differs from the formula given by deMallemann and Gabiano to

the extent that the two hydrogens of the hydroxy] groups are lacking,

a result to be expected on the basis of chelate ring structures for these

complexes, and one which the partial analyses of the latter workers

could not reveal. A mechanism for the formation of these complex

copper tartrates, which emphasizes the successive dissociation of the

hydroxyl groups, is outlined in equation (c) above.

When one adds the base to cupric tartrate in increasing amounts,

he notes the color changes that appear as the first and the second

complexes form. But beyond a certain amount there is no further

deepening of the blue color. This is seen to be a consequence of the

second complex, which forms through the dissociation of the second

alpha hydroxyl, attaining a stable and ultimate quadricovalent struc-

ture. Any excess of a base is without effect, at least so far as the

chromophoric copper atoms of the complex are concerned.

The concern of the chemist when he adds an alkali to the solid

cupric salts of these hydroxy acids or to solutions of them to form

the complexes should not be the molecular ratio between the alkali

and copper, but rather the pH of the system. The value of some of

the stoichiometric equations used to account for the formation of

complexes is doubtful. The role of the base is not to take a direct part

in the synthesis of a complex but to alter the nature of the medium

and the reactants so that the synthesis may proceed.

Whether or not the copper atoms in the first complex are manifest-

ing the unusual covalency of three or whether the fourth covalency is

satisfied by a molecule of water cannot be decided until more reliable

means of determining coordinated water of this kind are established,

and the hydration of the other constituents becomes known. That the

quadricovalent copper of the second complex has a planar configura-

tion becomes very probable in the light of recent researches of Cox

and coworkers (18). The different cis and trans arrangements which

the isomeric tartrates can form may account for the marked differ-

ences in their stability.

mS ss

Pegi Sy Oia ls age ile

~~.

Marcu 15, 1937 KIRK: CLISTOCRINUS 105

A survey of the cupric complexes of several alpha hydroxy acids

indicates that the stepwise dissociation of the hydroxyl groups is a

general characteristic. For example, Pickering’s (19) ‘“‘Potassio-cupric

Hydrogen Citrate” containing 5 atoms of potassium and 1 of copper

is very likely the first complex, and his ‘‘Potassium beta-Cupri-

citrate’? with 6 atoms of potassium and one of copper the second

complex for this acid. Any study of the equilibrium constants of com-

plex substances of this sort must therefore discriminate between the

two kinds that occur in the different pH ranges. Potentiometric pH

titration curves usually fail to show any distinct breaks however, and

manifest a smooth slope characteristic of weak polybasic acids.

CONCLUSION

Evidence pointing to a stepwise dissociation of the hydroxyl groups

in complex formation between copper and alpha hydroxy acids is dis-

cussed. In general, as a result of this behavior two different simple

cupric complexes may exist, each in a different pH range.

A modification of the mechanism for complex formation outlined

by Smythe and Schmidt is proposed.

LITERATURE CITED

SmyTHE, C. V. and Scumipt, C. L. A., J. Biol. Chem., 88, 241 (1930).

. SmytTuHeE, C. V., J. Biol. Chem., 92, 233 (1931).

; eee EK. E., J. Chem. Soc., (1932), p. 41, and previous papers with Wark,

. Mararev, J. P., Bull. soc. chim., 1, 1713 (1934).

. DumanskI, A. and CuautsEv, A. A., Kolloid Z., 47, 121 (1929).

. UrsaAn, F. and SHarrer, P. A., J. Biol. Chem., 94, 697 (1932).

. AMBLER, J. A., Ind. Eng. Chem., 28, 1266 (1936).

. Ritey, H. L., and Fisusr, N. I., J. Chem. Soe., (1929) p. 2006.

. PickEeRING, 8. U., J. Chem. Soc., 99, 1347 (1911).

10. GaBiano, P., Compt. rend., 184, 1059 (1927).

11. pEMaALLEMANN, R. and Gasiano, P., Compt. rend., 185, 350 (1927).

12. Maruiev, J. P., Compt. rend., 195, 1017 (1932).

13. Haxamonrt, S., Science Repts. Tohoku Imp. Univ., 16, 825 (1927).

14. Pacxsr, J. and Wark, I. W., J. Chem. Soc., 119, 1348 (1921).

15. Wark, E. E., and Wark, I. W., J. Chem. Soc., (1930) p. 2474.

16. KAHLENBERG, L., Z. physik. Chem., 17, 589 (1895).

17. BULLNHEIMER, F., and Seitz, E., Ber., 33, 817 (1900).

18. Cox, E. G., Warpuaw, W., and WesstTeER, K. C., J. Chem. Soc., (1936) p. 775.

19, Pickxrerine, 8. U., J. Chem. Soc., 97, 1837 (1910).

CONDOR whore

PALEONTOLOGY.—Clistocrinus, a new Carboniferous crinoid

genus.' Epwin Kirk, U.S. Geological Survey.

Through the kindness of Dr. G. H. Girty, of the U. 8S. Geological

Survey, I have been given the opportunity of studying and describing

an interesting new crinoid genus from the Carboniferous of South-

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received

January 28, 1937.

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

eastern Alaska. This genus, for which the name Clistocrinus is here

proposed, belongs to a group of small crinoids of anomalous structure

which in recent years has been found to have a wide geographical dis-

tribution and to range throughout the Carboniferous and up into the

Permian. As now known, these crinoids have been found in the

Visean (Lower Carboniferous) of Belgium and England, and the

upper Mississippian of the United States, the Pennsylvanian (es-

sentially the European Upper Carboniferous) of the United States

and Alaska, the Permo-Carboniferous of Russia, and the Permian of

Timor and the United States. Clistocrinus, coming as it does from the

lower Pennsylvanian of Alaska, is of very great interest both on ac-

count of its geographic and stratigraphic position. Structurally

Clistocrinus furnishes an intermediate form in the series of these

crinoids as known.

Clistocrinus, n. gen.

The genotype is Clistocrinus pyriformis, n. sp.

Before giving a description of the crinoid, certain points of terminology

and orientation will briefly be considered in order to avoid confusion. The

theca is composed of three circlets of plates. According to Wanner’s usage

these would be named, as in a dicyclic crinoid, infrabasals, basals, and orals,

the radials being absent. For convenience in the present case I prefer treat-

ing the form as a monocyclic crinoid, calling the same circlets of plates

basals, radials, and orals, respectively. According to Wanner’s thesis, such

a form as this is derived from a dicyclic crinoid with four circlets of plates by

the elimination of one circlet, the radials. I believe the reverse is true and

that the four-circlet type is derived from the three circlet by an intercyclic

interpolation of a fourth ring of plates which become known as radials. Were

this the only evolutionary possibility, Wanner’s terminology would still be

applicable. I think, however, that the median circlet of plates of the three-

circlet type is potentially either a basal or a radial ring and feel that it is less

confusing to use a nomenclature based on monocyclic structure in such cri-

noids as have the orals alternating with the plates of the second range. To all

intents and purposes, irrespective of potential dicyclic structure, these

crinoids are monocyclic. In orienting the theca I call the large hydropore-

bearing oral the posterior and arrange the other plates accordingly. Wanner

also calls this oral posterior, but according to his interpretation it then would

have a radial position in this form as in Acaraiocrinus, and the orientation

of the dorsal cup would be arbitrary, his posterior ‘‘basal’’ being 36° out of

line with the posterior oral. The difference of orientation between Wanner

and myself must be borne in mind when reading his descriptions. The large

lateral opening lying in the radial-oral plane which has universally been

called the anal opening may be such, but I doubt it. The opening piercing

the posterior oral, which is probably the anal opening, I shall call the hydro-

pore, a somewhat equivocal term but in conformity with current and past

usage.

The following brief diagnosis of the genus will give the salient features of

the form, the more detailed description being found under the description

of the type species.

Marcu 15, 1937 KIRK: CLISTOCRINUS 107

Figs. 1-8.—Clistocrinus pyriformis, n. sp. 1, plate diagram. 2, view from right

posterior interradius showing the lateral opening. 3—5, views of same specimen revolv-

ing the specimen progressively to the left. 6, tegminal view. 7, basal view. 8,

another somewhat smaller specimen, posterior view showing the position of the hydro-

pore. Figs. 2-8 are approximately X6.

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3.

The basal units are three in number, two large and of approximately equal

size, the third much smaller. The small unfused basal is the left anterior, a

normal position for monocyclic crinoids. The radials are five in number and

vary somewhat in relative size. The right posterior and right anterior radials

are invaginated to form the lateral opening. The posterior oral is the largest

and is pierced by a hydropore. Although not clearly seen, the posterior oral

and the right and left anterior orals alone meet at the center of the tegmen.

This is a condition common to other genera of this group. The sutures be-

tween the orals are sinuous, very like Embryocrinus. The right posterior oral

instead of holding a median position between the right posterior and right

anterior radials does not touch the right posterior radial, the common suture

between the posterior and right posterior orals falling directly above the

lateral opening. The lateral opening lies in the right posterior interradius,

unequally notching the right posterior and right anterior radials. The super-

jacent orals are not invaginated.

Clistocrinus pyriformis, n. sp.

Of this species three adult specimens and three or possibly more younger

individuals are available for study. The specimens are calcified and were

found in a richly fossiliferous crystalline limestone. The sutures show clearly

in the larger specimens.

The species is a small one, the holotype measuring 4.7 mm in height by

4.2 mm in diameter. The theca is subpyriform in shape. The sides of the

dorsal cup diverge fairly rapidly to about two-thirds the height of the radials

and then constrict somewhat at the plane of the radial-oral contact. The

tegmen is a rounded dome, with a height about one-third that of the theca.

The orals are somewhat flattened, giving the tegmen an obscurely facetted

appearance, with the angles falling along the inter-oral sutures. The plates

are finely punctate.

The basal units are three in number, the small unfused pentagonal basal

being the left anterior. The other two are hexagonal in outline and subequal

in size. The height of the basal cup of the largest individual is 1 mm and its

maximum diameter 2.8 mm. The radials are subequal in size. They have a

uniform height looking straight down upon them of 2.2 mm, except the an-

terior, which gives a measurement of 2 mm. The breadth of the plates at

their upper margin is variable. The right posterior is the narrowest with a

width of 1.8 mm, estimating the width by projecting the right posterior-

right anterior suture upward through the lateral opening. The right anterior

radial is the widest at the upper margin, with a breadth of 2.7 mm. Measure-

ments for the other radials read as follows: ant., 2.3 mm; 1. ant., 2 mm; l.

post., 2.2 mm. The width of the radials at the base is more uniform, the r.

post., r. ant., and ant. radials measuring 1.5 mm. In the |. ant. the width is

1.4 mm, and in the 1. post. it is 1.2 mm. The orals are difficult to measure

owing to curvature and indistinct sutures. The width of the plate at the

base can be measured with fair accuracy, however. This dimension on the

r. ant., 1. ant., and 1. post. orals is the same, 2.7 mm. The posterior oral is

by far the largest, with a width of 3.3 mm, while ther. post. oral is narrower

than the first three noted, with a width of but 2.5 mm. The apposed faces

of the orals are coarsely crenulate, as in Embryocrinus and Coenocystis. The

hydropore cannot be located with certainty in the larger specimen illus-

trated, but its probable situation is indicated in figure 6 and was drawn in

mainly to identify the hydropore-oral. The hydropore shows clearly in the

Marcu 15, 1937 KIRK: CLISTOCRINUS 109

specimen illustrated as figure 8 and in one other. In the specimen not figured

the hydropore is much nearer the apex of the oral. The hydropore shows as

a pit, rather than as elevated pimple, as is often the case. In the larger speci-

men the pit is surrounded by a smoothly rounded ridge.

The lateral opening is of relatively large size, having a maximum height

of 0.9 mm and a width at the oral-radial plane of 1.2 mm. It lies in the right

posterior interradius, unequally cutting into the right posterior and right

anterior radials. Of the total width, approximately 0.8 mm lies within the

right posterior radial and 0.4 mm within the right anterior radial. The open-

ing does not cut into the superjacent orals as is the case in several genera.

One would expect the lateral opening to be covered entirely by the right

posterior oral. Such is not the case, however. The posterior oral extends be-

yond the median line of the right posterior radial and meets the right pos-

terior oral at a point about midway of the lateral opening.

On the surface of the tegmen of the largest individual are irregular super-

imposed raised areas. When first seen these areas were thought to be extrane-

ous growths. Being restricted almost entirely to the tegmen, apparently hav-

ing the structure of crinoid stereom, and similar but smaller areas being

found on other specimens, it seems probable that they are structures of the

crinoid itself. As seen the surface of these areas is covered with irregularly

disposed suboval to subcircular depressions. In general appearance the de-

pressions are similar to the pits for the reception of epithecal brachioles in

some of the more primitive cystids, but the resemblance is probably super-

ficial. There would appear to be no reason for calcified exothecal extensions

on crinoids of this type. The pits are sometimes thickly clustered and some-

times fairly well separated. It is difficult to render the structures in a draw-

ing, even to the extent of delimiting the areas themselves. The outline shown

in figures 2 to 6 are intended only approximately to give the general size and

distribution of the areas. In general these patches of stereom are most

numerous near the periphery of the theca and along the inter-oral sutures.

The areal distribution of the epithecal structures in the largest specimen

shows an almost continuous peripheral band at the base of the orals, with

the greatest development along the inter-oral sutures. A large patch lies

directly above the lateral opening, extending on both sides of the post.-r.

post. oral contact. It extends upward along the suture to about one-half

the height of the orals. From this patch a narrow band extends to the right

horizontally and just above the radial-oral plane to another large patch on

the r. ant.-l. ant. oral contact. This patch is clearly defined, and its surface

rises well above that of the orals. It extends upward to about two-thirds

the height of the orals. From this patch a broad irregular band extends

across the |. ant. and 1. post. orals to slightly beyond the 1. post.-post. oral

suture. The band broadens somewhat at both the 1. ant.-l. post. oral and

l. post.-post. oral contacts. This band lies at times somewhat above the

radial-oral plane.

In two other somewhat smaller individuals the surface of the theca is not

as well preserved, but structures suggesting similar epithecal deposits can

be seen. As shown the areas are discontinuous and much smaller than in the

largest specimen. Here again the main concentration of superficial stereom

is along inter-oral sutures. In two small specimens the plate sutures cannot

be seen, and the separation of tegmen and dorsal cup must be made arbitra-

rily. The pits in these specimens are relatively large, and apparently the

epithecal areas extend onto the dorsal cup.

The stem cicatrix is round and has a diameter of 0.5 mm.

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

Picked out of the broken limestone fragments, and associated with the

large specimens of Clistocrinus pyriformis, are five small subovate to capsule-

shaped specimens that appear to be the young of the crinoid. Broken out of

a dark crystalline limestone and not subjected to weathering, it is not possi-

ble to see plate sutures in all of them. One can be reasonably certain of at

least three of the specimens, however. The tegmen and dorsal cup can be

recognized, and the lateral opening and the columnar attachment can be

identified with a fair degree of certainty. A fourth specimen is so similar to

the other three as to render its identification reasonably sure. The fifth and

smallest specimen is of uncertain placement. All the specimens agree in

having a height in excess of the diameter. In the smaller specimens the di-

ameter is approximately 0.8 the height. With increasing age the diameter

approaches 0.9 the height, and this appears to hold as an average for

the larger specimens. The proportions of tegmen and dorsal cup appear

to be reasonably constant. In the younger specimens the base is more

rounded, however, and it is difficult to distinguish one end of the theca from

the other.

Horizon and locality.—The locality as given by the collector, A. F. Bud-

dington, is ‘‘Northwest end of large island at head of Saginaw Bay, Kuiu

Island, on east side; 40-foot bed of limestone intercalated in series of inter-

layered chert, slaty quartzite, and cherty limestone.” Girty? gives an exten-

sive faunal list of the associated fossils and on page 116 gives his opinion as

to the age of this and similar faunas. His conclusion was tentatively to make

the fauna upper Mississippian in age, though recognizing strong Pennsyl-

vanian affinities. At my suggestion, L. G. Henbest examined the foraminif-

era from this locality, and his general conclusion? is that these fossils favor

an assignment of the fauna to the Pennsylvanian. Girty‘ holds that although

the evidence for a Pennsylvanian age does not appear much stronger than

in 1929, the evidence for a Mississippian assignment seems somewhat weaker.

His general conclusion is ‘‘The Alaskan fauna, I am inclined to believe, will

prove to be of Pottsville age, or at least early Pennsylvanian, but I cannot

say that the proof is at present extant.’’ There are two other crinoid genera

in the material. Synbathocrinus is indeterminate as to age. The other is a

small crinoid which, though not typical, would be referred to Delocrinus, a

Pennsylvanian genus. On the whole it would appear best to consider the

fauna lower Pennsylvanian in age.

Types.—The cotypes and other specimens studied are in the collections

of the U. 8. National Museum, No. 94441.

Structurally we see in Clistocrinus an intermediate evolutionary stage

between the Mississippian Lagenzocrinus and the Permo-Carboniferous

(Russia) and Permian (Timor) Acariaiocrinus (Streptostomocrinus). In an-

sother paper I am redescribing Lageniocrinus, based on a study of de Kon-

inck’s type specimen of L. seminulum. In Lageniocrinus there is a lateral

(‘‘anal’’) opening notching the upper corners of the two plates of the second

range, one below the hydropore-oral and the one to the right. The orals are

in alignment with the plates of the second range. In Clistocrinus we find the

orals shifted to the left relative to the plates of the dorsal cup, becoming

2 Girty, G. H., in Buppineron, A. F., and Cuapin, THEODORE, Geology and mineral

deposits of southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 800: 113. 1929.

3 Personal communication, August 29, 1936.

4 Personal communication, November 11, 1936.

Marcu 15, 1937 KIRK: CLISTOCRINUS Lal

‘Snterradial” in position. The lateral opening is larger and has migrated

somewhat to the left. In Acarzazocrinus the orals are “‘interradial’’ in posi-

tion, and the lateral opening has migrated still further to the left, holding a

median position on the right posterior “‘radial.”’

In some of the genera of this group of crinoids it has been assumed that

the orals could be opened and closed. There has been no evidence for this,

but anyone handling the material would, I think, come to this conclusion.

I have very good evidence in the case of Coenocystis. Here there are five

suboval pits, each at the center of the distal face of a plate of the second

range (“‘radial’’). Above each pit is a cavity excavated in the superjacent

orals and equally shared by them. At the proximal angles of the orals are

apophyses that project downward and bear against the inner wall of the

dorsal cup when the orals are closed. It is obvious that we have here an

articulating structure of rather complex type. In the case of Clistocrinus we

have two difficulties. One is that the inter-oral suture between the posterior

and right posterior orals is in line with the large lateral opening, and the

proximal corners of these orals involved have no bearing surface. Obviously

with the corners lacking support and the total bearing surface cut down these

plates would have poor but perhaps adequate articulating surfaces. The

other difficulty is the presence of the patches of stereom partially covering

the inter-oral sutures and effectively soldering the oral dome into an im-

movable unit. It is possible that these pitted areas of superimposed material

were not laid down by the crinoid, but the evidence at hand seems in favor

of such an explanation. An examination of 10 well-preserved specimens of

Embryocrinus shows nothing comparable in that genus, nor has anything of

the sort been seen in a number of specimens of Coenocystis, though here the

preservation, owing to silicification, makes the evidence less satisfactory.

The only thing to do is to await more material to confirm or disprove the

apparent structure. It would be of great importance, however, to know that

such a crinoid could function with its orals firmly closed. In such case it

would appear necessary to consider the lateral opening as an oral opening.

I favor this view.

Of great importance in the orientation of the crinoids of this group and

the Allagecrinidae as well, and in some cases the only reliable criterion, is

the evidence offered by the orals. This does not seem to have been recog-

nized. The arrangement and shape of the orals seems to be invariable. The

posterior oral is the largest. Often the hydropore can be recognized without

doubt, but fortuitous pitting and secondary alteration of the surface of

specimens as small as these may lead one astray. The posterior oral may,

however, be recognized by its pentagonal outline, and careful examination

will usually show its distal portion formed of two faces meeting at an obtuse

angle. The right and left anterior orals are large, quadrangular in outline

and make contact with the posterior oral with their obliquely truncated

distal faces. The right and left posterior orals are relatively small, triangular

in outline and do not reach to the center of the tegmen. A recognition of

these facts should prevent the preparation of drawings and plate diagrams

that show the orals as five subequal triangular plates or with the right and

left anterior orals truncated in the wrong direction. A modification of this

typical structure is found in Embryocrinus and possibly elsewhere. Here the

apical portion of the posterior oral forms an obtuse re-entrant angle, with

a median projection. The apical portions of the right and left anterior orals

fit into the re-entrant and in this case are not obliquely truncated.

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 3

BOTANY.—A new type of heterobasidiomycete.. G. W. Martin,

State University of Iowa.

The fungi included in the order Tremellales, in the wide sense, are

of peculiar interest because they may be regarded as constituting the

plexus from which has developed, on the one hand, the rusts and

smuts, and, on the other, the homobasidiomycetes. For this reason,

the finding of an undoubted member of the order possessing a char-

acteristic suggestive of certain phenomena long known to occur in the

smuts is worthy of more extended comment than might be justified

were it merely an addition to the known genera and species of the

group.

The fungus in question was found to be common in western

Panama, growing on fallen trunks and stumps in the mountain forest

bordering the upper Rio Chiriqui Viejo. In appearance it suggests a

large, white and rather soft Tremella, but microscopic examination

shows it to be a member of the Auriculariaceae, with unique basidia

and spores. It is difficult to believe that so large, common and con-

spicuous a form has not been previously noted, but, if it has, I have

been unable to find any recognizable description. As there seems to

be no known genus into which it may be placed, it becomes necessary

to erect one for it.

Syzygospora Martin, gen. nov.

Fructificatione sessile, gelatinosa; basidiis clavatis, transverse uniseptatis,

loculis singulis monosporium gerentibus; sporis coalescentibus ante disjunc-

tionem.

Basidiocarp sessile, gelatinous; hymenium covering entire exposed surface;

basidia bluntly clavate, transversely septate into two cells, each cell pro-

ducing a single basidiospore on a short sterigma; basidio-spores fusing in

pairs before detachment. Type species, S. alba.

Syzygospora alba Martin, sp. nov.

Fructificatione sessile, late effusa, undulata vel subcerebriformia, alba,

gelatinosa demum deliquescente, attingente 10X5X2.5 cm; sicea fulva,

cornea; basidiis clavatis, 8-15 X3.5—4y, transverse uniseptatis, loculis singu-

lis monosporium gerentibus; sporis subglobosis, coalescentibus ante dis-

junctionem, demum cylindraceis post fusionem, 5—6 X 2.8—3.2u.

Basidiocarp sessile, broadly effused, undulate to subcerebriform, pure

white, soft gelatinous, with long soaking becoming deliquescent, up to 10

cm long by 5 cm broad by 2.5 em thick; dark brown and horny when dry;

hymenium composed of basidia borne in fascicles at the tips of branching,

radiating hyphae, forming a dense palisade layer covering the entire surface;

basidia bluntly clavate, 8-15X3.5—4y, becoming transversely septate into

two cells, the distal cell blunt and approximately isodiametric, the basal

cell longer and attenuated toward the base, each cell producing a globose

! Received January 9, 1937.

Marcu 15, 1937 MARTIN: SYZYGOSPORA 113

basidiospore on a short sterigma, that of the distal cell borne at the basal end

just above the septum, that of the basal cell borne at the distal end Just

below the septum and adjacent to the other, the two basidiospores fusing

before attaining full size and finally breaking off as a single oval, cylindrical

or slightly dumb-bell shaped spore 5-6 X 2.8-3.2y.

Panama: Prov. Chiriqui. Valley of upper Rio Chiriqui Viejo, alt. 1600-

1800 m., June-July 1935. G. W. M. 2449 (Type, in herb. State Univ. Iowa),

2167, 2517, 2547, 2575.

The generic name is derived from ot{vyos, yoked together, and oropa, spore.

Fig. 1.—Syzygospora alba, n.gen.andsp. a,cystidium. b, cluster of four basidia,

two bearing spores. c, tip of large axial hypha bearing cluster of three basidia, one

preparing to produce spores, and two clamp connections, both proliferating, one to

bear a single basidium, the other, a lateral branch which bore at tip a cluster of basidia

similar to b, which was produced at the next lower septum. d, cluster of three basidia,

the center one showing early stage of fusion of spores. e, two basidia, the larger one

showing spores in late stage of fusion. f, three fused and detached spores two showing

evidence of origin; the bulk of the spores resemble the third. g, tip of axial hypha

showing beginning of clamp connection. h, clamp connection from basal region of

axial hypha. i, basidium possibly bearing four spores. All drawings made with aid

of camera lucida at magnification X 2436, and reduced in reproduction to 1200.

When soaked, the fructifications become rather dingy white and waxy-

gelatinous, then soft, but do not regain their original color and size. A micro-

tome section through a portion of a soaked specimen, hardened in formalin

and imbedded in paraffin, shows the hyphae aggregated into thin anasto-

mosing strands separated by large open spaces, the whole suggesting a struc-

ture resembling that of a sponge. The internal hyphae are of two sorts, ex-

tremely irregular, tortuous hyphae of varying size, and large straight ones,

3—4u in diameter, which radiate outward in all directions and by repeated

branching give rise to the basidiophores, which are mostly 1. 5u—2y in diame-

ter. Clamp connections are abundant, being visible at almost every septum,

including those at the base of the basidia. The basidia themselves are borne

singly, or in unilateral cymose tufts of two to four, the successive basidia

after the first usually arising by proliferation from the clamp connection at

the base of the next older basidium, essentially in the manner reported by

Rogers? for Sebacina prolifera. —

2 Mycologia 28: 347-362. 1936.

114 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

A small number of basidia were observed which seemed to bear two pairs

of spores. When carefully focussed, some of these resolved themselves into

two superimposed basidia, others seemed to be instances where a loose

spore had become attached to the side of the basidium, but in a very few

instances there seemed to be four spores, fused or unfused, actually present.

If this interpretation is correct, it is probably to be regarded as an aberra-

tion such as is characteristic of the Tremellales.

In addition to basidia, the hymenium includes a small number of clavate,

hyphal tips with highly vacuolate and somewhat refringent contents, at-

taining 80u in length and 5y in diameter near the tips. They are borne on the

same hyphae as the basidia. In some cases they represent the ends of the

large axial hyphae bearing the basidiophores, while in others they originate

amongst a cluster of basidia. They are evidently to be regarded as cystidia.

The fusion of the spores must result in the immediate restoration of the

dicaryon phase. This phenomenon seems to be distinct from anything known

heretofore in the Basidiomycetes in that fusion results in a distinet, diploid

spore serving as a disseminule. It must, however, be regarded as homologous

with the familiar fusion of sporidia either while still attached to the basidium

(‘“‘promycelium’’) of many of the smuts or immediately after separation,

first announced and illustrated by the Tulasnes* and later by DeBary, Bre-

feld and many others. It is perhaps even closer to the fusion between the

cells of the basidium as demonstrated by Rawitscher for Cintractia M ontag-

net.* In the smuts, however, the smut spore, or probasidium, is the primary

disseminule, and the fusion product either grows directly into a mycelium

or proceeds to develop secondary basidiospores which are forcibly discharged

and then function as disseminules.® The fusion of basidiospores in Syzygos-

pora is significant as illustrative of a tendency in the group which may have

been modified and developed in the smuts and adapted to their highly spe-

cialized ecological requirements.

ZOOLOGY.—WNorth American monogenetic trematodes. I. The su-

perfamily Gyrodactyloidea.!| Emmett W. Price, U. 8. Bureau of

Animal Industry.

The monogenetic or ectoparasitic trematodes comprise a wide

variety of more or less bizarre flatworms occurring on fishes and other

aquatic animals. These forms are most commonly encountered on the

skin and gills of marine and fresh-water fishes. Several species occur

in the mouth and upper respiratory tract of turtles and in the urinary

bladder of turtles and frogs. A few have been found on crustaceans

and cephalopods, and one species has been reported from the eyes of

3 Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. IV 2: 157-159. 1854.

4 Ber. deut. bot. Gesell. 32: 281-287. 1914.

5 BuLLER. Res. on Fungi, 5: 207-278. 1933.

1 Received January 29, 1937.

Marcu 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 115

an aquatic mammal. The literature dealing with this group of trem-

atodes is fairly extensive, although only a few papers have appeared

which may be regarded as monographic in scope. The most important

are those by Braun (1889-1893), Saint Remy (189la and b, 1892,

1898), Goto (1894), Johnston and Tiegs (1922) and Fuhrmann (1928).

The first monogenetic trematode from a North American host was

described as an “‘insect”’ by La Martiniére (1787), and was found on

the skin of a fish collected somewhere between Monterey Bay, Cali-

fornia, and Nootka Island. The true nature of this “‘insect’’ was de-

termined by Bosc (1811). Since that time more than 40 papers have

appeared which deal either wholly or in part with North American

representatives of the order Monogenea. The most extensive studies

of these forms were made by the late Dr. G. A. MacCallum (14 papers

appearing from 1913 to 1931), and by Stunkard (1917), Mueller

(1934, 1936) and Mizelle (1936).

This paper, which is the first of several to appear under the general

heading of North American monogenetic trematodes, is limited to the

superfamily Gyrodactyloidea. Subsequent papers will deal with other

major groups and will appear in sequence. In all of these papers will

be given diagnoses and keys for all groups as far as genera, and when

taken together these papers will represent a revision of the entire

order Monogenea. Under each genus is given a list of all species known

to belong to that group. However, no attempt has been made in each

instance to pass judgment on the validity of the exotic representatives

of these genera. The species of which detailed descriptions are given

are those from this continent that have been inadequately character-

ized and those in which important characters have been overlooked

or misinterpreted. A few new species have been included, but no par-

ticular effort has been made to obtain new forms since the mere de-

scribing of new species is regarded of minor importance as compared

with redescriptions of imperfectly known old species.

This revision has been made possible through access to the exten-

sive collections of MacCallum, Linton and others, which are de-

posited in the U. 8. National Museum. The writer is indebted to Drs.

J. E. Guberlet, University of Washington; Harold Heath, Stanford

University; Edwin Linton, University of Pennsylvania; H. W.

Manter, University of Nebraska; John D. Mizelle, University of Illi-

nois; Justus F. Mueller, Syracuse University; H. S. Pratt, Haverford,

Pa.; H. W. Stunkard, New York University; and H. J. Van Cleave,

University of Illinois; as well as to Drs. P. D. Harwood, W. H. Krull,

EK. E. Wehr, and Mr. Allen McIntosh of the Zoological Division, U.

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

S. Bureau of Animal Industry, for supplying specimens not available

in the U. 8. National Museum Collections.

Order MONOGENEA Carus, 1863?

Synonyms.—Cryptocoela Johnston, 1865; Ectoparasitica Lang, 1888;

Eterocotylea Monticelli, 1892; Heterocotylea Braun, 1893; Monogenetica

Haswell, 1893; Heterocotylida Lahille, 1918.

Diagnosts.—Small to medium sized ectoparasitic flukes, with elongated

to leaf-like bodies. Anterior end of body with or without haptors; posterior

end always with a haptor, the haptor usually provided with hooks or suckers,

or with both hooks and suckers. Mouth ventral or subterminal, at or near

anterior end; pharynx always present, well developed; intestine single or

double. Eyes present or absent. Excretory system double, opening dorsally

through 2 symmetrically placed pores at or near level of genital aperture.

Always hermaphroditic; genital apertures usually opening into a common

sinus. Genito-intestinal canal present or absent. Uterus usually short; eggs

few, frequently provided with polar prolongations. Development direct, i.e.,

without alternation of generations and without alternation of hosts; meta-

morphosis incomplete. Usually parasites of cold-blooded vertebrates or of

crustaceans parasitic on vertebrates, rarely on cephalopods and mammals.

Odhner (1912) has proposed a division of the Monogenea into two sub-

orders, Monopisthocotylea and Polyopisthocotylea, on the basis of the

presence or absence of a genito-intestinal canal, and most authors have

accepted Odhner’s proposal. Fuhrmann (1928), however, recognizes three

suborders, namely, Monopisthodiscinea, Monopisthocotylinea and Polyopis-

thocotylinea, the first two of these groups being the result of splitting Odh-

ner’s Monopisthocotylea into two suborders, while the third is equivalent to

Polyopisthocotylea Odhner. The writer fails to see sufficient fundamental

difference to warrant subdividing the Monopisthocotylea into two subor-

ders, preferring to retain the groups as proposed by Odhner, and has pro-

posed two superfamilies to replace the first two of Fuhrmann’s suborders.

KEY TO THE SUBORDERS OF MONOGENEA

Genito-intestinal canal present............... Polyopisthocotylea Odhner

Genito-intestinal canal absent............... Monopisthocotylea Odhner

Suborder MONOPISTHOCOTYLEA Odhner, 1912

Synonyms.—Monocotylea Blainville, 1828; Tricotylea Diesing, 1850;

Tristomeae Taschenberg, 1879; Oligocotylea Monticelli, 1903; Monopis-

thodiscinea Fuhrmann, 1928; Monopisthocotylinea Fuhrmann, 1928.

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors present or absent, when present consisting

of a weakly developed oral sucker, or of 2 lateral suckers not opening into

oral cavity, or of 2 elongate depressions near anterior end of body with

numerous small unicellular glands opening into them; when haptors absent,

adhesive function supplied by cephalic glands opening singly at anterior

2 Most authors credit the name of this order to Van Beneden (1858), but this seems

to be an error. Van Beneden proposed a division of the trematodes into two major

groups, “‘monogénéses” and ‘“‘digénéses,”’ the names being in the vernacular form. The

first to use the name Monogenea for the order appears to have been Carus (1863).

Marcu 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 107

margin of body or through one or more pairs of head organs. Posterior

haptor disc-like, usually well developed, its ventral surface with or without

septa, never bearing distinct suckers or clamp-like attaching organs, usually

armed with 1 to 3 pairs of large hooks and a number (2 to 16) of marginal

hooklets; large hooks frequently supported by transverse cuticular bars.

Eyes present or absent. Genito-intestinal canal absent, except possibly in

Protogyrodactylidae. Vagina present or absent.

KEY TO SUPERFAMILIES OF MONOPISTHOCOTYLEA

Posterior haptor armed; large hooks with supporting bars..............

a ee Gyrodactyloidea. Johnston and Tiegs

Posterior haptor armed or unarmed; when armed, large hooks without sup-

7 OL LILES | O2HST ASAI ie eRe aa a ooh A Capsaloidea Price

Superfamily GYRODACTYLOIDEA Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptors absent; cephalic glands present, usually in

2 groups, 1 group on each side of pharynx, with ducts opening to exterior

through 1 or more pairs of head organs. Posterior haptor disc-like, sometimes

wedge-shaped, bearing 1 to 2 pairs of large hooks, the hooks almost always

supported by 1 to 2, rarely 3, cuticular bars. Intestine sac-like or consisting

of 2 branches with or without diverticula, the later, when present, short.

Genital aperture median or submedian. Cirrus simple, cuticular, frequently

with complicated cuticular accessory structure. Vagina present or absent.

Vitello-intestinal canal rarely present. Oviparous or viviparous.

Type family.—Gyrodactylidae Cobbold, 1877.

KEY TO FAMILIES OF GYRODACTYLOIDEA

252021 i oe ae ae ce oe Gyrodactylidae Cobbold

DS A eae Pe te ee na 25 OS de SOO a a 2

2. Vitello-intestinal duct present. Protogyrodactylidae Johnston and Tiegs

Seecle-mbestinal duct, absent... 2.01.01. a eee ea eee eee =

3. Anterior end of body expanded to form head lappets.................

2's SR ee SS a a Calceostomatidae Parona and Perugia

Anterior end of body not expanded to form head lappets.............

os a Ee Ee 5 ee ae pee Dactylogyridae Bychowsky

Family GYRODACTYLIDAE Cobbold, 1877

Diagnosis —Small, elongated Monogenea, with 2 head organs. Haptor

well developed, usually bearing 1 pair of large hooks (absent in Isancis-

trinae) and 15 or 16 marginal hooklets. Intestine branched, the 2 limbs not

uniting posteriorly. Eyes absent. Male copulatory organ armed with a row

of minute spines and usually with a triangular cuticular plaque. Ovary

V-shaped, or lobed, posttesticular. Vitellaria absent or united with ovary.

Vagina absent. Viviparous. Parasites of fishes, eu gps and cephalopods.

Type genus.—Gyrodactylus Nordmann, 1832.

Many authors, including Johnston and Tiegs (1922), Fuhrmann (1928),

Froissant (1930) and Bychowsky (1933), credit the name of this family to

Van Beneden and Hesse (1863), but these authors used the name “‘Gyro-

dactylides” and not ‘‘Gyrodactylidae”’; the first to use the correct form of

the family name appears to have been Cobbold (1877).

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

KEY TO SUBFAMILIES OF GYRODACTYLIDAE

Haptor with 2 large hooks and 16 marginal hooklets...................

Pr ee fy t,o a Gyrodactylinae Monticelli

Haptor without large hooks but with 15 marginal hooklets..............

ET ME iis, sot 0 i Aaah VON Isancistrinae Fuhrmann

Subfamily GYRODACTYLINAE Monticelli, 1892

Diagnosis.—Anterior end bilobed, each lobe with a head organ. Haptor

circular, with 1 pair of large hooks and 16 marginal hooklets. Parasites of

fishes and amphibians.

Type genus.—Gyrodactylus Nordmann, 1832.

Genus GyropactyLus Nordmann, 1832

Diagnosis.—Characters of the subfamily.

Type species.—Gyrodactylus elegans Nordmann, 1832.

The genus Gyrodactylus contains the following species: G. elegans Nord-

mann, 1832; G. groenlandicus Levinsen, 1881; G. gracilis Kathariner, 1894;

G. medius Kathariner, 1894; G. rarus Wegener, 1910; G. fairporti Van Cleave,

1921; G. japonicus Kikuchi, 1929; G@. cobitus Bychowsky, 1933; G. latus

Bychowsky, 1933; G. parvicopula Bychowsky, 1933; G. cylindriformis Muel-

ler and Van Cleave, 1932; G. elegans vars. A. and B. Mueller, 1936; and G.

gurleyt, n. sp. Of these species, G. fazrporti, G. elegans vars. A and B, G.

spathulatus and G. gurleyz are from North American fish hosts. G. elegans

Nordmann has been reported from fishes in Maine by Atkins (1901) and

in Washington by Guberlet, Hansen and Kavanagh (1927) but whether these

reports indicate the occurrence of the European species by that name is

open to question. The report by Cooper (1915) of the occurrence of G. medius

Kathariner from North America is likewise questionable, as the description

and figure given by Cooper indicate that he was dealing with some species

other than G. medius.

In addition to the species listed above, reports of species of Gyrodactylus

from North American fishes have been given by a number of writers, in-

cluding Davis (1929) and Hess (1930) but no evidence is given in these re-

ports that would enable one to determine the species involved. Recently

Stunkard and Dunihue (1933) reported the occurrence of a species of Gyro-

dactylus on tadpoles of Rana catesbezana, constituting the first report of a

species of this genus parasitizing an amphibian.

Gyrodactylus gurleyi, n. sp. Fig. 1

Description.—Body elongate, 435 to 510u long by 60 to 76u wide, width

about uniform throughout length of body proper; anterior end bifid and

provided with 1 pair of head organs; cephalic glands present on each side

of pharynx. Haptor circular, about 76u wide, armed with 1 pair of large

hooks supported by a delicate dorsal bar and a similar ventral bar, and with

16 marginal hooklets; ventral bar at level of proximal ends of large hooks.

Large hooks 45 to 49u long; marginal hooklets about 23u long. Oral aperture

ventral, about 75u from anterior end; esophagus very short; intestinal

Markcu# 15, 1937

PRICE: TREMATODES

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Ancyrocephalus teuthis. 2, Complete worm, ventral view; 3, haptoral hooks (A—

hook of dorsal pair, B—hook of ventral pair, C—marginal hooklet); 4, haptoral bars

(A—dorsal bar, B—ventral bar); 5, cirrus. Figs. 6—9.—Ancyrocephalus lactophrys.

6, Complete worm, ventral view; 7, large haptoral hooks (A—hook of ventral pair,

B—hook of dorsal pair); 8, haptoral bars (A—ventral bar, B—dorsal bar; drawn to

same scale as Fig. 7); 9, cirrus. Figs. 10-13.—Ancyrocephalus similis. 10, Complete

worm, ventral view; 11, haptoral hooks (A—hook of ventral pair, B—hook of dorsal

pair); 12, haptoral bars (A—ventral bar, B—dorsal bar); 13, cirrus.

119

120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

branches simple. Genital apertures not observed. Testis oval, 20 to 38u long

by 20 to 25u wide, median, about 155y from posterior end of body proper.

Ovary an indistinct mass occupying greater part of body width and extend-

ing from level of testis to near posterior end of body proper. Ovum about

23 to 27u in diameter, lying immediately anterior to testis. Uterus in equa-

torial third of body, containing 1 to 2 developing embryos.

Host.—Gold fish (‘‘Japanese fan-tail’’).

Location.—Fins.

Distribution.—United States (Texas).

Specomens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 39584.

The above description is based on a slide mount of a portion of the fin of

a gold fish to which were attached several specimens of gyrodactylids. The

slide was labeled “‘Gyrodactylus elegans—Japanese fan-tail—Dr. Gurley,

Sept. 1891.” The locality was not given, but Dr. A. Hassall has informed the

writer that these specimens had been collected in Texas. The specimens

were not in good condition and a complete description is, therefore, impossi-

ble. The general appearance of the worms corresponds closely to that of G.

medius as described by Kathariner (1895) and by Wegener (1910), but the

ventral supporting bar of the large haptoral hooks is placed at the level of

the proximal ends of the hooks while in G. medius this bar is placed much

farther back. It is on the basis of the position of this bar that the species is

considered new.

Subfamily ISANCISTRINAE Fuhrmann, 1928

Diagnosis.—Anterior end truncate, with 1 pair of head organs. Haptor

without large hooks, with 15 marginal hooklets. Parasites of cephalopods.

Type genus.—Isancistrum de Beauchamp, 1912.

Genus IsancistruUM de Beauchamp, 1912

Diagnosis.—Characters of subfamily.

Type species.—I sancistrum loliginis de Beauchamp, 1912.

The type and only species. J. loliginis, was described by de Beauchamp

(1912) from specimens collected from Loligo media Linneaus; this parasite

is not known to occur on North American hosts.

Family PROTOGYRODACTYLIDAE Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis —Minute forms, about as broad as long; cephalic glands present,

opening to exterior through well developed head organs. Haptor well de-

veloped, with 2 pairs of large hooks and with a number of relatively large

marginal hooklets. Intestine branched, the two limbs may or may not unite

posteriorly. Eyes present. Testis and ovary unbranched. Cirrus simple, cutic-

ular, tube-like. Vitelline glands lateral, arranged in 2 groups, one preovarial

and the other postovarial; transverse vitelline ducts connected by median

longitudinal duct; posterior transverse vitelline duct with definite connec-

tion with intestinal limbs. Vagina absent. Parasites of fresh-water fishes.

Type genus.—Protogyrodactylus Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

Marcu 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES . fi

KEY TO GENERA OF PROTOGYRODACTYLIDAE

Posterior vitelline system double.......... Trivitellina Johnston and Tiegs

Posterior vitelline system single..... Protogyrodactylus Johnston and Tiegs

Genus ProtoGyrropactyuus Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis —Haptor broad, not sharply set off from body proper, strongly

‘““‘padded,”’ provided with 2 pairs of large hooks and 12 marginal hooklets,

the latter relatively large. Intestinal branches not united posteriorly. Vitel-

laria consisting of a preovarial and a postovarial system; posterior transverse

vitelline duct communicating with intestine.

Type species.—Protogyrodactylus quadratus Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

The type and only species of this genus occurs on the gills of Therapon

carbo Ogilby and McCulloch and T. halla Castelnau in Australia.

Genus TRIVITELLINA Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis—Haptor sharply set off from body, not strongly ‘‘padded,”’

provided with 2 pairs of large hooks and 12 marginal hooklets as in Pro-

togyrodactylus. Intestinal branches united posteriorly. Vitellaria consisting

of 1 preovarial system and 2 postovarial systems, one of the latter connected

with the intestine.

Type species.—Trivitellina subrotunda Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

The type and only species of this genus is known only from Australia

where it occurs on the gills of Therapon fuliginosus Macleay.

Family DACTYLOGYRIDAE Bychowsky, 1933

Synonyms.—Gyrodactylidae Cobbold, 1877, in part; Amphibdellidae

Carus, 1885.

Diagnosis —Anterior end with 2 or more pairs of head organs; cephalic

glands lateral, or distributed throughout median, preoral area (Bothitrem-

atinae). Haptor moderately to well developed, with or without accessory

structures or squamodiscs, and with 1 or 2 pairs of large hooks and usually

14 marginal hooklets. Ovary globular, sometimes curved, pretesticular.

oie well developed. Vagina present or absent. Oviparous. Parasites of

shes.

Type genus.—Dactylogyrus Diesing, 1850.

KEY TO SUBFAMILIES OF DACTYLOGYRIDAE

meeenom with tipair of larce hooks.) 0.0. Ye Py. ee em 2

Eapvor with 2 pairs o1larce hooks’)... (0, yUA OE. i ie ee. 3

2. Haptor with a circle of heavily cuticularized, tubular structures........

as WE 5 Fey Me ttittig, rs Oh SE fast a ed A: RLF Bothitrematinae Price

Haptor without circle of tubular structures. Dactylogyrinae Bychowsky

3. Haptor with a pair (dorsal and ventral) of accessory structures or squa-

MNO CLUS S! <) ul eee gets eee aime Rem te elt | Diplectaninae Monticelli

Haptor without accessory structures or squamodiscs................

eit oe cc hie aw yay bes he a aN Tetraonchinae Monticelli

Subfamily DACTYLOGYRINAE Bychowsky, 1933

Synonyms.—Gyrodactylinae Monticelli, 1892, in part.

Diagnosis —Haptor moderately developed, without squamodiscs, with 1

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

pair of large hooks supported by 1 or 2 heavily cuticularized clamp-like bars,

and with 14 marginal hooklets. Intestine double, branches usually, if not

always, united posteriorly. Eyes present. Testis and ovary rounded, the

latter always pretesticular. Vagina present, with or without cuticular sup-

porting structures. ;

Type genus.—Dactylogyrus Diesing, 1850.

Genus DactyLocyrus Diesing, 1850

Diagnosts.—Characters of subfamily.

Type species.—Dactylogyrus auriculatus (Nordmann, 1832) Diesing, 1850.

The genus Dactylogyrus contains the following species: D. aequans Wag-

ener, 1857; D. affinis Bychowsky, 1933; D. alatus Linstow, 1878; D. amphi-

bothrium Wagener, 1857; D. anchoratus (Dujardin, 1845); D. auriculatus

(Nordmann, 1832); D. bini Kikuchi, 1929; D. chranilowi Bychowsky, 1933;

D. cornu Linstow, 1878; D. crucifer Wagener, 1857; D. cryptomeres Bychow-

sky, 1934; D. kulwieéi (Bychowsky, 1931); D. cyprini Buschkiel, 1930; D.

difformis Wagener, 1857; D. dujardinianus (Diesing, 1850); D. extensus

Mueller and Van Cleave, 1932; D. falcatus (Wedl, 1857); D. fallax (Wagener,

1857); D. formosus Kulwieé, 1927; D. fraternus Wegener, 1910; D. frisii

Bychowsky, 1933; D. gracilis Wedl, 1861; D. haplogonus Bychowsky, 1933;

D. intermedius Wegener, 1910; D. inversus Goto and Kikuchi, 1917; D. ma-

cracanthus Wegener, 1910; D. malleus Linstow, 1877; D. megastoma Wagener,

1857; D. minor, Wagener, 1857; D. minutus Kulwieé, 1927; D. mollis (Wedl,

1857); D. nybelint Markevich, 1933; D. parvus, Wegener, 1910; D. propin-

quus Bychowsky, 1931; D. puntiz Buschkiel, 1930; D. stluri Wagener, 1857;

D. similis Wegener, 1910; D. stmplicimalleata Bychowsky, 1934; D. sphyrna

Linstow, 1878; D. tenuis Wedl, 1857; D. tuba Linstow, 1878; D. uncinatus

Wagener, 1857; D. vastator Nybelin 1924 (syn. D. crassus Kulwieé, 1927);

D. wegenert Kulwieé, 1927; D. wunderi Bychowsky, 1931; and D. zandti

Bychowsky, 1933. Only two of these species, D. extensus and D. anchoratus,

are known to occur in North America, the former occurring on the gills of

Cyprinus carpio and the latter on Carassius auratus.

Subfamily TETRAONCHINAE Monticelli, 1903

Diagnosis.—Body devoid of scales or spines. Haptor without squamodises,

with 2 pairs of large hooks and (?) 2 to 16 marginal hooklets. Intestine single

or double. Eyes present or absent. Testis usually without lobes. Ovary with-

out lobes. Vagina present or absent.

Type genus.—Tetraonchus Diesing, 1858.

KEY TO GENERA OF TETRAONCHINAE®

1.-Qne pair of head organs.) 244. .~- Diplectanotrema Johnston and Tiegs

More than’ 1 pairof beadvorbans(.5..)..<..¢2<ase.) ewes 2 2

3’ The recent genera by Mueller (1936, 1937) may not all be valid; they have been

included in this key pending further study. Dactylodiscus Olsson is omitted from the

key as it is too imperfectly known; it may belong to this subfamily and is appended as

a genus inquirenda.

Marcu 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 123

eo fo NS ot Oe 6hCO!UCUfN

10.

it.

12.

13.

14,

15.

16.

ti.

18.

19.

_ UR SSUETIVS US 0029 (2 a ein Anes soap Pe ne gear Tetraonchus Diesing

TEE ESHER EE OUT 0) Ee ep OR Ne Nad eat SLA yh Se ee ol -

Mimtestine wMiGins POSlErOnY ..—- a.-5..5.62500+- sade. +e ss bae eds 4

Intestine not uniting posteriorly........ Pe ent Ree Rae AS) AY He 5 15

Bees JOSE foe ci Ye oe ay Tetrancistrum Goto and Kikuchi

oUPSS ORES Sl ee ts ella MeO ed sea a EO ic) ee ae 5

. Vitellaria not extending into posterior third of body............... 6

Vitellaria extending into posterior third of body................... ri

me eine. present. 61. A eh Dattreosoma Johnston and Tiegs

Mesriarasemtr % . 000s 22) dee Empleurosoma Johnston and Tiegs

. Dorsal and ventral haptoral hooks dissimilar... . Arzstoclecdus Mueller

Dorsal-and ventral haptoral hooks;sumilar:.. ... 00... 2235.00) sock. 8

. Haptor disc-like; haptoral bars articulate....... Actinoclerdus Mueller

Haptor wedge-shaped; haptoral bars non-articulate................ 9

. Large haptoral hooks unequal, ventrals about one-half as large as dorsals

so, gua ae oie AEs ae tee gi Untire oa tere ee Ae Ef BECOGLDI US 1 Mueller

faree haptoral hooks equal or nearly so... ... es... 0.3. ee ee ee 10

Large hooks each with flattened blade arising near angle.........

UN A nO ee oa oe Pterocleidus Mueller

eee O Oks. WittOlUt: DIAGES so.) te oo eels coke eh hee ee lees 11

Marginal hooklets relatively large, 6 pairs arranged around anterior

edge of haptor, their points projecting forward................

2 ES Re Ogee ee Cys On eee Onchoclecdus Mueller

Marginal hooklets relatively small, mostly projecting backward. ..12

Cirrus long and slender, thrown into wide spiral; without movable ac-

CESS TETAS OTE CEI ale ge Org i ee Leptocleidus Mueller

Cirrus usually short, with movable ACCESSORY PIE Wo. se 4, F is

Rareriray, aloseiat:. 6 5 hls Sein oe 2 ah ag hw Fey Uroclerdus Mueller

ETL y TUTE SSE RRA Sok iM ae AD altar” OD I eel ee 14

er OBR ORE cs te ee sory San spes a aw tank e oaaate Tetraclerdus Mueller

+ ZySaTTGLSY Sy TTT ESI FT gmc eo een sre Clerdodiscus Mueller

LES TOTES ETI Meee ale a ae er il ye aes. all Pe ag 8 16

LTP SS SOS SLO ae eens. Seb MI nT eR, AA ee Sn or 18

Wecina absent .. 2. cbc oe veces Anchylodiscus Johnston and Tiegs

E,TEALS I, (CERES OUT eae ig ee 9 eats SEA Epc A arte ry ie ep Se 17

Vagina aperture median; haptor with 3 bars....... Murraytrema, n. g.

Vaginal aperture lateral; haptor with 2 bars... Ancyrocephalus Creplin

Met eO COT AW NOME OATS 22 ova oles ec) Gre ae © ene aime hae Ome Amphibdella Chatin

Pea aes eM Hat ET OR AEG pets fo ee ee om iT Slee oes w: ¥ doe, gud 19

Ze DIRE TOS i 10 US Ok te eg pole canoe anno eon a Amphibdellordes, n. g.

EPstOr Wilts DAES 6) eo icc a kek ons Haliotrema Johnston and Tiegs

Genus TETRAONCHUS Diesing, 1858

Synonym.—Monocoelium Wegener, 1910.

Diagnosis.—Cephalic glands opening to exterior through several pairs of

head organs. Haptor more or less distinctly set off from body proper, with

2 pairs of large hooks supported by a single large transverse cuticular bar;

16 marginal hooklets. Intestine single, without diverticula. Eyes present.

Testes and ovary in equatorial zone. Vagina absent.

Type species.—Tetraonchus monenteron (Wagener, 1857) Diesing, 1858.

The genus Tetraonchus contains two species, 7’. monenteron (Wagener,

1857), reported by Van Cleave and Mueller (1934) from Hsox luctus from

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

Oneida Lake, New York, and T. alaskensis Price, reported by the present

writer (1937) from the gills of Salmo mykiss Walbaum, Salvelinus malma

spectabilis (Giard) and Oncorhynchus kisutch Walbaum from Alaska.

Genus ANCYROCEPHALUS Creplin, 1839

Synonyms.—Driplectanum Auct.; Tetraonchus Diesing, 1858, in part.

Diagnosis.—Head organs usually 3 pairs. Haptor indistinctly set off from

body proper. Large hooks supported by 2 cuticular bars; 14 marginal

hooklets. Intestinal branches not united posteriorly. Eyes present. Testis

and ovary equatorial or postequatorial. Vitellaria usually extending into

posterior third of body. Vagina present.

Type spectes.—Ancyrocephalus paradoxus Creplin, 1839.

The following species belong to the genus Ancyrocephalus: A. atherinae —

Price, 1984; A. bassensis Hughes, 1928; A. lactophrys (MacCallum, 1915);

A. manilensis Tubangui, 1931; A. paradoxus Creplin, 1839; A. similis, n.

sp.; A. tewthts (MacCallum, 1915); A. tylosura (MacCallum, 1917); A.

vanbenedenit (Parona and Perugia, 1890); and A. veszculosus Murray, 1931.

Of these species, A. atherinae, A. lactophrys, A. similis, A. teuthis, and A.

tylosurz occur on North American fishes; descriptions of the forms from this

continent except A. atherinae from Atherina araea Jordan and Gilbert, which

was described by the present writer (1934), are given below.

Ancyrocephalus teuthis (MacCallum, 1915)

Johnston and Tiegs, 1922 Figs. 2-5

Synonym.—Diplectanum teuthis McCallum, 1915.

Description.—Body slender, 1.1 to 1.2 mm long by 96 to 114y wide, sides

parallel; anterior end slightly notched and somewhat narrower than re-

mainder of body; cephalic glands present, in 4 groups, 1 group on each side

of base of pharynx and 1 group on each side of median line anterior to oral

aperture, opening to exterior through 3 pairs of head organs. Haptor 133

wide, not set off from body proper, with 2 pairs of large hooks supported by

2 cuticular bars and with 14 marginal hooklets; 2 small crescentic bodies

also present in median line, lying side by side at level of roots of dorsal hooks.

Large hooks unequal and dissimilar; those of dorsal pair sickle-shaped, 57 to

58u long, apparently with single, handle-like root and with angular blade;

hooks of ventral pair simple 42, to 45u long, with slightly biramous roots;

dorsal supporting bar somewhat yoke-shaped, about 45u long, ventral bar

yoke-shaped, 43 to 49u long; marginal hooklets 15u long. Oral aperture ven-

tral, at level of posterior pair of head organs; pharynx oval, 57yu long by 45u

wide; intestine not discernible. Eyes present, 2 pairs, anterior to pharynx.

Genital aperture median, about 250u from anterior end of body. Cirrus

tubular, curved, about 57u long, with delicate spiral ala. Testis oval, 133u

long by 57 wide, equatorial. Ovary oval, median, pretesticular. Vitellaria

extending from level of base of pharynx to about one-fourth of body length

from posterior end. Vagina present, opening on right side of body

about 325 to 245u from anterior end. Ootype elongate, its base surrounded

by unicellular glands. No eggs observed.

Host.—Acanthurus hepatus (Linnaeus).

Location.—Gills.

Marca 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 125

Distribution — United States (New York Aquarium).

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35689 (cotypes), 35690 and

35691.

Three slides containing several specimens and representing collections

made by Dr. G. A. MacCallum on May 22, 1914; March 17, 1915; and

November 24, 1915, respectively, were available for study. The specimens

were fairly well preserved and stained, but some structures figured by Mac-

Callum (1915), such as the esophageal glands, seminal vesicle and seminal

receptacle, could not be made out.

The most distinguishing feature of the species is the structure of the dorsal

hooks of the haptor; these have relatively long, apparently uniramous roots

and peculiarly curved blades. .

Ancyrocephalus lactophrys (MacCallum, 1915)

Johnston and Tiegs, 1922 Figs. 6-9

Synonym.—Diplectanum lactophrys MacCallum, 1915.

Description.—Body elongate, 650 to 950u long by 150u wide, slightly con-

stricted at level of ootype. Cephalic glands in 2 groups, 1 on each side of

pharynx, opening to exterior through 3 pairs of head organs; no esophageal

glands observed. Haptor 170 to 190u wide, with 2 pairs of large hooks separ-

ated by cuticular bars, and with 14 marginal hooklets. Large hooks biramous

49u long; dorsal supporting bar 76u long, ventral bar 68u long; marginal

hooklets 15u long. Oral aperture ventral, about 80u from anterior end of

body; pharynx about 38y in diameter; intestinal tract not observable. Brain

antero-dorsal to oral aperture; eyes present, 2 pairs. Genital aperture median,

about 200u from anterior end of body. Cirrus tubular, about 105y long, no

accessory piece observed; seminal vesicle somewhat S-shaped, to right of

cirrus; vas deferens extending from testis to seminal vesicle, passing to left

of cirrus and curving anterior to genital aperture. Testis oval, about 150u

long by 95u wide, postequatorial. Ovary elongate oval, 100u by 57u wide.

immediately pretesticular. Vitellaria extending from level of base of pharynx

to near junction of haptor with body proper. Vagina present, relatively

large, with distinct cuticular lining, the lining presenting a twisted appear-

ance at proximal end of vagina. Ootype oval, its base surrounded by long-

necked unicellular glands. Eggs not observed..

_ Host.—Acanthostracion quadricornis (Linnaeus).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution — United States (New York Aquarium).

Specimens.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 35692 (cotypes).

Several specimens of this species were collected by Dr. G. A. MacCallum,

February 19, 1915, from the gills of Lactophrys tricornis (= Acanthostracion

quadricornis). The above description is based on these specimens.

Ancyrocephalus similis, n. sp. . Figs. 10-13

Description.—Body elongate, 850 to 936u long by 100 to 115y wide,

lateral margins almost parallel for entire length. Cephalic glands on each

side of pharynx, opening to exterior through 3 pairs of head organs. Haptor

not set off from body proper, with 2 pairs of large hooks supported by 2

cuticular bars, and with (?) 14 marginal hooklets. Large hooks 57 to 60y

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

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Figs. 14-17.—Ancyrocephalus tylosurt. 14, Complete worm, ventral view; 15,

haptoral hooks; 16, haptoral bars (A—dorsal bar, B—ventral bar; drawn to same

scale as Fig. 15); 17, cirrus. Figs. 18-20.—Dziplectanotrema balistes. 18, Complete

worm, ventral view; 19, haptoral hooks and bar (A—hook of ventral pair, B—hook

of dorsal pair, C—marginal hooklet, D—bar); 20, cirrus.

long, roots biramous; dorsal supporting bar 42 to 57u long, ventral bar 57

to 65u long; marginal hooklets about 10u long. Oral aperture ventral, about

40u from anterior end of body; pharynx 40u long by 30u wide; intestinal

tract not observed. Eyes present, 2 pairs, anterior to oral aperture. Genital

aperture median, about 200u from anterior end of body. Cirrus 76 to 95u

long, similar in shape to that of A. lactophrys. Testis oval, 75u long by 55u

wide, postequatorial. Ovary elongate, median, pretesticular. Vitellaria as

in A. lactophrys. Vagina short, without twisted cuticular lining as in A.

lactophrys. No eggs observed.

Marcu 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 127

Hosts.—Priacanthus arenatus Cuv. and Valence. and P. cruentatus (Lacé-

péde). :

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (New York Aquarium).

Specimens.—U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35693 (type and paratypes)

and 35694.

This species is based on specimens collected by Dr. G. A. MacCallum.

Two slides containing a number of specimens from each of the above-

mentioned hosts were available; the specimens from Priacanthus arena-

tus had been collected June 20, 1915, and those from P. cruentatus on May

50, 1915.

Ancyrocephalus similis resembles A. lactophrys so closely that on casual

examination the two forms appear to be identical. However, there are very

significant differences in the morphology of the large hooks, supporting bars

and cirri of the two species, which appear sufficient to warrant recognizing

them as distinct.

Ancyrocephalus tylosuri (MacCallum, 1917)

Johnston and Tiegs, 1922 Figs. 14-17

Synonym.—Driplectanum tylosurt MacCallum, 1917.

Description.—Body somewhat elliptical, 510 to 645yu long by 170 to 210u

wide, anterior end more or less abruptly constricted. Cephalic glands numer-

ous, on each side of pharynx, opening to exterior through 3 pairs of head

organs. Haptor disc-like, about 150u wide, more or less sharply set off from

body proper, with 2 pairs of large hooks supported by 2 cuticular bars, and

with 14 marginal hooklets. Large hooks similar in shape, 23u long, with

slightly biramous roots; ventral bar slightly sinuous, about 38 long; dorsal

bar curved, about 38u long; marginal hooklets about 12u long. Oral aperture

ventral, 50 to 55y from anterior end of body; pharynx oval, 27u long by 19u

wide; intestinal tract not observed. Eyes present, 2 pairs, anterior to

pharynx. Genital aperture median, about 100u from anterior end; cirrus

57 long, tubular, expanded distally, without accessory piece; seminal

vesicle S-shaped. Testis oval, about 75yu long by 40u wide, postequatorial.

Ovary linguiform, 75y long by 20u wide, partly overlapping testis. Vitellaria

occupying greater part of body from level of base of cirrus to posterior end

of body proper. Vagina present, cuticular, somewhat trumpet-shaped, open-

ing at body margin immediately in front of anterior limit of left vitellarium.

Ootype elongate, its base surrounded by numerous, relatively large, unicellu-

lar glands. Eggs not observed.

Host.—Strongylura marina (Walbaum).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.—United States (New York Aquarium).

Specumens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 35695 (cotypes).

This species was described by MacCallum (1917) from specimens col-

lected May 4, 1916 from a silver gar at the New York Aquarium; this re-

description is based on the original specimens. All of the specimens had been

stained and mounted and were not in good condition, consequently very

little could be added to the original description. A. tylosurt may be easily

distinguished from all other species of the genus by the position of the

vaginal aperture and by the structure of the cirrus.

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

Ancyrocephalus spp.

Undetermined species of Ancyrocephalus have been reported from fresh-

water fishes in this country by Hess (1928, 1930) and by Van Cleave and

Mueller (1934). In view of the fact that the genus Ancyrocephalus, s. str.,

is composed of species from marine fishes, it appears safe to conclude that

the forms reported by the above writers do not belong to that genus.

Genus Hatiotrema Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis.—Body slightly constricted in equatorial region; 4 to 5 pairs of

head organs. Haptor distinctly set off from body proper, with 2 pairs of

large hooks supported by a pair of clamp-like bars, and with 14 marginal

hooklets. Intestinal limbs not united posteriorly. Eyes absent. Testis and

ovary in posterior third of mid-region of body. Cirrus large, complex. Vagina

present, with heavily cuticularized lumen.

Type species.—Halotrema australe Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

This genus contains two species, H. australe Johnston and Tiegs from

Upeneus signatus Gunther and H. japonense Yumaguti, from Pseudupeneus

chrysopleuron (Tem. and Schl.), neither of which occurs in this country.

So far as the writer has been able to ascertain this genus does not differ

from Ancyrocephalus in any important character; the absence of eyes, if

they are actually absent, seems to be the most important difference. Both

Johnston and Tiegs (1922) and Yamaguti (1934) call attention to 2 pairs

of gland cells in the vicinity of the oral cavity, but the arrangement of

these cells suggests the possibility of unpigmented eyes having been mis-

taken for gland cells; however, until specimens of representatives of the

genus are available for study this point cannot be settled and for the time

being Haliotrema may be regarded as valid.

Genus DipLecTANOTREMA Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis.—Body more or less uniform in width, 1 pair of head organs.

Haptor cup-like, not distinctly set off from body proper, armed with 2 pairs

of large hooks, the hooks of the 2 pairs markedly unequal and dissimilar,

and with 14 marginal hooklets. Eyes present. Ovary and testis in anterior

third of body; cirrus simple. Vitellaria consisting of very large discrete

follicles arranged in linear series along sides of body, extending to near pos-

terior end of body proper. Vagina apparently absent.

Type spectes.—Diplectanotrema balistes (MacCallum, 1915) new comb.

This genus was proposed as a subgenus of Ancyrocephalus by Johnston

and Tiegs (1922) to contain Diplectanum plurovitellum MacCallum, 1916.

This subgenus is regarded here as a distinct genus with D. balistes (Mac-

Callum) as type, since, as will be shown later in this paper, MacCullum’s

Diplectanum plurovitellum and his D. balistes are identical, the latter having

priority.

Diplectanotrema differs from Ancyrocephalus in having a single pair of

head organs, in the marked dissimilarity of the large hooks of the haptor,

and in the character of the vitellaria which are composed of large discrete

Marcu 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 129

follicles arranged in linear series along each side of the body instead of small

irregularly arranged follicles as in Ancyrocephalus.

Diplectanotrema balistes (MacCallum, 1915), n. comb. Figs. 18-20

Synonyms.—Diplectanum balistes MacCallum, 1915; Ancyrocephalus bal-

istes (MacCallum, 1915) Johnston and Tiegs, 1922; Diplectanum plurovitel-

lum MacCallum, 1916; Ancyrocephalus (Diplectanotrema) plurovitellum

(MacCallum, 1916) Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

Description.—Body elongate, sides almost parallel, 850u to 1.4 mm long

by 150 to 220u wide; cephalic glands present, prepharyngeal, opening to

exterior through 1 pair of head organs. Haptor cup-like, 95u wide, not dis-

tinctly set off from body proper, with 2 pairs of large hooks supported by a

single heavily cuticularized bar, and with 14 marginal hooklets; large hooks

of ventral pair relative large, 42u long, with biramous roots; hooks of dorsal

pair taenioid, 20u long; supporting bar more or less rectangular, 10u by 15y;

marginal hooklets about 10u long. Oral aperture ventral, median, about 100u

from anterior end; pharynx globular, 57 to 75u in diameter; esophagus very

short; intestine not traceable in available specimens. Brain antero-dorsal

to pharynx; eyes present, 2 pairs. Genital aperture median, about 200yu from

anterior end of body. Cirrus slender, tubular, 40u long; accessory piece ap-

parently simple. Testis oval, 95u long by 57u wide, about one-third of body

length from anterior end. Ovary somewhat U-shaped, about 95y long by

68» wide. Vitellaria lateral, consisting of large discrete follicles arranged in

linear series, each series connected by means of a longitudinal vitelline duct.

Vagina apparently absent. Ootype relatively large, its posterior end sur-

rounded by unicellular glands; large gland cells also present in median

field on each side of ootype. Egg oval, 75u long by 45u wide.

Hosts.——Balistes capriscus Gmelin, Acanthurus (Teuthis) hepatus (Lin-

naeus) and Anzsotremus virginicus (Linnaeus).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution. United States (New York Aquarium).

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35696 (cotypes), 35697 (co-

types of Diplectanum plurovitellum) and 35698.

Diplectanotrema balistes was originally described as Diplectanum balistes

by MacCallum (1915) from specimens collected January 13, 1913, from the

gills of a trigger fish, Balistes carolinensis (=B. capriscus), at the New York

Aquarium. The next year MacCallum (1916) described under the name of

Diplectanum plurovitellum a species from the gills of Teuthis hepatus and

Antsotremus virginicus; specimens from the former host were collected

November 27, 1915, and those from the latter on March 5, 1916, as a slide

bearing that date was found in his collection. The specimens from the two

last mentioned hosts appear to be the same as those collected from Balistes

carolinensis, since a careful comparison of these specimens revealed no es-

sential differences. The specimens were not in good condition as they had ap-

parently been fixed under pressure of a cover slip and somewhat distorted;

due apparently to improper fixation, the specimens stained unevenly, and

it seems that the difference in staining was responsible for the failure of

MacCallum to recognize that he was dealing with a single species instead of

two species. Some structures described and figured by MacCallum could

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

not be made out. The intestine which in his D. balzstes is figured as consisting

of 2 limbs, and which in his description of D. pleurovitellum is described as

seeming ‘‘to join into a single tube posterior to the testis’’ could not be made

out in any of the specimens; no vagina could be made out, although it is

possible that a vagina may be present but so collapsed by pressure that it

could not be located.

(to be continued)

MALACOLOGY.—Two new land shells from Cuba.! Pauu BARTSCH,

U.S. National Museum.

Cuba is the malacologists’ paradise, for nowhere else do we find

such a differentiation and concentration of land shells as is found on

the ‘‘Pearl of the Antilles.’’ On this account the Island has attracted

to it naturalists of fame from the early days of malacology. The

scholarly Poey, as well as men like Pfeiffer, Otto, Gundlach, Sagra,

Wright and Arango, have all left their impress upon this science.

However, it seems as if the mantle of all these explorers and natural-

ists, who have furthered our science, had fallen upon Cuba’s genial

scientist and scholar, Dr. Carlos de la Torre, whose researches in the

malacological field have fine-tooth-combed the Island and brought

to our ken treasures far excelling the greatest expectation that the

earlier explorers might have visioned.

Working over a huge collection of Cuban shells has brought to light

two of the most exquisite forms known to science, and I take great

pleasure in dedicating both of them to my friend, Don Carlos,

Chondropometes (Chondropometes) torrei, n. sp. Fig. 2

Shell rather large, turbinate, thin, semi-translucent, openly umbilicated.

Nuclear whorls translucent, pale yellow, the succeeding turns orange buff

with varicial streaks of deeper orange. Peristome flame colored. Nuclear

whorls about 2, in perfect conformity in their coiling with the postnuclear

turns. The first thin, translucent, appearing granulose under high magnifica-

tion; the last marked by feeble, somewhat retractively slanting, closely

spaced, incremental lines. The postnuclear whorls inflated, well rounded,

marked by very regular, retractively slanting sublamellar axial riblets which

are a little less wide than the spaces that separate them. These riblets extend

over the periphery into the umbilicus of the last turn, remaining of about

the same strength throughout. In addition to these, there are narrow orange

streaks at more or less regular intervals, which are occasioned by the ap-

proximation of two or more riblets. These are a little lighter than the rest

of the shell. The spiral sculpture consists of almost obsolete threads which

are narrower than the spaces that separate them and which render the riblets

slightly wavy and under high magnification feebly serrulate. They are best

developed on the anterior half of the whorls. The spiral threads are obsolete

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

February 1, 1937.

Marcu 15, 1937 BARTSCH: LAND SHELLS 131

on the base but become strengthened within the umbilicus on the parietal

wall where they are heavier. Suture well impressed; periphery inflated, well

rounded. Base inflated, well rounded. Aperture subcircular with a slight

angulation at the posterior angle. The peristome is broadly expanded and

reflected, about half as wide as that of Chondropometes (Chondropometes)

latilabre d’Orbigny. It is appressed to the preceding turn at the posterior

angle. Behind the peristome the last whorl is solute for about one-fifteenth

of a turn. Operculum thin, multispiral, horny with a fine granulose, callus-

like deposit, which is heaviest on the inner margin and thins out outwardly,

vanishing a little beyond the middle of the turn. This deposit is laid down

in a more or less corrugated pattern. The typical race of this species, for at

least nine are known at this time which will be described later, was collected

by Dr. de la Torre on Mogote Canalete, Abra de Bejarano, at the western

end of the Sierra San Andrés, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba. It is the most

magnificent of all the members of the genus known today.

Fig. 1.—Liguus crenatus caroli,n. subsp. Fig. 2 .—Chondropometes (Chondro-

pometes) torret, n. sp. Seven-eighths natural size.

The type, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 428794, a perfect specimen, has 6.0 whorls

and measures: Length 23.0 mm; greater diameter 22.3 mm; lesser diameter

15.9 mm.

This species stands midway in distribution between Chondropometes

(Chondropometes) vignalense and Chondropometes (Chondropometes) latilabre,

and its characters are midway between these two extremes. These are con-

stant for all the races that we have seen, and we shall therefore assign sub-

specic rank to them in a subsequent paper.

Liguus crenatus caroli, n. subsp. Fig. 1

Shell large, turritid, covered with a thin periostracum. The early whorls

ivory colored, which is soon succeeded by faint lemon yellow, which becomes

intensified and eventually gives way to orange axial streaks and finally to

an orange outer lip in young shells. The whorls in addition to this are marked

by spiral bands and lines of olive green, which are a little paler on the base

132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 3

than on the spire, but on the last part of the base become much intensified

and more or less confluent. The aperture is characteristically that of Liguus,

the outer lip being thin, the pillar being slightly truncated anteriorly to form

a somewhat tooth-like projection, the parietal callus extending down over

the columella. The nucleus consists of about 3 whorls, which are in perfect

alignment with the postnuclear spire. They are marked by fine, rather dis-

tantly spaced, spiral striations, which disappear on the early turn of the

_postnuclear spire.

This subspecies comes from Turiguano Island off the north coast of

Camaguey Province. The type, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 428810, has 8 whorls and

measures: Length 56.9 mm; greater diameter 30.3 mm; lesser diameter 27.2

mm; length of aperture 26.0 mm; diameter of aperture 17.8 mm.

We collected this subspecies on the expedition which I made to Cuba

under the Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Scholarship of the Smithsonian

Institution in 1928. The specimens collected at that time were rather small,

none having attained the full dimensions listed for the type. The red color

in these young individuals was more brilliant than it is in the type, which

was subsequently collected by Dr. de la Torre or some of his friends and

donated by him to the National Museum.

U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 384712 contains 12 paratypes.

It is quite possible that this subspecies is responsible for the orange ele-

ment that we find in the Floridian hybrid Liguus complex. This does not

seem at all improbable because the Island of Turiguano is in the middle of

the north coast of Cuba and hurricanes could easily carry young specimens

across that distance, or they might in a hibernating state be tucked away ina

knothole of some log and might then have drifted to Floridian shores.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

39TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 39th Annual Meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences was

held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, January 21, 1937, with 32

members present. President M&INzER called the meeting to order at 9:30

Pant

The minutes of the 38th Annual Meeting were read and approved. The

Corresponding Secretary, NATHAN R. SmiTH, submitted the following report

on the membership and activities of the Academy:

Membership: During 1936, 13 were elected to resident and 7 to non-resi-

dent active membership. Of these, 12 qualified for resident and 3 for non-

resident members, a total of 15 new members. Four were elected in recogni-

tion of their work in Chemistry; 4, in Forestry; 2, in Anthropology; 2, in

Physics; and 1 each in Horticulture, Paleontology and Zoology. There were

7 resignations, 1.3% (2 resident and 5 non-resident), and 5 deaths. The net

gain in membership was, therefore, 3.

Marcu 15, 1937. PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 133

The members of the Academy stood in respect as the Secretary read the

names of those lost by death.

B. L. Ropinson, Cambridge, Massachusetts, July, 1935.

A. N. CaupE.u, Washington, D. C., March 1, 1936.

W. H. Witmer, Washington, D. C., March 12, 1936.

A. F. Forrstt, Washington, D. C., April 23, 1936.

J. A. NrzuwLanpD, Notre Dame, Indiana, June 11, 1936.

On January 1, 1937, the membership consisted of 14 honorary members,

3 patrons and 524 active members, one of which was a life member. Of the

active members, 387 were classed as resident and 137 as non-resident. Since

the By-Laws limit the number of active members to 400 resident and 200

non-resident, there were, therefore, 13 vacancies in the resident and 67 non-

resident vacancies. .

The Board of Managers held four meetings with an average attendance

of 17. The following amendment to the By-Laws was passed by the Board

and ratified by the membership by an almost unanimous vote:

‘Article 1, Section 2. Active members who have been in good standing for

the previous ten years and who have been retired because of age or disability,

shall be relieved of further payment of dues but shall have all the privileges

of active membership.”

Article 1, Section 1, to read, ‘‘The number of active members, excepting

those who have retired as provided for in Section 2, shall not exceed six hundred,

men at?”

Since there are several active members who have been retired in the past

few years, the amendment will create more vacancies than has usually been

the case. This is especially true of resident members.

The Recording Secretary presented the following report:

The 39th year of the Academy began with the 269th meeting and ended

with the 275th meeting. All seven meetings were held in the Assembly Hall

of the Cosmos Club.

The 269th meeting was held jointly with the Chemical Society of Washing-

ton on January 30, 1936. About 175 persons were present. FREDERIC BARRy,

Professor of the History of Science, Columbia University, delivered an

address upon The new Aristotle.

The 270th meeting was held jointly with the Philosophical Society of

Washington on February 20, 1936. Dr. W. J. HumMpHReEys discussed Some

episodes along the meteorological highway.

The 271st meeting was held on March 19, 1936, with 212 persons present.

The four reel Leeuwenhoek Tercentenary Film was presented by Morris

C. Lerx1np of the Institute of the History of Medicine of The Johns Hopkins

University, and the two reel film on The Mammalian Egg: Its Ovulation,

Fertilization and Development, was presented by Evrerrtte I. Evans,

Bureau of Dairy Industry, Department of Agriculture.

The 272nd meeting was held jointly with the Botanical Society of Wash-

ington on April 16, 1936, with about 200 persons present. Prof. E. D. Mrr-

RILL, Administrator of Botanical Collections of Harvard University, gave

an illustrated address on Plants and civilizations.

The 273rd meeting was held jointly with the Geological Society of Wash-

ington on November 19, 1936, with about 95 persons present. Mr. GEORGE

H. Asuuey, State Geologist of Pennsylvania, gave an address on The emer-

gence of ideas as illustrated from geology.

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

The 274th meeting was held on Thursday, December 17, 1936, with about

85 persons present. Dr. Henry B. Warp, Professor Emeritus of Zoology of

the University of Illinois, gave an illustrated address on Salmon psychology.

The 275th meeting of the Academy was held January 21, 1937, with 75

persons present. Vice-President SILSBEE introduced Retiring President O.

EK. Mernzer who addressed the Academy upon the subject, Our water supply.

The report of the Treasurer, H. G. AVERS, was read by Howarp 8. Rap-

PLEYE:

CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS

Receipts

Krome ack Dues eci-ci tise sts ales sel ukis ee tee $ 135.00

rom Snestorel9se toes 06h. vee. ae See 2,385.00

Brome Oiles hotel O37 o.. ee 6x stan) wneacn- ao seers gel 35.00

Brom Subscriptions for 1936. ...........2. <5. 787 .00

Brom Subseriptions for 1937... 2.5. «. «<t Sas 264.70

Brom Subscriptions for 1988... 2.0.2.0. .ioe 6.00

Brom salesiot Jourmals.0. 25.2. «3 .ee cae eek 52.58

Brom sPayments for Reprints... 2). + «40, - «sis mieb 293 .82

From: salesiot 1935 Directory.........%..:55. - 5.40

From: Interest:on Deposits... 0. ......5 ove laws 28.21

Prom. Interest.on Investments. ........<.+.% 6: 1,181.50

Prom Sale of Bond of Va. Bys.... . 0.5.54. <0 1,099.25

HOUMA TE COUDUS:. aga Av «iclietea <> @.6 sos We Sa De Oe $6,273.76

Cash-Balance' January; 1; 1936.5. 22.1 cs 0 5 ey eee See 2,368.77

TO bE ACCOUNTEE LOL... us ss, sas 5 4 ane mle ame peel gives cee $8 ,642 .53

Disbursements

Kor Secretary a Olliee, LOS 5. 0. ove ee. ieee Ay ome ees $ 7.00

Hor Secretary s Ottice, 1936....... ..40<0.5 «ene we 272.80

Kor Treasurer s ‘Ottice, 1935... 0... ... 22. ade 2.75

Kors reasurers'Otmee, 1936). 2.4... i200. eee 187.80

Hor Journal Oftiee; LOSS... i« ne sah een 35.73

KornJournal Ofnee; TOSG ma. 20. 64 eho ae fee Sie 43.34

Hor Journal Printing, LOSS. . .. 2. tos eo~ vas 27 .38

Rorwournal Printing, L936... ik es oe ao 2,281 .62

Korvounmmalmeprints, 1935... .. so. ade. 6 see + 95.57

For Journal Reprints, 1936.......... Fetes «hia seit 437.17

Bon liustrations, 1956... 6. coe ae Wwe a ee 267 .36

Hor wiiistratloms, bOB7s . 22, . awa «aptwiin ksi as + 20.98

For Meetings Committee, 19385.............. 20.00

For Meetings Committee, 1986.............. 303 .87

For Affiliated Societies Committee........... 2.60

Bank Debit Memos, as follows:

DUCK aan Ucsvhcitmereteie eb eee ew Ok $0 .35

SUDSETIDLONG Ss, cane wns sheta le abet om 20

VERN ec ete ete See se Sh MS as Vows .35 .93

otal Disbursements. Wass. Wan ww waa be owe eee eee $4,006 .90

Cash Balance: December.3l, L986 & «0. 55% cau «00st e aston © 4,635.63

OED Cee Ae 2 Cae et ee tek ley Se LS hs 50, a) aE $8 ,642 .53

Nore: Of the above expenditures, $188.43 was paid chargeable to 1935

and $20.98 was paid chargeable to 1937.

The Auditing Committee, Howarp 8. RappLeye and GrorGE TUNELL,

reported:

‘‘The Treasurer’s records of receipts and expenditures as shown in his

account books and included in his report have been examined and found

correct. All vouchers have been examined and found to be correct and prop-

erly approved. The balance sheets submitted by the bank and the securities

ee a

a phi ge EOD a Ge

fae

Marcu 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 135

listed in the Treasurer’s report have been examined. The statement of the

assets of the Academy was found correct. No coupons not yet due were

missing from any of the securities bearing coupons. The records of the Trea-

surer’s Office have been carefully and systematically kept, thus greatly

facilitating the work of the auditing committee.”

The Board of Editors, F. G. Brick wrEppz, R.W. Brown, and E.H.Too.s,

submitted the following report covering the publication of Volume 26 of the

Journal for the year 1936:

“There were 76 original papers. Forty-four of them were by members of

the Academy and 32 were communicated. Original papers were illustrated

by 73 line cuts and 17 half-tones. Excess cuts illustrating several papers

were paid for by the respective authors. Space in the volume was distributed

among the different sciences, as follows:

Pages

10 papers on Physics, including Astronomy, Geophysics and

RESULT OLIN LE a eG) A eee ne Lions

PeeeeC ES Ola CHEMISE Y <8 6 5 Pe eS en gs Le,

2 papers on Medicine including Physiology................ 19.8

10 papers in Paleontology including Paleobotany............ 49.0

MeolS Ol) MtOMOlOEY 0. 1s ee ee Pes oS 32.9

MEME ESEOME OLAV 600. ak ee ict leh wb os ee ee a 84.0

PU TNCE SOME AOOLOT Vid oso Ue a i ee Od oe ee 152.7

Meer ol Genera! SCIENCE. . ois. Se Ss ce ee eee 30.0

Proceedings of the Academy and affiliated societies occupied 34.5 pages,

as follows:

LE BSD S05 2 A li eRe a Re ee a 6.0

ETON ONCE a2 ee es hee Me ie o's ook 1.4

(ELLER GE) SOGIS i ae ae ei Rn Meera at le Oe 12.0

Peen CAG SOCIGL Yc) Acne eo Ah hn Sk a ns daw a. oes TS. 1

Obituaries occupied 2.6 pages.

The Journal is relatively speaking up-to-date with manuscripts eabanited

to it.”

The tellers, F. G. Tryon, K. 8. Marxuey and L. V. Jupson, reported

the election of the following officers: President, CHarLES THom; Non-resi-

dent Vice Presidents, THomas Barsour, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and

P. W. Bripeman, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Corresponding Secretary,

Natuan R. SmitH; Recording Secretary, Oscar S. ApAms; Treasurer; H. G.

AveERS; Board of Managers, F. G. BRicKWEDDE and J. F. Coucu.

The Corresponding Secretary read the list of nominations for vice-pres-

ident submitted by the affiliated societies as follows:

Philosophical Society of Washington, FRanK WENNER

Anthropological Society of Washington, F. H. H. Roserts, Jr.

Biological Society of Washington, H. C. FuLLER

Washington Section, American Chemical Society, J. H. H1spEen

Entomological Society of Washington, C. F. W. MurseBeck

National Geographic Society, A. WETMORE

Geological Society of Washington, W. T. ScHALLER

Medical Society of the District of Columbia, H. C. MacaTEx

Columbia Historical Society, ALLEN C. CLARK

Botanical Society of Washington, Joun A. STEVENSON

Archaeological Society of Washington, ALEs Hrpiicka

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 3

Washington Section, Society of American Foresters, 8. B. DETWILER

Washington Society of Engineers, Pau C. WHITNEY 2

Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, H. L. —

CurRTIS

Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, H. L.

WHITTEMORE

Helminthological Society of Washington, Emmrtt W. Pricr

Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists, H. W. ScHoEN-—

ING ;

Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers, C.H. Brrps- —

EYE oo

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers, J. H. DELLINGER

By vote of the Academy, the Recording Secretary was instructed to cast

one vote for the list as read and the vice-presidents were declared elected.

President MrINzER appointed Past Presidents McCoy and TucKERMAN

to escort President-elect THom to the chair. President THom took over the

gavel and addressed the Academy briefly.

Adjournment followed at 10:15.

CuHarRLES TuHom, Recording Secretary

CONTENTS

HyproLocy.—Our water supply. Oscar E. Murnzer........... ae

CHEMISTRY.—Hydrogen ion concentration and the formation of ¢ pe iy

per complexes. K. J. Murata................... 5: ate See x a

PALEONTOLOGY. —Clistoorinus a new Carboniferous crinoid genus

Hpwin Kaek. 38.05.00 5. occ og Se

Botany.—A new type of heterobasidiomycete. G. W. Martin.

Sy ote

ZooLoay.—North American monogenetic trematodes. I. The 4 re

perfamily Gyradactyloidea. Emmett W. Price.......... Seen

MatacoLoey.—Two new land shells from Cuba. Pau Barrscn... %

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY......... ,

hh Aente ba, 2087

- BOARD OF EDITORS

yee 3 -Esen H. Toouz

i " , ‘BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

ete ASSOCIATE EDITORS

oe C. Kracex >

CHEMICAL | SOCIETY

tes".

MONTHLY

Sy *¥ ~ me BY. THE

a dae

| 450° ABNAIP Sr.

bo See ar Mexasea, ‘WISCONSIN

ithorized January 21, 1933.

No. 4

FrepertcK D. Rossini

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

YMOND J, SEEGER : C.F. W. Mouszsesecx

“FHILOSOPHICAT SOCIETY a PSR * | ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

SM 3. Ak GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

ei prise oe =, oc Si Henry 'B. Corirs, Jr.

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at oe the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis.

al rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925,

?. ee CAL Cos SA. «

¥A es ta Vee ee”

Re. “ ae

PI Saas Ser - *

eat nt

Fal

i 1" a

ee Mote

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, }

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: CHaRLES THom, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Corresponding Secretary: NaTHAN R. Situ, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Recording Secretary: Oscar S. Apams, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Treasurer: Henry G. Avers, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 27 APRIL 15, 1937 No. 4

GEOLOGY.—Sun symbol markings. WautrerR B. Lane, U. 8. Geo-

logical Survey. (Communicated by Roland W. Brown.)

Situated high upon a mesa spur at the confluence of Fewkes and

Cliff Canyons in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, is Sun

Temple. This ceremonial house was left uncompleted by the Indians

when, for an unknown reason, they abandoned Mesa Verde. In 1915,

when this ruin was excavated from an accumulation of debris that

had become overgrown with cedars, pinyons and brush there was dis-

covered at the southwest corner a peculiarly marked stone (Fig. 1)

which was described by Fewkes? as follows:

This cornerstone (has) a central depressed zone with sharp radiating

ridges....A natural object with these characters would greatly affect a

primitive mind, and no doubt was regarded with more or less reverence by

the builders. ... At all events, they have partially enclosed this emblem

in walls in such a way as to enclose the figure on three sides. There can be

no doubt that the walled enclosure was a shrine and the figure in it may be

a key to the purpose of the building. The shape of the figure on the rock

suggests a symbol of the sun, and if this suggestion is correct, there can

hardly be a doubt that solar rites were performed about it long before Sun

Temple was built.

Fewkes further notes that a person sitting in the shrine on Sep-

tember 21 observes the setting sun directly before him.

Various explanations have been given for this natural figure. It

has been referred to as the impression of a palm leaf? and as a fossil

Cretaceous spring.‘ Neither of these explanations seems to be an

adequate interpretation of its origin. The writer’s attention was

focused upon these radial markings subsequent to a visit to Mesa

Verde in 1931. Undoubtedly on many previous occasions he had cas-

ually seen similar marks on rock exposures for since then they have

been observed on the weathered surfaces of many limestone and limy

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received Jan-

uary 15, 1937.

E FEWKES, J. WALTER. Excavation and repair a ee eae Mesa Verde National

Park. Dept. of the Interior, Washington, pp. 20-21

Sia: Mesa Verde National Park guide book, Dept. of ne Interior, Washington, p. 12,

or Mesa Words National Park guide book, Dept. of the Interior, Washington, p. 35,

137

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

Fig. 1—Sun Symbol, southwest corner of Sun Temple, Mesa Verde National

Park, enshrined by protecting walls built by the Cliff Dwellers. Distance between

buttresses approximately two feet. Fig. 2—Sun Symbol mark taken from the rim

rock of Mesa Verde National Park, near Balcony House. Diameter of bowl averages 7

inches, depth 2 inches. Radial ridges extend outward 8 inches. Lichen growth show

whitish in the lower right hand corner. Jointing cracks of recent origin are younger than

the Sun Symbol. Specimen now in the U. S. National Museum. Photograph by C.

Marshall Finnan.

Aprit 15, 1937 LANG: SUN SYMBOLS 139

sandstone beds throughout the Southwest, more particularly on the

San Andres limestone, the Carlsbad limestone in the Carlsbad Caverns

National Park and sandstone beds of the Carlsbad limestone in

upper Dark Canyon, New Mexico, the Comanche limestones of West

Texas, and the Kaibab limestone at the Powell Memorial Monument,

Grand Canyon. In consideration of the general distribution of these

erosion figures as a common phenomenon on certain types of rocks

and the preservation of one of them at Sun Temple it seems appro-

priate to designate them as Sun Symbol’ markings.

Through the courtesy of the National Park Service a specimen of

Sun Symbol marking was sent to the writer from Mesa Verde Na-

tional Park in 1933 and Mr. C. Marshall Finnan, who made the

selection from some twenty or more markings that are already known

to exist there, thus describes their occurrence:

As a general rule these ‘‘Sun Symbols”’ are found along the canyon rims

at the southern end of the mesa among the pinyon and juniper forest. They

are only found in one particular brown layer of the Mesa Verde sandstone.

This layer, about 4 feet thick, lies just beneath the red top soil and is ex-

posed along the rim of the canyons. It is at these exposed places only, that

these peculiar erosive characters are evident.

The Sun Symbol markings at Mesa Verde (Fig. 2) usually range

from 1 to 2 feet in diameter. They are composed of two parts—a cen-

tral bowl or basin from 1 to 6 inches deep and a fringe of radial ridges

and furrows surrounding the bowl. The figure is usually circular in

form and the length of the furrows is about equal to the diameter of

the central basin. At their outer ends these furrows blend into the

irregularities of the rock surface but where they descend into the

bowl they become more prominent by forming troughs which in some

instances are as much as an inch in depth. Near the margin of the

bowl the radial ridges and troughs plunge downward at an angle

whose steepness usually depends upon the depth of the bowl. The

Sun Symbol marking looks like a large sunflower impressed in rock.

A vertical section cut across the Mesa Verde specimen (Fig. 3)

exposed a buff colored sandstone of even texture composed of angular

quartz grains 0.15 mm in diameter, cemented by silica with consider-

able calcium carbonate and hydrous iron oxide. Though treatment

of a sample of the rock with hot hydrochloric acid removed completely

the iron oxide and calcium carbonate, an almost imperceptible

amount of silica cement still held the grains in place. The rock is of

5 The insignia of the State of New Mexico, the Indian Zia sign or sun symbol, is

very similar in form to these natural figures.

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 4

Radars

| gu ra

- “Raslials Secondary

: cement

Fig. 3.—A sectional diagram of a Mesa Verde Sun Symbol. Fig. 4.—A section

made across the area of the radial zone showing the thin band of secondary cement

that is deposited at the surface by the evaporated rain water. Note that the band ‘of

cement is thickest beneath the radials.

AprRIL 15, 1937 LANG: SUN SYMBOLS 141

very uniform texture, but horizontal stratification is suggested by

the orientation of slight variations in the cementing materials. On

the cut surface splotches one half to three quarters of an inch long

are pale buff or whitish due to a greater concentration of calcite,

whereas other patches are slightly darker brown from a concentration

of iron oxide. Most of the coloration areas have gradational bound-

aries; a few are sharply defined. The major axes of these coloration

areas lie parallel to the bedding plane.

On the weathered surface of the sandstone is a dark, thin, well-

defined band 1 to 3 mm deep. This band or capping is thicker over

the ridges than in the troughs or furrows. It contains a concentration

of calcium carbonate and iron oxide, and effervesces actively when

treated with hydrochloric acid. Beneath this thin layer lying within

the bowl, the calcium carbonate cement is almost negligible whereas

the iron oxide content appears relatively constant throughout the

rock except for the small patches above mentioned. Much of the

calcite cement has been leached from below the bowl, though the

original amount of cementation here may have been less than in the

surrounding portion of the rock.

When a rock of uniform texture is exposed to weathering, differ-

ences in degree and kind of cementation vary the rate of erosion and

a smooth surface may soon become irregular and pitted. Rain water

falling through the air and in its travels upon the surface of the

ground soon acquires carbonic and organic acids and thus becomes

a solvent of rock cements. In percolating downward into the sand-

stone the water dissolves the binding cement and frees the quartz

grains, which, subsequently, are removed by wind, water, and other

agencies of transportation. The more permeable areas of the rock are

relatively more easily weathered and form initial hollows that catch

surface water, thus forming pockets or basins (tinajita) that tend to

deepen and expand with each ensuing shower. So long as the rocks

remain moist and the climate relatively humid, downward percola-

tion of rain water is the dominant process, but in the semi-arid South-

west another important agency comes into play. There the greatest

amount of the annual precipitation falls during thunder showers in

the summer months when the air is dry and warm. The porous surface

rocks quickly become saturated during one of these downpours, but

dry out rapidly after the storm has passed. Some of the absorbed

moisture descends to the water table or an aquifer but most of it in

the upper part of the rock is drawn to the surface by capillarity or by

plants and evaporated. The water thus leaves the dissolved mineral

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 4

matter at or near the surface. Where irregularities develop, protrud-

ing slightly above the general level, more rapid evaporation takes

place and therefore more dissolved salts are deposited, thus serving

to restrain erosion in those areas. The lower areas accumulate more

water, suffer more solution, and acquire less salts. Therefore, a differ-

ential action is set up, bringing into greater relief the initial variations

in surface expression.

As a depression forms, it becomes a center for accumulation of rain

water. Rills® develop upon the rim, extending outward as they con-

duct more and more water to the central basin, and deepen to form

radial troughs. If the depression deepens rapidly, the radial lines and

troughs follow down into the basin as well as grow farther outward.

The Sun Symbol mark is therefore a transient impression made upon

the weathering surface of rock and persists only so long as the con-

ditions favoring its development are operative. They must come and

go as the rock surface is worn down. Thus the Sun Symbol mark is

the product of erosion on sandstones so constituted as to initiate

these surface effects.

So far only Sun Symbol marks in limy sandstones have been con-

sidered. Sun Symbol marks are probably far more numerous in lime-

stones but apparently less conspicuous. They depend upon the same

process for their formation. Hill and Vaughn noted the presence of

rills (Karrenfelder) on the Edwards limestone.’ Solution-faceted

pebbles,® conspicuously developed in the Pecos Valley, are small ex-

amples of the process of solution. In western Texas the Permian

limestones, but more especially the blocky exposures of Cretaceous

limestone, present cupped weathered surfaces with hard upturned

edges bounding the joint planes. As noted by Udden,® algae are

present upon the rocks and in the bowls of these depressions but to

what extent their products of metabolism contribute to the evolution

of the pocked surfaces is not clearly understood. It is, however, evi-

dent that rills on rock surfaces do develop quite independently of

organisms.

In his description of pebbles (later called solution-faceted pebbles

by Bryan) he had seen in the river gravels of the Rio Grande near

6 LAUDERMILK, J. D., and Wooprorp, A. O. Concerning Rillensteine. Am.

Jour. Sci. 23: 135-154. 1932.

7 Hitt, R. T., and Vauaun, T. W. Geology of the Edwards Plateau and Rio Grande

Plain adjacent to Austin and San Antonio, Texas; with reference to the occurrence of

groundwaters. U.S. Geol. Survey 18th Annual Report, pt. 2, p. 229, 1896—97

8 Bryan, Kirk. Solution-faceted limestone pebbles. Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser. 18,

105: 193-208. 1929.

9 UppENn, J. A. Etched potholes. Texas Univ. Bull. 2509: 5-9. 1925.

Apri 15, 1937 CHASE: PASPALUM 143

Eagle Pass, Texas, Udden referred thus to furrowings on their sur-

faces: ‘‘In very rare cases one may see etched grooves radiating from

the elevated center of one of the flattened surfaces of these boulders.’’?°

This no doubt is but a reversal of the direction of flow of the dis-

solving water that produces the Sun Symbol mark. Again quoting

Udden: ‘‘This radiated, furrowed sculpture is one of the most com-

mon sculpture forms seen on the bare limestone surfaces in situ in

this part of America.’”’ This suggests that he had recognized radial

patterns caused by an outward flow of water."

So far no cuspated potholes or radial erosion marks have been

reported from humid regions” where on similar rocks marginal ero-

sion may exceed that taking place over the central portion and the

surfaces tend to become convex. In arid or semi-arid climates the

marginal areas may receive a protecting deposit of salts, concentrated

there by the wick-like action of the rim during the process of solution

by rain water and its subsequent evaporation, and so develop con-

cave surfaces.

BOTAN Y.—WNew species of Paspalum from Tropical America.! AG-

NES CHASE, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Three of the species here proposed belong to the Decumbentes, a

group of Paspalum characterized by the development of the first

glume in the lower of the pair of spikelets, sometimes in the upper

also. The species, except P. nutans Lam. which is found also in

Mauritius, are confined to the American tropics and warm temperate

regions. |

Paspalum Hintoni Chase, sp. nov.

Perenne; culmi ascendentes, 30—45 cm alti, compressi; vaginae carinatae;

laminae planae, 3-6 cm longae, 2-5 mm latae, hirsutae; racemi solitarii,

longe pedunculati, terminales et axillares, 4-7 cm longi; spiculae geminae,

2.2—-2.3 mm longae, 1.2 mm latae, glabrae; gluma prima nulla aut minutis-

sima, gluma secunda spiculam dimidiam subaequans; lemma sterile 3-nerve;

fructus subtilissime papilloso-striatus.

Perennial, in small tufts; culms ascending, slender, compressed, 30-45

cm tall, the nodes appressed-pubescent; sheaths compressed-carinate, ciliate

10 UppEN, J. A. Flattening of limestone gravel boulders by solution. Geol. Soe.

America Bull. 25: 66-68. 1914.

11 Large steep-sided sandstone boulders in the Dog Canyon area of the Guadalupe

Mountains show these centrifugal troughs. Also where the dolomitic anhydrites of

the Rustler formation are exposed in the Pecos Valley a fine display of large well-

developed vertical rills is to be seen.

2 HuMMEL, K. Lésungserscheinung auf Kalkstein an der dalmatinischen Kiiste.

Natur und Museum 62: 381-382. 1932. A solution figure (sun symbol) developed in

aaa on the Dalmatian coast under conditions simulating those of a semi-arid

climate.

1 Received January 28, 1937.

144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 4

on the margin and hirsute at summit; ligule about 0.7 mm long; blades flat,

spreading, 3 to 6 cm long, 2 to 5 mm wide (the uppermost reduced) papillose-

hirsute on both surfaces; racemes solitary, terminal and axillary, on long

slender peduncles, usually two from the uppermost sheath, 4 to 7 cm long,

subarcuate, the rachis about 1 mm wide, pubescent at the very base, other-

wise glabrous; spikelets in pairs, 2.2 to 2.8 mm long, about 1.2 mm wide,

slightly purple tinged; first glume obsolete on both spikelets of the pair or

developed as a very minute truncate scale on a few spikelets; second glume

about half as long as the spikelet, 3-nerved; sterile lemma rather firm in

texture, 3-nerved, its membranaceous palea well developed but empty; fruit

about 2.1 mm long, pale, minutely papillose-striate.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1611719, collected at 1,080

meters altitude at Vigas, Temascaltepec District, State of Mexico, Mexico,

September 22, 1932, by George B. Hinton (no. 1807). This is part of a

single specimen received for study from Kew Herbarium and returned to

that institution.

The species is closely related to Paspalum pilosum Lam., and P. Peckii

¥. T. Hubb., differing from both chiefly in the smaller spikelets and short

second glume. It differs also in that the first glume is alike in both spikelets

of the pair, whereas in P. pilosum and P. Peckii the first glume is unequally

developed in those of the pair.

Paspalum Altsoni Chase, sp. nov.

Perenne; culmi ramosi, decumbentes; laminae planae, 5-11 em longae,

5-11 mm latae; pedunculi 2—4 e vagina suprema; racemi solitarii, 2-5 em

longi; spiculae geminae, 2.5-2.7 mm longae, circa 1.5 mm latae; gluma

prima spiculae superioris parva, ea spiculae inferioris quam spicula 2—4-plo

brevior; gluma secunda et lemma sterile 5-nervia, gluma quam lemma

brevior; fructus subtilissime papilloso-striatus.

Perennial in small tufts; culms spreading or prostrate, freely branching,

the branches somewhat divergent; sheaths loose, shorter than the internodes,

or the lower overlapping, glabrous or the margin ciliate toward the summit;

ligule about 2 mm long; blades flat, 5 to 11 em long, 5 to 11 mm wide (the

uppermost somewhat reduced), slightly narrowed to a rounded base, very

sparsely pilose on the upper surface near the base or glabrous, the margin

finely fluted below, the pale midnerve prominent beneath; peduncles 2 to 4

from the upper and middle sheaths, subfiliform, finally long-exserted, the

later axillary ones concealed in the sheaths until the maturity of the primary

racemes; racemes solitary, 2 to 5 cm long, straight or slightly arcuate, the

rachis slender, slightly channeled; spikelets in pairs, the pairs somewhat

distant, 2.5 to 2.7 mm long, about 1.5 mm wide, elliptic-obovate; first glume

small and nerveless on the upper spikelet of the pair, l-nerved, subacute

and one-quarter to one-half as long as the spikelet on the lower spikelet,

both glabrous or with a few weak hairs; second glume and sterile lemma

5-nerved, rather firm in texture, with a few scattered hairs or glabrous, the

glume slightly shorter than the spikelet; fruit nearly the size of the spikelet,

pale-stramineous, minutely papillose-striate.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium no. 1539437, collected in moist

sandy crevices on rocks in the open, at about 75 meters altitude, Macreba

Falls, ‘“Kurapung River,” in the upper Mazaruni District, British Guiana,

September 3, 1925, by R. A. Altson (no. 392).

Apri 15, 1937 CHASE: PASPALUM 145

In this species the habit and foliage resemble those of Paspalum decumbens

Swartz and P. nutans Lam., but the spikelets are larger with the first

glumes of the pair dissimilar as in P. pzlosum Lam. and its close allies.

Paspalum petilum Chase, sp. nov.

Perenne; culmi graciles, ascendentes, 15-22 cm alti, foliosi; laminae

planae, 3-10 cm longae, 3-4 mm latae, glabrae; pedunculi 2-3 ex vagina

suprema; racemi solitarii, terminales et axillares, 1-2.5 cm longi, arcuati;

spiculae geminae, 1.7—1.8 mm longae, circa 1.1 mm latae; gluma prima

parva, obtusa, in margine pubescens; gluma secunda et lemma sterile

pubescentia; fructus subtilissime papilloso-striatus.

Perennial in small tufts; culms slender, ascending or spreading, 15 to 22

em tall, leafy throughout, the uppermost blade often equaling the inflo-

rescence; nodes appressed-pubescent to glabrescent; sheaths mostly over-

lapping, densely pubescent along the margin and on the collar; ligule about

1 mm long; blades flat, 3 to 10 cm long, 3 to 4 mm wide, tapering to the often

folded base, glabrous, the pale midnerve prominent beneath; peduncles 2

or 3 from the upper sheath, filiform; racemes solitary, 1 to 2.5 cm long,

arcuate, the rachis slender, slightly channeled; spikelets in pairs, scarcely

crowded, 1.7 to 1.8 mm long, about 1.1 mm wide, elliptic-obovate; first

glumes similar on the spikelets of the pair, short, obtuse, nerveless, pubescent

on the margin; second glume and sterile lemma 3-nerved or obscurely 5-

nerved, sparsely pubescent, the glume two-thirds or three-fourths as long

as the spikelet; fruit about 1.6 mm long, pale, very minutely-papillose-

striate.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium no. 1298462, collected on wet rocks,

China Creek, Konawaruk River [County of Essequibo], British Guiana,

September 1906, by A. W. Bartlett (Bot. Gard. Georgetown Herb. no. 8569).

In habit this species resembles Paspalum dispar Chase, of Hispaniola, but

differs in having smaller pubescent spikelets and first glumes similar on the

spikelets of the pair. In P. dispar the glume on the lower spikelet is about

two-thirds as long as the spikelet.

Paspalum ionanthum Chase, sp. nov.

Perenne, caespitosum; culmi ascendentes, 15-40 ecm alti, paucifolii;

vaginae compressae; laminae planae aut subinvolutae, 0.5-8 cm longae;

racemi 2, subconjugati, ascendentes, 3-5.5 cm longi; spiculae solitariae,

3.4-3.7 mm longae, circa 1.5 mm latae, ellipticae, glabrae, saepius purpur-

ascentes; gluma et lemma sterile aequalia, 5-nervia, minute apiculata;

fructus subtilissime papilloso-striatus.

Perennial in dense hard tufts with numerous short leafy sterile shoots

at base; culms ascending, compressed, 15 to 40 cm tall, with a single node

above the base; sheaths compressed, those of the sterile shoots short, over-

lapping, sparsely hirsute to glabrous, mostly stiffly ciliate, at least toward

the summit, those of the culms longer, glabrous; ligule almost obsolete;

blades firm, flat to subinvolute, those of the sterile shoots 5 to 8 cm long,

2 to 5 mm wide, those of the culms 0.5 to 4 em long, all ciliate at the very

base; racemes 2, subconjugate, ascending, 3 to 5.5 cm long, the rachis about

0.8 mm wide, with a few hairs at base, otherwise glabrous, one of the pair

usually naked at the very base; spikelets solitary, 3.4 to 3.7 mm long, about

146 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 4

1.5 mm wide, elliptic, glabrous, mostly purple-tinged; glume and sterile

lemma equal, rather firm in texture, 5-nerved, minutely apiculate at the

subacute apex; fruit pale, about the size of the spikelet, minutely papillose-

striate.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1037280, collected in the region

of Lake Ypacaray, in central Paraguay, in December 1913, by Dr. E. Hassler

(no. 12383).

This species belongs in the Notata group and is most nearly related to P.

almum Chase, of Texas, southern Brazil, and Paraguay. It differs from that

in the numerous short sterile shoots, the shorter much firmer blades, in the

shorter stiffer racemes, and in the larger spikelets. The type collection was

named by Dr. Hassler as a variety of Paspalum notatum Fligge. The varietal

name is unpublished and cannot be used as a specific name because it is

preoccupied.

Paspalum almum was described? from Texas. At the time I hesitated to

cite the South American specimens, but further study leaves no doubt that

they belong to the same species as the Texas material. Three racemes are

not infrequent in the South American specimens and in one specimen there

are 5 and in another 6 racemes. A specimen of this species, No. 21 Plantae

Pilcomayenses, collected in 1906 in the Gran Chaco by Theodore Rojas,

custodian of the Hassler Herbarium, was described by Hackel as Paspalum

ovale Nees var. apiculatum Hack.* An examination of Nees’ type of P. ovale,

in the Berlin Herbarium, shows that it is not the species to which Hackel

applied the name. The name ‘‘apiculatum”’ could not be used because it is

preoccupied by P. apiculatum Doell, 1877.

The following South American specimens are referred to Paspalum

almum:

Braziu: Porto Esperanga, on Rio Paraguay, Matto Grosso, Chase 11078,

11095, 11109.

Paracuay: Gran Chaco, Rojas 21. Puerto Santa Rita, Rojas 2675 (Hort.

Paraguayensis 11071). Rio Verde, Herter 4831. San Bernardino, Rojas

1660. Lake Ypacaray, Hassler 12334.

Urucuay: Santa Rosa Cuareim, Herter 336 i (Herter Herb. 82565).

ARGENTINA: Mercedes, Prov. Corrientes, Parodi 6370. Formosa, Parodi

2936 (collector unknown).

ZOOLOGY.—North American monogenetic trematodes. I. The

superfamily Gyrodactyloidea.1. EMMETT W. Pricn, U.S. Bureau

of Animal Industry.

Genus Darrrrosoma Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis.—Body with constriction about one-third of length from an-

2 This JouRNAL 23: 137, fig. 1, 1933.

3’ Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 6: 341. 1909.

1 Continued from This JouRNAL, 27: 114-130. 1937.

APRIL 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 147

terior end; 3 pairs of head organs. Haptor not distinctly set off from body

proper, with 2 pairs of large hooks—ventral pair larger than dorsal—

articulating at their bases with a long, transverse, cuticular bar, and with

1 pair of marginal hooklets. Eyes present. Intestinal branches without

diverticula, united posteriorly. Vitellaria not extending into posterior third

of body. Vagina present.

Type species.—Daitreosoma constrictum Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

Two species, D. constrictum from Therapon carbo Ogilby and McCulloch,

and D. bancrofti from T. hilli Castelnau, have been described from Australia

by Johnston and Tiegs (1922); neither of these species is known from North

American hosts.

Genus EMpLEvUROSOMA Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis.—Body with strongly developed lateral regions; 4 pairs of head

organs. Haptor not distinctly set off from body proper, with 2 pairs of large

hooks and 1 pair of marginal hooklets as in Daztreosoma. Vagina absent.

Other characters as in Daitreosoma.

Type species.—Empleurosoma pyriforme Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

This genus contains only the type species; it was described from the gills

of an Australian fresh-water fish, Therapon unicolor Gunther.

Genus ANcHYLopIscus Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis.—Body without lateral constrictions and without strongly de-

veloped lateral regions. Haptor not distinctly set off from body proper, with

2 pairs of very large hooks supported by 2 cuticular bars, and with 14

marginal hooklets. Intestinal branches without diverticula and not uniting

posteriorly. Eyes present. Vitellaria extending into posterior third of body.

Vagina absent.

Type species.—Anchylodiscus tandani Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

Two species have been described as belonging to this genus, namely, A.

tandani Johnston and Tiegs from the gills of Tandanus tandanus, and A.

gadopsis Hughes from the gills of Gadopsis sp.; both species are from

Australian hosts.

Genus MurRRAYTREMA Price, 1937

Diagnosis.—Cephalic glands opening to exterior through 4 pairs of head

organs. Haptor large, with 2 pairs of large hooks separated by 3 transversely

placed non-articulate bars; 14 marginal hooklets. Intestinal branches not

uniting posteriorly. Eyes present. Testis and ovary in equatorial zone.

Cirrus with accessory piece. Vagina present, opening ventrally and medially.

Type species.—Murraytrema robusta (Murray, 1931) n. comb.

The type and only species of the genus was described as Ancyrocephalus

robusta by Murray (1931) from specimens collected from the gills of Sparus

australis Gunther in Australia. Murraytrema (Price, 1937) differs from

Ancyrocephalus in having 3 haptoral bars instead of 2 as in the latter genus,

and the vagina opens ventrally and medially in Murraytrema and laterally

in Ancyrocephalus.

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 4

Genus CLErpopiscus Mueller, 1934

Diagnosis.—Cephalic glands opening to exterior through several (4 to 6)

pairs of head organs. Haptor discoid, with 2 pairs of large hooks separated

by 2 non-articulated bars, and with 14 marginal hooklets. Eyes present.

Testis and ovary in equatorial zone. Cirrus simple, with movable accessory

piece. Vitellaria extending into posterior third of body. Vagina present, open-

ing on left body margin.

Type species.—Cleidodiscus robustus Mueller, 1934.

The genus Cleidodiscus contains the following species, all being from North

American fresh-water fishes: Clezdodiscus bedardi Mizelle, 1926, from Xenotis

megalotis (Rafinesque); C. capax Mizelle, 1926, from Pomozis sparoides

(Lacépéde); C. floridanus Mueller, 1936, from Ictalurus punctatus (Ra-

finesque); C’. formosus (Mueller, 1936), from Pomoxis sparoides (Lacépéde) ;

C’. incisor Mizelle, 1936, from Lepomis pallidus (Mitchill); C. longus Mizelle

1936, from Pomozis sparoides (Lacépéde); C. mirabilis Mueller, 1937, from

Leptops olivaris (Rafinesque); C. pricet Mueller, 1936, from Ameiurus natalis

(Le Sueur) and A. nebulosus (Le Sueur); C. nematocirrus Mueller, 1937,

from Eupomotis gibbosus (Linn.); C. robustus Mueller, 1934, from £. gib-

bosus (Linn.) and Lepomis pallidus (Mitchill); C. stentor Mueller, 1937,

from Amboplites rupestris (Rafinesque); C. uniformis Mizelle, 1936, from

Pomoxis annularis Rafinesque; and C. vancleaver Mizelle, 1936, from P.

annularis Rafinesque.

Genus AcTINOCLEIDUS Mueller, 1937

Diagnosis. Haptor disc-like, flattened, with 2 pairs of large hooks,

similar and about equal in length; haptoral bars with bases articulating; 14

marginal hooklets. Cirrus with movable accessory piece. Vagina present,

opening on left body margin. Other characters as in Cleidodiscus.

Type species.—Actinocleidus oculatus (Mueller, 1934) Mueller, 1937.

Representatives of this genus are known only from North American fresh-

water fishes; the genus contains the following species: Actinocleidus articu-

laris (Mizelle, 1936), from Xenotis megalotis (Rafinesque); A. bursatus

(Mueller, 1936), from Micropterus salmoides; A. fusiformis (Mueller, 1934)

(syn., Ancyrocephalus cruciatus of Cooper, 1915), from Micropterus dolomieu

Lacépéde; A. gracilis Mueller, 1937, from Lepomis pallidus (Mitchill); A.

maculatus Mueller, 1937, from Hupomotis gibbosus (Linn.); and A. oculatus

(Mueller, 1934), from Hupomotis gibbosus (Linn.).

Genus ARISTOCLEIDUS Mueller, 1936

Diagnosis.—Large hooks of haptor dissimilar, those of ventral pair with

slender, angular blades and biramous roots, while those of dorsal pair have

curved blades and only slightly biramous roots; haptoral bars non-articulat-

ing; 14 marginal hooklets present. Cirrus with immovable accessory piece.

Vagina present, opening on right body margin. Other characters as in

Clerdodiscus.

Type species.—Aristocleidus hastatus Mueller, 1936.

Apri 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 149

This genus contains only the type species which occurs on the gills of

Roccus lineatus in Florida. Mueller (1936) in his description of this form

was in error as regards the position of the large hooks and in the number of

marginal hooklets. The large hooks which he termed the ventrals are

actually the dorsals and vice versa; there are 14 marginal hooklets instead of

12 as originally given.

Genus TETRACLEIDUS Mueller, 1936

Diagnosis—Haptor small, poorly set off from body. Large hooks about

equal in size; bars non-articulating. Marginal hooklets probably 14 in num-

ber. Vagina present, opening on right body margin. Other characters similar

to those of Clezdodiscus.

Type species.—Tetracleidus banghami Mueller, 1936.

This genus contains only the type species which occurs on the gills of

Micropterus dolomieu Lacépéde. It is questionable whether the genus

Tetracleidus should be regarded as distinct from Clezdodiscus, since appar-

ently the only important difference between the two genera is the position

of the vaginal aperture.

Genus LeptociEIpus Mueller, 1936

Diagnosis.—Haptor small, poorly set off from body. Large hooks approxi-

mately equal; bars rudimentary, non-articulating; marginal hooklets prob-

ably 14 in number. Cirrus long, slender, lying in a large coil and passing to

exterior through a grooved cuticularized vestibule or accessory piece. Vagina

(?). Other characters as in Clezdodiscus.

Type species.—Leptocleidus megalonchus Mueller, 1936.

The type and only species of this genus occurs on the gills and in the

throat of Micropterus dolomieu Lacépéde. This species appears to be the

form described by Cooper (1915) as Ancyrocephalus paradoxus.

Genus Urocueipus Mueller, 1934

Diagnosis.—Haptor wedge shaped; large hooks of about equal size; bars

non-articulating; marginal hooklets relatively small, 14 in number. Vagina

absent. Other characters as in Clezdodiscus.

Type species.—Urocleidus aculeatus (Van Cleave and Mueller, 1932)

Mueller, 1934.

The genus Urocleidus contains two valid North American species, U.

aculeatus (Van Cleave and Mueller), from Stizostedion vitreus (Mitchill) and

U. adspectus Mueller, 1936, from Perca flavescens (Mitchill).

Urocleidus angularis Mueller, 1934, from Fundulus diaphanus menona

(Jordan and Copeland) was recently removed by Mueller (1936) from this

genus to Ancyrocephalus, the latter being used in a general sense. The writer

has studied the original specimens of U. angularis and is in agreement with

Mueller that this species does not belong in Urocleidus s. str.; however, he

sees no reason why it should be transferred to Ancyrocephalus, since it is

more closely related to Urocleidus than to Ancyrocephalus.

150 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

Genus ONcHOCLEIDUS Mueller, 1936

Diagnosis—Haptor wedge-shaped, with 2 pairs of large hooks and 2

non-articulating bars; 14 marginal hooklets present, these hooklets relatively

large, 6 pairs being arranged around anterior edge of haptor and having

their tips directed forward. Cirrus corkscrew-shaped, or simple with spiral

fin, usually with immovable accessory piece. Vagina, when present, opening

on right body margin. Other characters as in Clezdodiscus.

‘Type species.—Onchocleidus ferox (Mueller, 1934) Mueller, 1936.

This genus contains at present 11 species, all being from North America;

these are: Onchocleidus contortus Mueller, 1937, from Micropterus salmoides;

O. distinctus Mizelle, 1986, from Xenotis megalotis (Rafinesque); O. ferox

(Mueller, 1934), from Hupomotis gibbosus (Linn.); O. helicis Mueller, 1936,

from Micropterus salmoides; O. interruptus Mizelle, 1936, from Morone

interrupta Gill; O. mimus Mueller, 1936, from Lepibema chrysops (Ra-

finesque) and (?) Esox reticulatus Le Sueur; O. mucronatus Mizelle, 1936,

from Helioperca incisor (Cuv. and Valenc.), Allotis humilis (Giard), and

Eupomotis gibbosus (Linn.); O. perdix Mueller, 1937, from Lepomis pallidus

(Mitchill); O. principalis Mizelle, 1936, from Micropterus pseudaplites

Hubbs; O. semilis Mueller, 1936, from Huwpomotis gibbosus (Linn.); and O.

spiralis Mueller, 1937, from Eupomotis gibbosus (Linn.).

Genus PrrrocLerpus Mueller, 1937

Diagnosis.—Each large haptoral hook with wing-like blade arising near

angle and passing parallel to point for about two-thirds its length. Vagina

present, opening on right body margin. Other characters as in Onchocleidus.

Type species.—Pterocleidus acer (Mueller, 1936) Mueller, 1937.

In addition to the type species, which occurs on the gills of Hupomotis

gibbosus (Linn.), this genus contains P. acuwminatus (Mizelle, 1936) from

Xenotis megalotis (Rafinesque); and P. biramosus Mueller, 1937, from

Lepomis pallidus (Mitchill).

Genus HapiLocueripus Mueller, 1937

Diagnosis.—Large haptoral hooks similar but unequal, those of ventral

pair about one-half as large as those of dorsal pair. Vagina present (?always),

opening on left body margin. Other characters similar to those of Oncho-

cleidus.

Type species.—Haplocleidus dispar (Mueller, 1936) Mueller, 1937.

This genus contains six species, namely, Haplocleidus affinis Mueller,

1937, and H. dispar (Mueller, 1936), from Eupomotis gibbosus (Linn.); H.

furcatus Mueller, 1937, from Micropterus salmoides; H. monticellit (Cognetti

de Martiis, 1925), from Haustor catus (Linn.); and H. siluri (Zandt, 1924),

and H. vistulensis (Siwak, 1932), from Silurus glanis Linn.

The species described by Siwak (1932) as Ancyrocephalus vistulensis does

not differ from H. siluri (Zandt), except in the number of marginal hooklets

and in the character of the vagina. According to Zandt (1924) there are 16

APRIL 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 151

marginal hooklets in H. siluri, whereas Siwak states that there are only 12

in H. vistulensis; apparently both figures are incorrect, the probable num-

ber in both cases being 14. Siwak states that the vagina is non-cuticularized

in H. siluri and cuticularized in H. vistulensis. In spite of the differences

mentioned above, the two species are identical in other respects, and both

are from the same host and from the same region (Poland).

The species which Cognetti de Martiis (1925) described as Ancyrocephalus

monticellit was collected in Italy from an American catfish. In this species

the hooks of the dorsal pair were stated to be the largest; however, it seems

probable from the description and figure of the bars and hooks that he was

mistaken in the position of these structures, and it is on this assumption

that the species is included in the genus Haplocleidus.

Genus AMPHIBDELLA Chatin, 1874

Diagnosis.—Body greatly elongated, fusiform; 3 pairs of head organs.

Haptor lobed, distinctly set off from body proper, with 2 pairs of large

similar hooks and 14 marginal hooklets; large hooks not supported by

cuticular bars. Intestinal branches not united posteriorly. Eyes absent.

Testis and ovary in anterior part of body, the latter elongated and curved,

lying partly in extraintestinal field. Vitellaria confined to region posterior

to ootype. Vagina present.

Type species —Amphibdella torpedinis Chatin, 1874.

The genus Amphibdella contains only two species, A. torpedinis Chatin,

1874, and A. flavolineata MacCallum, 1916, the latter being a North Ameri-

can form.

Amphibdella flavolineata MacCallum, 1916 Figs. 1—4

Description.—Body elongate, more or less fusiform, 3.8 to 4.8 mm long

by 510 to 680u wide. Cephalic glands lateral, prepharyngeal, opening

through 3 pairs of head organs situated near anterior end. Haptor lobed,

about 425 to 475u wide, armed with 2 pairs of large similar hooks and 14

marginal hooklets; large hooks 150 to 160u long, blade without shoulder-

like process near base, otherwise similar to those of A. torpedinis; marginal

hooklets about 10u long, one on each lobe of haptor. Oral aperture ventral,

median, about 190 to 230u from anterior end of body; pharynx globular, 133

to 152u in diameter; esophagus very short, with a group of unicellular glands

on each side; intestinal branches simple, extending to distal limits of vitel-

laria, not united posteriorly. Nervous and excretory systems not observed;

eyes absent. Genital aperture median, near intestinal bifurcation. Cirrus

slender, tubular, about 100u long, with very complicated accessory piece;

seminal vesicle conspicuous, S-shaped. Testis single, sinistral, largely ob-

scured by vitellaria. Ovary elongated, curved, opposite testis, lying partly

in extraintestinal field. Vitellaria extracecal, consisting of large follicles ar-

ranged in linear series and extending from level of base of ootype to near

posterior end of body proper. Vagina present, heavily cuticularized, near

right margin of body immediately anterior to ovary, connected with a rela-

tively large seminal receptacle. Ootype relatively slender, its base sur-

rounded by unicellular glands. No eggs observed.

Host.—Tetranarce occidentalis (Storer) and “‘sting ray.’

Location.—Gills.

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 4

Distribution.—United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35159 (cotypes), 35204 and

35699.

Figs. 1-4.—Amphibdella flavolineata. 1, Complete worm, ventral view; 2, large

haptoral hook; 3, cirrus and accessory piece; 4, vagina. Original. Figs. 5-8.—

Amphibdelloides maccallumi. 5, Complete worm, ventral view; 6, haptoral hooks

and bar (A—large hooks, B—bar); 7, cirrus and accessory piece; 8, vagina. Original.

Specimens of this species were collected by Dr. G. A. MacCallum at

Woods Hole, Mass., July 6, 1914, and on August 21, 1922, from a torpedo,

ApRIL 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 153

Tetranarce occidentalis and later, July 20, 1923, a single specimen was col-

lected by him from a ‘‘sting ray.”’ This species is quite similar to Amphzbdella

torpedinis Chatin from which it differs principally in the morphology of the

large hooks. In A. torpedinis the blade of the large hook is slender and

widens more or less abruptly shortly before joining with the root or biramous

portion, thus giving rise to a shoulder-like offset, while in A. flavolineata the

blade of the hook is not so slender and tapers uniformly from the tip to the

point of union with the root. This difference is, admittedly, slight, but con-

stant so far as the writer has been able to ascertain. This shoulder-like offset

is clearly shown in the figures of A. torpedinis as given by Chatin (1874)

and by Ruszkowski (1931). In addition to the hooks, there appears to be

considerable difference in the male copulatory organ.

Genus AMPHIBDELLOIDES Price, 1937

Synonym.—Amphibdella Chatin, 1874, in part.

Diagnosis.—Haptor not lobed; large hooks supported by a single cuticular

bar. Other characters as in Amphibdella.

Type species —Amphibdelloides maccallumi (Johnston and Tiegs, 1922).

Amphibdelloides maccallumi (Johnston and Tiegs, 1922), n. comb. Figs. 5-8

Synonyms.—Amphibdella torpedinis Perugia and Parona, 1889, not

Chatin, 1874; A. torpedinis MacCallum, 1916, not Chatin, 1874; A. mac-

callumi Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

Description.—Body slender, 1.1 to 3.56 mm long by 255 to 476 wide.

Cephalic glands abundant, forming a band across body anterior to pharynx

and extending backward on each side to near level of genital aperture,

opening to exterior through 3 pairs of head organs situated near anterior

end of body. Haptor not lobed, 210 to 425u wide, armed with 2 pairs of

large hooks and 14 marginal hooklets, the large hooks supported by a single

cuticular bar; large hooks 133 to 170u long, shape similar to those of

Amphibdella flavolineata; marginal hooklets about 10u long; cuticular sup-

porting bar slightly curved, 64 to 95u by 19u, concavity directed anteriorly.

Oral aperture ventral, median, about 133 to 170u from anterior end of body;

pharynx globular, 76 to 95u in diameter; esophagus relatively long. Nervous

and excretory systems not observed; eyes absent. Genital aperture median,

near intestinal bifurcation. Cirrus slender, tubular, about 175y long; ac-

cessory pieces 2 in number, one with single curved tip and other tridigitate,

about 130 to 160u long. Testis elongate, median. Ovary elongate, slightly

curved, median, pretesticular. Vitellaria lateral, consisting of large follicles

uniting and forming a band across body at level of tips of intestinal ceca.

Vagina slender, heavily cuticularized, opening near right margin of body

at level of middle of ovary, and communicating with a large seminal recep-

tacle lying along right margin of anterior part of ovary. Ootype and metra-

term not discernable in available specimens. No eggs observed.

Hosts.—Tetranarce occidentalis (Storer) and Squalus acanthias Linnaeus.

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. Nos. 35700 (cotypes), 25701 and

35652.

154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

This appears to be the species described as Amphibdella torpedinis by

Perugia and Parona (1889) and later redescribed by Parona and Perugia

(1890) from specimens obtained from Torpedo marmorata in the Mediter-

ranean region. Perugia and Parona show that the large haptoral hooks are

supported by a single transverse bar, but in the redescription they report

the species as having 2 bars; this latter report appears in the light of the

present study to be an error.

The specimens upon which the above description is based were collected

by Dr. G. A. MacCallum at Woods Hole, Mass., and described by him in

1916 as Amphibdella torpedinis Chatin.

This species resembles Amphibdella torpedinis and A. flavolineata in a

general way but differs from them in having an unlobed haptor and large

hooks supported by a transverse cuticular bar.

Genus TETRANCISTRUM Goto and Kikuchi, 1917

Diagnosis.—Anterior end with 2 to 3 pairs of head organs. Haptor small,

not distinctly set off from body proper, with 2 pairs of similar, and almost

equal, large hooks supported by 2 cuticular bars, and sometimes, if not al-

ways, with (?) 14 marginal hooklets. Intestine united posteriorly. Eyes

absent. Vagina present.

Type species.—Tetrancistrum siganit Goto and Kikuchi, 1917.

Tetrancistrum longiphallus (MacCallum, 1915), n. comb. Figs. 9-11

Synonyms.—Diplectanum longiphallus MacCallum, 1915; Ancyrocephalus

longiphallus (MacCallum, 1915) Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

Description.—Body more or less fusiform, 1.4 mm long by 255u wide;

cephalic glands opening through 2 pairs of head organs. Haptor 133y wide,

not distinctly set off from body proper, provided with 2 pairs of large hooks

supported by 2 transverse bars, and with a number, possibly 14, marginal

hooklets. Large hooks about equal in size, 57u long, differing only slightly

in morphology; ventral bar 53u long, narrow, bifid at ends; dorsal bar 38u

by 15u; marginal hooklets very delicate, about 10u long. Oral aperture

ventral, about 95u from anterior end of body; pharynx 75y long by 53u

wide; intestine not observed. Eyes absent. Cirrus simple, tubular, about 140u

long; seminal vesicle curved, to left of ootype. Testis elongate oval, some-

what lobed, about 300u long by 95u wide, postequatorial. Ovary oval,

about 150u long by 60u wide, immediately pretesticular. Vitellaria extending

from level of pharynx to about 250u from posterior end of body, meeting in

median field posterior to testis. Vagina present, opening near right margin

of body near level of base of cirrus. Ootype elongated, its base surrounded

by long-necked unicellular glands. Egg oval, about 75u long by 50y wide,

with relatively long filament at one pole.

Host.—Chaetodipterus faber (Broussonet).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (New York Aquarium).

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 35702 (cotypes).

This species was described under the name Diplectanum longiphallus by

MacCallum (1915) from specimens collected from the gills of a spade fish,

January 23, 1915, at the New York Aquarium. The material consists of a

APRIL 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 155

few badly preserved and distorted specimens, only one specimen being in a

suitable condition for description. A comparison of the available specimens

with the description as given by MacCallum shows that the original descrip-

tion is inadequate in many respects. The measurements are not in agreement

with those obtained by the present writer, the mouth is ventral instead of

terminal, and no eyes are present; the cirrus is much shorter than Mac-

Callum’s measurements indicate, being about 140y long instead of 250u and

the egg is about 75y long instead of 20u as stated by MacCallum.

A comparison of this species with descriptions of Tetrancistrum sigani

Goto and Kikuchi (1917) from Siganus fuscescens Houttuyn from Japan,

and of T. lutiant Tubangui (1931) from Lutianus lioglossus (Bleeker) from

the Philippines, indicates that Diplectanum longiphallus MacCallum belongs

in the genus Tetrancistrum rather than in Diplectanum, or in Ancyrocephalus

where it was placed by Johnston and Tiegs (1922). The small size of the

haptor, the similarity of the anterior and posterior hooks, the stalked Mehlis’

glands, and the absence of eyes are characters which suggest affinities with

Tetrancistrum rather than with Ancyrocephalus; the absence of squamodiscs

alone excludes this species from Diplectanum.

Tetrancistrum longiphallus may be easily distinguished from the other

two species of Tetrancistrum on the morphology of the large haptoral hooks

and of the ventral bar. The hooks of T’. longiphallus have blades more widely

curved and longer than those of the other species, and the ventral bar is

bifid at the extremities instead of rounded as in T’. siganz.

Goto and Kikuchi (1917), as well as Tubangui (1931), state that the

marginal hooklets of the haptor are absent in the genus Tetrancistrum. In

T. longiphalius marginal hooks were found to be present although the exact

number was not ascertainable; these hooklets are very small and trans-

parent, and could be definitely detected only after careful study under an

oil immersion objective. The fact that these hooklets are difficult to detect

suggests that they were overlooked by the above mentioned authors.

GENUS INQUIRENDUM

Dactytopiscus Olsson, 1893

Diagnosis.—Cephalic glands and head organs (?); haptor pedunculated,

lobed, with 2 pairs of hooks, the dorsal hooks being the largest, and having

a peculiarly-shaped middle piece; marginal hooklets (?). Eyes present.

Testis and ovary entire, equatorial. Cirrus simple. Vagina (?).

Type species.—Dactylodiscus borealis Olsson, 1893.

This inadequately characterized genus was proposed by Olsson (1893) for

D. borealis, a species, found on the gills of Thymallus vulgaris and Coregonus

lavaretus. Johnston and Tiegs regard Dactylodiscus as a subgenus of Ancyro-

cephalus, but owing to the inadequacy of the description of the type and

only species, the writer prefers to retain it as a genus inquirendum until a

more complete description is available.

156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

Subfamily DIPLECTANINAE Monticelli, 1903

Synonym.—Lepidotreminae Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

Diagnosis.—Body, especially posterior half, covered with anteriorly

directed scale-like spines; cephalic glands present, opening to exterior

through head organs. Posterior haptor with accessory structures (dorsal

and ventral) or ‘‘squamodises,’’ consisting of sessile or subsessile dises

covered with concentric rows of scale-like spines, or of lamellae, with or

without accessory hooks; haptor with 2 pairs of large hooks and basal sup-

porting bars, and usually, if not always, with 14 marginal hooklets. In-

testinal branches ending blindly, without diverticula. Eyes present, 2 pairs.

Cirrus simple or complex. Testis and ovary without lobes. Vagina present.

Type genus.—Diplectanum Diesing, 1858.

KEY TO GENERA OF DIPLECTANINAE

1. Squamodiscs consisting of concentric rows of paired lamellae..........

MRA ONL ce Rtas ci be a2 3 <<, vine ae oH el Lamellodiscus Johnston and Tiegs

Squamodiscs consisting of concentric rows of scale-like spines or spine-like

A010) <<) ee og GRE le RG my 2

2. Squamodiscs with backwardly projecting groups of spine-like hooks. ...

Ligh <2 CUM Cola 0, <0 Oe bt a ec SL eS Lepidotrema Johnston and Tiegs

Squamodiscs without spine-like hooks............ Diplectanum Diesing

Genus DipLEcTANUM Diesing, 1858

Synonyms.—Acleotrema Johnston and Tiegs, 1922; Lepidotes Johnston and

Tiegs, 1922; Squamodiscus Yamaguti, 1934.

Diagnosis.—Squamodises consisting of concentric rows of scale-like spines,

without groups of accessory spine-like hooks. Large hooks of haptor sup-

ported by 3 transverse cuticular bars. Vagina present or (?) absent.

Type species.—Diplectanum aequans (Wagener, 1857) Diesing, 1858.

The genus Diplectanum has been considered as identical with Ancyro-

cephalus by most recent writers, including Johnston and Tiegs (1922),

Fuhrmann (1928), Van Cleave and Mueller (1932) and Sprehn (1933). A

review of the status of Diplectanuwm, however, indicates that it must be re-

tained as a genus distinct from Ancyrocephalus.

Diplectanum was proposed as a genus (not as a subgenus as Maclaren

(1903) stated) by Diesing (1858) to include Dactylogyrus aequans Wagener,

1857, and D. pedatum Wagener, 1857. The genus was defined by Diesing as

follows: ‘‘Plectana duo sessilia vel pedicellata.—Piscium marinorum ecto-

parasitica.—Characteres reliqui ignoti.”’

The two species D. aequans and D. pedatum, which Diesing included in

this genus, were named but not described by Wagener (1857a) who later in

the same year (1857b) gave a brief characterization of these species; this

description was barely generic but apparently enough to validate the species.

Diesing did not designate a type for his genus Diplectanum and inasmuch

as he listed D. aequans first, Stiles and Hassall (1908) have indicated that

species as ‘‘probably type,” therefore, for all intents and purposes D. aequans

(Wagener) may be regarded as type by subsequent designation.

Apparently the reason that Diplectanum has not been more generally

APRIL 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 157

recognized as a valid genus was owing to the very meagre characterization of

the species included in that genus, but if one regards Wagener’s (1857b)

description as sufficient to validate the species, as the present writer does,

the genus must also be regarded as valid. Wagener’s description is as

follows:

“Dactylog. aequans (Branch. Labrax lupus) und pedatus (Julis spec. inc.)

haben statt einer Schwanzscheibe deren zwei; die Innenflache dieser Organe

ist mit in konzentrische Kreise gelegten Stabchen bekleidet.”’

“Die beiden Schwanzscheiben sind durch einen 3gliedrigen Apparat

getrennt, dessen dussere Enden die scheerenartig gegeneinander beweglichen

2 grossen Hakenpaare tragen.”’

‘“‘Die grossen Haken haben stets hautige Scheiden, deren Oeffnung meist

von einer festen Einfassung umgeben ist.”’

Van Beneden and Hesse (1863), Stossich (1896) and Maclaren (1903)

have given descriptions of a species from Labraz lupus, which they regard

as D. aequans. These descriptions are of a worm the characters of which

conform to those given above for Diplectanum, and in view of the fact that

the worm described by these different authors was from Labrax lupus, the

same host as that reported for D. aequans by Wagener, and from the same

general geographic region, the writer believes that the species they had

before them was D. aequans (Wagener).

In view of the above, it appears that Johnston and Tiegs, as well as the

other writers who have apparently followed their action, erred in consider-

ing Diplectanum as a synonym of Ancyrocephalus, since the type species A.

paradoxus, of the latter genus lacks the two accessory structures (squamo-

discs) which are characteristic of D. aequans and, accordingly, of the genus

Diplectanum.

The genus Dziplectanum contains the following species: D. aculeatum

Parona and Perugia, 1889; D. aequans (Wagener, 1857); D. americanum n.

sp.; D. collinst (Mueller, 1936); D. echeneis (Wagener, 1857); D. fluviatilis

(Johnston and Tiegs, 1922); D. girellae (Johnston and Tiegs, 1922); D.

longipenis (Yamaguti, 1934); D. pedatum (Wagener, 1857); and D. sczaenae

Beneden and Hesse, 1863. Of these species, D. pedatum from Julis sp.; D.

sciaenae from Sciaena aquilla; D. aculeatum from Corvina nigra; and D.

echeneis from Chrysops aurata, Sargus rondeletii and Pagrus vulgaris are

inadequately described, although they probably are distinct species. Only

two species, D. collinsi (Mueller) from Roccus lineatus, and D. americanum

n. sp., are known to occur in North America.

Diplectanum americanum, n. sp. Figs. 12-15

Description.—Body elliptical, 765u to 1.1 mm long- by 210 to 390u at

level of ovary; posterior part of body armed with anteriorly directed scale-

like spines extending forward almost to level of testis; anterior end of body

rounded; cephalic glands present, opening to exterior through 4 pairs of

head organs. Posterior haptor 170 to 190u wide, with dorsal and ventral

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

Squamodises, and armed with 2 pairs of large hooks supported by 3 trans-

verse cuticular bars, and with 14 marginal hooklets. Squamodisces subsessile,

about 120u in diameter, each consisting of 20 concentric rows of scales;

hooks of ventral pair 76u long, those of dorsal pair 50y long; lateral sup-

porting bars 76u long, middle bar 114u long, marginal hooklets about 10yu

long. Oral aperture ventral, about 117» from anterior end of body; pharynx

about 38 in diameter; intestinal branches not observed. Brain immediately

anterior to pharynx; eyes present, 2 pairs, those of anterior pair smaller than

those of posterior pair. Genital aperture not observed; male copulatory

organ conspicuous, consisting of a simple cuticular tube (cirrus) 38u long

and a reniform, apparently heavily cuticularized structure (?) ejaculatory

bulb) 87u long by 38u wide, divided by septa into 4 compartments. Testis

globular, about 45u in diameter, slightly postequatorial. Ovary piriform,

38u wide, partly overlapping testis. Vitellaria extending from level of

posterior margin of pharynx to within short distance of anterior margins of

squamodises. Vagina present; Mehlis’ gland conspicuous, surrounding

ootype. No eggs observed.

Host.—Promicrops itaiara (Lichtenstein).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.—United States (New York Aquarium).

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 35703 (type and paratypes).

The above description is based on 5 stained and mounted specimens, col-

lected by Dr. G. A. MacCallum, September 3, 1914, from Promicrops

guttatus (=P. ttatara) at the New York Aquarium. Owing to the rather poor

condition of the specimens, some of the details could not be made out. This

species is easily distinguished from all other species of the genus by the

peculiar structure of the male copulatory organ.

Genus LepipoTREMA Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Synonyms.—Flabellodiscus Johnston and Tiegs, 1922; Hmpleurodiscus

Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

Diagnosis.—Dorsal and ventral squamodises composed of concentric rows

of scale-like papillae, each with a number of backwardly projecting spine-

like hooks arranged in a fan-like manner; large hooks of haptor supported

by 4 cuticular bars articulating with a more or less complex central piece.

Vagina present or absent.

Type species.—Lepidotrema therapon Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

This genus and the subgenus Flabellodiscus (also used in the sense of a

genus by Johnston and Tiegs), as well as Empleurodiscus, were proposed

by Johnston and Tiegs (1922) for small monogenetic trematodes occurring

on the gills of Australian fresh water fishes of the genus Therapon. These

genera were regarded as distinct on the basis of characters such as the width

of the haptor in comparison with body width, on the number of accessory

spine-like hooks of the squamodiscs, and on the complexity of the male

copulatory organs. In the writer’s opinion these characters are of specific

rather than generic value, and Flabellodiscus and Empleurodiscus are

dropped as synonyms of Lepidotrema.

The genus as here constituted contains the species Lepidotrema therapon

ApRIL 15, 1987 PRICE: TREMATODES 159

Johnston and Tiegs, from Therapon carbo Ogliby and McCulloch; L. tenue

Johnston and Tiegs, 1922, from 7. hilli Castelnau; L. fuliginosum Johnston

and Tiegs, 1922, from 7. fuliginosus Macleay; L. simplex (Johnston and

Tiegs, 1922), from 7. fuliginosus Macleay; L. angustus (Johnston and

Tiegs, 1922), from 7. wnicolor Gunther; and L. bidyana Murray, 1931, from

Therapon bidyana (Mitchell).

Genus LAMELLODIscus Johnston and Tiegs, 1922

Diagnosis.—Dorsal and ventral squamodiscs consisting of numerous con-

centric rows of paired lamellae; large hooks of haptor supported by 3 cutic-

ular bars. Vagina present.

Type species.—Lamellodiscus typicus Johnston and Tiegs, 1922.

In addition to Lamellodiscus typicus, which occurs on the gills of Sparus

australis Gunther, Murray (1931) has described two species, L. pagrosomt,

from Pagrosomus auratus, and L. major from Sparus australis. All three of

the species are known only from Australia.

Subfamily BOTHITREMATINAE Price, 1936

Diagnosis.—Cephalic glands scattered throughout the preoral part of

body and not arranged in lateral groups as in other members of family,

opening to exterior through 4 pairs of cup-like head organs. Haptor disc-

like, with 1 pair of large hooks separated by 2 cuticular bars, and with 14

marginal hooklets; in addition to hooks and other cuticular structures, a row

of radially arranged tube-like cuticular structures are present near the

margin of the haptor. Intestine single, sac-like. Eyes present. Testis single,

postovarial. Vagina (?).

Type genus.—Bothitrema Price, 1936.

Genus Botuitrema Price, 1936

Synonym.—Acanthocotyle Monticelli, 1888, in part.

Diagnosis —With characters of subfamily.

Type species.—Bothitrema bothi (MacCallum, 1913) Price (1936).

Bothitrema bothi (MacCallum, 1913) Price, 1936 Figs. 16-19

Synonym.—Acanthocotyle botht MacCallum, 1913.

Description.—Body elongate, 1.4 to 2.6 mm long by 255 to 390y wide,

with distinct constriction in region of pharynx; anterior end angular, with

4 pairs of head organs apparently representing concentrations of ducts of

numerous cephalic glands distributed throughout preoral portion of body.

Haptor disc-like, 285 to 340u in diameter, its ventral surface concave and

bearing 1 pair of large hooks, 14 marginal hooklets, 2 cuticular bars—l

ventral and the other dorsal—and 52 to 60 radially arranged cuticular tube-

like structures. Large hooks 120 to 133 long, their distal ends sharply

pointed and recurved, and separated near their tips by a U-shaped cuticular

bar 20 to 25u long by 22 to 30u wide; ventral cuticular bar somewhat

H-shaped, 57u long by 40u wide, located between bases of large hooks;

radial cuticular structures 65 to 90u long; marginal hooklets 15y long. Oral

aperture ventral, 114 to 200u from anterior end of body; pharynx rectangu-

lar, 100 to 114u long by 95 to 136u wide, its anterior end with papilla-like

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

projections; intestine single, median, sac-like, extending posteriorly as far as

limits of vitellaria. Brain antero-dorsal of oral aperture; eyes present, 2

pairs, one pair close together and immediately dorsal of oral aperture and

the other pair farther apart and at level of anterior margin of oral opening,

ACH

ie,

WAG O

SES

Kes

2 3S IS

oo s SS

LAOS aes

ROSS

Ae, exe

= RoC

‘WAS O

‘WW S0'0

‘WANSO0'O0

Figs. 9-11.—Tetrancistrum longiphallus. 9, Complete worm, dorsal view; 10,

haptoral hooks and bars (A—large hooks, B—ventral bar, C—dorsal bar); 11,

cirrus. Original. Figs. 12-15.—Diplectanum americanum. 12, Complete worm,

ventral view; 13, large haptoral hooks (A—hook of ventral pair, B—hook of dorsal

pair); 14, haptoral bars; 15, copulatory organ. Figs. 16-19.—Bothitrema bothi. 16,

Complete worm, ventral view; 17, large haptoral hook; 18, supporting structures of

haptor (A—ventral bar, B—dorsal bar, C—one of tube-like accessory structures);

19, cirrus and accessory piece. Original,

APRIL 15, 1937 PRICE: TREMATODES 161

or slightly more anterior to that point. Genital aperture ventral, median,

about midway between ovary and pharynx; cirrus simple, tubular, about

75u long, with complicated accessory piece about 55yu long. Testis single,

globular, 130 to 170u in diameter, median, immediately postovarial. Ovary

globular, 150 to 170u in diameter, about one-third of body length from

anterior end and to right of median line; Mehlis’ gland voluminous, im-

mediately preovarial. Vitelline follicles numerous, large, about 40 to 50u

in diameter, extending from level of base of pharynx to near posterior end

of body. Vagina not observed. Egg triangular, 50u wide, and with polar

filament, according to MacCallum.

Host.—Lophopsetta maculata (Mitchill).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution. United States (Woods Hole, Mass.).

Specimens.—U. 8. N. M. Helm. Coll. No. 35186 (cotypes), 35704, 35705

and 35706.

This species was originally described by MacCallum (1913) as Acantho-

cotyle bothi from specimens collected in 1912 from Bothus maculatus

(=Lophopsetta maculata). The description contained a number of errors of

interpretation of the various structures, which he later (1916) attempted

to correct. Unfortunately, however, he carried over into the redescription

many of the errors originally made. The most outstanding of the misinter-

pretations not corrected in the latter description were in regard to the

number of testes, the character of the intestine, and the nature of the radial

structures on the posterior haptor. According to MacCallum (1913) ‘‘there

are about thirty-seven testes,’’ but actually there is only a single testis

located immediately posterior to the ovary and this is the structure labeled

“seminal reservoir’ in his figure; the structures which MacCallum regarded

as testes were the large vitelline follicles lying over the intestinal cecum and

which, owing apparently to some error of technique, took the stain some-

what differently from the other follicles. The intestine consists of a single

sac-like structure and not 2 ceca as indicated by MacCallum. The radial

structures on the posterior haptor are not ‘‘really hooklets’” as MacCallum

stated, but are rather heavily cuticularized tube-like pieces imbedded in the

haptor.

This species is apparently an aberrant member of the Dactylogyridae

standing in a position intermediate between that family and the Mono-

cotylidae. Its lack of laterally arranged cephalic glands suggests affinities

with the Monocotylidae, but the presence of cuticular supporting bars be-

tween the large hooks excludes it from that family.

MacCallum’s inclusion of this form in the genus Acanthocotyle was ap-

parently due to a misconception, since he regarded the tube-like structures

on the posterior haptor as structures comparable to the radially arranged

spines on the pseudohaptor? of Acanthocotyle.

2 The large terminal disc of Acanthocotyle is probably not homologous with the

haptor of the tristomes, monocotylids and gyrodactylids, but is an added structure,

the true haptor being the minute hook bearing disc located at the margin of the large

disc or pseudohaptor.

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

Family CALCEOSTOMATIDAE (Parona and Perugia, 1890)

emend. Price, 1937

Synonym.—Calceostomidae Parona and Perugia, 1890.

Diagnosis.—Cephalic gland ducts not concentrated into head organs but

remaining scattered over a considerable area on either side of anterior end

of body, the anterior end being expanded and forming head lappets. Haptor

sucker-like but not strongly muscular, with or without large hooks, with or

(?) without marginal hooklets. Intestine with short diverticula. Eyes present

or (?) absent. Testis single. Cirrus simple, cuticularized. Vagina present or

absent.

Type genus.—Calceostoma Beneden, 1852.

KEY TO GENERA OF CALCEOSTOMATIDAE

Via emer se ih Ws gts! o.ccb ioe alg date toa we oe ee Calceostoma Beneden

Niacin GORE SOM so. ess) vis 2c ae » Sow So ee ee Fridericianella Brandes

Genus CALCEOSTOMA Beneden, 1852

Diagnosis.—Anterior end of body expanded and forming large curled

head lappets. Haptor cup-shaped, armed or (?) unarmed. Intestinal limbs

with numerous short diverticula. Eyes present. Testis elongated. Ovary

branched. Vagina absent.

Type species.—Calceostoma calceostoma (Wagener, 1857) Johnston and

Tiegs, 1922.

This genus contains 3 species, C. calceostoma (Wagener, 1857) (syn., C.

elegans Beneden, 1858), C. inerme Parona and Perugia, 1889; and C.

glandulosum Johnston and Tiegs, 1922. No representative of the genus has

been reported from North America.

Genus FRIDERICIANELLA Brandes, 1894

Diagnosis.—Head lappets not as prominent as in Calceostoma. Haptor

cup-like, with 1 pair of small centrally placed hooks; marginal hooklets (?)

absent. Eyes absent. Intestinal branches with lateral diverticula, united

by commisure posterior to testis. Testis single, rounded. Ovary tubular,

median. Vagina present, opening laterally near equator of body.

Type specres—Fridericianella ovicola Brandes, 1894.

This genus contains only the type species which was described by Brandes

(1894) from specimens collected from the eggs of Arius commersonii Lac., a

fresh- and brackish-water fish from South Brazil.

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ApRIL 15, 1937 HULL: SYRPHID FLIES 165

ENTOMOLOGY.—Some neotropical and oriental syrphid flies in the

United States National Museum. FRANK M. Hutu, University

of Mississippi. (Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECKE.)

Several years ago the late Dr. J. M. Aldrich, to whom the writer

owed much encouragement in his early studies of diptera, submitted

an accumulation of exotic syrphid flies to the writer for study and

identification. This material is almost entirely Neotropical in origin,

although a certain amount of it comes from the Orient. It was later

supplemented by material from the same regions, kindly made avail-

able for study by Dr. E. A. Chapin, to whom the writer is greatly

indebted for extending the fullest facilities of the Museum. Finally,

I wish to thank Mr. C. T. Greene for his helpful suggestions. The

present paper presents the undescribed species of syrphids, the types

of which are in the U. 8. National Museum.

Volucella nitidigaster n. sp.

Male.—Eyes densely long black pilose, touching for a distance of length

of antennae, with a bare horizontal band about the middle of each eye.

The vertex, the greatly swollen front, face and cheeks brilliantly vitreus

black, a small whitish pubescent area beneath the antennae, narrowly pro-

longed to each eye and on the eye margin intensified and slightly enlarged.

There is a narrow brown stripe dividing cheeks and face, beginning at eye

but not reaching the oral margin. Antennae, dark brown; arista pale, darker

at apex, twenty to twenty-one rayed above. Tubercle of the short obconical

face large, evenly rounded.

Thorax, scutellum, pleurae and abdomen strongly shining black with a

bluish opalescent tinge. The thorax with a narrow anterior band of fairly

long upright brassy pile, the remainder of the dorsum with short brassy

pile obscured by dense long erect black pile. The lateral and calli bristles

appear to be exceptionally long, stiff, shining black. Pile of mesopleurae long

and brassy. Scutellum rather higher than usual, the margin without a

definite depression but barely flattened at the apex on a small area, where

it is also punctate or roughened. Scutellum conspicuous for the thick mass

of long black pile on its dorsum basally, in the middle. Squamae black, with

brassy fringe. Halteres ivory white. Abdomen with faint suggestion of a

brownish area on either side on second and third segments.

Legs vitreus shining black, the mid and hind tarsi except terminal two

joints dark brown.

Wings tinged on anterior joints with yellow. Stigma dark brown. Stigma

cell light brown.

Length 6 mm.

One male. Villa Nogues, Pov. Tug. (R. A.) (1-1921)

Type in the U. 8. National Museum, No. 51352.

Volucella punctigena n. sp.

Female.—Front and vertex, except for a shining black trifurcate spot

above antennae and face, except for an obscure spot on either side Just below

1 Received January 16, 1937.

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 4

antennae, shining mahogany red and polished. The angle across from eyes

at antennae, and the cheeks pale brownish yellow. The yellow of the

cheeks is bordered behind and in front with a shining black stripe. Facial

knob prominent and face descending to a distance below eyes equal to length

of antennae from base to tip of arista. Antennae and arista light brownish

yellow, the apical third of the latter blackish, with twenty-two to twenty-

five rays dorsally. Eyes short pale pilose. Pile of head and face pale.

Thorax shining dark reddish brown, the whole middle anterior three-

fourths shining jet black, its posterior margin produced as four vittae,

their ends rounded, the outer pair the farthest, none reaching the scutellum.

Pleurae blackish, the margins of some segments brownish. Scutellum light

reddish brown shining, subtranslucent. Squamae and fringe pale brown.

Halteres snow white. Scutellum with a deep depression, its base smooth, a

few long black bristles on the margin.

Abdomen flattened, almost round, dark blackish in color, the disk of

second, third and fourth segments purplish reddish, and the base of the

second segment with two small pale yellow translucent triangles, their

median and basal edges straight and forming a right angle. The pile of the

abdomen short, very thick, whitish, quite erect.

Legs largely shining black, narrow apices of femora, basal half or third

of tibiae and tarsi light brownish. Pile of legs black.

Wings strongly tinged with brown, especially on the veins and cross veins.

Length 9 mm.

One female. Siquinola, Guatemala.

Type in the U. 8S. National Museum, No. 51348.

Volucella albipilosa n. sp.

Male.—Eyes densely long white pilose, touching for the length of the

antennae. Vertex, the swollen front, face, lower occiput and cheeks, except

for a narrow shiny brown stripe from eye to oral margin, pale yellowish

brown. Ocelli on a slightly raised blackish area. Pile of vertex and front

thick, black, longer than that of the eyes. Face and cheeks with a few

scattered black hairs on the upper middle of the former and upper posterior

corners of the latter; elsewhere pale, appressed, brassy. Occiput from middle

downward, long, white pilose, the whole densely punctate white pubescent.

Antennae reddish brown, the third joint rounded, slightly concave above.

Arista brown with twenty-five rays above. Face descending vertically below

antennae to a faint tubercle, thence receding very slightly to the cone shaped

tip of the epistoma.

Thorax largely and scutellum wholly shining light yellow brown, the

anterior half of thorax with a large shining black spot, indented posterior-

medially, and with a posteriorly directed continuation at each posterior

corner. On the black area may be seen two short broad whitish pollinose

vittae situated anteriorly. Pleurae shining black below, light brown above,

its pile long and crinkly, pale, with a few tufts of black hairs. Pile of thorax

long, anteriorly and narrowly at base of scutellum pale in color, elsewhere

black. Lateral margins of thorax including humeri and post calli with several

long black bristles, but none before the scutellum or on its margin. Scutellum

without depression. Squamae and its fringe and stem of halteres dark brown;

knob of the latter white.

Abdomen, its margin inrolled, almost entirely light reddish brown, the

narrow posterior edge of the third segment, and apico median triangle, a

very small basi median triangle on the second segment and the suggestion

AprIL 15, 1937 HULL: SYRPHID FLIES 167

of a narrow connecting vita black or blackish. First segment blackish.

Venter the same light brownish color. The whole abdomen subtranslucent.

The pile consists of conspicuous long white appressed tufts in each anterior

angle of the third and fourth segments, and the very long erect surface pile

of the fourth segment. Abdomen everywhere covered with short appressed

black bristles.

Legs dark brown to blackish, black pilose or bristly, except that the tibiae

posteroventrally and the tarsi ventrally are appressed golden pilose. Ex-

treme apices of femora paler in color.

Wings hyaline, except for stigma, with four quite small dark brown spots

on the cross veins in the middle of the wing.

Length 15 mm.

One male. San Martin, Mexico, May 27, 1922 (KE. G. Smyth).

Type in the U. 8. National Museum, No. 51357.

Volucella lunulifera n. sp.

Male.—Eyes densely long blackish pilose, widely touching. The small

vertex swollen, the front and face and cheeks brilliantly vitreus black, a

little silver pubescence beneath the antennae, a small spot of yellowish

brown, triangular in shape near the eye margin of either side just below

the level of the antennae, and a similarly colored narrow stripe dividing

face and cheeks, beginning at the eyes and running to oral margin. Pile of

face, cheeks, occiputal and front pale whitish; of vertex black. The face

does not descend very deeply. It is bluntly obconical and the tubercle is

large, oval and evenly rounded. Antennae dark brown. Arista paler, fifteen

rayed above.

Thorax shining black, in places purplish and bluish opalescent. The

scutellum shining vitreus black with a brassy cast, the marginal depression

deep and conspicuous. Pile of thorax abundant, rather long, upright, pale

brassy, with a few longer slender black hairs intermixed especially before

the scutellum. Scutellum basally and marginally pale, the long marginal

bristles black. Pleurae black, golden pubescent above, pale pilose. Squamae

dark with blackish fringe, halteres pale yellow.

Abdomen shining black with an opalescent cast, with sharply defined

pale yellow basal spots on the second segment, narrowly medially, oval

on its posterior edge, i.e., subtriangular, and prolonged laterally part of

the way down the sides. Third segment with similarly colored very small

spots on anterior corners; fourth with a narrow lateral marginal stripe.

Abdominal pile entirely erect, pale.

Legs shining black, very narrow apices of femora and bases of tibiae and

the tarsi brown.

Wings hyaline, brownish anteriorly and an apical half, cross veins clouded,

the stigma brown and the stigmal cell yellow.

Length 7.5 mm.

One male. Iquitos, Peru, Mar.—Apr. 1931 (R. C. Shannon).

Type in the U.S. National Museum, No. 51355.

Volucella cubomaculata n. sp.

Female.—Eyes very short pale pubescent. Front and vertex shining black,

vitreus. The face and cheeks light clay brown or yellow, in the middle of

the face with a narrow dark brown stripe from oral margin to antennae; a

similar stripe, lighter in color, separating cheeks and face from eye to oral

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

margin, and another between cheeks and occiput. Face rather pointed,

tubercle quite low, evenly rounded, not deeply excavated above. Antennae

light reddish brown, arista darker, twenty-four rayed above.

Side of dorsum of thorax, pleurae, scutellum, except its margin darker,

all light yellowish brown. The dorsum in the middle dark blue black,

opalescent, with coppery lights. Bristles, including those of scutellum where

the apical two are most prominent, and the prescutellar row, all black.

Pile of thorax exceptionally short, of quite appressed, brassy color; on

the pleurae a little longer but similarly colored pile. A few short black

hairs on scutellum. Squamae dark brown with brown fringe; halteres ivory

knobbed.

Abdomen with first segment entirely and basal two-thirds of second pale

subtranslucent yellowish brown. Third and fourth segment each with a pair

of basal yellow spots not reaching the sides, widely separated medially, the

last pair rather cubical in shape, the first pair more irregular in outline.

Elsewhere the abdomen is shining blackish.

Legs dark brownish black, black pilose, all the femora a lighter shade of

brown.

Wings with apical two-fifths grey or smoky, not diagonally marked, the

basal part of the wing yellowish, the stigmal cell brownish grey.

Length 8 mm.

One female. Iquitos, Peru, Mar.—Apr. 1931 (R. C. Shannon).

Type in the U.S. National Museum, No. 51353.

Volucella lumina n. sp.

Female.—Eyes densely pale, short pilose. Front above antennae light

brown, above and on vertex very dark brownish red, a median stripe black,

everywhere shining. Face and anterior part of cheeks pale brownish yellow

or clay yellow, vitreus, a narrow median stripe of reddish brown reaches

from oral margin to antennal base, and a similar stripe separates cheeks

and face and is followed by the same color on the posterior section of the

cheeks. Occiput pale, very pale punctate-pollinose, and its pile pale. Short

pile of front and vertex black and the whole top of the very large obtuse

tubercle densely short black bristly. Face deeply excavated below antennae.

Face short obconical. Antennae dark reddish orange infuscated apically.

Arista pale, thirty-one to thirty-three rayed above.

Thoracic dorsum on the sides light brown, in the center widely black with

a very strong bluish and coppery opalescence. Scutellum light brown,

subtranslucent, opalescent. Pile of thorax short, brassy, subappressed, on

the posterior half mixed with some black pile. Black lateral, scutellar and

prescutellar bristles greatly strengthened and exceptionally long, at least

as long as the scutellum in midline. Squamae pale brown with darker

fringe. Halteres ivory white with brownish stalk. Pleurae brown, densely

clothed in middle with long appressed brassy hairs.

Abdomen shining black with bluish opalescence on the base of the second

segment with a pair of large, sharply graduate yellow, translucent spots,

divided medially by a little less than their own thickness. Abdomen some-

what denuded but with both black and brassy hairs.

Legs everywhere very dark reddish brown appearing practically black,

clothed with jet black bristles and pile. Wings much larger than abdomen,

on outer diagonal half dark brownish; the brown widest posteriorly, the

basal half of wing yellowish; all the veins brown.

ApRIL 15, 1937 HULL: SYRPHID FLIES 169

Length 12 mm.

One female. Ramupasa, Bolivia, December (W. M. Mann) (Mullford

Biological Expedition).

Type in the U. 8S. National Museum, No. 51349.

Microdon aurifacia n. sp.

Male.—Head shining black except on the sides of the face where it is

dark mahogany brown. Face with abundant pale brassy pile directed down-

ward, glittering. Occiput with similar but scanty pile. Vertex and front black

pilose, a few pale hairs above the frontal depression. Antennae very long

and slender, the first joint as long as second and third, the third five times

as long as second. Arista concolorous, shorter than third joint. Eyes scanty,

aes pubescent below. There is a narrow bare vertical non pilose stripe on

the face.

Thorax shining black, the anterior half covered with short appressed pale

brassy pile, very dense and startlingly brilliant from in front. Posterior

half with similarly appressed black pile. Pleurae dark mahogany colored,

black pilose. Scutellum shining black with two very stout black spines, set

fairly wide apart, at outer angles of scutellum, reddish in color, and cloaked

with black pile. Scutellum deeply sulcate medially and about twice as wide

as long in the sulcate midline.

Abdomen shining black, thick short, apically pointed, with flared basal

margins on the second segment, its pile through the middle and on the

lateral margins short appressed, pale, brassy; elsewhere black.

Legs, except the mahogany brown tarsi, entirely black; black bristly ex-

cept on the ventral surface of all the tarsi, where it is golden brown, almost

et Posterior basitarsi flattened but not exceptionally large or thick-

ened.

Wings smoky, especially on the apical half. A stump of a vein protrudes

into the first posterior cell from the third longitudinal vein.

Length 15 mm.

Two males, one female. Itaquaquecetuba, Peru, Nov. 18 and Sept. 20.

The female lacks the pale brassy pile, which is evidently a sexual character.

Type in the U. 8. National Museum, No. 51370.

Allograpta flavomaculata n. sp.

Male.—Related to Sphaerophoria micrura O. 8S. The head bears a wider

stripe of black on the face and front. The slant from oral margin medially

to cheeks and occiput is greater, and the pile of the upper occiput is black

in flavomaculata and white in micrura. Scutellum with a well marked hemi-

_ circle of black in the center. The scutellum of micrura is entirely pale. How-

ever, there are differences in the markings of the abdomen which are here

described.

First segment with a very small yellow spot in the anterior basal corners

of the segment. Second with a narrowly interrupted band in the middle of

the segment, the band reaching the side margins, the median interruption

short, that is, the inner ends of each spot, drawn out and tapering to an

abrupt point. Third segment with a similar band, not interrupted, widest

just back of lateral margin, the median area pointed sharply above and

below, as if the band had been interrupted and bridged by a small oval

longitudinal spot. Fourth segment with a still wider band practically as

thick in the middle as near the sides. The outer third of this and the pre-

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

ceding band is directed posteriorward at an angle of forty-five degrees.

Last segment with four small yellow spots, the inner pair sub-triangular,

the right angle basal and medial.

Length 9 mm.

One male. Bogota, Colombia (B. Guevara, coll.)

Type in the U. 8. National Museum, No. 51375.

Meromacrus vittata n. sp.

Female.—Vertex, middle stripe of front, shining black, the sides of the

front long, yellow tomentose, the shining black face and cheeks obscured by

pale whitish pollen, and long white pile. Occiput silvery pollinose, pale pilose.

A few black hairs on vertex. Eyes bare. Antennae reddish brown, the

dorsal edge of third joint blackish. The arista pale yellow with brownish tip.

Thorax obscurely shining black, with three very sharp continuous greyish

yellow vittae, confluent just before the scutellum, and another on either

side on the posterior half which does not reach beyond the suture. On the

outer edge of the suture, and on the humeri, a conspicuous tuft of bright

yellow tomentum. Pile of thorax and scutellum long, dense and yellow,

the ground color of the latter pale brownish yellow subtranslucent. Squamae

and halteres pale brownish yellow, the latter with a dark annulus on the

stalk.

Abdomen shining black, metallic, the first segment grey dusted in the

middle. The second third, fourth and fifth segments with narrow opaque

yellow posterior margins, and the fourth post marginally with a reddish

brown border or spot, not reaching the sides. Pile of abdomen extraordinarily

appressed, except on the side margins, all pale in color. Legs entirely light

reddish orange, pale pilose, the only black vestiture being the basi-spinules

on the hind femora.

Wings hyaline; anterior margin pale brownish, the extreme base strongly

orange brown.

Length 10.5 mm.

One female. Villa Nouges, Tug., Jan. 1929 (R. A.).

Type in the U.S. National Museum, No. 51953.

Meromacrus lineascripta n. sp.

Male.—Eyes bare, narrowly touching. Vertex raised and swollen. Ground

color of head, except beneath facial stripe, shining black, the lower vertex,

very narrow sides of front, and the face broadly, except for the wide bare

middle stripe, and the cheeks narrowly along the posterior eye margins, all

pale whitish pubescent or pollinose. The pile of the vertex is black. Else-

where on the face it is snow white. Antennae dark greyish brown, the third

joint but little longer than wide, the arista wholly pale yellow.

Thorax black, obscurely shining, a very narrow midline pale yellow

pubescent, and a very narrow transverse band widely separated medially

and not reaching either side, a continuous, slightly wider prescutellar band,

covering calli and scarcely wider in the midline. A diagonal stripe runs from

base of suture along inner edge of humerus, to extreme anterior thoracic

margin, all pale yellow tomentose, almost white. Humeri bare. Scutellum

blackish basally and on the sides, otherwise reddish, everywhere like the

thoracic dorsum, thick, appressed short black bristly. Pleurae black, heavily

whitish dusted. Squamae pale with darker fringe. Halteres cream colored.

Abdomen largely pale orange, the first segment, the base of the second

AprRIL 15, 1937 HULL: SYRPHID FLIES 171

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Fig. 1.—Eristalis flavoscutellata n. sp. (termination of abdomen). Fig. 2.—

Eristalis brevillosa n. sp. (termination of abdomen). Fig. 3.—Nauszgaster nausicaa

n. sp. (thorax). Fig. 4.—#ristalis brevillosa n. sp. (hind femora). Fig. 5.—Volucella

cubomaculata n. sp. (abdomen). Fig. 6.—Volucella punctigena n. sp. (abdomen and

scutellum). Fig. 7—Hristalis flavoscutellata n. sp. (hind femora). Fig. 8.—Volucella

lumina n. sp. (abdomen and scutellum). Fig. 9—Braziliana vittithoraz n. sp. (front

view of face). Fig. 10—Meromacrus lineascripta n. sp. (dorsum of thorax and

abdomen).

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

narrowly blackish. Hypogium reddish, pale dusted. The narrow posterior

margins of the second, third, and fourth segments faintly shining cream

color, bare. The apex of the first segment bordered conspicuously with the

pale cream colored tomentum, but not reaching the sides. Outer third of

second segment basally with long black hair extraordinarily appressed

directed posteriorward. Remainder with many appressed short golden

spinules. Pollen of hypopygium ripple-like.

All the femora thick, the hind ones extraordinarily so, the thickening of

all largely basal, on the third pair flattened ventrally. Legs light brownish

red, the femora darker basally, all the femora basiventrally and the last

sternite with remarkably curious tufts of thick, very long, crinkly whitish

pile.

Wings with anterior border brown, the costal cell yellowish.

Length 12 mm.

One male. Ivon Beni, Bolivia (W. M. Mann) (Mullford Biol. Expedition,

1921-1922).

Type in U. 8. National Museum, No. 51371.

Nausigaster nausicaa n. sp.

Female.—Eyes bare. The raised and swollen front, the square area about

the base of the antennae, a very narrow median line bisecting the golden

pollinose area between the square spot and the vertex, the wide median

facial vitta, and a narrow one on the cheeks from eye to oral margin, all

shining steel blue. The remainder of cheeks and face, including a band

below antennae, the entire occiput except just behind vertex, densely yellow

pubescent (pilose) and short pale pilose. The blue area above antennae with

a few pale hairs, the remainder bare. Antennae quite large, the third joint

twice as wide and twice as long as the second, all bright brownish orange.

Arista bare, brownish.

Thorax brilliant steel blue, slightly purplish, with four conspicuous wide

stripes or vittae of pale pollen, the outer one not interrupted at the suture,

all running the full length of the thorax, the angles before the suture on

either side with a yellow pollinose area and the stripe enclosed by the outer

and inner pollinose vittae on either side is a rich brassy color with just a

suggestion of bronze. Clothing of thorax ultra microscopic, black on the

dark areas, light on the vittae. Pleurae and scutellum entirely bright steel

blue. Squamae pale; halteres yellow.

Abdomen largely dark steel blue, obscurely shining. The first segment

and base of second dusted with whitish. The narrow posterior borders of

second, and third each continuing narrowly along the side margins, the

posterior margin of the fourth more widely, triangularly produced medially

as a large spot, all bright golden pubescent. Abdomen everywhere micro-

scopically short black bristly.

Legs largely very dark reddish brown, the femora apically, the tibiae

basally, more blackish, all covered with pale short appressed pile, except

where it becomes golden on the posterior tarsi ventrically.

Wings clear hyaline. Stigma brown.

Length 7.5 mm.

One female. Montevideo, Uruguay (Tremoleras) Dec. 20, 1930. (Penarol).

A remarkable and beautiful species.

Type in the U. S. National Museum, No. 51369.

APRIL 15, 1937 HULL: SYRPHID FLIES 173

Eristalis flavoscutellata n. sp.

Female—Very close to E. obscurus. Front and vertex with black and

yellow pile mixed, the former predominating. Face shining black, its pile

pale. Facial knob prominent and bare. Antennae light brownish orange,

dorsally blackish on the third joint. Arista reddish throughout, quite long

and bare. Eyes very short whitish pilose.

Thorax and pleurae black, dully shining with long reddish yellow pile.

Scutellum light brownish orange, with thick but rather short golden pile.

Abdomen large, swollen, shining black, the second segment on either

side with obscure reddish, shining spots and suggestions of similar ones, but

smaller, similarly placed on the third segment. Narrow posterior margins

of second, third and fourth segments opaque pale yellow. Pile of second seg-

ments short, black and yellow intermixed; on third segment black; on fourth

segment, except on the narrow base, entirely pale and erect. Only the black

pile subappressed.

Legs with black femora, apices narrowly pale, the mid tibiae reddish, all

the tarsi bright orange, orange pilose. Hind femora quite thick, shining

black, with a few long pale bristles beneath and shorter thick erect black

ones above. The hind tibiae black, with a dense dorsal (ventral when tibiae

is adjacent to femora) fringe of black cilia.

Wings hyaline with a conspicuous quadrate brown spot in the middle.

Length 10.5 mm.

One female. Hiquito, San Mateo, Costa Rico (Pablo Schild).

Type in the U.S. National Museum, No. 51363.

Eristalis brevivillosa n. sp.

Female.—Vertex and front considerably swollen. The ground color is

obscurely shining, dark brown above, becoming quite pale brownish yellow

below on face. Front, vertex, face almost entirely covered with pale brown-

ish yellow pollen, slightly darker on vertex, almost golden on the face, and

obscurely punctate on the front. The antennae are small, set below the

middle of the profile, and from base to vertex the front is thickly short black

pilose. The eyes are very short yellow pubescent above, and there is some

brassy pile on the upper part of the face. Tubercle medium sized, slightly

more shining. Occiput from just past cheeks nearly to vertex is blackish,

white dusted. The upper occiput exhibits a creased margin running to the

corners of the eyes. Antennae pale brownish orange, the third joint oval.

One and one-half times as long as wide. Arista pale, long, slender, bare.

Thorax black, dully shining, densely brown pollinose, two or three short

median vittae are suggested but obscure on the anterior half; pile thick,

short, nearly erect, brassy in color, becoming reddish on the lateral margins

of the dorsum where the ground color is reddish brown. Pleurae black, whit-

ish dusted, with tufts of long golden hairs on the upper mesopleurae.

Scutellum large, broad, evenly rounded. Opaque rust red or rust yellow,

its dorsum thickly beset with stubby black bristly hairs, a few golden ones

laterally and ventrally on the margin. Squamae very large, reddish brown,

its fringe yellow; halteres light yellow.

Abdomen very dark brown almost, but not quite black; mostly opaque,

but with a shining jet black band interrupted medially on the middle of

the third segment; a similar maculation on the fourth, both reaching the

lateral margin, and both shaped somewhat on their inner ends as exclama-

tion marks, the lateral tips of which are also dilated. Second segment with

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

a pair of small obscure reddish spots. First segment basally, on either side,

pale yellowish white. Fifth segment shining black in posterior half, basally

with a pair of small quadrate golden pilose spots, and similar ones more

irregular in outline, similarly placed on the fourth segment.

Legs largely dark vitreus reddish, mahogany colored on posterior femora,

the narrow apices of the face and mid femora, the bases of all the tibiae the

first four more widely, pale yellowish. The tarsi are a lighter shade of dull

yellowish brown. Hind femora not greatly thickened, but widest for a short

distance before apex and sharply enlarged from this end. Hind tibiae

flattened, slightly arcuated, but not ciliary fringed and not spurred apically.

Wings almost hyaline, yellowish tinged. Stigma sharply dark brown in

color.

Length 10.5 mm.

One female. Lima, Peru, 2000+ ft. (Piches and Perene) Soc. Geogade.

Type in the U. S. National Museum, No. 51364.

Eristalis flavovillosa n. sp.

Male.—Eyes touching. The swollen vertex, front, face and cheeks black,

the latter shining, the facial knob slightly shining, the remainder densely

whitish grey pubescent. Facial tubercle rounded, low, inconspicuous. An-

tennae dark brown, the narrow base of the third segment light brown. Arista

very long, thickened on basal third, brown in color, pale apically, and bare.

Vertex, upper occiput, front and upper face covered with thick long shaggy,

bright yellow pile. Eyes densely short whitish pilose.

Thorax black, obscurely shining, densely brown pollinose and very densely

long shaggy yellow pilose, the pile erect, plush-like, bright in color, but

nowhere golden. Scutellum similarly pilose, in color pale brownish yellow,

obscurely shining. Squamae and fringe and halteres light brown.

Abdomen black, obscurely shining. On the second segment with a bluish

coat, the sides of that segment in the middle with a light yellow spot or

triangle, its posterior border horizontal, its inner angle acute. Posterior

margins of first, second, third and fourth segment narrowly opaque yellow,

the bases of the third and fourth and the yellow posterior margin of the

fourth with a yellowish grey opaque band, equally narrow, all of them

uninterrupted. With the exception of half a dozen long black bristles on

either side of posterior margin of fourth segment, the pile is everywhere

erect, very long, very dense, bright yellow. The pile of the venter is still

longer, and paler.

Femora, except the narrow yellowish brown apices, shining black, about

the middle brown pollinose. The hinder pair moderately thickened. Fore

tibiae on apical half, mid tibiae on apical sixth, hind tibiae on apical three-

fifths, blackish, remainder light brownish yellow, everywhere yellow pilose,

except on the apical half of the hinder pair, which is black ciliated below.

Hinder tibiae somewhat arcuated and flattened. All the tarsi brown, the

hind tarsi lighter, the other dark. Pile of femora yellow. Hind femora apico-

ventrally with long black bristles.

Wings largely hyaline, faintly brownish, especially about the center.

Length 14 mm.

Two males. Suifu, Szechuan, China (D. C. Graham, coll.).

Type in the U.S. National Museum, No. 51952.

Spheginobaccha melancholia n. sp.

Female.—Head shining black, the sides of the face, the cheeks, the narrow

lateral eye margins of the front up to where a transverse band is formed in

APRIL 15, 1937 HULL: SYRPHID FLIES 175

the depression, all shining silver pubescent. The vertex and front especially

the former, remarkably swollen and tumid, evenly rounded, the eyes at

the posterior angles widely excavated so that the occiput is here quite thick.

Antennae situated at upper two-thirds, without prominence, the third joint

dark brown, a little longer than the first two evenly rounded and bearing a

black bare, basally thickened arista. Pile of head scanty, short, everywhere

pale except on the vertex. Ocelli placed far forward.

Thorax black, obscurely shining, with short dense reddish brown pubes-

cence, and suggestions of two quite narrow vittae, and an equally narrow

trace of a horizontal band across the suture and not interrupted in the

middle. Scutellum and pleurae similarly colored and pubescent, the latter

on the lower pleurae whitish. Squamae pale yellow; halteres light brown.

Abdomen black, shining, shorter than wings, with a pale obscure yellow

spot of some size on either side of the second segment near the base. Pile

of the abdomen largely pale. Some appressed black bristles on posterior

borders of the segments.

Legs, black, the femora very narrowly at the apices, the basal halves of

all the tibiae pale yellow. Hind femora slender.

Wings uniformly dark blackish or fumose, slightly paler posteriorly.

Wings everywhere black pubescent.

Length about 15 mm.

Two females. Prang Bon, 30 mi. N. W. of Saigon, Cochin China, July 19,

1932, (M. Piolane, coll.).

Type in the U.S. National Museum, No. 51372; paratype in the author’s

collection. ,

Korinchia nova n. sp.

Female.—Vertex and front, except just above antennae, black, shining

the upper portion of the latter pollinose (greasy in the specimen) and the

extreme lower front shining brown. Face and cheeks light yellowish brown,

interrupted by a shining dark brown stripe on the anterior portion of the

cheeks from eye margin to oral margin. Antennae dark brown. Third joint

oval, one and a half times as long as wide, unusually large. Arista very long,

bare, basally yellowish, apically white. Eyes bare. The ocelli are situated

on a raised area and the width of the vertex is less than the width of the third

antennal joint.

Thorax black, obscurely shining, a band across from the humeri, jutting

a little way posteriorly in the middle, another band on the sutures, inter-

rupted widely in the middle, and a prescutellar band, pale yellowish grey

pollinose. Scutellum tricolored, the narrow impressed rim pale greyish

yellow, the middle light brown, the base black, all except the rim shining.

Pile of thorax and scutellum short, rather thick, brassy in. color, slightly

longer before the scutellum, and still longer on the margin of the scutellum

and with curious tufts of long flattened golden pile on the sides of pos-

terior thoracic disk and calli, directed backward. Pleurae dark brown,

largely bare, with a vertical stripe of pale pollen, pale pilose up the middle.

Squamae whitish with yellow border. Halteres brownish yellow.

Abdomen black, obscurely shining, the lateral margins everywhere nar-

rowly reddish and a triangular spot on the basal angles of the second segment

narrowly meeting medially. The short dense bristles of the abdomen ap-

pressed, black on the black areas except that the basal borders of each seg-

ment are narrowly golden bristly. All segments including the first, with a

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 4

narrow posterior, opaque yellow pollinose border, golden appressed bristly.

Side margin of abdomen with short brassy pile.

Legs largely pale yellow, waxy in appearance, except fore tarsi and tibiae

blackish, the latter with postero-lateral hemicircle of pale yellow in the

middle. Pile of legs short, largely pale. The hind femora apically, particu-

larly beneath, black bristly, a few black bristles on the posterior tarsi, the

anterior pair entirely so. Hind femora slightly infuscated postero-medially,

quite slender, without tooth or spicules.

Wings nearly hyaline slightly yellowish basally. Stigma pale yellow.

Length 12 mm.

One female. Ningyuenfu, China (D. C. Graham, coll.).

Type in the U.S. National Museum, No. 51360.

Braziliana vittithorax n. sp.

Female.—Vertex quite swollen, brilliant shining metallic steel blue. Ocelli

bright red. Eyes widely apart, bare. Whole face, where not pollinose, shining

steel blue, glittering. The pollinose band of the face is ripple-like with large

bare punctate spots, the outer margin of the metallic stripe coppery. Front

across the middle black pollinose, trimaculate, leaving along each eye

margin above and below the antennae, three whitish semi-oval pollinose

spots. A conspicuous depression or trough transversely before scutellum.

Facial pile pale. Vertical and upper frontal pile black, everywhere scanty.

Antennae light brownish, blackish apically. First joint as long or longer than

second and third; third pointed. Arista a little longer than third joint,

basally pale.

Thorax opaque black trivittate, the outer vittae as broad wedges directed

acutely backward, not proceeding past the suture anteriorly; the median one

narrow, running full length; all three vittae confluent before the scutellum.

Ground color on mid-dorsum steel blue, shining, whitish dusted anteriorly

and around the shining anterior thoracic tubercle. Pleurae silver dusted

except on the totally bare and brilliant pteropleurae (anterior part only).

Scutellum shining metallic blackish. Squamae white with blackish border.

Halteres brownish yellow.

Abdomen brownish black, a pair of oval, yellowish spots, pointed at

either end, diagonally placed on the third segment, touching only the basal

margin and widely separated. Suggestions of similar spots on the fourth and

fifth segments which cannot be made out very definitely. Abdominal pile

very short, scanty, pale.

Legs pale brownish yellow, the mid-femora, except narrow apex, the apical

two-thirds of slightly thickened hind femora, and distal posterior tarsi

blackish.

Wings hyaline, stigma brown.

Length 8 mm.

One female. Antigua, Guatemala, June 17, 1923 (E. G. Smyth).

Type in the U.S. N. M. No. 51376.

Aprit 15, 1937 OBITUARY 17

@Obituary

WitiiaAM Magsor Braman, Chief of Inspection and Editing of the Topo-

graphic Branch of the U. 8. Geological Survey, died at his home in Wash-

ington, March 2, 1937. He was born February 20, 1867, at which time his

father, the late Rear Admiral George Beaman, was stationed at Annapolis.

After making a special study of Civil Engineering and Topographic En-

gineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he joined the U. S.

Geological Survey in 1889 and was in charge of topographic field parties

until he became inspector of field work, in 1907. With the exception of a

furlough in 1922 for duty with the War Department, in Brazil, this position

was held until the World War during which he served as major in the Corps

of Engineers. In 1918 he was appointed to the position he held at the time

of his death.

Major Beaman was-the inventor of the Beaman arc used on telescopic

alidades and transits and was author of the chapter of the Topographic

Instructions of the Survey on topographic mapping used widely in colleges.

He was a member of the Board of Surveys and Maps of the Federal Govern-

ment, the American Society of Civil Engineers, the Society of American

Military Engineers, the Washington Society of Engineers and the Washing-

ton Academy of Sciences.

CLARENCE BLOOMFIELD Moors, noted American archeologist, died March

24, 1936, at his home in Philadelphia, Pa.

He was born in Philadelphia, January 14, 1852. After graduating from

Harvard University in 1873, he traveled extensively in Eurasia, Africa and

South America. His earliest published article described the ruined temple

of Boro-Budur, in Java, then little known. An accident, while hunting big

game, injured his eyesight and he turned to exploration of the mound cul-

tures of the Southern States. His first work, on the shell heaps of the St.

Johns River, Florida, appeared in the American Naturalist, 1892-1894. From

then on two expeditions were made each year, with the summers devoted

to preparation of the ‘‘Reports,’’ which were published at Mr. Moore’s ex-

pense in the Journal of The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia and

freely distributed to the scientific world. One volume, privately printed,

has been republished in Indian Notes and Monographs by the Heye Founda-

tion.

In 1915, Mr. Moore graciously surrendered to the Heye Foundation all

surveys and prospect data, prepared for his own further exploration of Red

River, the gift thus making possible the work of M. R. Harrington on Cad-

doan Sites in Arkansas. Generous gifts of archeological objects, from time

to time, enriched the collections of Peabody Museum at Harvard University,

Phillips Academy, and other institutions, but the great C. B. Moore Collec-

tion was given to The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for the

benefit of his native city. In 1929, with the reluctant consent of the donor,

the Academy sold the collection to the Museum of the American Indian,

Heye Foundation. The great body of material amassed in Mr. Moore’s col-

lection and accurately recorded in the twenty-two volumes of the ‘Re-

ports” is an indispensable source of information and an inspiration to all

archeologists working in the southeastern United States.

Mr. Moore was a member of the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science, the Anthropological Association, and many other American

and foreign societies.

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 4

Reverend Jutius ARTHUR NIEUWLAND, of the Congregation of the

Holy Cross, died suddenly of a heart attack in the chemical laboratory of

the Catholic University, Washington, D. C., on June 11, 1936.

Father Nieuwland was born on February 14, 1878, at Hansbeke, Belgium.

While still a child, he was brought by his parents to this country, the

family settling in South Bend, Ind. He received his A.B. in 1899 at the

University of Notre Dame.

Father Nieuwland won distinction in two fields of science—biology and

chemistry. In the latter his work was more recent and was perhaps more

widely known, but, as Professor of Botany at the University of Notre Dame

from 1904-1918, as the founder and first editor of the American Midland

Naturalist, and as the author of about a hundred papers on the taxonomy

of flowering plants and ferns his reputation as a botanist was well estab-

lished. In 1918, Doctor Nieuwland became Professor of Organic Chemistry

at the University of Notre Dame and was serving in that capacity at the

time of his death. He was Dean of the College of Science, 1918-1922. Doctor

Nieuwland’s chemical studies were devoted largely to an extension of the

work involved in the Doctor’s dissertation entitled Some reactions of

acetylene, which he had submitted in 1904 to the Faculty of the Catholic

University of America. During eighteen years of chemical research he worked

indefatigably and became an outstanding authority on the reactions of

acetylene, the preparation of organic derivatives of acetylene and of other

related compounds. These studies included the fundamental researches

underlying the synthesis of duprene, one of the so-called synthetic rubbers;

and the preliminary steps leading to the preparation of lewisite. As already

noted, Father Nieuwland received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from

the Catholic University in 1904. The degree, Doctor of Science, was con-

ferred upon him by the University of Notre Dame in 1911. In 1933 he was

awarded the Morehead medal by the International Acetylene Association

for outstanding work in acetylenes, and in 1935 was awarded the Nichols

medal, the highest honor awarded by the American Chemical Society. At

the presentation of the latter medal, Dr. J. M. Weiss, chairman of the

jury of award, pointed out that Father Nieuwland at the risk of his own life

had experimented with acetylene reactions—research shunned by most

investigators because of the danger of. explosion—until he so controlled

these reactions that they could be studied in general laboratory work with

comparative safety. In recognition of his achievements in the advancement

of science he was awarded the Gregor Mendel medal by Villanova College a

short time before his death.

On January 10, 1937, the University of Notre Dame held special memorial

services in honor of her distinguished son and scientist.

Ex.invu THomson, noted electrical engineer and director of the Thomson

Research Laboratory at Lynn, Mass., died March 13, 1937.

Doctor Thomson was born at Manchester, England, March 29, 1853. He

graduated from Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa., in 1870. In 1890 he

received an honorary A.M. from Yale; an honorary Ph.D., Tufts College,

1896; an honorary Sc.D., Harvard, 1909, Manchester, 1924; and a LL.D.

from the University of Pennsylvania, 1924.

From 1870 to 1880 he was professor of chemistry at Central High School,

Philadelphia, and from 1880 he was electrician for the Thomson-Houston

and General Electric Companies. At the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-

nology he lectured on applied electricity, and from 1920 to 1922 was acting

Apri. 15, 1937 OBITUARY 179

president of that institution. His researches and publications deal with the

phenomena of alternating current induction, high potentials and high fre-

quency apparatus, production of fused quartz, electric welding, and many

other phases of applied electricity. For his great accomplishments he was

honored with the Grand Prix, Paris, 1889-1900, and in succeeding years

he was the recipient of the Scott, Rumford, Edison, Cresson, Fritz, Hughes,

Kelvin, Franklin, and Faraday medals.

Doctor Thomson was a member of the National Academy, Franklin Insti-

tute, Philosophical Society, American Academy, and of numerous other

American and foreign societies. He was a Chevalier and Officer, Legion

d’honneur.

Dr. WiLtLiAM ALANSON WuiTtTs, for the past thirty-four years Superin-

tendent of St. Elizabeth’s Hospital and for many years a member of the

Washington Academy of Sciences, died of influenza and pneumonia on

Sunday, March 7, 1937, in his home at the institution of which he was the

distinguished head.

Dr. White was born in Brooklyn, N. Y., January 24, 1870, the son of

Alanson and Harriet Augusta White. He was graduated from Cornell Uni-

versity in 1889 and two years later received his M.D. degree from Long

Island Medical College. While a student at Cornell, Dr. White’s interest in

psychology was aroused and fostered by his friendship with Dr. Bert G.

Wilder, an eminent authority on the nervous system. This special interest

in the human mind and its disorders led logically to the first professional

work at the New York State Hospital at Binghamton, where he labored

from 1892, the year after his graduation in medicine, until 1903. In that

year, having become Second Assistant Superintendent of the Binghamton

institution, he was called to assume full charge of St. Elizabeth’s Hospital at

Washington, D. C.

Nothing could more strikingly portray the exalted stature of Dr. White,

both as administrator and as scientist, than the transformation of St.

Elizabeth’s Hospital during his life there. Coming as a young man of thirty-

three years to assume charge of an institution long a football of politics and

needing to rely exclusively upon politically controlled resources and per-

sonnel, he effected the necessary change of regime, rehabilitated and

enormously extended its physical equipment, and made it a place of beauty

and comfort. He sustained opposition and criticism, weathered the storms

of transition, and survived accusations leading to numerous congressional

investigations. Himself a leading factor in the renaissance of psychiatry, he

was a pioneer in the practical application of the developing resources in that

field until the old Government Hospital for the Insane, a mere custodial

asylum for the hopeless, became one of the greatest institutions for the care

and cure of the mentally ill, a training ground for many brilliant recruits to

the psychiatric profession, and a research center of rich fruitfulness.

Dr. White’s contributions to the literature of psychology and psychiatry

were numerous and came in a steady stream throughout his professional life.

Much of his earlier writing was in collaboration with Dr. Smith Ely Jelliffe,

the volume on Diseases of the nervous system bearing both names. They

were also associated in editing journals of psychology and psychiatry.

One of the most important of Dr. White’s books is An outline of psychology,

written in 1909, and now in its fourteenth edition. His latest volume,

Twentieth century psychology, was based on the material for the series of

Salmon lectures he delivered before the New York Academy of Medicine.

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 27, NO. 4

Dr. White became Professor of Psychiatry at George Washington Uni-

versity in 1904 and taught the same subject to the students of the Army and

Navy Medical Schools. He was a teacher wherever he appeared and his

frequent contributions to the program of medical societies constituted a

continuous post-graduate school for his professional associates. These ac-

tivities led to recognition in the educational field by honorary degrees con-

ferred upon him by Boston University, Washington University (St. Louis),

Georgetown University, and George Washington University, the last at the

convocation held February 22 of this year.

Dr. White was a Fellow of the American Medical Association and of the

American College of Physicians; a member and former president of the

American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychopathological Asso-

ciation, the American Psychoanalytical Association; also president (1930)

of the International Congress on Mental Hygiene; sometime president of

the Washington Institute of Mental Hygiene and of the Washington Acad-

emy of Medicine. His membership in the Washington Academy of Sciences

resulted in several notable addresses before that body.

CONTENTS

GroLoey.—Sun symbol markings. Water B. Lana....... a3 ae tr

“hota

Borany.—New species of Paspalum from ber: America, A an Ei ay 4

CHASH 3.2.08. PPM, oY ae 5 piu Ca iee perae e

Zoo.ocy.—North American monogenetic trematodes. I. The e

family Gyrodactyloidea. Emmutr W. Pricy.................

ENTOMOLOGY.—Some neotropical and silaatal d flies in

United States National Museum. Frank M. Hout........ . fe

OprruaRigs: Witt1amM Masor BraMAN, CLARENCE BLOOMFIELI D

Moorz, Juuius ArtHuR NigsuwLanp, Exisu Txomso |

Wituiam ALANSON Won.

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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JOURNAL

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VoL. 27 May hosts? No. 5

GEOPH YSICS.—Structure of continents and ocean basins.1. RicHARD

M. Frevp, Princeton University. (Communicated by Joun A.

FLEMING. )

While I consider it an honor, as well as a pleasure, to be asked to

address the Philosophical Society of Washington on this most com-

prehensive subject, I hasten to assure you that I am fully aware of

the difficulties of the task, not the least of which are my own in-

abilities to do full justice to so fundamental and important a problem.

Perhaps my principal excuse is that I have had an excellent oppor-

tunity to observe the work of my colleagues in geological-geophysical

synthesis during the past decade at fairly close range; by that I mean

particularly the advantage of taking part in the inception, planning,

and execution of several cooperative research programs and expedi-

tions which are directly related to the topic assigned to me for this

evening. On the other hand, I do not propose to stress any particular

hypothesis as to the origin of continents and ocean basins, but rather

to submit to you a historical review of the data and, more particu-

larly, the lack of data which have led geophysicists and geologists to

propose certain working hypotheses; for it seems to me that such a

review is highly essential at a time when there appears to be a sudden

and rapidly increasing cooperation between geophysicists and struc-

tural geologists in the attempt to discover the major structures of the

lithosphere. There is still, however, some danger that full cooperation

may be delayed by misapprehensions as to the proper relative func-

tions of the geophysicist and the geologist in their specific fields.

With the recent development of theoretical geophysics, certain

questions have been posed which, although of some theoretical in-

terest, are not highly methodological. Granted that the theoretical

geophysicist has the realm of the sublithic portion of the earth prac-

tically to himself, the same does not hold true for the so-called

“crust,” or outer lithosphere. Too often the theoretical geophysicist

implies that rocks are merely, physical-chemical types of matter,

1 Address before the Philosophical Society of Washington, January 30, 1937.

Received February 13, 1937.

181

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 5

without paying any particular attention to the essential, natural

structural controls of their origins. For a seismologist to state that

a certain layer or zone of the earth “‘behaves like a granite’’ does not

necessarily lead to the conclusion that it is granite. Or, to put it in

another way, if the surface of the suboceanic lithosphere should be

proved to have large areas of granite, the geologist would know that

these areas represented the roots of profoundly eroded mountain

ranges; possibly an ancient pre-Cambrian erosion surface. To the

geologist, therefore, a granite ‘“‘outcrop”’ suggests a long and com-

plicated structural-erosional (geomorphological), as well as petrologi-

cal-chemical, history.

The function of the geophysicist is to adapt the principles and

techniques of physics and physical chemistry to the solution of geo-

detic and geological problems. The function of the geologist is to

demonstrate what the major structural geological problems are

which, in his estimation, particularly require the aid of the geo-

physicist; and to help the geophysicist interpret the data which he

provides. In making this statement I do not wish to imply that geo-

physics should be merely the handmaiden of geology, and I certainly

do not wish to imply that geophysics should be the mistress of any

pet geological hypothesis. An exceedingly close and sympathetic

union is, however, absolutely essential if we are to realize the full

potentialities in earth science. The geophysicist, as this title implies,

is deeply concerned with the developments of his techniques, includ-

ing those “border line problems” which require the help of the theo-

retical and experimental physicist. In a sense, he bridges the gap

between the physicist and the geologist. He also has the advantage

over the geologist, in that the application of his techniques to the

study of materials is subject to relatively accurate and rigid analysis;

and he comes nearer to what we might term the mathematical type

of scientist. On the other hand, the geologist, by means of his tech-

niques, is able to produce certain fundamental observable data re-

garding a relatively small quantity of the lithosphere. In almost

every case, the broad areal, as well as the downward continuity, of

his major structures can not be directly observed, and, therefore,

must be inferred from their traces and trends as exposed in the ele-

vated and dissected areas of the continents. Progress in the study of

the lithosphere is seriously retarded when the geologist fails to take

full advantage of the techniques and data provided by the geophysi-

cist; or, when the geophysicist, in his more deep-seated studies and

speculations, fails to appreciate the important surficial data which

May 15, 1937 FIELD: CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 183

have already been provided by the geologist. Further, many geolo-

gists do not yet seem to fully realize the essential aid which the geo-

physicists can render in greatly extending the area, as well as the

depth, of geological surveys. This statement applies particularly to

approximately five-sevenths of the surface of the globe, which, at the

present geological “‘instant,”’ is covered by water and ice. Naturally,

until the last decade, the geologist has had to confine his studies to

the continental lithosphere, and in these studies he has relatively

recently been greatly aided by the geophysicist. In no branch of

earth science has this union of geophysics and structural geology

been more effective from the scientific, as well as the economic, point

of view than in the locations of ore deposits and oil wells. Those really

responsible for the development of the mineral resources of our

country have clearly demonstrated the importance of including geo-

physics as an essential technique in geological surveys.

But what I wish to emphasize particularly this evening is: (1) The

outstanding influence which that great terra incognita, the suboceanic

lithosphere, has had on geologic speculation as a whole; (2) upon

what meager data this influence depends; and (8) the future role of

the geophysicist in helping to provide the data. Since such great

responsibility rests upon the geologists, it would indeed be unfortu-

nate if archaic or unnecessary geological hypotheses were to hinder

or delude the geophysicist in the application of his talents and meth-

ods. As we all know, the principal values of a hypothesis, as well as a

theory, are the trends which it suggests for further research; the

major difference between a crank and a scientist is that the latter

insists upon a ‘‘working hypothesis’—one that still further stimu-

lates the critical application of old and the development of new tech-

niques. But we must remember that even geologists are human, and,

once having originated or espoused a hypothesis, they are apt to

defend it beyond the point where it helps to promote fundamental

research.

One hundred years ago, Ehrenberg noted that the calcareous and

siliceous tests of microscopic organisms found in deep sea deposits

also played an important rdle in the formation of continental de-

posits. By 1870 most geologists were firmly convinced that the British

Cretaceous chalks, limestones, and also the glauconitic and radio-

larian deposits, such as those of eastern North America and the San

Franciscan area, were originally deposited in oceanic depths. It is

important to note that C. E. Dutton gave his important paper on

The causes of regional elevation and subsidence before the American

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

Philosophical Society in the spring of 1871. In the spring of 1889,

I believe in this very room, Dutton first proposed the theory of isos-

tasy to account for the gradually reversed reliefs of relatively con-

tiguous areas of the face of the earth. It is also important to note

that Dutton was primarily a geologist, with only scanty geodetic

data at his command, and it was not until Hayford, Pratt, Airy,

Bowie, and others had continued the investigation of Dutton’s ‘‘work-

ing hypothesis’ by means of the available, gradually increasing, num-

ber of geodetic and gravity data that the theory of isostasy may be

said to have become a major geophysical-geological hypothesis. The

father of the hypothesis was, however, a geologist, not a geophysicist.

It is rather surprising how little attention structural geologists paid

to the idea of isostasy, with the exception of a few such as Barrell and

Lawson, until about twenty-five years ago, when, first in Europe,

and then gradually in the United States, the concept of low angle

overthrusts, nappes, and relatively great horizontal translocations of

the lithosphere, as exemplified in the Scottish Highlands and the Alps,

appeared to be in sharp contrast to isostatic principles. During the

past twenty years, it has been this battle between the present cham-

pion of isostasy, Dr. Bowie, and many of the leading structural geolo-

gists of Europe and America, which has served to illustrate the

growing importance of the application of pendulum gravity to the

solution of major problems in structural geology, as particularly

exemplified by the recent studies of Meinesz, Thom, Bucher, Cham-

berlin, and Longwell.

But, to return to the purely sedimentary, or stratigraphic, aspect

of the problem. Gradually, within the last fifty years, paleontologists

and stratigraphers have acquired the data which proves that the

bulk, if not practically all, of the continental sedimentary formations,

including limestones, were laid down in relatively shallow water—

certainly not in oceanic depths; and thus quite independent of, and,

to a certain extent, in spite of other data, arose the concept of the

relative permanency of oceanic basins and continental platforms

throughout geologic time. This statement is particularly true in rela-

tion to the Atlantic oceanic basin and its continental margins. A grow-

ing appreciation of the major relief pattern of the face of the earth,

together with relatively meager geological and geophysical data con-

cerning ocean basins, seemed to indicate, according to J. W. Gregory,

that the said major relief pattern had ‘‘been shaped and distributed

in accordance with some ancient, deep-based plan.’’ In 1887 W. L.

Green proposed his Tetrahedral Hypothesis, under the title of Ves-

May 15, 1937 FIELD: CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 185

tiges of the molten globe, in order to explain the origin and persistency

of continental platforms and oceanic basins. This essentially con-

tractional hypothesis, founded on the apparent similarity between

the relief pattern of the globe and the geometric principles involved

in the gradual evolution of a spherical tetrahedron from an original

spheroid, was accepted by many of the leading geologists of his time,

and is still included in Hobbs’ 1931 edition of Earth features and their

meaning. I shall not attempt to summarize the many and serious

difficulties which the structural geologists discovered in attempting

to harmonize a purely contractional hypothesis with their growing

data on the structure of the observable portion of the lithosphere, but

shall pass on to the epitome, or ultimate goal, of all students of the

history of the Earth—paleogeography.

The fundamentals of modern stratigraphical and paleogeographic

techniques have been supplied by workers from many lands, but the

profound influence of E. O. Ulrich’s splendid researches in North

American Paleozoic stratigraphy, resulting in 1908 in the production

of an excellent series of paleogeographic maps by Charles Schuchert,

can not be overestimated. These two outstanding Paleozoic paleo-

geographers, together with their British and European colleagues,

tacitly, and almost unconsciously, accepted the dictum of the per-

manency of oceanic basins, in spite of the fact that they found con-

siderable difficulty in providing suitable physical means for the es-

sential intercontinental migrations of both marine and terrestrial

organisms. May I again remind the audience that the theory of the

permanence of oceanic basins was originally proposed by geologists,

not by geophysicists. The necessity for the intercontinental migra-

tions of organisms led to the postulates of either “land bridges”’ or

of “rafting,” the bulk of the paleogeographers preferring “land

bridges.’”’ Thus, while diastrophism and the periodic flooding of the

continents by shallow seas are accepted by all geologists as the basis

for the delimitation of geologic periods, relatively permanent oceanic

depressions seem to be required, in order to accommodate the surplus

of water which must exist even during the maximum inundations of

the continents.

For geologists, the outstanding events of the second decade of the

20th Century were the World War and the Wegener Hypothesis of

Drifting Continents. I well remember how a well-known geologist de-

livered a stirring and satirical denunciation of this hypothesis in

1916 before a relatively small anti-German group at the Harvard

Club in Boston. Only a few months later, this same geologist had

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 5

become the chief exponent of the Wegener Hypothesis in this coun-

try. This is a single example of the irritating and stimulating effect

which the Wegener Hypothesis has had on the rank and file of

geologists.

Among the many discussions of the Wegener Hypothesis, perhaps

the best is that given by Gregory in his presidential address before

the Geological Society of London in 1929. Under the title, The theory

of permanent oceans and continents, he gave an excellent summary of

all the physiographic, structural, paleontological, stratigraphical, and

paleogeographical evidence both for and against all existing hy-

potheses on the origin of continents and ocean basins. He clearly

recognized the need for the exploration of the sub-Atlantic litho-

sphere, and concluded his address with the following interesting

statement:

The combined evidence of stratigraphical geology, paleontology, and the

distribution of the existing animals and plants proves that there was no

ocean entitled to rank as the Atlantic during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic

eras, and that its formation began at the end of the Cretaceous, and was

effected mainly after the widespread mountain-forming movements of the

Oligocene.

In 1936, under the title of Recent developments in the geophysical study

of oceanic basins, I had the temerity to suggest, ‘“‘that the sub-At-

lantic lithosphere constitutes a vast area of downwarped Pre-Cam-

brian and Paleozoic geology, fully comparable in the complexity of

its subsidiary stratigraphic, structural, and paleogeographic features

to the wowarped Pre-Cambrian and Paleozoic geology of the sur-

rounding continental areas...In the late Tertiary (and early

Quaternary) there may still have been some subaerial remnants

whose land areas were temporarily enlarged by the climatic events

of the Pleistocene.” Since making this statement, I still further sug-

gest that there may have been profound, local, Quaternary move-

ments in the basin itself; and that these movements may have affected

ocean level, especially if there were coincident movements in the floor

of the Pacific.

In a sense, geologists today may be classified as pro- or anti-

Wegenerians. Most of the pro-Wegenerians are European, although

we have a number in the United States and Canada. It is hardly

necessary to remind you that the Wegener Hypothesis suggests that

the Pacific was the one and original oceanic basin, and that the pres-

ent pattern of the continents is like a picture puzzle, North and South

May 15, 1937 FIELD: CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 187

America having broken away from Europe and Africa at the close of

the Paleozoic. Thus the Atlantic is supposed to have been growing

bigger and bigger throughout the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, at the

expense of the Pacific, while the great American continental rafts

slowly but surely plowed their way southward and westward. During

the last twenty years, the geophysical debate on this hypothesis has

centered around such questions as: (1) The possible mechanism for

continental drift. (2) The possibilities for determining the rate of the

drift. Or, in other words, if the continents are drifting they may have

drifted the distance required by the hypothesis. Up until ten years

ago little or no positive data, other than a few soundings, existed on

the condition of the suboceanic lithosphere. Thus the principal argu-

ments put forward by the geologists in support of the Wegener Hy-

pothesis were confined to: (1) The marginal patterns of the conti-

nents as exemplified in the outlines of the submerged continental

margins. (2) The supposed lithological, structural, and stratigraphical

similarities of the torn continental margins. When one doubting

American geologist was asked why he proposed to restudy the Old

Red Sandstone of the Scottish Highlands, he humorously replied:

“To see if I can discover the tail of a new species of Devonian fish

whose head I have recently collected from the coastal cliff of the

Gaspé Peninsula.’’ Even the fish is assumed to be moving westward

at the time of its demise. With the possible exception of isostasy, and

the postulate of the geosyncline, no hypothesis has so served to stimu-

late further and more varied geological and geophysical investiga-

tion, both applied and theoretical, as has Alfred Wegener’s suggestion

of drifting continents. In my own case, at least, I can affirm that the

hypothesis has strongly influenced my motives in attempting to ob-

tain, through geophysical means, original data on the structure of the

submerged continental margins of the sub-Atlantic lithosphere. To

sum up present opinion regarding the Wegener Hypothesis:

1. A number of structural geologists, especially those who are thor-

oughly familiar with Alpine tectonics, are in favor of continental

drift.

2. An increasing number of geophysicists and astronomers find it

an attractive working hypothesis, without perhaps sufficient interest

in its origin or the reasons why it was formulated.

3. Nearly all paleogeographers, and most American structural

geologists, are against the hypothesis, and this, in spite of the fact

that it was originally proposed to mitigate, if not entirely overcome,

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

most of the serious difficulties imposed on the student of Paleozoic

paleogeography by the earlier dictum of the permanency of relatively

large oceanic areas.

4. The hypothesis, at least, attempts to solve an important

dilemma; namely, it does away with the necessity of Paleozoic land

bridges and yet allows for sufficient oceanic area at all times during

the structural evolution of the earth.

This problem of the quantitative constancy of the hydrosphere

has become of increasing importance in major geological problems

during the past few years. It has not yet been definitely determined

whether or not the hydrosphere has materially decreased or increased

throughout geologic time. Undoubtedly a large amount of water has

been temporarily removed from the hydrosphere as connate water

and permanently as water of crystallization; on the other hand, an

appreciable amount of juvenile water must have been added to the

hydrosphere by volcanoes, both continental and submarine. During

the past five years, the study of the submarine canyons which dissect

the drowned margin of the continental shelves has led to the sug-

gestion that the general ocean level may have been temporarily re-

duced, over a mile, during the Pleistocene. These submarine canyons

were first called to the attention of geologists by J. W. Spencer in

1903. The recent revival of interest in submarine canyons is princi-

pally due to new data produced by the skillful geophysical methods

of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the mapping and dis-

cussion of the data by F. P. Shepard. Shepard suggests that the

canyons are entirely of subaerial origin, cut during the Pleistocene,

when the ocean level was reduced approximately 3,000 to 6,000 feet

by the temporary accumulation of ice on the continents. R. A. Daly,

the exponent of a similar hypothesis in relation to the origin of coral

reefs, will agree to the reduction of ocean level some 250 feet, but

cites what he considers to be insurmountable geophysical difficulties

in such a reduction of ocean level as demanded by Shepard. Daly

and others have also attempted to explain the origin of the canyons

by other means,” but no geologist believes that the canyons could be

2 Daly suggests that the canyons have been eroded by the submarine scour of ex-

ceedingly muddy and super-saline waters, which he postulates occurred at the margins

of the Pleistocene ocean. In a recent letter, E. B. Bailey suggests that submarine earth-

quakes might ‘‘help’’ Daly’s hypothesis. H. H. Hess and Paul MacClintock agree with

Shepard that the submarine canyons must be of subaerial origin, the result of the req-

uisite reduction of sea level. They, however, in order to overcome what they consider

to be the difficulties of a 20,000 to 50,000 foot ice sheet on the continents, suggest what

is, apparently, a still more comprehensive astronomical, geodetic, and geophysical

difficulty, namely, a relatively rapid and recent change in the ellipticity of the surface

May 15, 1937 FIELD: CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 189

explained by recent pronounced differential movements of the con-

tinental margin and ocean floor. Yet it is particularly interesting that

the mouths of these submarine canyons dissect the boundary of one

of the most pronounced topographic features of the submarine litho-

sphere, with the possible exception of the foredeep associated with

island arcs.

The rise of the application of geophysical methods to the study of

the suboceanic lithosphere really began some ten years ago, when

F. A. Vening Meinesz first discovered the strip of highly negative

gravity anomalies paralleling the East Indian are and associated

foredeep. On the U. 8. Navy-Carnegie Expedition of 1928, and the

U. 8. Navy-Princeton Expedition of 1932, Meinesz discovered the

western end of another negative strip. On the recent U. 8S. Navy-

of the oceans, due to a sudden decrease in the rate of the rotation of the Earth, and the

consequent drawing of the oceanic waters into the polar latitudes. From a letter on the

very important question of submarine surveying and physiography, which Dr. D. W.

Johnson allowed me to read to the Committee on Continental and Oceanic Structure

at the Edinburgh meeting of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, I

quote as follows:

“The student of submarine topography, like the unhappy children of Israel, is

forced to make bricks without straw. This is clearly apparent in current discussions of

the long-debated problem of submarine canyons, where the investigator must formu-

late hypotheses without that adequate basis of facts which detailed maps of the ocean

floor alone can give. The hypothesis that submarine canyons are normal river valleys,

carved when the lands stood thousands of feet higher than now, involves consequences

for the adjacent land areas which do not appear to be realized. The hypotheses which

depend upon the subsurface flow of reaction currents of the type described by Ekman,

of heavy currents of colder water, or of heavy currents of silty water, seem of doubtful

validity because the potency of the cause appears insignificant when compared with the

magnitude of the results accomplished. It is equally difficult to see how submarine

landslides could effect the headward development of canyon-like depressions which

appear to be long, narrow, and deep. As Professor Davis remarked a few years ago, the

origin of submarine canyons remains an open question.

‘Recently while studying the supposed meteorite scars of the Carolina coast I have

had occasion to consider the effects of underground waters welling up in the form of

so-called ‘fountain springs,’ and producing elongated depressions by a sort of headward

migration up the coastal plain slope. It is known that the coastal plain deposits carry

water under heavy pressure out under the sea, and that such water rises in artesian

wells drilled on islands or sandbars several miles off the coast. I have wondered whether

it could be possible that some pervious bed or beds of the coastal plain, at least in oc-

casional places, carry water under pressure to the edge of the continental shelf. If deep

submarine springs should develop there, would not such springs perforce migrate back-

ward into the shelf deposits, leaving canyons the depth of which would depend upon

the depth at which the upwelling waters escaped on the face of the continental scarp?

It will be recalled that such impressive features as the deep and long ‘‘alcoves” eroded

in the scarps of lava plateaus in the northwestern United States have been ascribed to

just such headward migrating spring action. Submarine canyons cut in continental

shelves at present submerged off rocky coasts may have been carved when parts of the

shelf were above sea level and served to take in water which then migrated down the

dip to the scarp face; or aquifers in the older rocks may connect under ground with

overlying pervious formations of the blanketing shelf deposits.

“T mention this hypothesis of submarine canyon origin, not because it is now

entitled to serious consideration (it occurred to me recently in the midst of other work,

and I have not had time to test it adequately, or even to discover whether it has al-

ready appeared in the literature), but because it illustrates the difficulty of working

without adequate facts.”’

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

Geophysical Union Expedition, which returned this January 15,

Maurice Ewing, A. J. Hoskinson, and Harry Hess have proved that

the negative strip parallels the West Indian Island Arc to its southern

termination. Thus we can now say that a pronounced lineal concen-

tration of the greatest known negative gravity anomalies appears to

be a common and exceedingly important characteristic of what is

suspected as the most profound type of deformation of the litho-

sphere, from the point of view of both relief and structure. It is also

interesting to note that this statement is equally true for both the

Atlantic and the Pacific, in spite of the fact that recent seismic evi-

dence strongly suggests important widespread and deep-seated petro-

logical and structural differences between these two great suboceanic

areas of the lithosphere.’

The geophysical study of island arcs also appears to throw new

light on the origin of geosynclines, or those great continental lineal

troughs which are characterized by excessive thicknesses of folded

and faulted shallow water sediments. It now appears that these great

troughs, or furrows, such as the foredeeps, are formed quite inde-

pendently of sedimentary load. In the case of island arcs, the parallel

geanticline is of such small area that it contributes little or no sedi-

ment to the trough while it is being formed. On the other hand, where

such furrows are developed marginal to, or within, continental areas,

they may be filled with sediments as rapidly as they are depressed,

any excess sediment being carried beyond the lineal loci of the de-

pressed basement rocks. This evidence that major diastrophic move-

ments of the lithosphere may be entirely independent of the shifting

3 During the meeting of the Committee on Continental and Oceanic Structures at

Edinburgh, this fall, Dr. Meinesz referred to the distribution of positive anomalies as

follows: ‘‘Besides the narrow strip of negative anomalies in the East Indies, another

systematic deviation of isostasy has been found: The deeper basins of the archipelago

all show rather strong positive anomalies over the whole fields of the basins. These

fields of positive anomalies are also found in other parts of the world in (possible)

geosynclinal areas; they have been found over the basins of the West Indies (Gulf of

Mexico, Sea between Cuba and Mexico, and in a few stations in the Caribbean), in the

deeper basins of the Mediterranean (e.g., Tyrrhenian Sea and the northwestern part

of the Mediterranean). Most of these basins are considered by the leading geologists

to have sunk away in recent times; viz., since the Tertiary or in the last half of the

Tertiary. A tentative explanation may perhaps here be suggested. It is difficult to ex-

plain these fields of positive anomalies by an increase of density of the crust and a

sinking because of a subsequent readjustment of isostasy for in that case it cannot

be understood that these basins are still so far out of isostatic equilibrium. The hypoth-

esis of convection-currents in the substratum seems to promise more.”’ [It is possible that

magnetic studies in these regions of positive anomalies might give additional data on

the convection-currents hypothesis.—R.M.F.] Dr. Meinesz closed his discussion with

the following statement: ‘‘As many of the features of the gravity anomalies are clearly

related to the surface features of the crust, topographical and geological, it seems ad-

visable to study them in close collaboration with the geologists and geomorphologists,

who have an intimate knowledge of these subjects.”’

May 15, 1937 FIELD: CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 191

load of sediments is still further being confirmed by the greatly in-

creased number of soundings which have been obtained by geo-

physical methods in both the Atlantic and the Pacific. Whereas, only

a few years ago, the bottom of the Pacific was supposed to be rela-

tively flat, we now know, thanks to the excellent work of the U. S.

Navy, that it has high relief, probably of much the same type as that

of mountainous continental regions. In his recent interpretation of

the bathymetric data obtained on the Snellius Expedition, 1935,

P. H. Keunen calls attention to the probable existence of submarine

troughs, block-faulted mountains, and fault scarps on an even greater

order of magnitude, and more sharply defined both topographically

and structurally, than exist on the continents. To quote:

The theoretical importance of these scarps appears to be considerable. As

erosion is practically non-existent on the sea-bottom, and as sedimenta-

tion is comparatively slow, it is in itself not surprising to find that a fault

- searp, once it is produced, remains standing as a bold cliff, in some cases

as much as 3,000 feet high, a feature far more striking than the most pro-

nounced subaerial fault scarps known. The chief interest of these scarps is

that they prove the rigidity of the bottom where they occur and that they

demonstrate the ability of a fault to reach gigantic proportions without the

aid of erosional obliteration of the load of the thrown-up limb.

It must be further appreciated that these submarine structures are

formed under 5,000 to 6,000 meters of sea water, the resulting hydro-

static pressure corresponding to a depth beneath the surface of the

continental lithosphere of approximately 5,000 to 6,000 feet of solid

rock. Thus the suboceanic lithosphere must be quite rigid, not only

at the surface but also at considerable depth beneath the surface.

Finally, perhaps most important of all, the varied types of evidence

just cited necessarily intimate profound diastrophism in the sub-

oceanic lithosphere, over great areas, entirely independent of the

transference of load through erosion and deposition; in other words,

that the fundamental causes of diastrophism may be deep-seated and

largely independent of surface processes.

In closing this greatly condensed history of the geophysical-geo-

logical exploration of oceanic basins, I feel it is necessary to emphasize

two particularly important submarine geophysical-geological tech-

niques which were started several years ago, and which, within the

past few months, have not only produced very important data, but

have clearly demonstrated their great potential value. Not only stu-

dents of sedimentation, but all students of earth science are deeply

indebted to C. 8. Piggot for the remarkable instrument which he has

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

developed for procuring 10—14 foot cores of oceanic sediments. Time

does not permit, nor should I wish to attempt to anticipate the im-

portant data which will result from the study of these and future

cores, but it is important to note that Piggot has been the first man

to improve fundamentally the method of sampling deep sea sedi-

ments since the historic voyage of the Challenger. This is no mean

accomplishment in a pioneer field. To supplement the data derived

from the samples of the upper few feet of suboceanic sediments, the

American Geophysical Union, through its special Committee, pro-

moted a project for the seismic study of the submerged portion of

the continental shelf. Under the able leadership of Maurice Ewing

and N. H. Heck, and with the indispensable cooperation of the U.S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti-

tution, and the Geological Society of America, by means of this im-

portant new technique, a submarine seismic profile was run from the

wedge-point of the Cretaceous-Tertiary overlap to the edge of the

continental shelf. According to this single profile, the wedge of Cre-

taceous-Cenozoic sediments thickens rapidly until, at the continental

margin, it is approximately two miles thick.* Thus the pre-Cretaceous

erosion surface exposed to view in the Piedmont region is at least a

mile below the bottom of the bathyal slope at the continental margin.

Every effort will be made within the next year or two to discover if

this important structural feature continues beyond the edge of the

continental platform and eastward under the Atlantic basin. Present

indications are that the topographic limit of the Atlantic continental

margin may be of no particular structural significance. This prophesy

is apparently still further strengthened by the work of Gutenberg

and Richter who, after making a careful study of the Atlantic seismic

reflections, produced by earthquakes, have come to the conclusion

that the Atlantic basin is everywhere underlain by sial, instead of

sima; or, in other words, that from 15 to 20 kilometers of continental

rocks form the basement of the entire sub-Atlantic lithosphere. Thus

the new data suggest not only that there may have been no Atlantic

basin in existence during an appreciable portion of the earlier history

of the earth, but, more interesting still, that the present Atlantic

basin may be due to the downwarp, in post-Paleozoic time, of a vast

and now vanished continental area. Such a lost continent could not be

a “lost Atlantis’? according to the popular conception of the term,

but, if true, it might be called a “lost Atlantica” in the structural and

4 As the wedge thickens oceanwards it may include lower Mesozoic marine sedi-

ments.

May 15, 1937 FIELD: CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 193

paleogeographic sense. At any rate, I believe that, by geophysical

methods, we shall be able, before long, to procure sufficient data con-

cerning the basement rocks of the Atlantic to be able to prove, among

other things, whether North and South America ever were connected

with the present trans-Atlantic continents. While discussing this

possibility with Harold Jeffreys last fall at Edinburgh, he said: “‘I

hope that the present sub-Atlantic area was not a continent during

the Paleozoic because if it was, I certainly would not know where to

put the Atlantic Ocean during the Paleozoic Era.” I agreed that

would be a tremendous amount of water on anybody’s mind, even

after making due allowances for essential geosynclinal, epeiric, and

epicontinental seas. But, as I have previously mentioned, we may

already be faced with considerable difficulty in accounting for the

origin of the submarine canyons in the continental shelves. In 1909

Daly demanded a reduction of ocean level of some 300 feet to account

for the origin of atolls. Today Shepard demands the reduction of

ocean level over a mile to account for the subaerial erosion of the

now submarine canyons. A short time hence, we may be wrestling

with the problem of where to put the Atlantic Ocean during the

Paleozoic. I, therefore, suggest that, until we have more data on the

topography and structure of the suboceanic lithosphere, we are not

in a particularly strong position to check any major hypothesis which

attempts to explain the pattern of the face of the earth. On the other

hand, we already have sufficient data which strongly suggest theories

other than those already proposed; I refer particularly to the data

on the pronounced relief of relatively large areas of the bottoms of

the oceans. In the first place, this pronounced relief is not particu-

larly synonymous with the phrase, ‘“‘ocean basin.’’ We are still apt

to think of a basin as a relatively circular depression with a relatively

concave, smooth surface. I do not wish to emphasize this conception

further than to point out that, in terms of smooth surfaces, a wide

shallow basin will accommodate the same amount of water as a

smaller but deeper basin. Also, provided the basin remains the same

size, its liquid capacity may be increased or decreased by the de-

formation of its relatively smooth surface. Thus depressions such as

the foredeeps of island ares and fault valleys or grabens, such as the

Bartlett Deep, which are developed below the mean basin level, tend

to reduce ocean level; while, on the other hand, great positive areas,

such as the somewhat misnamed Atlantic Ridge, tend to raise the

ocean level. Thus, without necessarily changing the general shape

of the basin, the development of many but minor inequalities in its

194 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

surface will alter the liquid capacity; and the chances will always be

strongly against the possibility that the elevations and depressions

will cancel each other, especially if they are not subject to isostatic

compensation. At the present time, we do not have sufficient topo-

graphic data to compute the relation of relief of basin surface to basin

capacity. Also, we have not sufficient data concerning the structure

of the suboceanic lithosphere to determine the space-time relation-

ships of the depressions and elevations. We do, however, have seismic

evidence as to areas in which deformation is active at the present

time. For several reasons, it seems wise to plan our geophysical-

geological surveys from the continental margins into the oceanic

basins for, in this manner, we shall be able to determine the continuity

or discontinuity of structures whose space and time relationships are

known. If, for the present, the theory of drifting continents may be

considered as a valuable working hypothesis, it is primarily because

it serves to stimulate the exploration of oceanic basins, and thus helps

to produce new and badly needed data on that great “‘terra incog-

nita’”’ of a major portion of the crust of the earth, let that data lead

us where it may. Finally, until these data are available, we can not

even be sure that the continents are fair geological samples of the

entire lithosphere.

SUMMARY

1. The attempt has been made to review the growth of ideas,

theories, and hypotheses on continental and oceanic structure, es-

pecially in relation to their effect on future trends in geophysical-

geological research.

2. From the geological point of view, the epitome of the problem

is paleogeography, especially the paleogeography of the pre-Mesozoic

history of the earth.

3. Emphasis has been placed on the lack of physiographic and

structural data on the suboceanic lithosphere, and the importance

of acquiring these data.

4. It has been suggested that further data on the topography and

structure of the suboceanic lithosphere will throw important light on

such major questions as isostasy, geosynclines, and continental drift.

5. Available data on the suboceanic lithosphere suggest that di-

astrophism, or the major deformation processes, is relatively inde-

pendent of transference of surficial load, such as takes place under

the conditions of erosion and deposition.

6. Fortunately, geophysical techniques are already, or soon will

May 15, 1937 FIELD: CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 195

be, available for making a geophysical survey of ocean basins. These

techniques, to date, include exact positions and sounding, and deter-.

mination of gravity and seismic methods, all equivalent in accuracy

to those now used on the continents. Further, the techniques are

sufficiently varied so that they can be used to support or check each

other.

7. Since the oceans are international territory, they are not the

particular business of any nation, and, though the freedom of the

seas may be open to debate, the ocean bottom is unclaimed territory.

Last fall, the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, at its

Edinburgh meeting, created a Commission on Continental and

Oceanic Structure. This Commission is approved and supported by

twenty-four nations, and it is hoped and planned that it will help

serve to promote effective international cooperation in the explora-

tion of the suboceanic lithosphere.

8. The ultimate progress of submarine geophysical-geological sur-

veying depends, however, first, on the methods to be employed or

plan of attack, and, second, on the increasing use of important con-

tributing agencies. While a certain amount of money is, of course,

a necessary part of each project, such grants can be greatly reduced

by the use of existing agencies. Further, in most cases, the grants

will be useless without such important material contributions as sub-

marines, cable ships, the specially equipped vessels of marine bio-

logical laboratories, and last, but not least, the trained personnel to

operate these various types of vessels. So far, we have not found

that geophysicists or geologists are particularly good sailors!

In conclusion, I wish to express the thanks of the American Com-

mittee of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union to the

United States Navy, the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey,

the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, the American Bell Tele-

phone Laboratories, the American Philosophical Society, the British

Admiralty, the Geophysical Institutes of Norway and Holland, and

the Geological Society of America for their most generous and indis-

pensable aid in the exploration of ‘‘no man’s land.’ But, as Dr.

Bowie has so frankly put it, present thanks carry the intimation of a

desire for future favors. Fortunately, even geophysicists and geolo-

gists are human, and particularly the new amphibious variety, who

have braved the ocean deep, and who, in fear of being wrecked upon a

storm of hypotheses, are crying out for more and more help in their

factual surveys.

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

BOTAN Y.—Phacelia mustelina, a new plant from Death Valley,

California.| FREDERICK V. CoviLLe, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Eleven species of the genus Phacelia, family Hydrophyllaceae,

are known from Death Valley. One of them, Phacelia perityloides, is

a round-leaved, white-flowered perennial. All the others are annuals

that have blue, violet, purple, or lavender flowers. In years of good

rainfall several of these species are abundant and characteristic

plants of the desert landscape, and a few of them are conspicuous

for their beauty. Their blossoms occur in a one-sided cluster known

as a scorpioid raceme, or scorpioid cyme, which unrolls, as the flowers

open, from a tight, flat spiral. From this characteristic of their in-

florescence, the species of Phacelia are known as curlybloom.

The present paper deals with an apparently new species of this

genus, discovered in Death Valley by M. French Gilman.

Phacelia mustelina Coville, sp. nov.

Planta annua, Phaceliae rotundifoliae affinis, sed foliis ovatis vel oblongis

et corolla violacea, quam calyce fere duplo longiore, corollae tubo calycem

a circiter duplo longitudine loborum corollae superante; Phaceliae pulchellae

etiam affinis, sed caulibus glanduloso-pilosis, corollae latitudine circiter

4-5 mm. Phaceliae rotundifoliae folia orbicularia vel reniformia sunt, et

corolla alba, tubo calycem vix superante; Phaceliae pulchellae caules

glanduloso-puberulenti sunt, et corollae latitudo 8-10 mm.

Plant annual, 3 to 10 cm high, branching; stems, as well as the petioles,

leaf blades, peduncles, pedicels, and calyx lobes, pilose with weak hairs,

many of them gland-tipped; leaf blades up to 2.5 em long, ovate to oblong,

mostly cordate at the base, coarsely and shallowly dentate with as many as

5 large teeth on each side and often with much smaller teeth in the sinuses

between the large teeth, the lower leaves with petioles longer than the blades,

sometimes twice as long; inflorescence consisting of terminal several-flowered

scorpioid bractless cymes, on peduncles 1.5 cm or less in length, the lowest

pedicels 5 mm long or less; calyx lobes 3.5 to 5.5 mm long, narrowly oblanceo-

late to narrowly oblanceolate-spatulate, obtuse; corolla about 4 to 5 mm

across when expanded, 6 to 9 mm long, violet, nearly twice as long as the

calyx, the corolla tube usually exceeding the calyx by about twice the length

of the corolla lobes, and about 2 to 3.5 mm in diameter at the base of the

lobes, pilose above with long weak hairs, an occasional hair gland-tipped,

the lower part of the corolla tube glabrous, the lobes rounded, broader than

long, about 2 mm wide and 1.5 mm in length, the corolla appendages at-

tached by one margin to the corolla tube, linear, narrowed above and with-

out a free apex; stamens 5, shorter than the corolla tube, the filaments un-

equal, very sparingly hairy toward base but usually appearing hairless even

under a lens; ovary and immature capsule sparingly hairy, ovules 40 in the

ovary examined, the. style longer than the calyx, sparingly hairy below,

bifid at the apex to the depth of about 1 mm; seeds immature 0.5 to 0.8

mm long, pitted.

1 Received January 29, 1937. This is the last paper written by Dr. Coville.

May 15, 1937 COVILLE: PHACELIA MUSTELINA 197

Type specimen in the United States National Herbarium, no. 1,630,905,

collected June 23, 1935, by M. French Gilman, no. 1810, in Death Valley,

California, at the head of Titus Canyon, Grapevine Mountains, tightly

wedged in the crevices of a ledge of rhyolite rock, at an elevation above 6,000

feet.

Collected also on rock ledges at similar elevations in a branch of Wildrose

Canyon, June 138, 1935 (Gilman 1706), and in Wood Canyon, June 18, 1935

(Gilman 1750), both on the west slope of the Panamint Mountains, which

border Death Valley on the west. ,

Probably the nearest relative of Phacelia mustelina is P. gooddingii Brand,

1913, a species which appears to be the same as P. pulchella A. Gray, 1875.

Brand, in his account of the genus Phacelia in the Pflanzenreich (Heft 59,

1913), distinguishes gooddingii from pulchella by its glabrous filaments and

its approximately 25 ovules on each placenta. He describes pulchella as

having sparsely pilose filaments and 7 to 10 ovules to each placenta.? A

careful examination of the original collection on which Phacelia pulchella

was based, C. C. Parry no. 182,? and of the original collection from which

P. gooddingii was described, Goodding no. 2307, shows that in both speci-

mens the filaments are sparingly pilose toward the base, and the ovules are

about 50 to 60 per capsule. Both type specimens are branched from the

base, the branches ascending and glandular-puberulent. In both specimens

the calyx, at flowering time, is about 5 mm long, and the corolla twice as

long or sometimes more. I can find no reason for separating gooddingii from

pulchella. The type specimen of pulchella came from the vicinity of St.

George, southwestern Utah, where it grew on ‘‘gypseous clay knolls.”’ The

type of gooddingii came from Las Vegas, southeastern Nevada, little more

than a hundred miles from St. George and in the same climatic zone, and

was recorded by its collector, Leslie N. Goodding, as growing on ‘‘gumbo

flats.”

Phacelia mustelina differs from P. pulchella in its glandular-pilose stems,

the hairs weak and the longer ones half a millimeter or even a millimeter in

length; its non-glandular hairs (mixed with gland-tipped hairs) on the leaf

blades weak and often reaching a length of 0.7 mm or more; and its corolla

about 4 to 5mm across, when the lobes are expanded. In pulchella the stems

are glandular-puberulent, the gland-tipped hairs stout, and probably not

more than a tenth of a millimeter in length; the non-glandular hairs (mixed

with gland-tipped hairs) on the leaf blades are stout and less than half a

millimeter in length; and the corolla is about 8 to 10 mm across when the

lobes are expanded. In all our specimens of mustelina the larger leaves are

cordate at the base, a characteristic seldom found in pulchella. Mature

seeds of P. mustelina are not available for comparison with those of pulchella.

Among the phacelias of Death Valley itself the species most closely related

2 Pflanzenreich 59: 105, 116, 120. 1913.

3 See A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci. 10: 326. 1875. Also C. C. Parry, Amer.

Nat. 9:16. 1875.

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

to mustelina is Phacelia rotundifolia Torr. Our specimens of rotundifolia

from the Death Valley region were collected at elevations below 5,000 feet,

the lowest at 900 feet. Besides this differences in altitudinal range and the

differences between mustelina and rotundifolia cited in the Latin diagnosis,

Mr. Gilman writes that the odor of the herbage of the new species is different

from that of rotundzfolia and is the “odor of an angry or scared weasel,” a

characteristic indicated in the name mustelina.

BOTANY.—WNew species and nomenclatorial changes in eastern

Asiatic Myrsinaceae.1 Ecpert H. WALKER, U.S. National Mu-

seum. (Communicated by RoLanp W. Brown.)

This is the fourth paper” the writer has published on the Myr-

sinaceae of China and Japan preliminary to a critical revision of this

group. The new species and nomenclatorial changes are here pub-

lished because of unavoidable delay in the appearance of the re-

vision.

Ardisia (Subg. Akosmos Mez) brunnescens Walker, sp. nov. Fig. 1

Frutex 3 m altus undique glaber; folia subtus brunnescentia glandulis

marginalibus non donata, nervis lateralibus 10—15-jugis, subtus elevatis,

venulis elevatis reticulatis, nervo marginali non prominulo vel nullo; in-

florescentiae in ramulis glabris lateralibus specialibus subterminales, pani-

culato-cymosae vel duplicato-umbellatae, ramulis gracilibus, pedicellis

gracilibus nonnihil clavatis; flores 4 mm longae; sepala ovata, obtusa,

per anthesim non valde dextrorse imbricata, non-numquam obscure fusco-

lepidota; fructus atro-rubescens, nonnihil obscure punctatus.

Type in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden, collected by

H. B. Morse at Lungchow, Kwangsi, no. 708, distributed by A. Henry. An

additional specimen is Wang no. 485, collected in Yun Fou District, West

River region, Kwangtung, distributed by Sun Yatsen University.

This species seems to resemble most closely A. viburnifolia Pitard in

Lecomte’s Fl. Gen. Indo-Chine 3: 821. 1930. In the original description of

that species no collector’s number is cited, but a specimen in the New York

Botanical Garden, Poilane no. 11914 from the same locality, apparently

belongs to Pitard’s species. It differs in having fewer prominent lateral

nerves and flowers about half as large as those of A. brunnescens.

Ardisia (Subg. Crispardisia Mez) filiformis Walker, sp. nov. Fig. 2

Frutex 1 m altus, ramulis pergracilibus glabris; folia membranacea, 12-19

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 27, 1937.

2 Four new species of Myrsinaceae from China. This JouRNAL. 21: 477-480,

figs. 1-4. 1981.

é Embella scandens (Lour.) Mez and tts eastern Asiaticallies. Lingnan Sci. Jour, 10:

475-480.

Maesa hirsuta (Myrsinaceae), a new shrub from Kweichow, China. Papers Michigan

Acad. Sci. 20: 231-282, pl. 50. 1935.

199

WALKER: MYRSINACEAE

May 15, 1937

Fig. 1.—Ardisia brunnescens Walker, sp. nov. a, Branchlet with inflorescence,

nat. size; 6, flower, X5; c, fruit, X5. Drawn from type specimen Morse no.

708.

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

cm longa, 1—2.5 cm lata, glabra, subtus paulum lepidota, nervis marginalibus

distinctis, nervulis ramosis in glandulas marginales desinentibus; inflores-

centiae glabrae, paniculatae, ramulis valde gracilibus; sepala non valde im-

bricata, minute punctata; antherae dorso non punctatae; fructus circa 6 mm

longus, rubescens, distincte punctatus.

Type in the United States National Herbarium, no. 1,273,493, collected

under forest at Seh-feng Dar Shan, 8. Nanning, Kwangsi, Oct..19, 1928, by

R. C. Ching, no. 8000. Additional specimens seen are W. T. Tsang, no.

Fig. 2.—Ardisia filiformis Walker, sp. nov. Branchlet with

inflorescence X3%. Drawn from W. T. Tsang no. 22393.

22393, collected May 27, 1933, near Iu Shan village, southeast of Shang-sze,

Shang-sze district, Kwangsi near the Kwangtung border, deposited in the

Arnold Arboretum; and W. T’. Tsang no. 22567, collected in the same locality

June 26, 1933, deposited in Arnold Arboretum and in the United States

National Herbarium.

This species is distinct in its very slender branchlets, its paniculate in-

florescences with almost filamentous peduncles and pedicels, and its

slenderly lanceolate, long-acuminate membranous leaves. The marginal

glands subtending the veinlets which branch from the distinct marginal

nerve are very small and sometimes almost wanting. Its position in the

subgenus Crispardisia is thus uncertain.

Embelia henryi Walker, sp. nov. Fig. 3

Frutex scandens, ramulis novellis puberulis glabratis; folia coriacea, 20—30

May 15, 1937 WALKER: MYRSINACEAE 201

mm longa, 8-10 mm lata, serrulata, subtus nigro-punctata, nervis lateralibus

numerosis, obscuris, subtilibus; flores 5-7, 5-meri, subcorymbosi, pedunculo

4 mm longo, e basi subsquamosa vel subnuda oriundo, pedicellis 3-4 mm

longis; fructus globosus, 4 mm longus, atro-ruber, nigor-punctatus.

Type in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum, collected at Mengtze,

Yunnan, by A. Henry, no. 10913; duplicate in the Herbarium of the New

York Botanical Garden.

Fig. 3——Embelia henryt Walker, sp.nov. a, Branchlet with inflorescences, nat-

eee b, portion of corolla of 9 flower showing attached stamens, X8; cc,

pistil, <8.

Maesa insignis Chun, Sunyatsenia 2: 81, pl. 20. 1934

Maesa hirsuta Walker, Papers Michigan Acad. Sci. 20: 232, pl. 50. 1935.

The description of Chun’s species appeared in print while that of M.

hirsuta Walker was in process of publication and the manuscript could not

be recalled. Subsequently a type collection of Chun’s species was examined

and found to differ significantly only in length of petioles. However, such a

difference is not a valid character for separating these two species.

202 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 27, NO. 5

“Desired by RH Se

sSeenerneeae

(For explanation of Fig. 4, see bottom of opposite page.)

May 15, 1937 DIKMANS: TRICHOSTRONGYLUS 203

Maesa permollis Kurz, Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal. 407: 66. 1871

Stout climbing shrub, 2 to 3 m high, the branches rather few somewhat

thickened or the ultimate rather slender, densely pubescent with rufous

setose hairs almost throughout; leaves petiolate (83-25 mm), the blade thick-

membranous, about 25 cm long, 12 cm wide, ranging from 12 to 30 cm long,

4 to 18 cm wide, elliptic or oblong to broadly obovate, rounded or obtuse at

base, obtuse to acute or acuminate at apex, distinctly sinuate or serrate-

dentate with callose teeth, green and glabrous or nearly so above, brownish

and densely rufous pilose or hirsute beneath especially on the nerves, the

midrib prominent, the lateral veins terminating in the teeth; inflorescence

short, subglomerate or racemose or subpaniculate, shorter than petiole or up

to 4 cm long, rather many-flowered, densely hirsute; flowers about 3 mm

long, on short pedicels scarcely 1 mm long, white, the bracts minute, about

equaling the pedicels; sepals equaling the pedicels, united into a tube almost

as long as the limb, ovate, acute, densely hirsute or pilose, the margin nar-

rowly scarious; corolla tubular campanulate, glabrous, the tube about 2mm

long, lightly lined or smooth, the lobes ovate, narrowly rounded, more or

less spreading; stamens included, attached within the tube, the filaments

short, the anthers about equal to the filaments, broadly elliptical; pistil with

short thick style and indistinctly lobed stigma; fruit about 4 mm long, ovoid,

acute or apiculate at apex, reddish, densely hirsute.

Distribution.—Southern Asia from Burna to Yunnan and Kweichow.

_ Specimens examined in various American and British herbaria :—Kwei-

chow: Y. T'stang 4622, 4768. Yunnan: Forrest 29394; Henry 9649, 9649A,

9649B, 11707, 11707A, 11707B, 11707C, 11707D; Rock 2580.

Maesa permollis var. effusa Walker, var. nov. Fig. 4

Frutex 3-8 m altus, e forma typica inflorescentibus valde paniculatis ad

9 cm longis differens.

Type in the herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, col-

lected by G. Forrest, No. 12143,in Yunnan; duplicate in the herbarium of the

Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. An additional collection is Forrest 13637,

collected in the “open. Jungle in aoe o TADne valley, Upper Burma, .. . alt.

2000 ft, April 1917.”

ZOOLOGY.—A note on the members of the nematode genus Tricho-

strongylus occurring in rodents and lagomorphs, with descriptions

of two new species.1 GERARD Dikmans, U.S. Bureau of Animal

Industry. (Communicated by Emmett W. PRIcE.)

The genus Trichostrongylus was established by Looss (1905) with

Trichostrongylus retortaeformis (Zeder, 1800) Looss, 1905, as type

species. At the present time the genus contains a large number of

species of which the following have been reported from rodents and

lagomorphs:

_ 1 Received March 2, 1937.

Fig. 4.—Maesa permollis var. effusa Walker, var. nov. Type specimen,

slightly less than half natural size.

204 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

1. Trichostrongylus fiberius Barker, 1915, from the American

muskrat, Ondatra zibethica (= Fiber zibethicus), (?) Nebraska.

2. Trichostrongylus calcaratus Ransom, 1911, from cottontail rab-

bit, Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus, Bowie, Maryland.

3. Trichostrongylus retortaeformis (Zeder, 1800) Looss, 1905, from

the domestic rabbit, Oryctolagus cunicult, and European hare, Lepus

europeaus, Europe.

4. Trichostrongylus pigmentatus (von Linstow, 1904) Hall, 1916,

from Lepus nigricollis, Ceylon.

5. Trichostrongylus affinis Graybill, 1924, from wild rabbits, Prince-

ton, New Jersey.

6. Trichostrongylus delicatus Hall, 1916, from the squirrel, Sciurus

abertt mamus, Colorado.

7. Trichostrongylus colubriformis (Giles, 1892) Ransom, 1911, from

hares and rabbits in U.S.S.R. and from Sylvilagus nuttalliz pinetis

and Lepus sp. in the United States.

As noted by Hall (1916), Barker’s description of Trichostrongylus

fiberius is very unsatisfactory. Neither the nature of the bursal rays

nor that of the spicules can be determined from his figures and de-

scriptions. During the course of the present investigation, tricho-

strongyles collected from muskrats originating in New Jersey and

Iowa have been identified as Trichostrongylus calcaratus Ransom,

1911.

Trichostrongylus retortaeformis (Zeder, 1800) Looss, 1905, has been

reported as a parasite of rabbits and hares from Europe, but to date

there is no record of its occurrence in these animals in the United

States. The one specimen labeled Trichostrongylus retortaeformis

found in the Helminthological Collection of the U. 8S. National

Museum proved on examination to be Trichostrongylus calcaratus.

An examination of rabbit parasites which had been entered in the

Helminthological Collection of the Bureau of Animal Industry

showed that a bottle labeled Nematodirus sp. from Sylvilagus nuttalla

pinetis collected at Howbert, Colorado, contained two kinds of nema-

todes, one of which on examination proved to be Trichostrongylus

colubriformis; this nematode was found to have been collected also

from Lepus sp. in Nebraska. The determination of these latter speci-

mens was made by Dr. E. W. Price of the Zoological Division. They

are listed in the collection under Nos. 28165 and 28181. We have,

therefore, three records of the occurrence of 7. colubriformis as a

parasite of the Leporidae in the United States. These records are

from Colorado and Nebraska.

May 15, 1937 DIKMANS: TRICHOSTRONGYLUS 205

Fig. 1— Trichostrongylus ransomi, n. sp. 1, bursa, right lateral view; 2, bursa, left

lateral view; 3, spicules and gubernaculum; 4, dorsal rays of bursa; 5, muscular portion

of ovejectors; 6, terminal portion of female.

Trichostrongylus calcaratus was reported by Ransom from Sylvi-

lagus mallurus from Bowie, Maryland. During the present investiga-

tion these nematodes have been found also in the muskrat, Ondatra

206 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

zibethica, and the ground hog, Marmota monax monax. This nematode

is also a common parasite of wild rabbits in Louisiana.

Trichostrongylus delicatus Hall, 1916, has been reexamined by

H. F. Nagaty of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and in

a letter dated February 28, 1931, addressed to Dr. M. C. Hall, he

states that in his opinion 7’. delicatus is identical with T’.. colubriformis

(Giles, 1892) Ransom, 1911. (=T7. instabilis (Railliet, 1893) Looss,

1905, and subtilis Looss, 1905.)

In addition to the species listed above, two new species, one from

a rabbit and the other from a prairie dog, have been found and are

described below.

Trichostrongylus ransomi n. sp. Fig. 1

Specific diagnosis.—Trichostrongylus:

Male 2.25 to 3 mm long by 100u wide just anterior to bursa; head about

8u wide. Esophagus 500 to 600 long. Spicules equal and similar 130 to 140u

long; distal part of each recurved rather sharply and ending in a sharp

point; there are three short projections on the inner side of the spicule a

short distance in front of the termination of the spicule, which give it the

appearance of being serrated. The bursa is tightly rolled in such a manner

that it is almost impossible to determine the disposition and course of the

rays. As in 7’. calcaratus and T. affinis, the ventro-lateral and the externo-

lateral rays are the heaviest; externo-dorsals with slender tips but widening

considerably at their juncture with the postero-lateral and dorsal rays;

dorsal ray lying midway between the two externo-dorsals bifurcating once

and terminating in two straight processes.

Female from 3 to 3.5 mm long. Combined length of muscular portions

of ovejectors 375 to 440u. Distance from vulva to anus about 450y; that

from anus to tip of tail 50 to 60u. Eggs 60 to 70u long by 30 to 36u wide.

Host.—Rabbit (probably Syluilagus floridanus alacer).

Location.—Small intestine.

Locality.—Jeanerette, Louisiana, U.S. A.

Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection

no. 30462.

Trichostrongylus texianus n. sp. Fig. 2

Specific diagnosis —Trichostrongylus:

Male 2.8 to 3 mm long and 65 to 70u wide in region of proximal ends of

spicules. Esophagus 800 to 825u long and about 30u wide near its termina-

tion. Spicules unequal in length; right spicule about 85 long and left spicule

about 100u long. Right spicule 25u wide at a distance of about 65u from

proximal end, narrowing abruptly from that point and ending in a sharp

point; left spicule also ending in a sharp point; when viewed from the side

both spicules present frontal projections, the one on right spicule located

about 20 to 22u from distal end, the one on left spicule about 30u from distal

end, both spicules presenting bluntly pointed branches originating near

Fig. 2.—Trichostrongylus texanus, n. sp. 1, bursa, lateral view; 2, terminal portion

of male, ventral view; 3, tail of female; 4, anterior portion of body; 5, spicules and

gubernaculum; 6, muscular portion of ovejectors.

May lo. 1937 DIKMANS: TRICHOSTRONGYLUS 207

[j1;: “thes il-tt wt

FTA RAE A

(For explanation of Fig. 2, see bottom of opposite page.)

208 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

dorsal border. Gubernaculum paddle-shaped, 55yu long and 15y to 17y wide,

with a slight indentation in the end of the handle of the paddle; handle of

paddle about 20u long and indentation about 5y long. Bursa symmetrical;

ventro-ventral ray small and widely separated from ventro-lateral ray as

in other members of genus; ventro-lateral, externo-lateral and medio-lateral

rays running parallel toward edge of bursa; postero-lateral diverging from

medio-lateral in the dorsal direction; externo-dorsal rays originating at

base of dorsal ray; dorsal ray bifurcating about 12 to 15y from distal end,

the unbranched tips of bifurcation bending ventrally.

Female 4.8 to 5.2 mm long and 85 to 90u wide in region of vulva; head 7

to 10u wide. Esophagus 850yu long by 25 to 30u wide at its distal portion.

Combined length of muscular portions of ovejectors, including sphincters,

350u. Vulva 850u from end of tail; distance from anus to tip of tail 60 to 65y.

Eggs 70 to 80u by 45 to 50u.

Host.—Prairie dog, Cynomys ludovicianus arizonensis.

Location.—Small intestine.

Localities.—Nolan and Runnels Counties, Texas, U.S.A.

Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection

no. 30463.

The two species described above may be differentiated from other

species occurring in rodents and lagomorphs by the following key:

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF TRICHOSTRONGYLUS IN RODENTS AND LAGOMORPHS?

1. Spicules more than 550y long; viscera pigmented black. . 7. pigmentatus

Spicules less than 500 long; viscera not pigmented black.......... 2

2. Spicules more than 175y long, asymmetrical; distal end of right spicule

smooth, of left: spicule serrated. .....1 5... 04 seen eet T. calcaratus

Spicules less than 175y long. 2.......'.... sees ek 3

3. Spicules 130 to 155y long, distal ends provided with two blunt recurved

hooks; distance from anus to tip of female tail 140 to 165y T. affinas

Distal ends of spicules not provided with blunt, recurved hooks; dis-

tance from anus to tip of female tail less than. Pats Sone 4

4, Spicules 130 to 140, long, distal ends recurved, ending in . sharp points

and with three projections on inner side of each spicule....7'. ransomt

Distal end of spicules not provided with projections as above........ 5

5. Spicules equal, 135 to 145u long, terminal hook of spicules long and

sharply defined but not high; distance from anus to tip of female tail

OT OPA as eee aN eae wh Bal cheek 6 ak etn See T. colubriformis

Pmlciles unequal. i ha is os es nes te ee ee 6

6. Spicules similar in conformation to those of T. colubriformis, shorter

spicule 145u long, longer spicule 157-172 long; median side of each

spicule provided with two long, thin appendages; female tail long

CRN STC SO cay tee Re ee amen EY T. retortaeformis

Right spicule about 85yu and left about 100u long; right spicule narrow-

ing abruptly about 65y from proximal end; both spicules terminate

TN Shear rOlant es Agi cet oe Sk se gk ta wg ah T. texianus

LITERATURE CITED

BarkER, F. D. Parasites of the American muskrat (Fiber zibethicus). Jour. Parasit-

1(4): 184-197. 1915.

2 T. fiberius has not been included in this key because it is impossible to determine

its identity from the original description and figures.

May 15, 1937 CLARK AND WILLIAMS: BUTTERFLIES 209

GRAYBILL, H. W. A new species of roundworm of the genus Trichostrongylus from the

rabbit. Proc. of the U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 66(11): 1-8. 1924.

Haut, M. C. Nematode parasites of the mammals of the orders Rodentia, Lagomorpha

and Hyracoidea. Proc. of the U.S. Nat. Mus. 50: 1-258. 1916.

Looss, ARTHUR. Das Genus Trichostrongylus n. g. mit zwei neuen gelegentlichen Para-

siten des Menschen. (Notizen zur Helminthologie Aegyptens). Centralb. f. Bakte-

riol., (etc.), Jena, 1. Abt., Orig. 39(4): 409-422. 1905.

Ransom, B. H. The nematodes parasitic in the alimentary tract of cattle, sheep and other

ruminants. Bull. 127. Bureau Animal Ind., U.S. Dept. of Agri. pp. 1-132. 1911.

—_— Two new species of parasitic nematodes. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 41: 363-369.

1911.

Scuuuz, R. Ep. Zur Differentialdiagnose zwischen den Nematoden Trichostrongylus

retortaeformis (Zeder, 1800) und T. instabilis (Railliet, 1893). Deutsche Tier-

arztl. Wochenschr. 39(28): 439-440. 1931. .

ENTOMOLOGY.—Records of Argynnis diana and of some other

butterflies from Virginia.t AusTIN H. Cuarx, U. 8. National

Museum, and Carrouu M. Wiuiams, University of Richmond.

The great diversity of geographic conditions in Virginia is reflected

in widely varying faunal conditions in different portions of the State.

The low-lying eastern portion is a northeasterly extension of the

Lower Austral life zone. The mountains in the west are characterized

by a southwesterly extension of the Transition zone, with their high-

est summits, in the southwest, capped by Canadian “‘islands.’’ Be-

tween the Lower Austral and Transition zones is a narrower strip of

Upper Austral not very clearly differentiated—so far as the butter-

flies are concerned—from the Lower Austral.

The Lower Austral zone in Virginia presents some curious anom-

alies. Perhaps the most interesting of these anomalies is the occur-

rence in localized areas of species of butterflies characteristic of the

Transition zone. Such species are Argynnis diana, Satyrodes eurydice,

and the typical form of Atrytone dion, which seem quite out of place

on the hot coastal plain. Argynnis cybele, common in the Upper

Austral and Transition zones, also occurs here.

In these same areas Enodia creola is widespread and locally com-

mon, and Amblyscirtes carolina is almost everywhere present, though

apparently never very numerous. Enodia portlandia and Amblyscirtes

textor also are common here, but both of these range eastward to the

sea.

Atrytone dion dion occurs in the cool boggy hollows between the

sand dunes west of Cape Henry; the southern form, A. d. alabamae,

occurs further to the northward, in the Dahl swamp in Accomac

County. The other species are found, in more or less widely separated

localities, along the western border of the Dismal Swamp and in and

1 Received March 2, 1937.

210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 5

near the swamps bordering the Blackwater and the Meherrin rivers.

We have thought it advisable at this time to call attention to this

curious feature in the distribution of butterflies in Virginia in the

hope that others may be stimulated to undertake investigations in

this region. A very large number of records will be necessary before

this and other anomalies in the distribution of the butterflies in the

Virginian coastal plain can be properly interpreted.

Through the courtesy of a number of our colleagues we are privi-

leged to include their records with our own. We are under special

obligations to Prof. Ellison A. Smyth, Jr., of Salem (formerly of

Blacksburg), Va.; to Prof. Lorande Loss Woodruff of Yale Uni-

versity, New Haven, Conn.; to Dr. G. W. Rawson, of Detroit, Mich.;

to Mr. Herman J. Erb, of Ozone Park, N. Y.; to Mr. C. C. Walton

of Richmond, Va.; and to Mr. W. Herbert Wagner, of Washington,

Dac:

Argynnis diana.—The male of Argynnis diana was described and figured

by Pieter Cramer in 1779. The locality he gave for his specimen was “‘Vir-

ginia.”’

The species was not again recorded from Virginia until 1895 when Prof.

Ellison A. Smyth, Jr., wrote that it occurred in Montgomery County and

“along the Blue Ridge,’’ and in 1896 when Dr. Henry Skinner said that

“the females found in eastern Tennessee, western North Carolina and

southern Illinois are larger than those found in the mountains of Virginia.”

In 1899 Sherman Denton mentioned its occurrence in ‘“‘Western Virginia.”

In 1916 William C. Wood recorded it from Camp Craig, near Blacksburg,

and Professor Smyth recorded it from Blacksburg and said that he had

found it in Montgomery, Washington, and Giles Counties.

In 1934 and 1935 the senior author recorded it from Apple Orchard

mountain in Bedford County.

The locality from which came Cramer’s specimen still remained a mystery,

for all the later records are from the mountains—territory but little explored

in Cramer’s time.

This butterfly has a much wider range in Virginia than one would be led

to suppose from the few published records. It even occurs on the coastal

plain. During the past summer the junior author took it south of Zuni

and southeast of New Bohemia in the vicinity of the Blackwater river,

and presumably it occurs elsewhere in this region.

Its occurrence here in the long settled portion of Virginia would explain

satisfactorily how it happened that Cramer was able to secure a specimen,

and we believe that eastern Virginia should be regarded as the type locality

of the species.

The localities from which Argynnis diana is known in Virginia are:

May 15, 1937 CLARK AND WILLIAMS: BUTTERFLIES 211

Batu County: Warm Springs (G. W. Rawson); Hot Springs (Col. Wirt

Robinson). ALLEGHANY County: Clifton Forge, July 5, 1986 (C. C.

Walton). Gites County: (E. A. Smyth, Jr., 1916); Mountain Lake, July

1936 (L. L. Woodruff). Biuanp County: Effna, July 19, 1936 (A. H. and

L. F. Clark). DickENson County: Fremont, July 18, 1936 (A. H. and

L. F. Clark). WasHineton County: (KE. A. Smyth, Jr., 1916); Damascus,

July 13, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark); Konnarock, July 13, 1936 (A. H. and

L. F. Clark). SmytH County: Iron Mountain, July 10, 19386 (A. H. and

L. F. Clark); Elk Gardens (Miss Umbarger); below Elk Gardens, July 11-

13, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark). Patrick County: Blue Ridge Moun-

tain, near Lovers’ Leap, September 1, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark). Monrt-

GOMERY County: (E. A. Smyth, Jr., 1895, 1916); Blacksburg (E. A. Smyth,

Jr., 1916); Camp Craig, near Blacksburg, taken by C. Harvey Crabill in

August, 1914 (Wood, 1916); Poverty Hollow, near Blacksburg, 1933 (H. J.

Erb). Roanoke County: Salem (EK. A. Smyth, Jr.). BrpFrorp County:

Apple Orchard Mountain (A. H. Clark, 1934, 1935). CHESTERFIELD

County: (C. M. Williams). PRincE GEORGE County: Southeast of New

Bohemia, July 28, 1936 (C. M. Williams). IsLE or Wicut County: South

of Zuni, August 22, 19386 (C. M. Williams). Indefinite records: Along the

Blue Ridge (EK. A. Smyth, Jr., 1895); Mountains of Virginia (Skinner,

1896); Western Virginia (=? West Witeinisy (Denton, 1899); Virginia

(Cramer, 1779).

Although this butterfly is widely distributed over the state it is very local,

and in the places where it is found it occurs as a rule only in small numbers.

Its favorite haunts are steep damp slopes and ravines where it keeps largely

in the woods unless lured to the roadsides or into the open by the flowers of

milkweed or ironweed.

Argynnis cybele—This species, common in the piedmont region and in

the mountains, was found south of Zuni, Isle of Wight County, on September

6, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark).

Enodia creola.—This butterfly proves to have a fairly extensive range in

eastern Virginia, flying usually, though not always, with E. portlandia. Un-

published records are: Near New Bohemia, Prince George County, June 22,

1936 (G. W. Rawson and W. H. Wagner); near Petersburg, Dinwiddie

County, June 25, 1936 (C. M. Williams); near Zuni, Isle of Wight County,

September 6, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark); Emporia, Greensville County,

August 19, 1936 (C. M. Williams). We have noticed, independently, that

both this species and LE. portlandia are invariably associated with the cane

(Arundinaria gigantea) which we therefore believe is their food plant in

eastern Virginia. Both species are curious in being normally more or less

active in the evening until it becomes too dark to see them.

Satyrodes eurydice.—Unpublished records for this species are: Langley,

Fairfax County, July 5, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark); Difficult Run, Fair-

fax County, September 19, 1936 (W. H. Wagner); Richmond, Henrico

212 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

County, July 1, 1936 (C. M. Williams) ; Quinton, New Kent County, August

30, 1936 (C. M. Williams); Burks Garden, Tazewell County, July 19, 1936

(A. H. and L. F. Clark); and near New Bohemia, Prince George County,

June 22, 19386 (G. W. Rawson and W. H. Wagner); Emporia, Greensville

County, September 3, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark).

Neonympha areolatus var. septentrionalis—Apparently widely distributed,

though very local, in the coastal plain and lower piedmont; new records are:

Lunenburg, Lunenburg County, September 2, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark);

north and south of Emporia, Greensville County, August 19, 1936 (C. M.

Williams); Courtland, Southampton County, August 25, 1936 (C. M. Wil-

liams); north of Factory Hill, August 26, 1936 (C. M. Williams); south of

Petersburg, Dinwiddie County, August 25, 1936 (C. M. Williams).

Cercyonis alope ?pegala.—Dark males from 45 to 49 mm in expanse lacking

the posterior eye spot in the yellow band on the fore wing, agreeing with

those from New Jersey that are regarded by some as representing a dwarf:

form of pegala, have been taken south of Petersburg, Dinwiddie County,

July 18, 1936; North of Cypress Bridge, July 23, 1936; and northeast of

Homeville, Sussex County, July 29, 1936. These were compared with several

specimens from New Jersey and with one (recorded as pegala) from the

District of Columbia.

Strymon liparops form strigosa.—This butterfly has been taken by Mr.

Herman J. Erb near Blacksburg in July.

Pyrgus centaureae wyandot.—Unpublished records for the State are: Hay-

field, Frederick County, April 28, 1935, frequent (A. H. and L. F. Clark);

Sexton Shelter, Skyline Drive, May 26 and June 2, 1935, frequent (W. H.

Wagner); Blacksburg, Montgomery County (E. A. Smyth, Jr.).

Pholisora hayhurstiz.—Found along the western border of the Dismal

Swamp near Suffolk, September 4, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark).

Hesperia metea.—Taken at Richmond, April 26, 1936 (C. M. Williams).

Hesperia leonardus.—New records are: Meadows of Dan, Patrick County,

September 1, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark); Big Meadows, Skyline Drive,

August 27, 1933 (A. H. and L. F. Clark); Blacksburg, Montgomery County

(EK. A. Smyth, Jr.).

Hesperia sessacus.— Unpublished records are: Hayfield, Frederick County,

May 17, 1936, common (A. H. and L. F. Clark); summit of Stony Man

mountain, Page County, May 24, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark); Blacksburg,

Montgomery County, variable in abundance (E. A. Smyth, Jr.).

Atrytonopsis hianna.—New records for the State are: Clifton Forge,

Alleghany County, May 12, 1986 (C. C. Walton); Warrenton, Fauquier

County, May 24, 1936, frequent (A. H. and L. F. Clark); Richmond,

Henrico County, May 12, 1986 (C. M. Williams); Glebe, Westmoreland

County, May 31, 1936 (W. H. Wagner).

Atrytone logan.—New records are: South of Zuni, Isle of Wight County,

August 20, 24, 1936 (C. M. Williams); north of Walters, Isle of Wight

May 15, 1937 STEWART AND WEDEL: OSSUARIES 213

County, August 22, 19836 (C. M. Williams); Clifton Forge, Alleghany

County, July 26, 1936 (C. C. Walton).

Poanes viator.—Found in great abundance near Port Richmond, King

William County, on June 7, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark).

Amblyscirtes carolina.—This little skipper has approximately the same

range within the State as Enodia creola. Unpublished records are: New

Bohemia, Prince George County, June 22, 1936 (W. H. Wagner); Emporia,

Greensville County, September 3, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark); Cypress

Bridge, July 23, 1936 (C. M. Williams).

Panoquina panoquin.—New records for this salt marsh skipper are: New

Point, Mathews County, August 23, 1936 (A. H. and L. F. Clark); Lynn-

haven, Princess Anne County, September 5, 1936, abundant (A. H. and

ih’. Clark).

ANTHROPOLOGY .—The finding of two ossuaries on the site of the

Indian village of Nacotchtanke (Anacostia)... T. D. Stewart

and W. R. WEDEL, U. 8. National Museum.

When Capt. John Smith ascended the Potomac river in 1608 he

described an Indian village extending some distance along the eastern

bank of a large tributary entering from the east near the head of

navigation. To this village, ‘“‘with 80 able men,’’ Smith gave the

name ‘‘Nacotchtanke’’ (Arber). Later the missionaries, who arrived

on the Potomae in 1634, latinized this name to Anacostan (Tooker),

whence is derived the present name of the river and city—Anacostia.

Except for references to trade relations and skirmishes, both with the

English and neighboring tribes, this village figures very little more

in written history. The date of its abandonment is not certain, but

it was probably during the middle or latter part of the seventeenth

century. The Potomac region in general was abandoned by the In-

dians about 1700, according to Mooney.

There is some question as to the tribal affiliation of the inhabitants

of Nacotchtanke. Mooney (map, pl. VII) considers them Algonkins

and includes them in the Powhatan Confederacy, but notes that they

received Smith peacefully, thus disobeying Powhatan’s orders. Ac-

cording to the Handbook of American Indians, Shea considers this

group Iroquoian.

In substantiation of the historical record regarding the location of

Nacotchtanke are the reports of local collectors. In 1889 Proudfit

stated (pp. 242-243):

1 Approved for publication by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Received February 19, 1937.

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

These fields [from Giesboro Point on the south to within a short distance

of Bladensburg on the north] have been under cultivation for many years,

and are regularly visited by local collectors, yet they are today, in places,

fairly strewn with the wreck of the old village life.

In addition to the stone relics... ., it should be observed that an abun-

dance of pottery, in fragments, is to be found—one of the unfailing evidences

of permanent aboriginal occupation.

This statement seems to have been accepted by the investigators

who have published subsequently, including Holmes and Ulke.

Since the above covers almost everything that is known regarding

Nacotchtanke, it is of interest and importance to record the finding

of two ossuaries at Giesboro Point during the past year. As is often

the case, the burials were discovered accidentally. In the course of

grading operations directed toward the extension of Bolling Field,

the army flying field, a power-shovel exposed some human bones on

September 11, 1936. The District coroner, Dr. A. Magruder Mac-

Donald, was notified by those in charge of the work. He pronounced

the bones to be those of Indians and ordered them saved; also, he

notified the Smithsonian Institution.

On the morning of September 12 the senior author visited the site

in company with F. M. Setzler, Acting Head Curator of Anthropol-

ogy, U. S. National Museum. At this time a skull and a few bones,

still remaining 2n sztw, were removed. In the afternoon Dr. Wedel

accompanied the senior author to the site. We were soon rewarded

by the exposure of a second ossuary which we were permitted to ex-

cavate by our own methods. This operation, in which we were as-

sisted by Robert Ladd of Washington, required the next two whole

days. The details follow.

THE SITE

At the confluence of the Potomac and Anacostia the eastern shore

(Fig. 1) is comparatively low-lying, forming an almost level plain

between the rivers on the west and the hills to the east. At the time

of our visit the grading operations were far advanced. Since some

7-8 feet of earth was being removed at the point where the ossuaries

were located, it appeared that here a natural ridge of sandy soil

extended in an east-west direction from the shoreline toward the hills.

This agrees with the location of the ten-foot contour line on the

Geological Survey map (Fig. 1).

Pit no. 1.—This was located some 150 yards from the river bank

and about a quarter of a mile south from the line of the Portland

May 15, 1937 STEWART AND WEDEL: OSSUARIES 215

Street entrance to Bolling Field. Most of the bones had been removed

by workmen and the power-shovel prior to our arrival and had been

placed in barrels. From descriptions given by the laborers, as well as

from the few bones left in situ, it appears that less than twelve inches

of sandy soil covered the bones. The layer within which the latter

ANACOSTIA

Fig. 1—Map showing the location of the ossuaries and the topography in their

immediate vicinity. (Based on the Geological Survey map of the District of Columbia,

edition of 1929.)

were scattered was of about the same thickness. Owing to the uni-

formly sandy character of the surrounding soil and to its disturbance

by machinery, efforts to define the original edge of the pit were un-

successful. It was evident, however, that the area within which the

remains occurred was not more than ten or twelve feet in diameter.

No record was obtained of any cultural material having been seen.

Pit no. 2.—The second pit was encountered by the shovel at the

time of our work and was completely excavated by hand. It lay some

216 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

50 or 60 yards due east of the first. The soil covering it was but a few

inches deep, and there was some evidence that the uppermost bones

had been broken and otherwise disturbed by plowing. No pit outline

could be traced, but the bones occurred over an irregular area roughly

fifteen feet in diameter and at a depth of six to eighteen inches. The

“matrix”? in which the bones occurred was of the same light colored

sand as that constituting the ridge. |

Burial was clearly secondary but some articulated bones were

found. The skulls, most of which were crushed, were scattered

throughout the pit, with a somewhat greater number in the lower

level. In some instances two or more skulls lay together, but there

appeared to be no consistent disposition in “‘nests.’’ Generally the

long-bones were grouped in bundles, those of several individuals

sometimes being found together. Pockets of calcined human bone

were noted, but it was not clear whether this represented cremation

or was due to some accidental factor. Mingled with the human bones

at one point were a number of deer bones.

Cultural material was obtained from the second ossuary, but in

very limited amount. There were recovered three small grit-tempered

potsherds, bearing impressions of a cord-wrapped paddle. Also, a

small crudely made serpentine ornament, perforated and carelessly

scored, was found in the dirt thrown out of the pit. Since they were

not seen in situ, it is possible that both the sherds and ornament

entered from the surface. Directly associated with and partly con-

tained in one skull were fourteen tubular shell beads, 6 mm in diam-

eter and from 10 to 20 mm long. No metal, glass or other material

of European origin was found.

THE BONES

Since the first pit had been almost completely excavated before

our arrival, we could not hope to recover many whole bones for the

Museum collections. Alternatively, we limited our collection to those

parts of more particular interest, namely, the temporal bone, jaws

and teeth, distal end of the humerus, proximal end of the femur,

pathological and anomalous bones. The same policy was adopted in

selecting bones from the second pit, but here fortunately the method

of excavation permitted the recovery of more whole bones. A count

of the temporal bones, humeri, and femora from the two pits (Table 1)

gives some reason for believing that approximately the same number

of individuals was buried in each. This number is above 63 but is

not likely to have been more than 70. The smaller number of tem-

May 15, 1937 STEWART AND WEDEL: OSSUARIES 217

poral bones recovered from the first pit may be explained by the fact

that the workmen and others removed the skulls for souvenirs before

our arrival. The excess of temporal bones in the second pit may pos-

sibly mean that more skulls than extremities were interred. However,

it should be remembered that, when broken, the parts of the long-

bones are more difficult to identify than the parts of the skull. It is

quite possible, therefore, that we may have overlooked some humeri

and femora. :

TABLE 1.—NUMBER OF BoNES RECOVERED FROM OSSUARIES

Pit No. 1 Pit No. 2

Bone

Right Left Right Left

Temporal 39 38 63 63

Humerus (distal) 56 36 49 39

Femur (proximal) 50 47 48 40

It is certain from an examination of the bones that both sexes are

represented, but not disproportionately. According to the stages of

dentition shown in the lower jaws, adults predominate. Four imma-

ture lower jaws, the youngest 2-6 years old, were found among the

bones from the first pit. Of twelve such jaws from the second pit,

the youngest was 1-2 years old.

Measurements of two skulls from the first pit give cranial indices

of 68.3 and 71.9. Nine skulls from the second pit, all reconstructed

and mostly female, have cranial indices ranging from low dolicho-

ceimy tochich brachyerany (72.6) @2:7, 75.1, 75.6, 75.7,.77.3;, (9.4,

84.0 and 86.0). Except for the most extreme brachycranic skull, the

range is characteristic of the Algonkins (Hrdlitka, 1927).

Two other features of the bones indicate that the inhabitants of this

site were typical eastern Indians. Ear exostoses are present in 10 per

cent of the ears (169), which is only slightly higher than the figure

(8.5) reported by Hrdli¢ka (1935) for the Indians north of Virginia.

Septal apertures of the humerus are present in 43.2 per cent of the

cases (134), and this too agrees well with the figure (40.4) reported

by Hrdlicka (1932) for the eastern Indians. These similarities become

more impressive when it is realized how different are the figures for

other Indian tribes. For example, among the Sioux the incidence of

ear exostoses rises to 22 per cent, whereas that of septal aperture

falls to 21.5 per cent (Hrdlicka, 1932, 1935).

Among the pathological bones recovered were a number, mostly

tibiae, bearing lesions generally regarded as having been produced

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

by syphilis. It is noteworthy that more of these bones occurred in the

first pit, in which also the bones were somewhat better preserved.

Another, but minor, pathological condition to which these Indians

were extremely susceptible was dental caries.

DISCUSSION

The finding of two ossuaries at Giesboro Point is further evidence

of a habitation site in the vicinity. According to historical record this

was Nacotchtanke. Although nothing is known of the limits of this

village at the time the burials were made, it is reasonable to believe

that it was not very far away—perhaps to the north. It is probable

also that originally the burials were deeper, and it is possible even

that a low mound was raised over them. The ultimate shallow posi-

tion of the bones may be accounted for through the farming opera-

tions to which this area was subjected later. The number of individ-

uals buried in these pits probably has some relationship to the

population of the village, but the time interval involved is not known.

The chief reason for reporting these ossuaries is that they indicate

some of the burial customs prevailing in this region. When Bushnell,

in 1920, reviewed these customs for the Powhatan Confederacy, he

knew of only one site at which ossuaries had been found. Since then,

in 1935, Judge Graham has reported a group of four ossuaries found

at Potapaco (now Port Tobacco), another site marked on Smith’s

map.

The senior author had the pleasure of assisting Judge Graham in

excavating the pits at Port Tobacco, so he was in a position to make

comparisons between the two sites. Briefly, it may be said that in

appearance the burials were very similar, making due allowance for

differences in soil. The scarcity of cultural material in the Anacostia

pits is in contrast to those at Port Tobacco. Nevertheless, the type of

cultural material encountered—beads, ornaments—is still consistent

with Smith’s statement (quoted from Bushnell, p. 28) that,

For their ordinary burial they digge a deep hole in the earth with sharpe

stakes; and the corpses being lapped in skins and mats with their jewels,

they lay them upon sticks in the ground and so cover them with earth.

While it is not clear what Smith meant by the term ‘‘corpses,’’ it is

possible that he is referring to bodies that have been allowed to de-

compose in a charnel house. At Port Tobacco remnants of skins and

mats which had been preserved by copper were found associated with

the bones in the fourth pit. The finding of calcined bone in the second

May 15, 1937 STEWART AND WEDEL: OSSUARIES 219

pit at Anacostia is something new for this area and cannot be clearly

explained.

The occurrence of pathological bones in the pits, both at Anacostia

and at Port Tobacco, with lesions resembling syphilis may be inter-

preted in different ways depending on whether or not syphilis is

proved to be a pre- or post-Columbian disease. If pre-Columbian,

this finding is of little significance historically. However, if post-

Columbian, then these burials would date from the historic period

and the different incidence of diseased bones in the two pits would

take on more meaning. The absence of associated European objects

is not contrary to the possibility that syphilis is a post-Columbian

disease; it could have preceded Smith to this region.

Skeletal remains are rapidly being accumulated from Maryland

and Virginia. Already it is recognized that a rather uniform physical

type existed among the eastern Indians. Detailed study of this ma-

terial eventually should indicate the closer physical affiliations of the

various bands.

LITERATURE CITED

ARBER, Epwarp. Capt. John Smith’s works, 1608-1631. The English Scholar’s

Library, No. 16. Birmingham, 1884.

BusHNELL, Davin I., Jr. Native cemeteries and forms of burial east of the Mississippi.

Bull. 71, Bu. Am. Ethnol., 1920.

GraHaM, Wm. J. The Indians of Port Tobacco river, Maryland, and their burial places.

(Privately printed) Washington, 1935.

Hopecst, F. W. Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico, Vol. IJ. Bull. 30,

Bu. Am. Ethnol., 1907, p. 8.

Houtmes, W. H. Stone implements of the Potomac-Chesapeake tidewater province.

15th Ann. Rept. Bu. Am. Ethnol. for 1893-1894, pp. 13-152.

HrouiéKa, A. Catalogue of human crania in the United States National Museum col-

lections. The Algonkins and related Iroquois, etc. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., LXIX,

Art. 5, 1927.

The humerus: septal apertures. Anthrop., Prague, X, 1932, pp. 31—96.

Ear exostoses. Smith. Misc. Coll. XCIII, No. 6, 1935.

Mooney, JAMeEs. Indian tribes of the District of Columbia. Am. Anthrop., o.s. II,

1889, pp. 259-266.

ProupFit, 8. V. Anczent village sites and aboriginal workshops in the District of Colum-

bia. Am. Anthrop., o.s. II, 1889, pp. 241-246.

Tooker, W. W. On the meaning of the name Anacostia. Am. Anthrop., o.s. VII,

1894, pp. 389-393.

Uke, Titus. Additions to our knowledge of Indian habitations and workshops located

at Washington, D. C., and vicinity. Primitive Man, VIII, No. 3, 1935, pp. 67-71.

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

540TH MEETING

The 540th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

April 8, 1936, Vice-President R. C. WELLS presiding.

Informal communications —T. A. Hrenpricks discussed obtuse-angled

cone-in-cone structures from the Missouri Mountain slate of Arkansas.

Program.—A. J. EARDLEY: Silts of the lower Yukon valley.

T.S. Loverine: Origin of the telluride ores of Boulder County, Colorado.

541st MEETING

The 541st meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

April 22, 1936, Vice-President H. D. Misr presiding.

Informal communications —L. W. STEPHENSON: Flat-bottomed stream ero-

ston by wetting and drying. Little Walnut Creek is a small, intermittent

tributary of Walnut Creek which joins Colorado River a few miles east of

Austin, in Travis County, Texas. Little Walnut Creek heads in the belt of

outcrop of the Austin chalk about 8 miles north of Austin, and flows within

that belt in the upper 5 miles of its course. In a stretch a thousand feet or so

long, above the iron bridge at the old Sprinkle road crossing (abandoned),

5 miles northeast of Austin, the stream has cut its channel some 15 or 20

feet deep and 70 to 75 feet wide in a rather hard, massive, uniform facies of

the chalk. About 300 feet upstream from the bridge a normal fault drops

stratigraphically higher and softer beds of the chalk down against the harder

facies. The gradient steepens sharply just above the fault as the stream

passes from the harder to the softer beds.

In its course through the harder facies of the chalk, including the descent

from this facies to the softer facies below, a transverse profile of the stream

bed is so nearly level that water when present is distributed with almost

perfect uniformity across its entire width. When I visited the locality on

November 20, 1935, the water was low and was so evenly spread that I

waded the stream, scarcely wetting more than the soles of my boots.

In the case of a stream cutting its channel by abrasion it is to be expected

that the part of the bed carrying the swiftest current will be most deeply

eroded. In Little Walnut Creek abrasion is an insignificant factor in the pro-

cess of erosion, asthe stream is carrying little or no sand to serve as a cutting

tool; solution may play a part in the process, but is probably a minor factor;

fragmentation of the brittle chalk, caused by successive wetting by rainwater

and drying, is believed to be the effective agent of erosion; the products of

this process are easily swept away by occasional flood waters.

When water is present in the channel the chalk is protected from the wet-

ting and drying process and is not eroded; the banks on either side are sub-

jected to the process and are gradually eaten back down to water level; any

part of the stream bed that may for any reason rise above water level is

subjected to wetting and drying and is quickly reduced to the level in which

wetting will protect it. When there is no water in the creek fragmentation

due to wetting by occasional local showers and subsequent drying, will take

place uniformly across the channel, thus maintaining its level profile.

Fragmentation of chalk by wetting and drying is an important erosion

process in the channels of many of the streams crossing the chalk formations

of the Gulf Coastal Plain. (Awthor’s abstract.)

May 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 221

CiypE P. Ross described etched limestones in the Brazier limestone,

Borah Peak Quadrangle, Idaho.

Program.—J. P. MarBueE: Age of monazite from Mars Hill, North Carolina.

Analyses of a specimen of monazite from Mars Hill, N. C., for lead, thorium,

and uranium, indicate an approximate age of 584 million years, or upper-

most pre-Cambrian. Radiographs showed the mineral, a portion of the ex-

tremely large crystal collected by Schaller, to be relatively fresh and

unaltered. The age found is in reasonable agreement with the field evidence.

As the mineral is extremely low in uranium, further studies are projected.

G. A. CoopsrR: Devonian correlations in Michigan and Ontario.

SPECIAL MEETING

A special meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

April 29, 1936, Vice-President H. D. Miser presiding.

Informal communiations —Jostan Bripce remarked on the productive

and illustrious life of Dr. A. F. Foerste, recently deceased.

D. F. Hewerr remarked on the life and work of H. D. McCaskey,

recently deceased.

Program.—C. H. Brure, Jr., Northwestern University: Geologic History

of South Park, Colorado. —

FRANCIS P. ‘SHEPARD, University of Hlinois: Evidence of a greatly lowered

sea-level.

042ND MEETING

The 542nd meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

October 28, 1936, President M. I. GoLpDMAN, presiding.

Program.—RoBeErt F. Grices, George Washington University: Timber-

lines as indicators of climatic trends.

GEORGE TUNELL and C. J. Ksanpa: Some general conclusions from in-

vestigations of the calaverite group. The peculiar face development of cala-

verite crystals, which has been known since 1895, was discussed in relation

to the crystal structure of calaverite (determined by the authors). Certain

adventive (non-structural) diffraction planes were correlated with the com-

plex faces. Although a complete explanation of the complex faces and ad-

ventive diffraction planes has not yet been found, sufficient progress has

been made to indicate that these peculiarities of calaverite will not lead to

an alteration in the theory of space-groups or the law of simple rational in-

dices, but are rather to be conceived as due to some type of subidiary phe-

nomenon in the crystals. (Author’s abstract).

WENDELL P. Wooprinc: Depositional environment of Lower Pliocene oil-

bearing formations of the Los Angeles Basin, California.

543RD MEETING

The 548rd meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

November 11, 1936, President M. I. GoLtpMan, presiding.

Informal communications.—J. B. Rersipe, JR., reviewed criticisms of

Lauge Koch by eleven of his contemporaries.

M. I. GotpMAN reported on a statement by de Margerie regarding the

criticism by a group of Danish geologists of the work of Lauge Koch (from

C. R. somm., no. 6, p. 97, 1936) as follows: The manifesto carrying the signa-

tures of a dozen geologists, Scandinavian and German, criticizing the work of

Lauge Koch in Greenland, has in effect no less an object than to discredit

the methods of the eminent explorer. Overlooking the invaluable services

which Koch has rendered to the study of the Artic regions, these gentlemen

pick out trivial errors such as can be found in every human product and

222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

overlook the outstanding discoveries by which he has enriched and trans-

formed in such large measure the picture of the geology of Greenland that

one of the signers, Boggild, drew 20 years ago. They even go so far as to re-

proach the Danish scientist for having had recourse to the airplane for com-

pleting his reconnaissance. There is here a lack of perspective which is

positively shocking and one which a purely objective comparison of the

texts cannot fail to bring out. It is hard to see what science gains by attacks

so evidently biased.

C. B. Hunt described a method for obtaining data on total precipitation

over an extended period of time.

Program.—J. B. Mertz, Jr., Glacial features of the Nushagak district,

Alaska. The Nushagak district lies in a remote and little-visited part of

southwestern Alaska. The Tikchik Mountains of this district are of particu-

lar interest because they are the site of a Pleistocene ice cap which covered

an area of 6,000 square miles or more but was not a part of the great ice fields

of the Alaska Range and contiguous territory.

The central part of the Tikchik Mountains is a rugged fretted upland,

composed of comb ridges, pinnacle-like peaks, and high alpine valleys that

show all the marks of severe and long-continued glaciation. Along the eastern

side of these mountains is a system of twelve nearly parallel lakes from 7 to

35 miles in length, of which ten are connected together into two systems of

interlake drainages that discharge eastward and southward. The present

Nushagak Valley, which lies east of these lakes, is a great desolate, swampy

lowland, composed of glaciofluviatile and outwash deposits which issued

from the glaciated mountainous area.

The border lakes, though originally barrier lakes, now occupy essentially

bedrock basins, and are classified as alpine glint lakes. They have depths

ranging from 340 to 930 feet and in their deepest places reach from 300 to

600 feet below sea level. A number of these lakes have narrow fiord-like

headwater bays which are separated from the main lakes by bedrock con-

strictions or barriers but are as deep as, or deeper than, the main lakes. Both

the headwater bays, and the main lakes below these bedrock constrictions,

increase rapidly in depth to the maximum, then gradually become shallower

toward their lower ends, terminating in bedrock shoals, islands or barriers.

It is possible that the headwater bays indicate either a pause in the retreat

of the ice sheet, or a very late rejuvenation of glaciation.

All the usual physiographic features that are associated with severe glacia-

tion are found in the country surrounding these lakes. These features include

glacial scouring and plucking, steep-walled U-shaped cross sections, and

well-developed cirques in hanging valleys, in the upper parts of the lakes;

and morainal deposits at the lower ends of the lakes. Postglacial erosion is

relatively slight close to the higher mountains but is perceptibly greater in

the lower hills to the east. Another significant physiographic feature is a

system of rather well-developed postglacial lake terraces, ranging in eleva-

tion from 5 to 65 feet above present lake levels.

The ancient valleys, now partially filled by these lakes, were occupied in

preglacial time by alpine streams, but in their lower reaches had higher

gradients than at present. This deduction is based upon drill-hole records at

tidewater, where the outwash fill is known to have a thickness of 200 feet or

more. The present interlake drainage was caused by the alluviation of these

ancient valleys by morainal and outwash deposits that were laid down as the

ice tongues retreated. This alluviation finally raised local base levels of ero-

May 15,1937 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 225

sion sufficiently to cause the lakes to spill over into one another, thus estab-

lishing the present abnormal system of interlake drainages. The various lake

terraces record not only the maximum magnitude of this alluviation, but

also the subsequent sequence of lowering of the lake levels. (Author’s

abstract.)

J. C. Reep: Significance of amygdales in Columbia River lava. Periodic

tilting of a fault block in north-central Idaho is reflected by the convergence

of bands of silica that fill large gas cavities in lava. The fault block, the

Whitebird block, is about 15 miles long and 12 to 15 miles wide. It is

bounded on its east and west sides by normal faults. The lava series of about

35 flows with some interbedded unconsolidated sediments that constitute

the upper 2,600 feet or more of the block is tilted to the northwest at 17

degrees.

The bands of silica in the filled cavities, or amygdales, consist of alter-

nating layers of quartz and mixed opal and quartz. The bands were appar-

ently deposited horizontally under the influence of gravity. The convergence

of the bands indicates tilting of the block between times of deposition of the

bands. The amygdales that were examined show a maximum convergence of

bands of 14 degrees or reflect almost the complete tilting history of the

block.

Between the rock around the amygdales and the banded interiors is a zone

of concentric layers that ranges from less than a millimeter to more than 10

millimeters thick. The sequence of these concentric layers in all the amyg-

dales examined in order from the outside toward the interior is nontronite,

greenalite, melanophlogite, erionite, chalcedony, and mixed chalcedony and

opal. The minerals were determined by their optical properties, which

should be checked by other methods. The concentric layers probably were

deposited by deuteric emanations long before the banded interiors were laid

down from supergene solutions. (A uthor’s abstract.)

JOINT MEETING

A joint meeting with the Washington Academy of Sciences was held in the

Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, November 19, 1936, President O. E.

MEINZzER, of the Washington Academy of Sciences, presiding.

Program.—GerorGe H. AsHiey, State Geologist of Pennsylvania: The

emergence of ideas as illustrated from Geology.

544TH MEETING

The 544th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

November 25, 1936, Vice-President H. D. Misr presiding.

Program.—Testimonials for the late Dr. David White of the United

States Geological Survey, by H. D. Misnr, W. C. MENDENHALL, CHARLES

Burts, F. E. Wrienut, K. C. HEALD, and E. W. Berry.

545TH MEETING

The 545th meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club,

December 9, 1936, President M. I. Gotpman, presiding.

GEORGE TUNELL, chairman of the committee to select the first and second

best papers delivered before the Society during the year, announced that

W. P. Wooprine was awarded first prize and E. T. ALLEN second prize.

Vice-President R. C. Wreuts took the chair during the presentation of Mr.

Goldman’s presidential address: Petrographic features of salt dome cap rock.

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 5

447TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 44th Annual Meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club after the adjournment of the 545th regular meeting, President M. I.

GOLDMAN presiding. The annual report of the secretaries was read. The

treasurer then presented his annual report showing an excess of assets over

liabilities of $1,319.48 on December 9, 1936. The auditing committee re-

ported that the books of the treasurer were correct.

The results of the balloting for officers for the ensuing year were as follows:

President, R. C. Wetus; Vice-Presidents, F. C. Catkins, H. D. Miser;

Treasurer, A. H. KoscHMANN; Secretaries, G. A. Cooper, M. N. Bram-

LETTE; Members-at-large-of-the-Council, R. W. Brown, W. 8S. BurBaANnk,

C.H. Dans, Earu InGErRson, J.C. Rrep; Nominee for Vice-President of the

Washington Academy of Sciences representing the Geological Society, W. T.

SCHALLER.

G. A. Coopsr, Secretary.

@Obituary

BENJAMIN LINCOLN ROBINSON, who a few years ago retired from the

Asa Gray Professorship of Systematic Botany, which he had held since

1900, died July 27, 1935. He was born in Bloomington, Illinois, November 8,

1864, and received his A.B. degree from Harvard College in 1887. After

taking his Ph.D. degree at Strasburg in 1889 he returned to Harvard Uni-

versity as assistant in the Gray Herbarium and became its curator in 1892,

which position he held until he retired. With others he was an editor of

Synoptical flora of North America from 1892 to 1897. He was editor of

Rhodora, the journal of the Northeast Botanical Club, from 1899 to 1928,

and also editor of the seventh edition of Gray’s New manual of botany. He

was the author of many published papers upon the classification and dis-

tribution of the spermatophytes of the United States, Mexico, northern

South America and the Galapagos Islands. He was awarded a bronze medal

at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition held in St. Louis, 1904, and the

Centennial Gold Medal of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1929

‘for eminent service to botany.”’ Besides being a member of the Washington

Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences, Professor

Robinson was a member of seventeen other American and foreign scientific

societies. He was president of the Botanical Society of America in 1900,

president of the Northeast Botanical Club from 1906 to 1908, and honorary

member of the Chilean Society of Natural History.

CHARLES HENRY SMYTH, JR., emeritus professor of geology at Princeton

University, died at the Princeton Hospital, April 4, 1937, from pneumonia

and complications resulting from a fractured hip received in a fall two

weeks previously.

Doctor Smyth was born at Oswego, N. Y., March 31, 1866. He received

the Ph.B. degree in 1888 and the Ph.D. degree in 1890 from Columbia

University. He studied at Heidelberg, Germany, 1890-1891. From 1891 to

1905 he was professor of geology and mineralogy at Hamilton College, and

from 1905 until his retirement in 1934 he was professor of geology at

Princeton University. His chief scientific contributions related to the Clin-

ton type of iron ore, the regional geology and mineral deposits of the north-

west Adirondacks, the origin of alkali-rich igneous rocks, and problems of

chemical geology.

Doctor Smyth held membership in the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, Geological Society of America, Philosophical

Society, New York Academy, and Washington Academy of Sciences.

a . 2

CONTENTS

Guopuystcs. —Structure of continents and ocean basins. Rica RD

PARED Sete ee. . a es ee eee ae

BOTANY. a ae mustelina, a new plant from Death Valley, Ca

fornia. FREDERICK V. CovILLE..... eee. ee ities

. . . ‘ a

Botany.—New species and nomenclatorial ee it in eastern Asi

Myrsinaceae. Eapert H. WALKER..................

Zootocy.—A note on the members of the nematode

strongylus occurrmg in rodents and lagomo

scriptions of two new species. GERARD DIKMANS........ coe

me,

Sete

Entomotoay.—Records of Argynnis diana and of some éther butt r ES rf

flies from Virginia. Austin H. Ciark and Carrouu M. Wie

Tita MS eee rere thc. ssie es Say ae eee 1 2 a a

ANTHROPOLOGY.—The finding of two ossuaries on the site of

Indian village of Nacotchtanke (Anacostia). T. D. Strwar

pnd: W... Reey BDEL . 2 ..02she0:.: . seas ie Re: ep mre AS 6,

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY........... alt Nea Be dy

OBITUARIES: BENJAMIN LINCOLN mes CHaRnEs

SMYTH, JR.. ge ate Er PE ane er i),

¥.

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals e nae

i = Ps

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; : 3 ca Se

Vou. 27 JUNE 15, 1937 No. 6

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JOURNAL

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NOL. 27 JUNE 15, 1937 No. 6

PHYSICS.—Explorations in the superconducting state. FRANCIS

B. S1tsBEE, National Bureau of Standards.

In the early days of this Society, its leaders were in a large measure

pioneer workers, blazing new trails into hitherto unknown territory.

I need only list Henry in Electromagnetics, Langley in Aerodynam-

ics, Dutton and Hayford in Isostasy, and in literal geographic explo-

ration Powell, to remind you of their achievements. Today most of us

spend our lives mapping with meticulous precision the rich provinces

which they first opened up, and can only rarely venture as they did

into unbroken fields, where the general nature of the phenomena is

still unknown, where the basic concepts are still to be conceived, and

where even a suitable language for an adequate description of events

is yet to be invented. Nevertheless the call of the unknown still has a

glamour for all scientists and it is, therefore, without apology that I

propose this evening to give a further report of recent progress in

one of the few remaining unexplored regions of physics.

When in 1908 Kamerlingh Onnes first liquefied helium, he opened

the way into a large and most fruitful province. I say “large’’ ad-

visedly for though the newly available temperature range, namely

2°K to 10°K, seems small when expressed in degrees, it is more prop-

erly regarded as extending over more than two octaves in absolute

temperature. An equal journey by a factor of 5 from our room tem-

perature of 300°K, if taken upward, will bring us to 1500° when all

but the most refractory materials are melted, or if taken downward,

will lead well below liquid air temperatures.

During the past few years Giauque, Debye, and other explorers

have passed the boundaries set by the helium province to start opera-

tions in a still more remote region, but we shall limit our wanderings

this evening to the nearer but still strange and mystic territory known

as the liquid helium range.

This helium region contains many features en to the eye of the

1 Address of the retiring president, delivered before the Philosophical Society of

Washington, January 16, 1937. Publication approved by the Director of the National

Bureau of Standards of the Department of Commerce. Received January 18, 1937.

225

yun 4 om, 1931

226 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

physicist seem as bizarre and fantastic as the monsters with which

geographical explorers used to ornament their maps. For one thing

there is no fluid but helium and all profit must be based on its use.

All other substances can here exist only in the solid state. Any leakage

of air into the apparatus is dreaded not because of its oxidizing action

but merely because the piping will be clogged by a plug of solid air.

In this topsy-turvy land platinum and copper lose their utility as

resistance thermometers and show a resistance which is almost

independent of temperature, while on the other hand manganin and

constantan are quite suitable for resistance thermometry. Another

paradox shows up even in one of the very methods used for arriving

at this wonderland. A strong vessel is filled with helium gas at a fairly

high pressure and cooled to liquid hydrogen temperatures. The valve

is then opened and after half of the helium has been allowed to escape,

the vessel is found to be two-thirds full of liquid.

Just as the wanderer in the fairy story came upon a baflling moun-

tain of glass in which mechanical friction was non-existent, so did

Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911 find himself confronted by a wire of quick-

silver in which electrical friction (i.e. resistance) was non-existent.

It is of the more recent explorations in this range of glass mountains,

or as Kamerlingh Onnes called it, the superconducting state, that I

wish to talk this evening.

In the time available any attempt at a complete summary of the

subject is out of the question, and I shall merely touch upon the more

outstanding features of the pioneer findings and here and there ven-

ture some rather rash speculations of my own as to what may lie

beyond the horizon. In opening a conference on the subject in 1935,

McLennan (4)? characterized one phase of the situation by saying

that “the experiments agree only in that the result is never quite

what might be expected.” If, therefore, my surmises turn out to be

quite far from the truth, the present delightfully paradoxical atmos-

phere of the subject will not have been disturbed.

First, to refresh your memories, let me outline the earlier work in

this field. Until 1923 all experimental work was confined to the Cryo-

genic Laboratory of the University of Leiden, but now explorers re-

cruited from the far corners of the earth are working in laboratories at

Berlin, Toronto, Oxford, Cambridge, Kharkov, and Washington.

The early work served to establish that the resistivity of a material

in the superconducting state was exceedingly low. Recent experi-

2 Numbers in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the end of the paper.

FRANCIS B. SILSBEE

President, Philosophical Society of Washington

1936

JUNE 15, 1937 SILSBEE: SUPERCONDUCTING STATE 227

ments (9) on Pb have shown it to be certainly less than 10- times

its value at 0°C. If a wire having a resistivity equal to this upper

limit were drawn down to a diameter of 1 micron, then to secure a

resistance of 1 ohm it would require a length sufficient to encircle the

earth 100 times. Many metals such as Hg, Pb, Sn, Tl, Ta show this

property, though others, such as Au, Cu, Ag, Bi have not shown it at

the lowest temperature at which they have thus far been tested. It is

therefore still an open question whether or not superconduction is a

common property of all metals. Many alloys which have at least one

superconducting component are also superconducting, and even

Au2Bi becomes superconducting at 1.84°K, although neither of its

constituents shows the phenomenon even at much lower tempera-

tures. Still stranger is the fact that a number of compounds such as

Cus, TiC, VN, ZrC, ZrB, etc., which are relatively very poor con-

ductors of electricity at ordinary temperatures, become supercon-

ducting at helium temperatures. The list of superconducting materials

grows almost daily and I will not attempt to give it in full here.

The early workers also discovered that if a sufficiently intense

magnetic field was applied to a superconductor its resistance was

restored. The requisite intensity of field is a function of temperature

and is roughly proportional to the difference between the temperature

of the specimen and the critical temperature at which it becomes re-

sisting in the absence of a magnetic field. A similar limiting intensity

was found for the current which the specimen could carry and still

remain superconducting, and it was a very obvious suggestion on my

part that these two limits should be connected by the relation that the

critical current was of such a value that the magnetic field which it

produced at the surface of the material was equal to the critical mag-

netic field. The truth of this relation has been confirmed experimen-

tally (33) for Sn and Pb, and for 19 years the hypothesis was as-

sumed to be generally applicable until it was found to be most cer-

tainly not true for Ta and several alloys by laboratory groups of one

of which strangely enough I was a member.

It would be expected that such a tremendous change in one prop-

erty of a material would be accompanied by corresponding changes

in other properties. For a long time, however, no trace of any other

changes could be found. More recently de Haas and Bremmer (5, 6,

7 and earlier papers) found that the thermal conductivity at tempera-

tures well below the normal transition temperature is somewhat

abnormal unless a sufficient magnetic field is applied to prevent the

appearance of superconduction. In the case of Pb, In and Sn the onset

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

of the superconducting state, by the removal of an inhibiting mag-

netic field, decreases the thermal conductivity in direct contradiction

to the Wiedemann-Franz relation, while with the alloy PbT], the effect

is strangely enough of the opposite sign.

A second property which has been found to be different in the su-

perconducting state is the specific heat. Keesom and van den Ende

have shown that for Sn and TI the specific heat is about 50 percent

greater when the material is in the superconducting state, and that in

the absence of a magnetic field there is no latent heat of transition.

a ie

Fig. 1.—Expulsion of magnetic flux produced by cooling a lead tube (left) and a

pair of tin cylinders (right) in the presence of a transverse external magnetic field which

had been applied while the specimens were above their transition temperature; a

before, 6 after, cooling.

A new era was begun by the publication by Meissner and Ochsen-

feld in 1933 of the results of experiments (20) in which the magnetic

field in the neighborhood of their specimens was measured, by a

‘‘flip coil,” while the specimens were cooled through the transition

temperature while in the presence of a magnetic field. Under these

conditions it would be expected that the magnetic lines of induction

which passed through the specimens at the initial temperature would

still link the specimen and in fact would now be even more firmly

‘frozen in,” since any tendency for them to decrease would induce

currents tending to preserve the status quo. Strangely enough,

however, the experiment showed that in some mysterious way the

lines of induction were automatically crowded out of the specimen

and their presence in the surrounding space was made evident by

the increased deflection of the ballistic galvanometer connected to

the exploring coil. Fig. 1 shows the two forms of specimen used in the

original experiment,’ and the distortion of the initially uniform mag-

netic field which was found to exist when the specimens had been

cooled well below the transition temperature. The most startling

feature of this experiment is the fact that here apparently the mere

. Fig. 1 is reproduced from the paper by Meissner, Ochsenfeld and Heidenreich

20).

JUNE 15, 1937 SILSBEE: SUPERCONDUCTING STATE 229

abstraction of degraded heat energy from the specimen enables it to

do work against the magnetic field. Presumably the potential ability

to do this work developed when the magnetic field was applied to the

hot specimen and the cooling has merely removed an inhibiting effect.

Nevertheless, the mere existence of the Mezssner effect, as it has come

to be called, indicates that the primary phenomena involved in the

superconducting transition are inherently reversible in the thermo-

dynamic sense.

Ake LIB

TEMPERATURE To

Fig. 2.—Curve FC is a graph of critical magnetic field H; vs. temperature fora

typical superconductor. Points to the left of this curve correspond to superconducting

and points to the right, to normal resisting conditions.

The theorists have been prompt to recognize the implications of the

Meissner effect and the older definition of a superconductor as a

material in which inherently the resistivity equals zero has almost

come to be replaced by the newer definition that the magnetic induc-

tion equals zero. Notable among the theorists are F. & H. London

(15, 16, 17, 18, 19) who have developed a set of differential equations

to describe a material in the superconducting state. The electro-

dynamic equation describing an ordinary conductor can be written

pJ —H=0

230 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

where p is resistivity, J is current density, and £ electric force. In a

superconductor p =0 and H=0, leaving J indeterminate. The Lon-

dons suggest as a fundamental equation

c curl Ay = — 7

where c is the velocity of light, H the magnetic field and A a positive

constant, characteristic of the material. Combining this equation

with the usual equation c curl E = —H yields

c curl (AJ — E£) =0

which indicates that any electric force will produce an acceleration

of the flow of the system of superconducting electrons, the inertia of

the system being characterized by the coefficient A. If this inertia is

simply the mass of a cloud of otherwise free electrons, one per atom

as in the calculations of Becker, Heller, and Sauter, it works out that

the resulting flow of current is appreciable only in a surface layer

about 10— cm thick.

The suggestion of reversibility has been followed up theoretically

by Gorter and Casimir and experimentally by Keesom, Kok and van

Laer (12, 14) at Leiden. Considering a diagram, Fig. 2, in which the

applied magnetic field is plotted as ordinate and temperature as

abscissa so that any point represents a possible condition of the speci-

men, you will note that by reason of the Meissner effect a specimen

at D is in the same magnetic condition if it arrived there by the path

AFED as if it had traversed the path ABCD. The complete rectangle

represents a thermodynamic cycle. If it is traversed in the counter-

clockwise direction the material will function like the working fluid

of a heat engine and deliver (magnetic) work at the expense of a flow

of heat from a higher to a lower temperature. Conversely, clockwise

cycles produce a refrigerating effect. Unfortunately this cooling is not

well adapted to the actual production of low temperatures. The

method of adiabatic demagnetization which has proved so very use-

ful in the low temperature field in the last few years, while theoreti-

cally slightly analogous, is in detail totally different. A related con-

sequence of this thermodynamic reasoning is that there must be a

latent heat of transformation when by reason of the presence of a

magnetic field the transition takes place at a temperature lower than

normal. For Tl this latent heat at 1.91°K (0.45° below its normal

transition) is 0.000346 cal/mol; and for Sn at 2.66°K (1.07° below its

normal transition) is 0.0012 cal/mol. This theory would predict a

magneto-caloric cooling when a thermally insulated specimen is

carried from the superconducting to the normal state by an in-

JUNE 15, 1937 SILSBEE: SUPERCONDUCTING STATE 231

crease in magnetic field. Such a cooling was found experimentally

at Oxford by Mendelssohn and Moore.

A much more complete confirmation of the thermodynamic rela-

tions results from the calorimetric work at Leiden in which blocks

of thallium and of tin were in effect carried around the cycle clock-

wise while the energy transfers were carefully measured. On calculat-

ing the various entropy changes and making due allowance for the

magnetic work involved, the net failure to close the cycle, which

could result from irreversibility, did not exceed 2 per cent of the gross

change in entropy in the experiment with Tl and was even less in

the case of Sn. In view of the exceedingly minute energies involved

in these experiments, only 0.0004 cal/mol for thallium at 1.9°K, this

agreement is a triumph of experimentation as well as of theory.

The transition may be regarded as at least analogous to what

Ehrenfest has called a ‘“‘change of phase of the second order’’ and on

this basis Rutgers has deduced (27) the relation

AC, = (Ff /400) (GH, /aT)

between AC,, the discontinuity in the specific heat, and the slope

dH ,/dT of the transition curve. (6 is here the density and 7’, the tran-

sition temperature in the absence of a field.) This relation has also

been verified experimentally for tin and thallium as shown in Table I.

TABLE I.—EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF RuTGERS’ EQUATION

ae Ty dH;,/aT Ac(cal/°K/mol)

Ck) (oersteds/°K) a Ant

Tin Seid 151 0.00229 0.0024

Thallium 2.36 1a? 0.00144 0.00148

The successes just enumerated may give the impression that the

subject has now been fully explored, but when the Russian workers

Schubnikow and Chotkewitsch, applying Rutgers formula to a PbBi

alloy, which happens to have the very large value of 5000 oersteds/°K

for dH,/dT, they found no trace of any discontinuity in the specific

heat although they could have detected as little as 1 percent of the

predicted value. A similar negative result is reported by Mendelssohn

and Moore for PbTl.. Moreover, of the many repetitions and varia-

tions of the Meissner experiment which were promptly performed in

other laboratories, only a few, such as those with very pure mercury,

showed 100 percent Meissner effect, while others showed partial

effects and some alloy samples showed no Meissner effect whatever,

232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

but a complete ‘“‘freezing in’’ of the induction. It is evident that there

is more in the field of superconduction than is dreamed of in our

present philosophy.

Next to the tremendous factor by which the conductivity changes,

the most outstanding peculiarity of the superconducting transition is

the abruptness of the change. One of the first questions which arises

is therefore ‘‘How abrupt is the transition?” or in slightly different

form ‘‘Does each volume element change abruptly or continuously

through the transition?” In the usual polycrystalline wire specimens,

the transition curve, in which the resistance is plotted against tem-

perature or external magnetic field, has a finite slope and is rounded

more or less at both ends, the range from 0.1 to 0.9 of the normal re-

sistance being about 0.02°K. Curves obtained with monocrystalline

specimens are notably steeper, sometimes having a range of only

0.0001°K, while those with alloys are often flatter. In certain mercury

specimens subjected to a decreasing magnetic field the decrease in

resistance has occurred in a relative few definite steps each presuma-

bly corresponding to the transition of an individual crystal. The in-

crease of resistance was however continuous. This of course strongly

suggests that in the ideal case the change is discontinuous. Most of

the theoretical workers with due regard for Occam’s warning against

superfluous hypotheses, have assumed the discontinuous “all or

nothing”’ basis, and have tried to account for the observed phenomena

by suitable combinations within the test specimen of regions, each

consisting of only one of the two fundamental states, superconducting

or normal. Notable among these treatments are those of Gorter and

Casimir and of the Londons. Recently Peierls (26) has abandoned

this effort as impossible and postulates the existence of a third “tran-

sition state.’ In this state the resultant magnetic field H is required

to have the constant value H, but the magnetic induction B may have

any value between 0 and H,. For the (magnetic) cases which he

treats, he is not concerned directly with the resistivity and so does

not commit himself as to whether or not its variation is also con-

tinuous in the transition state. Experiments by Schoenberg (28) have

been interpreted as suggesting that there is a finite resistivity in this

intermediate state.

If the ‘‘all or nothing’’ hypothesis is to be retained (at least as

regards the change in resistivity) we have as the next question, the

cause of the finite range usually observed. The easiest answer in the

case of polycrystalline wire would be that the individual crystallites

having different orientation with respect to the direction of current

JUNE 15, 1937 SILSBEE: SUPERCONDUCTING STATE 233

flow exhibited slightly different transition temperatures. Very careful

work by de Haas, Voogd and Jonker on three monocrystals of tin

having radically different orientation have shown only such exceed-

ingly small differences in threshold temperature as to practically

eliminate this explanation of the range. Mechanical strain is known

to affect the transition temperature slightly and may well be the

RESISTANCE IN OHMS

LOG, RESISTANCE

—

TEMPERATURE °K

Fig. 3—Transition curve of a tantalum specimen. Points show experimental values

of resistance and of the logarithm of the resistance plotted against temperature. The

curve & has the equation

R, 2 ae

R=—— | 1+— | e* dx

2 Vid o

where x =3.09 (T —3.963) and T is the temperature and R, the normal resistance.

cause of at least part of the observed range, the rest is still unex-

plained.

A supplementary question is ‘‘How far does the toe of the transi-

tion curve extend?” The importance of this lower end of the curve

lies in the fact that the rate of decay of any induced currents is fixed

by the residual resistance, and true superconducting behavior is to

be expected only when the resistance is so low that the relaxation

time of the currents is long compared with the duration of the experi-

ment. 5

One example of a transition curve obtained at the National Bureau

of Standards by Brickwedde, Scott and the author is shown in Fig. 3.

This is for a specimen of hard-drawn tantalum wire, 0.075 mm in

diameter, 210 cm long, as measured at decreasing temperature with a

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 6

measuring current of 1 ma. The S-shaped distribution of the observed

points rather suggested that the influences tending to shift the transi-

tion temperatures of the various parts of the specimen away from

the mean might have a random distribution. To test this, the solid

curves were calculated from the assumed Gaussian distribution pass-

ing through the mid-point & and having a parameter h fitted to the

slope of the curve at that point. The good fit of the resistance curve

R to the observed points is perhaps to be expected but the fact that

LOG, RESISTANCE

RESISTANCE IN OHMS

‘

“I

TEMPERATURE °K

Fig. 4.—Transition curve of a tin specimen. Experimental values

of resistance plotted against temperature.

the left-hand extremity of the log R curve fits so closely the observa-

tions at values of resistance only one ten-thousandth of that for which

the curves were fitted is striking and perhaps significant.

Another transition is shown in Fig. 4. This is for a sample of ex-

truded tin wire 0.22 mm in diameter measured with a relatively large

current, viz. 1.8 amperes. The bulk of the transition is similar in trend

to the preceding, though it cannot be so closely fitted by a simple

Gaussian curve. The ‘‘toe’”’ of the curve is however totally different

and shows a prolonged almost exponential variation with temperature

which is suggestive of a Boltzmann distribution.

The preceding examples have shown transitions as the temperature

was varied at a constant (zero) magnetic field. With polycrystalline

specimens, the curves obtained on varying the magnetic field at

constant temperature are much the same in shape and are nearly the

same whether the field is parallel or transverse to the direction of cur-

rent flow.

JUNE 15, 1937 SILSBEE: SUPERCONDUCTING STATE 235

De Haas, Voogd and Jonker have found that if a cylindrical single

crystal is subjected to a transverse magnetic field a markedly different

type of transition is obtained. The field required for full resistance

is about double that at which a measurable resistance is first

noted, the resistance rising almost linearly with the field pro-

vided the current is fairly large. With smaller currents the resistance

at intermediate fields is materially less than with larger currents.

The wide range of field over which the transition extends obviously

calls for a different type of explanation and some recent work on the

details of the process of the penetration of a magnetic field into a

superconducting body may perhaps furnish the clue to the origin of

curves of this type.

The work in question, by de Haas and Guinau (10, 11) at Leiden

on a monocrystalline tin sphere, parallels and amplifies work by

Mendelssohn and Babbitt (21, 22, 23) at Oxford and by Schoenberg

(28) at Cambridge on polycrystalline specimens. Starting with the

sphere at a low temperature, these workers applied an external

magnetic field which in the absence of the sphere would have been

uniform, and measured the intensity of the resulting field at various

points near the equator of the sphere and in holes bored through it.

The intensity was measured by noting the change in resistance of

small bismuth wires suitably placed. If H, is the critical value of

magnetic field for the particular temperature at which the sphere was

held, then for external fields less than 2/3 H;, the sphere behaved as

if it had zero permeability and all the lines of force were forced to

detour around it. It follows from the equations of the electromagnetic

field that under these conditions the field intensity at the equator is

3/2 H, when H, is the intensity of the external field at a great dis-

tance (or the intensity which would exist at the center if the specimen

were absent). Measurements confined to external points cannot de-

termine whether such a field distribution is the result of a true dia-

magnetism existing throughout the body of the sphere (its volume

susceptibility being x= —1/47), perhaps as a result of microscopic

Amperian currents, or whether there is a macroscopic system of cur-

rents circulating around the surface of the sphere in planes normal to

the axis of the field. The measurements at Leiden using bismuth de-

tectors located in a hole along the polar axis, and in a thin equatorial

crevasse could make the necessary distinction. The detectors showed

zero magnetic field under these conditions, and thus proved that the

second hypothesis (viz. macroscopic currents circulating in the surface

of the sphere) was the correct one.

236 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 6

The next question is ‘‘What will happen when the field is increased

so that 3/2 H, exceeds H,,?” It might well be supposed that the ma-

terial in an equatorial zone would become resisting so that the macro-

scopic currents there would die out, but that a new system would

develop within the material so that the central portion in the form

of a prolate ellipsoid would still remain superconducting, and that

currents on the surface of this inner region would separate it from the

outer resisting zone. It is to be noted that if such a distribution existed

the field would drop off rather rapidly outside it so that the outer

equatorial zone would again be in a field less than H,. There is a little

evidence in the Leiden data that this condition may exist over a

narrow range, but when H, has increased by 10 percent above 2/3

H,, the entire system of macroscopic currents on the spherical sur-

face seems to break down. The data yielded by the internal detectors

then become consistent with a truly diamagnetic body. The system

of persistent currents must therefore have become subdivided into

eddies smaller in diameter than the detector. Perhaps these enclose

“columns” or ‘‘needles’”’ of superconducting material, the axes of

which lie parallel to the field, but they may of course degenerate in

both dimensions into small spherical volumes of perhaps molecular

dimensions. The total flux of induction threading the equator of the

sphere increases linearly with further increases in the external field

until, when this has reached the value H,, the specimen behaves like

a normal material in which » =1 or «=O. For values of H, interme-

diate between 2/3 H, and H, the field distribution inside and outside

is that corresponding to a material having a mean permeability given

by the relation: » =(8H,/H,—2). The detailed nature of these cur-

rent eddies which must persist and enclose certain superconducting

and fluxless regions embedded in a matrix of normally resisting mate-

rial, still remains to be studied.

The picture suggested by these experiments on spheres can now

be carried over to the cylindrical wires previously discussed. For a

circular superconducting cylinder placed transversely in the field,

the factor by which the initially uniform external transverse field

H, must be multiplied to get the maximum intensity is 2, instead of

1.5 as in the spherical case. Von Laue pointed out that the first signs

of disturbance noted by de Haas and Voogd and Jonker occurred at

about 1/2 of the field which was found to be critical in the longitu-

dinal case, and offered this distortion of the field by a factor of 2 as

an explanation. If the penetration had occurred by the gradual proc-

ess first suggested above, so that the superconducting region became

JUNE 15, 1937 SILSBEE: SUPERCONDUCTING STATE 237

an elliptical cylinder of gradually increasing eccentricity, the long

axis of the ellipse forming the diameter of the wire parallel to the

field, von Laue’s explanation would fail, because the superconduction

along this axial “‘blade’’ would be ample to prevent the appearance

of resistance. However, since the penetration of the sphere is not con-

tinuous but proceeds by an abrupt degeneration of the system of

persistent currents into small regions having their axes parallel to

the field, the surrounding matrix of normally resisting material may

well form a continuous “‘phase’”’ and introduce a measurable resistance

even when most of the total volume is still in the superconducting

state. If the total induction increases linearly in the cylindrical as

well as in the spherical case, as seems very reasonable, the fraction

of the total volume which is normally resisting will also increase lin-

early (assuming B =O in the superconducting portions) and the re-

sistance offered to the measuring current which flows in a direction

transverse to this columnar distribution would also be expected to

vary linearly. To explain the other features of the results of de Haas,

Voogd and Jonker we need only make the further assumption that

imperfections in the crystal or some other causes have produced a

few slender superconducting paths running more or less axially from

one main superconducting column to the next. In the intermediate

stage a very small measuring current can meander mainly by such

paths from one end of the wire to the other with but little resistance.

A larger current, however, attempting a slender path, will produce

such an intense local magnetic field around itself as to destroy the

superconductivity of the path and will consequently experience the

normal resistance except when flowing athwart the larger supercon-

ducting columns.*

The fact that a measurable resistance just appears at a field some-

what greater (by about 15 percent) than that predicted by von Laue

can be explained by assuming that the initial stages of penetration

proceed some distance by the gradual process just suggested before

the degeneration of the persistent current system sets in.

A phenomenon which is apparently distinct but which may perhaps

be merely another manifestation of this same degeneration of the

current system when a magnetic field penetrates a superconductor

was discovered by Brickwedde, Scott and myself at the National

Bureau of Standards in 1934. It can best be described by following

4 It would appear that the curious result, deduced by Peierls for material in his

‘‘transition state,’’ that the boundaries of the superconducting regions must be (gen-

eralized) cylinders parallel to the external field will also apply in this case and thus

insures the needed parallelism of the superconducting columns.

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

the course of an experiment in which the apparent resistance of a

specimen of wire carrying a relatively large current is watched as the

temperature is raised gradually from a low value through the transi-

tion range. Fig. 4 shows a typical example of this phenomenon in a

tin wire. At a particular temperature, in this case 3.44°K, the resist-

ance increases spontaneously in the course of a few seconds to

0.0048 ohm, a very considerable fraction of its full value, and then

decreases again at a somewhat slower rate to a fairly low value

0.0006 ohm. Further increase in temperature causes the resistance to

rise again along a curve which approximates the normal transition.

No corresponding phenomenon is found on cooling. For lack of a

better term we have called each of these spontaneous increases of

resistance followed by a decrease an overshoot.

I have described this overshoot as occurring as the temperature is

raised with a constant current in the wire and a constant external

magnetic field. Similar overshoots occur when the current is increased

at constant temperature and field and when the field is increased at

constant temperature and current. They are much less marked when

they occur at small currents, as is the case when temperature or field

is high, than when they occur with a larger current at a lower tem-

perature.

After an overshoot has proceeded to completion, a prompt repeti-

tion of the stimulus which produced it, as by opening the circuit

and reclosing it with the same large current, will not produce a second

overshoot. Hence, although its resistance is again very low, the

specimen just after the overshoot must be in a condition different

from that just before the overshoot. The original condition in which

the possibility of an overshoot is again latent can be attained by

cooling the specimen a few tenths of a degree for a few minutes.

To relapse again to speculation, may it not be that the resistance

during the overshoot exists while the regime of current flow is chang-

ing from a simple macroscopic distribution, stable at low tempera-

tures and induced perhaps by the Meissner effect, to a new regime

characterized by a subdivision of the volume into regions some of

which are resisting while others are superconducting? This second

regime may utilize more effectively than the first those portions of the

interior of the specimen which happen to be particularly favorably

situated to be superconducting.

The classic experiment of Meissner and Ochsenfeld, itself, demon-

strates that, on cooling their tin cylinders while they were carrying a

current, there occurred a spontaneous change in regime of current

JUNE 15, 1937 SILSBEE: SUPERCONDUCTING STATE 239

flow which was the converse of the change which we are now postulat-

ing to explain the overshoot.

One peculiar feature of this overshoot phenomenon is the fact

that it involves a process which requires a certain time for its com-

pletion. The time rate of progress of a process often gives a valuable

clue to the nature of the process. It was with this in mind that the

workers at Toronto undertook a study of the behavior of supercon-

ductors at high (radio) frequencies. At first: McLennan thought he

had found a real effect but later it was concluded that the observed

effects had resulted from changes in the magnitude of the currents

used and that there is no appreciable change in the transition point

up to frequencies of 3 X10’ cycles per second.

Two years ago I had the honor of presenting to this Society a

report of somewhat similar experiments by Brickwedde, Scott and

myself which however went one step further and showed that a tin

wire could change from the superconducting to the normal state and

back again fast enough to keep in step with the pulsations of an

impressed magnetic field which had a frequency of 3 10° cycles per

second.

More recently Keesom and van Laer (13) have announced that

when an ellipsoidal tin specimen passes from the superconducting to

the normal state as a result of increasing temperature, in the presence

of a constant magnetic field, there is a time lag of the order of 30

seconds. This lag in the transition is made manifest by the corre-

sponding lag in the evolution of the latent heat. Nosuch lag is observed

when the transition is stimulated by an increase in magnetic field at

substantially constant temperature. If a superconducting tin cylinder

of the diameter (3.5 em) used by Keesom and van Laer had suddenly

been endowed with the full normal resistance appropriate to 4°K, the

lag in penetration of the magnetic field which would be expected

from the induced eddy currents comes out at only about 1.5 seconds,

and any smaller eddy circuits in normally resisting material would

respond still more quickly. If the lag is the result of the time required

for eddy currents to die out, it is evident that the average resistivity

of the circuits must be much less than normal and that at least 95

percent of the circuit must be superconducting. The time required

for an overshoot is of the same order of magnitude as the thermal lags

reported from Leiden, but the stepwise changes noted during the

decrease in resistance imply that the phenomenon may be more

complex than a mere eddy current decay. Both Mendelssohn and

Pontius (24), and the Russian workers have also reported similar

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

changes in magnetic induction with time, the former noting step-like

changes. Keesom and van Laer suggest that this lag is an indication

of a weak coupling between the atomic lattice and the system of su-

perconducting electrons, while the prompt response to changes in

magnetic field indicates in contrast to this, a strong coupling between

this field and the superconducting electrons.

The Russian workers Rjabinin and Schubnikow (29, 30) have at-

tacked the subject from the point of view of the magnetician and

using as a specimen a fairly long cylinder (or prolate ellipsoid) have

obtained B—H curves both for Pb and for PbTl.. With a specimen of

this shape the distortion of the external field by the specimen is much

less than with a sphere, and the corrections for the ‘‘demagnetizing

effect’’ of the ends is much less. Of course in this topsy-turvy subject,

the ‘‘demagnetizing”’ action of these apparently diamagnetic specimens

really aids the external field. The measurements on the Pb specimen

showed that as the applied field is increased from zero the flux varies

as would be expected theoretically, being zero up to the critical field

and then rising abruptly to the value corresponding to »=1. When

the field is reduced below the critical value a partial Meissner effect

is observed, the flux decreasing abruptly but not to zero. Further

decrease in the applied field causes a further decrease in flux (i.e.

some flux was neither “frozen in” nor expelled by Meissner action).

There is a positive remanent flux when H =0, and as H is increased

in the opposite direction this flux continues to decrease linearly until

it has reached zero just as H reaches the value —H,. The remainder

of a cycle yields a symmetrical and reproducible hysteresis loop.

When the Russian workers performed a similar experiment with

an alloy PbTI, the dictum of McLennan was again exemplified. They

found to their surprise that the magnetic field began to penetrate

the specimen at a field Hix, much less than that value Hi2 which

previous experiments had shown to be critical as regards the restora-

tion of resistance. The penetration was however not quite complete

and the flux within the specimen slowly proceeded to approach more

and more closely that corresponding to »=1, finally reaching that

value at the field H;. some 17 times that at which penetration began.

On reducing the field a slight hysteresis was observed and at zero

applied field there was a small but definite remanent induction.

Qualitatively similar results were obtained on a PbBi alloy and have

been confirmed by other workers. Moreover it is found that with

alloys the critical value of current which destroys the superconduc-

tion is less even than that which would produce the penetrating field

JUNE 15, 1937 SILSBEE: SUPERCONDUCTING STATE 241

H,, and hence much less than H;.. I have already mentioned that

these alloys violate Rutgers’ relation for the specific heat. It therefore

seems that we must subdivide the general class of superconductors

into two sub-classes for which the provisional names of normal and

anomalous have been proposed by the workers at Toronto. A super-

conductor may be classed as normal if

1) it shows no penetration by magnetic fields less than that re-

quired to restore resistance to even small currents;

2) the Meissner expulsion of flux on cooling is manifested to at

least some extent under favorable conditions;

3) the restoration of resistance by heavy currents coincides with

the attainment of the critical field at the surface in accordance

with Silsbee’s hypothesis;

4) the change in specific heat at the transition is related to the

critical magnetic field by Rutgers’ equation.

While all of these properties have not been checked in all cases it

seems probable that tin, lead, thallium, and mercury are normal in

all these respects. On the other hand, a substance which disobeys one

of these rules is classed in the anomalous group. In this anomalous

group are now listed the element Ta and the metallic compounds

PbTI., Bi;Tl;, Pb.Bi, and PbSn. All of them have not been tested

for all of the properties listed but none has been found to be excep-

tional in one respect and normal in another, so that it seems probable

that they will be found to be anomalous in all respects.

It is perhaps therefore not too wild a speculation to suggest that it

is the critical field H,: for penetration which is to be taken as the

basis not only for property (1) but also for use in Rutgers’ equation

and in estimating the critical currents. The primary distinction of the

anomalous group would then become merely the single property of

being able to carry without resistance a small test current in a longi-

tudinal direction in a field up to Hy. much larger than H,. Unfor-

tunately the jumps in specific heat calculated from the H, values

are so low as not to be measurable. It should however be possible to

detect experimentally a correlation between the Meissner expulsion

and the penetrating field if one exists.

The correlation between the critical current and the penetrating

field for anomalous materials is definitely not as close as in the case

of the normal materials. Yet even here when the critical currents for

wires of different diameter are compared it is found that it is the tan-

gential magnetic fields produced by the critical currents which are

equal and not the currents themselves nor the current density. The

242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

observed difference in the penetrating powers of magnetic fields pro-

duced by internal and by external currents remains a challenge to the

— future.

The workers at Toronto (25) have made a very extensive study of

the behavior of thin films (0.5u to 30u thick) of Pb and particularly

of Sn. For convenience these films are supported on wires or tubes of

constantan or of German-silver on which they are deposited either

by dipping in the molten metal or electrolytically. They find that

films less than lu thick do not become superconducting at any tem-

perature down to 2°K and that if an outer layer of copper or nickel

is deposited over the tin no superconduction appears unless the film

is at least 4u thick.

The films of tin behave very much like alloys of the anomalous

class, and have abnormally high critical fields and abnormally low

penetrating fields and critical currents. The abnormality increases as

the film becomes thinner. The curves showing the progressive pene-

tration of magnetic field in these tin films are strikingly like the cor-

responding curve for PbT], observed by the Russian workers.

This connection between superconduction and a physical dimen-

sion (i.e. thickness) should prove a valuable clue to some scientific

detective. In fact certain theoretical calculations of Becker, Heller

and Sauter have been applied by Grayson-Smith to indicate that a

necessary thickness of the same order of magnitude as that of the

films used might be expected purely from the effect of the mass of

the electrons in retarding their otherwise “‘free’’ response to an elec-

tric field.

You will have noted that throughout this discussion it is the mag-

netic field which has been considered the limiting variable which

could not be exceeded without causing a breakdown of the super-

conducting mechanism. Yet even here we have a paradox, for while

the material is superconducting, the field cannot penetrate it, and

if the field cannot exist in the material how can it interfere with its

ability to conduct electricity? Of course the answer is that the field

is kept out by a flow of current and hence that the permissible linear

density of current expressible in amperes per centimeter width along

the surface is really the limiting feature. It would seem much more

reasonable to expect that a surface density of current expressible in

amperes per square centimeter of cross-section would constitute the

more fundamental limit. Perhaps this work on films may complete the

picture by showing an independent reason why the superconduction

current is limited in its possible thickness.

JUNE 15, 1937 SILSBEE: SUPERCONDUCTING STATE 243

I have reported tonight the current tidings from the many expedi-

tions in this field, both from the amateur dashes of the Washington

group up the most readily accessible peaks and points of vantage as

well as from the larger and more completely equipped expeditions

guided by the years of experience of Leiden. The expeditions have

sent back pictures which show beautiful agreements between ther-

mal and magnetic measurements and between theory and experi-

ment and yet other pictures of yawning chasms between quantities

which would be expected to agree, and of precipitous discontinuities

in what would be expected to be a continuous declivity. Let us hope

that ultimately the surveys will close, and that from some of the

higher peaks in this region we may secure more penetrating vision than

ever before into the innermost nature of electricity and of matter.

LITERATURE CITED

Excellent summaries of the work in the field of superconduction with bibliographies

which are fairly complete up to their respective dates are as follows:

1. MeissnER, W. Ergebnisse der exakten Naturwissenschaften. Bd. 11: 219-263.

1932.

2. Burton, E. F. The phenomenon of superconductivity. University of Toronto

Press, 1934. ;

3. SmitH, H. Grayson and WILHELM, J. O. Review of Modern Physics. 7:

237-271. 1935. os

4. McLennan, J. C., and others. Conference on superconductivity. Proc. Roy.

SOG. 1525 1.2 A935:

The following references are of more recent appearance than those listed in the

foregoing summaries or are of particular importance in connection with topics treated

in this paper:

5. BremMeEr, H. and pe Haas, W. J. On the conduction of heat by some metals at

low temperatures. Physica 3:672. 1936.

Determination of the heat resistance of mercury at liquid hel1um temper-

atures. Physica 3: 687. 1986.

ae On the heat conductivity of superconducting alloys. Physica 3: 692.

8. Castmir-JONKER, J. and pE Haas, W. J. Experiments on a superconductive

alloy in a magnetic field. Physica 2: 935. 1935.

. GRASSMANN, P. Untersuchungen ueber die Mikrowiderstaende der Supraleater.

Phys. Zeit. 37: 569. 1936. i

10. pe Haas, W. J. and Guinau, O. Transition of a monocrystalline tin sphere

om the supraconductive into the non-supraconductive state. Physica 3:

182. 1936.

On the transition of a tin sphere from the non-supraconductive to the

supraconductive state. Physica 3: 534. 1936.

12. Kmrsom, W. and Kox, J. Measurements of the latent heat of thalltum con-

nected with the transition in a constant external magnetic field from the supra-

conducting to the non-supraconducting state. Physica 1: 503. 1934. .

13. KeEsom, W. and van Lagr, P. H. Relaxation phenomena in the transition

from the supraconductive into the non-supraconductive state. Physica 3:

173. 1936.

Measurements of the latent heat of tin in passing from the supracon-

ductive to the non-supraconductive state. Physica 3: 371. 1936.

15. Lonpon, F. and H. The electromagnetic equations of the supraconductor.

Proc. Roy. Soc. 149: 71. 1935.

16. Supraleitung und Diamagnetismus. Physica 2: 341. 1935.

17. von Lauz, M. and Lonpon, F. and H. Theory of superconductivity. Zeit. f.

Physik 96: 359. 1935.

MM...

14.

244 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

18. Lonpon, H. Phase equilibrium of supraconductors in a magnetic field. Proc.

Roy. Soc. 152: 650; “1935:

19. Lonpon, F. Theorte magnetischer Felder in Supraleiter. Physica 3: 450.

1936.

20. Meissner, W. and Heripenreicu, F. Change in current distribution and

magnetic induction with appearance of superconductivity. Phys. Zeit. 37:

449. 1936.

21. MENDELSSOHN, K. and Bassirt, J. D. Magnetic behavior of supraconducting

tin spheres. Proc. Roy. Soc. 151: 316. 1935.

Specific heat of a supraconducting alloy. Proc. Roy. Soe. 151: 334.

22.

1935:

23. MENDELSSOHN, K. Transition between the normal and supraconducting states.

I.— Magnetic induction in mercury. Proc. Roy. Soc. 155: 558. 1936.

24. MENDELSSOHN, K. and Pontius, R. B. Time effects in supra-conductors.

Nature 138: 29. 1936. and Physica 3: 327. 1936.

25. Misener, A. D. Magnetic effects and current sensitivity of superconducting

films. Canadian Journ. Research 14: 25. 1936.

26. PrrERLS, R. Magnetic transition curves of supraconductors. Proc. Roy. Soe.

155; 6132. 1936.

27. Rutgers, A. J. Bemerkung zur Anwendung der Thermodynamik auf die

Supraleitung. Physica 3: 999. 1936.

28. ScHOENBERG, D. Magnetization curves of a superconducting sphere and ring.

Proc. Roy, Soe. 1552712. 1936.

29. ScHUBNIKow, L., CHoTkEWwiTscH, W., ScHEPELEW, and RJaBININ, J. N.

Magnetische Eigenschaften supraleitenden Metalle und Legierungen. Phys.

Zeit. Sowjet Union. Special Number June 1936, p. 39.

30. Scuusnikow, L. Destruction of supraconductivity by electric current and mag-

netic field. Nature 138: 545. 1936.

and ALEXEJEVSKI, N. E. Transition curve for the destruction of

supraconductivity by an electric current. Nature 138: 804. 1936.

32. SmirH, H. Grayson and WILHELM, J.O. Distribution of magnetic field around

simply and multiply connected supraconductors. Proc. Roy. Soc. 157: 132.

1936.

33. Tuyn, W. and KAMERLINGH ONNES, H. The disturbance of supraconductivity

by magnetic fields and currents. The hypothesis of Silsbee. Journ. Franklin

Inst. 201: 379. 1926.

dl.

BOTANY.—A basis for mycogeography! W. W. DrexHt, Bureau of

Plant Industry. (Communicated by JoHNn A. STEVENSON.)

Where ships unload strange cargoes from distant ports even the

loiterer has a quickened feeling of romantic curiosity about those

cargoes. Perhaps the herbarium botanist may be excused for a quick-

ened pulse when he examines specimens from foreign lands or even

from distant sections of his own land. Frequently the specimens are

novelties that cannot be matched in our collections; again, however,

the specimens from the antipodes are identifiable as species to be

found also in our own dooryards. That is not true of most seed plants.

One can readily detect an ordered arrangement, a seeming causal

relation between geography and the distribution of vascular plants.

But all too often our sense of order is outraged by the apparent con-

tradictions afforded by our incomplete knowledge of mycogeography.

As Bisby (1) has pointed out, ‘“Mycologists have been able to map

1 Address of the retiring President of the Botanical Society of Washington, pre-

sented December 3, 1935. Received February 20, 1937.

JUNE 15, 1937 DIEHL: MYCOGEOGRAPHY 245

with accuracy the geographic distribution of comparatively few

fungi.’’ On the other hand, phanerogamic botanists have been able

not only to map with approximate accuracy the distribution of seed

plants, but to formulate principles governing their distribution. In

spite of a paucity of such attempts to generalize regarding the geo-

graphic distribution of fungi, some phases of this many sided subject

will be discussed, avoiding in so far as possible questions concerning

their dissemination.

EDAPHIC FACTORS

In the experience of those who have attempted to cultivate a

fungus the most immediate problem is to determine its nutrient re-

quirements or what the plant geographer and the ecologist would

term the “edaphic factors.”’ As nutrients all fungi require the elabo-

rated organic materials of plant or animal origin. Certain fungi if

not especially choosy in this regard may have a wide distribution over

the earth and are said to be cosmopolitan in range. This is true of the

Myxomycetes, most species of this taxonomically questionable group

being found indiscriminately in the Arctic as well as in the tropics.

Lichens do show obvious relations to climate, but they present prob-

lems of their own and are not discussed here.

Aquatic fungi.—The sea is of much greater area than the land, but,

unfortunately, even less is known about the fungi in the sea than

about those in fresh water, and much less of fresh water fungi than

of those to be found on the land. Even so, in the case of the true water

molds we have the conformity of a taxonomic group to aquatic habi-

tats, although within the water itself the fungi may have highly re-

stricted sources of nutrition, that is to say, the tissues of particular

species of plants or animals. Despite all the effort that has gone into

the study of water fungi very little is on record about those growing

upon algae, in fact, more is known about the fungus parasites of

fungi than about those of algae, both terrestrial and marine. To a

certain extent water molds appear to be cosmopolitan and European

species, or species closely related, are frequent on this continent. Of

late years studies of water molds upon protozoa and lower inverte-

brates have revived an interest in such fungi, but thus far little is

known of their geographic relations. More perhaps has been known

about those few described species, chiefly cosmopolitan, which grow

upon fishes.

We would expect marine fungi to be cosmopolitan. A striking re-

cent instance was that of an apparently unknown ascomycete grow-

246 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

ing upon eelgrass (Zostera), along the eastern coast of Canada. It was

described as new in 1934 (5), and within the same year it was re-

ported by Tutin (11) from England, and by Petersen (6) from Den-

mark. A similar cosmopolitanism has been observed for Tetramyxa

_ parasitica which grows in both hemispheres upon Ruppia maritima,

another salt-water seed plant. We know of these instances because

they have been conspicuous upon particular seed plants, and because

economic interest has focused considerable attention upon them.

Doubtless numerous analogous cases exist, but have not been studied

and recorded.

Terrestrial fung:.—During the last 150 years there has accumulated

a vast literature concerning fungi that have been found in the earth

or growing upon plants and animals or their remains upon the earth.

There are numerous fungus floras of various nations, states or other

areas, usually mere lists with new species added where the author

was unable readily to identify certain specimens. One can peruse

such lists ad nauseam, but unless the specimens on which they are

based can be examined for verification the particular names in these

lists are too often of doubtful meaning. For the most part these floras

and the many related records of specific occurrences do not present

any easy road to an understanding of the geographic distribution of

fungi. When, however, these seemingly unrelated accounts are care-

fully sifted, verified and pieced together into a new pattern they may

present a picture with some significance for the plant geographer.

Regional lists of the more common sort include, of course, many of

the conspicuous mushroom fungi, which grow to a large extent from

the earth or from partly buried materials. These records are of greater

meaning, however, when supplemented by the more technical studies

of the type undertaken by the soil microbiologist. Although such

studies are not directly concerned with geography they have afforded

means of explaining significant differences between soil floras.

Since most soils are surcharged seasonally with water, the soil is

itself a harbor for some aquatic fungi; and certain studies of water

molds in soils have been illuminating, but they are insufficient to

indicate broad geographic relations. Water molds in soils must suffer

periodic drouth and during dry seasons only those can survive which

are capable through resistant spores or other means of enduring the

drouth conditions.

Many fungi thought of as soil fungi in reality grow from roots or

other remains of organic life underground. When restricted to particu-

lar host species the fungus involved cannot be cosmopolitan, but is

JUNE 15, 1937 DIEHL: MYCOGEOGRAPHY 247

limited to the region where that host exists. Perhaps such a fungus is

not properly a soil organism anyway. In general it is not improbable

that soil fungus floras are as much determined by the peculiarities of

the decomposition products of certain plant and animal remains as

by the character of the inorganic substances present.

That the chemical nature of a soil, or for that matter of any na-

tural medium, is a significant factor in determining the success of a

fungus is attested by the results of a multitude of studies of the

growth of various species 7n vitro correlated with studies of them in

their natural habitats. One of the most readily observed chemical

effects upon a fungus is that produced by the reaction of the medium.

Such effects were recognized and measured even before the present

conception of hydrogen-ion concentration was given publicity. As an

instance may be cited the writer’s attempt in 1915 to isolate on

artificial media the purple Rhizoctonia from alfalfa roots. Other fungi

and bacteria grew as well or better than the Rhizoctonia. Slight acidifi-

cation prevented growth of bacteria and most contaminating fungi,

but there was a contaminating Fusarium which was almost as stub-

bornly tolerant of acid as the Rhizoctonia. It was found, however,

that with the continued addition of acid a point was reached where

the Rhizoctonia could tolerate the acid and grow while the Fusarzwm

could not. The reaction of the medium here was plainly a factor in

regulating the fungus flora. Many comparable studies could be cited

wherein the reaction determined the ability of a fungus spore to

germinate and of the mycellium to grow or to produce reproductive

bodies. The common cultivated mushroom is an excellent example.

According to some unpublished data furnished by Dr. E. B. Lambert,

Agaricus campestris has a considerable latitude in regard to acid

tolerance for vegetative growth, but it will produce fruiting bodies only

if the casing soil is above pH5. Those who have gathered mushrooms

of this species by the bushel in such neutral or limestone soils as occur

in the Ohio Valley have always remarked upon the contrast afforded

by the poor harvests to be encountered in the acid soils along the

Atlantic seaboard. The same is true with respect to the relative abun-

dance of morels in their season in limestone areas as contrasted with

their scarcity here. Morels have been noted by various observers as

especially abundant following fires in forest and field. W. H. Long

(4) in a discussion of fungi about Austin, Texas, called attention to

their size and abundance in alkaline cedar-brake soils. Other effects

of certain soil constituents have been observed. It is known that

some minerals when in sufficient quantity are toxic to certain fungi

248 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

and others are stimulating, but our knowledge of a consistent rela-

tion between soil minerals and mycogeography is sadly insufficient

for any generalization.

That complex biological relations other than saprophytism and

parasitism exist between fungi is apparent from studies in the labora-

tory. It is a common observation attested by numerous records that

certain fungi in mixed culture thrive together while others are antag-

onistic to each other. Studies of successions such as those on dung long

ago suggested the production by some species of substances toxic or

deleterious to certain others, or to themselves, yet not deleterious at

all to certain species. Such ecological relations are detected in artifi-

cial cultures and have been noted for localized natural areas in studies

of fairy-rings, but we have no knowledge of their effect over any ex-

tensive range.

The physical condition of a soil, whether sandy or clayey, is an

obvious determinant of some species. Certain species are rarely met

except in sandy soils, but here again the question of distribution is

locally ecological rather than geographic. If the nomenclature of fungi

were a clue to specialization in sand, such specialization is rare for

few fungi bear the specific names arenarius, arenicola, etc., which

appear rather frequently for seed plants.

It is true that many fungi in soils are more or less specialized in

their saprophytism or parasitism. But published accounts with re-

spect to substrata have at least a shadow of accuracy when the record

gives the name of the plant, living or dead, as the natural medium

for the fungus. The degree of accuracy becomes greater for those

substrata not buried in the soil. A glance at any of the regional lists, or

better into Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum, reveals an overwhelming

number of fungi recorded as growing upon the tissues of particular

host plants, chiefly the aerial parts of such plants. It is evident that

for ages past there has been a specialization of certain species either

as saprophytes limited to specific organic substrata or as parasites

varying in behavior through specialized facultative parasitism to obli-

gate parasitism.

Fungi specialized to grow on animals.—There are indications that

some fungi may be versatile enough to grow upon non-living tissues

of both plants and animals. But there is a large number of species of

fungi specialized to grow only upon or in certain animals. Too little

is known, unfortunately, about the nature of their structure or ac-

tivities. That the field is unexplored is indicated by the fact that

Seymour’s Host index of fungi of North America (8), considered

JUNE 15, 1937 DIEHL: MYCOGEOGRAPHY 249

practically complete up to 1923, devotes but 20 out of a total of

718 pages to names of fungi known upon animals, the rest (679

pages) listing the names of fungi recorded upon plants. Of the 20

pages listing fungi on animals less than one page includes all those

fungi then known to grow upon the lower invertebrates in America.

Less than one page is devoted to fungi on vertebrates. The lion’s

share of the 19 pages of zodphilous fungi consists of those on Arthro-

pods, and here but one fungus is recorded for the Crustacea. The 19

pages of fungi on Arthropods is practically an index of the species of

Entomophthorales and Laboulbeniales on insects described by the

late Roland Thaxter. Although he revealed a new world of fungi we

are still without an adequate knowledge of their geographic distribu-

tion. That this small total of fungi on animals is not a true picture

of the condition in nature is attested by such an increased interest

in the subject since 1923 that there have been more American records

of such fungi since 1923 than before. Not only in America but in

Europe also there is an increased activity in studies of fungi upon

animals, although we are still without knowledge of their distribution

over the earth except in so far as they are obviously related to disease

in man. The geography of certain fungous parasites of man is better

known because there is a wealth of clinical record of thrush, of ring-

worm, and of certain even more repulsive skin diseases caused by

fungi. Many of these are almost exclusively tropical while others are

known only in temperate climates. Whether the prevalence in the

tropics of certain of these fungi is due to the climate or to the less

sanitary habits of many tropical peoples is an open question. Certain

it is that there is here a distribution according to geography. There is

a preponderance of Italian records of fungi pathogenic to man, but

this disproportion is doubtless merely the result of the mycological

training and traditional interest in mycology in Italy.

CLIMATIC FACTORS

This distribution of fungi in man suggests a response to climate

because Homo sapiens of various races tends to be susceptible to the

fungi of a given region. Many fungi both saprophytes and parasites

of plants are limited to the tropical or neo-tropical zone, although

certain species of the Xylariaceae, and certain Phalloids show notable

extensions northward. These latter saprophytes occur sparingly along

our seaboard, but their main range is from the West Indies to Brazil.

Species of Balansia, obligate parasites of grasses, have this same

range. When plants infected by some species of Balansia are culti-

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

vated under cool conditions, the fungus grows more slowly or dies

while the host, continuing to grow, becomes normal, i.e. without the

fungus. This temperature effect on the host and parasite is related

to a climatic effect upon their geographic distribution. Where sub-

strata or hosts are limited to the tropics it is easy to suggest that the

ecology of the host is the chief factor in limiting the fungus to the

tropics. Such is doubtless true of the unique genus Camillea with

remarkable species that stand out from the woody substratum, re-

sembling nothing so much as nails partly driven into the wood.

Species of Camillea are always tropical and it is thought that their

substrata are woods limited to the tropics. Many species of autoecious

rusts are limited to particular portions of their normal host ranges.

In this region we have a species of Pucciniastrum, P. americanum,

growing on red raspberries. This species is found northward into the

Canadian zone, but in that life zone it meets a close relative, P. arcti-

cum which is found through the Hudsonian and Arctic-alpine zones

into Asia. The remarkable rust genus Ravenelia, largely tropical,

ranges into the United States, and the species are generally more

southern than most of the hosts. The powdery mildews are much

more in evidence in the drier western United States than eastward,

but when we have arid conditions eastward they become more preva-

lent here. This is really not so much plant geography as it is epi-

demiology; but it does illustrate a climatic effect upon normal occur-

rence. Puccinia glumarum causing stripe rust of wheat is practically

restricted to the western highlands and the Pacific Coast from Mexico

into Canada. This distribution is in marked contrast to that of most

common parasites of wheat; and the role of temperature and prevail-

ing winds as pointed out by Sanford and Broadfoot (7) is here a

factor in the general climatic complex affecting varying annual dis-

semination.

Although rusts and many other types of fungi are able to thrive in

comparatively arid as well as moist regions because they utilize moist

conditions when they appear, most of the Phycomycetes are not so

' versatile. Tucker (10) has noted that species of Phytophthora are

favored by high humidity and are rare in arid regions. He notes that

certain species are primarily tropical in distribution while others are

limited to temperate regions. In contrast to the Phycomycetes there

are doubtless many fungi, which like the Texas root rot fungus,

Phymatotrichum omnivorum, are found only in the arid Southwest.

The most comprehensive and significant regional lists of fungi have

been compiled for arctic areas. These lists, chiefly of parasitic fungi,

JUNE 15, 1937 DIEHL: MYCOGEOGRAPHY 251

contain a great number of species well known to the European and

North American mycoflora. But a considerable number of species

in the Arctic (common to alpine areas also) do not otherwise occur in

Europe. This has been ably discussed by Lind (3) who concluded that

compared with the condition in temperate regions Pyrenomycetes

were numerous, Discomycetes few, powdery mildews rare (some de-

veloping no conidia, others only conidia), that the Uredinales were

largely those having a perennial mycelium without a full complement

of spore forms, and as expected certain Peronosporales were abun-

dant. Lind noted also that there were few saprophytic molds and

bacteria to compete with other saprophytic fungi in plant tissues. The

well-known parasite of the rusts, Darluca filum (Biv.) Cast., was

common in the arctic as well as in temperate and tropical areas. The

arctic mycoflora thus includes temperate-zone and cosmopolitan spe-

cles as well as numerous endemics.

Most instances of altitudinal distribution of fungi appear to be

merely responses to the requirements of temperature and humidity

which delimit the so-called ‘life zones.’ An instance of a different sort

is that of an old claim recently reiterated by Costantin (2) that rust

on coffee, disastrous at low altitudes, becomes rare at certain higher

elevations at which the coffee can still thrive. Here in the eastern

United States, the apple-scab fungus is more abundant at higher

elevations, but it is primarily northern and the apple bitter-rot

fungus southern. The former is chiefly restricted to the Canadian and

Alleghanian life zones and the bitter rot organism chiefly Carolinian

and Austro-riparian. But there is an annual fluctuation of range de-

pending upon seasonal conditions. The rapid adaptation of some

fungi enables them to surmount the barriers which for seed plants

permit more easy delineation of life zones.

BARRIERS AND ENDEMISM

These seasonal fluctuations in apparent range for fungi restricted

by temperature demonstrate the effectiveness of unfavorable tem-

peratures as barriers. A temperature barrier is as effective as an

ocean. With the unintentional aid of modern man those obvious

barriers of temperature and of ocean tend to be circumvented. All

are familiar with the remarkable adaptation of the Andean potato

to the climate of Ireland with its fulfillment of the need in Ireland

for a cheap and suitable source of food, and with the fact that the

first Irish potato famine came on shortly after the early steamboats

with more rapid transportation could have carried the potato blight

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

fungus alive to Ireland. Here the shorter journey enabled the fungus

to survive the tropical voyage, an impossibility in the slower sailing

vessels. In like manner, the chestnut-blight fungus, endemic in Asia,

by the aid of man was enabled to surmount the ocean barrier.

The penetrating and almost nauseating odor of the Phalloids or

stink-horns is familiar to all. In New Zealand, Australia and South

Asia there are certain remarkable species of these found nowhere

else. One of these known as Lysurus mokusin is endemic in south

China, but on a steaming hot midsummer day it can be found emerg-

ing from the ground in the court back of the Smithsonian Building

and at several other points in Washington. Washington, D. C., and

Chico, California, are the only places known for it other than South

China. Our eastern American Phalloid, Dictyophora duplicata, is now

established in Germany and Austria as has been reported by Ulbrich

(12). It is possible, indeed likely, that the common mushroom, Agari-

cus campestris, which grows primarily on horse manure, came to

America with the horse.

Other barriers, of course, are mountains and deserts and the ab-

sence of favorable substrata and hosts. It is obvious that those fungi

requiring special hosts may be found wherever those hosts exist. An

excellent example is afforded by that remarkable ascomycetous genus

Cyttaria parasitic only upon species of Nothofagus, the antarctic

beech, with the coincident discontinuous geographic distribution in

Chile, New Zealand, and Tasmania. It is conceivable, however, that

where a plant occurs sparingly its obligate parasite may not be able

to reach all of its outlying stations, especially if the fungus spores are

not windborne. Such a case was reported in 1917 by N. E. Stevens

(9) for the natural distribution of Endothia gyrosa on oaks. He found

that in the northern United States where oaks became infrequent the

fungus, although apparently able to survive and reproduce itself

under existing conditions, was much less frequent than the host. In

other words there was here insufficient opportunity for infection, an

actual barrier of non-oak trees existing between infected trees and

uninfected trees over which barrier the fungus could not spread.

In the same manner the absence of a requisite alternate host from

a given area would preclude the reproduction within that area of any

fungus requiring two different host species for the annual cycle. Such

is the condition in the genus Gymnosporangium (our common species

in this area forming galls on red cedar and the alternate stage on the

apple and its close relatives). Changes in the natural range of species

have been much influenced, firstly by the introduction through cul-

JUNE 15, 1937 DIEHL: MYCOGEOGRAPHY 253

tivation of different hosts and substrata and secondly by the local

eradication of certain hosts and substrata. That the directions of

unfavorable winds complicated, of course, by bird migration, can

prove barriers, was shown by the slow westward spread of the chest-

nut-blight contrasted with its rapid spread southward.

The presence of deleterious organisms, parasitic, predaceous or

merely chemically antagonistic to the growth of a particular fungus,

ought to constitute a barrier, but consistent evidence is lacking.

Many endemics still persist in their localized habitats never having

been gathered elsewhere. Endemics may present practical problems,

as, for example, where some such fungus has surmounted its natural

barriers to assume economic importance in the newly invaded region.

Thus it will be seen that the natural distribution of a fungus species

is significant in interpreting its possibilities in a new range. Through

the agency of transported plants and animals as direct vectors man

has been the agent in notable changes from endemism to cosmopoli-

tanism.

In eastern America we have many species extending from South

America up the eastern coast of the United States. Certain species of

Xylaria, Hypoxylon, Simblum, Clathrus, as saprophytes, and of Ba-

lansia and Dothichloe as parasites show this range. They are not found

west of the Cordilleran backbone. No species of Balansia and Dothi-

chloe occur on the Pacific Coast of America, although their susceptible

hosts are present. Cases of this sort, actually numerous, doubtless

represent relics of ranges that are matters of geological history where

by some remarkable accident the fungi in question have not yet sur-

mounted the barriers of climate, ocean, mountains, or other restrict-

ing factors. When fungus provinces or zones are charted as has been

done so well for higher plants and animals one such zone in America

will be found to extend from Argentina to New England. Other

ranges will be recognizable for fungi which do not conform to the

usual life zone pattern and often present startling contrasts to them.

COSMOPOLITANISM

The fact that many species of fungi are practically world-wide has

been mentioned earlier. In fact, cosmopolitanism is so commonplace

that the taxonomist of fungi does not use a local flora to identify his

plants, but must have recourse to the whole of the world’s mycologi-

cal literature if he would be even approximately correct. Hence it is

that students of fungi have so little respect for the lists of new species

that have often been proposed for each new region.

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

CONCLUSION

Compared with the available information regarding the geography

of seed plants evidences of a reasonable mycogeography appear in-

adequate. From the mass of detailed records, however, some of the

problems that arise in mapping the fungus vegetation of the world

can be recognized and some conclusions arrived at if only tentatively:

Life zones bounded by climatic lines, although significant for part

of the mycoflora, are chiefly recognizable for those species which

require particular substrata which in themselves are dependent upon

climate, although climatic limits for many non-obligate saprophytes

are also in evidence.

Endemic species make up provinces not in accord with the life

zones noted for higher plants and animals perhaps as a result of the

geological history of those species complicated by the question of

barriers. Delimitation of all areas of distribution is obscured by the

general presence of cosmopolitan species.

These two types of provinces, life zone and endemic, are both

bounded by barriers of climate, ocean, mountains, deserts, wind

direction, lack of bridging hosts or vectors and possibly affected by

parasites and other deleterious organisms. But through the influence

of man with his mechanized civilization these barriers are now being

crossed by many fungi with resultant new practical problems for

the mycologist whether he is concerned with industry or with animal

or plant pathology.

LITERATURE CITED

. Bissy, G. R. The distribution of fungi as compared with that of phanerogams.

Amer. Jour. Bot. 20: 246-254. 1933.

. ConsTANTIN, J. Accroissement de la résistance a& la maladie par Vlaltitude.

Compt. Rend. Acad. Agr. France 16: 833-836. 1930.

. Linn, J. Studies on the geographical distribution of arctic circumpolar micro-

mycetes. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Selskab. Biol. Medd. XI, 2: 1-152. 1934.

Lone, W. H. The local distribution and occurrence of the fungi of Austin, Texas,

and vicinity. Bull. Torr. Bot. Cl. 27: 579-588. 1900.

. Mouncs, I. and W. W. Dienxt. A new Ophiobolus on eelgrass. Canadian

Jour. Res. 11: 242-246. 1934.

. Petersen, H. E. Studies on a parasitic fungus in the eelgrass, Zostera marina.

Bot. Tideskr. 43: 1—9.

. SANFORD, G. B. and W. C. Broaproot. Epidemiology of stripe rust in western

Canada. Sci. Agr. 13: 77-96. 1982.

. SEyMour, A. B. Host index of the fungi of North America. 1929.

. Stevens, N. E. Some factors influencing the prevalence of Endothia gyrosa.

Bull. Torr. Bot. Cl. 44: 127-144. 1917.

. Tucker, C. M. The distribution of the genus Phytophthora. Mo. Agr. Exp.

Sta. Res. Bull. 184: 1-80. 1933.

. Tutin, T. G. The fungus on Zostera marina. Nature 134: 573. 1934.

. Utsricu, E. Neue Funde und Beobachtungen der nord amerikanischen Phal-

laceae ... in Deutschland und Osterreich. Ber. Deut. Bot. Ges. 53: 276-294.

1935.

—

ono NS oO FP & WD

—

i=)

JUNE 15, 1937 HALL: PSEUDOGAURAX 255

ENTOMOLOGY.—The North and Central American spider parasites

of the genus Pseudogaurax (Diptera: Chloropidae).1 Davip G.

Hau, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. (Com-

municated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.)

Black widow spiders (Latrodectus mactans F.) have received much

attention in the daily press of the United States during the past sev-

eral years, and parasites of these spiders have become of general

interest. Reproductions of photographs showing biological phases in

the life history of one of these parasites of the black widow spider

have received wide circulation in two popular monthly magazines,

under an erroneous name.

The life history of no species of Pseudogaurax has been studied

fully. The egg, larva, pupa, and adult of Pseudogaurax anchora Loew

were figured by Howard.’

Eggs of some species belonging to this genus are known to be de-

posited upon the silken strands of egg sacs of spiders, on the cocoons

of lepidopterous insects, or on egg masses of mantids. The larvae

penetrate the coverings and destroy the contents. When full grown

the larvae pupate within the cocoon or egg mass, or on the silk of the

egg sac.

The late F. W. Stickney of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant

Quarantine, during his investigations in southern California found

cocoons of the black widow spider to be highly parasitized by Pseudo-

gaurax signatus Loew. This species has been reared many times from

egg sacs of the black widow spider in numerous localities in the

southern part of the United States.

A key to separate the known North American and Central Ameri-

can species of Pseudogaurax, descriptions of four previously unde-

scribed species, and illustrations of the dorsal thoracic color markings

of seven species are presented herewith. The material upon which

this paper is based is all in the U. 8. National Museum.

PsEuDOGAURAX Malloch

Pseudogaurax Malloch, 1915, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 17: 159 (not Duda,

1930). (Genotype, Gaurax anchora Loew, by original designation. )

As pointed out by Malloch® in his key, the genus Gauraz previously in-

cluded two distinct groups, one with the scutellum rounded and convex and

the other with the scutellum elongate and dorsally flattened. For the group

1 Received March 13, 1937.

* Howarp, L.O. The insect book, p. 184, fig. 106, 1902.

§ Mattocn, J. R. Can. Ent. 46: 116. 1914.

256 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO 6

Fig. 1.—Pseudogauraz anchora (Loew). Dorsum of thorax. Fig. 2.—Pseudogaurazx

misceomaculata, n. sp. Dorsum of thorax. Fig. 3.—Pseudogaurax lancifer (Coq.)

Dorsum of thorax. Fig. 4.—Pseudogaurax unilineata, n. sp. Dorsum of thorax.

Fig. 5.—Pseudogauraz latimaculata, n. sp. Dorsum of thorax. Fig. 6.—Pseudogaurax

res n. sp. Dorsum of thorax. Fig. 7.—Pseudogaurax signata (Loew) Dorsum of

thorax.

JUNE 15, 1937 HALL: PSEUDOGAURAX 257

of species with the convex scutellum he erected the genus Neogauraz, with

Gaurax montana Coq. as genotype. Discovering later (1915) that he had re-

named the typical Gauraz, he named the group with the elongate scutellum

Pseudogaurax, with G. anchora Loew as genotype, synonymizing Neogaurax

with Gauraz.

Generic characters —Head. Eyes with long pile, higher than long,

emarginate posteriorly; frontal triangle with a single marginal row of setae;

front irregularly setose; parafrontals each with a row of setae near eye, these

descending nearly to the antennal insertion; bucca short and with a row of

rather long setae along edge; epistoma slightly protuberant; clypeus slightly

depressed; antenna with first segment short, second segment about 4 times

as long as first and with long hair, especially along the inner edges, and a

single longer seta dorsally; third segment ovate, higher than long, covered

with abundant, short, curling hair; arista short plumose throughout its

length, the rays from 2 to 4 times as long as the greatest diameter of the

style; inner vertical bristles 1; outer vertical bristles 1, long and distinct;

ocellar bristles reclinate. Thorax thickly covered with long, scattered, light-

colored hair; posthumeral bristles arranged 1:2; postalar bristle 1. Scutel-

lum flattened above, elongate, and ending in an obtuse point, with long

apical setae arising from protuberant bases near the apex. Wuing with

costa extended to tip of fourth vein, fifth vein with a distinct flexure. Legs

rather densely hairy, the hind tibia with an oval, smooth, velvety (sensi-

tory?) area on the inner side.

As stated above, the genus Pseudogauraz differs from Gauraz in that the

scutellum is elongate and flattened above, ending in a more or less obtuse

point and with elongate apical bristles situated on approximated tubercles.

In additon to these differentiating characters, the scutellum lacks elongate

marginal setae. The genus differs most obviously from Eugaurazx Malloch,

in that Hugaurax has the posthumeral bristles arranged 2:3 or more, never

1:2 as in Pseudogaurazx.

The species of Pseudogauraz that fall here are exceedingly similar in many

respects and differ mainly in thoracic maculation and in thoracic proportions.

These characters are so obvious that I have figured the dorsum of the thorax

of each species.

Pseudogaurax Duda is distinct from and preoccupied by Pseudogaurax

Malloch. The following disposition of it is made:

MIMOGAURAX, new name

Pseudogaurax Duda, 1930, Folia Zool. Hydrobiol., 2 (3): 86. (Preoccu-

pied by Pseudogaurax Malloch, 1915.) Genotype, Gaurax interruptus Beck.

KEY TO SPECIES OF PSEUDOGAURAX FROM

NORTH AMERICA AND CENTRAL AMERICA

be Deusenaii. doLsly Clea WelOwe He asa ono. PR LAA AO e eae. 2

Seutellum with black markomes dorsally «1.002 <0 hay eae ss 4

2. Dorsum of thorax with wide, blackish brown, longitudinal maculations,

small lateral presutural spots, the latter more or less connected to the

broad central stripe by infuscated areas. Thoracic length, scutellar

258 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

length, and thoracic width in the proportion of 23:7.5:20. Puerto

TRUCOS Neca ed alpen misceomaculata, n. sp.

Dorsum of thorax with a single mid-dorsal longitudinal stripe........ 3

3. Mid-dorsal longitudinal stripe of thorax not extending full length of

thorax and broadening more or less before scutellum. Thoracic length,

scutellar length, and thoracic width in the proportion of 25:8:19.

Puerto’ Rico; “West Indiesh 22+. :aueeeere ae lancifer Coq.

Mid-dorsal longitudinal stripe of thorax extending full length of thorax

and narrow throughout. Thoracic length, scutellar length, and

thoracic width in the proportion of 33:11:22. Panama........

bos Btw ORDR Ce riage CRE ge pore eet end ee unilineata, n. sp.

4. Mid-dorsal longitudinal stripe of thorax relatively narrow, broadening

anteriorly and extending into two shorter lateral stripes which do not

reach posteriorly to the suture. Thoracic length, scutellar length,

and thoracic width in the proportion of 28:8:18. Mass., Md., Va.,

Plays UO). ides Sal. oo os nies Ree ie ee ee anchora Loew

Color pattern of thorax not as above...:.............0.. 72a 5

5. Dorsum of thorax with a single, wide, longitudinal stripe. Thoracic

length, scutellar length, and thoracic width in the proportion of 15.3:

4Oc do. Panaiia:.’; < 22. ae ae os eee eee eee latimaculata, n. sp.

Dorsum of thorax with more than one longitudinal stripe.......... 6

6. Dorsum of thorax with three longitudinal stripes in the shape of an in-

verted fork or the frame of alyre. Thoracic length, scutellar length,

and thoracic width in the proportion of 27:8:18. Costa Rica......

UE eels uzte oo TS ol g sac eRe eee ee lyrica, Mn. sp.

Dorsum of thorax variable, usually with several indistinct, reddish orange

to brown, longitudinal stripes, the scutellum always with a well-

defined, dark-brown to black, dorsal spot. Thoracic length, scutellar

length, and thoracic width, in the proportion of 30:11:20. Calif.,

Text) Penn.) NC., Va., Mey Memeo; 003) (ies signata Loew

Pseudogaurax anchora (Loew)

Gaurax anchora Loew, 1866, Cent. 7 (94): 51; Williston, in Forbush and

Fernald, 1896, Report on Gypsy Moth, p. 387; Coquillett, 1898, Bull.

10: 71, n. ser., Div. Ent., U. 8. Dept. Agri.; Howard, 1902, Insect Book,

p. 184, fig. 106; Williston, 1908, Manual of North American Diptera,

p. 311; Becker, 1912, Mon. Chlor. 4: 75; Johnson, 1913, Dipt. Fla., p.

87; Psyche 20: 35.

Pseudogaurax anchor [Loew], Malloch, 1915, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 17: 159;

Johnson, 1925, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., p. 99; Auten, 1925, Ann.

Ent. Soc. Amer. 18: p. 244; West, 1928, N. Y. State List Ins., p. 861.

Male and female——Head yellow; eyes reddish brown; arista and ocellar

spot black. Thorax yellow, dorsum of thorax with brownish-black macula-

tions asin Fig. 1; postscutellum black. Abdomen dorsally with first segment

yellow, posterolaterally dark brown; second segment laterally dark brown

to black, third and fourth segments dark brown to blackish laterally, some-

times lighter; venter yellow. Wzng hyaline, veins yellow; haltere lemon

yellow. Legs whitish yellow.

Type.—In the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

Remarks.—The National Museum collection contains 1 female, Weston,

Mass., July 23, 1911; 1 female, Beverly, Mass., Aug. 27, 1909; 2 females,

Rock Ledge, Fla., Feb. 6 (C. V. Riley); 2 females, Riggs Mill, Ind., May 15,

JUNE 15, 1937 HALL: PSEUDOGAURAX 259

1914, ‘‘ex cocoon promethea”’ (G. W. Barber); 1 female, Hagerstown, Md.,

Aug. 2, 1918, “in cocoon of Heterocampa leucostigma”’ (Pennington); 1 fe-

male, Falls Church, Va., May 15 (Banks); 2 males and 4 females, Falls

Church, Va., Jan. 26, 1930, ‘from cocoons of promethea’”’ (Cushman).

This species has been reared upon numerous occasions from lepidopterous

cocoons but whether it is a parasite or a scavenger has not been ascertained.

All of the reared specimens in the National Museum collection were reared

from cocoons of Lepidoptera. The notes upon such specimens indicate that

the collectors believed the species to be parasitic.

Pseudogaurax misceomaculata, n. sp.

Male—Like anchora except as noted in the key and in thoracic macula-

tions as illustrated in Fig. 2. The species also differs from anchora in having

a brownish black anterior and a smaller posterior mesopleural spot, in hay-

ing the postscutellum decidedly glossy black with a smaller darkened area

laterally, and in having the abdomen almost black.

Type locality—Bayamon, Puerto Rico.

Type.—United States National Museum no. 51942.

Remarks.—One male labelled ‘‘on leaves of Flamboyan,” Jan. 28, 1934

(San Juan accession no. 5135B), collected by C. G. Anderson.

Pseudogaurax lancifer (Coq.), n. comb.

Gaurax lancifer Coquillett, 1900, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 22: 265; Becker;

1912, Mon. Chlor. 4: 76; Wolcott, 1923, Ins. P. R., p. 232; 1927, Ent.

D’ Haiti, p. 329; Duda, 1930, Folia Zool. Hydobiol. 2 (1): 87.

Male and female.—As in signatus except as noted in key and in macula-

tions of the thorax as illustrated in Fig. 3. It also differs from szgnata in

having the arista black, in possessing an additional brown spot on the pos-

terior part of the mesopleura, in having the postscutellum but slightly

darkened, and in having the legs clear light lemon yellow.

Type.—U. 8. National Museum no. 4384.

Remarks.—The National Museum collection contains the type-series of

8 specimens ‘‘from spider’s eggs,’’ Puerto Rico, Feb. 9, 1899 (Busck), and 5

specimens ‘from spider’s eggs,’ Montserrat, West Indies, March 16 (Hub-

bard); also 5 specimens, ‘“‘spider parasites,’’? Port Cangrejos, Puerto Rico,

June 1, 1920 (Wolcott), and 1 specimen ‘‘on guava leaf,’ Barceloneta,

Puerto Rico, Apr. 25, 1933 (Mills and Anderson).

This species appears to have much the same type of biology in the West

Indies as szgnata has in the United States. It was reared in Puerto Rico

in considerable numbers from the egg clusters of the spider Gasteracanthia

cancriformis by G. N. Wolcott and forwarded to the National Museum under

his accession number 333-21.

Pseudogaurax unilineata n. sp.

Male and female.—Like signata except as noted in the key and in thoracic

maculations as illustrated in Fig. 4. It further differs from szgnata in having

the aristal style yellowish, the anterior mesopleural spot more diffused and

extended over a wider area, the tibiae more decidedly brownish, and also in

the maculations of the yellow abdomen which are as follows: First segment

260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 6

yellow except for posterolateral darkened spots; second segment with larger

posterolateral areas; third segment dark brown to black; fourth segment

anterolaterally yellow, posterior margin yellow; venter entirely yellow.

Type locality—Canal Zone, Panama.

Type.—Female, United States National Museum no. 51943.

Remarks.—Described from a holotype female and 13 paratype male and

female specimens reared “‘from spider’s nest,’’? Ancon, Canal Zone, Panama,

Oct. 20, 1923 (Zetek), and 1 paratype specimen, Alhajuelo, Canal Zone,

Panama, March 18, 1912 (Busck).

Pseudogaurax latimaculata n. sp.

Male and female.—Like anchora except as noted in the key and in thoracic

maculations as illustrated in Fig. 5. The species also differs from anchora

in having the ocellar spot more extensive, in the postscutellum, which is

yellow, and in the second, third and fourth abdominal segments of the

abdomen, which are dark brown to black.

Type locality.—Alhajuelo, Panama.

Type.—Female, United States National Museum no. 51945.

~ Remarks.—Described from the holotype female and 1 paratype male col-

lected March 12, 1912, Alhajuelo, Panama (Busck).

Pseudogaurax lyrica, n. sp.

Male and female.—Like signata except as noted in the key and in the light

and dark pattern on the dorsum of the thorax as illustrated in Fig. 6. Also,

the postscutellum is yellow, not brown or black, the wing veins are dark,

not yellow, the legs are clear lemon yellow, and ‘the abdomen is distinctly

blackened.

Type locality — Higuito, San Mateo, Costa Rica.

Type.—Female, United States National Museum no. 51944.

Remarks.—Described from the holotype female, and 4 paratype male and

female specimens collected in Costa Rica by Pablo Schild.

Pseudogaurax signata (Loew), n. comb.

Gauraz signatus Loew, 1876, Zeitsch. Ges. Naturwiss., p. 338; Becker, 1912,

Monogr. Chlor. 4: 75; Duda, 1930, Folia Zool. Hydobiol. 2: 87.

Gaurax araneae Coquillett, 1896, Ent. News, 7: 320; 1896, Bull. 10: fz,

ser. Div. Ent., U.S. Dept. Aer.

Gaurax signatus var. mallochi Duda, 1930, Folia Zool. Hydobiol., 2 (1): 87.

Male and female——Head yellow, eyes reddish brown; ocellar spot black;

arista dark brown. Thorax yellow; reddish brown to brownish black dorsal

maculations usually as illustrated in Fig. 7, but sometimes also with a small

dark posthumeral spot; mesopleura with a single brownish black spot an-

teriorly; postscutellum usually darkened centrally, sometimes light brown,

but rarely blackened. Abdomen with first segment medianly yellow, later-

ally dark brown; second segment dark brown, sometimes lighter antero-

medianly; third segment dark brown with yellow posterior margin; fourth

segment dark brown with yellow posterior margin, sometimes lighter later-

ally; venter yellow. Wzngs clear, veins yellowish. Legs yellow, tibiae some-

times and tarsi usually darker yellow to brown dorsally.

Type.——In the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

Remarks.—In the United States National Museum there are nearly 60

specimens of both sexes of this species. Most of these have been reared from

JUNE 15, 1937 FERGUSON: MOYAONE BURIAL 261

the egg sacs of Argzope riparia, or from Latrodectus mactans, although many

records read only ‘‘from spider’s nest.’’ This species has been reared several

times from mantid egg masses (Brownsville, Tex., by Vickery and St.

Lucrecia, La Oaxaquena, Mexico, Sept. 1911, by Ulrich).

The species is evidently distributed throughout North America wherever

Latrodectus mactans occurs.

ARCHEOLOGY.—Burial area in Moyaone.1 Atice L. L. FERGu-

son. (Communicated by W. W. RUBEY.)

For the past two years the writer has been excavating the site of a

large Algonkin village on the Potomac River, about eighteen miles

below Washington and just below the mouth of Piscataway Creek,

in Prince George’s County, Maryland, and diagonally across from

Mount Vernon. This is believed to have been the town of Moyaone

shown on Captain John Smith’s map.” Bozman? says that Moyaone

‘“‘must have been somewhere about Broad Creek,’’ and the Handbook

of the American Indians‘ following Bozman, states that the location

of Moyaone “‘was about Broad Creek.’’ Bozman made his identifica-

tion on the basis of the Smith map and apparently confused Broad

Creek, which is further up stream, with Piscataway Creek. Broad

Creek is little more than a bay on the river, while Piscataway Creek

is wide for a considerable distance, has many little bays and tribu-

taries and enters the Potomac at the bend just as the Smith map

indicates. Mooney,° on the other hand says, ‘‘Moyaones appears, on

the same map, to have been directly opposite (Tauxenent or Mount

Vernon), on the Maryland side, just below the mouth of the Piscat-

away Creek.’’ On Smith’s map, Moyaone is diagonally across from

Tauxenent. Thomas Jefferson,‘ in his table giving the situations of the

Virginia villages, places Tauxenent in Fairfax County ‘‘about Gen-

eral Washington’s.” The Broad Creek site is not opposite Mount

Vernon or Tauxenent.

Nacotchtank, shown on the Smith map, was latinized by the Jesuits

into Anacostia which it is still called although now a part of the city

of Washington. This makes a convenient tie point. It is futile to at-

1 Received March 10, 1937.

2 A copy of this map may be seen in Edward Arber’s edition of Captain John

Smith’s works, 1608-1631. The English Scholar’s Library, Birmingham, 1884.

3 BozMANn, JoHN LEeEps. AHistory of Maryland. 1: 119. _ Baltimore, 1837.

<s eee ee of the American Indians. Bur. Amer. Ethn. Bull. 30 (pt. 1):

5 Mooney, JAMES. Indian tribes of the District of Columbia. Amer. Anthropolo-

gist 2 (3): 259. 1889.

§ JEFFERSON, THoMAS. Notes on the State of Virginia, p. 152. London, 1787.

262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 27. NO. 6

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Fig. 1.—Sketch map of Moyaone showing the stockade lines and inset giving the

location. Fig. 2.—Burial area in Moyaone.

JUNE 15, 1937 FERGUSON: MOYAONE BURIAL 263

tempt to make accurate measurements on a 17th century map but

it is of interest that the measurement on the Smith map from the

point in Virginia where the Eastern Branch flows into the Potomac

opposite Nacotchtank, to Moyaone, is 3?marine leagues. The modern

value of a marine league is 3.45 statute miles which makes the dis-

tance about 12.9 miles and the measurement on the modern map from

the same point to the site is 11.7 miles while the Broad Creek site is

only 83 miles. This placing of Moyaone near and below Piscataway

Creek is further verified by four other early maps, “‘A Chart of Vir-

ginia”’ 1608, the ‘“‘Simancas Map”’ 1610, ‘‘Belgii Novi, Angliae Novae

et Partis Virginiae Novissimi’’ published about 1650 and the map of

Johannes Vingboons published about 1665. Other historical evidence

tending to identify this site as Moyaone is given in a manuscript

on the history of the tribe now ready for publication. Moyaone was

probably burned by the Virginians in 1628.

The site is a large one and was occupied for a long period. There

is a great deal more work to be done and a final report must await

the completion of the excavations. Work so far done indicates two

periods of occupation. The site was first occupied by a large settle-

ment of people about whom very little is known. They made the

Popes Creek type of pottery—probably the earliest in this region—

described by William H. Holmes’ in his report on the pottery of the

Eastern United States. This pottery is very common in the Potomac

valley and is also found along the coast from the Carolinas through

New England. In the current terminology this culture is called the

Coastal Focus. Though the later occupants of Moyaone made pottery

of another type, the Popes Creek ware and associated artifacts oc-

curred in isolation over a considerable area beginning a hundred feet

or more from the edge of the later site.

After the makers of the Popes Creek ware came a group of people

whose pottery, according to William A. Ritchie* of the Rochester

Museum of Arts and Sciences, corresponds to that of the third Algon-

kin period of culture in New York. Dr. Ritchie very kindly made a

visit to the site and verified what is here called third Algonkin. The

Popes Creek pottery is frequently yellow but usually red, and it is

always very coarse with a grit or sand temper (Fig. 4). The third

Algonkin pottery is all shades of gray and black, rarely red and yellow

and it is tempered with ground up potsherds, clam shells, quartz,

7 Houtmes, Witt1am H. Aboriginal pottery of the eastern United States. Bur.

Amer. Ethn. Ann. Rept. 20: 153. 1903.

§ Rircuiz, WiutiamM A. Algonkin sequence in New York. Amer. Anthropologist

34 (3): 406-414. 1932.

264 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

Figure 3

Fig. 3.—Third Algonkin pottery. Fig. 4.—Popes Creek pottery. a, a conical base;

b, a lug, one of two found at the site; c, arrow point found in skull of No. 16.

JUNE 15, 1937 FERGUSON: MOYAONE BURIAL 265

sand and mica (Fig. 3). Occasionally the paste is so smooth that no

temper is evident. This later pottery carries somewhat more orna-

mental designs than the earlier, especially around the rims of the

pots, a few of which display real beauty, though many were badly

made. Inside the stockades of the village, almost all the pits had a

mixture of both types but a few pits were found that had only the

third Algonkin.

Moyaone was in the shape of a huge crescent, the points of which,

nearly four hundred feet apart, touched the Potomac River. Inside

the stockades the ground was peppered with post holes. In the center

of the crescent, at its broadest part, there were no post holes and no

signs of village activity. The refuse pits and the pottery fragments,

broken pipes and stone artifacts that had been scattered in every

direction up to that point stopped, and instead of them twenty

burials were found. The burials belonged to the earlier people, yet

the later inhabitants of Moyaone, with a large population crowded

into a restricted area, knew of the burials and respected them.

The only pottery found associated with the burial pits was of the

Popes Creek type. All the bones were so far decayed that only thir-

teen of the twenty skeletons were in any way identifiable. Out of

these thirteen, all were females except one, No. 3, which was that of

a middle aged male with a large scar on the skull. Of the twelve fe-

males, six were middle aged, two were old, and four were young

adults. It is unfortunate that even these thirteen were for the most

part too poorly preserved to make it possible to obtain measurements.

Dr. T. D. Stewart of the U. S. National Museum very kindly made

the measurements given here and the writer would like to express

her thanks to him:

No. 3, male, skull length 19.4 em. No. 5, cephalic index 80.22; orbital

index 92.5; nasal index 48.08. No. 6, skull length 18.2 cm. No. 7, jaw

measurements; height of symphysis 3.1? em; length of lower jaw 9.4 cm;

breadth minimum of the ascending ramus 3.8 cm. No. 11, skull length

about 18.8 em, probably dolichocephalic. No. 12, probably brachycephal-

ic. No. 13, skull length 17.4 em; skull height 13.8 em, meso- to dolicho-

cephalic. No. 14, cephalic index 73.2; facial index 51.6; nasal index 54.3;

orbital index 86.1; alveolar index 116. No. 20, very dolichocephalic. No.

21, head index below 70; head height measurable 13.6 cm.

Of these, four are dolichocephalic, one meso- to dolichocephalic, and two

brachycephalic.

Three of the burials were grouped. No. 5, an aged female, lay

directly over No. 6, a middle aged female. No. 9 seemed to be a

secondary burial, it consisted of the fragmentary bones of two in-

dividuals, a child of between six and eight years of age and an adult.

266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

Nos. 11 and 12, an old and a middle aged female, were buried side

by side and so close together that it was impossible to determine

which bones belonged to which skeleton.

A total of 44 random potsherds and 4 arrow points were found in

the grave pits exclusive of an arrow point found at the base of the

skull of No. 16 and fragments of a very large pottery jar found

directly under the knee of No. 14. No other fragments of this jar

were found in the pit although several small pieces of it were found

fifty feet away. In the far corner of the pit of No. 16 was found a

group of sherds that fitted together and were very like the fragment

found with No. 14. Aside from the charcoal which was always pres-

ent, and a small stone 33 inches long smeared with red iron oxide

paint, these were the only artifacts found in the burial pits.

Most of the burials, especially Nos. 4, 8, 10, 15, 16, 17 and 19 were

in such poor condition that there was almost nothing left. Nos. 15,

16, 17, and 19 consisted only of jaw fragments and teeth, all so poorly

preserved that they powdered at a touch. In this group of burials

were seven pits, Nos. 68, 69, 88, 90, 91 and 92, which were completely

empty. The pits were sharply defined and they contained the same

charcoal flakes and the same brown discolored soil that marked the

burial pits. They had scattered in them a total of 14 potsherds of the

Popes Creek ware. It seems probable that these pits were also burial

pits in which the bones had completely disintegrated.

The burials were all of about the same depth. Most of them were

about 1.9 feet from the surface to the highest point of the burial.

The shallowest burial, No. 9, was just under the plow line, a little

less than a foot below the surface, and the deepest, No. 13, began

at 2.35 feet.

All the pits had small flakes of charcoal scattered through them.

Nos. 73, 76 and 105 were shallow fire pits. Nos. 73 and 76 contained

a few deer bones and potsherds. On one side of fire pit No. 105 was

the charred remnant of a small post about two inches in diameter,

extending to a depth of 3.4 feet below the surface. These fire pits

near the graves, containing the same type of pottery, suggest feasts

and fires connected with the burial ceremonies. In the entire burial

area, in addition to the sherds already mentioned which were more

intimately associated with the burials, there were 170 sherds of the

Popes Creek type scattered around generally and only 16 rather

small sherds of the third Algonkin period.

Attention should be called to the large post hole, a foot in diameter,

JUNE 15, 1937 OBITUARY 267

in the center of the burial area. No. 3, the only male burial found,

was near the pole and the other burial pits tend to encircle it.

Only a few general customs appear from a study of this group of

burials. The bodies were buried individually and they were flexed.

There was no effort towards orientation. About half of the skele-

tons rested on the right side, and half on the left. With the excep-

tion of the pottery fragment found in burial No. 14 and possibly the

fragment in No. 16, there were no mortuary offerings. The objects

found in the other pits could easily have slipped in when the pits

were being dug and filled.

The surprising thing about this burial area in the center of a

crowded village, was that in it were found only sixteen sherds belong-

ing to the later period of occupancy. It is remarkable that any taboo

could have been sufficiently strong to hold an area as large as this

unprofaned in the midst of all the village activities of a later settle-

ment.

Obituary

Ozn1 Porter Hoop, retired, Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Bureau

of Mines, Washington, D. C. and former Chief of its Technologic Branch,

died at his home in Washington April 22, 1937. The son of an inventor, born

in Lowell, Massachusetts, on June 14, 1865, he was educated in mechanical

engineering at Worcester and Rose Polytechnic Institutes, receiving the

degrees of B.S., M.S., and M.E. He began his career as a pattern maker but

shortly became a member of the faculty at Kansas Agricultural College and

then at the Michigan College of Mines.

Dr. Hood joined the Bureau of Mines at its Pittsburgh Experiment Sta-

tion in 1911. He assumed charge of the fuel investigations which had started

in 1904 at the World’s Fair in St. Louis and continued by the U.8. Geological

Survey prior to the formation of the Bureau of Mines on July 1, 1910. He

coordinated this work and developed mechanical and electrical engineering

research pertaining to safety in mines. From small beginnings he organized

a system for testing and approving, with respect to safety and efficiency,

electrical equipment for use in gassy coal mines. The Davis multiple-unit

calorimeter, the Burrell gas detector, and the Gibbs oxygen breathing ap-

paratus are early examples of his mechanical genius. He made a pioneering

study of gasoline mine locomotives in relation to safety and health.

With his co-workers he conducted fundamental research on the mecha-

nism of combustion in fuel beds and participated in the practical development

of the combustion of powdered coal and initiated timely studies on the gasi-

fication of coal. The publications on lignite and peat in which he partici-

pated still remain the outstanding documents on these subjects, although

written many years ago. In the conduct of these investigations he designed

and built a simple unit for carbonizing lignite. He directed smoke abatement

investigations in various cities; carried out nation-wide sampling of coal

268 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 6

and its analysis in connection with Government purchases of coal on speci-

fication; and made very substantial savings of heat and power in Govern-

ment plants. :

Dr. Hood was made a life member of the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers in 1935, and in 1932 his Alma Mater, Rose Polytechnic Institute,

conferred on him the honorary degree of Doctor of Engineering. In addition

to membership in Tau Beta Pi, he belonged to the Cosmos Club, Washing-

ton, D.C., The Washington Society of Engineers, the Washington Academy

of Sciences, the American Society of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers,

the International Railway Fuel Association, and he became an honorary

member of the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers.

WiiuiamM Morton WHEELER, emeritus professor of entomology, Harvard

University, died at Cambridge, Mass., April 19, 1937.

Professor Wheeler was born at Milwaukee, Wis., March 19, 1865. He at-

tended Engelmann’s German Academy in Milwaukee, and graduated from

the German-American Normal School of that city. He received the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy from Clark University in 1892, then studied for a year

at Wurzburg, Liege and the Naples Zoological Station. From 1894 to 1899

he was instructor and assistant professor of embryology at the University of

Chicago, and from 1899 to 1903, professor of zoology at the University of

Texas. During the next five years he was curator of invertebrate zoology

at the American Museum of Natural History, but in 1908 accepted the

appointment of professor of economic entomology at Harvard University.

From 1915 until 1929 he was dean of the Bussey Institution, a graduate

school of the University for research in applied biology; in the year 1924—

1925 he was exchange professor to the University of Paris; and from 1926

he was professor of entomology at Harvard University and associate curator

of insects at the Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Professor Wheeler’s chief interest was the classification and behavior of

ants, but his bibliography, which contains 467 titles, includes also such sub-

jects as embryology, evolution, parasitism, and animal sociology in general.

His studies in sociology led him into psychology and philosophy, on which

he published numerous papers. Several of his works appeared in book

form, such as Ants, The social insects, Foibles of insects and men, and Demons

of the dust. Professor Wheeler wrote with clarity, pungency and humor, as is

well illustrated by two of his shorter essays: The dry-rot of our academic

biology and The termitodoxa, or biology and society.

In recognition of his scholarship and contributions to science, many

honors were conferred upon him. He received an honorary Se.D. from

the University of Chicago in 1916, Harvard University in 1930, Columbia

University in 1933; and an honorary LL.D. from the University of California

in 1928. He was awarded the Elliot Medal, and the Leidy Medal from the

Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences in 1931. In 1934 he was elected

an Officer, Legion d’honneur. He was associated with many scientific

organizations, including the National Academy, the American Academy,

the Washington Academy, the Philosophical Society, the Royal Entomologi-

cal Society of London, the Société Entomologique de France, and Société

Entomologique de Belgique.

CONTENTS|

Puysics.—Explorations in the superconducting state. *RANCIS B.

SIDR REE. Arena 2 <5" ioe 2 See

Be .:

_ Ss

Borany.—A basis for mycogeography. W. W. Dient... setae

EntomoLocy.—The North and Central American spider p ae

the genus Pseudogaurax Ms Chloropidae). Davip G.

ve,

-s

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Wiel: 21 = Jub to, 1937 Niet 7

CHEMISTRY.—The chemical application of the Raman effect.

JamMEs H. H1ssen, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution

of Washington.

The Raman effect is too recent a discovery to have what is gener-

ally termed a history. It was early in 1928 that Sir C. V. Raman

announced his observation of a new type of secondary radiation which

was considered as ‘‘an optical analogue of the Compton effect.’’ This

secondary re-radiation has since been known as the Raman effect.

This subject has been investigated by most of the leading labora-

tories of the world with the result that within less than a decade

there have been considerably more than a thousand publications con-

cerning it. This widespread interest cannot be attributed solely to

the novelty of the new discovery, but is primarily due to its funda-

mental nature from the point of view both of physics and chemistry.

The Raman effect is essentially another parameter by which the

behavior of molecules may be measured, independently of their state

of aggregation. Other direct methods, such as x-ray and electron

diffraction, have indicated the position of the heavier atoms. These

methods, like the Raman effect itself, have certain limitations. For-

tunately, as compared with the Raman effect, they are complementary

in the sense that what one system lacks the other provides. The infor-

mation obtainable from the standpoint of the Raman method concerns

the forces between atoms in a molecule in its normal state, to a certain

degree the arrangement in space of the atoms, and their amplitudes

and frequencies of vibration. In the simpler molecules this leads to a

determination of some of the energy levels the molecules possess.

These levels are the warp upon which the pattern of the molecule is

woven. Finally this procedure yields in many cases the specific type

of chemical linkage which exists in a molecule. This information in

turn may lead to the calculation of specific heats and other informa-

tion of interest to the physicist and to the chemist.

Perhaps the best approach to the problem of what is the Raman

effect is to draw an analogy between this and x-ray analysis, which is

1 Address of retiring President of the Chemical Society of Washington, January 14,

1937. Received February 19, 1937.

269

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

known to some extent by everyone. In the latter case the atoms in

the given molecule are bombarded with radiation of very short wave

length compared to the size of the molecule. The refraction of this

radiation may be recorded on the photographic plate as definite spots

which are a function of the interatomic distances. In Raman spectra

the molecules are bombarded with radiation of longer wave length in

equivalent fashion. The type or wave length of light used, however,

is in general immaterial. It may be long wave lengths as represented

by the red light or it may be short wave lengths as represented by

the far ultra violet. In the case of x-rays one deals essentially with a

static situation. In the Raman effect it is not static but dynamic.

Fig. 1.—Partial Raman spectrum of nitrobenzene showing the 4358A exciting line.

Here it is a question of the motion of the atoms and the molecule and

only indirectly their position in space. Nevertheless, as will be seen

shortly, the geometric distribution of atoms does influence the result.

In effect, therefore, molecules, regardless of the state of aggrega-

tion, whether they are in the liquid, solid, amorphous or gaseous state,

are bombarded with definite light quanta, that is, ight preferably

of a given single wave length, or what is generally termed monochro-

matic radiation. When these quanta of energy or photons collide or

interact with the molecule, the energy they represent is distributed

throughout the molecule in all its vibrational and rotational degrees

of freedom. From a spectrographic point of view the results of this

interaction are represented, after being transmitted through a spec-

trograph and photographed on a plate, as definite spectral lines. If

real monochromatic radiation is employed (which is very difficult to

realize experimentally), then this results in a single line on the photo-

graphic plate corresponding to this incident radiation, plus other

lines if definite parts of this energy have been subtracted from the

original quantum. These lines correspond to different type of vibra-

tion and rotation which the atoms in the molecule may possess. The

JuLY 15, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 271

result is the re-creation or re-radiation of light of longer wave lengths

which did not exist in the original light but which is re-emitted by

the molecules themselves.

This will be made clearer by means of a diagrammatic illustration

of the apparatus used and a picture of these Raman lines as they

appear on the photographic plate. These are shown in Figs. 1 and 2.

The source of light illustrated in the first figure is generally a mer-

cury arc. This type of arc has four lines, among many others, which

are sufficiently intense and reasonably well separated from other lines

to be useful for this purpose. These lines, which do not all appear in

cs OUI-CE OF = s

“ra Cldent

radsatrion

Photographic

Za Ce a

Fig. 2.—Experimental arrangement for recording Raman spectra.

the figure, are at 2537, 4047, 4358, and 5461 A units. After the selec-

tion, therefore, of a given wave length to be employed to excite the

Raman lines, the experimental set-up is so arranged that this radia-

tion or light will pass at right angles to the end of the spectrograph

through the liquid, gas, or other material to be studied. This is to

diminish as much as possible any light, direct from the lamp, which

might fall on the opening of the spectrograph, the only desired light

being that which comes from the molecules to be investigated. Un-

fortunately, a spectrograph not only can “‘see’’ the light which is re-

flected, or what is generally termed scattered from the molecules after

the interaction, but it can also ‘‘see” the light which is scattered

from these same molecules in the form of Rayleigh scattering. Neglect-

ing polarization, this is identical with the original exciting radiation.

The net result of these two scattering phenomena is therefore a

series of lines corresponding to the Raman lines not present in the

original light and the more intense line corresponding to the original

source of radiation.

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

The processes thus far described are the essential means used,

together with the result obtained. Aseach of these Raman lines rep-

resents a given wave length its position is described on the color

scale from the ultra violet to the infra red by this wave length. How-

ever, for the sake of convenience in comparing the work of different

observers, it is necessary to adopt an additional system to describe

these lines. The thing which is of importance is not the wave length

per se of the Raman lines, but how much energy has been lost by

each photon in giving rise to them. This is the energy which each type

of vibration takes up, and consequently the results should be given

in terms of the difference between the wave length causing these

lines and the lines themselves.

However, as an additional matter of convenience, it is more use-

ful to employ frequencies or wave numbers rather than wave

lengths. These frequencies are related to wave lengths by the simple

equation, \vy=c, where c is the velocity of light. Each mercury line

and each Raman line therefore corresponds to a different value of v

which is the number of vibrations per second, or in terms of the

number of waves per centimeter, »=c7. As has just been mentioned,

it is the difference between the value of 7 for the exciting line and

the various Raman lines that is of interest, so that by common agree-

ment the results are always given in terms of Az per centimeter, which

represents these differences. The line which is closest to the exciting

line in Figure 1, therefore, has the lowest value for Av. These may vary

from as low as 60 to possibly as high as 4500.

The simplest type of oscillator is a diatomic molecule. To give rise

to a Raman line at all this molecule must have at least one type of

atomic motion. The one most frequently encountered for this simple

molecule is the linear oscillation of the two atoms in the direction of

the valence forces which hold them together. If there is no definite

chemical bond of homopolar nature, as in the case of completely

ionized molecules, then no Raman line will appear. In the dumb-bell

type of molecule, however, where the atoms are held together by a

force which may be likened to a spring, the two oscillating compo-

nents will vibrate with a characteristic frequency. This is true of any

mechanical system. In this system the frequency vibration may be

calculated from the equation for a harmonic oscillator:

1 ae

= a) F

v —/ /m

JULY 15, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 273

In an atomic system reducing this to spectrographic terms, Ay = 4.125

<./f/az, where F is the valence force in dynes per cm. and z is the

reduced mass as determined by the relative atomic weights. From

this it follows that the greatest amplitude of vibration in centimeters

of the atoms is given by the following equation:

A RO 10-54/ !

pAr

This amplitude varies between 0.06 and 0.09 A.

For a triatomic molecule there are two possibilities: the molecule

may be linear or nonlinear. For the linear molecule there are three

possible types of oscillations, the symmetrical, asymmetrical, and

deformation oscillation, known as v,, v., and 6, respectively. These

give rise to three Raman lines whose frequencies may be calculated.

The nonlinear model possesses the types of vibration indicated in

Figure 3.

Fig. 3.—The motions of the nonlinear triatomic atom.

In general, in polyatomic molecules composed of several atoms,

each atom has three degrees of freedom, so that the total represents

on degrees of freedom. Of these, three are accounted for by the trans-

lational motion and three are described by the rotation of the mole-

cule as a whole about its center of gravity. Consequently there are

on—6 fundamental modes of vibration and therefore theoretically one

Raman line for each mode. This represents a maximum and, as will

be seen, is modified considerably by the particular conditions con-

cerning each molecular species. The molecules of the type YX; and

YX.,, for example, each have four frequencies, and the less symmet-

rical molecule X Y2Z six frequencies. The symmetry of the molecule

occasionally results in one or more frequencies having the same value,

the multiple coincidence of frequencies occurring whenever the mo-

tions of the atoms performing the vibration are isotropic in several

dimensions. When these are isotropic in two or three dimensions re-

spectively they are doubly or triply degenerate.

274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

Each fundamental vibrational frequency in which all the atoms of

the molecule participate may correspond to a vibrational Raman line.

The relative motions of the atoms in respect to each other, together

with the forces exerted between them and their masses, determine the

frequency of this vibration or the magnitude of the resulting Az shift.

Except in the case of a diatomic molecule, it is not entirely accurate

to state, therefore, that a particular Raman line corresponds to a

single type of linkage such as C—H. However, in any given molecule

there is usually some frequency originating in the essential vibration

which consists chiefly of the linear or deformation oscillations of

atoms of particular groups vibrating in unison. In ethylene, for

example, there is one frequency which corresponds to the movement

of the two CH, groups toward and away from each other. In this

case the hydrogen atoms are moving in roughly the same direction

as the carbon atoms. As their masses affect but little the C =C vibra-

tion, particularly since their motion is in phase with this oscillation,

the net result is a characteristic frequency for the ethylenic linkage.

In a similar fashion there is possible a motion of the hydrogen atoms

toward and away from each carbon atom along the direction of the

valence bonds, which gives rise to a frequency termed characteristic

of this type of C—H linkage. Consequently, the characteristic fre-

quencies and the force constants for various types of oscillation and

bending may be determined. This is particularly valuable, first, be-

cause the presence or absence of a type of linkage may thus be pos-

sibly established, and second, because these frequencies are slightly

altered by the proximity of other groups whose masses or effect on

the valence force result in an alteration of the characteristic fre-

quency. This is helpful in the delineation of the molecular structure

of the molecule.

Unfortunately, the number of Raman lines which can be elicited

from a molecule is not confined to fundamental vibrations, that is,

vibrations corresponding to a particular type of motion. Other lines

may appear due to overtones (harmonics) of a given frequency or due

to combinations. These latter may appear as the sum or difference

of other frequencies, the result being in some cases nearly ten times

as many lines as are represented by the fundamental vibrations. As

a rule, these overtones and combinations have much less intensity

than the fundamentals. From this and their numerical values it is

sometimes possible, even in a complicated molecule, where a profu-

sion of lines appear in the same neighborhood, to make proper as-

JULY 15, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 2795

signments. Otherwise it would be very difficult, except in general

terms, to state that a given line is due to any particular mode of

oscillation. Typical examples of characteristic frequencies and force

constants for specific linkage are given in Table 1.

TABLE 1.—VALENCE Forcss (F) For DIFFERENT TypEs OF LINKAGE

Linkage Frequency FX10-° dynes em

C —H* 3050 3202

C-—C 993 4.64

C—O 1030 5.00

C-—N 1033 4.85

N-H 3370 6.20

O-—-H 3650 6.80

H-H 4158 5.05

Cl-—H 2880 aE

Br—-—H 2558 3.80

S-—H Zale, 3.78

C-S 650 2.14

SSo 1620 10.60

C=O 1700 EEG

o—©@ 1556 11.4

CN 1650 10.40

N=O 1640 11.80

C=C 2120 15.82

C=N 2150 455

C=O 2146 18.50

N=O 2224 20.9

* Aromatic

THE RAMAN EFFECT IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

SATURATED ALIPHATIC COMPOUNDS

In general the entire spectrum of the hydrocarbons may be di-

vided into four groups, the first consisting of those frequencies below

Ax 700. These correspond to the deformation or bending motion of

the carbon atoms in the chain. From A> 700 to approximately 1100

the lines represent the linear or symmetrical vibrations (v,) of the

carbon atoms and their combination frequencies. From Az 1100 to

1470 are deformation (6,) oscillations corresponding to the C—H

linkage and finally from Av 2600 to 3100 the linear (v,) oscillations

for C—H. The actual magnitude may be illustrated by Av 2918 for

C—H in methane, 1450 for C—H (6,) in the higher homologues and

993 for C—C (v,) in ethane. For this region in butane there are no

longer single frequencies. The frequencies in the region corresponding

to C—H likewise become much more complicated. This is illustrated

in Figure 4.

VOL. 27, NO. 7

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

276

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q paq qers p J 2) u |

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—————_—

OOVE 0062 0042 009/ OOv/ 002/ 000/ 008 oo9 OOF 00g Oo

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bZ hf M5

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(Syy)2 Waa Hd)

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[HY Wo HOTHD

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HD 2 (HY

HI HI CHD)

“49 HO Hy)

Ly 2

IHD)

yD)

Ha Ha (Ho)

NGG)

TA)

SH)

7/9

JULY 15, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 277

The alcohols show spectra which are quite similar to the spectra

of the hydrocarbons with the exception of the frequency occurring

near Av 3400 which corresponds to the H—O vibration. In no case,

however, do any of these compounds give identical spectra.

The ethylene oxides or epoxy compounds are particularly char-

acterized by one or two lines near Az 1256 and 1277. In addition there

appears a hydrogen frequency greater than Az 3000, which occurs only

in compounds having a triangular ring structure or in compounds

attached to a carbon which is multiply bonded.

The halogen derivatives of the hydrocarbons exhibit characteristic

frequencies which are lower than usual, partially owing to the in-

creased mass of the halogen. The v, vibrations are Av 710, 600 and

530, in methyl chloride, bromide, and iodide respectively. These are

not proportional to the square root of the mass and consequently

there is likewise progressively a change in the force constant. The

effect of halogen substitution on the C—H vibration is to increase its

frequency provided the substitution is made on the carbon atom to

which is also bound the hydrogen.

Branching of the chains is reflected in altered spectra for all these

hydrocarbons.

UNSATURATED ALIPHATIC COMPOUNDS

With very few exceptions the presence or absence of the functional

group C=C may be determined by its characteristic frequency shift

which occurs between Ay 1600 and 1680. This is sensitive to groups

immediately adjacent, and as it occurs in that portion of the spectrum

which is more or less free from other lines, this becomes exceedingly

useful in the determination of molecular structure. Ethylene yields

As 1620 but propene Ap 1647. This increase remains constant for all

hydrocarbon substituent groups. However, if this group is an alde-

hyde the frequency becomes Az 1618, and if it is a chloride it is reduced

still further to 1608. There is likewise an effect on the characteristic

C—H frequencies which are two in number, namely, Av 3002, and

3080. In vinyl chloride these are augmented to Av 3036 and 3134.

Two other frequencies appear which remain relatively constant,

namely, Av 1290 and 1416.

In compounds of the type CH;-CH=CHR there is introduced

another possibility, cis- and trans-isomerism. As the effect of intro-

ducing one radical in place of a hydrogen in proceeding from ethylene

to propene was to augment the C=C frequency by twenty wave

numbers, the effect of introducing two radicals on each side of the

278 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

double bond is to augment the frequency by roughly 40 wave num-

bers, which gives Ay 1658 for the hydrocarbon substituents in the

cvs-isomeric form. The trans- compounds yield a shift or line 15 wave

numbers still higher or A 1674. This again is reduced on the substitu-

tion of aldehydes, esters, or acid groups. The results are indicated in

Table 2. The trisubstituted ethylenes yield a frequency corresponding

in behavior to that of the trans- compounds.

TABLE 2.—TuHE EFFECT OF DISUBSTITUTION ON THE C=C Suirts

“| CH=CH oh %

Radical R CH. | CHR Radical R CH. Ve

Wh eeepc pes

c1s trans C18 trans

CH.0O(COCHS) 1649)|1665|1679|| CHCICH; 1640

CH.OH 1646|1658]1677|| CH.C.H; 1640

CHOHCH; 1646 CH.Cl 1640 1671

CHOHC=CH 1646 1676|| CHCl, 1666 (Kirrmann)

CHOHCH =CH,. /|1646 1674|| CHBrCH; 1635/1651} 1666

CoH; 1642|1658|1674|| COOH 1638|1645| 1652)

C3H; 1642/1658|1674|| COOR 1644] 1655 /(Kohlrausch)

Ci, 1642|1658|1674|| CcH; 1631|1642| 1665

OsHu 1642|1658|1674|| H 1620| 1647

Oss 1642|1658|1674|| CN 1628) 1645 (Kohlrausch)

CEs 1642 CHO 1618|1625| 1642

/ Cis Cl 1608

CH 1659|1673|| Br 1598

NCH,

CH.C;Hs5

1642|1658/1674

(CH2)sCsHu 1657 |

A brief example of the use of these shifts to determine the presence

of compounds may be cited in mixtures of rhodinol and citronellol

which are identical except for the terminal groups. These are respec-

tively:

| |

CH; CH;

The rhodinol, or a-form, yields Av 1650 and the 6-form 1678.

The effect of conjugation as shown in the diolefins is to reduce the

ethylenic frequency very slightly. However, if the conjugation is of

the nature found in the allenes, C=C =C, no typical ethylenic shift

is observed but instead appear one or two lines occurring at A> 1070

and 1130. Allene, like COs, is a linear molecule. The nature of this

vibration is such as to allow a coupling between the vibrating com-

ponents in such a way that the usual ethylenic shift is split into two

components, one of which occurs at a lower frequency, corresponding

to the symmetrical vibration, and one appears at a higher frequency,

Juny to, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 279

corresponding to the asymmetrical vibration. As the latter only ap-

pears very weakly in the Raman effect it does not register, the natural

result being that the characteristic frequency in this case appears at

a much lower value than ordinarily.

CARBONYL COMPOUNDS

Carbonyl compounds, like the ethylenes, yield a double bond shift

quite characteristic of the constitution of the molecules. These shifts

vary from Az 1666 to 1800, depending upon whether the compound

is an acid, ketone, aldehyde, ester, or acid chloride, and increase in

the order named. The frequency varies slightly on the substitution

of different aliphatic radicals in the a-position to the carbon of the

carbonyl group; but, as has been indicated, the effect is more pro-

nounced if the substitution takes place directly on the carbonyl car-

bon. This is likewise shown in a series of esters wherein the frequency

remains constant regardless of the ester, but varies widely with the

character of substitution on the carbonyl carbon. These effects are

indicated in Tables 3 and 4.

TABLE 3.—INFLUENCE OF SUBSTITUTION ON THE CARBONYL FREQUENCIES

Substance San CES Rico, LG ER Te EST EL A [SU

H;CCOX RH2CCOX R:,HCCOX RsCCOX CsH;COX

Acid, X =OH 1666 1652 1648 1644 1647

Methyl ester, X =OCH; 1736 life 1732 1728 1720

Ethyl ester, X =OC.H; 1736 1732 1728 1724 IEPA

Ketone, X = CH; 1710 1709 1709 1702 1677

Acid chloride, X =Cl 1798 1793 1788 1790

Aldehyde, X =H US 1719 1719 1723 1689

TABLE 4.—CARBOYNL FREQUENCY IN ESTERS OF THE TYPE XCOOR

PieeeeUn) oe a a

X=H X=Cl X=CH; | X=CH-Br | X=CH.Cl | X=CHCl | X=CCl

. R=CH; 1717 1780 1738 1740 1748 1755 1768

. R=C2H; 1715 1772 1736 1738 1747 1750 1763

. R=C;3H, 1719 1775 1739 1736 1742 1749 1764

. R=C.H, 1718 1773 1737 1732 1739 1751 1765

. R=C5Hu 1718 1774 1738 1744 1756 1769

Our Whe

The remarkable constancy of the carbonyl shift in a series of alde-

hydes is illustrated in Figure 5, which shows only those shifts below

Av 1750. ,

The use of the Raman effect in demonstrating keto-enol tautomer-

ism is illustrated in Figure 6. Here the normal carbonyl frequencies

are slightly augmented owing to the effect of conjugation.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

280

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suny.15, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 281

From the observations on Raman spectra it has been postulated

that diacetyl, acetylacetone, acetonyl, and aldol exist in tautomeric

forms.

KETO-ENOL TAL/TOMER/S/!

1600crm’ 1/700 1802

CH-CO-CHs

CH-CO-Cp CO OCH.

Cy (COM)= CH CO OCo/4,

CH CO 00> Hg

Cht=CH-CH =CAy

Fig. 6.—The Raman shifts of the keto and enol forms of ethyl aceto-

acetate as compared with similar compounds (after Andrews).

ACETYLENIC LINKAGE

As is observed in Table I, the force constant for C=C is approxi-

mately three times that obtained for the singly-bonded carbon. The

effect of substitution is more pronounced than in the case of the

ethylenes but shows the same general behavior. Acetylene yields

Ay 1960. If one hydrogen is substituted by a hydrocarbon radical

this increases to Av 2120 and remains constant. Disubstitution causes

both a marked augmentation of the acetylenic frequency and splitting

generally into two components which appear at Av 2238 and 2303.

The alcohol and ether derivatives sometimes yield three frequencies

depending upon the nature of the compound, while on the other hand,

halogen derivatives yield but a single line. In addition to this char-

acteristic shift for the acetylenic linkage, there appear in these com-

pounds two others almost equally constant. These are Av 340 and

3300. The first of these is probably attributable to the v, vibration

of the chain and the second to the v, vibration of the =C—H.

These effects are illustrated in Table 5.

SATURATED CYCLIC COMPOUNDS

The cyclopropanes are characterized by strong constant fre-

quencies A> 860, 1170-1214, and 3065. The last is clearly connected

with the hydrogen vibrations, but appears in no other saturated

cyclic compound except cyclopropane and its derivatives. The cyclic

compounds from cyclopentane to cycloctane show a progressively

decreasing frequency in the Av 860 region. Otherwise they exhibit

remarkable similarity. Nevertheless, it is possible to distinguish the

cis- and trans-isomers in compounds of such types as the cyclohexanes.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

282

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JULY 15, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 283

CYCLOOLEFINS

As would be expected, the cyclodlefins have a frequency in the

region corresponding to an ethylenic group. This is somewhat modi-

fied by the ring structure. Appearing at Av 1615 in cyclopentene and

A> 1660 in the A! substituted derivatives, these compounds also give

rise to a frequency near Av 3060 characteristic of =CH,. Cyclopen-

tadiene shows a profound modification of the ordinary ethylenic fre-

quency even as modified by the ring structure. This appears at Az

1500. The constant frequencies and effect of substitution for cyclopen-

tene and its derivatives are shown in Table 6. The higher homologues

such as cyclohexene to cycloheptene give Av 1650 for the normal com-

pound, which is augmented to Av 1675 by substitution in the A! posi-

tion.

AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS

While benzene and its derivatives have been more extensively

investigated than any other compounds, their spectra are very com-

plex. Benzene shows the usual =C—H frequency near Az 3063 and

exhibits Av 1605 and 1584. Its derivatives exhibit one frequency for

the double bond, namely, Av 1600. This is quite appreciably lower

than the shift observed in cyclohexene or in ethylene. While the effect

of substitution is in the direction of reducing the ordinary ethylenic

frequency, this effect is not so pronounced as in the case of cyclopen-

tadiene. Presumably there are 10, or possibly 12, fundamental fre-

quencies, at least one of which has been attributed to a carbon isotope

of mass 13.

Attempts have been made to explain the structure of benzene on

the basis of resonating bonds. So far as the Raman effect is concerned,

the characteristic valence vibration is that of atomic motion along

the line of directed valence which varies with the force constant and

the mass of the atoms. Where resonance of bonds may be possible,

it is the type of bonds which exist for the longest duration of time

which determine the spectra. In short, if there is resonance between

a double and triple bond, but the bond type is essentially that cor-

responding to a triple bond, then the Raman shift will occur near

the usual position for this type of binding. The concept of resonating

bond is based primarily on a change in atomic distances obtained

from x-ray data. A conclusion based on this evidence is necessarily

an extrapolation. In the case of benzene there is little doubt that the

formula commonly used to represent benzene is too static and that

there is a continuous resonating effect throughout the ring structure

_ so that no particular atoms can be stated as being doubly bonded.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. ai, NO. 7

284

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funy 15; 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 285

Nevertheless, it is precarious to consider that the average effect is a

bond and a half. The Raman frequency would seem to indicate that

in view of the modifications of the ethylenic frequency by ring struc-

ture in cyclopentene, in benzene there are double bonds with a slightly

diminished force constant.

The effect of multiple substitution in benzene is to decrease the

C=C shift with increasing substitution, but no two isomers are iden-

tical. The more or less constant frequencies observed in benzene and

some of its derivatives are indicated in Table 7.

TERPENES, TERPENE DERIVATIVES, AND TERPINOIDS

The structure of these compounds may be extraordinarily complex.

Particularly has it been difficult to differentiate the components of

the various mixtures occurring in natural products. From a spectro-

graphic standpoint, however, it has been shown that most of these

mixtures contain some type of bonding which permits the determina-

tion of types of compounds in distillates and, in particular cases,

their structures. Limonene has an external double bond which cor-

rectly falls in the neighborhood of Az 1650, while the internal double

bond Aj 1681 is similar to methyl cyclohexene. The compound dl-AA*-

carene gives Aj 1554, 1639, and 1670, as compared with 1641 and 1683

for d-A®-carene. The /-A®-carene has only Av 1685. The sabinenes, on

the other hand, give Ay 1653. Geranial and citronellal show very dif-

ferent shifts, as likewise do citronellol and linalodl. Some of these dif-

ferences are indicated in Figure 7.

Those compounds possessing a =CH, group, or equivalent, yield

the C—H frequency characteristic of this type of binding. From ecar-

vone and limonene are observed Az 3034 to 3085. Pulegone correctly

exhibits no such frequency. The appearance of this higher frequency

shift in these compounds is in contradistinction to the behavior of the

substituted cyclohexenes.

Some examples of the use of Raman spectra are found in the analy-

sis of many complicated mixtures of terpenes, and the indication of

the existence of anethole, isoeugenol, and isosafrole as the trans-

rather than the czs-compounds.

This is only a casual indication of the many applications of consti-

tutional determination by means of the Raman effect to the delinea-

tion of the structure of the terpene derivatives. These are of great in-

terest in the biochemical fields embracing vitamins, hormones, and

compounds of biological significance.

VOL. 27, NO. 7

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

286

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JULY 15, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT | 287

POLYCYCLIC COMPOUNDS AND DIPHENYL DERIVATIVES

These compounds exhibit spectra of the expected kind in view of the

tenets thus far promulgated. Some lines alter widely with substitu-

tion and others remain relatively constant. The ethylenic shift is

slightly less than Av 1600 in most cases.

ALIPHATIC ORGANIC SULFUR AND METALLO COMPOUNDS

AND THOSE CONTAINING NITROGEN

The H—S linkage is as characteristic as any other so far described.

It occurs at A> 2573 in both organic and inorganic compounds. The

C—S line appears at Av 652, with the exception of methyl mercaptan

which gives Ap 704. The determination of S—S in the polysulfides

is not entirely satisfactory and the assignment of a particular fre-

quency to a characteristic vibration is not without objection. Pre-

sumably this occurs at Av 510. All the polysulfides and sulfides are

easily distinguished from other types of compounds.

The N =O frequency appears at about Av 1565 in the nitrites, and

1640 in the nitro compounds and nitrates. The C=N line appears at

As 1650 as determined primarily from the oximes. The methyl] deriva-

tives of these compounds are the only ones showing a hydrogen fre-

quency in excess of Ay 3000 for this type of compound.

The isonitriles exhibit two frequencies which appear in the triple-

bond region, namely, Av 2146 and 2161. The nitriles, on the other

hand, exhibit a frequency which is approximately 100 wave numbers

higher. The thiocyanates and isothiocyanates yield frequencies which

occur within a relatively narrow range of Av 2106 to 2182. The iso-

thiocyanates, however, exhibit two frequencies like isonitriles. These

compounds also give rise to a line near Av 630 which has been pointed

out as possibly characteristic of the C—S linkage.

Metallo derivatives such as zinc or mercury dimethl and tetraethyl

lead have their principal frequencies at less than Av 700. Those in

excess of this amount are connected with the methyl radicals. There

are usually about four frequencies concerned with the metal atom to

carbon vibrations, which vary from Az 130 to 700. There is no simi-

larity in the frequency shifts in this region between any of these com-

pounds.

The amines, amides, and imido compounds are characterized pri-

marily by the hydrogen shifts which occur from Ay 3319 to 3378 in

the aliphatic compounds and from Az 3360 to 3420 in the aromatic

ones. The C—N shift as determined for methyl amine occurs at

Ay 1033. The carbonyl frequency in the amides is greatly reduced from

288 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

the corresponding frequency in the ketones and appears at 1600 in

lieu of 1710.

HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS

The unsubstituted furanes, pyrroles, and thiophenes exhibit an

anomaly somewhat similar to those observed in cyclopentene. There

is no C=C shift in the normal position, but one occurs at Av 1486 in

furane, possibly at 1140 in pyrrole, and 1404 in thiophene as com-

pared with 1500 in cyclopentadiene. The substitution of a radical in

place of a ring hydrogen immediately causes the appearance of a

reasonably normal ethylenic shift if due allowance is made for ring

influence. The normal C = N frequency is also lacking in 3, 4-dimethyl

furazan. Unfortunately, furazan has not been studied. The remaining

furazans investigated, azoximes and oxdiazoles have at least one

C=N shift. This group of compounds is also characterized by C—H

lines from Av 3070 to 3349 in some cases. The intercomparison

between the spectra obtainable from some of these compounds is

given in Table 8. The pyrroles give rise to approximately Av 3140

in all cases, but, in addition, to 3380 when there is a hydrogen

attached to a nitrogen atom.

TaBLE 8.—THE RAMAN SPECTRA OF SOME FURAZANS, OXDIAZOLES, AND AZOXIMES

3, 4-Dimethy] 2, 5-Dimethyl- 3-Methyl-4- 2-Methyl-5- 5-Methyl-3- 3-Methyl-5-

furazan oxdiazole phenylfurazan phenyloxdiazole phenylazoxime phenylazoxime

289(1) 283(1)

649(1) 613(1) 621(1) 629(1) 635(1) 632(2)

709(2) 958(1)

964(1) 923(1) 998 (2) 991(1) 989(2) 982(1)

1043(1) 1030(2) 1020(1) 1036(2)

1055(1) 1069(1)

1108(2) 1102(2)

1168(2) 1175(2) 1183(2)

1308(2) 1278(1) 1305(2) 1320(1)

1396(3)

1461(3) 1438(3) 1451(8) 1442(2) 1439(2) 1463(2)

1502(2) 1482(3) 1483(2) 1499(2)

1546(3) 1546(3) 1541(3) 1559(3)

1579(3) 1598(3) 1591(2) 1576(2) 1601(2)

2938(2) 2957 (2) 2936(2) 2919(2) 2928 (2) 2940(1)

3070(1) 3082(1) 3083 (2) 3071(2) 3065(2) 3091 (2)

3190(1) 3182(1) 3178(1)

3217(1) 3204(1)

3349(1)

DEUTERIUM COMPOUNDS

If mass alone enters into the ratio of the frequency observed for

deuterium to that of hydrogen it is as 1: \/2 or Avp = Adu 1/./2=0.707

< Aix. For CD, is observed 2108, compared with 2915 in CHy. CD,

Jonuy 15> 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 289

should give a calculated value of 2065. In CHCl, there are two fre-

quencies whose counterparts in CDCl; are very different. These are

Ap 1215 and 3019. In CDCl; these become Az 908 and 2256, as com-

pared with a calculated value from mass effect alone of 860 and 2140.

Consequently, the observed frequency is higher than the mass effect

allows, indicating an increased force of linkage in the deuterium com-

pounds. Deuterium derivatives have a special usefulness in the as-

signment of doubtful vibrations. It will be remembered that in the

region between Az 1000 and 1400 there occur many lines whose origin

is unknown. If these lines are due to the atomic vibrations of carbon

as the principal participant, then these will be altered only slightly

by the substitution of deuterium for hydrogen. On the other hand, if

the lines correspond to a frequency chiefly concerned with the motion

of the hydrogen atoms, then the substitution of deuterium will cause

a profound modification of the frequencies as is indicated in the ex-

amples just given.

SOME APPLICATIONS OF THE RAMAN EFFECT TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Thus far have been outlined the nature of the Raman effect, and

the mechanism by which the observed Raman spectra may be used

to delineate the structure of organic molecules. It has been indicated

that in the simpler molecules the modes of vibration of the atoms can

be determined, as well as their spacial configuration, their amplitudes

of vibration, the forces involved in types of linkage, and the specific

heats if all the types of vibration are known; and finally much light

can be thrown upon the constitution of molecules by characteristic

Raman shifts.

Since the known constitution of molecules should give rise to cer-

tain types of Raman spectra, it is possible to distinguish alterations

of this constitution under different conditions. For example, no one

has ever isolated methylene glycol, and yet an aqueous solution of

formaldehyde indicates that formaldehyde continues to exist no

longer and is converted to methylene glycol. The mechanism of the

polymerization of polystyrene and acetaldehyde is demonstrable, and

organic and inorganic complexes can be investigated by the change

in spectra. These applications are of particular interest in the field

of industrial plastics. |

The number of molecules in higher vibrational levels at room tem-

perature can be determined, in some cases, by the intensities of anti-

Stokes lines. These are like ordinary Raman lines except for the fact

that they are emitted by molecules already in a higher energy state

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 7

than the ground level and consequently appear on the high frequency

side of the exciting line rather than the low frequency side. In addi-

tion to the magnitude of frequency shifts and their intensities, there

exists a third property of Raman spectra which is helpful in the as-

signment of different frequencies to their proper origin, and conse-

quently in the determination of the types of vibration the molecules

undergo. This is the measurement of the degree of depolarization of

any given Raman line. Those lines corresponding to symmetrical

oscillations are more or less polarized, while those which are unsym-

metrical will be depolarized to a greater or less degree, depending

on the character of the oscillation.

All the principles thus far set forth are equally applicable to in-

organic chemistry.

THE RAMAN EFFECT IN INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Ordinarily inorganic chemistry has been little concerned with inter-

atomic forces or spacial configurations, and has been more or less con-

tent with classical formulae and percent composition of the elements.

For the average practical purpose this is sufficient, but if one is inter-

ested in surface tension, vapor pressure, osmotic pressure, viscosity,

and other factors for which the behavior and configuration of the

molecules as well as the chemical composition are important, then the

Raman-spectra method will give information of value. A perusal of

any standard reference book in inorganic chemistry will readily con-

vince the skeptic that in spite of the free use of simple formulae, there

is a large field of inorganic chemistry concerning which there exists a

most profound state of ignorance.

The inorganic groups have characteristic frequency shifts just the

same as the organic ones and for the same reason. There is, however, a

larger scale of diffuseness or lack of clarity which is attributable to a

much wider scale of binding, ranging from the completely homopolar

type found in organic chemistry to the completely heteropolar type

which may exist in inorganic compounds. The latter type gives rise

to no Raman lines. Hydrochloric acid solutions, for example, give no

frequency shift, but HCl yields Az 2880 in the gas and somewhat less

in the liquid.

As is to be expected, crystals, liquids, solutions or gases yield shifts

depending on the binding forces and on the spacial arrangement of the

atoms, that is, tetrahedral, triangular, linear, etc. Allions or molecules

of the type RO, or ROs, etc. have their respective shifts somewhat simi-

larly spaced. The number of lines and the exact magnitude, how-

June bo, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 291

ever, depend on the mass, force, and other considerations named.

The shifts observed in the SO, group, while characteristic of that

group, are not wholly independent of the cation. The frequency near

Av 1000 decreases regularly with different cations in a given periodic

group directly proportional to the mass of the cation. The difference

is not more than 20 wave numbers.

The nitrites yield several lines the principal of which is Av 1325, a

symmetrical vibration. The nitrates give Ay 720, 1048, 1357, wherein

1048 is the symmetrical vibration. Sulfates yield At 440, 620, 984,

and 1104. A comparison of the spectra of the various nitrates and

sulfates is given in Tables 9 and 10.

All inorganic compounds (possessing at least a weak homopolar

linkage) likewise exhibit entirely different spectra, depending on the

atomic constituents, and it would serve no useful purpose to enumer-

ate all of them. The method used to delineate structure in inorganic

chemistry from the point of view of the Raman effect is the same, in

principle, as that employed with organic compounds. A few of many

possible examples will be given to illustrate some of the results ob-

tained respectively in solution, from solids, gases, acids, and finally

from that most peculiar of all compounds, water itself.

It has been more or less customary to consider a solution of SO,

in water as sulfurous acid. While there no doubt is some H.SO, pres-

ent under these circumstances, in the main, this is principally SO,

in water, as the spectrum of gaseous SO, is practically unaltered on

solution. Similarly it can be shown that the anions of the compounds

NaHSO; and K,8,0O,, in solution exist primarily as S.0;= and KHSO,

respectively. The compound TiCl, in strong HCl solutions indicates

the existence of H.TiCl,. The complex ammonium, cyanide, tungsten,

and molybdenum compounds have particular frequencies.

In liquids it can be demonstrated that there are mixed compounds

formed on addition of PCl; to varying quantities of PBr3, while in the

solid state the Raman spectrum from the solid eutectic of NaNO;

+KNO; shows a single sharp frequency for the NO; group when

freshly prepared, but reverts to two separate shifts after a period of

several days. The polymerization of silica in glasses can be shown.

The polymerization of gaseous SO; and the depolymerization of S.O¢

can be quantitatively demonstrated since the spectra of the two com-

pounds are quite distinct. Concentrated H.SO, gives a spectrum

which is quite different from that of dilute solutions of this acid.

There are three lines, Av 1048 characteristic of the HSO,7 ion, 982 for

the SO.- ion and 908 probably for the un-ionized H.SO, molecule.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

292

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294. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

The intensity of these three lines varies with dilution. This is demon-

strated in Figure 8. While NaHS exhibits an S—H line, neither

H;PO, nor H2SO, shows any linkage between the phosphorus or sulfur

and the hydrogen atoms.

H, SQ,

. s

c AV 992) ¢ 1048 “a

8 i .

¢ =

zy °

Qo as

d So

2 90

Lt)

t a

Fig. 8.—Changes in the characteristic Raman frequencies of sulfuric acid with

varying concentrations. Ay 908 characteristic of sulfuric acid molecule decreases in

intensity with dilution; Ay 1048 characteristic of HSO, ion, and Ay 982 characteristic

of SO, ion increases in intensity with dilution (after Woodward).

Nitric acid also possesses different lines at varying concentrations.

In dilute solution there is Av 1046 for the NO;- ion which appears

only very weakly, if at all, in the concentrated acid. On the other

hand, as the acid becomes more concentrated there appear two fre-

quencies Av 1300 and 1665. These are more or less analogous to the

JULY 15, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 295

similar frequencies appearing in CH;—O—NO,, and give some evi-

dence of the existence of the ester form of nitric acid in concentrated

solution. These changes are indicated in Figure 9. Stepwise dissocia-

tion is also shown from the spectra of selenious and selenic acid as

well as for phosphoric acid.

—> Decreasing Concentration of NO,

TOCA

Pte ANSE

2 aa

SEE EE RSE

Sh ohA RN

SERS ENNIS

itty

Fig. 9.—Changes in the characteristic Raman frequencies of nitric acid with vary

ing concentration. Showing increase in nitrate ions and decrease in nitric acid mole

cules with dilution (after Rao).

Perhaps one of the more interesting applications of the Raman

effect in inorganic chemistry is in the investigation of the constitu-

tion of water. The anomalous behavior of water from the physico-

chemical point of view has long been ascribed to various types of

polymers. The explanations have varied from postulating the exist- .

ence of (H.O). and (H.O); to the assumption of a quasi-crystalline ar-

rangement having respectively a tridymite, quartz, and close-packed

ideal structure. It has been postulated that these modifications change

as a function of temperature. The difference between these concepts

is more illusory than real. The essential fact is that there is a profound

influence on the Raman spectrum of water as changes in its constitu-

tion take place. This is prima facie evidence of the existence of the

intermolecular interaction in water. Other methods of arriving at this

conclusion are less direct and more susceptible to error. Water may

have theoretically but three fundamental frequencies. These occur

near A> 1600 (6,), 3600 (v,) and 3757 (v,) from the vapor. In the liquid

296 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

the second of these three is lowered and split into three components.

The last one, observable in infra-red absorption, is forbidden in the

Raman effect. The Raman spectrum of water, however, has three

other broad frequencies, namely, at approximately Av 150, 450, and

2118. Of these Av 2118 is probably a combination of the frequencies

Az 1630 and 450. This leaves the Az 150 and 450 as impossible of exist-

ence, from a theoretical standpoint, in the simple H.O molecule and

therefore must be ascribed to intermolecular perturbation. The second

of these, Av 450, is probably due to the hindered rotation of the hydro-

Fig. 10.—A microphotometer tracing of the principal Raman bands for water

excited by the 2537 A mercury line. The bands are indicated by arrows from left to

right to correspond to Ay 150, 445, 1628, 2170 and the broad band extending from Ap

3220 to 3600.

gen atoms in a given molecule, and the first to the hindered transla-

tional motion of the molecules as a whole. Both of these effects are

therefore directly attributable to the influence of one molecule on the

other and constitute a phenomenon unique in Raman spectra unless

there is a close chemical or physical combination. The assignment of

vibrational and rotational motion to these two frequencies is further

substantiated by the spectrum from deuterium oxide. In this com-

pound the Az 450 for hydrogen rotation is diminished, but Av 150 is

little affected.

A microphotometer tracing of the Raman spectrum of water is

shown in Figure 10. Instead of reasonably sharp lines there are ob-

served broad bands due to the lack of specific quantitization in the

energy changes. The values given for the shifts represent the peaks

of the bands. It may be pointed out that the maxima of the broad

juny lo, 1937 HIBBEN: RAMAN EFFECT 297

bands between Az 3200 and 3600 change somewhat with temperature,

and, as may be expected, the two lower frequencies, A7 140 and 450,

diminish markedly with an increased temperature. As ice is supposed

to be polymerized, one would expect an increase in the intensity of

the lower frequencies accompanying a change in state from water to

ice. This is indeed the case, as is shown in Figure 11.

= he

Fig. 11.—A microphotometer tracing of the Raman spectrum of ice showing the

enhancement in intensity of the lower frequency shifts occurring in ice at Ap 205 and

601 as a result of intermolecular interaction.

Another interesting application from the point of view of inorganic

chemistry is the demonstration of the common ion effect. This is

shown in Figure 12. Zine chloride has at least one strong line at

Ax 280. The top curve in the figure represents a one-molal solution

which shows the zinc chloride line with fair intensity. On further dilu-

tion the line practically disappears, indicating an increase in ioniza-

tion which is more rapid than the corresponding dilution. However,

as is shown in the lower curves, the addition of the common chloride

ion by means of NaCl causes a suppression of this ionization, so that

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

the actual concentration of un-ionized zine chloride is greater in the

half-molal ZnCl, solution under these circumstances than it was origi-

nally in the one-molal solution.

These examples will suffice to demonstrate that the constitution of

inorganic as well as organic compounds can be determined in many

ZnCh, / molal

ZnCl, : +molal

yee Ch xmolal

Na Ch; /melal

ZnCl» 4molal

NaCl, 2 mofal

2n Ch, £ molal

NaCl, 2molal

Fig. 12.—An enlarged microphotometer tracing of zine chloride and zine chloride-

sodium chloride solutions showing the common ion effect which results in the repres-

sion of ionization in zinc chloride.

cases. This is of particular interest in those examples where there is

either a change in passing from a pure compound to solution or where

there is an alteration in composition or constitution induced by any

modification of environment.

All the general types of Raman spectra investigations enumerated

in the course of this presentation have been undertaken in the Geo-

physical Laboratory. This work has included a study of many organic

and inorganic compounds from a structural standpoint, those com-

Jury 15, 1937 LOTKA: POPULATION ANALYSIS 299

pounds whichexhibit peculiarities such as oxalic acid and formaldehyde

solutions, and finally the mechanism of polymerization and associa-

tion. It has been assumed that any method which will not yield logical

results in the field of organic chemistry is inapplicable to the invest-

igation of properties of inorganic compounds which are, in turn, more

directly concerned with geophysics. Most of the common inorganic

salts, bases and acids have been examined and the results applied to

the constitutional problems of these substances, in solution, and as

crystals, amorphous compounds and inorganic complexes. The dem-

onstration of common ion effects and of the “‘association’’ of water

and ice has likewise been realized. In brief, fundamental physical and

chemical information has been obtained concerning those substances

which compose the earth.

SUMMARY

It has been the purpose of this presentation to outline the inter-

pretation, the development and application of Raman spectra and,

to a certain extent, to analyze the data upon which such interpreta-

tions and applications are predicated. The contributions already made

to physics and chemistry by the Raman effect are undisputed. It is

of interest to the physicist, the crystallographer, and the chemist. It

provides information concerning the behavior of atoms within the

molecule and of the molecules themselves, which knowledge neces-

sarily must be a prerequisite for the better understanding of the com-

position and behavior of all forms of matter.

Notre.—No attempt has been made in the course of this presentation to recognize

the contributions of individual workers, as the number of citations would be too numer-

ous to be practicable. The reader is referred to the reviews by the author appearing in

the Chemical Reviews 13: 345. 1933 and 18: 1. 1936 for most of the original cita-

tions. +

MATHEMATICS.—Population analysis: a theorem regarding the

stable age distribution... ALFRED J. LotKa, New York.

The author has elsewhere? stated without proof what amounts es-

sentially to the theorem set forth below. As the proof is a little intri-

cate it seems desirable to put it on record, as follows:

Theorem:—A closed population which is increasing at a constant

rate r per head, under the régime of a constant age schedule of mor-

tality and fertility, can have no other than the stable age distribution.

1 Received May 18, 1937.

2 Human Biology 9: 104. 1937.

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

(That is, it can not be merely approaching that distribution, the stable

distribution must be actually established.)

Concentrating attention exclusively on the female population, that

is, dealing exclusively with mothers and daughters,’

Let N(t), b(t) and d(t) denote, respectively, the number of the

(female) population, its birth rate per head and its death rate

per head at time ¢.

Let p(a) be the probability at birth of reaching age a, and let

p'(a) denote the derivative dp(a)/da, these quantities being

independent of ¢.

Let m(a) be the frequency of female births by women at age a,

independent of ft.

It is to be noted that p(a) and m(a) from their nature can never be

negative, while p’(a) can never be positive.

Putting

Bit) =b(t) N(@) (1)

and

Dit) = d(t) N@) (2)

we have the well known and essentially obvious relations

NW) = f BO + a)p(ada (3)

BW) = {BU — a)p(a)m(a)aa (4)

iG) eee [ 2 ee Oda. (5)

Hence

Bt) — Dit) _f,°Bt — a)[p(a)m(a) + p’(a) |da 6)

N(t) - SZB(t — a)p(a)da

= constant (independent of t) =r (7)

by hypothesis, since this quotient is the rate of natural increase per

head.

Two trivial cases may first of all be disposed of.

3 As set forth in previous publications, e.g., Jour. American Statistical Association

20: 307, 329. 1925.

JULY 15, 1937 LOTKA: POPULATION ANALYSIS 301

1. The condition (7) would be satisfied if

p(a) m(a) + p’(a) = constant (independent of a). (8)

But this is contrary to biological facts.

2. The condition (7) is also satisfied if the numerator vanishes for

all values of ¢. But in that case r=0 and hence

ii i B(t — a) p(a) da = constant (9)

that is,

B(t) = constant (10)

and we have simply the case of a stationary population under the

régime of a constant life table.

Furthermore the equation

BO = f Be - a) pla) ma) da (4)

here becomes |

t= fp ma) aa (11)

so that

peer (12)

satisfies the condition for stability of age distribution‘

= few p(a) m(a) da. 3 (13)

3. There remains to be considered the general case, when the nu-

merator of (6) does not vanish, and r+#0.

If, under these conditions, the quotient (6) is to be constant,

B(t—a) must be the product of a factor conta‘ning only ¢ and a fac-

tor containing only a, that is, we must have

Bit a) =QF@f@) (4)

where Q is an arbitrary constant. We can so choose it that

f(0) = 1. (15)

4A. J. Lotxa. Jour. American Statistical Association 20: 329. 1925.

302 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

Then

Q F(t) = BY)

and

Bit — a) = Bit) f(a).

Furthermore

Bi -— a — dz) = Bt — a) f(ae)

that is

Bit — [a: + a@]) = Bit) f(a) f(a)

= Bit) f(a + a)

Hence

f(a: + a2) = f(ai) fae),

and similarly

fatata+---) =f(na) = [f@

= [f(n)]" by symmetry.

Again,

fa xa) = [fa]

But f(1) is a constant. Let us put

fl) =e

where s is a constant still to be determined. Then, by (24)

LAC oe ie

and by (17)

Be =-6).= Boe

(16)

(17)

(18)

(19)

(20)

(21)

(22)

(23)

(24)

(25)

(26)

(27)

that is, the births per unit of time increase in geometric progression

at the rate s.

Furthermore, this is also the rate of natural increase per head of

the population, for according to (5), (6) and (27) we have

BY) — Dt) — BO + BOSe e* p'(a) da

Nit) =——s BY) f“e-**_p(a) da

(28)

JULY 15; 1937 LOTKA: POPULATION ANALYSIS 303

1 — {1 — sfxe~r p(a) da}

Sve pla) da

= 8. (30)

But by hypothesis this quotient is equal to the constant rate of in-

crease r of the population. Hence

S$ =F. (31)

Now, according to (4), (27) and (31)

(29)

Bit) = BY f ayia) de (32)

i [ = n@ m(a) da. (33)

Therefore r is a root of (33). But 7, the rate offnatural increase, is

constant by hypothesis. Therefore it must be a real root of (33), for

complex roots would introduce oscillations. But (83) has only one real

root, because p(a), m(a) is nowhere negative. If we denote this real

root by p, we have therefore

Shp (34)

and the coefficient of age distribution is given by

Bit — a)

= —__— 35

e(a) = a Pla) (35)

BG) e-2

NO p(a) (36)

= DeaP* DG): (37)

But this is the stable age distribution. Thus, the conditions of the

problem fully determine the age distribution (37) and none other is

possible.

The theorem enunciated at the outset is therefore established.

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

BOTANY.—New species of Costa Rican plants C. V. Morton,

U. S. National Museum. (Communicated by Wi.uiam R.

Maxon.)

During the last two years the region about El General in the Provy-

ince of San José, Costa Rica, has been intensively explored by Dr.

Alexander F. Skutch. The flora has proved of great interest and the

author plans to publish later a general discussion of its composition

and relationships. The following new species represent only a portion

of those thus far discovered by Dr. Skutch within this comparatively

small area. It may be noted with pleasure that Professor Pax and

Dr. K. Hoffmann have dedicated to him an interesting new genus of

Euphorbiaceae.

Dioscorea borealis Morton, sp. nov.

Sect. Centrostemon. Herba dextrorsum volubilis; folia alterna longe petio-

lata, petiolo ca. 6 cm longo glabro sulcato; lamina foliorum late ovata,

maxima 11.2 cm longa et 9.8 cm lata, apice acriter acuminata, basi leviter

cordata, membranacea, utrinque concolor glabra integra, nervis primariis

9-11; inflorescentiae o axillares, geminae vel ternae, usque ad 17 cm longae,

non ramosae, rhachibus rectis subglabratis, floribus racemosis solitariis,

numerosis, pedicellis 1-1.5 mm longis minute puberulis basi bracteatis,

bracteis minutis subulatis puberulis; perianthii segmenta purpurea ovato-

oblonga, 1.75 mm longa, patula, glabra; stamina 6, filamentis in tubum

1 mm longum connatis, antheris connatis sursum dehiscentibus; rudimen-

tum stylinum nullum; flores 2 ignoti.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,638,052, collected in the

vicinity of El General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude 880 meters,

June, 1936, by Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2638).

The only previously known North American species of the section Centro-

stemon, D. panamensis Knuth, is quite different from the present, which

doubtless finds its closest relationship with D. larecajensis Uline, of Bolivia,

Peru, and Ecuador. Of this I have examined a specimen of the type collection

(Mandon 1231) and find that the floral structure is essentially like that of

D. borealis, but that the leaves are thicker, more prominently veined, and

minutely puberulous on the nerves beneath. The leaves of D. borealis are

perfectly glabrous.

Dioscorea remota Morton, sp. nov.

Sect. Cryptantha. Herba volubilis, caulibus dextrorsum scandentibus

flavidis glabris striatis subangulatis; folia alterna longe petiolata, petiolo

ca. 8.5 cm longo glabro paullo supra basin tumido; lamina foliorum late

ovata, ca. 15 cm longa et 10.5 cm lata, integra, apice breviter (1.5.cm)

acuminata, basi cordata, utrinque glabra, 7-9 nervia, nervis medianis

areolam ovalem formantibus; inflorescentiae © axillares, solitariae vel

binae, perlongae, usque ad 90 cm longae, rhachi glabra non flexuosa,

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived March 1, 1937.

JuLy 15, 1937 MORTON: COSTA RICAN PLANTS 305

internodiis 1-6 cm distantibus, ramulis geminis simplicibus vel raro semel

ramosis 4-11 cm longis, rhachibus interdum paullulum flexuosis basi brac-

teatis, bracteis lanceolatis ca. 5 mm longis; flores solitarii remoti sessiles

bracteolati, bracteolis latis scariosis cucullatis concavis apiculatis glabris;

perianthium purpureum glabrum, tubo cylindrico 2.75 mm longo, ca. 0.9

mm lato, lobis patulis ovatis 1.5 mm longis et 1 mm latis; stamina longe

supra basin tubi perianthii inserta, filamentis alternatim inaequalibus, eis

segmentis interioribus oppositis longioribus, ca. 1.2 mm longis, ceteris ca.

0.6 mm longis, antheris introrsis oblongis ca. 0.9 mm longis, ex fauce paullo

exsertis; rudimentum stylinum nullum; flores 2 ignoti.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,642,272, collected in the

vicinity of El General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude 975 meters,

December, 1935, by Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2197).

This, the first North American species of the section Cryptantha, need

not be compared minutely with any of its Brazilian relatives, for it is well

distinguished from all by its exceedingly long and relatively sparsely

branched inflorescences, remote flowers, broad scarious bracteoles, and

large flowers with elongate perianth tube, and by its large, ovate, deeply

cordate leaves.

Costus formosus Morton, sp. nov.

Subg. Eucostus. Herba erecta caulescens 3.5 m alta; folia alterna, vagina

brevi 4—5 cm longa inflata striata ubique brevissime puberulenta, ligula

brevi usque ad 5 mm longa biloba margine longe ciliata; lamina foliorum

sessilia oblanceolata vel oblonga, usque ad 23 cm longa et 7 cm lata vel

verisimiliter majora, apice breviter acuminata, basi lata obtusa, supra glabra

costa excepta, subtus ubique puberula; spica terminalis erecta sessilis cylin-

drica 19 cm longa et 4 cm lata, bracteis late ovatis obtusis dense imbricatis

rubris (siccitate castaneis apice rubescentibus), ca. 4.7 em longis, glabres-

centibus, margine scariosis pilosulis, lineam dorsalem callosam flavam

gerentibus; calyx ruber campanulatus glaber perspicue striatus, tubo 5 mm

longo, 6 mm lato, lobis deltoideis ca. 5 mm longis margine scariosis pilosis;

corollae tubus cylindricus 2—2.5 cm longus, 2.5-3.5 mm latus, flavus, lobis

rubris oblanceolatis, ca. 4.38 cm. longis, 10-12 mm latis, glabris acutis;

labellum flavum ca. 5.5 cm longum quam corolla brevius, glabrum, apice

trilobum, lobis lateralibus ca. 6 mm longis et 5 mm latis apice leviter bilo-

bulatis margine integris, lobo medio anguste lineari ca. 7 mm longo et 0.7 mm

lato integro obtuso; stamen longissimum (ca. 7 cm longum), labellum et

corollae lobos evidenter superans, filamento rubro petaloideo glabro 3-5 mm

lato apice rotundato antheras 5 mm superante; ovarium 6-7 mm longum

glabrum album; stylus gracilis glaber; stigma ca. 3.5 mm latum.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,638,056, collected near El

General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude 850 meters, July, 1936, by

Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2775).

The most nearly related species is undoubtedly Costus sanguineus Donn.

Sm., which agrees in corolla color, shape of bracts, and trilobed labellum,

but nevertheless differs in many important characters, as follows:

Exterior corolla segment longer and broader than the remaining two,

sericeous-pilose on the margins, about equaling the labellum; ovary

densely pilose; middle lobe of the labellum shorter than the two lat-

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

eral lobes; filament produced above the anthers in a triangular acutish

apex, this often inrolled; corolla tube over 5 mm. side; calyx sparsely

sericeous; leaves densely long-hirsute on both surfaces; sheath long,

tightly appressed, long-hirsite, 22) es > ee ene C. sanguineus

Exterior corolla segment equal to the others, glabrous, much exceeding the

labellum; ovary glabrous; middle lobe of the labellum linear, exceeding

the lateral lobes; filament produced above the anthers in a semi-orbicu-

lar plane apex; corolla tube slender, not over 3.5 mm. wide; calyx

glabrous, except on the margins; leaves glabrous above, minutely pu-

berulous beneath; sheath short, inflated, puberulous....... C. formosus

For definite determinations in Costus it is usually necessary to have flow-

ers. Several non-flowering specimens from Costa Rica and Panama that have

been identified as C. sanguineus are certainly not that species, and may be-

long to C. formosus, but I do not cite them because the leaf and sheath char-

acters listed above may not hold when further collections are available.

Costus Skutchii Morton, sp. nov.

Subg. Hucostus. Herba caulescens; folia distincte sed breviter petiolata,

petiolo glabro ca. 15 mm longo, vagina glabra longissima striata, ligula ca.

7 mm longa, aequaliter biloba haud truncata vel fissa, infra petiolum pu-

berula, marginem versus pilosa; lamina foliorum oblongo-oblanceolata 25 em

longa et 7.2 cm lata (inferiores verisimiliter longiores), apice acriter acumi-

nata, basi obtusa, supra glabra (nervo mediano excepto), subtus glabra;

spica erecta ellipsoidea obtusa terminalis, 9 em longa et 3.5 cm lata, bracteis

rubris, siccitate nigrescentibus, dense imbricatis coriaceis, ca. 3.5 cm longis,

apice rotundatis scariosis ciliatis non appendiculatis, linea callosa non per-

spicua, externe apicem versus glabratis inferne sericeopilosis, intus glabris;

calyx tubulosus 7 mm longus, coriaceus sericeus, leviter trilobatus; corollae

tubus flavus ca. 2 cm longus, anguste cylindricus, lobis anguste obovatis

coccineis, ca. 3 cm longis et 1.2 cm latis, integris glabris, apice rotundatis;

labellum corolla longius, ca. 7 cm longum, cucullatum, rubro-purpureum,

venis pallidis, non lobatum, apice ca. 4.5 cm latum subtruncatum perspicue

lacerato-dentatum, basin versus squamiferum; ovarium cylindricum ca.

4.5mm longum, glabrum.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,638,054, collected near El

General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude 850 meters, July, 1936, by

Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2690).

The most nearly related species is probably Costus cylindricus Jacq., which

has yellow corollas, with the tube only 1 cm long, and a smaller, yellow, en-

tire labellum. Costus spicatus L. differs in its smaller, yellow, differently

formed flowers, as well as in other characters. The corolla lobes of C. san-

guineus Donn. Sm. are similar in color to those of the present species, but

the labellum is entirely different in color, size, and shape. Costus splendens

Donn. Sm. differs widely in the shape of the labellum, as well as in other

characters.

Skutchia Pax & K. Hoffm., gen. nov.

Flores dioici, o apetali, Q@ nudi. Sepala o’4, ad medium fere connata,

imbricata. Stamina 4, episepala; filamenta libera, sepalis longiore, in ala-

Juny 15, 1937 MORTON: COSTA RICAN PLANTS 307

bastro incurva; antherae biloculares, introrsae. Discus O. Ovarii rudimen-

tum columnare. Ovarium biloculare, loculo uno abortivo; styli 2, fere liberi,

papillosi; ovulum solitarium, pendulum.—Arbor, partibus juvenilibus et in-

florescentiis exceptis, glabra. Folia alterna, petiolata, penninervia; stipulae

deciduae. Inflorescentiae axillares, satis longae, o& amentiformes, squamis

parvis, triangularibus, juxta vel interflores sitis onustae. Flores o’ sessiles,

2 pedicellati. Fructus ignotus.

Skutchia caudata Pax & K. Hoffm., sp. nov.

Arbor, ca. 18 m alta. Ramuli graciles, Juveniles compressi breviter pu-

beruli; rami teretes, glabri, striati, cortice rubro-brunneo tecti. Petiolus ca.

1 em longus; limbus 10-12 em longus, 3—3.8 cm latus, lanceolatus, leviter

faleatus, caudato-acuminatus, basi acutus, integer, chartaceus, eglandulosus,

reticulato-venosus; costae secundariae ca. 8, arcuato-adscendentes, prope

marginem anastomosantes; stipulae ca. 1 mm longae, triangulares, breviter

acuminatae. Inflorescentiae o ca. 8 cm longae, satis densiflorae, @ ca.

10 cm longae, pendulae, utriusque sexus breviter puberulae et glandulis

parvis adspersae. Flores &@ ca. 2 mm lati. Calycis o lobi ovati, acuti, basi

subsaccati, extus parce pilosi, apice fimbriati. Filamenta ca. 3 mm longa,

calyce duplo longiora. Ovarii rudimentum calyce brevius, pilosum. Pedicelli

2 1-3 mm longi. Ovarium verrucosum; styli ad 3 mm longi.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,641,605, a pistillate plant

collected near El General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude 950 meters,

January, 1936, by Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2383). The staminate specimen

collected at the same time and place is no. 2386.

“Mr. C. V. Morton, who is working on the Skutch collection, has already

recognized that these specimens represent a new genus, which he believes

related to Tetrorchidium. Skutchia belongs, to be sure, to the Gelonieae, but

is nevertheless tolerably isolated in the group and is not more nearly related

to Tetrorchidium than to other genera of this tribe. It is distinguished from

all other Gelonieae by the naked pistillate flowers and by the ovary being

one-celled through abortion of the second cell. Furthermore the inflexed

stamens are remarkable.”

Heliocarpus excelsior Morton, sp. nov.

Arbor altissima, 36 m alta, ramuli teretes stellato-puberulenti lenticellis

conspicuis praediti; folia alterna stipulata (stipulis deciduis), petiolata,

petiolo tereti usque ad 12 cm longo stellato-puberulento; lamina foliorum

usque ad 19 cm longa et 18 cm lata, apicem versus sinuato-triloba lobo

terminali et lobis lateralibus acuminatis, basi leviter cordata, appendiculata,

appendiculis ca. 4, glanduliferis, membranacea serrulata utrinque concolor

minute stellato-puberulenta, nervis 7 primariis digitatis; inflorescentia

magna terminalis, 15 cm alta et 23 cm lata, rhachibus stellato puberulentis,

pedicellis gracilibus usque ad 8 mm longis; alabastra obovata ca. 4.5 mm

longa; sepala oblonga 6 mm longa, ca. 1.6 mm lata, acuta exappendiculata

externe puberulenta; petala sepalis breviora spathulata ca. 4 mm longa

glabra plerumque leviter crispa; stamina 16-19; stylus 2 mm longus, breviter

bifidus, ovario longior; capsula cum radiis 6-8 mm lata, stipitata (5 mm),

corpore capsulae anguste elliptico, 4 mm longo, 1.6 mm lato, dense piloso,

radiis ca. 4 mm longis, longe pilosis.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,642,302, a fruiting specimen

308 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

collected in the vicinity of El General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude

1100 meters, December, 1935, by Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2250). The

flowers are described from Skutch 2266, collected near the same locality at

an altitude of 825 meters.

The only related species are Heliocarpus appendiculatus Turez. and A.

chontalensts Sprague, both of which may be at once distinguished by their

conspicuously discolorous leaves with a conspicuous, dense, whitish or yel-

lowish tomentum beneath. The leaves of H. excelsior are concolorous and

the hairs are minute, sparse, and scarcely visible except under a lens. The

leaves of H. excelsior differ in shape also, being almost square in outline,

with cordate base, trilobate apex, and lightly serrulate margins; on the con-

trary those of H. appendiculatus and H. chontalensis are ovate, usually un-

lobed and in H. appendiculatus coarsely serrate. Other differences are also

apparent, such as the narrower capsule body, the fewer stamens, and the

differently shaped leaf appendages. Helzocarpus excelsior is the largest known

tree of the genus.

Begonia lignescens Morton, sp. nov.

Sect. Ruzzopavonia? Caules elongati scandentes lignosi glabri, nodis in-

crassatis radicantes; folia alterna stipulata, stipulis caducis, cicatricibus per-

spicuis, petiolata, petiolo brevi ca. 3 mm longo fuscescente glabro; lamina

foliorum anguste oblonga, 7-9 cm longa et 2-—2.6 cm lata, obliqua, apice

breviter acuminata, basi cuneata obliqua, membranacea apicem versus paullo

denticulata utrinque glabra non squamosa, pennivenia, venis primariis 4—5-

jugis subtus fuscescentibus; inflorescentiae monoicae terminales usque ad

16 cm longae et 20 cm latae, pedunculatae (pedunculo 3.5-4 em longo),

cymosae, multoties dichotomae, rhachibus glabris leviter angulatis, bracteis

caducis longe lanceolatis acutis glabris; sepala floris & duo alba lancolata,

15 mm longa et 5 mm lata, acuta glabra; petala 2 minuta ca. 2.5 mm longa;

stamina numerosa, filamentis liberis quam antheris multo brevioribus;

sepala floris 9 alba duo elongato-lanceolata, fere 2 cm longa et 5 mm lata,

glabra acuta; petala nulla; ovarium glabrum triloculatum trialatum, ala una

(immatura) 1 cm longa cultriformi, alis ceteris reductis minimis, placentis

bilamellatis ubique ovuliferis; styli tres basi connati sursum abrupte expansi

bifidi, ramis spiraliter contortis ubique papillosis.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,638,058—9, collected in the

vicinity of El General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude 1160 meters,

August, 1936, by Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2853).

Although similar in leaves and habit to Begonia estrellensis C. DC., the

large acute narrowly lanceolate sepals of B. lignescens are distinctive and

like no other species of the genus that I know. The sepals of B. estrellensis

are small, rounded, and orbicular. These two species seem to be most natu-

rally placed in the section Ruizopavonia, as characterized by Irmscher, from

which they differ, however, in having male flowers with petals.

Cavendishia Skutchii A. C. Smith, sp. nov.

Frutex epiphyticus; ramulis subteretibus glabris rugosis; petiolis glabris

rugosis 5-10 mm longis; laminis tenuiter coriaceis, in sicco metallico-sub-

JULY 15, 1937 MORTON: COSTA RICAN PLANTS 308

caeruleis, oblongis, 10-15 cm longis, 3.5-5 cm latis, basi subcordatis vel

subtruncatis, apice obtusis vel breviter et obtuse acuminatis, margine leviter

incrassatis, supra glabris nitidis, subtus parce brunneo-pilosis vel punctatis,

5-pli-nerviis, nervis prope basin orientibus, supra impressis (vel inferioribus

elevatis), subtus prominentibus, venulis utrinque prominulis; inflorescentiis

axillaribus aliquot ad apices ramulorum, racemosis, 15—20-floris, subglabris,

basi bracteis deciduis instructis; rhachide 5—7 cm longa; floribus in axillis

bractearum alternarum solitariis, bracteis membranaceis integris oblongis

vel late ovatis, 18-23 mm longis, 12-15 mm latis; pedicellis subteretibus

6-12 mm longis, basi et apice incrassatis, prope basin bibracteolatis, brac-

teolis membranaceis oblongis, 3-4 mm longis, margine sparse fimbriatis;

calyce coriaceo, 4-5 mm longo et diametro, limbo suberecto tubum sub-

aequante, lobis 5 deltoideis 1-1.5mm longis acutis, margine breviter glandu-

loso-fimbriatis; corolla membranacea vel tenuiter carnosa, cylindrica, basi

et apice alba, medio rosea, maturitate 13-15 mm longa, 3-4 mm diametro,

apice contracta, lobis 5 parvis subacutis; staminibus subaequalibus, fila-

mentis ligulatis tenuiter carnosis, superne intus breviter pilosis, alternatim

2 mm et 5 mm longis, connectivis nigrescentibus carnosis, antheris mem-

branaceis flavis, alternatim 12 mm et 10 mm longis, tubulis amplis quam

-loculis 3-plo longioribus, per rimas elongatas dehiscentibus; stylo corollam

subaequante, stigmate capitato.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,642,549, collected in forest

in the vicinity of El General, Province of San José, Costa Rica, at 1100

meters altitude, in August, 1936, by A. F. Skutch (no. 2802).

The closest ally of the new species appears to be C. crassifolia (Benth.)

Hemsl., of southern Mexico and Guatemala. The present species differs from

that by its slightly larger and metallic-colored leaves, which are usually sub-

cordate rather than cuneate at base. In floral characters the two species are

very similar; C’. Skutchiz has larger bractlets of the pedicels and has the calyx

glabrous rather than brown-pilose distally.

Ardisia Skutchii Morton, sp. nov.

Subg. Graphardisia. Frutex 7.5 m altus; ramuli subteretes ca. 3.5 mm

diam. glabri leviter striati; folia alterna estipulata, subsessilia, lamina ob-

lanceolata usque ad 26 cm longa et 7 cm lata, apice acuminata, basi longe

attenuata, papyracea integra utrinque pallidi concolori glabra eglanduliferi,

venis primariis ca. 12-jugis arcuatis; inflorescentia alba terminalis ca. 10 cm

longa et 12 cm lata, brevissime pedunculata bracteis magnis obovatis ca.

25 mm longis suffulta, rhachibus plus minus flexuosis robustis glabris

eglanduliferis, inflorescentiis ultimis corymbosis paucifloris bracteis oblongis

vel obovatis magnis suffultis, pedicellis 12-15 mm longis gracilibus glabris

apice incrassatis; sepala alba imbricata late ovata, ca. 5.5 mm longa et

4 mm lata, rotundata glabra punctis lineatis satis paucis perspicuis picta;

corolla alba roseo-tincta, ca. 15 mm lata, rotata, tubo ca. 2 mm longo, lobis

late ovatis ca. 7 mm longis, 5 mm latis, obtusis glabris punctis dissite pictis;

filamenta ca. 2 mm longa, crassa eglandulifera, basin versus latioribus et in

tubum brevem connata; antherae lanceolatae 3 mm longae, non exsertae,

poris apicalibus dehiscentes; ovarium glabrum conicum; stylus gracilis 4.5

mm longus glaber.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. 1,638,053, collected in the

vicinity of El General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude 1070 meters,

June, 1936, by Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2660).

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

The only related species is Ardisza opegrapha Oerst., which differs as fol-

lows:

Sepals oblong, 6 mm long, 2-3 mm wide; filaments and filament tube glandu-

liferOUS «220 e ede. 4). shee ee eee eee A. opegrapha

Sepals broadly ovate, 5.5 mm long, 4 mm wide; filaments and filament tube

eglanduliferous ... -..0'.. 40lee oe ee A. Skutchi

Other differences also exist. The leaves of A. opegrapha are obviously

petiolate, but those of A. Skutchz are almost sessile. The entire inflorescence

of A. opegrapha is said by Mez to be deep rose and is so figured by Hooker

(Bot. Mag. pl. 6357); that of A. Skutchi1 is, according to the collector, en-

tirely white except for a faint pink tinge on the corolla.

Leiphamos lutea Morton, sp. nov.

Herba parasitica alba vel flavescens; caules 10—20 cm alti, ca. 1 mm lati,

glabri teretes uniflori, bracteis 7—16-jugis lanceolatis ca. 6.5 mm longis, inter-

dum apice unidenticulatis, basi fere ad medium connatis; pedunculus sub-

nullus, vix 2 mm longus; calycis tubus ebracteatus 5 mm longus corollae

arcte appressus, lobis 5 lanceolatis 2.75 mm longis, 1 mm basi latis, integris,

acutis; corolla hypocrateriformis, tubo flavo 3.2—3.6 em longo, basi et apice

inflato, medio cylindrico, ca. 2 mm lato, glabro, fauce intus papilloso, lobis

luteis late ovatis 6-9 mm longis, obliquis glabris cuspidatis patentibus;

antherae sessiles exappendiculatae liberae faucem versus insertae; ovarium

substipitatum ca. 13 mm longum glabrum eglanduliferum; stylus inclusus

glaber ca. 15 mm longus; stigma compressum.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,638,055, collected near El

General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude 1130 meters, July, 1936, by

Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2767).

Letphamos aphylla (Jaeq.) Gilg of the West Indies and South America

is closely related but may be distinguished by its narrower, obtuse or merely

acute corolla lobes; those of the present species are abruptly cuspidate-

acuminate. Lerphamos costaricensis Standl. differs in its corolla lobes, as well

as in its stamens. Another recent segregate from L. aphylla is L. eximia

Sandw. of British Guiana, which also differs from L. lutea in its anthers and

corolla lobes.

Columnea florida Morton, sp. nov.

Subg. Collandra. Frutex epiphyticus; caules crassi ca. 1 em diam., pallidi

vel rubescentes purpureo-maculati perspicue sulcati, hornotini hirsuti, pilis

flaccidis multiseptatis, annotini glabrescentes; folia opposita valde in-

aequalia, majora breviter petiolata, petiolo 1 cm longo crasso densissime

hirsuto; lamina foliorum majorum oblanceolata, maxima 35.5 em longa et

10.5 cm lata, siccitate chartacea vel subcoriacea, apice breviter et acriter

acuminata (ca. 2 cm), basi obtusa obliqua, margine integra, supra glabra vel

basin versus pilis perpaucis instructa, apicem versus maculas 2 rubras

gerens, subtus pallidior, apicem versus perspicue rubro-maculata, ubique

appresso-pilosa, costa basi hirsuta, venis primariis ca. 12-jugis arcuatis;

lamina foliorum minorum subsessilia anguste elliptica, ca. 3 em longa, longe

acuminata, supra glabra, subtus dense pilosa, venis paucis obscuris; flores

axillares, in ramulis annotinis defoliatis et in hornotinis fasciculati, pauci vel

duny 15, 19357 MORTON: COSTA RICAN PLANTS dll

plures, pedicellis crassis usque ad 1 cm longis, dense hirsutis, medio brac-

teatis, bracteis parvis lanceolatis dense hirsutis; calycis lobi 5 liberi, ambitu

ovati, 2.3 em longi, ca. 1 cm lati, utrinque densissime hirsuti, pectinato-

incisi, dentibus numerosis anguste linearibus viridibus viridi-hirsutis

corolla crassa flava (fide Skutch), ca. 25 mm longa, 9 mm lata, tubo

cylindrico vix ventricoso externe densissime brunneo-hirsuto, intus sparse

puberulo, fauce paullo contracto, limbo vix 5 mm lato, lobis parvis erectis

suborbiculatis ca. 2.5 mm longis et 3mm latis crassis glabratis; filamenta

basi in tubum liberum postice fissum 5 mm altum connata, partibus liberis

pilosulis contortis; antherae per paria leviter connatae, connectivo oblongo

crasso, loculis contiguis oblongis discretis 3 mm longis glabris; discus ad

glandulam dorsalem magnam crassam 1.5 mm altam 3.5 mm latam leviter

trilobatam glabram reductus; ovarium conicum dense pilosum; stylus 12 mm

longus pilosulus; stigma leviter bilobum; bacca globosa, ca. 12 mm diam.,

pericarpio coriaceo; placentae lamellae intus solum ovuliferae; semina rubra

fusiformia, ca. 1.2 mm longa, 0.5 mm lata striata, striis leviter et spiraliter

contortis.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,642,394, collected in the

vicinity of El General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude 915 meters,

January, 1936, by Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2436). Additional specimens

referable to this species are:

Costa Rica: Type locality, January, 1891, P2tizer 4020. Cafias Gordas,

alt. 1100 meters, February, 1897, Pzttzer 11198.

PaNnaMa: Cerro de Garagara, Sambti Basin, southern Darien, alt. 500-974

meters, Feb. 7, 1912, Pzttzer 5664.

All these older specimens have been previously identified as Columnea

sanguinea Hanst., but this West Indian species differs widely in its thinner,

toothed leaves, these pilose above, in its differently shaped, fewer-toothed

calyx lobes, and in several other important points. The related Costa Rican

species, C. consanguinea Hanst. and C. purpurata Hanst., differ also in both

leaves and flowers. The above description of the fruit and seeds is drawn

from Pittier 5664.

Drymonia fimbriata Morton, sp. nov.

Frute 1.5 m altus; caules argute quadrangulati, hornotini minute strigil-

losi, annotini glabrescentes pustulati; folia opposita aequalia petiolata,

petiolo usque ad 4.7 cm longo, strigilloso pustulato vel transverse corrugato,

lamina foliorum late ovata 22 cm longa et 11 cm lata, obliqua, apice breviter

acuminata, basi obliqua in petiolum longe decurrens, supra viridis fere glabra

pilis paucis antrorsis appressis subsetulosis adspersa, subtus pallida in meso-

phyllo parcissime strigillosa, costa et venis pustulatis strigillosis, margine

denticulata, venis primariis 6 vel 7-jugis; flores in axillis defoliatis aggregati

numerosi, pedunculo communi nullo, pedicellis ca. 13 mm longis strigillosis

apicem versus sulcatis basi bracteatis, bracteis lanceolatis integris puberulis

ca. 5 mm longis, calycis lobi oblongi subaequales liberi, ca. 15 mm longi,

6 mm lati, accrescentes tum 20 mm longi et 9 mm lati, utrinque puberuli,

longe pectinato-fimbriati, dentibus filiformibus puberulis inaequalibus usque

ad 10 mm longis basi saepe furcatis; corolla alba basi longe calcearata (4.5

mm), tubo externe ubique pilosulo obliquo ca. 28 mm longo, basi 2.5 mm

lato, sursum inflato fauce non contracto 10-12 mm lato, limbo rubro-venoso

glabro obliquo bilabiato, lobo inferiore flabelliformi 11mm longo apice 22 mm

lato lacerato-dentato, lobis lateralibus integris late deltoideis 9 mm longis et

312 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

11 mm latis, lobis superioribus minoribus subrotundis 8 mm longis apice

eroso-laceratis; filamenta in tubum 14 mm longum liberum postice fissum

connata, partibus liberis glabris non contortis; antherae oblongae connatae;

discus in glandulam posticam glabram 1.5mm longam 3 mm latam reductus;

ovarium conicum puberulum; stylus brevis crassus glaber ca. 12 mm longus;

stigma latum bilobum; placentarum lamellae intus solum ovuliferae.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,638,057, collected near El

General, Prov. San José, Costa Rica, altitude 880 meters, August, 1936, by

Alexander F. Skutch (no. 2839).

The filiform-pectinate calyx lobes of this species are unique in the genus

Drymonia.

ZOOLOGY.—A necessary change in an amphibian name. Doris

M. Cocuran, U. S. National Museum. (Communicated by

Routanp W. Brown.)

In 1935? I described some new species of frogs collected by P. J.

Darlington in the La Selle Range of southwestern Haiti. It now ap-

pears that the frog which I named Leptodactylus darlingtont (p. 372)

is in reality an Eleutherodactylus with very narrow T-shaped terminal

phalanges even though in the form of its digits it is a distinct approach

to Leptodactylus. Dr. E. R. Dunn has pointed out this structural

feature, and Dr. G. K. Noble has confirmed it. As I had already

named a different frog from the same locality Eleutherodactylus dar-

lingtont on pl. 368 of the same publication, it becomes necessary to

change the name of Leptodactylus darlingtoni Cochran. I therefore

propose the name Eleutherodactylus jugans to take the place of Lepto-

dactylus darlingtona Cochran.

ENTOMOLOGY.—WNotes on Curculionidae (Coleoptera).1 L. L.

BucHANAN, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

(Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.)

Most of the following notes are here put on record as a basis for

the use of certain names in forthcoming papers.

Trachyphloeus bifoveolatus Beck

Trachyphloeus bifoveolatus Beck 1817, Beitrage zur baierischen Insecten

Fauna, p. 22.

The U. 8. National Museum collection contains specimens of this Euro-

pean species from New York (Barneveld, 1917, and Oriskany, 1931); Nova

Scotia (Riverport, 1936); New Brunswick (Chipman, 1936). The New York

specimens previously were identified as TJ. davisi Blatchley, a species de-

1 Received April 29, 1937.

* Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc. 40 (6): 367-376. 1935.

1 Received March 17, 1937.

JULY 15, 1937 BUCHANAN: CURCULIONIDAE 313

scribed from Staten Island, N. Y., in 1916 (Rhynchophora of Northeastern

America, p. 115). Blatchley’s species evidently is closely related to bzfoveola-

tus, but differs, by description, in having only 2 spines at the apex of the

front tibia (8 or 4 distinct spines, and often 2 or more shorter ones, in b7-

foveolatus), and presumably in lacking the pronotal foveae which are usually

well developed, though sometimes encrusted, in bzfoveolatus. T. asperatus

Boh. 1843 (Genera et Species Curculionidum, VII, 1, p. 116) described from

‘America borealis ad Boston,’”’ remains unrecognized.

GYMNAETRON Schoenherr

Three species of this genus, all of European origin, are now known from

North America. In the males of all three the tibiae are mucronate, the mucro

of each tibia projecting at a right, or slightly obtuse, angle. In the females

the front and middle tibiae are mucronate about as in the males; but the

hind tibia is unarmed in teter, or armed in netum with a black spine which

differs from the male mucro in being more slender and in being porrect or

subporrect. In antirrhini the female hind tibia is virtually unarmed, al-

though a minute spine is present in some specimens. The derm is black in

all three species but in teter and netum the vestiture is paler, somewhat

coarser, and more generally prostrate, and covers a greater proportion of

the surface, resulting in a lighter ground color; whereas in the blackish ap-

pearing antirrhini the vestiture, besides being darker, is somewhat finer, and

(at least on pronotum) more generally erect, thus leaving exposed a greater

proportion of the dermal surface. In the following summaries the two varie-

ties of teter—subrotundatum Reitter and plagiellum Gyll—are not distin-

guished, the former apparently being no more than a depauperate form, the

latter including specimens having the elytra more or less extensively dull

reddish apically. The rostral length is the shortest distance between the apex

of the rostrum and the front margin of the eye at its middle.

SUMMARIES OF DIFFERENTIAL CHARACTERS

1. Average length about 2.5 mm (extremes, 2.2-3 mm); ground color black-

ish; rostrum two-thirds to three-fourths as long as pronotum, rather

strongly tapering in dorsal view from antennal socket to apex; rostrum

in side view thick at base, tapering throughout, apical half (especially

in male) more strongly tapering; prothorax about three-fourths as long

as wide; scutellum about as long as wide; elytral striae half to two-

thirds as wide as the intervals, the intervals flat and irregularly, bi-

seriately punctate; femora similar in the sexes, of normal size, each with

a minute tooth. Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey.

Reared from seed pods of Linaria vulgaris by P. H. Timberlake and

bye), £1... Blakerre es 6 hes. SRB re Shi bree antirrhint Paykull

Length usually 2.7 mm or more; ground color brownish to gray; rostrum

longer, often virtually as long as pronotum; prothorax about two-thirds ©

as long as wide; elytral striae narrower, the intervals relatively much

wider and normally with 3 very irregular rows of punctures (2 rows in

soime of the very Sarl spetimens). 2.2.2 2540.) wade sae els os 2

314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

2. Average length between 2.7 and 3.2 mm (extremes 2-3.5 mm); rostrum

five-sixths to nearly as long as pronotum (longer in females) ; scutellum

about as long as wide; femora not dilated, of subequal size in the sexes,

each femur with a small to moderate sized tooth. o: No fringe on

lower edge of hind tibia; rostrum, in dorsal view, very feebly tapering

from antennal socket to apex. 92: Rostrum slightly but obviously

arcuate, apical half cylindrical, polished, and sparsely punctulate (often

appearing smooth). Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl-

vania, Virginia, lowa. Reared from Linarza vulgaris by J. C. Bridwell

and by A. B, Champlain. se: sy<-2 fey ee ee netum Germar

Average length between 3.2 and 4 mm (extremes, 2.5—4.25 mm); rostrum

averaging a little longer, often virtually as long as pronotum in female

and only a trifle shorter in male; scutellum distinctly, usually much,

wider than long. co: Femora dilated and strongly toothed (especially

front pair); lower edge of hind tibia fringed with long, suberect hair in

apical half; rostrum, in dorsal view, more distinctly tapering apically.

2 : Rostrum straight or nearly so, distinctly tapering from base to apex

in side view, apical half rather strongly, not densely, punctate. Gen-

erally distributed east of the Mississippi River from southern Canada

to Georgia; west of the Mississippi, specimens are at hand from Min-

nesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado, Washing-

ten, Oregon: On mullein: 2.2 2 ee eee teter Fabricius

Ceutorhynchus punctiger Gyllenhal

Ceutorhynchus punctiger Gyllenhal (C. marginatus of American authors, not

Paykull).

This European species seems to be established in North America. Speci-

mens in the Museum collection are from Ontario, Quebec, Massachusetts,

New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Indiana.

Perigaster lituratus (Dietz), n. comb.

Coelogaster lituratus Dietz 1896, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 23: 457.

Perigaster longirostris Buchanan 1931, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 21: 323 (new

synonymy).

Dietz did not describe the minutely toothed tarsal claws and the obso-

lescent antennal scrobe of lituratus, important characters in which it differs

from zemmermanni Gyll., the genotype of (Coelogaster) = Dietzella. In zim-

mermanni the claws are strongly toothed and the scrobe is deep and com-

plete. Although lzturatus has an ocular lobe, a structure not found in the

other species of Perigaster, its characters in general place it with Perzgaster

and not with Dvetzella. P. lituratus is known from Ontario, New York,

New Jersey, Michigan, Illinois, lowa, Washington.

PuytTosius Schoenherr, and allied genera

Different interpretations of Phytobius and allied genera have resulted in

considerable confusion, and, at least in North America, misidentifications

and omissions have further clouded published records. The data here as-

sembled, though incomplete, tend to harmonize contradictions in the nomen-

clature.

Juuy 15, 1937 BUCHANAN: CURCULIONIDAE 315

Schoenherr erected Phytobius (evidently a Schmidt manuscript name) in

1836, citing in its synonymy Hydaticus Schoenherr 1826 (preoccupied by

Hydaticus Leach 1817 in Dytiscidae). In his 1826 description of Hydaticus

Schoenherr designated velatus Beck as type, but in his 1836 description of

Phytobius he failed to set a type although it is obvious from the context

that he intended Phytobius primarily as a substitute genus for Hydaticus,

and that he intended velatus, the type of Hydaticus, to “‘carry over’’ and be-

come the type of Phytobius. However, because Hydaticus 1826 and Phytobius

1836 are not co-extensive, and because Schoenherr did not set a type for

Phytobius in unequivocal terms, it seems necessary to accept C. G. Thom-

son’s 1859 type designations in Phytobius, Pelenomus, Eubrychius, and Lito-

dactylus. On this basis, the American genera and species take the following

arrangement:

PuytTosius Schoenherr

Phytobius Schoenherr 1836, Gen. et Sp. Curc., III, 1, 458; genotype,

4-tuberculatus F. , designated by Thomson 1859, ned iens Coleop-

tera, I, p. 138.

ei Thoms., ibid.; genotype, comarz Hbst., ae by Thomson,

ibid.

Phytobius thus becomes the valid generic name for the American species

cavifrons Lec. to pusillus Dtz., inclusive, now listed in the Leng catalogue

under Pelenomus.

Evuprycuius Thomson

Eubrychius Thomson 1859, ibid., p. 138; genotype (aquaticus Thoms.) =

velatus Beck, designated by Thomson, ibid.

Includes only the genotype species, which is apparently confined to Eu-

rope, though wrongly recorded from North America. The American species

concerned is Hubrychiopsis lecontei Dtz. (See below.)

Liropacty.Lus Redtenbacker

Intodactylus Redtenbacker 1849, Fauna Austriaca, I, p. 399; genotype

(myriophylli Gyll.) =leucogaster Marsham, designated by Thomson

1859, Skand. Coleop., I, p. 138.

Includes 1 American species, griseomicans Schwarz (griseomicans Dtz.)

which is closely related to the European L. leucogaster Marsh. Specimens of

griseomicans are at hand from Dane County, Wisconsin; Okoboji, lowa;

Wahpeton, North Dakota; Kansas; Richfield, Utah; Kahlotus, Washington;

Medicine Hat, Alberta. Schwarz lists two localities (Kansas and Dakota)

in the original description. The type specimen, now in the National Museum,

is labeled ‘‘Ks”’ (Kansas).

EvuBRYCHIOPSIS Dietz

Eubrychiopsis Dietz 1896, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., v. 23, p. 474; monobasic

genotype, E. lecontei Dtz. (Phytobius velatus of American authors, not

_ Eubrychius velatus Beck).

316 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 7

As far as known, Hubrychiopsis includes only the 2 American species,

leconte: Dtz. and albertanus Brown. Specimens of lecontez in the National

Museum are from Detroit, Michigan (type locality); Dane County and

Madison, Wisconsin; Lake Okoboji, Iowa. The Massachusetts and Van-

couver localities mentioned by Blatchley and Leng 1916, p. 464, may not

refer to this species. Dietz’s original description of lecontez calls for 2 small

cusps on the anterior margin of the prothorax; but Dr. Darlington has ex-

amined Dietz’s type and found no such cusps present, nor are they present

on any of the specimens in the Museum collection. Specimens of albertanus

in the Museum are from Creston, British Columbia, and Last Mt. Lake,

Saskatchewan. The type locality is Waterton Lakes, Alberta.

For key to the 3 American species discussed above, see Brown, Can. Ent.,

vol. 64, 1932, pp. 10-12.

CONOTRACHELUS Schoenherr

Conotrachelus Schoenherr 1837, Gen. et Sp. Curc., IV, 1, p. 392.

Loceptes Casey 1910, Can. Ent. 42: 130 (new synonymy).

Conotrachelus recessus (Casey), n. comb.

Loceptes recessus Casey 1910, Can. Ent. 42: 130.

Conotrachelus atokanus Fall 1913, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 39: 65 (new

synonymy).

Casey placed Loceptes in the Tychiini, although the monobasic genotype,

recessus Csy., clearly belongs in Conotrachelus. Mr. Fall has compared speci-

mens of recessus Csy. with the type of atokanus Fall and has verified the

species’ synonymy recorded above. Examples of C. recessus in the Museum are

from Atoka, Oklahoma (type locality) ; Douglas County, Kansas; Aberfoyle,

Bonham, Clarksville, Greenville, and Dallas, Texas. Mr. Fall has specimens

from Oklahoma and Arkansas (Hope).

CONTENTS

a b eee

¥ -

~*~ en

re ett

Marnmmartes. (ae analysis: a theorem pa ita

age distribution. A trrep J. LOTKA.. ................ 7 3

Botany.—New species of Costa Rican plants. G: Vv. Mormon

ous

ZooLoGy.—A necessary change in an amphibian name. Doris Me.

CocHRAN..... neces sees t ec geaite ca sue chewed tate = sne

Entomo.Locy.—Notes on Curculionidae (Coleoptera)... fe Ae 1

Bromine

AS ‘

-— d

‘

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 27 Aveust 15, 1937 No. 8

PHYSICS.—The fundamentals of photosynthesis... JAMES FRANCK,

The Johns Hopkins University.

For the topic of the lecture in honor of the memory of Joseph Henry

which I have the great privilege to deliver today, I have chosen a

discussion of photosynthesis in plants for two main reasons. The first

is the importance of this photochemical reaction and the second that

it belongs simultaneously to the fields of biology, chemistry, and

physics, and may therefore be suitable for a discussion before this

audience in which students of so many different branches of science

are present. But being a physicist I cannot avoid laying the main

emphasis on the physical side of the problem, and for this purpose I

shall make use of an attempted theory which Dr. Herzfeld and I have

worked out within the last year.

To remind you of the importance of photosynthesis, I only mention

the well-known fact that photosynthesis in plants—the inverse

process of animal metabolism—is the only source of all food which

makes animal life possible on earth, furthermore it is responsible for

the relatively great amount of molecular oxygen in our atmosphere.

As we learn from the geochemists, the atmosphere contained, after

the formation of the solid crust, hardly enough oxygen to make

breathing possible, but a very great excess of CO, and water rendered

conditions favorable for the development of plants. By reduction of

CO, and water, to sugar and molecular oxygen, under the influence of

light, plants have produced the conditions now prevailing in the

atmosphere. We shall restrict ourselves in our discussion to processes

by which CO, and water are reduced by light to the state of reduction

of sugar, or expressed in the language of a chemical formula, to the

reaction

C= ps - ©=0-10; (1)

HO H

1 The seventh Joseph Henry Lecture of the Philosophical Society of Washington,

presented on March 13, 1937 in honor of Joseph Henry, first president of the Philo-

sophical Society. Received March 25, 1937.

317

ALG 2.0 1997

318 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 8

where zhy is the symbolism for the number of light quanta used to

take out one oxygen molecule from one molecule of carbonic acid,

and ye =O is formaldehyde, which has the state of reduction

of sugar and is able to form sugar by combination of several of its

molecules, the so-called process of condensation. (Whether formalde-

hyde actually occurs in the plant as an intermediate product is of less

interest for the subject of our discussion. ) ;

Since carbonic acid does not absorb the light available as sunlight

filtered by the earth’s atmosphere, the reaction has to be sensitized

by a dye, which as its colour shows, absorbs visible light. This is the

function of the chlorophyll in the plant, a green dyestuff with a mo-

lecular weight of about 1000 whose chemical constitution is entirely

known, thanks especially to the work of Willstatter and his co-

workers. Since, according to Willstatter, the chemical constitution of

chlorophyll enables it readily to form loosely bound complexes with

acids, the complex Chph-carbonic acid, Chph Se =O, is the com-

pound which by absorption of light starts the photochemical re-

actions.” Chph acts, according to our present information, only as a

sensitizer, and is not changed in the course of photosynthesis. The

physical properties which make it specifically fit for photosynthesis

are connected with the ability of Chph, under the conditions pre-

vailing in the plant, to fluoresce. If molecules absorb light, they

may reemit it as fluorescence, or convert the energy absorbed into

heat, or use it for chemical reactions. Since reemission of light takes

time, the occurrence of fluorescence shows that the conversion into

heat or the use for a photochemical reaction does not take place im-

mediately after the absorption act, but that the energy remains for a

time in the molecule as excitation energy of the electronic system.

One can show, for instance, that the lifetime is between 10-° to 10-*°

seconds if the plant is irradiated with red light in the presence of an

excess of CQO.. Since under these conditions a dissipation of the energy

into the degrees of freedom of thermal motion does not take place,

the lifetime of the excited state must represent the time elapsed be-

tween the process of light absorption and the conversion of the energy

absorbed in chemical energy. The lifetime of the excited state is 1000

times greater than the duration of molecular oscillations, therefore

? Chph is used as an abbreviation for chlorophyll.

Aue. 15, 1937 FRANCK: PHOTOSYNTHESIS | 319

the atoms forming the complex Chph-carbonic acid have time to make

all possible movements with respect to one another until the right

relative position for the photochemical transition is reached. The

ability to fluoresce reduces therefore possible influences of steric

factors which otherwise would hinder the reaction. It also makes pos-

sible the use of a relatively large amount of thermal energy stored up

in the many degrees of freedom of the polyatomic complex. In these

complexes, the energy migrates from one bond to another, and it oc-

curs sometimes that by so-called fluctuations an energy amount is

transferred to a single bond which is many times greater than the

average caloric energy for one degree of freedom. The lifetime of the

excited state allows one to wait until some such unusual condition is

reached; then the energy amount absorbed together with the thermal

energy piled up in one bond is transferred into the potential energy

of the chemical products. A calculation shows that with normal tem-

peratures 6 to 7 kcal. per mole out of the caloric heat can be gained by

fluctuation during the lifetime of the excited state and can be added

to the energy of each light quantum within the lifetime mentioned

above.

While these properties of the chlorophyll would also occur in every

other fluorescent dyestuff built up out of many atoms, the nature of

its absorption spectrum and its relations to its fluorescence spectrum

are specific, and have also specific applications for photosynthesis.

It has three main absorption regions, red, blue, and near ultraviolet,

separated from one another by regions of weak absorption. If thick

layers of chlorophyll are irradiated,—for instance the whole amount

of leaves in a thick forest—practically all visible light can be used for

photosynthesis. The red absorption band has a special interest. It

shows a very steep rise on the long wave-length side at \ 6700 A.

Wave lengths longer than 6700 A are absorbed only by those mole-

cules which have some oscillation energy by thermal excitation.

d 6700 A seems to produce the transition from the non-oscillating

level of the normal electronic state to the non-oscillating level of the

first excited state. The blue and the ultraviolet absorption regions

correspond to transitions to higher excited electronic levels. Under

all conditions the fluorescence lies in the wave-length region cor-

responding to the red absorption, whether it is excited by red, blue, or

ultraviolet light. The interpretation of this fact is that the energy

surplus of the second and third excited levels over the first excited

level is transformed into oscillation energy by an internal transition—

a process. which, according to a recent paper. of Teller, is possible in

320 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

complicated molecules. Since the molecule in the liquid is always in a

state of impact with its neighbors, the oscillation energy is im-

mediately distributed as heat motion among the adjacent particles

and is lost for photochemical reaction. The result is that the energy

amount available for the photochemical process in the plant is always

the same whether red, blue, or ultraviolet light is absorbed, and it

corresponds to the energy quanta of » 6700 A, or 43 keal., plus the

amount of 6 to 8 kcal. from thermal agitation.

If we compare this energy with the known amount necessary for

the reduction of carbonic acid to formaldehyde and molecular oxygen,

it turns out that at least three quanta are necessary for this process.

But if the oxygen molecule is not taken out in one single elementary

act, it is more probable that the energy amount necessary for the

photochemical processes becomes greater than that calculated for

equation 1. The oxygen atoms taken out separately must, for

instance, enter into intermediate compounds like peroxides which set

free oxygen molecules by an exothermic reaction. Consequently it is

not astonishing that, as Warburg found, even under the most favor-

able conditions, four quanta of light have to be absorbed for each

carbonic acid molecule reduced. From the discussions on the lifetime

of the excited Chph complex molecules, it is obvious that the energy

absorbed stepwise can be stored up only as potential chemical energy.

In other words, each absorption act has to result in an intermediate

chemical product of photosynthesis which is stable enough to wait

for the next photochemical step.

The question of which intermediate products are formed in the

plant can be answered with certainty only by direct chemical analysis.

But since this is for many reasons at best an exceedingly difficult

problem, for the present one is forced to make hypotheses. But such

hypotheses are not entirely arbitrary, for they must be in accordance

with experience in chemistry and physics, and they must explain

quantitatively and in a natural way all the well-established observa-

tions made hitherto on photosynthesis. In addition they may at least

show that it is not necessary, as many authors believe, to assume that

in this biological problem processes occur which are of quite another

character than those so far observed in vitro.

To show that such hypotheses can be made, we consider briefly the

main observations on photosynthesis.

As mentioned above, Warburg has shown that four quanta are

used to reduce one molecule of carbonic acid under the most favorable

conditions. These conditions are that all chlorophyll is in working

Aue. 15, 1937 _ FRANCK: PHOTOSYNTHESIS 321

condition, that a great surplus of CO, is present, and that the light

intensity is not too great. If one plots in a diagram the production of

oxygen for a living leaf or algae, against light intensity, one gets first

a linear relation; but in going to higher intensities the production of

oxygen increases less rapidly; then, it is proportional to the light

intensity; and finally becomes constant and independent of the in-

tensity of irradiation. The occurrence of light saturation has been

interpreted by the fact that in the course of photosynthesis not only

photochemical reactions but also dark reactions play a role. Now the

sequence of reactions cannot proceed more quickly than the slowest

component reaction. If, in the present case, the photochemical partial

reactions proceed with a velocity proportional to the light intensity,

while the velocity of the dark reaction is of course independent of the

illumination, there must be a light intensity for which the dark re-

action becomes the slowest one and is alone responsible for the

velocity of the total reaction. While this point of view is undoubtedly

right, the application to the shape of the curve actually observed

encounters difficulties. One can calculate the velocity of the photo-

chemical reactions. It is inversely proportional to the time in which

each chlorophyll molecule takes up four quanta of light. Furthermore,

one can, as Emerson and Arnold have shown, measure directly the

velocity of the dark reaction. In calculating the curve from these

data, one predicts saturation with light intensities which are about

1000 times greater than the actually observed values for saturation.

The measurements of the velocity of the dark reaction are made by

studying the oxygen production by plants illuminated with light

flashes of a very short duration and changing the time distance be-

tween the flashes. The amount of oxygen produced per flash will

become independent of the duration of the dark periods between the

flashes if they are longer than the time needed for the dark reaction.

Emerson and Arnold found that at room temperature the time neces-

sary for the course of the dark reaction is 2/100 of a second, and at

1° C it is 4/10 of a second. They studied also the influence of poisons —

on the velocity of the dark reaction, and found, for instance, that

HCN slows it down considerably. The general behavior of the dark

reaction in respect to poisons and temperature is in accordance with

Warburg’s statement that the dark reaction is apparently an enzy-

matic decomposition of peroxides into normal oxides and molecular

oxygen. Arnold and Emerson’s important results show indirectly that

the saturation observed with continuous irradiation is influenced by

the velocity of this dark reaction. The saturation production of

322 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 8

oxygen is diminished by low temperatures and by HCN in the same

way as is the velocity of the dark reaction, while on the other hand

the oxygen production with low light intensities is practically un-

influenced by the lowering of temperature and adding of small doses

of HCN. ,

We must mention another kind of light saturation which occurs

with flash illumination if the intensity of the individual flashes is

raised more and more. The shape of these saturation curves resembles

that with continuous irradiation, but the saturation value is here only

dependent upon the intensity in the single light flashes, and its time

integral can, by using long dark periods between the flashes, be made

many times smaller than the light intensity per unit of time which

produces saturation with constant irradiation. Since enough time is

left in the dark periods for the completion of the dark reaction, the

flash saturation becomes independent of its velocity. Therefore

Arnold tried to explain this type of saturation by the assumption that

in a flash of very -high intensity all carbonic acid in contact with

Chph is reduced. The number of such carbonic acid molecules must

then be equal to the number of O, molecules developed per flash. A

comparison with the known number of Chph molecules present gave

the unexpected result that in the presence of a surplus of CO, the

number of H.CO; molecules in contact with Chph should be several

thousand times smaller than the number of Chph molecules. The

deviation is here of the same order of magnitude as with the normal

saturation curve, and Arnold and others tried to explain both devia-

tions by the assumption that in the plant so-called photosynthetic

units exist which contain about a thousand Chph molecules for each

carbonic acid molecule. The Chph molecules should absorb the light

practically independent of one another, but each quantum absorbed

in the unit is used for the reduction of just one carbonic acid molecule.

Such a state of affairs is not quite impossible, but certainly highly

improbable. According to my opinion, it is in contradiction to the

chemical instability of Chph, and to the fact that the Chph can give

fluorescence in the plant, while Chph molecules coupled together do

not. Nevertheless the existence of the unit was assumed as the only

possible solution. The hypothesis of the photosynthetic unit has been

further supported because it offered also an explanation for the lack

of an induction period.

If after a dark period leaves are irradiated with weak light, the

oxygen production starts immediately at practically the final rate,

although one should expect that if four quanta have to be absorbed

Ave. 15, 1937 FRANCK: PHOTOSYNTHESIS’. 320

by the same Chph molecule before oxygen molecules are liberated, the

time lapse between the start of irradiation and the start of oxygen

production should be very great with low light intensity. The exist-

ence of a unit of about 1000 Chph molecules which cooperate would

reduce this time by a factor 1000, and would make the induction

period so short that it might easily have been overlooked.

According to the point of view of Herzfeld and myself, it is possible

to explain quantitatively all the facts mentioned above, and many

others not mentioned here, without the assumption of a photosyn-

thetic unit. This we have done by using as photochemical inter-

mediate reactions processes which are inverse to the established

intermediate steps of autoxidation and photoxidation of organic

matter. Since peroxides and peracids are formed by autoxidation, they

should also occur in the stepwise reduction. The dark reaction is then,

in accordance with Warburg, simply the enzymatic decomposition of

the per-compounds to molecular oxygen and ordinary acids or

aldehydes. The absence of an observable induction period forces us to

the assumption that a peracid is formed out of the Chph-carbonic

acid complexes by a single absorption act. One quantum of red light

corresponding to 43 kcal. has enough energy to form a peracid, if the

excited Chph-carbonic acid complex has always the chance to react

with an organic molecule of the structure ROH. To secure such a

reaction ROH has to be in contact with each Chph molecule. We

assume, therefore, that the compound ROH is the bearer substance of

the Chph, which will mean that a sphere, or a particle with a more

complicated surface consisting of ROH, should have on its surface

adsorbed Chph molecules which in the usual way may move around

on the surface as a two-dimensional gas (as has been established for

adsorbed molecules by Volmer). ROH should have the usual strength

of binding between C and OH, and may perhaps be a protein. The

first photochemical equation is

HO HO

a | NE

Chph C=O, ROH+hy—Chph C—O-—-OH (2)

HO isle

followed by a dark reaction

HO R HO R

DV alee

Chph bay: + Enzyme—Chph C +3 On. (3)

HO O—OH HO OH

324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

The expression $O, means, of course, that the enzyme has to react

with two peracids to form one O, molecule. (The reaction can take

place without triple collisions if the enzyme takes an O atom away

from the peracid and transports it to the next peracid where the O;

molecule is then formed.) By splitting off water

HO R R

VA . *

Chph C will go over into Chph C=O0+H,0.

HO OH OH

The second photochemical equation replaces, by a reaction with

water, the R by an H atom and restores ROH. We have

R H

te hy

Chph C=04+H.,0+h»—Chph C=O, ROH. (4)

OH OH

Thus formic acid is formed as an intermediate product, as was as-

sumed by Willstétter and Stoll. (Dr. Rieke and I have started

measurements on the quantum yield of a plant fed with formic acid

instead of carbonic acid. We expect that two quanta will reduce

formic to formaldehyde; see equations 5, 6 and 7.)

The following equations are entirely analogous to equations 2, 3

and 4:

HO HO R

I es

Chph C=0, ROH+hv—Chph C (5)

al 7

H H O—OH

HO R HO R

NE iw

Chph C + Enzyme—Chph in +302 (6)

H O—OH H OH

HO R H

NN A

Chph C +hv—Chph C=0+ROH. (7)

H OH H

These transform the formic acid, in two light reactions and one dark

reaction, into formaldehyde and oxygen.

This system of equations is at least a possible one. It offers, as far

as our information goes, no difficulties with respect to the energy

Ave. 15, 1937 FRANCK: PHOTOSYNTHESIS 325

relations; it is in accordance with Warburg’s quantum yield and with

the experiments on the dark reaction; and explains the lack of an

induction period for the experiments made with moderate illumina-

tion.

This set of equations also offers simple explanations for the occur-

rence of saturation curves for continuous and flash irradiation, and

furthermore makes it possible to calculate their shape.

The deviation from a linear relation between oxygen production

and light intensity is produced by the instability of the peracid and

the peraldehyde toward light. Each light quantum absorbed by the

complex

HO R HO R

NES Nee

Chph C , or by Chph C :

HO O= Olel H O=Olal

will break the bond between the O and the OH in the per-compounds,

since this bond is a very weak one, as one can calculate from well

known heats of reaction. The resulting peracid or peraldehyde radicals

and OH radicals produce chains of back-reactions for which the

following equations give an example.

HO R HO R

ee SEA

Chph C + hy—>Chph Go 2 Lon. (8)

HO O—OH HO O

This reaction is followed by a spontaneous splitting off of the radical

R— and the formation of a double bond between O and C

HO i HO

Nee x

Chph a —Chph C=O0O+R-. (9)

HO O- HO

The radical R— will attack another peracid complex and continue the

chain

HO R HO R

Nye ues

Chph C +R——-ROH+Chph oe (10)

HO O—OH HO4-. .O=

The OH radical starts similar chains. The chains will break by side

reactions in which R and OH are consumed. The result is that relatively

rare absorption acts of Chph connected with peracids or with peralde-

326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

Photosynthesis

Log photosynthesis

a 4 A-D Cabomba (Smith)

va E&F Chlorella (Emerson)

Photosynthesis per flash

Relative Light tatensity

Fig. 1—Warburg’s results on photosynthetic oxygen production plotted against

light intensity. Fig. 2—Results of other authors plotted on a logarithmic scaie.

Fig. 3.—Flash saturation (points) compared with the theoretical curve (solid line).

Auge. 15, 1937 FRANCK: PHOTOSYNTHESIS 327

hydes produce back reactions to carbonic acid and formic acid, which

proceed in chains and therefore reduce the O, production consider-

ably. With small intensities such absorption acts will not occur, since

the average time between two consecutive absorption processes tak-

ing place in the same Chph molecule is large compared with the time

used by the enzyme to reduce the peracid (time 1/50 sec.), but with

rising intensity more and more chains start and finally produce

saturation. These processes are, according to our viewpoint, respon-

sible for flash saturation and for saturation with continuous illumina-

tion, the difference between them in respect to the saturation values

being caused by the higher instantaneous density of light quanta in

flash illumination. The following figures show the good agreement

between observation and theoretical calculation. The points repre-

sent observed values, the drawn lines the results of theory.

Fig. 1 contains Warburg’s results on photosynthetic oxygen pro-

duction plotted against light intensity. The only point which deviates

from the calculations is not very reliable, according to a remark by

Warburg. Fig. 2 shows results of other authors plotted on a logarith-

mic scale. The data for this figure have been taken from a paper of

Smith which contains Smith’s own measurements and results of other

observers. Deviations between theory and experiment are not greater

than the possible error of the observations. Several points which

correspond to measurements with very low light intensity have con-

siderable possible errors, since according to Smith the correction

necessary for respiration processes in the plant is here very large and

not exact. In Fig. 3, observations on flash saturation (points) made

by Emerson and Arnold are compared with the theoretical curve

(solid line). The dotted line represents an empirical formula suggested

by Kohen. The great reduction of the oxygen production at light

saturation caused by HCN or low temperature fits very well in the

theory, since every influence which lowers the velocity of the enzy-

matic decomposition of the peracid and peraldehyde increases the

concentration of these substances and makes the starting of back

reaction chains more frequent.

The proposed chemical mechanism has of course also a biological

aspect. The back reactions proceeding in chains give us an under-

standing of how the plant protects itself against overfeeding. The

plant, having no other possibilities to get rid of a surplus of food, uses

the light which produces the food to destroy the excess.

There is not sufficient time to go further into details. I wish only

to add that, according to the theory, not only carbonic acid and for-

328 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 8

mic acid are photosynthesized, but also all plant acids which are pro-

duced as intermediate products of respiration which combine with

chlorophyll in the way characteristic of acids. In this case also per-

acids and aldehydes will occur in the course of photosynthesis, and

are reduced by the enzyme. But there is one striking difference be-

tween these plant acids on the one hand and carbonic and formic

acids on the other.

The difference is that the plant acids, having a great number of

—C—H bonds, provide a great chance for photoxidation which again

proceeds in chains. The result is that the —C—H groups are partially

replaced by Henao ves groups, and these groups also give to the

molecule the properties of a peracid. Consequently, a great excess of

peracids is built up if photosynthesis and photoxidation of the plant

acids take place as parallel processes. This will occur whenever the

plant contains a large concentration of plant acids and is strongly

illuminated in the presence of molecular oxygen. The plant acids are

produced and consumed at a constant rate by respiration, but since

with illumination there is an additional consumption of plant acids

by photosynthesis and photoxidation, the equilibrium concentration

is lower in the light than in the dark. The transition of the concentra-

tion of plant acids from the value in the dark to that prevailing in

light takes time. This time will be longer with a weak illumination

than with strong. Since in the transition period an excess of peracids

is present, the probability of starting chains of back reactions by

photolysis is enhanced, thereby diminishing the production of oxygen.

Weak illumination should have only a small influence, since the

enzyme is able to reduce the extra amount of peracids formed by

photoxidation before they absorb light quanta and split into radicals.

However, with strong irradiation, radicals are produced and the

number of back reaction chains should become considerable. This

explains Warburg’s observation that there is a considerable induction

period in the oxygen production if a plant after a dark pause is il-

luminated with strong light, although with weak illumination this

phenomenon is not found. The induction period occurring with strong

illumination is intimately connected with the abnormal behavior of

the fluorescence of a living leaf strongly illuminated after a dark

period. This phenomenon, first observed by Kautski and studied in

more detail by R. W. Wood and myself, can be easily interpreted in

Aue. 15, 1937 GRIGGS: HYBRIDITY IN EVOLUTION 329

terms of the photoxidation of plant acids. Time does not permit me

to discuss this point in more detail.

I hope that this survey of the problem of photosynthesis, which

could touch only the main points, will leave you with the impression

that, while the problem is by no means entirely solved, many features

are made understandable by the application of normal physical and

chemical experience, and that one is no longer forced to assume that

in this biological problem processes occur which are of an entirely

different character from those with which we deal in studying in-

organic matter. I wish again to express my thanks to the Philosophical

Society for the great honor of being invited to give this Joseph Henry

lecture, and to the audience for listening with such patience to my

remarks.

GENETICS.—Aybridity as a factor in evolution! Rospertr F.

Griacs, George Washington University.

Of all the various factors that have been suggested as causes of

evolution, hybridity looks, on first sight, the least probable. The

limits within which species are cross-fertile are so narrow that there

would seem to be little possibility of any such wholesale hybridization

in nature as would appear to be demanded if the motive power of

evolution is to be found in hybridity. In fact, the suggestion that

hybridization may have been a major factor in evolution sounds to

most people almost absurd.

The very idea of origin of species by hybridization involves almost

a contradiction in terms. The best criterion of specific separability

that can be framed is that the types in question will not interbreed.

If, therefore, it is only exceptionally that hybrid intermediates be-

tween species can be obtained, how much less likely is it that new

genera, families, orders, or classes could owe their origin to hybridiza-

tion? The mere suggestion that even such closely related animals as

dogs and cats could hybridize is too far-fetched to be considered by

anyone. This being the case, we should perhaps drop the whole matter

here and go no further.

Yet, since evolution by hybridization has been advocated by stu-

dents whose biological contributions in other fields are respectable, it

cannot be dismissed so cavalierly as that. The repute of the sponsors

of the theory demands for it consideration on its merits.

1 Address to the Paleontological Society of Washington, March 17, 1937. Received

April 1, 1937.

330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

In the first place, we may observe that the apparent absurdity of a

scientific theory does not necessarily throw it out of court. While

biology is still on a basis where nothing that does not appeal to

“common sense’’ can command a hearing, the physical sciences have

long since passed beyond that stage. Indeed, we biologists might well

ponder the fact, for it is a fact, that the recent revolution in physics,

with its many brilliant theoretical advances and its equally spectacu-

lar practical applications, was made possible only by the willingness

of physicists to follow theories which led them to tenets quite contrary

to any common sense view of the universe. Einstein’s doctrines that

time is not the same at the same instant in different places, or that a

straight line is not the shortest distance between two points certainly

cannot be fitted into any common sense ideology. The interesting

thing about these seemingly nonsensical ideas of modern physics is

that they seem to be true in spite of their apparent absurdity.

The point for us, however, is not whether new ideas appeal to our

common sense (which is, I fear, only another name for the complex

of our prejudices and preconceptions) but whether they are sus-

ceptible of objective test, observational or experimental. That is the

great feature of Einstein’s ideas which the layman often overlooks.

They were not such wild speculations as they sound, for, along with

their very enunciation went concrete suggestions for quantitative

experimental tests by which they could be established or rejected. We

will do well in biology if we will consider new ideas in the same spirit.

In the past we have done our science great harm by hastily accept-

ing ideas which appealed merely to our ‘‘common sense.’ A very large

part of the success of the theory of Natural Selection lay in the vivid

appeal of the phrases “struggle for existence” and “‘survival of the

fittest.’’ Everybody thought he knew what the struggle for existence

was and that he understood the survival of the fittest, and he straight-

way adopted the ideas without critically thinking about them. The

unfortunate fact is that three-quarters of a century after Darwin his

ideas are still as he left them, mere phrases without experimental

substantiation. As a matter of fact, nothing is less understood than

the struggle for existence.

The proper way for us to examine the role of hybridity in evolution

is, therefore, to inquire, first, what was the factual basis for its enun-

ciation, and second, how can it be examined objectively. If we

discover no way of attacking the problem, we should follow our first

reaction and drop it. If it should become merely a speculative football

it would do biology no good. But if it can be tested by a large body of

Ave. 15, 1937 GRIGGS: HYBRIDITY IN EVOLUTION gal

data, experimental or otherwise, it may lead us somewhere. The ques-

tion which I shall consider tonight, then, is whether any such ob-

jective approach to the idea is feasible.

Going a little further now with the negative side of the question, we

may point out that the difficulty suggested of accounting for the

larger groups—genera, families, orders, classes, and phyla—is not

peculiar to the hybridity theory but is shared by most other theories

of evolution.

It was not by accident that Darwin titled his book The origin of

species. He supposed that he had discovered the factor responsible

for the differentiation of homogeneous stocks into separate species,

and he believed, or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that he

hoped, that the operation of the same factor could, by something like

extrapolation, account for the origin of genera, families, and larger

groups.

The same might be said of Lamarck with even greater emphasis,

for while the differences between species are to a certain extent due

to adaptations which might, perhaps, be acquired by something like

use or disuse, the characters which distinguish the great groups are

very much less adaptive. For example, the aorta in birds turns to the

left and in mammals to the right; the one has feathers and the other

hair, and it would be very difficult to believe that either of these

conditions was brought about by adaptation to environment.

As for mutation, we have plenty of experience with mutations in-

volving superficial characters like pigmentation, but after all, a

mutated cat is still a cat and we cannot imagine even so similar an

animal as a puppy in a litter of kittens.

For orthogenesis the case is different, because with orthogenesis,

as with creation, all things are possible. But also, orthogenesis has

little more to offer in the way of circumstantial explanation than did

special creation.

The fact that we cannot imagine hybridization to have played a

role in the evolution of the higher categories of plants and animals

does not, therefore, militate against the theory as heavily as might

have been supposed.

Historically, the hybridity theory of evolution was propounded

twenty years ago by Lotsy” of Leiden. Lotsy emphasizes the impor-

tance of the recombination of Mendelian factors, and in the mere

reassortment of these factors sees the explanation of the evolution of

Ut ota J. P. Evolution by means of hybridization. M. Nijhoff. The Hague,

332 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 8

many species. He specifically disclaims any attempt to explain the

whole of evolution. For him the biological unit is the ‘Jordanon”’ or

Jordanian species, a group of completly homozygous individuals. Any

heterozygosity to him is proof of hybridity. ‘All individuals able to

produce more than one kind of gametes, e.g. gametes of different

constitutions, are hybrids’’ (p. 28).

Lotsy considers genera and all groups of a higher order as largely

figments of the human mind, with only doubtful reality in nature.

But he asserts that these higher orders also originated by crossing.

“Crossing was the origin of the new classes; selection, the result of exter-

mination by the struggle for life, the cause of their gradual extinction.

[Italics in original.] Such extinction of classes must proceed con-

tinuously until a happy meeting between two sufficiently differently

constituted gametes, causes the origin of a new class.” (p. 135). But

‘“‘A formation of new classes is not in action at the present moment, so

that it is illegitimate to claim that one who wants to explain evolution

must demonstrate how such a formation of new classes goes on”

(p. 136).

Nor does he believe in any progress in evolution. “‘Consequently

the geological record gives no support to progression either, and we

are perfectly justified to say that progression is a human conception

and that progressive evolution does not exist’’ (p. 118).

Lotsy thus considers only a small fragment of the problem of bio-

logical relationship. And even within the circumscribed field which

he has undertaken to elucidate he submits almost no evidence that

his theory does, in fact, explain the origin of the phenomena ascribed

to it. Considering the vast body of evidence which might have been

marshalled for his proposition, it is very surprising that he should

have contented himself with so speculative, not to say dogmatic, a

treatment of the subject.

- Lotsy’s ideas of what amount to miraculous origins of new forms by

rare chance fertilizations and his consequent disbelief in the gradual

origin of families and other larger groups led him to value lightly all

the homologies by which the comparative anatomists have built up

their conceptions of relationship.

Evidence that hybridism has something to do with variation and

hence with evolution was brought forward half a century before

Lotsy—before Darwin and before Mendel. Lotsy’s whole proposition

is obviously a reaction to Mendelian thinking, but Mendel himself

did not indulge in any such speculation. Rather, in the latter part of

his paper he shows how the supposed transmutation of one type into

Aue. 15, 1937 GRIGGS: HYBRIDITY IN EVOLUTION 339

another through successive generations of hybrid stock is to be ex-

plained by the operation of the principles of heredity he had dis-

covered.

Antedating Mendel’s publication, however, is a paper by Naudin?

on hybridism considered as a cause of variability. Naudin’s work,

unlike Mendel’s, attracted such considerable attention at the time

that it was translated in the newly established Journal of the

Royal Horticultural Society. Naudin records what we now know as

Mendelian segregation in the second generation of his hybrid plants,

but failed to understand it. He also described hybrid vigor as regu-

larly occurring in the first generation of his crosses and as disappear-

ing in subsequent generations. He gave much experimental data, e.g.

he made 130 hybrids of Datura. He recognized that reciprocal hybrids

are identical, which was one of the great contributions of Mendel also.

He believed that the variability of such genera as Salix was due to

hybridity.

First-generation hybrids of Datura feraxXlaevis were uniform and

the reciprocal hybrids identical, but in the second generation ‘‘the

most astonishing diversity succeeded the former great uniformity....

“T could bring forward many other examples of the excessive varia-

bility which arises in consequence of crossing.”

He recorded striking hybrid vigor between Mirabilis longiflorax

jalapa, whose progeny in the first generation ‘“‘became enormous.

Intermediate in the same degree between the parent species, which

they far surpassed in stature, they resembled each other as exactly

as possible, which might be expected as they belonged to the first

generation.”’ Of the second generation he said: “‘None of them ac-

quired the large stature of the hybrids of the first generation; none,

moreover, resembled them’’—two were similar, the others very

diverse.

More recently many writers have discussed hybridism as an evolu-

tionary factor, and much controversy has developed as to the means

of recognizing hybridity. Into this question it would not be appro-

priate to go in this place. The whole subject is in an incoherent

amorphous stage. Doubtless, as more work is done, definite canons

for research will crystallize out of the heterogeneous mass of facts and

ideas floating around at present. |

Meanwhile, further comparisons with other types of evolutionary

theory may be useful.

3 NaupIn, Cu. On hybridism considered as a cause of variability in vegetables.

C. R. Nov. 21, 1864. Trans. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 1(1).

334 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

Natural Selection drewa large part of itssupport from analogy with

Artificial Selection, the process by which the extremely diverse types

of domestic animals and cultivated plants (cultigens, as they have

been called) were supposed to have originated. It was because of the

importance of this analogy to his theory that Darwin devoted so large

a part of his time to searching out the origin of domesticated types.

It is a curious fact that in all the battle over Darwinism nobody ques-

tioned the efficacy of Artificial Selection. The validity of the analogy

between breeds and species was vigorously attacked but not the origin

of breeds. Agassiz said: ‘“‘Selection is no doubt the essential principle

on which the raising of breeds is founded and the subject of breeds is

presented in its true ight by Mr. Darwin.’’* Yet we know now that the

origin of cultigens was one of the things least understood in Darwin’s

time. The present knowledge of cultigens was, indeed, one of the

chief agencies in undermining Natural Selection.

It was on the same rock that DeVries’ theory of mutation struck.

It was later proved that the true-breeding Oenothera mutants which

DeVries had found, sprang, not as he supposed, from a wild species,

but from a cultigen which, as he discovered later very much to his

chagrin, grows wild nowhere in the world. Oenothera lamarckiana is a

hybrid which has been reproduced by crossing two wild species,

Oenothera biennis and O. franciscana.’

In the hybrid origin of DeVries’ oenotheras we have, naturally, a

strong suggestion of the possibility of the hybrid origin of mutants in

general and so of the whole of evolution. We will return to this. Mean-

while, we may take the other hint given us by DeVries’ experience and

examine cultigens more closely.

It is hardly too much to say that the origin of a majority of our

staple food plants is as much a mystery as the origin of Orders and

Familes. No man has ever seen growing in the wild, maize, bananas,

sweet potatoes, cocoanuts, garden peas, tobacco, peanuts, lentils, or

cassava. Neither has any wild species ever been discovered which, by

such selection as Darwin relied on, could give rise to them.’ No wild

plant bearing anything even remotely similar to an ear of corn has

been found after the most thorough search of the territory in which

4 Acassiz, L. Am. Jour. Sci. 30: 147. 1860.

wee BrapDLEY More. Oenothera neo-lamarckiana. Am. Nat. 50: 688-696.

6 The experiments of Johannsen (Ueber Erblichkeit in Populationen und in reinen

Linien, Jena 1903) on garden beans and of many later workers on both plant and

animal material have shown that within the limits of experimental experience, selec-

tion by itself is able to make practically no change whatever in an organism.

Aug. 15, 1937 GRIGGS: HYBRIDITY IN EVOLUTION 300

maize must have originated.’ If we consider domestic animals, the

ease for nearly all of them, on Darwin’s own showing, is nearly as bad.

There would be little profit for us here to go off into speculation as

to the factors which have been at work in producing these old culti-

gens. But it may be worthwhile to look around among them for some

whose origin is more recent and better authenticated.

Such are not to be found among the domestic animals or the staple

crop plants of any people. All of these go back into the obscurity of

antiquity, where they cannot be traced. But fortunately there is one

type of cultigen. which has been produced very recently and con-

cerning which in some cases we have fairly detailed records. I refer to

ornamental plants, nearly all of which have Ug euE Oe great develop-

ment within the past century.

Even among ornamentals of recent origin, recorded pedigrees of

sufficient detail and accuracy for analysis are scarce. But wherever

the facts have been obtainable the course of events has proved sub-

stantially the same.

In the beginning, nature lovers have dug up wild plants and grown

them in gardens. Despite the belief entertained by Darwin and his con-

temporaries that domestication by and of itself in some mysterious

way induced variability, many of these old species have been culti-

vated for centuries without undergoing much of any modification.

Foxgloves and canterbury bells, geese and guinea fowl are very much

as they were when first domesticated.

In contrast with such types others, like roses, dahlias, sheep, and

dogs, show a diversity under domestication without parallel in the

wild. When we search for the differences between the stable and the

variable domesticated types, we find in every case where the facts are

obtainable that hybridization has preceded the production of the

polymorphic cultigens, while the stable types have no close relatives

in domestication with which they could have been crossed.

A list of familiar cultigens which owe their character largely to

hybridization includes azalea, begonia, calceolaria, cineraria, citrus,

clematis, columbine, dahlia, delphinium, freesia, fuchsia, geranium

(pelargonium), gladiolus, hibiscus, iris, ixia, peony, petunia, potato,

rhododendron, rose, strawberry, sweet pea, tomato, tulip, verbena.

But polymorphic cultigens are not, for the most part, simple hy- |

brids. Where their history can be made out the sequence of events has

generally included three stages: (1) the collection of numerous wild

7 Kempton, J. H. Mazze, the plant breeding achievement of the American Indian,

Smithsonian Scientific Series. 11: 319-349. 1931.

336 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

species of a group; (2) a preliminary period of hybridization in which

the results follow the ordinary expectations of Mendelian segregation

and recombination; (3) what the horticulturists call a ‘‘break,’’ when

suddenly and all at once a large number of new forms burst forth

unexpectedly as a result of further crossings. These breaks are

entirely unpredictable in the light of our present knowledge and they

have usually arisen in the gardens of practical men who could better

preserve and disseminate the wonderful new varieties they had found

than analyze the biology of what had occurred.

I doubt if anything could be more conducive to one’s understanding

of the processes of evolution than detailed consideration of the history

of a cultigen in which such a “‘break”’ has occurred. There is no time

here to go into the minutiae of the case, but I shall recount briefly

the history of garden cannas.

Because of their luxuriant tropical foliage, cannas early attracted

the attention of connoisseurs of exotics. A number of species were

introduced from the wild during the first half of the nineteenth cen-

tury. Bouché in 1833 grew in Berlin 37 of the 48 known species. The

cultivation of these wild unimproved forms, however, died out soon

after the middle of the century, and many of them have since been

lost. An index of the interest in this line is afforded by the plates of

Curtis’ Botanical Magazine, which made a practice of figuring the

novelties that were brought to British hothouses. Between 1787 and

1904 this serial gives 12 plates of cannas. All were before 1856 and all

but two before 1825. During this early period nobody thought of

growing cannas except as foliage plants in the greenhouse. Outdoor

culture was a daring innovation, as witness the following comment by

Seeman in 1855 on C. warscewiczii, from Central America, one of the

three most important parents of present varieties (see Fig. 1):

In German gardens this canna is planted during the summer in open

borders where it succeeds extremely well, as is also the case with other

cannas, marantas, musas, begonias, bambusas, etc. In England this mode

of culture has not yet been tried, probably from the prevailing notion that

the difference of temperature of the two countries from May to October is

too great to allow the experiment to succeed. There is no harm in trying it,

especially as the case is not quite a hopeless one. The Germans formerly

never dreamed that they should one day behold broad-leaved banana trees

and cannas in their gardens flourishing with tropical luxuriance.*

The second period of canna culture centered about the work of

Théodore Année who, enthused about cannas by a sojourn in South

America, undertook to transform cannas from greenhouse curiosities

8 Curtis’ Bot. Mag., table 4854, June, 1855.

Auge. 15, 1937 GRIGGS: HYBRIDITY IN EVOLUTION ood

to outdoor plants. A good measure of his success is the fact that 20,000

clumps of his best variety, C. annéez, were planted in the public

grounds of Paris in 1861.° His spirit was that of an amateur lover of

fine flowers rather than that of a scientist or even a commercial horti-

culturist. Consequently we have very scanty records of the parentage

of his varieties. And as all later work was based on his, this becomes an

irretrievable gap in our knowledge of the evolution of garden cannas.

Nevertheless, there are few even of ornamentals for which the de-

ficiencies in our knowledge are not worse.

Fic. 1—Ancestors of modern cannas—wild species and early hybrids. Flowers

half natural size. A, Canna annéei, plant and flower. E, C. ehemanni (1 X W).

Semipendent. G, C. glauca, source of the gene for yellow in cannas. I, C. iridiflora,

pendent. W, C. warscewiczii, source of the gene for red in cannas. From the original

figures. See text for citations.

Canna année was a lanky plant more than 13 feet tall with a few

small salmon-pink flowers about the size of a snapdragon (Fig. 1). No

one could imagine it being planted today, but it was a great favorite

for several decades. :

From the point of view of usefulness for further breeding and of

beauty of its flowers the most noteworthy of the early hybrids was

° Rev. Hort., p. 469, 1861.

338 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 8

C. ehemanni, which is also attributed, though somewhat doubtfully,

to Année. Positive and definite reports have it that this came from a

cross of the small-flowered, brilliant red C. warscewiczii, alluded to

above, and the pale, large-flowered C. iridiflora from Peru (Fig. 1).!°

It is probably safe to conclude that it sprang from the parents

reputed, for no other plants known at the time could well have pro-

duced it. But it is doubtful whether it was a simple hybrid between

these species. The cross was said to have been made by Année in 1863,

but the hybrid plant was not described until 1875 and it seems un-

likely that the finest canna of its time could have remained in ob-

scurity for twelve years." In view of its remarkable advance over

either of its reputed parents, it is most unfortunate that we have no

exact record of the time and place of its origin and of the name of the

hybridizer.

While Canna ehemanni might be classed as intermediate between

its parents, its flowers far surpassed either in effectiveness. They were

nearly as large as the larger (irzdiflora) and twice as numerous as the

more floriferous (warscewicziz). The staminodes of zridiflora measured

about 15 sq. cm., those of warscewiczii 2 sq. em., and those of

ehemanni 12 sq. cm. The number of flowers in zridzflora was about 6,

in warscewiczi about 20, in ehemanni 40. Again, in color it was

superior to either parent, for the deep scarlet of the petals had spread

over the calyx, which had scarcely a trace of color in either parent.

The important thing to keep in mind with Canna ehemannz is its

progress beyond anything known in the wild. The “‘break’’ was com-

ing. In the next decade, that following 1880, the French breeders, of

whom Antoine Crozy was the most celebrated, developed what were

known as “gladiolus-flowered” cannas. This name, said a horti-

cultural periodical’ of the time ‘“‘has been suggested for a remarkably

beautiful class of cannas whose blossoms are almost as large and

showy as those of the gladiolus.”’

The tradition concerning the origin of these gladiolus-flowered or

French cannas was given in a letter by Henry L. de Vilmorin, one of

the leading horticulturalists of his day, as follows: “It is the current

belief in this country [France] and it seems confirmed by experiment

that the new breed of floriferous cannas (i.e. the French dwarfs)

originated by the crossing of Canna ehemanni with C. warscewiczit

and with C. glauca’ (see Fig. 1), the former producing red flowers and

10 Rev. Hort. p. 111, 1861.

11 Rev. Hort., pp. 291 and 321, 1875.

2 Garden. March 2, 1889.

1 SmitH. Exot. Fl. 2: t102. 1805. C. glauca is an aquatic plant from the

West Indies and South America..

Aue. 15, 1937 GRIGGS: HYBRIDITY IN EVOLUTION 339

the latter specially yellow-flowered varieties. Both original crosses

intercross readily, and in later years I have had many crosses made

every year and raised and named several dozen new seedlings using

the best varieties of my own and Crozy’s raising, without introducing

new blood into the breed.’’!*

Our credence of this straight-forward statement of ‘‘current belief”’

in the origin of French cannas must be modified by two circumstances:

(1) Our knowledge that Année’s early hybridization involving addi-

tional species had more to do with the foundation stock than Vil-

morin realized. (2) From the species listed it is difficult to account

for the numerous purple-leaved varieties of canna. This character,

it would seem, must have come from C. discolor, which has such

leaves. However, the flowers of that species (or perhaps it was itself

a hybrid) have not had any discernible effect on modern cannas.

Turning now to a more detailed consideration of the methods used

by the French breeders, we are told by the most famous of them,

Antoine Crozy:

As to the number of crosses raised by me, I suppose that I have raised

without exaggeration some 180 to 200 varieties which, step by step, showed

improvement over the older kind. Among my varieties not yet in commerce

are cannas with flowers measuring from 44 to 6 inches in diameter. These

have all very glowing colors and bear immense flower trusses.

My constant zeal for superior varieties shows successes every year in

regard to color as well as size and number of flowers. The flowers now are

borne more erect, are of better substance, and show broader, rounder petals,

and some are of a size not known before."

Examination of Crozy’s catalogs shows that his claim of 180-200

varieties is not an exaggeration but an understatement. I have not

been able to lay hands on the full series of catalogs, but among those

available an even 200 novelties are listed as produced by himself

before the date of his statement. It is clear from the literature that

in the production of cannas, once the right foundation stock was ob-

tained, there was very little artificial selection of the sort hypothe-

cated by Darwin. Though Crozy says he threw away many inferior

sorts, rejection of culls played a very small role.

Rejection likewise was of no importance in the next great step in

the improvement of the canna. Sprenger,!® who originated modern or

“orchid flowered” cannas, fertilized the flower of the most cele-

brated of the French cannas, Madame Crozy (Fig. 2), with pollen

z 14 In a letter published by F. A. Waugh in the Tenth Ann. Rept. Vermont Expt.

tation.

146 Gard. Chron. Ser. II] 21:362. 1897.

16 SPRENGER, CHAs. Rev. Hort., p. 85, 1896.

' 340 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

from the wild Canna flaccida. There was produced only one pod with

three seeds, each of which gave rise to a new variety with flowers of a

size previously undreamed of. The average staminode in these flowers

attained an area of about 27 sq. cm. as compared with 9 sq. em. in

one parent and 7 in the other.

Fig. 2.—The first modern canna and its parents. Half natural size. C, Canna

Madame Crozy (a complex hybrid involving the stocks shown in Fig. 1). I, Canna

italia. F, Canna flaccida, native to Southeastern U.S.A. From the original figures.

Further testimony as to the small réle played by rejection in

plant improvement comes from Marion Shull, who relates (oral com-

munication) the following experience with a cross between the iris

varieties King and Julia Marlowe. A single pod with 8 seeds was ob-

tained. Three of the plants from these received honorable mention

among the novelties sponsored by the American Iris Society. Two

more, though very fine varieties, were not sufficiently distinctive for

exhibition, yet have been kept in the garden ever since for his own

enjoyment. A sixth was practically identical with one of the parents,

leaving only two to be rejected, and Shull adds that these were better

than many of the “‘choice”’ varieties commonly grown. To one who

supposes that selection on a large scale is a necessary part of plant

Ava. 15, 1937 GRIGGS: HYBRIDITY IN EVOLUTION 341

improvement, a visit to Shull’s garden is highly instructive. There,

on a little plot of ground about 50X50 feet, have been originated

probably more superior varieties of iris than in any other garden, and

yet more ground is given over to the multiplication of old varieties

than to the production of new ones, and a large fraction of the space

is occupied by other plants grown entirely for ornament. Further, the

rejects that are culled out are nearly all thrown away because they

are not sufficiently different from older types rather than because

they are inferior.

The most important feature of the origin of cultigens through hy-

bridization is its progressive character, which is recognized by all

breeders. The new forms cannot be interpreted at all as due to re-

combinations of characters already present. There is an emergence

of new characters previously considered impossible. In the light of

what has since occurred the following rebuke by André, the experi-

enced editor of Revue Horticole, 1866, to the enthusiasm of Sisley,

who encouraged by a preliminary success, dared predict cannas with

flowers ‘‘as big as gladioli’’ is significant as well as amusing. He says

that while he fully appreciates the marvelous improvements made by

breeding, ‘“‘the cannas already obtained clearly reveal the limit which

we may not pass beyond—it is not possible to nourish the hope of

those famous cannas with flowers like gladioli on which M. Année

counted formerly but no more.’’’ To appreciate the force of this

opinion one must remember that it was written before even C.

ehemanni was known.

The nature of the “breaks’’ by which cultigens rise out of the

apparent limitations of their ancestry into new classes of utility in

size or productiveness is not at all adequately understood. In some

cases they are due to the incidence of polyploidy, as discussed below.

The phenomenon of the break can be expressed in the terminology

of genetics!® by using the conception of latent genes. To speak of a

latent gene does, however, little more than name a phenomenon which

is as mysterious as ever. Yet it might perhaps provide a point of view

from which experimentation could start.

In the light of our present knowledge of cultigens, then, it begins to

appear possible once more that Darwin was right in supposing that

the improvement of domestic plants and animals was the key to the

origin of species.

Meanwhile, there are some other phenomena more or less con-

17 Gard. Chron., p. 537, 1866.

: ds R. K. Napors. Emergent evolution and hybridism. Science 71: 371-375.

930.

342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 8

nected with hybridity which have a very interesting relation to the

origin of hereditary variants and are probably significant to evolu-

tion in the large, namely, polyploidy and various aberrations in the

chromosome numbers. Each of these in itself is a very large subject

which would demand a paper like this for its presentation even in a

general way, so that they can be no more than alluded to here.

It is now well known that in many series of related plants the vari-

ous species are characterized by chromosome numbers in some small

(polyploid) multiple of a single number which appears to be the

fundamental or original ancestral number for the group. The various

types of wheat, for example, have 7, 14, 21, or 28 chromosomes. The

chrysanthemums 9, 18, 27, 36, 45, or 90. Domesticated genera in

which polyploids play a part include blackberries, blueberries, can-

nas, cottons, daturas, day-lilies, hyacinths, oenotheras, primulas,

roses, solanums, and tomatoes, to name only a few, and the list is

being extended every day.

For some reason not at all understood polyploidy is all but un-

known among animals. Until this apparent divergence between the

two kingdoms is accounted for one must, of course, have some reserva-

tions concerning the general importance of polyploidy because, as-

suredly, the forces at work in the evolution of plants and of animals

are essentially similar.

Some polyploids originate through irregularities in chromosome re-

duction incident to partial incompatibility of hybrid plasmas. In this

way triploids may occur when types having n and 2n chromosomes are

crossed. Or, failure in reduction may result in 2n gametes and so in

4n or tetraploid individuals which differ from either of the parent

stocks. Such irregularities as these may be found to account for much

of the emergence of new characters in hybrids. But polyploidy is by

no means exclusively a result of hybridization; it has been induced

artificially a number of times by a sudden chill to a greenhouse in

which plants were at the critical stages.

Partial incompatibility of germ plasms frequently results in more

irregular differences in chromosome distribution whereby offspring

arise which lack one or two of the parental chromosomes or have one

or two supernumerary chromosomes. Once established, these irregu-

larities are often hereditary, and they have a pronounced effect on

the character of the offspring. Blakeslee’s researches on the jimson

weed are the most thoroughgoing and outstanding work of this

field.!°

19 BLAKESLEE, ALBERT F. New jimson weeds from old chromosomes. Jour. Hered.

25: 81-108. 19384.

Aug. 15, 1937 YOUNG: PHYLLOSTACHYS 343

But enough has yet been done to permit a satisfactory opinion as

to the importance of polyploidy and chromosome aberration in the

grand sweep of evolution, but it is clear that there is here a field of

very great interest and importance. Neither is the relation of these

phenomena to hybridity entirely clear.

The cytologists who have done the work have been markedly reti-

cent as to the ultimate origin of the plants in which they found this

remarkable chromosome behavior. Some, like Datura and Oenothera,

belong to groups in which hybridity is known to have occurred on a

large scale. But no very definite correlations between the aberrant

eytology and hybridity have been made. One of the most promising

fields for research in the whole field of biology, so it seems to me, lies

just here. A detailed understanding of what happens cytologically and

genetically when horticultural breaks occur is very much needed and

ought to throw a flood of light not only on the origin of cultigens but

on the fundamental problems of evolution as well.

BOTANY.—Phyllostachys sulphurea var. viridis var. nov. and P.

edulis (Carr.) H. de L.1. Roperr A. YounGa,? Bureau of Plant

Industry. (Communicated by 8. F. BLaxkz.)

The name Phyllostachys mitis as used by A. & C. Riviére’ has been

a source of confusion. The name itself was based on Bambusa mitis

Poiret,* which in turn was based on Arwndo mitis Lour. Loureiro’s

species has not been identified; Merrill’ refers it to Dendrocalamus,

the species undetermined. Loureiro describes the flowers as having 6

stamens, the culms as terete, and the panicle as simple, whereas in

Phyllostachys the stamens are always 3, the culms are flattened or

grooved on one side of each internode, and the inflorescence is com-

pound and not a simple panicle.® ““Bambusa edulis,” without author,

1 Received March 1, 1937.

2 The author is indebted to Dr. 8. F. Blake, Mrs. Agnes Chase, the late Dr. A. S.

Hitchcock, Dr. F. A. McClure, and Paul Russell, of the Division of Plant Exploration

and Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, for valuable assistance and counsel in the

preparation of this paper.

3 Riviere, A. & C. Les Bambous 231. 1879.

4 Lam. Encycl. 8:704. 1808. The name as published there is Bambos mitis Lour.,

but Loureiro’s name was Arundo mits.

5 MERRILL, E. D. A Commentary on Loureiro’s Flora Cochinchinense. Trans. Am.

Phil. Soc. n. s. 24(2): 85. 1935.

6 The fact that Bambusa mitis Poir., the name-bringing synonym of ‘‘Phyllostachys

mitis A. & C. Riv.,”’ belongs to a different genus was pointed out by J. Houzeau de

Lehaie, under the caption Les Deux Phyllostachys mitis, in Le Bambou, 1: 38-40.

1906. He attempted to show that the Riviére species should have been based on B.

mitis Hort. ex Carr. but this was an error, since on this species Carriére (Rev. Hort. 37:

380. 1866) based his Bambusa edulis. In the paper by Houzeau de Lehaie, just cited,

it was also shown that Carriére’s edulis is an earlier valid name for the previously pub-

lished Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel ex Houzeau de Lehaie.

344 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 8

cited as a synonym by A. & C. Riviére, is, if B. edulis Carriére is re-

ferred to, a very different species. If not Carriére’s species, the name

as given has no standing.

It is certain that A. & C. Riviére misapplied the name mitis and

that another name must be found for the species in cultivation com-

monly known as Phyllostachys mitis. The detailed description given

by the Riviéres of their so-called P. mitzs shows conclusively that it is

a green-stemmed form closely related to P. sulphurea A. & C. Riv.’

Study of living plants of the forms now known in Europe as P.

mitis and P. sulphurea has convinced the writer that though varie-

tally distinct the two belong to the same species, a conclusion tenta-

tively reached by Freeman-Mitford® and Houzeau de Lehaie.®

Among other characters, the buds of the rhizomes of these bamboos

have been examined by the writer and they furnish confirmatory evi-

dence of the specific identity of the two forms; the buds are of dif-

ferent shape from those of P. bambusoides Sieb. & Zucc., with certain

varieties of which P. sulphurea has been confused in the literature.

Such confusion could hardly take place if the student of bamboos

were acquainted with the plants of P. sulphurea as well as with those

of P. bambusovdes and its varieties.

Makino” in 1912 erroneously identified Phyllostachys sulphurea

A. & C. Riv. with a rare cultivated variety, Ogonchiku, or Kinchiku

(golden bamboo), of P. bambusoides Sieb. & Zuce. (P. reticulata

(Rupr.) C. Koch) and published the name P. reticulata var. sulphurea

Makino. The brief description does not include characters that dif-

ferentiate P. sulphurea. Takenouchi! in 1932 accepted Makino’s

judgment in the matter and repeated the statement that the variety

is cultivated (in Japan). However, the well-known Japanese horti-

culturist and bamboo specialist, Isuke Tsuboi,!* was unable to find

7 Riviere, A. & C. Les Bambous, 285. 1879. The plant of Phyllostachys sul-

phurea, upon which the somewhat meager description was based, received at the Jar-

din de Hamma, Algiers, in 1871, is stated not to have survived the first summer, hence

the lack of details concerning it. The Riviéres cited Bambusa sulphurea Hort., a name

without standing. They do not refer to Bambusa sulfurea of Carriére (Rev. Hort. 45:

379. 1873), which fact obviates any need to discuss in this paper the question of what

the identity of that species may be.

8 FREEMAN-MITFORD, A. B. Bamboo Garden, 122. 1896.

9 HovuzeEAv DE Lenaiz, J. Le Bambou, 1: 57; 1: 134. 1906; 2: 214. 1907; 2: 261;

288; pl. 8, 1908. Bul. Soc. Dendrol. de France, No. 14, 254. Nov. 15, 1909.

10 Makino, T. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 26: 24. 1912.

11 TAKENOUCHI, YosHIO. Studies of Bamboos (in Japanese, except scientific names)

145. 1932. (Tokyo).

122 TsuBol, IsuKE. Monogr. of Bamboos (Japanese text, 63 pp., and set of 109

colored plates), item no. 9; pl. 5. ed. 2. 1916. The author states that while Kinchiku

was reported in older Japanese works to be growing in Satsuma, Ryukyu, and Abo he

failed to find a single plant when he visited those localities. He illustrates culm, rhi-

zome, and leaves but the yellow culm does not display the characteristic narrow green

Auge. 15, 1937 YOUNG: PHYLLOSTACHYS 345

(1916) the variety Kinchiku in any of the places in which it had been

reported to be grown and had doubts of its continued existence in

those localities. Houzeau de Lehaie, indeed, once doubtfully sug-

gested Japan as the country from which P. sulphurea had been in-

troduced into Europe, but there appears to be no substantial evidence

that it occurs in Japan.

Nakai“ in 1933 erroneously referred Phyllostachys sulphurea to

P. reticulata var. holochrysa Nakai, as a synonym. Nakai’s variety,

based on P. bambusordes var. Castilloni holochrysa Pfitzer ex Houzeau

de Lehaie,! is not known to the present writer but the brief descrip-

tion precludes the possibility of its identity with P. sulphurea. Nakai™

adds in a note (in Japanese) following the synonymy in his publica-

tion of var. holochrysa that it is of Chinese origin, is said to have been

introduced into Europe from China in 1865, and that the history of

the variety in Japan is not known. From this it may fairly be inferred

that he had not seen a plant either of var. Castilloni holochrysa Pfitzer

or of P. sulphurea A. & C. Riv.

Although the characters indicate that the plant hitherto known as

Phyllostachys mitis probably represents the original wild form of the

species and that known as P. sulphurea (biologically) a variety of it

(as proposed and informally published by Houzeau de Lehaie),® under

the rules of nomenclature the name P. sulphurea A. & C. Riv., pub-

lished in 1879, becomes the specific name of the aggregate, whereas

the plant until now known as P. mitis becomes the variety. For this

the following name is proposed.

Phyllostachys sulphurea var. viridis R. A. Young, var. nov.

Phyllostachys mitis, as misapplied by A. & C. Riviére, Les Bambous 231.

1879.

Culmi omino virides, usque ad 14 m alti, quam ei formae typicae altiores

sed infra tenuiores; folia viridia numquam striata.

Type deposited in the U. S. National Herbarium, nos. 1682470 and

1682471, collected in Plant Introduction Garden, Savannah, Georgia,

Jan. 11, 1937, by D. A. Bisset; grown from material obtained from Gaston

Negre, Generargues, France, under the name Phyllostachys mitts.

stripe of Phyllostachys sulphurea on any of the internodes, and the other characters

shown are not sufficiently distinctive to establish identity with any bamboo known to

the present writer. The source of the material from which the illustration was prepared

is not indicated and no description of the plant is given. Furthermore, the author

finally expresses the opinion that the yellow color mentioned for the culm of Kinchiku

probably was of a kind that he had observed in another bamboo to result from high

summer humidity. (The foregoing is based on a translation by Saburo Katsura, Bu-

reau of Plant Industry.)

13 HOUZEAU DE Lenal£, J. Le Bambou, 2:230. 1908.

44 Naxal, T. Journ. Japanese Bot. 9: 34. 1933. In his synonymy Nakai omits

ek name Castillont, which was part of the full name as published by Houzeau de

ehaie.

16 HOUZEAU DE Lenais£, J. III Cong. Int. Bot. Brux. 228. 1910.

346 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

The varietal name Phyllostachys sulphurea var. viridis refers to the green

color of the culm and branches as contrasted with the clear sulphur yellow

of the species itself. There are also other distinguishing characteristics in the

species, P. sulphurea, such as the presence of one or two narrow green

stripes on the rounded part—never on the grooved or flattened side—of

most of the internodes of the yellow culm, an irregular broken ring of green

beneath each node, and a tendency of the evenly tapering culm to be larger

in diameter at the base for its height than in the green-stemmed form.

A single green stripe is present on many of the lower internodes of the main

branches, and an occasional leaf has one or a few slender white or yellowish

stripes. The green striping of the culm was observed by Lehaie,’ though

other authors fail to mention this character. Mitford’ says of P. sulphurea

that it is much hardier than ‘‘P. mztzs’’ and of inferior stature, but no definite

confirmation of the reported hardiness can yet be given from observations

in the United States.

Phyllostachys sulphurea has never been adequately described, a fact which

largely accounts for the uncertainty as to its identity and the resulting con-

fusion in nomenclature. For this reason the following description of the

vegetative characters is here offered.

Culms about 5 m (may later reach 10 m) high, not as tall as those of var.

viridis but somewhat thicker at base for the height and tapering evenly to

the tip. Supranodal rings of culm, except in upper part, only a little more

prominent than the nodal rings. Culm and branches of a clear sulphur

yellow, but frequently with 1 or 2 rather narrow green stripes variously

situated on the rounded part of each internode of the culm and one stripe

on some of the lower internodes of the branches, beneath each node of the

culm a broken ring of green, jagged in outline on the lower edge, often later

obscured by a sooty fungus. Rhizome buds circular in outline. Culm sheaths

entirely glabrous, margins smooth, outer surface of lowest ones brownish

yellow when fresh, blotched and spotted with brown, those above sixth

node yellowish with green veins, irregularly and often sparsely speckled and

spotted with paler brown; ligule distinctly truncate, membranaceous, 2.5

mm high at about the eighth node of a culm 2.5 cm in diameter at base,

glabrous, margin slightly irregular, minutely fimbriate; pseudophylls linear,

ribbonlike, about 4.5 em long and 5 mm wide on sheath of eighth node, two-

thirds the width of the ligule, glabrous, margins of uppermost slightly sca-

brous, others smooth, all without auricles or bristles at the base or, at most,

with rudimentary auricles, all except the lowest pseudophylls tessellated.

a narrow, bright-green stripe in center, pale maroon to salmon on margins.

Branches two at each node, unequal, as usual in Phyllostachys. Leaves 2-3,

proximate at tips of twigs (branchlets), the lower sheaths almost completely

overlapping those above, the lowest slightly pubescent on upper part, oc-

casionally with outer margins obscurely ciliate near summit, upper sheaths

densely puberulent, especially at summit, the collar densely pubescent at

first; auricles more or less prominent, with whitish radiating scabrous bristles

(oral setae) 3-5 mm long; ligule rather prominent, about 1.5 mm high,

except on uppermost sheath of twig, notched and minutely ciliate on margin,

densely puberulent outside at base; petiole 3 mm long; blade lance-oblong

to lanceolate, acuminate, somewhat rounded at the base, 4.5-12.5 cm long,

Avg. 15, 1937 YOUNG: PHYLLOSTACHYS 347

8-17 mm wide, green and glabrous above, rarely with one or a few slender

white or yellowish stripes, paler, secaberulous, densely puberulent along the

midnerve and toward the base beneath, otherwise scabrous, cilio-scabrous

on one margin, secondary veins 5-6 pairs, rarely 4 or 7, intermediate veins

7-9, rarely fewer.

Since Phyllostachys sulphurea and its variety viridis have been confused

with P. bambusoides Sieb. & Zucc. and some of its varieties, it may be well

to mention a few characters that clearly differentiate the latter group from

the former. In P. bambusoides the internodes of the young culms are at first

a brilliant green, in contrast with the glaucous green of P. sulphurea var.

viridis, and the rhizome buds are somewhat triangular in outline instead of

circular. The culm sheaths from the eighth node upward bear conspicuous

auricles with bristles, the sheaths are ciliate on the outer margin, and they

commonly have a darker ground color and are more profusely spotted,

blotched, and streaked than in P. sulphurea or its variety; the culm-sheath

ligule is usually more or less obtuse rather than truncate. The leaves are

3—4 on a twig, usually larger and more undulate than in either of the forms

of P. sulphurea, and the sheath ligule is less than 1 mm high.

This study of Phyllostachys sulphurea and its variety viridis is

based on living material grown from plants obtained under the names

P. mitis and P. sulphurea by the United States Department of Agri-

culture from French and English nursery firms between 1920 and

1930. They are growing at the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduction

Garden of the Department, at Savannah, Ga. Plants of P. sulphurea

var. viridis, under the name P. mitis, were received twice, from nurser-

ies in southern France. There are minor differences between these

two introductions but the plants of both agree in essential respects

with the Riviére description. It appears that the bamboos grown by

the Riviéres in the Jardin du Hamma at Algiers, were not kept

labeled, hence the identities of these plants are now known only by

imperfect tradition among the present gardeners at Hamma. Even

with the hearty cooperation of Dr. R. Maire, of the University of

Algiers, it has not been possible to obtain positive evidence from that

source on the more difficult questions of identity concerning the

Riviére bamboos now growing at Algiers. It has recently been learned

from the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, of Paris, that these species

are not represented there by authentic specimens.

Allusion was made at the beginning of this paper to the confusing

by A. & C. Riviére of a Bambusa edulis (without name of author)

with their so-called Phyllostachys mitis. The Riviere publication

naturally involved B. edulis Carr. in the confusion. Phyllostachys

16 CARRIERE, E. A. Rev. Hort. 37: 380. 1866.

348 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

edulis (Carr.) H. de L. based on that species, is an edible bamboo

with hairy blackish sheaths, while the culm sheath of “P. mitis’’ was

described by A. & C. Riviére as being entirely glabrous. Carriére’s

description of the sheaths of ‘B. edulis” applies fairly well to P.

edulis (Carr.) H. de L. and does not well apply to any other known

species. It is of interest that as early as 1897 Makino!’ had observed

(presumably from the Riviére illustration of a young culm with

heavily spotted sheaths) that ‘‘P. mitis,’ described by A. & C.

Riviére, bore a strong likeness to Madake (P. bambusoides) but did

not resemble Mosochiku (P. edulis, for which at that time Makino

apparently had no scientific name). As his note on the question was

published in Japanese, however, this important observation of the

distinctness of Mosochiku from ‘‘P. mitis’’ seems to have remained

unknown to European botanists until the facts concerning Mosochiku

were recognized by Houzeau de Lehaie,'* in 1906.

In 1906 Houzeau de Lehaie’® published the name Phyllostachys

pubescens Mazel, presumably because Mazel, the deceased horticul-

turist by whom it had been grown for many years, had called it by

that name. In another article in the same publication Houzeau de

Lehaie!® showed that the correct name for the species was Phyllo-

stachys edulis, based on Bambusa edulis Carr., and formally pub-

lished it. He reverted shortly afterward to the name P. pubsecens, but

instead of using Mazel’s name as authority he gave his own initials

and continued to use them in his later published references”?! to the

species.

The specific name edulis was again taken up by Makino” in 1912

and was also used by Tsuboi” in 1916, though both authors erred in

citing A. & C. Riviére instead of Houzeau de Lehaie as authority for

the combination. The explanation for this appears to be that Makino

was misled by the form in which the synonymy of ‘Phyllostachys

mitis”’ was stated by the Riviéres and assumed that ‘‘ — edulis”

meant “Phyllostachys edulis A. & C. Riv.,” whereas it simply indi-

17 MaxINo, T. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 11: 158. 1897. A translation by Saburo Kat-

sura of the note by Makino reads: “‘Phyllostachys mitis, described by A. & C. Riviére,

is in question as to whether or not it is Poiret’s Bambusa mitis. It bears a striking like-

ness to Madake but does not resemble Mosochiku.”’

18 HouzEAU DE Lenatz, J. Les Deux Phyllostachys mitis. Le Bambou 1: 38-40.

Bat Hovuzeavu DE Lenatz, J. Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel. Le Bambou 1: 7:

es ican pE Lenarg, J. Le Bambou 1: 97, 117, 129. 1906; 2: 214. 1907; 2:

290. 1908.

21 HOUZEAU DE Lenalrs, J. III Cong. Int. Bot. Brux. 1: 232.1910.

2 Makino, T. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 26: 21. 1912.

23 TsuBol, IsuKE. Monogr. of Bamboos, item no. 23; pl. 15, 71, 93. ed. 2. 1916.

Ave. 15, 1937 DAYTON: HARMEL 349

cated a Bambusa edulis, without name of author. Carriére, of course,

was the author. The correct combination of name and authority,

P. edulis (Carr.) H. de L., appears to have been used first by Gallo-

way. in 1925. 7

For reasons not entirely clear, T. Nakai” in 1933 reverted to the

name “‘P. pubescens Mazel ex Houzeau de Lehaie,’’ with the citation

“Bambusa edulis (non Poiret) Carriére in Revue Hort. XX XVII,

p. 380 (1866) cum. syn. B. mitis Hort.’’ included in the synonymy.

Again, however, explanation is perhaps to be found in a misinter-

pretation of the Riviére form of citation. Unlike Makino, Nakai as-

sumes that Bambusa edulis, the second synonym of ‘Phyllostachys

mitis,’’ was intended to be understood as a Poiret species, as well as

B. mitis Poiret, the first synonym cited. This would account for the

fact that Nakai ignores (1) the explicit and well-substantiated state-

ment by Houzeau de Lehaie!* that Carriére’s name (edulzs) for ‘‘Moso-

chiku”’ should be retained, and (2) the actual publication by Houzeau

de Lehaie, in the same paragraph, of ‘Phyllostachys edulis nom.

nov.”

The facts cited in this account of Phyllostachys mitis, so-called by

_A. & C. Riviére, and P. edulis seem to constitute a veritable ‘‘comedy

of errors.”’ The former name is clearly invalid, as has been shown, but

P. edulis (Carr.) H. de L. is obviously a valid name and must stand.

BOTAN Y.—WNotes on harmel, or “Syrian rue.”? Wiiu1am A. Day-

TON, U.S. Forest Service.

Messrs. W. L. Black and K. W. Parker of the New Mexico College

of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts have published a very informing

and valuable paper, Toxicity tests on African rue.” The Mediterranean-

west Asiatic plant referred tois Peganum harmala L., which, the au-

thors report, is introduced, established, and spreading in an area 4

miles east of Deming, New Mexico,—apparently the first record of

its occurrence in this country. The species appears to have been con-

sidered promising for erosion-control experiments in our semiarid

Southwest, because of its marked drought-resistance, somewhat mat-

like growth, and copious seeding. However, the authors (op. cit., p. 11)

sound a note of warning from Arthur B. Clawson, well-known toxi-

cologist of the federal Bureau of Animal Industry, because of the

24 GaLLowAY, B.T. Bamboos: their culture and usesinthe United States. U. 8. Dept.

Agr. Bull. 1329: 10. 1925.

2 Naxal, T. Jour. Japanese Bot. 9: 27. 1938.

1 Received April 14, 1937.

2 Buack, W. L., and Parker, K. W. Toxicity tests on African rue (Peganum har-

mala L.). N. Mex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 240, 14 pp., illus. 1936.

350 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 8

poisonous properties of the seed and herbage; Clawson fears ‘‘that

African rue may cause losses in livestock, especially on ranges heavily

populated with the plant,’’ whose palatability, however, is admittedly

very low.

In view of the interest that this plant has aroused in New Mexico

and the possibility of a further extension of the range of this species

in the Southwest, it seems desirable that, if possible, a generally ac-

ceptable English name for it should be adopted. Harmel is here

recommended. The writer feels that the name “African rue”’ for this

plant not only is unnecessary but is seriously objectionable, for the

following reasons:

1. This plant, though apparently with a somewhat rue-like odor,

does not have punctate leaves and is not a true rue (Ruta); by the

majority of botanists it is not placed in the rue family (Rutaceae) but

in the caltrop family (Zygophyllaceae). Asa Gray, in his Synoptical

flora of North America, although placing Peganum in Zygophyllaceae,

indicates that the genus is anomalous because of its relatively numer-

ous (12-15) stamens, few (2 to 4) carpels, and numerous (45 to 60,

fide Black and Parker, op. cit., p. 5) seeds.

2. There are true species of Ruta indigenous to Africa. One or more

of these conceivably may some day get into cultivation in this coun-

try and would be much more entitled to the name ‘‘ African rue.”’

3. The recorded history of Peganum harmala seems to be concerned

much more with Syria, Turkey, and Arabia than with Africa.

4. Peganum harmala already has other and better known English

names. For example, Van Wijk, in his encyclopaedic A dictionary of

plant names,’ lists the names harmel, harmal, harmala, hurmul, and

Syrian rue. Incidentally, the generic name Peganum is derived from

the Greek rnyavov, a term used by Theophrastus both for the com-

mon, or garden rue (Ruta graveolens) and for ‘‘wild rue.’’ Harmala

(Greek, apuada), used by Tournefort as a generic name, was em-

ployed by Dioscorides, and is said to be the Syrian (or Arabic) name

for ‘‘wild rue,’’—very likely Peganum harmala.

Peganum harmala is reported by Baillon‘ to be cultivated in French

botanical gardens. Nicholson’ states that it is “‘occasionally . . . met

with in English gardens.’’ As yet, the plant does not appear to have

been cultivated in this country as an ornamental.

Black and Parker (op. cit., p. 3) refer to the fact that ‘‘an eye oint-

3 Van Wisk, H. L. Gertu. A dictionary of plant names 1: 961-962. 1911.

4 Bartuon, M.H. Dictionnaire de botanique 3: 526. 1891.

2 NicHoLson, GrorGE. The illustrated dictionary of gardening, a practical and

scientific encyclopaedia of horticulture, for gardeners and botanists 3: 58. (1886).

Ava. 15, 1937 HURD-KARRER: RUBIDIUM AND STRONTIUM TOXICITY aol

ment was made from the seeds in Arabia’’; that the plant is reputed

to possess anthelmintic properties, and that it possibly contains a

narcotic, hasheesh-like or marihuana-like alkaloid. It seems desirable

to add that Peganum harmala is known to contain the alkaloids har-

malin (Ci3Hi,N.O) and harmin (Ci3Hi.N.O), which have been em-

ployed as drugs in the treatment of cerebral paralysis, encephalitis

lethargica, and Parkinson’s disease. Baillon (loc. cit.) speaks of the

plant as a sudorific, as well as vermifuge, and states that the French

call the plant “armel.” Lieut. W. F. Lynch, U. 8. N.,° indicates that

Peganum harmala is widely distributed in Judaea, and that its seeds

are both intoxicating and soporific. Before the advent of aniline dyes,

Peganum harmala was, at least in large part, the ultimate source of the

brilliant scarlet dye known as “Turkey red’ (alizarin). Engler,

in Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, speaks of the cells of the middle

layer of the seed coats as the seat of this dyestuff as well as of the

alkaloid harmalin. He also mentions the sudorific and vermifugal

properties of the seed, and adds that the Turks use the plant as a

condiment.

There is a native congener of this plant in our Southwest and north-

ern Mexico, Peganum mexicanum, originally collected by the ill-

fated Dr. Gregg. In his original description of this species Dr. Gray’

quotes Gregg that it “‘is evidently well known to the Mexicans, who

... call it Garbanzilla, Romero del Campo, or Limoncillo, and use a

decoction of it for gonorrhoea. It is said to be poisonous to cattle.”

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.—Rubidium and Strontium Toxicity to

Plants Inhibited by Potassium and Calcium Respectively.1 ANNIE

M. Hurp-Karrer, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Last year the writer reported? that the toxicity of sodium arsenate

to wheat plants varies inversely with the concentration of available

phosphate. The possibility of such an effect had been postulated on

the basis of the fact that the positions of phosphorus and arsenic in

Group V of the periodic arrangement of the elements are analogous

to those of sulphur and selenium in the adjoining Group VI. The

hypothesis proposed to explain the selenium-sulphur antagonism?

6 Lynceo, W. F. EHzxamination of the Dead Sea. Senate Exec. Doc. 34, 30th Con-

gress, 2nd Sess. 1849.

7 Gray, Asa. Plantae Wrightianae Texano-Neo-Mezxicanae 1: 30. 1852.

1 Received July 1, 1937.

2 Hurp-Karrer, ANNIE M. Inhibition of arsenic injury to plants by phosphorus.

Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 26: 180-181. 1936.

3 Hurp-KarReR, ANNIE M. Selenium injury to wheat plants and its inhibition by

sulphur. Jour. Agr. Research 49: 343-357. 1934.

352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

suggested that the injurious effects of a toxic element could be coun-

teracted by an excess of a chemically similar nutritive element, the ~

assumption being that such elements would enter the plant alike

without selective discrimination (but with unlike effects on the

plant). If the gradient established by the plant’s metabolism of the

nutritive element should determine the total absorption of the two,

the amount of the toxic element taken in would decrease as the pro-

portionate amount of the nutritive element in the substratum in-

creased. The experimental results showing reproducible ratios associ-

ated with given degrees of injury to the plant in the case of arsenic

and phosphorus as well as of selenium and sulphur were in accord

with this supposition, and, in fact, could only be explained on some

such line of reasoning.’

The confirmation of the idea supplied by the arsenate/phosphate

relation led to the testing of other similarly related pairs of elements.

The pairs that could be selected on this basis were very limited, since,

other than sulphur and phosphorus, there are only five major min-

eral nutrients—nitrogen, iron, magnesium, potassium, and calcium.

Next to potassium in Division A of Group I is the toxic element ru-

bidium, and next to calcium in Division A of Group II is the mod-

erately toxic strontium. These two pairs were accordingly chosen

for experimentation.

The plants were grown in nutrient solutions, according to pro-

cedures described in the earlier papers. For the study of rubidium

toxicity, low- , medium- and high-potassium solutions were made by

varying the amounts of KCl in otherwise identical solutions. Their

pH values were brought near 6.5 with equal amounts of NaOH. Con-

trols without rubidium showed that plant injury in the low-potassium

cultures containing rubidium was not due to the low KCl content.

In some of the experiments duplicate series of the low-KCl cultures

were set up, for one of which the low chlorine content was compen-

sated for by adding sufficient calcium chloride to make the chlorine

equal to that of the high-potassium solution. The plants of these cul-

tures gave evidence that neither chlorine nor calcium was a factor in

the results.

The characteristic symptom of the injury produced by rubidium

chloride on both wheat and barley was a stunting and peculiar thick-

ening of the roots, resulting eventually in stunting of the tops also. The

4 The antagonism is much more marked with selenates than with selenites, so it

should be emphasized that only sodium arsenate ae 7H:O) has been used in

studying the arsenic/phosphorus relation.

Aug. 15, 1937 HURD-KARRER: RUBIDIUM AND STRONTIUM TOXICITY 353

degree of injury varied with the proportionate amount of potassium

present, twice as much potassium as rubidium effectually preventing

the appearance of the root injury. Thus with 60 p.p.m. of rubidium,

injury could be detected in both wheat and barley with 60 but not

with 120 p.p.m. of potassium; with 120 p.p.m. of rubidium, there

was definite injury with 150 but not with 240 p.p.m. of potassium.

For the study of strontium toxicity, low- , medium- and high-cal-

cium solutions were made by varying the amounts of calcium nitrate,

the resulting differences in nitrogen being compensated for by the

addition of requisite amounts of ammonium nitrate. The pH values

of the low- and high-calcium solutions were both near 6.5. Controls

without strontium showed that the peculiar injury attributed to

strontium in the low-calcium solutions was not due to calcium de-

ficiency.

The characteristic symptom of strontium injury was a stimulation

of tillering with stunting, so that the plants were thick, short bunches

of as many as twelve tillers instead of the usual four much taller

tillers of the controls. The effect was extreme with 500 p.p.m. of

strontium supplied as either SrCl, or Sr(NOs)2 in solutions containing

but 50 p.p.m. calcium, slight with 230 p.p.m. calcium, and absent

with 500 p.p.m. calcium. Controls with the same amounts of chlorine

and nitrate in the form of potassium salts proved that the effect was

produced by the strontium alone. Under the conditions of these ex-

periments, then, strontium produced detectable injury with but half

as much calcium as strontium present, but with the amounts equal

it was nontoxic. The accuracy of these ratios may be questionable,

however, because of a considerable precipitate in the high-calcium

flasks, suggesting that the calcium did not all remain in solution.

Tests to determine the specificity of the relations by interchanging

the nutrient solutions showed that excess potassium did not inhibit

strontium toxicity, nor did excess calcium inhibit rubidium toxicity.

Insofar as the establishment of predicted relations by actual ex-

periment constitutes evidence, the observed antagonism of arsenic,

rubidium and strontium by phosphorus, potassium and calcium, re-

spectively, substantiates the generalization suggested by the se-

lenium-sulphur antagonism. Briefly stated, this hypothesis is that in

proportion to its relative concentration an essential nutritive element

reduces the absorption and consequent toxicity of a toxic element

sufficiently similar chemically to preclude selectivity on the part of

the plant.

354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

ORNITHOLOGY .—Descriptions of three new screech owls from the

United States.1 Harry C. OBERHOLSER, Bureau of Biological

Survey.

The identification of screech owls, Otus aszo, from various sources,

including Texas, has made necessary the examination of a consider-

able number of these birds from various parts of the United States.

In addition to the collection of the U. 8. National Museum, including

that of the Biological Survey, there have been examined a large

number of specimens from other museums and from individuals. The

writer is, therefore, indebted for the loan of comparative material

to Dr. Frank M. Chapman, Dr. A. I. Ortenburger, Dr. Louis B.

Bishop, Dr. Max M. Peet, Professor Myron H. Swenk, Dr. Joseph

Grinnell, Dr. Josselyn Van Tyne, Dr. D. Elton Beck, Dr. John W.

Sugden, Dr. Vasco M. Tanner, Miss Edith R. Force, Ralph H. Imler,

C. D. Bunker, J. L. Peters, H. V. Williams, Edwin D. McKee, C. C.

Presnall, E. R. Warren, and C. Lynn Hayward.

Study of the material thus brought together has resulted in the dis-

covery of three apparently new subspecies of Otus aso, which it seems

worth while to describe. Perhaps the most interesting, as well as the

most beautiful, of these is:

Otus asio swenki,” subsp. nov.

Nebraska Screech Owl

Subspecific characters—Similar to Otus asio aikeni, of central Colorado,

but smaller; in gray phase much paler on the upper surface and somewhat

so below, the face lighter, more whitish; both upper and lower parts more

finely marked with blackish; in red phase also paler.

Measurements.—Adult male*: wing, 153-170 (average, 160.6) mm; tail,

75-82 (78.6); culmen from cere, 13.5—16 (15.2); tarsus, 35-40 (37.6) ; middle

toe without claw, 17-20 (18.6). Adult female‘: length in flesh (type), 221

mm; wing, 162-169 (average, 164.7); tail, 79-85.5 (82.2); culmen from cere,

14-17 (15.8); tarsus, 36-39.5 (37.6); middle toe without claw, 18-20 (18.9).

Type.—Adult female, collection of Prof. Myron H. Swenk; Chadron,

Dawes County, Nebraska, altitude 3,450 feet; February 1, 1918; L. M.

Gates.

Geographic distributcon.—Resident and breeds in the middle United

States, north to central southern Manitoba; west to western Nebraska and

central western Oklahoma; south to central western Oklahoma, and central

southern Kansas; and east to central Kansas, central eastern Nebraska,

western Minnesota, and central southern Manitoba.

- Remarks.—The discovery of this interesting new owl came as a decided

1 Received May 22, 1937.

2 Named for Prof. Myron H. Swenk, of Lincoln, Nebraska.

3 Meebo specimens, from Nebraska, Kansas, Manitoba, Minnesota, and North

akota.

~ 4 Ten specimens, from Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, and North Dakota.

Aue. 15, 1937 OBERHOLSER: NEW SCREECH OWLS 355

surprise in the course of a study to determine the actual range of Otus aszo

hasbrouckt. From that form it differs so decidedly in its much paler coloration

that it scarcely needs comparison. From Olus asio naevius in gray phase it

differs in its much paler and less coarsely dark-marked upper surface, paler

and more whitish face; and in red phase by its decidedly lighter color. From

Otus asio maxwelliae in gray phase it differs in its decidedly darker and more

finely marked upper surface, less whitish face, and darker, i.e., more ex-

tensively black-streaked and barred lower surface.

Birds from eastern Kansas (Douglas County, and west to east central

Kansas in Harvey County) are darker and mostly more brownish, thus

verging so much toward Otus asio naevius that they are referable to that

race. On the other hand, birds from eastern Nebraska (Lincoln and other

localities) are rather darker and more brownish than typical Otus asio

swenki, and thus verge a little toward Otus asio naevius, but they are de-

cidedly nearer to Otus asio swenkz. While no specimens of this new race from

Colorado have been examined, it probably ranges at least to the eastern

border of that state. It probably occurs also in the Panhandle of north-

western Texas (although no specimens from that region have been seen),

since a specimen from Ellis County, Oklahoma, which borders on the Texas

Panhandle, is Otus asio swenkt.

The examination in this connection of a considerable number of screech

owls from central and eastern Oklahoma, Benton County, northwestern

Arkansas, with a few from central northern Texas, and from Greenwood

County and Cedar Vale, southeastern Kansas, now shows that these areas

are occupied by Ctus aszo hasbrouckt.

It gives me great pleasure to name this handsome screech owl for Prof.

Myron H. Swenk, of the University of Nebraska, who has done so much to

advance the study of ornithology in the state of Nebraska. Furthermore,

it is appropriate that the bird should be called the Nebraska screech owl,

since it apparently reaches its maximum differentiation in that state.

Following is a list of the localities from which specimens of Otus asio

swenki have been examined:

Kansas: Stockton (Feb. 22, 1936); Hamilton County (Nov. 19, 1934);

Wallace County (June 24 and 29, 1911); Comanche County (May 25 and

29, 1911); Coolidge (July 12, 1921).

MANITOBA: Winnipeg (June 4, 1930); Deer Lodge, Winnipeg (Nov. 12,

1928).

MINNESOTA: Beaver, Roseau County (Jan. 7, 1932); Stafford, Roseau

County (Nov. 20, 1926); Poklitz, Roseau County (March 3, 1927); Badger,

Roseau County (Feb. 27, 1927); Mickinock, Roseau County (March 8,

1930); Dieter, Roseau County (March 10, 1932); Jadis, Roseau County

(Dec. 28, 1926). |

NEBRASKA: Spencer (Dec. 14, 1931); Scottsbluff (June 28, 1916); Cha-

dron (Feb. 1, 1918); Lincoln (Nov. 138, 19382; Dec. 26, 1934); Kearney

(Dec. 14, 1924); Union (May 6, 1933).

356 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 8

Norty Daxota: Grafton (May 18, 1933; Nov. 10, 1933; Dec. 6, 1923;

April 25, 1923; Feb. 19, 1924); Hankinson (July 22, 1912).

OKLAHOMA: 7 miles south of Arnett, Ellis County (May 18, 1936).

Otus asio mychophilus, subsp. nov.

Grand Canyon Screech Owl

Subspecific characters.—Similar to Otus asio inyoensis Grinnell® from Inyo

County, California, but upper parts darker, usually more brownish; lower

parts more numerously vermiculated with blackish, thus appearing darker.

Measurements.—Adult male®: wing, 159-170 (average, 164) mm; tail,

81.5—94 (85.2); culmen from cere, 14—16 (15); height of bill at base, 12-13.5

(12.6); tarsus, 35-39 (37.3); middle toe without claw, 18-19 (18.4). Adult

female’: wing, 168-173 (169.3); tail, 86-92 (89.5); culmen from cere, 15—

16.5 (15.9); height of bill at base, 12.5-14 (13.3); tarsus, 36-40 (37.8);

middle toe without claw, 18.5—-21.5 (19.8).

Type.—Adult female, No. 340593, U. S. National Museum, Biological

Survey collection; south rim of Grand Canyon, 6,900 feet altitude, Grand

Canyon Village, Arizona; January 28, 1935; Russell K. Grater, original

number, 23.

Geographic distribution.—Northern Arizona and southern Utah, north to

north central Utah (Provo); west to southwestern Utah; south to northern

Arizona; and east to central eastern Utah (Moab).

Remarks.—Specimens of this new race have heretofore sometimes been

identified as Otus asio aikeni, but proper comparison indicates at once that

they do not belong to this race, since they differ in their darker, more finely

vermiculated upper parts, and more finely vermiculated and less streaked

lower surface. From Otus asio cineraceus of southern Arizona this new race

differs in much larger size, darker and usually more uniform and more finely

vermiculated upper surface.

Specimens from Vernon and Jensen, northern Utah, are decidedly paler

and less marked below than the birds from central and southern Utah, here

referred to Otus asio mychophilus, and are apparently referable to Otus asio

inyoensis from southeastern California, which would indicate that the range

of the latter subspecies extends over Nevada as far north as Fallon and east

to northeastern Utah.

The specimen of this new subspecies here made its type has been gener-

ously donated to the Biological Survey Collection by Edwin D. McKee,

Park Naturalist of the Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona.

Seventeen specimens of Otus asto mychophilus have been examined, these

representing the following localities:

Arizona: Grand Canyon, South Rim (Oct. 2, 1934; Jan. 28, 1935); Grand

Canyon Village (May 4, 1931); 15 miles south of Grand Canyon Village

(Nov. 30, 1934); 10 miles south of Grand Canyon Village (Oct. 29, 1934).

Urtan: Springdale (Jan. 27, 1935); Provo (Feb. 11, 1984; May 19, 1933;

6 The Auk, Vol. XLV, No.2, April 16,1928, p. 213.

6 Six specimens, from southern Utah and northern Arizona.

7 Six specimens, from southern Utah and northern Arizona.

Aue. 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY O00

July 19, 1933); Moab (June 9, 1927); Zion Canyon, Washington County

(July 8, 1933); St. George (spring, 1937; Nov., 1933).

Otus asio clazus, subsp. nov.

San Jacinto Screech Owl

Subspecific characters Similar to Otus asio quercinus, but very much

darker, more purely grayish (less brownish); lower parts more broadly

streaked and more densely and numerously barred.

Measurements.—Adult male (type); length (in flesh) 212 mm; extent of

wings, 560; wing, 160; tail, 90; culmen from cere, 16; height of bill at base,

13.5; tarsus, 36; middle toe without claw, 19. Adult female: wing, 167 mm;

tail, ; culmen from cere, 15.5; tarsus, 35.5; middle toe without claw,

19.5.

Type.—Adult male, No. 186186, U. 8. National Museum, Biological Sur-

vey collection; San Jacinto Mountains, altitude 5,500 feet, California;

April 28, 1903; Frank Stephens; original number, 6,221.

Geographic distribution.—San Jacinto and San Gabriel Mountains, south-

ern California.

Remarks.—While we have seen only two specimens of this screech owl,

these are so much darker than any of the races of Otus asio the ranges of

which approach the San Jacinto Mountains, that is, Otus aszo quercinus and

Otus asio inyoensis, that they apparently represent a distinct race confined

probably to this limited area. The bird here described as Otus asio clazus

is, in fact, the darkest of all the California races of the species.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

546TH MEETING

The 546th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 13, 1937,

President R. C. WELLS presiding.

Informal communications.—H. D. Misir spoke on some peculiar mark-

ings on surfaces of Pennsylvanian sandstone beds.

C. Max Bauzr described recent work in the Yellowstone National Park.

Program.—C. E. VAN ORSTRAND: Temperatures in the lava beds of East

Central and South Central Oregon. Temperature records of 7 springs, 7 flowing

wells, and 9 non-flowing wells were discussed with reference to the hydrology

and voleanology of the area.

A new type of depth-temperature curve was introduced. The curve con-

sists of a series of steps instead of the smooth uniform curves of sedimentary

areas in which the temperature gradients increase with the depth. The hori-

zontal portion of the step is supposed to be due to convection of water within

and between the lava beds. The general rise of the series of steps varies from

about 20 to 40 feet per degree Fahrenheit (1° C. in 11.0 to 21.9 meters).

At Lakeview, Oregon, a temperature of 190° F. was found at a depth of

600 feet in a well located on the mountain ridge at an estimated elevation

358 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 27, NO. 8

of about 500 feet above the level of Goose Lake plain. This evidence suggests

the possibility that the mountain ridge is the source of the heat and water

in the hot springs and flowing wells located on the floor of the Goose Lake

valley at a distance of about 4 mile from the well in which the high tem-

perature was recorded. The temperature of the water is near the boiling

point (203—4° F., 95.0-95.6° C.) at that elevation. The possibility that the

hot water rose to the surface of the ground along the fault in the plain or

that it originated in a magma at a moderate depth were considered. A final

decision in regard to the three possibilities was not reached. (Author’s

abstract.)

G. R. MansFiELD: Hrosional history of the Paradise Valley quadrangle,

Idaho. The Paradise Valley quadrangle, which lies a few miles southeast of

Idaho Falls, Ida., adjoins on the northwest other areas previously studied

and described by the writer. The Blackfoot River, which crosses it, con-

nects by transverse canyons a series of intermontane valleys. Its present

canyon in the Paradise Valley quadrangle is bordered by remnants of older

and higher valley systems. In the higher parts of the quadrangle remnants

of older valley systems are preserved also. These, together with those near

the Blackfoot River, include a succession of 11 rather distinct erosion stages.

The pattern of these remnant surfaces, together with other features of this

and adjoining areas, suggests that the present drainage systems of the

quadrangle have been developed by superposition from a former widely

extended cover of Tertiary sediments, of which considerable remnants now

remain in the quadrangle. The relations of the erosion surfaces here de-

scribed to earlier published views of the erosional history of the region as a

whole have not been worked out. However, it is believed that a number of

the lower and newer surfaces are related to temporary base levels estab-

lished by basalt flows, now more or less dissected, and that these base levels

have served to protect and preserve in the Paradise Valley quadrangle

records of brief stages in erosional history that in the higher adjoining

county have largely been destroyed. (Author’s abstract.)

547TH MEETING

The 547th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 27, 1937, Presi-

dent R. C. WELLS presiding.

Informal communications —JEWELL J. Guass: Sodalite from Magnet Cove,

Arkansas. A specimen of a translucent light violet blue mineral was collected

by Mr. H. D. Miser from a quarry owned and operated by Mr. J. W.

Kimzey, at Magnet Cove, Arkansas, and submitted to the U. S. Geological

Survey Petrology Laboratory for identification. On examination it was

found that the mineral was sodalite. The sodalite is found in veins and lenses

varying from a few to several inches in thickness in a dense dark-greenish

gray tinguaite dike rock which is now being crushed and used as shingle

material. The tinguaite dikes in which the sodalite is found are located

near the extreme south rim of the Magnet Cove intrusive complex. This

unusual blue mineral attracted the quarry owner’s attention as a curiosity,

but has proved of exceeding mineralogical interest, because among the

minerals described from that unique assemblage of Magnet Cove minerals,

this is the first occurrence of sodalite to be reported from that locality.

(Author’s abstract.)

F. L. Hess spoke on the peculiar odor of microcline from the Black Hills.

Program.—EUGENE CALLAGHAN: Alunite deposits of the Marysvale region,

Utah. The alunite deposits are in the western part of the High Plateaus of

Ava. 15,1937 © PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 309

Utah. The rocks in the region range in age from Carboniferous to Recent.

However, the alunite is restricted to the lower part of a series of Tertiary

voleanic rocks, which lie upon Wasatch and older sedimentary rocks. The

voleanic rocks are overlain by a sedimentary formation tentatively called

the Sevier River, which contains diatoms regarded by Mr. K. E. Lohman,

of the Geological Survey, as of Upper Pliocene or Lower Pleistocene age.

The deposits are of two types, called the replacement type and the vein

type. Those of the replacement type are chiefly altered volcanic rock with

variable proportions of alunite, some of which is sodic. They commonly have

a large proportion of impurities. Deposits of the vein type are mostly

coarsely crystalline and much purer than those of the replacement type.

Though there is evidently considerable alunite of both types in this region,

- work done thus far does not justify revision of earlier estimates of reserves.

(Author’s abstract.)

H. G. Byers: The distribution of selenium, with geologic implications.

548TH MEETING

The 548th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club February 10, 1937,

President R. C. WELLS presiding.

Informal communications —E. INGERSON described an instrument for

more accurate determination of structural features of rock specimens for

petrographic studies.

F. C. Cauxins described gold deposits in the Slumbering Hills of Nevada.

Program.—G. A. Coopsr: The Centerfield limestone of New York and tts

equivalents in the midwest.

RaupH Tuck: The Matanuska coal field, Alaska. The Matanuska coal

field, one of the two commercial coal-producing fields in Alaska, is located

in the south central part of the Territory, near the head of Cook Inlet, and

on a branch line of the Government-owned-and-operated Alaska Railroad.

Coal has been produced from this field since 1916, and although the pro-

duction is relatively small as compared with the coal fields of the United

States, it plays an important part in the economic development of this

part of Alaska. From this field the railroad, as well as the towns situated

along its southern part are furnished with a cheap and reliable fuel. A few

thousands tons are also annually exported to coastal towns and canneries.

The coal field is in the Matanuska Valley, an east-west valley about 50

miles long and 5 miles wide, which lies between the Talkeetna Mountains

on the north and Chugach Mountains on the south. Cretaceous sandstone

and shale, and Tertiary (Eocene) rocks. of which the lower member is an

arkose, the middle, sandstone and shale with interbedded coal seams, and

the upper, a conglomerate, crop out in the valley. In the upper part of the

valley, both the Cretaceous and Tertiary are intruded by diorite dikes and

sills. The valley was occupied by a glacier during the Pleistocene, so that

glacial deposits cover the valley floor, and in great part obscure the bedrock

formations.

In general the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of the valley are a

downfaulted block between the dioritic rocks of the Talkeetna Mountains

on the north, and the metamorphosed sediments, volcanics, and intrusive

rocks of the Chugach Mountains on the south. The valley formations are

folded and faulted to a high degree in the upper part of the valley, and pro-

gressively to a lesser extent in the lower part of the valley, likewise, the

coal changes in rank from high rank bituminous and anthracite in the upper

part to lignite and lower-grade bituminous in the lower part of the valley.

360 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

Considerable exploration and development has been done on the higher

rank coal in the upper part of the valley, but at present they are not mined

because of high mining costs resulting from the complex structure. All of the

commercial coal production now comes from the lower part of the valley,

in an area dominated by a distinctive topographic feature called Wishbone

Hill, which is the surface expression of a southwest plunging syncline. The

hill is capped by 1,200 feet of massive conglomerate, and underlying it is the

coal bearing series, so that the coal crops out only around the margin of the

hill. In the eastern part of the area, from which the greater part of the coal

production has come, 2,000 feet of coal bearing formation is exposed. Over

20 coal beds with thicknesses of more than 3 feet are known to occur. Most

of the seams are from 3 to 5 feet thick, and a high volatile bituminous coal

is produced from them. Both the coal beds and the intervening sandstone

and shale vary in thickness and composition within short distances, and the

whole formation indicates rapid deposition in a number of small basins.

Strike and transverse faults are common. The strike faults have small dis-

placements, but the transverse faults—most of which are normal faults—

have displacements up to 350 feet.

Geological work has shown that there are reserves of a number of million

tons recoverable above the present mine workings, and a similar amount

below—a supply sufficient for local needs for a long time in the future.

(Author’s abstract.)

549TH MEETING

The 549th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club February 24, 1937,

President R. C. WELLS presiding.

Informal communications.—Taisia STADNICHENKO gave a brief report on

what is being done by Arctic Institute in Soviet Russia.

W. C. ALDEN spoke on condition of glaciers in Glacier National Park.

Program.—E. N. Gopparp and T. 8. Lovrerine: Laramie fault pattern in

the Front Range mineral belt, Colorado.

C. H. Brrpstye: The uses of aerial photography.

550TH MEETING

The 550th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, March 10, 1937, Presi-

dent R. C. WELLS presiding.

Informal communications.—W. T. ScHALLER discussed consideration of

candidates for President of the Washington Academy of Sciences.

J. P. MarsueE spoke on the age of Pitchblende from Great Slave Lake.

E. INGERSON discussed temperature range of formation of hydrothermal

and pneumatolitic minerals.

Program.—N. H. Heck: Geological factors in safeguarding against earth-

quakes.

D. F. Hewett: Environment and relations of the hypogene manganese

minerals.

551st MEETING

The 551st meeting was held at the Cosmos Club March 24, 1937, Presi-

dent R. C. WELLS presiding.

Informal communications —M. I. GoupMAN described corroded pebbles

in the Morrison formation on north end of Henry Mountains, Utah.

Program. —J. H. Swartz: Some resistivity determinations of salt water

boundaries.

Ave. 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 361

C. F. Stewart SHARPE: Physiographic research on soil erosion. One phase

of Soil Conservation research is the physiographic study of soil erosion.

Investigations are under way in several representative areas. The most

extensive work has been done in the southern Piedmont where conditions

are particularly bad due to deep weathering and long cultivation of open-

tilled crops. By combining physiographic, climatic, ecologic, and soil evi-

dence, with field and library studies in erosion history since colonial times,

the life histories of several selected gullies near Spartanburg, 8. C., have

been reconstructed.

Most gullying results from artificial concentration of flowing water. The

gully hazard in the Piedmont is greatest in soils developed on acid igneous

and metamorphic rocks. Such soils have porous sandy or silty topsoils, tight

clay subsoils extending to a depth of three to five feet, and weak underlying

parent material of rotten rock. Most gullies in these soils head in active

‘plunge pools” formed where a lip of subsoil projects over a recess in the

weak parent material. During rains some of the run-off flows as a waterfall

into the plunge pool, but an important part of the flow clings to the lip and

and trickles back under the overhang, softening the parent material and

causing it to fall or crumble away. The projecting lip is left unsupported

and caves off in large blocks. Water seeping downward through tension

cracks aids both softening and caving.

Many gullies which have long been stable are found to be threatened with

rejuvenation resulting from an increased flow of water or a lowering of base-

level which initiates headward migration of a fall or “knickpoint.”’

Sheet erosion, a less obvious process, attacks primarily the topsoil and

removes the most valuable part of the land. Evidence of recent sheet erosion

and an estimate of the amount is given by exposed tree roots, and miniature

pillars of earth capped by stones, lichens, leaves, etc.

Small test plots are being studied to learn more about the method and

rate of formation and removal of the loose granular surface layer of “‘crumb-

mulch” characteristic of bare ground on certain soil types. Production of

crumb-mulch is found to be greatly accelerated by the action of needle-ice

during frost. Removal of as much as two and one quarter inches of this

mulch in six weeks has been recorded.

The importance of mass movement, particularly soil-creep, in the Pied-

mont and southern Blue Ridge areas is shown by the very general presence

of a line of rock fragments at the approximate base of the subsoil or B

horizon and above the parent rock. Rock structure below and downhill

flowage lamination in the soil above this ‘‘stone-line’’ indicate that it is

the base of effective creep. (A uthor’s abstract.)

552ND MEETING

The 552nd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 14, 1937, Vice-

President F. C. CaLkIns presiding.

Program.—D. A. ANDREWS: Asymmetrical distribution of stream terraces

in southeastern Montana. Gravel terraces, many of which are of Pleistocene

age, occur along most of the stream valleys in eastern Montana. These

terraces have been mapped in considerable detail in the parts of Custer,

Powder River, and Rosebud counties included in the coal reports on the

Ashland, Rosebud, and Mizpah fields published by the U. 8. Geological

Survey. These terraces lie from a few feet to 500 feet or more above the

alluvium levels of the streams. Many terraces are preserved along Yellow-

stone River flowing east and the Tongue River flowing northward; these are

362 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 8

the largest streams in the area and the terraces on the right sides of each

of these valleys equal in size and number the terraces on the left sides of

each valley.

Terraces are few and widely separated along Powder River but are abun-

dant on the west side of Mizpah, Pumpkin, and Rosebud Creeks, all of

which flow northward; only a very few are preserved on the east side of these

stream valleys. Several of the westward and northwestward flowing tribu-

taries of these streams have terraces on the south and southwest sides but

have few or none on the opposite side of the valleys. In contrast, terraces are

preserved on the north and northwest sides and few or no terraces occur on

the opposite sides of the east or northeast flowing tributaries of the same

streams. There are no southward-flowing streams in the mapped portions

of Custer, Powder River, and Rosebud Counties. In addition the profiles

across these valleys are asymmetrical. The long gentle slope which bears

the terraces is on the left side of the valleys. Tongue River, however, does

not show this marked asymmetrical profile and inadequate information is

available to draw conclusions about the profile of Yellowstone River. These

observations show that the streams with asymmetrical valleys have mi-

grated to the right and that they are still crowding their right banks.

The stream valleys of the area here described are carved in thick beds of

soft sandstones and shales which have a regional dip of about 50 feet per

mile to the west toward the axis of the Tongue River syncline which follows

the valley of Tongue River. On the west side of Tongue River the beds have

a comparable dip to the east toward this syncline.

The deflection of moving objects to the right in the northern hemisphere

due to the rotation of the earth (a principle that is known in the United

States as Ferrell’s law and in Europe as Baer’s law) is postulated as the

dominant force that has caused the streams to migrate to the right. The

application of Ferrell’s law indicates that the effect of the deflective force

due to the earth’s rotation is greater in a stream whose flow has high velocity

and whose course has meanders with small radii of curvature. The behavior

of the streams in this part of Montana appears to be in accord with the

application of Ferrell’s law; the small streams, whose velocities are high

and whose courses have meanders with small radii of curvature, have mi-

erated strongly to the right and the larger streams—Tongue and Yellow-

stone Rivers—have not migrated dominantly either to the right or left.

The approximate equal development of the high, intermediate and low ter-

races along either side of the streams may indicate that the force has been

acting continuously since the formation of the high terraces. In addition

the application of Ferrell’s law indicates that this deflective force increases

directly with the sine of the latitude of an area. (Author’s abstract.)

W. G. Prerce: The Heart Mountain Overthrust near Shoshone Reservoir,

Wyoming. Additional information on the nature of the Heart Mountain

overthrust has been sought by the author in 1935 and 1936 by detailed plane

table mapping of the areal and structural geology of the sedimentary rocks

exposed in the valleys of the North and South Forks of Shoshone River.

In 1916 Dake recognized two overthrusts, superimposed one above the

other: The upper is the main thrust and the overlying block is mostly

Madison limestone (Mississippian) ; the lower one is a thrust slice below the

sole of the main Heart Mountain overthrust and contains over 5,000 feet

of rock strata ranging in age from the Jurassic: Sundance to the Tertiary

Wasatch. The limestone on Sheep: Mountain and Logan Mountain is part

of the upper. thrust block. ’'The lower thrust slice is found on the southeast

Auge. 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 363

side of Sheep Mountain and a small mass is exposed on the east side of the

Shoshone Reservoir, but it is most conspicuous and best exposed on the

south side of the South Fork of Shoshone River in a belt from half a mile to

four miles wide and about 15 miles long. Throughout a large part of its ex-

tent on the south side of South Fork Valley, the lower slice has been folded

into a trough which roughly parallels the valley. Its trough-like form, which

is the main controlling feature for the present areal distribution, is not easily

discernible because the synclines, anticlines, faults, and overturned folds

within the strata of the lower thrust slice tend to divert attention from the

thrust fault at its base. |

A transverse fault trending southeastward from Sheep Mountain passes

beneath the upper thrust but cuts the lower thrust slice. Southwest of the

transverse fault the lower thrust is deformed into the trough just described,

but to the northeast the thrust plane is nearly horizontal. Evidence indicates

that the block southwest of the transverse fault moved laterally southeast-

ward. Slickensides observed on the lower thrust on the east side of Shoshone

Reservoir indicate that there the lower thrust slice moved due east.

The relation of the lower thrust to the upper thrust is obscure. None of

the formations found in one of the thrust blocks are repeated in the other.

Therefore, the relationship of the upper thrust to the lower one is such that

they do not form an imbricate structure. Another uncommon, although not

a unique, feature of the thrust blocks is that the lower one is a slice below the

main Heart Mountain overthrust. The western limit of the lower thrust

slice has not yet been definitely determined, but it seems probable that it

does not extend westward beyond Logan Mountain or Sheep Mountain.

- It is more extensive on the south side of the South Fork of Shoshone River,

and west of Rock Creek it crosses from the south to the north side of the

South Fork.

The early basic breccias are the oldest volcanic rocks in the area, except

for tuffaceous beds in the Wasatch and some of the older formations. Al-

though the greater part of the early basic breccia is composed of surface

flows, a considerable amount of breccia was intruded as sills, plugs, and

dikes of large size. The volcanic breccia is definitely later than the over-

thrusting, for not only does it rest on top of the upper thrust block, but

fissures through which it rose to the surface cut through the upper block and

continue down into the autochthon. Work by C. B. Read and others indi-

cates that the early basic breccia is of upper Eocene or lower Oligocene age,

and as the Wasatch formation is involved in the thrusting, the age of the

overthrust is probably middle or upper Eocene. (Author’s abstract.)

W. O. FIELD, JR.: Some recent changes in Alaskan Coast Glaciers.

553RD MEETING

The 553rd meeting was held at the Cosmos Club April 28, 1937, President

R. C. WELLs presiding.

Program.—N. W. Bass: Origin of the oil bearing shoestring sands of north-

eastern Oklahoma and southwestern Kansas.

D. C. Barton: Petroleum geophysics.

| M. N. BRAMLETTE, Secretary.

364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 8

@Obituary

ARTHUR Brooks CLAwson, physiologist in charge of investigations of

stock poisoning by plants of the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. 8. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, suffered an attack of cerebral thrombosis while engaged

in studying problems on the Utah deserts and died at his home in Washing-

ton, June 30, 1937.

Mr. Clawson was born June 18, 1878 at Green Lake, Wis. Specializing in

biology he was educated at Ripon College, the University of Michigan from

which he was graduated in 1904, and at the University of Wisconsin. He

taught biology at Lake Forest College for two years and in*1909 joined the

group studying plant-poisoning of livestock, then in the Bureau of Plant

Industry. He was identified with these researches during the remainder of

his life making many contributions of fundamental importance in that field.

He was acknowledged the foremost American authority on stock-poisoning

by plants and enjoyed the confidence of the livestock breeders as well as

of his scientific associates. He published a number of papers reporting his

observations among which special mention may be made of his work on loco-

weeds, larkspurs, lupines, cyanogenetic plants, milkweeds and Senecio

poisoning. He had already made substantial progress in the solution of the

problem of bighead in sheep, the study on which he was engaged at the time

of his death, and had succeeded in demonstrating for the first time the causes

of this condition which annually results in a large loss of livestock.

Mr. Clawson was in charge of the Experiment Station at Salina, Utah,

operated by the Bureau of Animal Industry for the study of stock-poisoning

plants. He was a member of the Washington Academy of Sciences, a fellow

of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a member of

the Botanical Society of Washington, Biological Society of Washington,

Illinois Academy of Science, Wisconsin Academy of Science, the Cosmos

Club and Sigma Xi. He was interred at his old home, Green Lake, Wis-

consin.

Pauu VERE Rovunpy, geologist of the U. 8. Geological Survey, died sud-

denly of heart failure June 21, 1937, at his home, Chevy Chase, Md.,

following many months of ill health caused by high blood pressure.

Mr. Roundy was born January 8, 1884, at Cooperstown Junction, N. Y.

His collegiate education was begun at Syracuse University and completed

at George Washington University, from which he received his A.B. degree

in 1912. He was appointed to the U. 8S. Geological Survey in 1908, retaining

that connection as geologist and paleontologist until his death. During the

World War he collaborated with other members of the Survey in working

out the geology of the Osage oil field in Oklahoma. Later he was employed

with others in estimating the resources of the Elk Hills Naval Reserve No. 1,

in California, and within the last two years he has been at work on a report

upon the phosphate deposits of Florida. He is widely known for his contri-

butions to the study of the ostracods and conodonts.

Mr. Roundy was a member of the Paleontological Society, the American

Association of Petroleum Geologists, the Society of Economic Paleontolo-

gists and Mineralogists, the Geological Society of Washington, and the

Washington Academy of Sciences.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Mou. 27 SEPTEMBER 15, 1937 No. 9

CHEMISTRY.—Some aspects of the study of insulin. VINCENT DU

VIGNEAUD, George Washington University.

Mr. President, fellow-members of the Washington Chemical So-

ciety, I wish to thank you for this award. I deeply appreciate it.

There is nothing that so warms one’s heart as the recognition of one’s

work by his fellow workers. In accepting this award, I should like to

make sincere acknowledgment of the loyal and enthusiastic co-

operation of a group of graduate and post-graduate students, whom

I have had the pleasure of working with in these sulfur studies. I

should like to mention particularly Lewis Butz, Wilbur Patterson,

Hubert Loring, Helen Dyer, Chase Jones and Gail Miller. Your

tribute I feel is as much to them and their work as to me and the

part that I have played in the accomplishment of these researches.

On their behalf as well as my own permit me to thank you once more.

In addressing you this evening, I shall not discuss with you the

researches directly mentioned in your award, that is, the synthesis

of glutathione, nor the fields closely allied to it on the cystinyl pep-

tides and homocystine, for all of these researches have been pre-

sented before this society on former occasions. I thought I would

discuss with you, instead, the problem out of which these researches

arose and the possible significance that these studies may have in the

understanding of the original problem. I think it is always interest-

ing to trace the origin of research ideas. Seldom do ideas spring forth

wholly formed as did the goddess Athena from the brow of Zeus; nor

are they spontaneously generated. They are no more spontaneously

generated than living matter itself. Ideas are propagated by other

ideas, and develop slowly, nurtured by facts and observation. It is

in this way, step by step, that a research program develops, and it is

interesting and sometimes profitable to retrace the devious trail

along which it has traveled. It is like tracing the family tree of re-

search. |

Most of our own researches in the field of sulfur chemistry have

1 Address on the occasion of the award of the Hillebrand Prize for 1936, delivered

before the Chemical Society of Washington, March 11, 1937. Received March 29, 1937.

365

366 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

had their outgrowth from our studies on the chemistry of insulin.

In some instances the new research problem has arisen unexpectedly,

as did the homocystine problem through our trying to work out a

particular phase of the chemistry of insulin; while in other instances

the researches have come about through a realization that more fun-

damental knowledge was needed of the chemistry of certain com-

pounds in order the better to understand the chemistry of insulin, as

exemplified by our studies on cystine and cystinyl peptides. At first

sight many of these sulfur problems might appear to have no con-

nection with insulin. It is true they have seemingly wandered far

afield, but there is an underlying connection. I shall endeavor to

show you this connection and how some of these problems have

arisen. I shall also try to interweave through this discussion some of

the results of our own studies of insulin itself, and finally present to

you a glimpse of our present chemical knowledge of this hormone and

the effect which the study of insulin has had on our conception of

proteins and certain other hormones.

Quite early in the study of insulin it was suspected by various

workers that insulin might be a sulfur-containing compound. This

was very shortly after the demonstration, with which you are all

acquainted, of the presence of this hormone in the pancreas by Bant-

ing and Best in 1921. It was not until 1926, however, that the sus-

picion of its being a sulfur compound grew into a very definite pos-

sibility out of the work of Professor Abel of Johns Hopkins. It is

rather interesting how this came about. Professor Abel had heated

some insulin preparations with phenol in sealed tubes for some pur-

pose, and, when one of the tubes was opened, Professor Abel noticed

an odor of hydrogen sulfide. He followed this up and subsequently

found that the amount of sulfur, labile to weak alkali, paralleled the

activity of certain preparations, and that when the sulfur was split

out, the activity was destroyed. Shortly thereafter he succeeded in

isolating insulin in crystalline form. He found that the crystalline

material likewise contained sulfur in a labile form. These findings

led Abel to suggest that the Islets of Langerhans might be depend-

ent upon the presence in our food of a special labile sulfur compound,

a precursor indispensable for the elaboration of the hormone, in the

absence of an adequate supply of which pathological alterations in

the cells of the Islets of Langerhans would take place. It is quite

clear that the question of the identity of the sulfur moiety became

one of paramount importance.

At that time we were studying the problem at Rochester in Pro-

SEPT. lo, 1937 VIGNEAUD: INSULIN 367

fessor Murlin’s department and had obtained evidence that the in-

sulin contained cystine and that the labile sulfur could be accounted

for on that basis. When the sulfur was split out, the disulfide linkage

was destroyed and the test for cystine greatly reduced in intensity,

indicating that the cystine was the source of the labile sulfur. Al-

though the sulfur of the insulin was labile, the sulfur in the hydroly-

sate of the insulin became stable like that of free cystine. This

change in lability upon hydrolysis was identical with what would be

expected of amino acid derivatives of cystine based on the work of

Brand on the lability of the sulfur of peptides of cystine. In this

work at Rochester we were also able to confirm Abel’s crystalliza-

tion of insulin.

From our studies we came to the conclusion that the sulfur was

present as the disulfide linkage and that insulin was most likely a

derivative of cystine, and we suggested that cystine in insulin was

linked to the rest of the molecule by peptide linkages.

The conclusive demonstration of the actual presence of cystine in

crystalline insulin, however, had to rest on isolation; so later, when

we had the opportunity of working in Professor Abel’s laboratory,

we took up the isolation of cystine from crystalline insulin. Of course,

this isolation work had to be carried out on a very small scale and

we had to work out our own methods. We hydrolyzed a gram of

crystalline insulin and immediately ran into difficulties with the iso-

lation of the cystine. We soon recognized that one of the difficulties

was that we had partially racemized the cystine, and in looking into

the literature we found that racemized cystine was far more soluble

than [-cystine. It was here that our interest in the isomers of cystine

arose. We found that in spite of the great amount of work that had

been done on the problem, the isomers had not been isolated and,

in fact, there was much difference of opinion as to whether the in-

active material was the meso or racemic form or a mixture of the

two. Somewhat later when the opportunity arose we undertook the

resolution of cystine, and succeeded in isolating the other isomers of

cystine, the dextrorotatory form, the racemic and the meso forms.

We then became interested in the utilization of the isomers by the

animal body and studied their ability to promote growth of animals

on a cystine-deficient diet, finding that the d-isomer could not be

utilized. This in turn led to studies of oxidation of these isomers and

also to the behavior of the optical isomers of other amino acids in the

body. It also made possible a study of the solubilities of the isomers,

and we were finally able to show why the mixture of isomers was so

368 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

soluble, which led us back to the point from which we had started

some five years earlier in the insulin work.

To go back now to the isolation of cystine from crystalline insulin,

I might say that this was readily accomplished when care was taken

to avoid as much as possible the racemization of cystine, and when

we had worked out a method which would separate tyrosine from

cystine in such small quantities. Thus the isolation of cystine from

the insulin demonstrated beyond any argument that cystine was

present in the insulin molecule.

Knowing that cystine was present naturally brought many ques-

tions to mind. One of the first questions to arise was whether cys-

tine peptides might affect the lowering of blood sugar. It was then

we realized that as yet no peptide of cystine through the carboxyl

group of cystine had been prepared, and that no method was avail-

able at the time for the accomplishment of this type of peptide

synthesis. Cystinyl peptides were also necessary from other stand-

points, both chemical and biological and, somewhat later, it was

clear that such a step was vital for a convenient synthesis of gluta-

thione. While continuing the insulin researches we, therefore, car-

ried on parallel studies on the synthesis of peptides of cystine, the

successful outcome of which placed us in a position to accomplish

the synthesis of glutathione and isoglutathione.

The synthesis of glutathione, if I might say so, was really inci-

dental to the larger study we were interested in, that is, cystinyl

peptides. We were interested in the development of convenient and

workable methods for getting these compounds and then in the

study of their physiological and chemical properties. The experience

gained with this tripeptide puts us one step further towards

making more complicated peptides of cystine. What I should like to

emphasize is that the glutathione synthesis was not an end in itself

but merely a step in a general program.

In addition to knowing that cystine was present in insulin, it

was important to know whether all of the sulfur was present as cys-

tine sulfur or whether there was present some other sulfur-containing

compound. We first determined the cystine content by the Folin-

Looney method and by the amazingly specific Sullivan method.

The Folin-Looney method gave much higher values than the Sul-

livan, and, in fact, higher than could be accounted for on the basis

of the total sulfur. With the specific Sullivan method, only about

three-fourths of the sulfur could be accounted for on the basis of

cystine.

SEPT. 15, 1937 VIGNEAUD: INSULIN 369

A number of possibilities might account for this situation. One, a

strange sulfur compound might be present; two, a difficultly hydro-

lyzable peptide of cystine might have remained in the hydrolysate

which would react in the Folin-Looney reaction but not in the Sul-

livan method; three, the cystine might be partially destroyed during

hydrolysis; and, four, some substance might be generated during the

hydrolysis which would account for the high Folin-Looney reaction;

and, finally, various combinations of these possibilities might exist.

One of the first things we did when we undertook to settle this

question was to heat various amino acids with hydrochloric acid and

sulfuric acid to see if such treatment would produce substances that

would be chromogenic with the Folin-Marenzi method, which was a

modification of the Folin-Looney procedure.

Interestingly enough, methionine upon being heated with strong

sulfuric acid was found to give a positive reaction with the Folin-

Marenzi reagent for cystine. This was the start of our series of in-

vestigations concerning homocystine. In searching for the substance

in the reaction mixture responsible for the positive test, we isolated

a crystalline compound which we were able to demonstrate to be the

next higher symmetrical homologue of cystine. The possibility of this

compound being involved in the intermediary metabolism of methio-

nine in the body immediately occurred to us. Investigations concern-

ing the utilization of the homocystine by animals on a cystine-de-

ficient diet and studies of the oxidation of the compound were there-

fore undertaken. Synthesis of the homocystine, resolution of it into

its optical isomers, and the demonstration of the steric relationship

between its isomers and those of methionine soon followed, as well

as studies of the higher homologues of homocystine and methionine.

Although this observation of the effect of sulfuric acid on methio-

nine led to some rather interesting results, it did not explain the par-

ticular thing we were after. In the first place, the difference between

these reactions existed in hydrochloric acid hydrolysates, and hydro-

chloric acid did not yield a chromogenic substance from methionine;

and, secondly, methionine was not present in insulin in more than

traces, if at all. We still had the original question to solve, and we

worked off and on on this problem during the next few years and just

within the past few months we have obtained results which lead us

to believe that we have finally accounted for the sulfur of insulin.

It is rather amusing that the entire homocystine work with which

we have been engaged during the past six years would not have

taken place had we been able to account for the sulfur of insulin at

370 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

that time. It is indeed curious the path which research may take,

and perhaps it is these queer turns and quirks that make it fun to try

to follow the pathway.

Although this particular path of homocystine researches appeared

to have no connection with insulin, a recent turn of events has

brought the two fields back together again and serves as an interesting

example of how offshoots of a research may wander away and bend

back again, touch, and even aid the original research. I refer here to

the recent work on the question of whether or not a trace of methio-

nine is present in crystalline insulin, and to the fact that one of the

methods for determining methionine depends on the determination

of the homocysteine thiolactone formed from methionine by hy-

driodic acid. I shall refer to this again later.

Along with attempts to fractionate insulin hydrolysates to see if a

strange sulfur compound were present, and testing for the presence

or absence of known sulfur-containing compounds such as thiol-

histidine, we have also studied the question of the completeness of

hydrolysis of insulin and the prevention of destruction of the cystine

during hydrolysis.

To make a very long story short, after trying various procedures,

we finally found that if we hydrolyzed insulin with twenty per cent

hydrochloric acid and 50 per cent formic acid we were able to ac-

count by the Sullivan method for all of the sulfur as cystine within

the experimental error of the method. We were able, furthermore, to

adduce evidence that the previous low results were really due to a

destruction of the cystine on the one hand and incomplete hydrolysis

on the other.

Whether or not a trace of methionine is present cannot be stated

definitely. Our own results on the study would indicate that if it is

present at all it is even less than that reported by Brand. You can

readily understand the difficulty of proving the presence or absence

of a very slight trace of methionine in dealing with such a compound

as insulin. One is dealing with such small amounts that one is at the

borderline of the accuracy of the methods. Much more work will be

needed before reaching a final decision.

Another aspect of the sulfur of insulin that has intrigued us, which

even more forcibly brings out the importance of the sulfur, is the

effect of reduction upon the activity of insulin. Earlier work had

shown that various reducing agents destroyed the activity, but the

reagents used were quite vigorous ones and one would have reason

to believe that groupings other than the disulfide may have been re-

Sept. 15, 1937 VIGNEAUD: INSULIN 371

duced. We thought it would be rather interesting to study the effect

of such mild reducing agents as cysteine and glutathione, which

were more specific for the disulfide grouping. Even with such subtle

reducing agents as these the insulin became inactivated. From much

experimentation we finally came to the conclusion that the reduction

of the disulfide grouping was the cause of the inactivation. It is

interesting that reoxidation did not restore the activity. These results

have been confirmed and extended by other workers, and it has been

found that the rate of inactivation proceeds faster than that of re-

duction. This has led some to conclude that there are certain group-

ings particularly sensitive to reduction and that one or two disulfide

linkages have a special function in insulin.

Our own tendency is to regard the architecture of the molecule as

a whole as the important factor with regard to its hypoglycemic

action and that any change which would produce a change in this

architecture is apt to produce a destruction of physiological activity.

From this standpoint no one particular disulfide linkage is neces-

sarily more important than another as far as being responsible for

the activity. The rupture of a given disulfide linkage might modify

the architecture sufficiently to destroy its ability to bring about the

oxidation of carbohydrates. Although the disulfide linkage per se may

not be responsible for the insulin action, I should like to emphasize

the fact that so far no one has split out or changed the disulfide

grouping without destroying potency.

I would like to add, parenthetically, that there are some who speak

in terms of a prosthetic grouping being present in insulin, that is, the

presence of some smaller grouping attached to the protein molecule

which is responsible for the activity; while there are others who like

to speak of a nucleus of certain amino acids responsible for the

activity as an integral part of the protein molecule. I should like to

emphasize that at the present time these are assumptions. Of course,

I do not mean to intimate that these things can not be so. There

simply is no evidence for them as yet and one should recognize these

views for the assumptions that they are. No criticism can be leveled,

of course, at anyone for using them as working hypotheses.

In summing up what we actually know of the chemistry of insulin,

we might say that all the evidence points towards the fact that in-

sulin is a protein. But we must admit that from the standpoint of

actual chemical structure we know very little about it, even though

we probably know more about the chemistry of this protein than of

any other. In fact, it is one of the most thoroughly studied proteins.

372 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

In judging what is known of the chemistry of insulin one should

compare it, not with certain of the other hormones such as adrenalin

or thyroxin, but rather with what is known of other crystalline

proteins.

In closing I should like to call to your attention the role that in-

sulin has played in bringing the field to the realization that a protein

may have hormonal properties, or should I say, that a hormone

could actually be a protein.

We almost forget now the strong prejudice that existed at the

time of the isolation of crystalline insulin, that the crystalline ma-

terial could not be the hormone because it was, to all intents and pur-

poses, a protein. Yet as the work progressed the conclusion began

to take form that insulin was truly a protein-like substance. The

actual isolation of various amino acids from the compound, the

study of the nitrogen distribution, the ‘studies on the heat precipita-

tion, the crystallization by various methods, and many other studies

all pointed inevitably in this direction. As time went on the idea of

a hormone being a protein became less objectionable to the field as a

whole, and the possibility that other hormones might be proteins

became plausible. This was true of the parathyroid hormone which

controls calcium metabolism and the hormones of the pituitary

gland—both the anterior and the posterior lobes. Of course, these

latter hormones that I have just mentioned have defied isolation as

yet, and we must withhold final judgment until they have been iso-

lated, but the available evidence indicates that they are polypeptide

or protein-like compounds.

This realization that a hormone could be a protein has been

hastened by the recognition of other physiologically active substances

which have also appeared to be proteins or protein-like substances.

Within the past few years we have had the isolation of a number of

enzymes starting with the isolation of urease in crystalline form by

Sumner and culminating in the isolation of certain proteolytic en-

zymes, such as pepsin and trypsin, in crystalline form by Northrop.

All of these crystalline enzymes appear to be proteins and present

chemical problems quite analogous to insulin. The crystalline plant

virus recently isolated by Stanley also appears to be a protein. Fur-

thermore, it seems that toxins, antitoxins, antigens and antibodies

and the like are proteins. We have, therefore, a growing list of com-

pounds possessing remarkable physiological action, all of which ap-

pear to be proteins.

Sept. 15, 1937 KIRK: CLITHROCRINUS 373

The studies that have been carried out on insulin become, there-

fore, of more fundamental value because of their possible signifi-

cance to the study of these other crystalline physiologically active

proteins. It should also be apparent from what I have just said

about this entire group of substances that one of the greatest needs

of biochemistry today is an understanding of protein structure itself.

PALEONTOLOGY .—Clithrocrinus, new name for Clistocrinus Kirk.

Epwin Kirk, U.S. Geological Survey.

In this JouRNAL? J described‘a new genus to which I gave the name

Clistocrinus. My attention has been called to the fact that Springer’

had erected the genus Clezstocrinus. Incidentally, this latter name

had previously appeared in print in error for Clezocrinus Billings.‘

Springer in describing the genus gave the Greek words from which

he derived the name. They are the same as used by me. According to

classical usage with these words as given, the generic name could be

written Clestocrinus or Clistocrinus, with preference given the lat-

ter by the International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature. There is

also a variant spelling in the Greek that would give Clestocrinus

directly. Clezstocrinus is an improper transliteration of the words as

given. However, there is an Ionic variant of the Greek that would

give this spelling. It thus appears that properly transliterated Clesto-

crinus, Cleistocrinus, and Clistocrinus could all be derived from the

Greek and with the same meaning. Pronunciation would vary with

the nationality of the speaker.

There seems to be nothing in the Code clearly prohibiting the use

of more than one of the variant spellings given above, although

naturally their use should be discouraged. There is, however, owing

to opinions handed down by the Commission, some doubt as to

whether Clistocrinus Kirk is a homonym of Cleistocrinus Springer.

In order to clarify the meaning of the Code and obtain a ruling from

the Commission, I am proposing a new generic name to supplant

Clistocrinus. I propose the name Clithrocrinus, with C. pyriformis

(Kirk) as genotype. The genus and species thus stands as Clithro-

crinus pyriformis (Kirk).

The doubtful status of Clistocrinus primarily rests on the incom-

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. 8S. Geological Survey. Received

July 21, 1937.

2 This JOURNAL 27: 106. 1937.

3 SPRINGER, FRANK. The Crinoidea Flezxibilia. Smithsonian Inst. Pub. 2501,

1930.

4Lupwic, H. Zool. Jahresber. for 1905, Echinoderma, pp. 4, 8, 1906.

374 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

patibility of Articles 8 and 19 of the Code. It may be held under

Article 19 of the International Rules that Clezstocrinus is an error of

transcription (seu transliteration) or a lapsus calami and should be

changed to Clistocrinus. On the other hand, under Article 8 k and l

words formed by an arbitrary combination of letters, or names

formed by anagram, are held to be in good standing. If such be the

case, rigid adherence to classical orthography and transliteration in

isolated cases would seem to be hypercritical. After all, an im-

properly transliterated word may legitimately be considered an arbi-

trary combination of letters and would fall under Article 8 k. In a

somewhat similar case (Opinion 26) nearly a hundred years after

publication the Commission changed the spelling of a generic name

on the somewhat easy assumption that a typographical error was

involved. In the present instance one could as well assume that the

typographical error or lapsus calamz lay in the printing of the Greek

word and that Springer really intended to use Clezstocrinus.

BOTAN Y.—Eleven new Asteraceae from North and South America.}

S. F. Buaxe, Bureau of Plant Industry.

This paper contains descriptions of eleven new species of Astera-

ceae (two from the United States, four from Mexico, five from South

America), as well as two new varieties and several new names and

combinations.

Bipontia Blake, nom. nov.

Soaresia Sch. Bip. Pollichia 20-21: 376. 1863. Not Soaresia Allem. Rev.

Braz. 1: 210. pl. 1857, and Arch. Palestr. Sci. Rio de Janeiro 1: 142.

pl. 1858 (1859?).

Argyrophyllum Pohl, ex parte; Baker in Mart. Fl. Bras. 67: 150. 1873, as

syn.

Bipontia velutina (Sch. Bip.) Blake.

Soaresia velutina Sch. Bip. Pollichia 20-21: 377. 1863.

Argyrophyllum ovali-ellipticum Pohl; Baker in Mart. Fl. Bras. 67: 150. 1873,

as syn.

In selecting a new name for this rare Brasilian monotype of the tribe

Vernonieae I have sought to commemorate the work of Karl Heinrich

Schultz (1805-1867), its original describer, one of the most active and en-

thusiastic students of Compositae of the last century, who was known as

Schultz Bipontinus (from Zweibriicken, his birthplace) to distinguish him

from a homonymous botanist of Berlin as well as from other botanists of

the same family name. The fuller and preferable form, Bzpontinia, is not

1 Received June 23, 1937.

Sept. 15, 1937 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 375

available for use, having been employed by Alefeld (1866) for a segregate

from Psoralea now generally regarded as a synonym of that genus. The name

Bipontina was published by Schultz? himself, but only as a section of

Matricaria, and has never appeared in generic rank. Pohl’s herbarium name

Argyrophyllum, known only from its use in synonymy by Baker, deserves

only to be passed over. It was employed by Pohl, according to Baker’s

synonymy, for two quite unrelated species, Vernonia venosissima Sch. Bip.

(Argyrophyllum lanceolato-ellipticum Pohl; Baker, |. c. 30, a name omitted

from Index Kewensis) and Soaresia velutina (A. ovali-ellipticum Pohl). The

name Argyrophyllum is omitted from Engler & Prantl’s Natiirlichen Pflan-

zenfamilien and from Dalla Torre & Harms’ Genera Siphonogamarum.

The earlier genus Soaresia Allem&o is now referred to Clarisia R. & P.

(Moraceae). The genus and its single species Soaresia nitida were published

by Allamao (Archivos de Palestra Scientifica do Rio de Janeiro 1: 142.

1858 [1859?] ) with a combined generic-specific description, which is valid

publication according to the International Rules as revised in 1930. I have

not seen the supposedly earlier publication of the same names in the Re-

vista Brazileira, but it has been checked for me by Dr. L. R. Abrams in the

Stanford University Library, and from his notes it would appear that the

same text and plate that were published in the Archivos were published

also in the Revista. The date of publication of both papers of Allem4o is

somewhat uncertain, but in any case is several years earlier than Schultz’s

use of the same name. In the Index Londinensis the date 1854 is assigned

to Allem4o’s plate published in the Archivos, but this is merely the author’s

date at the close of his paper, which follows immediately another paper

dated 1856. The title page date of the volume is 1858, but the Library of

Congress copy bears in pencil the date 1859.

This change of name, obligatory under the International Rules, will

cause little inconvenience, as the plant concerned is apparently very rare

and has probably not been referred to in botanical literature more than_

half a dozen times. It is figured by Baker in the Flora Brasiliensis (67:

pl. 38),

Alomia stenolepis Blake, sp. nov.

Herba, caule tenui glandulari-pilosulo et sparse longius piloso; folia oppo-

sita remota ovata acuminata basi subcordata dupliciter crenato-serrata

utrinque viridia sparse pilosa et brevius glandulari-pilosa, petiolis aequi-

longis tenuibus glandulari-pilosis; capitula 105-flora per 3-8 in apicibus

pedunculorum terminalium et e axillis superioribus orientium folia superan-

tium subdense cymosa, pedicellis 3-6 mm longis; involucri paullum gradati

3—4-seriati 4 mm alti phyllaria angustissime linearia subsetaceo-acuminata

parum pilosa et glandulari-pilosa; receptaculum nudum; achenia glanduloso-

adspersa 1.4 mm longa.

“In a clump 0.6 m high and as broad’’; stem with weak branches above,

terete, striatulate, greenish, about 2mm thick above, rather densely pilosulous

2 Ueber die Tanac. 26. 1844.

376 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

with spreading white hairs about 0.1—-0.3 mm long, tipped with purplish

glands, and, especially above, more sparsely pilose with many-celled

eglandular hairs about 0.7 mm long; uppermost internode 15-17 cm long;

leaves opposite, or the uppermost alternate but approximate; petioles very

slender, unmargined, purplish, glandular-pubescent like the stem, 3-5.5

em long; blades ovate, 5-6 cm long, 3.5—-4.7 em wide, acuminate, at base

subtruncate or shallowly cordate and often slightly inequilateral, thin, 3—-5-

nerved from the very base (the veins prominulous, the veinlets scarcely so),

simply or usually doubly crenate-serrate essentially to the base (the teeth

about 12-20 pairs, 1.5-3 mm high, obtusely callous-mucronulate), above

sparsely short-pilose on veins and surface with several-celled mostly eglan-

dular hairs, glabrescent, beneath equally green, on the veins pilose and

with a few shorter hairs tipped with purplish glands, on the surface thinly

short-pilose with many of the hairs tipped with pale yellow glands, or the

latter often subsessile; peduncles terminal and in the uppermost axils, 3-5

per stem, pubescent like the stem, naked or with a single leaf-like bract,

5-10.5 cm long, very slender, bearing 3-8 heads; heads (as pressed) 5-6 mm

high, 5 mm thick, hemispheric; involucre 3—4-seriate, slightly graduate, the

phyllaries all similar, very narrowly linear (0.2—0.3 mm wide), rather firm,

greenish with purplish tips, 2-ribbed, sparsely pilose and glandular-pubes-

cent much like the stem; corollas very slender, deep purple above, subsessile-

glandular below and on the teeth, otherwise glabrous, 3-3.3 mm long (tube

0.8-1 mm, throat scarcely distinguishable from tube, 2 mm, teeth ovate,

obtusish, about 0.3 mm long); achenes 5-angled, sessile-glandular chiefly

above, 1.4 mm long, blackish-brown, with short whitish crustaceous base

and terminal whitish collar, epappose; styles (dried) white.

Mexico: On rocks at water’s edge, in Lower Sonoran zone, Canyon

Guadalupe, Sierra Chiribo, Rio Mayo, Sonora, 11 March 1935, Howard S.

moe 1434 (type no. 766039, Field Mus.; photog. and fragm., U. 8. Nat.

Herb.).

In characters of involucre and corolla, this species seems somewhat inter-

mediate between the subgenera Geissanthodium and Eualomia as dis-

tinguished by Robinson. The corollas, as in the first group, are not differ-

entiated into tube and throat, and the phyllaries are 3—4-seriate. They are,

however, firm and only 2-ribbed, and the species, on the whole, seems best

referred to Hualomza. It is readily distinguished by its foliage, its pubescence,

and especially by its very narrow phyllaries.

Chrysothamnus nauseosus var. psilocarpus Blake, var. nov.

Rami arcte flavescenti-viridi-tomentosi vix striati; folia anguste linearia

4—5.5 em longa 1.5—-2.5 mm lata acuminata plana 1—nervia lutescenti-viridia

subglabra v. tenuiter laxeque pilosula; capitula cymoso-paniculata, panicu-

lis planiusculis 3—5 cm latis; involucri gradati 3-seriati (seriebus perpendicu-

latis sat distinctis) 8.5-10 mm alti phyllaria exteriora lanceolata acuminata

interiora lineari-lanceolata acuta (ca. 1.3 mm lata) omnia praecipue ad

apicem ciliata dorso glabra vittato-carinata; corollae 10 mm longae (dentibus

ovatis 1—1.2 mm longis inclusis) in tubo et basi faucis sparse puberulae pilis

clavellatis; achenia glaberrima 5 mm longa; styli ramorum appendices (2.2

mm longae) parte stigmatifera (1.5-1.6 mm longa) sesqui longiores.

Utah: Huntington Canyon, Emery Co., 21 July 1935, A. O. Garrett 7021

(type no. 1,679, 641, U.S. Nat. Herb.); also 7048, same data.

Sept. 15, 1937 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 377

In Hall & Clements’ monograph of Chrysothamnus’ this plant keys out

to C. nauseosus ssp. lerospermus (A. Gray) Hall & Clements.‘ In that plant

the leaves are filiform or nearly so, the involucre only 6-8 mm high, the

corolla 5-8 mm long, and its lobes only about 0.5 mm long. From the two

other forms of C. nauseosus with glabrous achenes, C. nauseosus var. glareo-

sus (Jones) Hall and var. bigeloviz (A. Gray) Hall, var. psilocarpus differs

in its merely ciliate, not dorsally tomentose phyllaries. Var. glareosus dif-

fers also in its obtuse phyllaries, var. bigeloviz in its nearly or quite filiform

leaves.

APHANOSTEPHUS PINULENSIS Coulter, Bot. Gaz. 16: 98. 1891.

_ The type or type collection of this species, J. D. Smith 2407, from Pinula,

Dept. Guatemala, Guatemala, alt. 1340 meters, came to the U.S. National

Herbarium in the John Donnell Smith collection. It proves to be Chrysan-

themum parthenium (L.) Bernh., a frequent escape from cultivation in Cen-

tral America and Mexico.

Aster coahuilensis Blake, sp. nov.

Perennis bipedalis ubique (involucris exceptis) pilosus viridescens; folia

inferiora ovata majuscula obtusa basi alte cordata papyracea grosse crenata

longe petiolata, petiolis parum marginatis; folia media multo minora ovata

acuminata crenato-serrata petiolis laminam semiaequantibus late margina-

tis prope basin saepe ampliatis; capitula vix numerosa (ca. 14-25 per caulem)

mediocria corymboso-paniculata, bracteis ramealibus parvis linearibus v.

subulatis; involucri turbinato-hemisphaerici 7 mm alti 4—5-seriati gradati

phyllaria subappressa lineari-lanceolata acuta v. acuminata infra (circiter

ad medium) indurata albida 1-suleata supra herbacea (apice herbaceo

anguste rhombico-lanceolato) sparse ciliolata ceterum glabra, exteriora cal-

loso-apiculata; radii (sicc.) pallide violacea ca. 19 ca. 8 mm longa; achenia

hispidula.

Herb 57 cm high, the stem (in the single specimen examined) bifurcate

near the base, otherwise essentially simple below the inflorescence, green,

subterete, not densely spreading-pilose with white hairs, eglandular; leaves

rather crowded toward base of stem, the petioles of these leaves broad,

flat, very narrowly or not at all margined, 6-10 cm long, 2-3 mm wide,

widened and submembranaceous at base, rather densely spreading- or de-

flexed-pilose, the blades ovate, 8-11 cm long, 4.5-6.7 cm wide, very obtuse,

rather deeply cordate (sinus 3-10 mm deep), coarsely crenate nearly

throughout (the teeth about 10-15 pairs, very blunt, about 1 mm high,

mostly 5-10 mm apart), feather-veined (chief veins 2-3 pairs), above rather

3 Phylog. Meth. Taxon. 210. 1923.

4 Chrysothamnus nauseosus var. abbreviatus (Jones) Blake.—Bzigelovia letosperma

A. Gray, Syn. Fl. 12: 1389. 1884. Aster lecospermus Kuntze, Rev. Gen. 1: 318. 1891.

Chrysothamnus letospermus Greene, Erythea 3: 113.1895. Bigelovia leiosperma var. ab-

breviata Jones, Proc. Calif. Acad. II. 5: 693.1895. Chrysothamnus nauseosus var. leto-

spermus Hall, Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 7: 173. 1919. Chrysothamnus nauseosus [ssp.]

leiospermus Hall & Clements, Phylog. Meth. Taxon. 217. 1923.—Jones’s var. ab-

breviata is merely an insignificant form or condition of lecospermus, and his name, as

the earliest published in the varietal category, must be adopted when the plant is

treated as a variety.

378 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

light green, evenly but not densely spreading-pilose with several-celled

hairs obscurely enlarged at base, soft or in age roughish to the touch, be-

neath rather lighter green, evenly but not densely pilose on surface with

spreading hairs, densely so along costa; middle leaves not numerous, longer

than the internodes, pubescent like the lower leaves, the blades ovate or

lance-ovate, 4-6 cm long, about 2.2 cm wide, acute or acuminate, rounded

at base, crenate-serrate mostly near middle with 3-7 pairs of teeth, the peti-

oles 2-3.5 em long, 2-5 mm wide; upper leaves (subtending the lower

branches of the inflorescence) lanceolate, acuminate, narrowed at base, ses-

sile, entire or nearly so, 3-5 cm long, 5-9 mm wide; inflorescence occupying

about 4 the height of the plant, corymbiform-paniculate, rather few-headed,

about 13-18 cm long, 8-10 cm wide, the branches divergent-erectish, not

densely short-spreading-pilose all around or more or less in lines, the primary

branches mostly 2—5-headed, not in the least racemiform, the ultimate

pedicels mostly 5-22 mm long, mostly with a few small subulate or linear

bracts above; phyllaries 0.5-0.8 mm wide, the green tips somewhat thick-

ened; heads about 2.2 cm wide; disk about 9 mm high, 6-8 mm thick (as

pressed); rays about 19, the tube sparsely pilose above, 2.5 mm long, the

lamina linear, 2—3-denticulate, 4-nerved, about 8 mm long, 1.8 mm wide;

disk corollas essentially glabrous, soon purplish above, 7 mm long (tube

2.2 mm, throat 4mm, teeth triangular-ovate, acutish, 0.8 mm long); achenes

(immature) oblong, subcompressed, hispidulous, 5-nerved, 1.8—2.2 mm long;

pappus rather copious, brownish white, 6.5 mm long.

Mexico: Moist wooded canyon on the eastern slope of the Sierra de San

Manuel, Municipio de Musquiz, Coahuila, 30 June 1936, F. Lyle Wynd &

C. H. Mueller 372 (type no. 1,638,865, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Allied to Aster drummondii Lindl., but apparently specifically distinct in

its longer pubescence, its merely crenate lower leaves, and particularly in

its relatively few-headed and open corymbiform panicle with the heads

conspicuously pedicellate and not at all racemosely arranged. The inflo-

rescence, in fact, is more like that of the average Aster laevis than that of A.

drummondii.

Aster intricatus (A. Gray) Blake.

Linosyris ? carnosa A. Gray, Pl. Wright. 2: 80. 1853.

Aster carnosus A. Gray; Hemsl. Biol. Centr. Amer. Bot. 2: 120. 1881. Not

A. carnosus Gilib. 1781.

Bigelovia carnosa Benth. & Hook.; Hemsl. Biol. Centr. Amer. Bot. 2: 120.

1881, as synonym.

Bigelovia intricata A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 17: 208. 1882.

Linosyris carnosa Greene, Fl. Franc. 384. 1897.

The well known name of this very characteristic plant, Aster carnosus,

must be changed, owing to the existence of an earlier homonym in Aster

carnosus Gilib.6 The latter is merely an illegitimate name, published with a

description and with A ster tripoliwm L. cited as a synonym, but nevertheless,

according to Art. 61 of the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature

(1930) precludes the use of the same name for a later described species.

The species was redescribed as Bigelovia intricata by Gray in 1882, and this

5 Fl, Lit. 1: 214. 1781.

SeprT. 15, 1937 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 379

specific name must be taken up for it. I am indebted to Dr. F. W. Pennell

for a transcript of Gilibert’s description from the copy of his work in the

library of the Philadelphia Academy.

Aster horridus (Woot. & Standl.) Blake.

Herrickia horrida Woot. & Standl. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 16: 186. pl. 50.

1913.

Although this species, the type and sole member of the genus Herrickia

Wooton & Standley, is not readily placed in any of the sections into which

the genus Aster is divisible, it is certainly not worthy of generic separation.

Its closest relationship, especially evident in the involucre, is apparently

with Aster wasatchensis (Jones) Blake, a member of the group often sepa-

rated under the generic name Eucephalus Nutt. Aster wasatchensis itself is

anomalous in its group by reason of its herbaceous-tipped phyllaries, and

could not be run down to EHucephalus by the generic key given in Rydberg’s

“Flora of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent plains.”

Erigeron allocotus Blake, sp. nov.

Perennis caespitosus spithamaeus ubique patenti-hispidus et minute glan-

duloso-hispidulus subcinerascens; caules decumbentes paene e basi ramosi

foliosi, ramis divergenti-erectiusculis; folia cuneata v. spathulata 3—5-fida

v. 3-partita, lamina in petiolum multo longiorem sensim angustata, seg-

mentis oblongo-ovatis v. lanceolatis v. linearibus obtusis v. acutis, folia

superiora minora linearia v. lineari-spathulata integra v. 3-fida; capitula

parva radiata apicibus ramorum et ramulorum solitaria longe pedunculata;

involucri ca. 4-seriati parum gradati 4.5 mm alti phyllaria acuta v. breviter

acuminata extima lineari-lanceolata herbacea interiora oblonga latiuscule

subscarioso-marginata medio viridia; radii ca. 22—26 breves ‘‘albi’’ (sicc. pal-

lide lavendulacei v. rosei); discus luteus; achenea compressa 2—nervia his-

pidula; pappus simplex fragilis.

Leafy-stemmed herb 13-18 cm high, many-stemmed from a slender,

branched, apparently oblique caudex, the bases of the stems of the year

covered with the imbricated marcescent bases of petioles, the whole plant

moderately densely hispid with wide-spreading many-celled acuminate white

hairs up to 1.5 mm long and also finely glandular-hispidulous; stems slender,

subterete or subangulate; leaves (except the reduced upper ones) longer

than the internodes, those toward base of stem crowded but not at all rosu-

late; lower leaves 1.7—-3 (—4) em long including petiole, light green, rather

thick, the blade (about 4-8 mm long, 3-5 mm wide) 3-—5-fid for about half

its length or sometimes parted essentially to base, the segments mostly ob-

long or ovate-oblong, 1—6 mm long, 0.7—2.5 mm wide, acute or obtuse, entire

or the lateral sometimes 2—lobed; middle stem leaves similar but more often

deeply parted, sometimes with linear lobes; upper leaves much smaller,

mostly 4-8 mm long, entire or 2—3-toothed or -fid; peduncles (naked tips of

branches) mostly 3—4.5 cm long; involucre hemispheric, appressed, the outer-

most phyllaries herbaceous essentially throughout, 0.4—-0.5 mm wide, spread-

ing-hispid and glandular-hispidulous, the inmost about 0.8 mm wide, simi-

larly pubescent on the green midline, this about equaling in breadth the

subscarious whitish margin; heads 1—-1.2 em wide; disk 5 mm high, 6-8 mm

thick (as pressed); rays about 6—7 mm long, the tube pilose above, 1.5 mm

380 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

long, the lamina narrowly elliptic, subentire or 2—denticulate, 3—5-nerved,

-4.3-5.3 mm long, 1.5 mm wide; disk flowers numerous, their corollas sparsely

hispidulous on base of throat, papillose-crested on the teeth, 2.7 mm long

(tube 0.5 mm, throat subcylindric, 1.8 mm, teeth ovate, 0.4 mm); achenes

obovate, compressed, 2.3 mm long, 0.7 mm wide, nerved on the margin,

appressed-hispidulous, whitish; pappus strictly simple, of about 22 fragile

hispidulous white bristles 2.2-2.5 mm long, readily detergible, leaving a

minute toothed crown.

Wyoming: Dry rocky hillside, near Grouse Creek, Shell Creek Canyon,

Big Horn Co., Township 53 N., Range 89 W., alt. 2285 m, 8 July 1936,

Louis O. & Rua Williams 3283 (type no. 1,684,047, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

The 3-—5-fid or -parted leaves of this plant would seem to place it in the

group of Hrigeron compositus, but it differs from the several known mem-

bers of that group in its freely branched leafy stems bearing rather

numerous heads, as well as in details of foliage and pubescence.

Erigeron trihecatactis Blake, sp. nov.

Annuus erectus subvalidus infra inflorescentiam simplex dense foliosus

ubique dense stipitato-glandulosus in caule patenti-pilosus; folia uniformia

anguste oblonga v. oblanceolata obtusa apiculata sessilia amplectentia

grosse serrata lutescenti-viridia ca. 5 em longa 1 cm lata; capitula ca. 10

cymoso-paniculata mediocria brevissime radiata; involucri ca. 4-seriati

paullum gradati 6.5 mm alti phyllaria lineari-lanceolata acuminata tenuia

anguste pallideque marginata; radii numerosissimi 5—6-seriati albi non ex-

serti, lamina suberecta ca. 1 mm longa elliptica; flores disci 31 flavi; achenia

2-nervia hispidula; pappus albidus simplex corollam subaequans.

Stem rather stout, subterete, inconspicuously striate, about 65 cm high,

4 mm thick at base, yellowish green, brownish green above, densely stipi-

tate-glandular and more sparsely pilose with slender few-celled white hairs

about 1 mm long; internodes about 1 cm long; leaves mostly with fascicles

in their axils, the lower deflexed, the upper erectish; blades below the middle

of stem somewhat smaller than the others, about 3.5-4 cm long, 5-8 mm

wide, similar to the upper in shape and cutting; middle and upper leaves

4—5.8 cm long, 9-11 mm wide, shallowly cordate-amplexicaul at the not

narrowed base, not decurrent, firm, plane or very narrowly revolute on

margin, coarsely serrate except toward base (teeth about 4—6 pairs, obtuse,

apiculate, 1-2 mm high, 5-10 mm apart), densely stipitate-glandular and

(chiefly along margin) more or less pilose, feather-veined, the veins prominu-

lous and loosely reticulate beneath; inflorescence rounded, about 8 cm long,

6 cm wide, the heads 1—4 at tips of the few branches, the principal bracts

similar to the leaves but much smaller, the pedicels 3-22 mm long, pubescent

like the stem, naked or with 1 or 2 subulate bracts; heads hemispheric, i-1.4

cm wide (as pressed), 6 mm high; involucre densely stipitate-glandular and

very sparsely pilose, inconspicuously graduated, the phyllaries erect, yellow-

ish green with narrow yellowish white subscarious margin and tip, 0.6—1

mm wide; receptacle broad, flat, alveolate especially toward the center, the

margins of the alveolae toothed; rays 333 (in 1 head), fertile, the tube 2.5-3

mm long, very sparsely puberulous with several-celled blunt slightly clavel-

late hairs, the lamina elliptic, emarginate, 1—3-nerved, 1—1.3 mm long, about

0.3 mm wide; disk flowers 31, fertile, their corollas yellow, puberulous

above the middle like the ray corollas, 3.7 mm long (tube 1.4 mm, throat

Sept. 15, 1937 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 381

eylindric-funnelform, 1.6 mm, teeth 5, ovate, 0.7 mm long) ; achenes obovate-

oblong, 0.8—1 mm long, 0.4 mm wide, nerved on the margin, whitish; pappus

sparse, of about 17 hispidulous bristles about 3.8 mm long; style branches

with deltoid-ovate obtuse papillose appendages.

Colombia: ‘‘Ad ripam rivi et in paramos,’ Chapinero, near Bogota, on

road to Usaquén, Dept. Cundinamarca, 12 Sept. 1926, S. Juzepczuk 6724

(type, Herb. Leningrad; photo. and fragm., U.S. Nat. Herb.) ; same locality,

28 May 1926, Juzepczuk 5015 (Herb. Leningrad).

This strongly marked species is a member of the Section Caenotus, and

seems to be very distinct from any described species.

Clibadium glabrescens Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex; rami et ramuli glabri v. subglabri; folia ovata acuminata basi

cuneata tenuiter petiolata serrata utrinque viridia tripli- vel quintuplinervia

supra scabriuscula subtus sparse strigillosa; capitula mediocria mox remoti-

uscula subsessilia; phyllaria 4 late ovata v. suborbicularia obtusa saepius

9—-11-nervia; receptaculum ubique paleaceum; flor. fem. 5-6, hermaph.

9-11; ovaria flor. fem. apice dense pilosa.

‘Slender shrub, 4-6 ft.’’; branches slender, subterete, striatulate, 2—-2.5

mm thick, olive-green, glabrous; branchlets glabrous or very sparsely

strigillose; internodes 2-10 cm long; petioles very slender, unmargined, 2—2.5

em long, sulcate above, strigillose in the sulcus, otherwise glabrous; blades

8-11 cm long, 4-5 cm wide, caudate-acuminate, acutely cuneate at base,

serrate or serrulate from about the middle of the cuneate lower part to below

the tip (teeth about 19—22 pairs, acutely callous-pointed, about 0.5 mm high,

mostly 3-4 mm apart), thin-papery, above deep green, roughish, evenly but

sparsely strigillose and short-strigose, beneath brighter green, evenly but

sparsely strigillose on veins and surface, tripli- or usually quintuplinerved

within 1—2 em of the base; panicles terminating stem and branches, sur-

passed by the subtending leaves, strigillose or subappressed-puberulous,

somewhat convex, at maturity 6-7 cm wide, the heads at first approximate,

at submaturity mostly 2-4 mm apart; heads at submaturity (corollas fallen)

depressed-subglobose, 2.5-3 mm high, 4.5 mm thick (moistened); phyllaries

4, broadly ovate to suborbicular, obtuse to very obtuse, ciliolate, toward

apex sparsely strigillose, the outermost about 5—nerved, the others 9-11-

nerved, 2.2-3.5 mm long, 2.5-4 mm wide; pistillate flowers 5-6, all paleate,

their pales similar to the inner phyllaries, the corollas (scarcely mature)

sparsely hirsutulous at apex, 1.8-2 mm long, the ovaries densely pilose at

apex, the achenes obovoid, obcompressed, plump, rounded at base, densely

villosulous toward apex, 2.4 mm long, 1.8 mm wide; hermaphrodite flowers

9-11, their pales much narrower than the pistillate and only 1—3-nerved, their

corollas white, hispidulous toward apex, 3 mm long, their ovaries 2—2.3

mm long, pilose throughout or glabrous toward base, sometimes bearing

near apex a few long gland-tipped hairs.

Colombia: Mountains between Mosoa and Sibundoy, Comisario del Putu-

mayo, 19 May 1935, W. A. Archer 3415 (type no. 1,619, 557, U. S. Nat.

Herb.).

A member of the section Trizidium, nearest Clibadium terebinthinaceum

(Swartz) DC., in which the branches and branchlets are densely pu-

bescent, the leaves larger, more coarsely serrate, and more densely pubescent

beneath, and the heads larger.

382 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 9

Clibadium leiocarpum Steetz var. strigosum Blake, var. nov.

Rami petioli foliaque strigosa vel accumbenti-hirsuta.

Costa Rica: On brushy slope, Cerro de Piedra Blanca, above Escasu,

Province of San José, 31 January 1924, P. C. Standley 32593 (type no.

1,225,816, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Although this specimen may represent only a chance variation, it differs

from other specimens of the species examined in a feature which is usually

of considerable significance in the genus, and its separation as a variety

seems advisable. The achenes in this specimen are sometimes merely clavel-

late-puberulous at apex, sometimes also sparsely villous.

Steiractinia lucidula Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex; rami dense strigosi, pilis basi incrassatis; folia magna ovata acuta

v. acuminata basi rotundato-cuneata crenato-serrata firme pergamentacea

triplinervia subtus reticulata utrinque asperula et lucidula; capitula radiata

flava pro genera minuscula per 1—3 apicibus ramorum et ramulorum cymosa

paniculam foliosam efformantia, pedunculis pollicaribus; involucri ca. 4-

seriati gradati 9-10 mm alti phyllaria oblonga v. oblongo-ovata saepius

obtusa exteriora herbacea parum strigosa et ciliata interiora tenuiora apice

subscariosa et purpurascentia ciliolata; radii 5, ca. 7 mm longi; achenia alata.

Branching shrub 7-10 ft. high; stem (or branch) subterete, solid, pithy,

olivaceous, 1 cm thick; leaves opposite; internodes 7—9.5 cm long; petioles

stout, unmargined, densely strigose or strigillose with thickened-base hairs,

those of the larger leaves 2—2.5 cm, of the leaves at base of inflorescence

about 8 mm long; blades of the larger leaves ovate, about 15-18 cm long,

8—9.5 cm wide, of the leaves at base of inflorescence oblong-ovate, 9.5 em

long, 3.5 cm wide, the larger crenate-serrate from the upper part of the cune-

ate-rounded base nearly to apex (teeth about 20 pairs, bluntly callous-

pointed, 0.5-1 mm high, mostly 5-8 mm apart), about equally green and

somewhat shining on both sides, above evenly but not densely strigillose

with mostly deciduous hairs with small lepidote-tuberculate persistent bases,

beneath rather sparsely strigillose or antrorse-hispidulous especially along

the veins and veinlets with slightly tuberculate-based hairs, triplinerved

0.8-2 em above the base, the chief veins prominulous above, prominent be-

neath, the others impressed above, whitish and prominulous-reticulate be-

neath; peduncles in clusters of 1-3 at tips of branches and branchlets and

in the upper axils, slender, mostly naked, densely erectish-hirsutulous (the

hairs with small blackish tuberculate bases), 2.2—-4 em long, the whole form-

ing a convex leafy-bracted panicle about 28 cm wide; heads about 1.5 em

wide; disk 9-12 mm high, about 7 mm thick in flower, 8-11 mm thick in

fruit (as pressed); involucre campanulate, 9-10 mm high, appressed or the

outermost phyllaries sometimes loose-tipped, the outermost phyllaries about

5 mm long, 1.8-2.5 mm wide, narrowly oblong or oblong-ovate, thick-

herbaceous essentially throughout or pale and indurated at base, obtuse to

acutish, rather sparsely strigose or strigillose and short-ciliate, the inner

broader (3-3.5 mm), oblong, obtuse or rounded, above subscarious and pur-

plish, erose, ciliolate, otherwise nearly or quite glabrous; rays yellow, neu-

tral, sparsely ciliolate at base of limb, otherwise glabrous, the tube 2.5 mm

long, the lamina oblong, bluntly 2—3-dentate, 8—9-nerved, papillate on upper

surface and margin, 7 mm long, 2.5 mm wide; disk flowers not very numer-

ous, their corollas yellow, glabrous outside, 7.5 mm long (tube 2 mm, throat

Sept. 15, 1937 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 383

funnelform, 5 mm, teeth ovate, strongly recurved, 0.5 mm long, densely

papillose and almost hirsutulous inside); pales scarious, obtuse or acutish,

usually winged on the keel, ciliolate toward tip and also on the keel, 6.5-8

mm long; ray achenes (immature) inane, trigonous, not winged, erect-

hirsute on the angles, about 2.7 mm long, their pappus of about 27 unequal

slender hispidulous deciduous awns 1—2.5 mm long; disk achenes cuneate-

obovate, compressed, 5 mm long, 3.5 mm wide (including wings), the body

mottled gray and brown, erect-pilose chiefly toward apex, 2-winged, the

wings thin, olivaceous, ciliate, truncate at apex and there 1 mm wide, the

body contracted into a short neck which is widened into the pappiferous

disk, the pappus of about 33 slender hispidulous deciduous awns, mostly

subequal and about 2.5 mm long.

Colombia: Edge of woods, Mesa de los Santos, Dept. Santander, Eastern

Cordillera, alt. 1500 m, 11-15 Dec. 1926, EF. P. Killip & A.C. Smith 15366

(type no. 1,351,249-50, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Stezractinia lucidula is most nearly related to S. schlimiz Blake, also from

the Department of Santander (Ocafia), in which the leaves are densely

pubescent beneath and not shining, and the outer phyllaries rather densely

strigose or accumbent-hirsute, some of them usually equaling the inmost in

length.

Helianthella ciliata Blake, sp. nov.

Herba perennis pedalis, caulibus suberectis simplicibus strigoso-hirsutis

foliosis monocephalis; folia subuniformia elliptica v. elliptico-obovata v.

suprema lineari-lanceolata ca. 4 cm longa 1.2 cm lata obtusa v. acuta basi

cuneata subsessilia integra triplinervia margine tuberculato-hispido-ciliata

in paginis minute hirsutula; capitulum breviter pedunculatum ca. 4 cm

latum; involucri ca. 10 mm alti ca. 3-seriati vix gradati phyllaria lineari-

lanceolata acuminata laxa omnino herbacea hispido-ciliata ceterum glabra;

radii ca, 11—14 aurei ca. 1.5 cm longi; corollae disci apice purpureae; paleae

infra scariosae apice subherbaceae; achenia ciliata et pilosa; pappi exaristati

squamellae ca. 6—8 alte laciniato-ciliatae ca. 1.3 mm longae.

Perennial with short caudex; stems few, apparently erectish, somewhat

curved, 27-38 cm high, slender, striate, whitish or somewhat purplish-tinged,

rather densely or sparsely strigose or substrigose and also usually spreading

or ascending-hispid with several-celled white hairs; lower leaves (2-4 pairs)

opposite, the others alternate; internodes 3-20 (—28) mm long; lowest leaves

much reduced, obovate, about 1 cm long, those just above them elliptic-

obovate, 2.5-4.2 cm long, 8-14 mm wide, obtuse, the middle ones elliptic

or oblong-elliptic, 3.5—5 em long, 7-15 mm wide, obtuse to acutish, the upper

lance-linear, 2.5-3 cm long, 3-6 mm wide, acute, all light green on both

sides, tuberculate-hispid-ciliate, on both sides minutely hirsutulous along

the veinlets, sometimes with a few stiff white hairs along costa beneath,

3- or obscurely 5-plinerved from near the base with whitish nerves and finely

reticulate, the veinlets somewhat impressed on both sides; peduncle 1—3.5

em long, pubescent like the stem; involucre 10 mm high, 2 cm wide (as

pressed), the phyllaries loosely spreading or perhaps reflexed, 1.2-2 mm

wide at base, inconspicuously 3—nerved; disk (as pressed) 1 cm high, 1.2-1.5

em thick; rays neutral, oval or oval-oblong, rather deeply and irregularly

2-3-toothed (teeth up to 3 mm long), hirsute on tube above and hirsutulous

on nerves of back, about 1.5-2 cm long, about 5-9 mm wide, about 12-

384 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

nerved; disk corollas purple on the teeth, glabrous except for the densely

hirsutulous teeth, 5 mm long (tube 1 mm, throat cylindric-funnelform, 3

mm, teeth 1 mm long); pales rather soft and thin, scarious below, blackish-

green toward the subherbaceous somewhat hooded tip, obtuse, carinate,

ciliate on keel above and densely hirsutulous at apex, about 8 mm long; disk

achenes (very immature) obovate, flatly compressed, 3 mm long, 1.7 mm

wide, narrowly 2-margined, notched at apex, ciliate, pilose on the sides;

pappus squamellae about 3—4 on each side of achene, deeply laciniate-ciliate,

connate at base, 1-1.3 mm long, equaling or surpassing the long hairs at

apex of achene; style branches hispid toward apex, the appendages short,

deltoid, merely finely hispidulous, acutish.

Mexico: Majalca, Chihuahua, 6 Sept. 1935, Harde LeSueur 156 (type no.

837153, herb. Field Mus.; photog. and fragm., U. S. Nat. Herb.); same

locality, 18-20 Aug. 1935, LeSueur 157 and 244 (Field Mus.).

Nearest Helianthella mexicana A. Gray, of San Luis Potosi and Coahuila.

In that species the basal leaves are much longer than the cauline and

drawn down into a petiole; the stems are less leafy, with the internodes

mostly longer than the leaves; the leaves are more or less hispid on both

faces as well as on the margin; and the phyllaries are hispid along the back

above as well as on the margin.

Verbesina callilepis Blake, sp. nov.

Herba bipedalis; caulis simplex hispidulus usque ad medium foliatus,

supra nudus; folia inferiora (4-juga) opposita obovata obtusa v. acuta basi

cuneata sessilia non amplectentia crenato-serrata laete viridia supra scabre

tuberculato-hispidula subtus in venis sparse hispidula, superiora 3 alterna

multo minora oblanceolata; capitula 3 longe pedunculata mediocria radiata

aurea; involucri late campanulati 7 mm alti 3-seriati phyllaria exteriora

(2-seriata) subequalia cuneato-obovata v. spathulato-obovata herbacea sub-

appressa obtusa v. rotundata subglabra v. in margine et sparse in dorso his-

pidula, interiora (radios subtendentia) paullo longiora spathulato-obovata

rotundata submembranacea saturate viridia aurea-marginata supra erosa:

radii 9, ca. 1.2 cm longi; achenia alata glabra epapposa.

Base not seen, but doubtless perennial; stem erect or erectish, slender, 68

cm high (including peduncles), subterete, striate, purplish toward base and

there rather densely hispidulous with spreading few-celled hairs, green above

and more sparsely hispidulous with shorter hairs, leafy about to middle;

principal internodes 4—5 cm long; lowest pair of leaves obovate, 4 cm long,

2 cm wide; next 3 pairs similar but larger, 7.5-8 cm long, 3-3.8 cm wide,

apiculate, gradually cuneate-narrowed to the sessile not clasping base,

crenate-serrate above the subentire cuneate base (teeth about 9-11 pairs,

3-9 mm apart, under 1 mm high, callous-apiculate), plane, papery, light

green with the costa purple-red at base above for half its length, evenly

but not densely tuberculate-hispidulous above (the tuberculate bases of the

hairs more conspicuous toward the margin), beneath somewhat paler green,

smooth to the touch, very sparsely hispidulous on veins, featherveined, the

lateral veins about 5-7 pairs, with the veinlets lightly prominulous-reticulate

on both sides; upper leaves 3, alternate, remote, 2.3-5 cm long, 7-15 mm

wide, oblanceolate, acute, followed by a couple of remote linear-oblanceolate

bracts 1 cm long or less; heads 3, about 2.5 em wide, single on slender ter-

minal and subterminal remote peduncles 3.5-10.5 cm long, the subtending

Sep. 15, 1937 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 385

bracts minute, the peduncles naked, rather densely tuberculate-hispidulous

below the heads; outer phyllaries 2—2.2 mm wide, the inner 2.2—2.8 mm wide;

rays golden yellow, neutral, the tube hispidulous, 1.2 mm long, the lamina

oval, 3-denticulate, sparsely hispidulous toward base below, 9-nerved; disk

corollas (immature) golden, sparsely hispidulous on the short tube, 3.38 mm

long; pales (immature) acute, sparsely hispidulous, with broad scarious mar-

gin below, above blackish green with golden yellow erect tip and margin;

disk achenes (very immature) subquadrate-obovate, 1.7 mm long, 1.2 mm

wide, narrowly winged, essentially glabrous, epappose.

Mexico: Infrequently scattered on tolerant pine slopes, Transition Zone,

Los Cascarones, Rio Mayo, Chihuahua, 11 Sept. 1936, H. S. Gentry 2682

(type a 862339, Field Museum; photograph and fragments, U.S. Nat.

Herb.).

A species of the Section Pterophyton, nearest Verbesina mixtecana Brandeg.

of Oaxaca. In V. mizxtecana the stem is stipitate-glandular as well as spread-

ing-hispid, the lowest leaves are narrowed into a petioliform base half as

long as the blade, the leaf blades are smaller and much more densely pu-

bescent with longer more or less spreading hairs, and the phyllaries are

narrow, lance-oblong, and acute or subacuminate.

Coreopsis integra Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex dichotomus glaber, pedunculis et involucris subtomentoso-pilosis

exceptis; folia opposita lineari-filiformia integra acuta sessilia 1.7-3 cm

longa 0.5-0.8 mm lata; capitula mediocria solitaria pedunculata radiata

aurea; involucri flavescenti-tomentoso-pilosi phyllaria exteriora 7-8 oblonga

obtusa 4-5 mm longa, interiora 8 oblonga 9-10 mm longa; achenia longe

ciliata in ventre dense pilosa in dorso subglabra; pappi aristae 2 dense antror-

sim pilosae.

Shrub, 0.6 m high; stem and branches subterete, grayish brown, glabrous;

branchlets greenish, striate, slender, glabrous; internodes 0.3—-5 cm long,

usually 1.5-4 cm; leaves acutely subulate-tipped, connate at base into a

glabrous sheath 1 mm high, coriaceous, subterete in cross-section, above

obscurely flattened, 1- or 3-sulcate, sordidly pilosulous along the impressed

costa, beneath glabrous, rounded, (in the dried state more or less 1-sulcate),

erect or ascending, light green, often with axillary fascicles; peduncles 1 or 2

at tips of branches, monocephalous, slender, pilose-subtomentose especially

toward apex with flavescent hairs, naked or few-bracted, 2.3-3.2 cm long;

heads 3-38.5 em wide; disk 8—(fruit) 11 mm high, about 1 cm thick; involucre

2-seriate, 9-10 mm high, densely and flavescently subtomentose-pilose on

the exposed surface of the phyllaries, the outer 1-seriate, 7-8, herbaceous,

oblong, 4-5 mm long, 1.3-1.8 mm wide, obtuse, obscurely apiculate, 3-

nerved, glabrescent above outside, inside densely stipitate-glandular and

toward apex pilosulous, the inner 8, thick-membranous, oblong or oval-ob-

long, 3-4 mm wide, obtusely pointed, very many-nerved, deep brown, nar-

rowly yellow-margined, glabrous or glabrate on margin, pilosulous toward

apex inside; rays 8, neutral, golden yellow, the tube puberulous, 2.5 mm

long, the lamina oval, 11-nerved, weekly 3-denticulate, 16 mm long, 6-8 mm

wide; disk corollas golden yellow throughout, puberulous on upper part of

tube, 5.8 mm long (tube 2 mm, throat funnelform, 2.8 mm long, teeth ovate,

1 mm); pales linear-lanceolate, 7 mm long, acuminate, about 5-nerved,

pilose-ciliate, pilose dorsally; ray achenes (inane) linear, pilose-ciliate, gla-

386 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

brous on outer face, glabrous or pilose along midline on inner; disk achenes

obcompressed, linear-oblong or linear-obovate, 4.8 mm long, 1.3 mm wide,

blackish brown, densely long-pilose-ciliate on margins and at apex, on outer

face glabrous or pilose toward margin, on inner face densely long-pilose;

awns 2, densely upward-pilose, 2.8 mm long; style tips short-deltoid, hispi-

dulous, apiculate.

Peru: On rocky eastern slope at San Carlos Mines, 6 miles west of Hual-

lanca, Dept. Huanuco, alt. about 2745 meters (9000 ft.), 30 Sept. 1922,

J. F. Macbride & W. Featherstone 2469 (type no. 518895, herb. Field Mus.;

dupl. no. 1,198,895, U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Nearest Coreopsis longula Blake, from Chachapoyas, Peru, which has

much longer and obtuse leaves, smaller heads (usually in 2’s or 3’s), much

less pubescent involucre, and lance-subulate outer phyllaries.

Coreopsis sherffii Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex trichotome ramosus, ramis hexagonis glabratis, ramulis bifariam

pilosulis; folia opposita internodiis saepius breviora ca. 2 cm longa, petiolo

anguste cuneato-marginato ciliato, lamina ambitu deltoidea tripartita coria-

cea, lobis saepius anguste cuneatis 2-4 mm latis apice acute 2—3-dentatis,

interdum oblongis v. oblongo-lanceolatis integris acutis; capitula mediocria

usque ad 3 cm lata radiata aurea modice pedunculata in apicibus caulis et

ramorum solitaria v. 3-5 cymosa; involucri glaberrimi v. solum basi ima

pilosi phyllaria exteriora 8 crasse herbacea paullum obovato-oblonga obtusa

v. acute apiculata 3.5-4.5 mm longa 1-2 mm lata, interiora duplo longiora

membranacea oblonga rotundata saturate brunnea anguste aureo-margi-

nata; achenia dense ciliata in ventre pilosa in dorso glabra; pappi aristae

lanceolatae antrorsim pilosae.

Shrub ca. 7.5 dm high; stem subterete, striate, gray-barked, glabrous, 4

mm thick; branches of the year light brown, slender, hexagonal, pilosulous

in 2 grooves, otherwise glabrous; internodes of branches mostly 2.5—4.5

cm. long, much exceeding the leaves, of the branchlets mostly 0.5-2 cm

long and surpassed by the leaves; petioles very narrowly cuneate-margined

to base, 5-11 mm long, pilose-ciliate with jointed hairs especially toward

base, usually with fascicles in their axils, connate at base for 1-1.5 mm;

blades deltoid in outline, 6-10 mm long, 6-12 mm wide, cuneate at base,

3-parted, the lobes mostly 4-7 mm long, 2-4 mm wide, plane, light green,

the lateral usually acutely 2-toothed at apex, the terminal 3-toothed or 3-fid,

sparsely short-pilose along costa above or usually glabrous; leaves of the

branchlets mostly smaller and merely 3-fid, with linear-oblong or oblong-

lanceolate entire acutely subulate-pointed lobes; peduncles 1-headed,

densely spreading-pilose with flavescent hairs, 1-2.3 cm long; heads (as

pressed) 2.7-3 cm wide; disk about 6-8 mm high, 7-10 mm thick (as

pressed); involucre double, the outer phyllaries essentially 1-seriate, more

or less obovate-oblong, appressed, pale green with 3 black vittae, the inner

about the same number, 7-9 mm long, 3.5—-4 mm wide, minutely erose cilio-

late at the broadly rounded apex, densely brown-lineate; rays 8, neutral,

golden yellow, subglabrous, the tube 1-1.5 mm long, the lamina broadly

oval, shortly and bluntly about 3—4-dentate, 1l-nerved, 11-14 mm long,

about 7 mm wide; disk corollas golden yellow, glabrous, 4-4.5 mm long

(tube 1.5 mm, throat campanulate or funnelform-campanulate, about 2

mm, teeth broadly ovate, 0.8 mm long); pales in flower oblong-obovate,

obtuse, sometimes emarginate, about 4 mm long, short-ciliate toward apex,

Sept. 15, 1937 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 387

erect-pilose on middle of back, 5—7-vittate; ray achenes inane, oblong,

sparsely short-ciliate above, glabrous on the faces, epappose, 2 mm long;

disk achenes (submature) narrowly obovate-oblong, 4.5 mm long, 1.5 mm

wide, densely long-ciliate, sparsely erect-pilose in middle on inner face,

glabrous on outer, their pappus of 2 lanceolate basally antrorse-pilose,

apically hispidulous awns 1.8 mm long; style branches with deltoid acute

not penicillate-tufted hispidulous appendages.

Peru: Small neat very erect (2.5 ft.) clumps on steep grassy slopes, Chin-

chapalca, 6 miles above Mito, Dept. Hudénuco, alt. about 2900 m (9500 ft.),

16-27 July 1922, J. F. Macbride & W. Featherstone 1596 (type no. 518100,

herb. Field Mus.; dupl. no. 1,198,886, U.S. Nat. Herb.); in half-hanging

ragged clumps on steep sunny slopes, with very brittle stems, Mito, Dept.

Huanuco, alt. about 2745 m (9000 ft.), 8-22 July 1922, Macbride & Feather-

stone 1482 (Field Mus., U.S. Nat. Herb.).

This fine species, distinguished from most of its allies by the cutting of

its foliage, appears to be nearest Coreopsis microlepis Blake & Sherff, from

the Province of Chachapoyas, Peru. In that plant the upper leaves are

very greatly reduced, so that the heads appear to be rather numerous in an

essentially naked panicle; the leaves, although sometimes rather closely

similar to those of C. sherffii, usually have the terminal segment of the ter-

nately parted leaf so deeply 3-lobed as to give the appearance of a pin-

nately 5-lobed leaf; the heads are smaller; and the outer phyllaries are

ovate or oblong-ovate, only 1.5-2 mm long, 0.6—0.8 mm wide. The dried

heads of C. sherffic impart a deep orange color to the water in which they

are boiled. The species is dedicated to my friend Dr. Earl E. Sherff, whose

quarter century of botanical activity, devoted primarily to the study of the

Coreopsidinae, has resulted in revisions of the genera Coreopsis, Bidens (in

press), Isostigma, Cosmos, Tetramolopium, Lipochaeta, Dubautia, and Rail-

liardia, and in papers on various other groups of plants.

Calea marginata Blake, nom. nov.

Meyeria longifolia DC. Prodr. 5: 671. 1836.

Calea longifolia Baker in Mart. Fl. Bras. 6%: 260. 1884. Not C. longifolia

Gardn. 1848.

The name longifolia is not available for this species, having been used

by Gardner for a species described from Goyaz. The new name assigned

refers to the conspicuous thickened margins of the leaves.

Vasquezia oppositifolia (Lag.) Blake.

Villanova oppositifolia Lag. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 31. 1816.

Vasquezia titicacensis (Meyen & Walp.) Blake.

Wedelia titicacensis Meyen & Walp. Nov. Act. Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carol.

Nat. Cur. 19: Suppl. 1: 269. 1843. 7

Vill_..nova titiczcensis Walp. Nov. Act. Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carol. Nat. Cur.

19: Suppl. 1: 296. 1848.

The name Villanova Lag. (1816) being preoccupied by Villanova Orteg.

388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

(1797), it seems necessary to replace it by Vasquezia Phil. (1860), as has

already been done by Rydberg (in the spelling Vasquesia). The few species

of the genus are closely related, and require a revision based on examination

of the types. The two names here proposed, together with V. anemonifolia

(H.B.K.) Blake,* represent the only South American species that seem to

be distinct on the basis of a preliminary survey of the genus. The name

Vasquezia titicacensis (Meyen & Walp.) Blake has already appeared in

print,’ but without the name-bringing synonym necessary for proper publi-

cation.

The proper spelling of Philippi’s generic name is uncertain. It occurs five

times in his Florula Atacamensis (p. 1, 31 (twice), 62, and on pl. 5). In the

formal description of the new genus, and in every other case except one, the

name is spelled Vazquezza; in the description of the new species, it is Vas-

quezia. Years later, when treating his genus as a synonym of Vzllanova,

Philippi’ twice used the spelling Vasquezza. The derivation of the name, ob-

viously personal, is nowhere explained. In view of Philippi’s later use of the

spelling Vasquezia, and particularly since there was an A. Vasquez,° for whom

the genus was presumably named, who was publishing chemical analyses of

plants at the time Philippi was preparing his Florula Atacamensis, it seems

advisable to adopt the form Vasquezza. In any case, there is no evident ex-

cuse for the spelling Vasquesia used by Rydberg in the North American

Flora; and Philippi’s single species was V. biternata, not V. biterna as given

by Rydberg. I am indebted to Dr. Ivan M. Johnston for assistance in this

matter.

Helenium arizonicum Blake, sp. nov.

Bienne paene glabrum, radice perpendiculato anguste conico; caulis vali-

dus 5.5 dm altus foliosus ubique erecto-ramosus; folia basalia anguste ob-

lanceolata acuminata in petiolum multo breviorem anguste marginatum

angustata irregulariter sinuato-dentata, caulina anguste lanceolata v. line-

ari-lanceolata acuminata integra basi dilatata breviter decurrente sessilia;

capitula mediocria ca. 7-15 per caulem in apicibus caulis et ramorum soli-

taria; radii flavi feminei ca. 12 mm longi; discus subglobosus purpureo-

brunneus 1.5-2 cm diam.; receptaculum ovoideum obtusiusculum; achenia

2 mm longa in costis pilosa; pappi paleae ca. 2 mm longae e basi lanceolata

longe aristatae.

Root biennial, vertical, slenderly conic, about 10 em long, 1 em thick

above, with few strong rootlets; stem solitary, erect, stout, striate-angled

and sulcate, greenish-white, erect-branched essentially from base to apex,

obscurely incurved-puberulous below, nearly glabrous above, dotted with

yellow-brown glands; lower leaves 8-10 cm long (including petiole, this

about 2 cm long, narrowly margined, at base ampliate, purplish, and about

7-nerved), 6-10 mm wide, triplinerved, essentially glabrous, densely glandu-

6 Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 26: 261. 1930.

7 Herrera, Pl. Cuze. Herrer. (Estud. Fl. Depart. Cuzco) 205. 1930.

8 Cat. Pl. Itin. Tarapaca 47. 1891.

9 Listed in the bibliography in Reiche, Grundz. Pflanzenverbr. Chile (Veg. der

Erde 8:) 45. 1907.

Sept. 15, 1937 BLAKE: NEW ASTERACEAE 389

lar-punctate on both sides, pale green; stem leaves numerous, much exceed-

ing the internodes, the larger 6.5—-13 cm long, 4-10 mm wide, long-acuminate,

at base usually abruptly widened (up to 1 cm wide), semi-amplexicaul, and

decurrent for 1-4 mm, the uppermost linear or linear-subulate, 2.5-3.5 cm

long; peduncles solitary at tips of stem and branches, enlarged just below

the head, many-sulcate, 2-11 cm long; involucre soon reflexed, the phyllaries

about 14, narrowly triangular, acuminate, 7-9 mm long, 1—1.5 mm wide at

base, sparsely pilose below, densely so toward tip, punctate; disk subglobose,

12-17 mm high, 15-20 mm thick; submature receptacle 5 mm. long, 3 mm

thick; rays about 12 or more, cuneate, deeply 3-lobed (lobes blunt, 2.5-3.3

mm long), 9—11-nerved, 12-138 mm long, 6-7 mm wide, densely gland-dotted

outside; disk corollas yellow, tipped with purple-brown, short-pilose on

teeth with several-celled hairs, 3.4 mm long (tube 0.2 mm, throat thick-

cylindric, 2.6 mm, teeth ovate, 0.6 mm long); disk achenes erect-pilose on

the ribs with rufescent hairs, sessile-glandular between the ribs, 2 mm long;

pappus paleae 6—7, subequal, 1.8—2.3 mm long, the body lanceolate or lance-

ovate, 0.6—0.8 mm long, gradually narrowed into the awn.

Arizona: Near Mormon Lake, about 20 miles southeast of Flagstaff,

Coconino Co., 17 June 1892, J. W. Touwmey 681 (type no. 212077, U.S. Nat.

Herb.). Additional specimen in the Gray Herbarium, with same number and

locality, but dated 18 July 1892.

Both the specimens cited have been identified as Helenium bigelovir A.

Gray, the type being so labeled in the hand of the late Dr. Rydberg. Hele-

nium bigeloviz, which ranges from Oregon to southern California and is not

known from Arizona (Rydberg’s record in the North American Flora being

presumably based on this specimen), is a perennial with short nearly hori-

zontal rootstock, simply or above few-branched stems terminated by very

long-peduncled heads, entire long-petioled basal leaves, and usually broader

stem leaves not abruptly ampliated at base. In Rydberg’s key in “‘North

American Flora” Helenium arizonicum runs down to the group containing

H. linifolium Rydb. and H. laciniatum A. Gray, both of which have a slender

annual root, much smaller heads, and various other distinctive characters.

Culcitium ovatum (Schlecht.) Blake.

Gnaphalum umflorum Lam. Encyl. 2: 752. 1788. Not G. uniflorum Mill.

1768.

Lasiocephalus ovatus Schlecht. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl. Mag. 8: 309. 1818.

Culcitium reflecum H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 4: 171. pl. 362. 1820.

Culcitium uniflorum (Lam.) Hieron. Bot. Jahrb. Engl. 19: 63. 1894.

The genus Lasiocephalus Schlecht., with the two species L. ovatus and

L. lingulatus Schlecht., was published in 1818.1° Schlechtendal remarked

10'The date assigned in the Index Kewensis is 1814. In Dalla Torre & Harms’

Genera Siphonogamarum the data 1818 is given on p. 562, and corrected on p. 637

to 1814. The title page date of vol. 8 of the Magazine is 1818. Schlechtendal’s paper ap-

peared in the ‘‘Viertes Quartal 1814. October, November, December,”’ containing p.

241-312. As this number includes an article ‘‘Uber die Witterung des Jahres 1816,”’

beginning on p. 259, it is obvious that the number could not have been published in

1814, and, in the apparent absence of any evidence to the contrary, the title page date

1818 must be accepted.

390 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

that his material consisted of single branches from the collection of Hum-

boldt and Bonpland furnished him by Prof. Willdenow, ‘‘der diese Gattung

zuerst untersuchte, den Character essentialis feststellte und die Nahmen des

Genus und der Species wahlte.’”’ Despite this remark, the names have uni-

versally been attributed to Schlechtendal, and it seems as well to follow

custom in this matter, since Willdenow’s name is not further mentioned in

connection with the descriptions. Lessing (1832), by some error, cites the

name as Oresigonia Schlecht. —

The genus Laszocephalus has been referred by authors to Culcitiwum Humb.

& Bonpl. (1809), but no attempt to identify Schlechtendal’s two species

seems to have been made. His first species, L. ovatus, from ‘monte Pichin-

cha,” is obviously the same as the later Culcitium reflerum H. B. K., de-

scribed as from Mt. Antisana. His second L. lingulatus, from ‘‘America

meridionali,’’ is not so readily identified. It is natural to look for it among the

six species of Culcitiwm described in the Nova Genera et Species. Among

these, only C. ledifoliwm can possibly be identical. It is described as with sim-

ple, 1-flowered stem, whereas L. lingulatum is described as branching and

with heads sometimes almost forming a panicle, sometimes solitary, binate,

ternate, etc. On the whole, Schlechtendal’s description is perhaps more sug-

gestive of Culcitiwm adscendens Benth. than of C. ledifoliwm, which is known

to me only from the original description. Hieronymus (l.c.), on the basis of

an original specimen in the Berlin Herbarium, has referred C. ledifolium

H. B. K. to C. uniflorum (C. reflecum), but the original descriptions indicate

that the plants are specifically different, and one cannot help suspecting

that some error is involved. Weddell (Chlor. And. 1: 141. 1856), who ex-

amined original specimens of both C. reflerum and C. ledifolium, kept them

distinct, and his descriptions indicate that this course was correct. Schlech-

tendal’s descriptions of LZ. ovatus and L. lingulatus surely refer to two differ-

ent species. Under the circumstances, it seems best to transfer Schlechten-

dal’s second name, which has obvious priority, to the genus Culcitium for

convenience in handling it, without attempting to identify it at present with

any later described species. It is difficult to reconcile his account of the varia-

bility of the inflorescence with his statement that he had only single branches

of the species described; perhaps this item came from notes of Willdenow.

Culcitium lingulatum (Schlecht.) Blake.

Lasiocephalus lingulatus Schlecht. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl. Mag. 8: 309. 1818.

Hieracium dysonymum Blake, nom. nov.

Hieracium junceum Fries, Symb. Hist. Hierac. 144. 1848. Not H. gunceum

Bernh. Syst. Verz. Erf. 137. 1800.

Fries’ name for this little known Mexican plant is preoccupied by Bern-

hardi’s use of the same name, based on his transfer of Chondrilla guncea L. to

Hieracium. I am indebted to the Lloyd Library for a copy of the entry from

Bernhardi’s work, which is not in any Washington library.

Sept. 15, 1937 DRECHSLER: TRIDENTARIA 391

Hieracium junceum Fries was originally based on material collected by

Liebmann in pine woods at Cambre de Ixlepec, Sierra de Oaxaca, Mexico,

altitude 3050 meters (10,000 ft.). Later Fries" cited additional material

from “Sierra de Moucayo (Herb. Mart. varietas angustifolia’). It is fairly

clear from the general style of Fries’ treatment that he was not formally

naming a var. angustifolia here, but was merely stating that this specimen

was a narrow-leaved form, and in any case no description was given. Zahn,”

however, lists “‘subvar. angustifolium Fr. Epicr. 149,’’ and adds the charac-

ter ‘“‘folis angustioribus, acheniis distincte attenuatis,”’ although he does not

indicate that he had examined material. He gives the locality as “Sierra de

Moncayo (ex Fr. I.c.).”’

BOTANY.—A species of Tridentaria preying on Difflugia constricta.1

CHARLES DRECHSLER, Division of Fruit and Vegetable Crops

and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry.

In earlier papers I described four fungi that subsist by the de-

struction of testaceous rhizopods inhabiting different vegetable ma-

terials undergoing decomposition in contact with the soil. Two of

the fungi (4), Cochlonema cylindricum, endoparasitic on Euglypha

denticulata Brown, and Zoopage tryphera, predacious on Geococcus

vulgaris Francé, belong in the Zoopagaceae, a family of conidial

Phycomycetes living for the most part on terricolous amoebae. The

other two fungi both belong in an interrelated series of Hyphomycetes

which has become known more especially, perhaps, through some

widely distributed and comparatively robust members variously

adapted for the capture of free-living nematodes. One of the two

mucedinous forms in question (3), Dactylella passalopaga, preys on

G. vulgaris and E. laevis Perty; while the other (2), Pedilospora dacty-

lopaga, is predacious in Difflugia globulosa Duj. and Trinema en-

chelys Ehrenb.

A fungus strongly reminiscent of Pedilospora dactylopaga appeared

recently in some old maizemeal agar plate cultures of Pythium Butleri

Subr. to each of which had been added a small quantity of leaf mold

collected in deciduous woods with an undergrowth of coarse her-

baceous weeds. No special organs of capture could be discovered on

the slender hyphae that made up its scanty mycelium. Nevertheless,

when filaments on the surface of the agar substratum were traced

for any considerable distance, they were found here and there to

pass along the oral end of a shelled rhizopod, through the mouth of

11 Kpicr. Hierac. 149. 1862

12 Pflanzenreich (Heft 79) 4:280 1109. 1922.

1 Received June 20, 1937.

392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

Sept. 15, 1937 DRECHSLER: TRIDENTARIA 393

which invariably a branch entered to ramify irregularly within the

protoplasmic interior (Fig. 1, A, B). Manifestly the ramifying ele-

ments functioned in assimilating the fleshy contents since some of

the invaded animals had been depleted to such an extent that nothing

remained but the more or less crusty tests. Despite the sluggishness

of their locomotion the animals presumably endured invasion and

appropriation of their digestible substance only because they were

prevented from escaping. Appearances indicated that capture very

probably was effected through adhesion of the hypha to the extruded

sarcode, although direct optical evidence of an adhesive secretion on

the mycelial filaments has not yet been obtained.

In view of its normally slanting posture, much like that of Trinema

enchelys, of its usually brownish or light brownish coloration, of its

compressed ovoid shape, its inflexed mouth and its somewhat pro-

truded anterior lip, the rhizopod destroyed by the fungus is clearly

referable to the widespread Dzfflugia constricta (Ehrenb.) Leidy.

Most of the specimens encountered measured about 55u in length

from anterior lip to fundus (Fig. 1, A), about 45 uw in width as viewed

flatways from above or below (Fig. 1, B), and about 30 wu in thickness

from front to rear at a right angle to the inclined axis (Fig. 1, A). In

dimensions, therefore, they were comparable to the smaller spineless

individuals of D. constricta figured by Leidy (11: plate 18, figs. 12, 14,

17, 18, 19,), by Penard (14: page 212, fig. 37), and by Cash (1: plate

19, figs. 14-16).

The conidiophores (Fig. 1, C; D; E, a-c; F) produced by the fun-

gus in small numbers, show general similarity to those of Pedilospora

dactylopaga with respect to stature, and like them also, bear curiously

forked solitary conidia. A very pronounced difference however is at

once apparent in that the spores terminate regularly in three rather

than in two prongs. One of the prongs represents merely a prolonga-

tion of the basal portion of the conidium, with which portion it con-

tinues the axis of the conidiophore and forms an element analogous

Fic. 1.—Tridentaria carnivora, drawn from material developed in mixed culture

on maizemeal agar, with the aid of a camera lucida, at a uniform magnification; 1000

throughout. A.—Portion of hypha with a captured specimen of Dzifflugia constricta

in lateral view. B.—Portion of hypha with a captured specimen of D. constricta in

oral-posterior aspect. C.—Portion of hypha bearing a conidiophore with conidium

attached. D.—Portion of mycelium with an old conidiophore that has declined to

the substratum; from the prostrate conidiophore has arisen a secondary conidiophore

whereon is borne a conidium. E.—Portion of hypha with three conidiophores, each

bearing a conidium. F.—Portion of mycelium from which has arisen a relatively tall

conidiophore whereon a conidium has been produced. G—Q.—Conidia, showing varia-

tions in size, shape and arrangement of component elements; all being of the usual

three-pronged type except the two-pronged specimen I.

394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 9

to the entire conidium of Dactylella passalopaga. At a distance from

its base often equal to about one-third of its length, this axial ele-

ment bears laterally a broad process that immediately divides dichot-

omously in a transverse plane to provide the other two prongs.

Though the paired prongs are sometimes rather widely divaricate

especially in conidia that have been in contact with the substratum

for some time (Fig. 1, J, K, N, O), they are more usually directed

upward at narrowly divergent angles to one another as well as to the

axial prong (Fig. 1, D; E, a-c; F, G-I; L; M; P; Q).

From the manner of its development the three-pronged conidium

obviously is symmetrical with respect to only one plane, that being

the plane passing through the axial element and bisecting the angle

between the paired prongs. When viewed lengthwise from this

plane, the spore (Fig. 1, G, H, Q), especially if considered together

with the hypha supporting it, presents an appearance suggestive of

a trident. The similitude is of consequence in encouraging, or, per-

haps, even necessitating assignment of the fungus to 7’ridentaria, a

genus erected by Preuss (15) in 1852 on a single species found by him

on moist disintegrating stems of Brassica oleracea L. and described

very sketchily under the name 7’. alba. The diagnosis of the genus

likewise is exceedingly brief, consisting of only a dozen words. There

can be no question, at least, that the conidia were intended to be

described as simple and as being united in the form of a trident, but

whether the conidiophore was considered as being included in the

union remains open to speculation.

Owing to its inadequate characterization the genus has not been

at all kindly received by compilers. Saccardo (16), who set forth the

conidiophores as terminating in simple conidia joined together in the

form of a trident—an arrangement certainly not easy to relate to

ordinary modes of development—added the comment that the genus

had been imperfectly and obscurely described by Preuss, and hence

was dubious. Lindau (12) in his first treatment of the genus char-

acterized it in part as having very short conidiophores, and as bearing

on these conidiophores solitary triradiate conidia. The portion of the

description concerning the shortness of the conidiophores appears to

have been based primarily on inference. On the other hand, the ref-

erence to production of solitary triradiate conidia instead of simple

conidia joined in the form of a trident, is evidently to be explained

as expressive of an interpretation—lI believe a justifiable interpreta-

tion—whereby the individual spore was looked upon as a more in-

clusive unit than originally. One is tempted to submit, possibly, that

Sept. 15, 1937 DRECHSLER: TRIDENTARIA 395

a structure held to resemble a trident might have been more accu-

rately described by words meaning ‘‘three-pronged”’ or “‘three-tined”’

(as, for example “‘dreizackig” or “dreizinkig’’) than by the expres-

sion ‘‘3 strahlige’’; since the proximal part corresponding to the shaft

of a trident constitutes obviously a fourth radial and thus, strictly

speaking, makes for a quadriradiate condition.

In his key to the genera of the Hyalostaurosporae in a later work

(13: page 535) Lindau, indeed, referred to the conidia of Tridentaria

as three-pronged and treated them as analogous in outward make-up

to the two-pronged conidia of Pedilospora. Then, however, somewhat

inconsistently, in defining the genus (13: page 543) he characterized

the conidia as being simple and as concreted in the form of a tri-

dent,—exactly, therefore, as Saccardo had characterized them pre-

viously. Complaining, not without reason, that it was impossible to

gather from Preuss’ description how the conidia really look, he held

that the genus might better have been rejected,—a course from

which he was dissuaded by the small membership of the Mucedina-

ceae-Staurosporae, and the hope of arousing some profitable atten-

tion. Since its erection Tridentaria has had committed to it only

one additional species, that being 7’. setigera published by Grove (8)

in 1912. The original account of this species was accompanied by

figures of compound branching structures which from the descrip-

tion were evidently considered as being composed individually of a -

three-celled conidiophore tapering toward its base and widening like

a fan toward its apex, together with three conidia palmately united

at their bases and collectively flanked on both sides by an acute

seta. As Preuss made no mention of setae in his diagnosis of 7'r-

dentaria, the authors dealing with 7. setigera in the “‘Sylloge fun-

gorum”’ (17) quite properly raised the question whether the fungus

might not perhaps better be regarded as a species of Titaea. The

similarity of the branching structures to the conidia of Tetracladium

marchalianum De Wild., especially as figured in a recent paper by

Karling (10), suggests an alternative disposition, if, indeed, the dis-

tinction between Titaea and Tetracladium can still be maintained.

Undoubtedly the fungus preying on Difflugia constricta fits into

Tridentaria better than does T’. setigera; and better, too, than it fits

into any other genus. Though its conidial prongs do not lie in one

plane, and though the shoulders of its lateral prongs are compara-

tively narrow, yet the general resemblance of its reproductive ap-

paratus to a trident seem more realistically suggestive than the

resemblances underlying most of the names applied to fungi. The

396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

structural design here is conspicuously different from the triradiate

design that was set forth by Fresenius (6) as characteristic of the

conidia of T’rinacrium subtle Riess, and that accordingly may be

held more or less typical of the genus erected on this species. To be

sure, in application Trinacriwm has not been strictly limited to tri-

radiate forms, having been made to include 7’. subtropicale Speg. with

quadriradiate conidia, as well as 7’. tropicale Speg. with conidia com-

posed mostly of three or four radial elements whereof the proximal

one is pedicelliform and shorter than the others. The former species

differs markedly from the fungus destructive to D. constricta in the

greater width (5 to 6u) and cruciate arrangement of its conidial

branches, while the latter presents equally decisive differences in its

shorter ascending conidiophores and shorter conidial radiants. The

genus T'etracium P. Henn. with quadriradiate, elongate-fusoid, pluri-

septate conidia may be dismissed from consideration, for although

originally described as presumably eligible for inclusion in the Muce-

dineae, Hohnel’s study (9) of its type species, 7’. Auwrantiz P. Henn.,

refers it definitely to the Tuberculariaceae.

From its thoroughgoing similarity in biological relationship and

reproductive habit to some of the Hyphomycetes known to prey on

animals, the fungus under discussion must be regarded as unques-

tionably a member of the same predacious series. Its distinctive

- conidial apparatus is easily derived from that of the genus Dactylella

Grove through branching of the solitary conidium; thereby offering

an analogy to Pedilospora dactylopaga and to the nematode-captur-

ing species I have described elsewhere (5) under the name T'ripo-

sporina aphanopaga. In P. dactylopaga such derivation comes about

through a single bifurcation of a narrow elongate conidium of the

type found in Dactylella passolopaga and D. leptospora Drechsl. (5),

provided that the distal elements or prongs be oriented parallel to one

another; in the present fungus a similarly narrow elongate conidium

bears a lateral branch that immediately bifurcates into two prongs

usually diverging little from the axial prong; in 7’. aphanopaga, on

the other hand, a swollen conidium of the type produced in D. el-

lipsospora Grove (7), D. gephyropaga Drechsl. (5) and D. bembicodes

Drechsl. (5), bifurcates twice successively, the four distal apices di-

verging widely from one another. As Preuss attributed to Tridentarza

alba “‘Sporis oblongis vel clavaeformibus” it may be inferred that

what would now be regarded as the complete conidium of his species

could be derived through appropriate branching of a clavate spore

of the type represented, for example, in D. asthenopaga Drechsl. (5).

Sept. 15, 1937 DRECHSLER: TRIDENTARIA 397

In any event the clavate elements ascribed to the type species of

Tridentaria sets it apart from the fungus subsisting on Dzifflugia con-

stricta. Since this fungus appears specifically distinct also from the

few other quadriradiate species in the Mucedinaceae-Staurosporae,

it is described as new under a name suggestive of its predacious

character.

Tridentaria carnivora sp. nov.

Mycelium sparsum, effusum; hyphis sterilibus hyalinis, parce ramosis,

mediocriter septatis, 1—2u crassis, hac illac animalcula testacea adhaerendo

capientibus, ramulum in orem cujusque intrudentibus, hyphas intus evol-

ventibus quae carnem assumunt. Hyphae fertiles sparsae, hyalinae, septa-

tae, erectae, simplices sed post maturitatem procidentes diende tum saepius

hyphas fertilis ordinis secundi proferentes, plerumque 32-85y altae, basi

1.7—3.3u crassae, sursum leviter fastigatae, apice .9—1.4u crassae, in unicum

conidium abeuntes; conidiis hyalinis, vulgo ex tribus partibus ad instar

fuscinae compositis,—parte longissima quae lineam hyphae fertilis producit

elongato-fusoidea, recta vel leviter curvata, 5—-8- loculari, 35-63y longa, 2.8-

3.8u crassa, deorsum in hastili 1-3- loculari, 12—21y longo, sursum in dente

3—5- loculari, 23-43 longo consistente, inter hastile et dentem unum ramu-

lum lateralem ferente; hoc ramulo infimo furcato atque in duos dentes

1—6- loculares 17—44y longos apicem versus attenuatos vulgo abeunte, rarius

simplici manente tum conidium bidens faciente.

Difflugiam constrictam capiens consumensque habitat in humo silvestri

prope Beltsville, Maryland.

Mycelium scanty, spreading; the vegetative hyphae hyaline, sparingly

branched, septate at moderate intervals, 1 to 2u wide, here and there cap-

turing testaceous rhizopods by adhesion, thrusting a branch into the mouth

of each captive and giving rise inside to assimilative hyphae that appropriate

the protoplasmic contents. Conidiophores sparsely scattered, hyaline, sep-

tate, erect, typically simple though after maturity declining to the sub-

stratum and then often putting forth secondary fertile hyphae, in any case

mostly 32 to 85u (average 60u) high, 1.7 to 3.3u (average 2.5u) wide at the

base, tapering slightly upward, .9 to 1.4u (average 1.2u) wide at the tip,

terminating in a single conidium. Conidia hyaline, usually composed of

three elements in trident-like arrangement,—the longest element elongate-

fusoid, straight or slightly curved, divided by septa into 5 to 8 (average 6.4)

cells, measuring 35 to 63u (average 52y) in length, 2.8 to 3.8u (average 3.2y)

in width, its axis prolonging the axis of the supporting hypha, its proximal

portion of 1 to 3 cells forming a shaft 12 to 21u (average 18x) long, its distal

portion of 3 to 5 cells forming a somewhat tapering prong 23 to 43u (average

34u) long, between shaft and prong bearing a lateral spur; the spur usually

bifurcating near its base into two prongs, each divided by septa into 1 to

6 (average 4) cells and measuring 17 to 44u (average 34) in length; occa-

sional elongation of spur directly into a simple branch leading to develop-

ment of atypical two-pronged conidia.

Capturing and consuming Difflugia constricta, it occurs in leaf mold near

Beltsville, Md.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Casa, J., and Hopkinson, J. Rhizopoda, Part II. In Casu, J., Wartss, G. H.,

398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

and Hopkinson, J. The British freshwater Rhizopoda and Heliozoa. Lone

don, 1915. . :

2. Drecusier, C. Pedilospora dactylopaga n. sp., a fungus capturing and con-

suming testaceous rhizopods. This JOURNAL 24: 395-402. 1934.

3. DrecusierR, C. A Fusarium-like spectes of Dactylella capturing and consuming

testaceous rhizopods. This JOURNAL 26: 397-404. 1936.

4. Drecusier, C. New Zoopagaceae destructive to soil rhizopods. Mycologia 29:

229-249. 1937.

5. Drecuster, C. Some Hyphomycetes that prey on free-living terricolous Nema-

todes. Mycologia 29: 447-552. 1937.

6. Fresenius, G. Bettrdgezur Mykologie. Hefte 1,2. 80p. Frankfurt. 1852.

7. Grove, W. B. New or noteworthy fungi.—Part III. Jour. Bot. 24: 129-137,

197-206. 1886.

8. Grove, W.B. New or noteworthy fungi.—Part IV. Jour. Bot. 50: 9-18, 44-55.

1912.

9. Hounen, F. v. Fragments zur Mykologie (XIII Mitteilung, Nr. 642 bis 718).

Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien Naturw. Kl]. 120(1): 378-484. 1911.

10. Karuine, J.S. Tetracladium marchalianum and its relation to Asterothrix, and

Cerasterias. Mycologia 27: 478-495. 1935.

11. Lerpy, J. Freshwater rhizopods of North America. (Rep. U. 8. Geol. Surv.,

vol. 12.) 7 1879:

12. Linpavu, G. Hyphomycetes. In ENauer, A., and Pranti, K. Dvie natiirlichen

Pflanzenfamilien. 1. Teil, Abteilung 1**: 415-517. 1900.

13. Linpau, G. Die Pilze Deutschlands, Osterreichs und der Schweiz. VIII. Ab-

teilung: Fungi imperfecti: Hyphomycetes (erste Halfte). In RABENHORsT, L.

Kryptogamen-Flora. Ed. 2, 18: 1904-1907.

14, Prnarp, E. Faune rhizopodique du bassin du Léman. 714 p. Geneva, 1902.

15. Preuss, G. T. Uebersicht untersuchter Pilze, besonders aus der Umgegend von

Hoyerswerda. Linnaea 25: 71-80. 1852.

16. Saccarpo, P. A. Sylloge fungorum 4: 231-232. 1886.

17. Saccarpo, P. A., Saccarpo, D., Traverso, G. B., and Trotrsr, A. Sylloge

fungorum 25: 750. 1931.

BOTAN Y.—Notes on the genus Staurogyne.!. E. C. Lronarp, U.S.

National Museum. (Communicated by WiLi1am R. Maxon.)

Staurogyne, a genus of Acanthaceae, subfamily Nelsonioideae, was

described? by Wallich in 1831. He published at that time a single

species, S. argentea, citing as type a specimen collected in Sillet by

F. D. Silva. The following year Nees established* the genus Eber-

matera, now considered a synonym of Stawrogyne, describing four

species, H. humilis and EF. thyrsoidea from Burma, E. axillaris from

Penang, and EF. mandioccana from Brazil. Up to the present, various

authors have recognized about 80 species. The majority of these

however, were published under Ebermaiera, and although Kuntze‘ in

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived May 5, 1937.

2 Pl. Asiat. Rar. 2: 80. pl. 186, 1831.

3 Pl. Asiat. Rar. 3: 75. 1832.

4 Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 497. 1891.

SEPT. 15, 1937 LEONARD: STAUROGYNE 399

Fic. 1.—Staurogyne agrestis Leonard, sp. nov. A, portion of horizontal branch;

B, capsule; C, the posterior calyx lobe and one of the lateral and anterior pairs; D,

bractlets; EE, bract; F, corolla, opened to show stamens. (All nat. size.)

Fic. 2.—Staurogyne trinitensis Leonard, sp. nov. A, portion of plant, nat. size;

B, bract; CC, bractlet; D, posterior calyx segment and one of the lateral and anterior

pairs. (B, C, D, twice nat. size.)

400 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

1891 made numerous transfers, a considerable number remain to be

reclassified.

The genus Staurogyne consists of shrubby or herbaceous plants

with usually yellow or purplish flowers borne in spikes or narrow

racemes. It is readily distinguished from other genera of the sub-

family by its 4 stamens (usually with a minute sterile fifth stamen or

staminode) and by its irregular calyx, the posterior segment being

broader and usually longer than the others.

The species of this genus are widely distributed in the tropics of

both hemispheres; in America they are most numerous in the moun-

tainous regions of eastern Brazil. Unfortunately many are still un-

represented in America herbaria.

Two new species are described in the present paper, one from

Panama and Nicaragua, the other from Trinidad. Also, three are

transferred from Hbermaera to Staurogyne, one is renamed, and

another is reduced to synonymy.

Staurogyne agrestis Leonard, sp. nov.

Herba; caules erecti vel procumbentes, subteretes, pilosi; folia ovata vel

oblongo-ovata, apice obtusa, basi angustata, parce pilosa, petiolis pilosis;

spicae terminales; bracteae oblongo-ovatae, apice acutae, basi angustatae,

pilosae et glanduloso-pubescentes; bracteolae lanceolatae; calycis laciniae

inaequales, pilosae et glanduloso-pubescentes, posteriore oblongo-lanceolata,

3-nervia, ceteris linearibus, acutis, l-nerviis; corolla glabra, labio superiore

bilobo, inferiore trilobo, lobis rotundatis; capsula oblonga, glabra vel apice

minute pubescens; semina minuta, ovoidea, minute papillosa.

A low herb, becoming subligneous at base; stems much branched, erect

or procumbent, subterete, often purplish, the lowermost branches spreading,

up to 20 cm long, curved upward at tip, pilose, the hairs up to 1.5 mm long;

petioles up to 7 mm long, pilose; leaf blades ovate to oblong-ovate, up to 3.5

cm long and 2 cm wide, obtuse at apex, narrowed at base, sometimes purplish

with age, sparingly pilose, the hairs of the lower surface confined chiefly to

the costa and lateral veins (6 to 9 pairs); flowers borne in narrow spikelike

racemes (these terminating all the branches), crowded or the lowermost

distant, the rachis pilose; bracts oblong-ovate, the lowermost about 10 mm

long and 5 mm wide, thence successively smaller upward, acute at tip,

narrowed at base, faintly 3-nerved, appressed-pilose or subglabrous above,

the lower surface pubescent with short straight glandular hairs about 0.25

mm long or the costa bearing a few longer slender eglandular ones; pedicels

up to 1.5 mm long, bearing at middle a pair of 1-nerved, lanceolate bractlets

5 mm long and 1.5 mm wide; calyx segments unequal, the posterior segment

oblong-lanceolate, 5 mm long and 1 mm wide, 3-nerved, the anterior pair

linear, 4.5 mm long, 0.5 mm wide, 1-nerved, the lateral pair subulate, 4 mm

long and about 0.25 mm wide, 1-nerved, all pilose or shortly glandular-

pubescent; corolla 5 or 6 mm long, glabrous, purple (?), the tube 1 mm in

diameter below middle, thence enlarged to 1.5 mm at throat, the 2 upper

lobes rounded, about 1 mm wide, the lower middle lobe obovate, 1.5 mm

long, 1.75 mm wide, the lateral lobes oval and somewhat smaller; filaments

SHptT.-15, 1937 LEONARD: STAUROGYNE 401

1 mm long, glabrous; anther lobes 0.5 mm long; staminode slender, 0.5 mm

long; style 2 mm long, glabrous; capsule oblong, 1.5 mm wide at base,

gradually narrowed to 0.75 mm near tip, glabrous or bearing a few minute

hairs at tip; seeds ovoid, light brown, 0.5 mm long, minutely roughened.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,225,111, collected in a wet

field between Matias Hernandez and Juan Diaz, Province of Panama,

Panama, January 21, 1924, by Paul C. Standley (no. 31936).A plant col-

lected in Nicaragua by Charles Wright on the U.S. North Pacific Exploring

Expedition under Commanders Ringgold and Rodgers is of this species.

Staurogyne agrestis is probably a close relative of S. repens (Nees) Kuntze,

from Matto Grosso, Brazil, but differs in its bushy habit and much larger

leaves. The leaves of S. repens are described as oblong-lanceolate, 6 to 7

lines long and 2 to 23 lines wide, and its habit as repent, but in S. agrestzs

we have a bushy herb with possibly the lower branches procumbent and the

leaves ovate to oblong-ovate and as much as 3.5 cm long and 2 cm wide.

The inflorescence, bracts, corollas, capsules, and pubescence of the two spe-

cies are similar, however.

Staurogyne trinitensis Leonard, sp. nov.

Herba; caules decumbentes, pilosi; folia ovata, apice obtusa, basi angus-

tata, utrinque parce pilosa; racemi compacti, breves, terminales; bracteae

oblongae, apice acutae vel subobtusae, parce pilosae; bracteolael anceolatae,

apice acutae, pilosae; calycis laciniae inaequales, pilosae, ciliatae, posteriore

lineari, ceteris subulatis; corolla parva, glabra, labio superiore bilobo, infer-

iore trilobo, lobis rotundatis; capsula glabra.

Decumbent herb; stems about 30 em long, rooting at the lower nodes,

pilose, the hairs up to 1 mm long; leaf blades ovate, up to 3.5 cm long and

1.7 cm wide, obtuse at apex, narrowed at base, thin, sparingly pilose on both

surfaces, the hairs of the lower surface confined chiefly to costa and lateral

veins (4 or 5 pairs); petioles up to 1 em long, pilose; flowers borne in short

terminal spikelike racemes up to 1.5 cm long; bracts oblong, 7 to 12 mm long,

1.5 to 3 mm wide, acute to subobtuse at apex, sparingly pilose; pedicels 0.5

to 1 mm. long, bearing at middle a pair of lanceolate pilose bractlets 5 to 6

mm long and 1 mm wide, acute at apex; calyx segments 5 to 6 mm long,

pilose and ciliate, the hairs up to 1 mm long, the posterior segment linear,

about 0.7 mm wide, 3-nerved, the others subulate, barely 0.5 mm wide near

base, 1-nerved; corolla 5 or 6 mm long, glabrous, the lobes of the upper lip

rounded, about 1 mm wide, the middle lower lobe ovate, about 1 mm wide,

the two lateral ones similar but somewhat smaller; filaments 2 mm long,

glabrous; anther lobes barely 0.5 mm broad; style 2.5 mm long, glabrous;

capsule (immature) glabrous, about 1 cm long.

Type in the Britton Herbarium, New York Botanical Garden, collected

on the road to Caroni Estate, Arima, Trinidad, April 5, 1866 (Trinidad Her-

barium no. 2900, the collector unknown).

Apparently unrelated to any other American member of the genus. An

appended note by N. E. Brown states that the specimen does not match

any American material at Kew but is near the Indian S. zeylanica (Nees)

Kuntze.

402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

Staurogyne brachiata (Hiern) Leonard, comb. nov.

Ebermaiera brachiata Hiern in Nat. For. Kjébenhaven Vid. Medd.

1877: 69. 1877. ,

Type collected at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, by Glaziou (no. 3070).

Staurogyne wawrana Leonard, nom. nov.

Ebermaiera graciis Wawra, Itin. Princ. Coburgi 1: 94. pl. 10.

1883; not Ebermatera gracilis T. Anders. (1867).

Type collected in ‘‘Walder von Alto d’Imperador,”’ Petropolis,

Brazil (Coll. Il. 55).

Staurogyne itatiaiae (Wawra) Leonard, comb. nov.

Ebermaiera Itatiaiae Wawra, Itin. Prine. Coburgi 1: 93. pl. 11. 1883.

Type collected in ‘““Hochwalder des Itatiaia,’’ Brazil (Coll. II.

434).

Staurogyne warmingiana (Hiern) Leonard, comb. nov.

Ebermaiera Warmingiana Hiern in Nat. For. Kj6benhavn Vid. Medd.

18/7763. 1377..*

Type collected ‘‘in marginibus silvarum ad Serra da Piedade,”’

Brazil, by Warming.

STAUROGYNE VAUTHIERIANA (Nees) Kuntze, Rev.

Gen. Pl. 2: 497. 1891.

Hbermaiera Vauthieriana Nees in Mart. FI. Bras. 9: 15. 1847.

Staurogyne macrantha Lindau in Bull. Herb. Boiss. 5: 648. 1897.

Type collected at Villa Rica, Prov. Minas Geraes, Brazil, by

Vauthier (no. 182). The type of Stawrogyne macrantha was collected

near Itacolumy, Prov. Minas Geraes, Brazil, by Schwacke (no.

10495).

ZOOLOGY .—A new pocket gopher of the genus Cratogeomys from

Mexico.: E. A. GotpMan, Bureau of Biological Survey.

In a revision of the pocket gophers of the genus Cratogeomys by

E. W. Nelson and the writer,” 25 geographic races assigned to four

species were recognized. Since the revision was published I have had

occasion to examine three specimens from near timber line on

Mount Orizaba, Vera Cruz, the highest mountain in North America

south of Alaska. The specimens were referred by Elliot’ to typical

1 Received May 24, 1937.

2 Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 47: 135-154. 1934.

3 Cat. Coll. of Mammals in Field Columbian Mus., Pub. 115, Zool. ser. 8: 310.

1907.

Sept. 15, 1937 GOLDMAN: NEW POCKET GOPHER 403

Cratogeomys perotensis but are now found to exhibit characters that

are distinctive.

For the opportunity to describe this new subspecies I am indebted

to Dr. Wilfred H. Osgood of the Field Museum of Natural History

Cratogeomys perotensis peraltus, subsp. nov.

Timber-line Pocket Gopher

Type.—From near timber line on Mount Orizaba, Vera Cruz, Mexico

(altitude about 12,500 feet). No 13831, adult, skin and skull, Field Museum

of Natural History, collected by Edmund Heller, July 5, 1904.

Distribution Known only from the type locality on the upper slope of

Mount Orizaba, western Vera Cruz, Mexico.

General characters.—Similar in size and color to Cratogeomys perotensis

perotensis of the higher slopes of the Cofre de Perote, and to Cratogeomys

perotensis estor of Las Vigas, at a lower elevation on the eastern edge of the

interior plateau in western Vera Cruz. Differing notably from both perotensis

and estor in cranial details, especially the peculiar form of the nasals and

adjoining bony elements.

Color.—Type (acquiring fresh pelage): Upper parts from top of head over

- back to rump near ‘‘sayal brown” (Ridgway, 1912) moderately mixed with

black, becoming lighter and near “cinnamon” along sides, forearms, and

thighs; under parts thinly overlaid with dull buff, the light plumbeous basal

color showing through; middle of face and muzzle blackish; auricular patches

deep black; a white patch at upper base of tail; fore feet brownish; hind feet

white; tail thinly haired, dark brownish above, somewhat paler below.

Skull—vVery similar to that of perotensis in general form, but nasals

shorter, barely reaching anterior plane of zygomata, less tapering and wedge-

shaped, the posterior ends decidedly broader, more rounded; premaxillae

narrower, less extended posteriorly, ending in plane of lachrymals (usually

reaching slightly beyond this plane in perotensis); frontals broader between

premaxillae and reaching farther forward along median line to meet corre-

spondingly broad ends of nasals; squamosal portion of lambdoid crest lower,

less trenchant, rising more nearly vertically over mastoid process, instead of

strongly bent forward as in perotensis; jugal broader anteriorly, inserted

farther forward in maxilla; lateral margins of palate more excised behind

posterior molars; pterygoids rather broad, with more prominent lateral

wings; molariform teeth slightly narrower; crown of last upper molar some-

what more quadrate, less triangular, the posterior lobe broader, and the

outer side less oblique. Compared with that of estor the skull is similar in

size, but departs in detail as follows: Nasals broader, less tapering and

wedge-shaped posteriorly; premaxillae narrower, about equaling nasals in

transverse plane near posterior ends of latter (premaxillae wider than nasals

near posterior ends in estor); braincase broader anteriorly, tending to develop

more prominent postorbital processes at fronto-parietal suture; zygomata

lighter, slightly more squarely, spreading anteriorly, the upper surface of

maxillary roots narrower; frontals broader anteriorly between premaxillae;

palatal grooves shorter, ending at posterior palatine foramina which are

placed farther forward near transverse plane between first and second upper

molars (grooves longer and ending at palatine foramina near plane between

second and third upper molars in estor); crown of last upper molar somewhat

more quadrate, less triangular, the outer reéntrant angle little developed;

tubercle over root of lower incisor less prominent.

404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 9

Measurements—Type: Total length, 315 mm; tail vertebrae, 90; hind

foot, 42.5. Two adult male topotypes, respectively: 300, 305; 92, 82; 41, 41.

Skull (type): Greatest length (median line), 57.6; zygomatic breadth, 41.3;

width across squamosals (over mastoids), 36; interorbital constriction, 8;

length of nasals, 21.3; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 10.7; upper incisors

(width of cutting edge), 8.2.

Remarks.—Cratogeomys p. peraltus is apparently restricted to the upper

slopes near timber line (about 12,500 feet) on Mount Orizaba. Its range may

be interrupted below by that of the much smaller pocket gopher, Thomomys

umbrinus orizabae, which is very numerous, at least on the west slope, at

9,500 feet.

Specimens examined.—Total number four, three skins and skulls and one

additional skull, all in the Field Museum of Natural History.

CONTENTS

CHEMISTRY.—Some aspects of the study of insulin. rca |

VIGNEAUD... 20s sees e eee eee entree tte e es

PALEONTOLOGY.—Clithrocrinus, new name for Cistocrinus

EpwIn Kirk. sige aks sae ae

Borany.—Eleven new Asteraceae from North and South / ‘ics

S. F. BAR, cs. ys a

oe:

Borany.—A species of Tridentaria preying on Difflugia const

Cuanims DRECHSLER.....:.<.4+4+ses-* aah toccihes EG 4

Botany.—Notes on the genus Staurogyne. E. C. Lnonanp .

ZooLtoay.—A new pocket gopher of the genus Cratogeomye f

Mexico. E. A. oO aE i *

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicale _

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“ ee *-¢ i: >

ary: § A }

be «steady Ne : OcToBER 15, 1937 No. 10

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 27 OcTOBER 15, 1937 No. 10

HYDROLOGY .—The chemical character of the ground waters of the

South Atlantic Coastal Plain! Marcaret D. Foster, U. 8.

Geological Survey. (Communicated by Oscar E. MEINzER.)

The low-lying plain bordering the Atlantic Ocean from the Poto-

mac River and Chesapeake Bay southward to the tip of Florida is

here referred to as the South Atlantic Coastal Plain. On the west the

plain is bounded by the Piedmont Plateau. The area is part of the

Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, a natural physiographic and geo-

logic province of the United States extending from Massachusetts to

the Rio Grande.

In the South Atlantic Coastal Plain most of the ground-water

supplies are obtained from sedimentary deposits; few wells penetrate

to the underlying crystalline rocks. These sedimentary deposits con-

sist of gravel, sand, clay, marl, limestone, and chalk, laid down for

the most part under the sea.

Although sodium chloride waters may be encountered near the

coast, most of the ground waters obtained from these deposits are

bicarbonate waters, with either calcium or sodium as the principal

basic constituent. In some waters the proportions of these two basic

constituents are approximately equal. Analyses of typical waters in

this area are shown graphically in Figs. 1 and 2. The principal soluble

material in the sediments is calcium carbonate, with some magnesium

carbonate. The clastic constituents of the sands and clays, being the

weathered residues of older igneous and sedimentary rocks, have

already been more or less altered by hydrolysis and have been leached

of their soluble materials. The primary action on the sedimentary

deposits, therefore, of meteoric waters containing in solution carbon

dioxide derived from the air and soil is solution of calcium and mag-

nesium carbonates. The amount of these carbonates taken into solu-

tion depends on the carbon dioxide content of the percolating waters

as well as one the calcium and magnesium carbonate content of the

sedimentary beds.

1 Received August 18, 1937. Presented before the Division of Water Sewage, and

Sanitation Chemistry at the 93d Meeting of the American Chemical Society, Chapel

Hill, N. C., April 12 to 15, 1937. Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geologi-

cal Survey.

405

406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

In deposits that are relatively calcareous, such as sand and clay

formations that contain much calcareous cementing material or de-

posits of marl, limestone, and chalk, the capacity of the percolating

waters to take calclum and magnesium carbonates into solution by

virtue of their content of carbon dioxide is exhausted at shallow

depths. Waters from such formations do not generally increase in

mineral content with increasing depth in the formation. Wells 20

to 40 feet deep in these formations yield water containing as much

dissolved mineral matter as those several hundred feet deep.

In formations that contain little calcareous material, however, the

waters must travel farther to exhaust their capacity to take calcium

carbonate into solution. Waters from shallow depths in such forma-

tions are usually low in dissolved mineral matter. As the waters

percolate downward they continue to take calcium and magnesium

carbonate into solution until their carbon dioxide content is ex-

hausted. With greater depth the mineral content then tends to re-

main relatively constant.

Some formations that are apparently devoid of calcareous material

yield waters of low mineral content, even from great depths. Some of

these deep waters carry considerable carbon dioxide and are corrosive.

The solution of calcium and magnesium carbonates constitutes the

primary action between the percolating meteoric waters and the rock

materials. However, many waters of the area are sodium bicarbonate

waters, and some contain approximately equal quantities of caleium

and sodium.

The same formation may yield waters of all these different types.

In such a formation the calcium bicarbonate waters are usually the

shallower waters, and the sodium bicarbonate waters are the deeper

waters. The waters undergo an alteration in character with depth.

The calcium and magnesium content decreases, the waters become

softer, and at the same time the sodium content increases, the bi-

carbonate and total mineral content often remaining about the same.

This phenomenon is shown in Fig. 1 by diagrams F, G, H, and I,

which represent analyses of waters from different depths in the Black

Creek formation in South Carolina. These waters appear to be the

result of a secondary action between the waters and the rock materials

—exchange of calclum and magnesium in solution in the waters for

sodium of base-exchange minerals in the rock materials. Descriptions

of the lithologic character of the formations of this area in geologic

reports frequently note the fact that a certain formation is “‘glau-

conitic.’’ Glauconite, or greensand, is a green granular silicate of

Ocr.. 15, 1937 FOSTER: GROUND WATERS 407

potassium and iron that has pronounced base-exchange properties.

It is formed near the mud line off continental shores and is conse-

quently often found in sedimentary deposits like those that underlie

this area. Certain hydrous alumino-silicates that are capable of base

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South Carolina. (Names above columns refer to stratigraphic units; numbers refer to

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exchange, derived from the weathering of crystalline rocks, may also

make up part of the clastic material of these sediments.

The depth at which softening begins varies with the relative pro-

portion of calcium and magnesium carbonates to base-exchange

minerals in the materials through which the water passes. If the base-

exchange minerals are present in an amount at least proportional to

408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

the carbonates, the two processes are probably almost simultaneous,

the calcium being exchanged almost as soon as it is taken into solu-

tion. If, however, the carbonates are present in the rock materials

in amounts more than equivalent to the exchange minerals, or if the

exchange capacity of the base-exchange minerals has been exhausted

in the shallower materials, the ground waters must travel farther

before being softened.

This phenomenon of natural water softening is particularly pro-

nounced in the formations that underlie Virginia and North and

South Carolina. In Virginia most of the waters from a depth of more

than 100 or 150 feet are sodium bicarbonate waters, and many waters

from even shallower depths contain some sodium bicarbonate, indicat-

ing that softening has begun to take place. The chemical composition

of typical well waters in the Coastal Plain of Virginia from different

depths in different formations is shown graphically on Fig. 1, A, B, C,

D, and E. Many of the Virginia waters are characterized by a very

high content of sodium bicarbonate, with as much as 250 to 350 parts

per million of sodium and 500 to 700 parts of bicarbonate; the calcium

and magnesium content of these waters is very low, and in many the

sulfate and chloride are low (diagrams C, D, and E). The high content

of bicarbonate in these waters and the comparatively shallow depths

at which softening takes place indicate that (1) the percolating waters

had, at the outset, a high content of carbon dioxide and, consequently,

a high capacity for solution of calclum and magnesium carbonate,

(2) the rock materials through which they passed were relatively

calcareous, and (3) the proportion of base-exchange minerals to cal-

cium and magnesium carbonates in the materials was relatively high.

There is little detailed information on the ground waters of North

Carolina. The few analyses at hand indicate that softening is fairly

complete at depths of about 100 or 150 feet.

The three most important water-bearing formations in South Caro-

lina are the Tuscaloosa, the Black Creek, and the Peedee. Typical

waters from different depths in the Black Creek formation are shown

graphically in Fig. 1, diagrams F, G, H, and I. The waters from this

formation are usually fairly low in dissolved mineral matter, generally

containing less than 200 parts per million. The waters from the Tus-

caloosa formation are similar in character to those from the Black

Creek formation, although they generally contain less than 150 parts

per million of dissolved mineral matter. The waters from the Peedee

formation are more highly mineralized, usually having a mineral con-

tent of 500 to 750 parts per million. The deeper waters from the

Oct. 15, 1937 FOSTER: GROUND WATERS 409

Peedee formation are similar to the highly mineralized sodium bi-

carbonate waters in Virginia, shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1, C,

D, and E. The predominating chemical constituent of the waters in

all these formations shows a gradual alteration with increasing depth,

from calcium bicarbonate, which characterizes the shallower waters,

to sodium bicarbonate, which characterizes the deeper waters. The

depth at which softening takes place differs in the different forma-

tions. In the Tuscaloosa it apparently takes place at less than 150

feet, in the Black Creek at about 150 to 200 feet, and in the Peedee

at about 200 feet. The ground waters from the other formations of

South Carolina show the same alteration in character with depth. In

the Cooper marl and Santee limestone the softening apparently takes

place at a depth between 200 and 300 feet.

The phenomenon of base exchange is much less pronounced in the

formations that underlie Georgia. These formations contain a larger

proportion of limestone than those in the area to the north. The deep

waters, as well as the shallow waters, are for the most part calcium

bicarbonate waters, although wells more than 800 feet deep may

yield sodium bicarbonate water. This is brought out in Fig. 2, dia-

grams A, B, C, D, E, and F, which show graphically the composition

of typical waters from different depths in different formations in the

Coastal Plain of Georgia. The data at hand indicate that the ground

waters of Georgia are remarkably uniform in chemical composition,

regardless of the formation from which they come. The general range

in total dissolved mineral matter for the waters from the various

formations is 150 to 250 parts per million, and in total hardness 100

to 200 parts, although there are waters with more dissolved mineral

matter or with less. Apparently there is, then, in Georgia, no forma-

tion which yields markedly superior or inferior water, and the choice

of the proper horizon to tap for a water supply depends on local

conditions.

The rocks of Florida are, properly considered, the southward

extension of the formations in Georgia and Alabama. In Florida, as in

Georgia, calcium bicarbonate waters predominate. The diminution of

the tendency of the formations to soften the waters in them, noted in

Georgia, is apparently carried to completion in Florida, where a

sodium bicarbonate water is rare. Two have been noted in the

Okeechobee area. These are from shallow wells, however, and may be

considered a local phenomenon. The calcium bicarbonate waters of

Florida do not show the same uniformity in chemical composition as

those of Georgia. The range in total dissolved mineral matter is

410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

greater, and the relative content of the different constituents is much

more variable. In this respect the relative amounts of calcium and

magnesium are particularly to be noted. In some waters the calcium

content is relatively high and the magnesium content is very low, as

fe») “N

5 x XxX

HARDNESS PARTS PER MILLION

658 Zs: one rex

080%

este Ye

“tetas cesses 7 atetet sete:

Z RSo5e4 08 oy stones wt

p 525 504 4

MILLIGRAM EQUIVALENTS PER KILOGRAM

SRE

Ros ee SX

MSY

509

Ree

seeee

roren RS

5525

Wt Th Wl

ch Tel

Fig. SE ait of typical well waters in the Coastal Plain of Georgia and

in Florida. (Names above columns refer to stratigraphic units; numbers refer to depth

of wells in feet.)

SS SS

Se $52

one oeestetet

shown in diagram G in Fig 2; in others these two constituents are

present in almost equivalent amounts, as shown in diagram H, Fig. 2.

In general, waters containing more than 400 parts per million of total

solids and having a total hardness of more than 400 parts have, pro-

portionately, considerably more sulfate and chloride than waters

containing less than 400 parts of total solids, although some waters

Oenr. 15,1937 FOSTER: GROUND WATERS 411

with less than 400 parts of dissolved mineral matter also contain

notable quantities of these constituents. The best water is generally

obtained from the younger formations. These deposits usually yield

soft water of low mineral content (Fig. 2, I), but in some areas they

may not yield enough water for more than small domestic supplies.

Near the coast along the whole area another factor may enter in

the determination of the chemical character of the waters. Most of

the formations are assumed to have submarine outcrops. If the head

of fresh water in a formation is sufficient to balance the head of

heavier sea water, which tends to force salt water into the formation

at its submarine outcrop, salt water will not enter the formation, and

the normal chemical relations of the waters in the formation will be

undisturbed. If, however, the fresh-water head is not sufficient, sea

water will enter the formation to the point where it is balanced by the

fresh-water head. If this point lies somewhere inland from the coast

line, salty waters will be encountered by wells drilled into the forma-

tion between this point and the coast. The chemical composition of

many of these salty waters shows them to be normal ground waters

to which more or less sea water has been added. Formations con-

taining fresh water may be found below those containing salt water.

As arule, however, the probability of finding fresh water below salty

water is slight. The problem of finding sufficient fresh water for a

municipal supply is a serious one for-many cities on the coast. The

deep formations may all yield salty water, and the superficial deposits,

while yielding fresh water, may not yield a sufficient supply for the

use of a city. Away from the coast salt water from deep wells may

represent an admixture of meteoric water with sea water entrapped

in the formation at the time of its deposition. Waters of high chloride

content are also obtained from many shallow wells throughout the

area. In many of these waters the high chloride is accompanied by

high nitrate, which is usually derived from the oxidation of nitrog-

enous organic matter.

Waters in which sulfate is the predominant acidic constituent are

comparatively rare in this area. They are usually of only local occur-

rence and the result of strictly local conditions. As a rule sulfate is a

subordinate constituent in the ground waters of the South Atlantic

Coastal Plain.

In general, then, the wells of shallow or moderate depths in Vir-

ginia and North and South Carolina yield calcium bicarbonate waters,

the deep wells yield sodium bicarbonate waters; both shallow and

deep wells in Georgia and Florida yield calcium bicarbonate waters;

412 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

but along the whole coast these normal ground-water relationships

may be disturbed by the admixture of more or less sea water with

the normal ground waters.

LITERATURE CITED

. SANFORD, 8S. The underground water resources of the Coastal Plain Province of

Virginia. Virginia Geol. Survey Bull. V. 1913.

. Cooks, C. W. ‘Geology of the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. U. 8S. Geol.

Survey Bull. 867. 1936.

. STEPHENSON, L. W., and Veatcu, J.O. Underground waters of the Coastal Plain

of Georgia. U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 341. 1915.

. Matson, G. C., and Sanrorp, S., Geology and ground waters of Florida. U.S.

Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 319. 1913.

. Cottins, W. D., and Howarp, C. S., Chemical character of waters of Florida.

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 596-G. 1928.

Cr oP OF NWN =

BOTANY.—WNew species of Sphaceloma on Aralia and Mentha.!

AnNA E. JENKINS, Bureau of Plant Industry. (Communicated

by Joun A. STEVENSON.)

Four new American species of Sphaceloma were listed in a synoptic

table (table 1) included in a paper presented at Rio de Janeiro, in

January, 1936, giving the known species of Elsinoe and Sphaceloma.?

Names and brief descriptions of the two North American species are

here supplied. The two from South America will be named and de-

scribed elsewhere. |

Sphaceloma araliae sp. nov.

Produces conspicuous spots or galls on stems and leaves, including mid-

rib and veins; spots solitary or closely grouped, linear to elliptical or elon-

gate, or, particularly on leaves, circular to irregular, up to 12 mm long by

5 mm wide, ocher red,*? becoming pale ochraceous buff in central region;

acervuli erumpent superficial, 20-50u in diam., often continuous over

large areas; hyphae or stromata hyaline; stromata reaching 80y in thick-

ness; palisade of conidiophores compact, light fulvous, often 8-20 thick;

conidia oblong-elliptical, 1-celled, hyaline, 5-10ux*2.5-4u (measurements

include conidia in culture); on potato-dextrose-agar medium, thallus ochra-

ceous tawny.

Macules vel gallas insignes, 5 mm latas, 12 mm longas, ochraceorubras,

in centro ad ochraceo-alutaceas pallescentes, in caulibus et foliis producens;

acervulis erumpente superficialibus, 20—50u in diam., saepe per superfici-

entem latam continuis; stromatibus saepe bene evolutis, usque 80u ecrassis,

hyalinis; palis conidiophorum compactis, crassis, pallide fulvis; conidiis uni-

cellularibus, oblongo-ellipticis, hyalinis, 5-10uX2.5—5y.

On living stems and leaves of Aralia spinosa L., causing a scab disease,

Edgewater, Md., July 2, 1934, Peter Bisset. In the Mycological Collections

of the Bureau of Plant Industry (No. 69462, type), and in Phytopathologi-

cal Herbarium, Instituto Biologico, Sao Paulo, Brazil.

1 Received September 14, 1937.

2 Jenkins, A. E. and A. A. Brrancourt, Doencas das plantas causados por fungos

dos generos Elsinoe e Sphaceloma. Rodriguésia 2: (Numero especial. Annaes da Pri-

meira Reunido de Phytopathologistas do Brasil) 305-3138. 2 tables. 1936.

3 Ripaway, R. Color standards and color nomenclature, 43 pp. 1912.

Oct. 15, 1937 JENKINS: SPHACELOMA 413

Fig. 1, A-G.—Sphaceloma araliae on Aralia spinosa. A—D, on leaf parts, E and F,

on stem; G, acervulus, a, palisade of conidiophores, 6, underlying stems. A-F, X1;

G, X400. H, 25-day-old culture of the fungus on potato-dextrose agar. X1.

I-O.—S. menthae on Mentha piperata. I, on leaves, J-N, on stems, M, on rootstock;

N, conidia, and C, acervulus on upper surface of leaf; I-M, X1; N and O, 400. P,

old culture on oatmeal agar. X1.

414 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 10

Sphaceloma menthae sp. nov.

Produces spots on leaves, stems and rootstocks; spots often numerous,

raisin black, central part becoming pallid to pale vinaceous drab, circular

to elliptical or irregular, up to 3-5 mm in diam.; stem lesions at first sunken,

sometimes elevated, often becoming crateriform with concavity light-

colored; acervuli erumpent superficial, more or less hemispherical or flat-

tened, 15-80 or more in diam.; palisade of conidiophores compact, very

light yellow, 10—-25yu thick; conidia spherical to elliptical, hyaline, 3-8y

2.5-4u. Characters of thallus in culture resembling those of Myriangium.

Color of young thalli on potato dextrose agar medium Varley’s brown sur-

rounded by Hay’s maroon, older pubescent thalli pallid to light brownish

drab, medium becoming light yellowish olive (Fig. 1, I-P).

Maculis numerosis, in foliis, caulibus et radicibus, purpureo-nigris, in

centro pallidis ad pallide vinaceo-griseis, ellipticis vel rotundis vel irregulari-

bus, 3-5 mm in diam., vel in caulibus interdum extensis et saepe crateri-

formibus; acervulis erumpente superficialibus, 15—80u in diam. vel ampli-

oribus; palis conidiophorum compactis, 10—25y crassis; conidiis sphaericis

ellipticisve, hyalinis, 3-8 X 2.5—4y.

On leaves, stems, and rootstocks of cultivated Mentha piperata L., causing

the disease known as leopard spot, Lafayette, Ind., Aug. 21, 1934, R.C. Baines;

Breeman, Ind., Sept. 1, 1937, H. A. Edson; Mentha, Mich., Aug. 3, 1937,

Ray Nelson and Anna E. Jenkins; and July31,1935,and Aug. 20 and 29 (type),

1937, Ray Nelson. Type in the Mycological Collections of the Bureau of

Plant Industry (No. 72538). Portions of the type collection also deposited

in the following herbaria: Farlow Cryptogamic Herbarium of Harvard

University, New York Botanical Garden, Herbarium of the University of

Michigan, and the Phytopathological Herbarium, Instituto Biologico de

Sao Paulo, Brazil.

PALEOBOTAN Y.—Fossil legumes from Bridge Creek, Oregon.! Ro-

LAND W. Brown, U. 8. Geological Survey.

The reddish shales occurring along Bridge Creek, 9 miles north-

west of Mitchell, Ore., and recognized as equivalent to the upper

part of the Clarno formation (Oligocene, according to the usage of

the U. 8. Geological Survey), have long-been noted for the abundant

and well-preserved fossil plants they carry. This flora, together with

that from similar rocks of the same or approximately the same age

and horizon in the Crooked River basin, 35 miles southward, includes

ferns, pines, firs, sequoias, cattails, willows, sweet-ferns, hazelnuts,

hornbeams, ironwoods, alders, beeches, chestnuts, oaks, hickories,

elms, hackberries, barberries, umbellularias, sycamores, mock-oranges,

service-berries, hawthorns, lindens, black-gums, sweet-gums, dog-

woods, and madrones. Although this flora is, relatively speaking,

fairly large and well known, it is nevertheless possible to find new

species, even among the old collections, as was my good fortune

recently when, for other reasons than looking for a new species, I had

1 Received July 29, 1937.

Oct. 15, 1937 BROWN: FOSSIL LEGUMES 415

occasion to split a piece of the shale from Bridge Creek. To my sur-

prise the unusually fine legume pod illustrated in Fig. 1 was un-

covered. This pod belongs to a species of Cladrastis, a genus hitherto

unreported from Bridge Creek, and may be described as

Cladrastis oregonensis Brown, n. sp. Fig. 1

Description.—A linear-compressed pod, 6.5 em long and 1.2 ecm wide,

with acute apex and base, the latter surrounded by the remains of the cam-

panulate calyx. The placental suture line is marked by a wide keel or wing,

but the other margin does not appear to be appreciably winged. One large

Fig. 1.—Cladrastis oregonensis Brown, n. sp. Fig. 2.—Micropodium ovatum (Les-

quereux) Brown, n. comb. Both specimens are from the reddish shales along Bridge

Creek, 9 miles northwest of Mitchell, Ore. Natural size.

oblong seed, 1 cm long and 5 mm wide, has a position near the center of

the pod. It is attached at the upcurved end to the placenta, the free rounded

end pointing backward to the base of the pod so that the long axis of the

seed is parallel to the placental line. Five minute aborted seeds of the same

shape as the large seed are also present. Only a faint suggestion of reticulate

veining is preserved on the pod in the region near the large seed.

Occurrence.—In reddish shales along Bridge Creek, 9 miles northwest of

Mitchell, Ore.

Type—Deposited in the U. S. National Museum.

- Remarks.—The characters displayed by this fossil pod are distinctive

and indicate the genus Cladrastzis. Confusion might be made with the pods

of Robinia, which resemble those of Cladrastis closely, but the pods of

Robinia are in general blunter at both ends, and its seeds are about two-

thirds the size of those of Cladrastzs, with their long axes somewhat oblique

to the placental line. I have, however, been unsuccessful in matching the

fossil exactly with typical pods from any of the 4 or 5 living species of

Cladrastis. Most of the pods of C. lutea, the yellow-wood of a restricted area

in the southeastern United States, have a comparatively narrow wing along

the placental suture. The other species are natives of eastern Asia, and

among these the best matches for the fossil are the pods of C. amurensvs,

which compare well in wing characters but are somewhat more rounded at

the apex.

The leaves of Cladrastis are odd-pinnate, with leaflets that vary from

broadly oval in C. lutea to oblong and lanceolate in some of the Asiatic

species. It would seem that a scrutiny of the more or less doubtfully assigned

416 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

fossil leaves from Bridge Creek might give a clue to the probable affinity of

the fossil pod with living species of Cladrastis. At least two kinds of such

leaves, present in the collections, may be leguminous. They are the leaves

identified as Fraxinus denticulata Heer?? and some of those originally called

Fraxinus integrifolia Newberry’ but now Umbellularia oregonensis (Knowl-

ton and Cockerell) Chaney.* The enlarged petioles and the secondary vena-

tion of Fraxinus denticulata can be matched fairly closely in some of the

leaflets of Cladrastis lutea and some Asiatic species of Cladrastis. As for

Umbellularia oregonensis, there seems to be little question that most of the

leaves assigned to that species are Umbellularza. However, among these

leaves in the collection at the U. 8. National Museum are some that in

shape, venation, and enlarged petioles resemble the lanceolate leaflets of

Cladrastis amurensis. Thus, with two sets of leaves or leaflets as possible

candidates for sharing specific relationship with the fossil pod, apparently

no satisfactory conclusion can be drawn, and the question as to what leaflets

go with the pod must wait for solution upon the finding of further evidence.

Among fossil species the pod called Leguminosites sp. by Dorf,’ may be

compared with Cladrastis oregonensis, but it has wide wings on both margins

and thus resembles the living C. platycarpa of Japan. This pod also belongs

to a later geologic horizon than C. oregonensis. The pod described as C.

eocenica Berry® from the Eocene of Tennessee may belong to Cladrastis, but

as figured it does not show the shape and posture of the seeds and thus fails

to be entirely convincing.

Two other kinds of leguminous pods have been described from the

shales of Bridge Creek and Crooked River, Ore. One of these is

Cercis sp. from Crooked River.’ This is the distal half of a pod showing

a thick suture line and three elliptic to circular seeds. The shape of

these seeds clearly distinguishes this pod from Cladrastis oregonensis.

LaMotte® has synonymized Cercis sp. with Cercis spokanensis Knowl-

ton® from the Latah formation. It seems to me, however, that La-

2 NEWBERRY, J.S. The later extinct floras of North America. U.S. Geol. Survey

Mon. 35: 128, pl. 49, fig. 6, 1896 —CuaNnry, R. W. Geology and paleontology of the

Crooked River Basin, with special reference to the Bridge Creek flora. Carnegie Inst.

Wash. Pub. 346 (pt. 4): 132, pl. 19, figs. 5-7, 1927.

3 NEWBERRY, J.S. Opcit., p. 128, pl. 49, figs. 1-3.

4 CHaney, R. W. A record of the presence of Umbellularia in the Tertiary of the

Cee United States. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 349 (pt. 4): 60, pl. 1, figs, 1, 3, 5,

, 1925:

5 Dorr, Eruine. A late Tertiary flora from southwestern Idaho. Carnegie Inst.

Wash. Pub. 476 (pt. 2): 119, pl. 3, fig. 1, 1936.

6 Berry, E. W. Revision of the lower Eocene Wilcox flora of the southeastern States.

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 156: 84, pl. 41, fig. 12, 1930.

7 CHangEy, R. W. Opcit., Pub. 346 (pt. 4): 125, pl. 15, fig. 5, 1927.

8 LaMorrs, R. 8S. The upper Cedarville flora of northwestern Nevada and adjacent

California. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 455 (pt. 5): 182, pl. 10, fig. 4, 1936.

® KNow.ton, F. H. Flora of the Latah formation of Spokane, Washington, and

Coeur d’ Alene, Idaho. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140: 43, pl. 29, fig. 9, 1926.—

Brown, R. W. Additions to some fossil floras of the western United States. U. 8. Geol.

Survey Prof. Paper 186: 177, pl. 54, figs. 10-12, 1937.

Ocrs15; 1937 BROWN: FOSSIL LEGUMES 417

Motte’s figured specimen from 49 Camp, Washoe County, Nev. is

not C. spokanensis, nor is it the same species as the Crooked River

specimen, for the latter appears to be more membranous and lacks

the wide wings on the margins. The other species of pod is that

originally called Ailanthus ovata Lesquereux but now

Micropodium ovatum (Lesquereux) Brown, n. comb. Fig. 2

Ailanthus ovata Lesquereux, U. S. Geol. Survey Terr. Rept. 8:254, pl. 51,

figs. 7, 8. 1883. [Fig. 8 is a branch, probably unidentifiable, and there-

fore not further considered here.]

Knowlton, U. 8. Geol. Survey Bull. 204: 69. 1902.

Description.—Small oblong-ovate pods, rounded at the apex, acute at

the base, 1.5 em long and 8 mm wide, with a broad wing on the placental

suture line. In Fig. 2 the apex is broken and the base is slightly eroded.

Seeds apparently one to several, elliptic, 2 mm long, with the long axis per-

pendicular to the placental line. No venation appears to be present on the

specimens. Such markings or striations as have been reported seem to have

been caused by the processes of fossilization.

Occurrence.—In reddish shales along Bridge Creek, 9 miles northwest of

Mitchell, Ore.

Type.—The original figured specimens are at the University of California.

Fig. 2 is in the U. 8S. National Museum.

Remarks.—These small pods are obviously those of a species of legume

and not of Azlanthus, for they show neither the longitudinal veins and

reticulations, nor the small notch or emargination that is usually present on

the wing beneath the seed of Azlanthus. Characteristic samaras of Azlanthus

americana Cockerell are present in the flora from the Green River formation

and in that from the Florissant lake beds but they can be distinguished

readily from these pods.

Because of their nearly uniform small size these pods seem to represent a

single species distinct from that called Cercis sp. by Chaney, referred to

above. Although Cerczs leaves are known from the Florissant lake beds, the

Latah formation, and other strata in the regions adjacent to the John Day

Basin of Oregon, none have yet been identified as such from the shales of

Bridge Creek and Crooked River in the latter area. Nevertheless Cercis sp.

appears to be a true Cercis. It is possible that the small pods under discussion

here may be the dwarf pods of that species, but until more conclusive evi-

dence appears it seems desirable to regard them as distinct and to adopt

Saporta’s generic name for similar pods from the Tertiary of southeastern

France, his type being Micropodium oligospermum.' Saporta himself found

it difficult to distinguish his specimens from Cercis but concluded that be-

cause they were apparently produced in a raceme they should be considered

as belonging to a different genus. If these fruits were produced in a raceme

it is possible that they too may represent Cladrastis, resembling the smaller

10 Saporta, G. pE. Etudes sur les végétation du sud-est de la France a l’époque

tertiare. 1: 137, pl. 14, figs. 8A, 8B, 1863.—Suppl. 1. Révision de la flore des gypses d’ Aix.

3: 221, pl. 18, fig. 1, 1873.

418 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

pods of C. platycarpa of Japan. What appear to be 2 or 3 closely spaced seeds

may in reality be folds in the pod overlying a single large seed. If this inter-

pretation be the correct one, then it is possible that the aforementioned

specimen referred by LaMotte to Cercis spokanensis and the strikingly

similar specimen called Dalbergia? coloradensis Knowlton" from the Floris-

sant lake beds, may also be large specimens of this or a closely related species

of Cladrastis.

Obviously, not having Saporta’s specimens at hand, it is impossible to

make detailed comparisons between them and Micropodium ovatum. Super-

ficially they seem to be identical species, but only a comparison of the

specimens can establish the fact.

The known fossil legumes from the shales on Bridge Creek and Crooked

River, Ore., now appear to be: Cercis sp., Cladrastis oregonensis, and

Micropodium ovatum—all represented by pods. No leaves have yet been

identified as definitely leguminous, although suspicion rests upon several

species now assigned to other genera.

ZOOLOGY .—WNew rodents from Middle America. E. A. GOLDMAN,

Bureau of Biological Survey.

Studies of the genera Heteromys and Nyctomys have resulted in the

detection of the new subspecies here described. Two of these were

obtained by the veteran collector, C. F. Underwood, who has been

making notable contributions to knowledge of the fauna of Costa

Rica for many years. Specimens of a new subspecies of Nyctomys,

from Salvador, have been made available through the courtesy of

Mrs. Florence V. V. Dickey.

For the loan of other specimens required for comparison in this

connection my thanks are due to Dr. Roy Chapman Andrews, Dr.

H. E. Anthony, George G. Goodwin, and John Eric Hill, American

Museum of Natural History, New York, and to Dr. Glover M. Allen,

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Heteromys desmarestianus planifrons, subsp. nov.

Pirris Spiny Pocket Mouse

Type.—From San Geronimo, Pirris, western Costa Rica. No. 250348,

Q adult, skin and skull, U. 8S. National Museum (Biological Survey col-

lection), collected by C. F. Underwood, April 12, 1931. X-Catalog number

26914.

Distribution —Western Costa Rica; limits of range undetermined.

General characters ——Closely resembling Heteromys desmarestianus des-

marestianus of Guatemala; color, general size and proportions very similar,

but dusky of forearms tending to extend farther down on wrists; pelage

1 Know.uton, F. H. Fossil plants from Florissant. U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc. 51

(2151): 278, pl. 19, fig. 4, 1916.

1 Received May 24, 1937.

Oct. 15, 1937 GOLDMAN: NEW RODENTS 419

sparser; light tawny lateral line usually present as in desmarestianus; skull

usually broader and differing in other details. Similar to Heteromys des-

marestianus fuscatus of central Nicaragua, but larger; light tawny lateral

line usually present (usually absent or indistinct in fuscatus) ; cranial features

distinctive. Not very unlike Heteromys desmarestianus repens of the moun-

tains of western Panama, but larger with relatively larger ears; pelage

coarser and sparser; differing otherwise in about the same characters as

from fuscatus. Smaller than Heteromys oresterus of the Cordillera de Tala-

manca; pelage more bristly; slender hairs among bristles deeper ochraceous

buff; ears without white edging usually in oresterus.

Color.—Type: Upper parts blackish, becoming very dark brown or

‘mouse gray” (Ridgway, 1912) along flanks and outer sides of limbs, the

slender light tawny hairs present but inconspicuous among the bristles; en-

tire under parts, feet, and a line down inner side of hind leg to metatarsus

white; a narrow but distinct light tawny line of demarcation along flanks;

ears blackish; tail brownish above, whitish below, becoming dusky all

around at tip.

Skull—Large, with broad braincase and broad frontal and _ parietal

regions. Closely resembling those of desmarestianus but usually broader, the

lateral margins of frontals somewhat more prominent and projecting as

supraorbital shelves; interparietal broader, more extended transversely,

more evenly oval in outline, the anterior angle less developed; supraoc-

cipital more produced on the median line, tending to bulge farther posteri-

orly over foramen magnum; dentition about the same. Similar to those of

fuscatus and repens, but larger; interparietal relatively broader, with less

evident anterior angle; supraorbital ridges more projecting and shelf-like.

Compared with that of oresterus the skull is relatively shorter and broader;

nasals about conterminous with premaxillae posteriorly (premaxillae ex-

tending well beyond nasals in oresterus); supraorbital ridges more project-

ing; angle of mandible more everted; tubercle over root of lower incisor

more prominent; molariform toothrows narrowed posteriorly (sides of

toothrows nearly parallel in oresterus); posterior upper molar smaller, the

closure of the reéntrant angles through wear leaving smaller enamel islands.

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 303 mm; tail vertebrae, 169; hind

foot, 35. An adult female topotype: 302; 174; 35. Skull (type): Greatest

length, 37.7; zygomatic breadth, 18.1; interorbital breadth, 9.9; length of

nasals, 16.3; width across squamosals in front of auditory meatus, 16.3;

interparietal, 9.84.9; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 5.5.

Remarks.— Heteromys d. planizfrons is a rather slightly differentiated form

bearing a closer resemblance to typical desmarestianus than to some of its

nearer geographic neighbors. Comparison of 13 topotypes of Heteromys

desmarestianus psakastus of Salvador with series of desmarestianus assumed

to be typical from Chipoe and other localities in the Coban region of Guate-

mala, indicates that the two are identical and that, therefore, psakastus does

not have to be considered in this connection. The new form requires no close

comparison with Heteromys oresterus, which is a very distinct species assign-

able to the subgenus Xylomys.

Specimens examined.—Total number, 14, all from western Costa Rica as

follows: San Geronimo, Pirris (type locality), 8; Jabillo, 1; Sabanilla, 1;

San Ramon, Tres Rios, 4.

420 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

Heteromys desmarestianus subaffinis, subsp. nov.

Reventazon Valley Spiny Pocket Mouse

Type.—From Angostura, southern side of Rio Reventazon, opposite Tur-

rialba, Costa Rica (altitude about 1,980 feet). No. 12904/38591, o@ adult,

skin and skull, U. 8. National Museum, collected by José C. Zeledon, May

1876. Original number 98.

Distribution.—Rio Reventazon and Pacuare River valleys, eastern Costa

Rica; limits of range unknown.

General characters.—Similar in size and color to Heteromys desmarestianus

planifrons of western Costa Rica, but tawny lateral line apparently ab-

sent; cranial details, including the broader rostrum, distinctive. Resem-

bling H.d. fuscatus of central Nicaragua, but larger, with broader, more mas-

sive skull. Somewhat similar to H. d. repens of the mountains of western

Panama, but larger; ears relatively larger; skull heavier. Contrasted with

H. d. zonalis of the Canal Zone, the slender hairs among the bristles are

more tawny, and cranial features are quite different.

Color.—Type: Upper parts blackish or very dark brownish, finely mixed

with light tawny due to the tone of the slender hairs among the dark

bristles; outer sides of forearms, thighs, lower part of rump and scrotum

mouse gray; under parts in general, inner sides of forearms, and feet white;

light tawny lateral line usually present in some forms of the group absent;

ears brownish; tail light brownish above, white below.

Skull.—Very similar in size and general form to that of planzfrons, but

rostrum broader; interparietal narrower, less extended transversely, with

more prominent anterior angle; dentition about the same. Differing from

those of fuscatus and repens mainly in decidedly larger size, the supraorbital

ridges more strongly developed as projecting shelves. Compared with that

of zonalis the skull is larger, with much broader braincase and more widely

separated supraorbital and temporal ridges, but the rostrum is relatively

narrower, the nasals less expanded anteriorly, and the maxillary root of the

zygoma much less strongly developed; molariform teeth similar, but in-

cisors relatively narrow.

Measurements.—Type (no body measurements available): Hind foot

(dried skin), 34.5 Skull (type): Greatest length, 36.9; zygomatic breadth,

17.3; interorbital breadth, 10; length of nasals, 15.9; width across squa-

mosals in front of auditory meatus, 15.8; interparietal, 8.95.3; maxillary

toothrow (alveoli), 5.5.

Remarks.—Specimens on which this form is based were referred by me

(North Amer. Fauna, No. 34, p. 28, 1911) to Heteromys repens with the

statement that they seemed larger and somewhat different in cranial details.

More extended knowledge of the group now seems to warrant their segrega-

tion as representatives of a lowland form inhabiting eastern Costa Rica.

Specimens examined.—Four, all from Costa Rica, as follows: Angostura

(type locality), 3; Pacuare, 1.

Nyctomys sumichrasti pallidulus, subsp. nov.

Oaxaca Vesper Rat

Type.—From Santo Domingo, 8 miles west of Lagunas, on the Mexican

National Railroad, Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico (altitude 900

feet). No. 73302; @ adult, skin and skull, U. 8S. National Museum (Bio-

logical Survey collection), collected by Nelson and Goldman, June 13, 1895.

Original number 8079.

Oct. 15, 1937 GOLDMAN: NEW RODENTS 421

Distributton.—Known only from the type locality in the Arid Tropical

belt on the southern side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca; probably

has an extensive range in the arid Pacific coast region of southwestern

Mexico.

General characters —Color palest of the known forms of the genus; size

medium. Similar to Nyctomys sumichrasti sumichrasti, of the eastern slope

of the mountains in Vera Cruz and to Nyctomys sumichrasti salvini of

Duenas, Guatemala, but upper parts decidedly paler than either—near

cinnamon buff instead of tawny; pelage much shorter than in salvinz.

Color.—Type: Upper parts near ‘‘cinnamon-buff” (Ridgway, 1912),

purest on head and along sides, including outer surfaces of forearms and

thighs, the back inclining toward very light tawny slightly darkened by a

thin admixture of dusky hairs; entire under parts white, the line of demarca-

tion along lower part of sides sharp as usual in the genus; ears brownish;

fore feet white; hind feet with only a trace of the dusky metatarsal areas

so conspicuous in the other subspecies, the toes white; tail unicolor, dark

brown.

Skull——Closely resembling that of typical suwmichrastz, but broader, with

more widely spreading zygomata. Similar to that of salvinz, but smaller,

with relatively smaller molars.

Measurements.—Type: Hind foot measured in flesh, 25 (no other external

measurements available). Skull (type): Greatest length, 31.3; zygomatic

breadth, 17.9; interorbital breadth, 6; greatest width between temporal

ridges, 13.4; length of nasals, 11.2; length of anterior palatine foramina,

4.5; length of palatal bridge, 4.8; maxillary toothrow, 4.8.

Remarks.—The geographic races of Nyctomys sumichrasti are all very

closely allied. N. s. pallidulus approaches typical swmichrastz which inhabits

the humid mountain slopes of eastern Mexico, but the coloration is quite

distinctive. As in other species the pale coloration of N. s. pallzdulus is

probably associated with its more arid environment.

Specimens examined.—Five, all from the type locality.

Nyctomys sumichrasti florencei, subsp. nov.

Salvador Vesper Rat

Type.—From Barra de Santiago, Department of Ahuachapan, Salvador

(sea level). No. 12765, Q adult, skin and skull, collection of Donald R.

Dickey, collected by R. A. Stirton, April 6, 1927.

Distribution.—Pacific coastal region of Salvador: altitudinal range from

sea level to at least 2,600 feet.

General characters.—Size smallest of the known forms of the genus; color

light tawny. Closely resembling Nyctomys sumichrastz decolorus of northern

Honduras, but very much smaller. Similar to Nyctomys sumichrasti palli-

dulus of Oaxaca, Mexico, but much smaller and color brighter, differing

from Nyctomys sumichrasti salvini of the high mountains of Guatemala in

much smaller size and more vivid coloration.

Color—Type: Upper parts, including outer surfaces of forearms and

thighs, nearly uniform light, but rich tawny, the back faintly lined with

black, the dark hairs scarcely numerous enough to alter the general tone;

under parts, including inner surfaces of limbs, pure white; ears brownish;

fore feet white; hind feet dusky over metatarsus, the toes white; tail uni-

color, dark brown. Color varying to light brownish, less vivid tawny in

some specimens.

422 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

Skull—vVery similar to those of decolorus, pallidulus and salvini, but

much smaller than any of these; dentition very light.

Measurements.—Type: Total length, 238 mm; tail vertebrae, 127; hind

foot, 21. Average of eight typical adults from Hacienda Chilata, Depart-

ment of Sonsonate, Salvador (altitude 2,000 feet) : 230 (208-255); 117 (107—

1380); 22.5 (22-23). Skull (type): Greatest length, 29; zygomatic breadth,

16.4; interorbital breadth, 5.5; greatest width between temporal ridges,

12.8; length of nasals, 9.2; length of anterior palatine foramina, 4.5; length

of palatal bridge, 4.2; maxillary toothrow, 4.1.

Remarks.—The diminutive size and light, but vivid tawny coloration

distinguish Nyctomys s. florencet from its allies. The type was taken by the

collector on a leaning tree in a swamp forest at sea level. This handsome

subspecies is named for Mrs. Florence V. V. Dickey, in recognition of her

interest in furthering contributions to general knowledge of natural history

initiated by her husband, the late Donald R. Dickey, in a wide field.

Specimens examined.—Total number, 14, all from Salvador, as follows:

Barra de Santiago (type locality), Department of Ahuachapan, 1; Hacienda

Chilata, Department of Sonsonate (altitude 2,000 feet), 10; Lake Olomega,

Department of San Miguel (altitude 300 feet), 1; Puerto del Triunfo, De-

partment of Usulatan (sea level), 1; Volean de San Miguel, Department of

San Miguel (altitude 2,600 feet), 1.

Nyctomys sumichrasti costaricensis, subsp. nov.

Costa Rican Vesper Rat

Type.—From San Geronimo de Pirris, hamlet on the main road to Pir-

ris before reaching Jabillo, near the west coast of Costa Rica, about two

miles before the abrupt descent to the lowlands of Pozo Azul and about 12

miles inland from Pirris (altitude about 100 feet). No. 250331, @ adult,

skin and skull, U. 8. National Museum (Biological Survey collection), col-

lected by C. F. Underwood, April 12, 1931. X-catalog number 26896.

Distribution —Valley of the Rio Grande de Pirris, western Costa Rica;

limits of range undetermined.

General characters —A large dark tawny subspecies; anterior palatine

foramina about equal in length to palatal bridge (shorter than palatal

bridge in neighboring subspecies of the genus). Closely allied to Nyctomys

sumichrasti nitellinus of the lower slopes of the Volean de Chiriqui, Panama,

but somewhat larger; upper parts brighter, the general tone near tawny in-

stead of cinnamon; incisive foramina distinctly longer. Similar to Nyctomys

sumichrasti venustulus of the Caribbean coast region of Nicaragua, but some-

what paler, the back less obscured by dusky hairs and differing otherwise

in about the same characters as from nztellinus.

Color—Type: Upper parts near “tawny” (Ridgway, 1912), slightly

darkened on top of head and over back by a fine admixture of black-tipped

hairs; cheeks, flanks, outer sides of forearms and thighs, purer, paler tawny;

entire under parts, including lips, inner sides of forearms and thighs white;

ears blackish; fore feet white; hind feet dusky over metatarsus, the toes white

as in the other members of the genus; tail unicolor, brownish black.

Skull.—Similar to those of nitellinus and venustulus, but larger than

either; nasals more pointed and usually about conterminous with premaxil-

lae posteriorly (usually exceeded by premaxillae in posterior extension in

Ocr: 15; 1937 WILSON: PARASITIC COPEPODS 423

nitelinus and venustulus); anterior palatine foramina longer, about equal

in length to palatal bridge (instead of shorter than palatal bridge); denti-

tion similar.

Measurements—Type: Total length, 270 mm; tail vertebrae, 139; hind

foot, 24. An adult male topotype: 246; 126; 25. An old adult female from

Jabillo, Pirris: 263; 189; 24. Skull (type and an old adult female from Ja-

billo, Pirris, respectively): Greatest length, 33.3, 31.7; zygomatic breadth,

17.7, 18.4; interorbital breadth, 5.8, 6.5; greatest width between temporal

ridges, 14.1, 14.3; length of nasals, 11.6, 10.5; length of anterior palatine

foramina, 5.3, 5.2; length of palatal bridge, 5.2, 5.2; maxillary toothrow

(alveoli), 5, 4.9.

Remarks.— N. s. costaricensis is distinguished from the neighboring sub-

species by rich tawny coloration, and the cranial detail of unusual length of

anterior palatine foramina compared with the length of the palatal bridge.

In point of size it is about equal to the geographically distant form JN. s.

salvint of Guatemala, but the back less obscured by dusky hairs is brighter

tawny; the anterior palatine foramina are longer, and the molars smaller.

Specimens examined.—Total number, 10, all from Costa Rica, as follows:

Jabillo, 5; San Geronimo (type locality), 5.

ZOOLOGY .—Some parasitic copepods from Panama Bay.1_ CHARLES

B. Witson, State Teachers College, Westfield, Massachusetts.

(Communicated by Waupo L. ScHMITT.)

A small collection of parasitic copepods taken from marine fish in

Panama Bay by Dr. A. O. Foster was recently sent to the author for

identification. Dr. Foster is helminthologist at the Gorgas Memorial

Laboratory of Panama and the copepods were captured during

various laboratory investigations. Although the collection includes

but eleven species, two of them prove to be new to science, and the

male of a third species is here described for the first time. In addition,

the host or the locality or both are new for every one of the species.

The Bay of Panama lies off the Pacific end of the Panama Canal

and hence is traversed by such shipping as makes use of the canal. In

recent years the Galapagos Islands have been a sort of Mecca for

many scientific expeditions, the great majority of which have passed

through the canal. But, as a rule, the scientists have been so intent

upon reaching their ultimate goal that they have made but few in-

vestigations enroute.

A notable exception is the Third Hancock Expedition to the

Galapagos Islands recently made by the University of Southern

California. This expedition did not go through the canal, but went

down the Pacific coast of Mexico, Central America, and South

1 This paper was prepared under the auspices of the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory,

Panama, Dr. H. C. Clark, Director. Received August 30, 1937.

424 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

America, stopping at many places along the way and securing valu-

able specimens. The parasitic copepods of that expedition have been

reported elsewhere” and included some from the Panama coast. This

local collection from Panama Bay admirably supplements that list

and should serve as an incentive to similar collections from the

Pacific coasts of Mexico, Central and South America.

Caligus bonito Wilson

- Taken in considerable numbers from the mouth and gill cavity of a bonito

(Sarda sp.), and in a single instance from the mouth of another bonito

identified as Sarda velox. The former host is probably the California bonito,

Sarda chilensis, found on the Pacific coast from San Francisco to Patagonia.

Caligus coryphaenae Steenstrup & Liitken

Three females were taken from the mouth of a bonito (Sarda sp.) in com-

pany with the preceding species. This copepod is well distributed and has

been reported from both sides of the Atlantic, as well as the Pacific.

Caligus diaphanus Nordmann

A single female was taken from the body of the common jack, Caranz

hippos. This species is even more widely distributed than either of the pre-

ceding and infests a great variety of hosts, to which the present record adds

one more.

Caligus monacanthi Krgyer

Krgyer founded his new species, monacanthi, in 1863 upon a single speci-

men taken from the skin of a leather fish (Monacanthus sp.) in the West

Indies. He identified the specimen as a male and gave a detailed description

accompanied by 5 figures. Up to the time of the present collection, no further

specimens had been obtained during the seventy odd years since the original

discovery. Krgyer was in error as to the sex of his specimen, which was cer-

tainly a female without egg strings, rather than a male. This mistake,

coupled with the entire lack of further specimens, induced the present author,

when dealing with the parasites of West Indian fish, to suggest that Krgyer’s

specimen might well be the undeveloped female of another species.* But

twenty specimens, including both sexes, taken from the gills of a bonito

(Sarda sp.) and included in the present collection, definitely prohibit such

an inference. The females agree with Krgyer’s description and figures in

every detail with one exception and, in addition, carry ovisacs to show that

they are fully developed. The exception lies in the fact that these Panama

specimens have a two-segmented abdomen, while Krgyer’s figure represents

the abdomen as one-segmented and the text states that it shows no trace of

segmentation. But Krgyer does say in parentheses that the abdomen is con-

tracted for a distance at its base and then widens. The jointing is at the

2 University of Southern California Publications. The Hancock Pacific Expeditions

2 (4): 23-30, pl. 3. 1937.

3 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 28: 607. 1905.

Oer: 15, 1937 WILSON: PARASITIC COPEPODS 425

point where the diameter changes and might easily escape notice, and is

scarcely visible in some of the present specimens. A female and male have

been selected and given Cat. No. 69867 U.S.N.M.

Female.—Kr¢yer’s statement that this species is marked by an elongation

of the carapace, genital segment, and abdomen applies to both sexes. Cara-

pace of female three-sevenths of the entire length and considerably narrowed

anteriorly; lunules of medium size and not projecting. Median posterior

lobe half the entire width of the carapace, its margin not evenly rounded but

with the tip projecting a little. Lateral lobes curved inward and not quite

reaching the tip of the median lobe. Free segment t;wo-thirds as wide as the

genital segment and strongly narrowed in front of the fourth legs. Genital

segment elongate elliptical, three-fourths as long as the carapace, nar-

rowed anteriorly into a short neck and lobed posteriorly. Each of the lobes

is as wide as the abdomen, broadly rounded, and does not quite reach the

joint in the abdomen. The latter is one-third as wide and nearly as long as

the genital segment, and indistinctly two-segmented, the distal segment the

longer. Caudal rami nearly as wide as long and well separated. Ovisacs at-

tached to the ventral surface of the genital segment just inside the base of

each posterior lobe and as long as the genital segment.

Second antenna large and sickle-shaped ; terminal segment of second max-

illa slender, longer than the basal segment, with two terminal setae but no

lateral spine. Maxilliped with a swollen basal segment and a stout terminal

claw. Basipod of first leg with a minute process representing the endopod;

terminal segment of the exopod with 3 end spines and a long naked seta,

but with no plumose setae on its posterior margin. The armature of the

second legs is very peculiar; the basal segment of the exopod carries a long

filose spine at the center of the outer margin and a stout spine at the distal

corner, bent down across the ventral surface, with a fringe of long hairs be-

tween the two spines. The distal segment has 3 setae at its outer corner,

flanged on their outer margins and plumed on their inner margins. The basal

segment of the endopod has a fringe of small curved spines on the distal

half of its outer margin. The second segment has a row of 6 stout spines

along its outer margin; the bases of these spines are swollen, cover the

whole length of the margin, and are somewhat imbricated. In the third

legs the spine on the basal segment of the exopod is nearly straight and

reaches the entire length of the second segment. The fourth legs are three-

segmented with 5 spines, the second segment as long as the third and the

two combined as long as the basal segment, which is moderately swollen.

There are no rudiments of fifth legs anywhere visible. Small spherical sper-

matophores are attached in pairs at the opening of the sperm receptacle.

Total length 4.40 mm. Carapace 2 mm long, 1.90 mm wide. Ovisacs 2

mm long.

Male.—Carapace similar in shape to that of the female, but relatively

longer, being just half of the entire length; lunules larger and suborbicular,

but scarcely projecting. Posterior median lobe a little more than half the

entire width and evenly rounded, extending a little beyond the lateral lobes.

Free segment wider than the genital segment, greatly narrowed in front of

the fourth legs. Genital segment barrel-shaped, not narrowed to a neck

anteriorly and without posterior lobes. Abdomen distinctly two-segmented,

the distal segment nearly twice the length of the basal, both segments of

the same width throughout with straight sides. Caudal rami nearly twice

as long as wide and curved inward. Appendages like those of the female

with the following differences.

426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 10

Maxillary hooks considerably enlarged and strongly curved; maxillipeds

with a row of 3 short triangular spines on the inner margin of the basal

segment, the terminal claw shutting down against the two distal spines.

The claw itself has a slender spine at the center of its concave margin,

which is close to the distal spine of the basal segment when the claw is

closed. The terminal segment of the first legs carries the usual 3 plumose

setae on its posterior margin. In the second legs the fringe of spines on the

outer margin of the second segment of the endopod is here replaced by a

row of 8 to 10 chitin scales closely imbricated.

Total length 4.50 mm. Carapace 2.25 mm long, 1.90 mm wide.

Remarks.—The armature of the second endopod segment of the second

legs in both sexes is not known in any other species of the genus and evi-

dently escaped Krgyer’s notice. It lends a distinctive character to the species

and with the other details fully establishes its validity after 75 years of

waiting.

Caligus patulus, n. sp.

Twelve females were obtained from the outer skin of a milkfish (Chanos

sp.) captured in the Bay. One of them bearing ovisacs has been chosen as

the type of the species with Cat. No. 69869 U.S.N.M.

Female.—Carapace five-eighths of the entire length, almost as wide as

long; frontal plates wide and separated by a deep median incision; lunules

of moderate size and not projecting. Posterior median lobe half the entire

width, with prominent posterior corners; lateral lobes broadly rounded and

the same length as the median lobe. Free segment two-fifths as wide as the

carapace and thickened through the bases of the fourth legs. Genital seg-

ment two-thirds as wide as the carapace and almost twice as wide as long,

contracted to the width of the free segment where it joins the latter, Its

posterior lobes are broadly rounded and carry rudiments of the fifth and

sixth pairs of legs and wide processes at their inner corners, giving them a

sinuous outline. The abdomen is quadrangular and one-segmented, as wide

as long; the caudal rami are also as wide as long and well separated at the

posterior corners of the abdomen. The ovisacs are a little narrower than the

abdomen and two-thirds as long as the entire body.

The antennae and maxillae are of the usual pattern; the claw of the

maxilliped is as long as the basal segment and abruptly bent near the tip.

The basal segment of the first leg has at its posterior distal corner a finger

process tipped with a short spine representing the endopod. The proximal

segment of the exopod has a fringe of hairs on its posterior margin, and a

spiny process at its anterior distal corner; the end segment has two ter-

minal claws and three stout plumose setae. In the third legs the spine on

the basal segment of the exopod is short and blunt, and the two rami are

close together. The fourth legs are three-segmented with four spines; the

second segment is longer than the third and the two combined are the same

length as the basal segment. The fifth and sixth legs are represented by

small processes tipped with minute setae. The base of the furca is longer

than wide, the arms are shorter than the base, nearly parallel and flattened.

Total length 6 mm. Carapace 3.60 mm long, 3.59 mm wide.

Remarks.—The distinguishing characters of this species are the large and

roomy genital segment (whence the specific name) with its sinuous posterior

Oere 15.1937 WILSON: PARASITIC COPEPODS 427

Fig. 1.—Dorsal view of female Caligus constrictus. Fig. 2.—Second antenna.

Fig. 3—Maxilliped. Fig. 4.—Thirdleg. Fig. 5—Fourth leg. Fig. 6—Dorsal view

of female Caligus monacanthi. Fig. 7.—Dorsal view of male. Fig. 8.—Second an-

tenna of female. Fig. 9—Second maxilla. Fig. 10.—Furea. Fig. 11.—First leg.

Fig. 12.—Second leg. Fig. 13.—Third leg. Fig. 14.—Fourth leg. Fig. 15.—Maxil-

lary hook of male. Fig. 16.—Second antenna. Fig. 17.—Mazxilliped. Fig. 18.—

Second leg. Fig. 19.—Fourth leg.

lobes, and the long fourth legs, which reach beyond the posterior margin of

the genital segment. The relative lengths of the second and third segments

in these fourth legs are also useful for identification since it is usual for

the third segment to be the longer.

428 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

Caligus constrictus Heller

Nine females were obtained from the gills of the crevalle, Caranz hippos,

and three females from the gills of the dolphin, Coryphaena hippurus. This

species, established by Heller 72 years ago upon a single male and not

reported since then, was confirmed in the paper on the parasitic copepods

of the Third Hancock Expedition, to which reference has already been made.

It is pleasing to obtain so promptly these additional specimens from the

same host and locality, and also the others from a new host. It is evident

that the crevalle is to be regarded as the chief host and that the parasite is

by no means as rare as the long intervals between its appearances would

seem to suggest. These new specimens vary somewhat from those already

described and the differences are as follows.

In the carapace the eye is visible, while it could not be located in previous

specimens. The posterior corners of the median lobe project laterally and

overlap the tips of the incurved lateral lobes. The genital segment has no

attached spermatophores, the abdomen is as wide as long and the caudal

rami are relatively larger. The base of the terminal claw of the second

antenna is armed with two minute spines on its inner margin. The basal

segment of the maxilliped has a small seta on its posterior margin near the

proximal end. The basal segment of the fourth leg has a spine at its distal

end similar to those on the other three segments.

These slight differences simply emphasize the validity of the species and

show that it does exhibit certain variations.

Caligus tenuifurcatus, n. sp.

Nine specimens, including both sexes, were obtained from the gill cavity

of the papagallo, Nematisteus pectoralis Gill. A male and female have been

selected for types with Cat. No. 69874 U.S.N.M.

Female.—Carapace ovate, narrowed anteriorly, a trifle longer than wide

and 40 per cent of the entire length; frontal plates wide and without a

central incision; lunules large, circular and projecting considerably. Median

posterior lobe more than half the entire width and evenly rounded; lateral

lobes curved inward but not meeting the median lobe. Free segment short

and one-fourth as wide as the carapace; genital segment a little longer than

wide, subquadrangular, with rounded anterior and pointed posterior cor-

ners, and slightly convex sides. There are no posterior lobes and no visible

leg rudiments. Abdomen nearly as long as the genital segment, tapering

a little posteriorly and two-segmented, the distal segment longer than the

proximal. Caudal rami twice as long as wide, close together and curved in-

ward. Ovisacs as long as the urosome and somewhat divergent.

First antennae short and turned backward; second antenna stout, its

terminal claw bent into a half circle. Basal segment of maxilliped also

stout, the terminal claw half as long as the segment with two unequal small

spines near the center of its concave margin. Rudimentary endopod of the

first legs a very small triangular spine; end segment of exopod with three

terminal claws and a much longer spine, and three plumose setae. Fourth

leg three-segmented with six spines, including the very small one at the tip

of the basal segment. Second and third segments of equal length and to-

gether as long as the basal segment.

Oct. 15, 1937 WILSON: PARASITIC COPEPODS 429

Total length 5 mm. Carapace 2.10 mm long, 2 mm wide.

Male.—Carapace proportionally larger, a little more than half the entire

length and longer than wide; frontal plates with even larger lunules than

in the female. Free segment wider than the genital segment and strongly

contracted anteriorly. Genital segment a parallelogram, one-half longer than

wide, with straight sides. Abdomen a trifle longer than the genital segment

and two-segmented, the distal segment one-third longer than the proximal.

Caudal rami twice as long as wide and curved inward at their tips.

The antennae, mouth parts, and legs are like those of the female with

minor differences. The furea, like that of the female, is more than four times

as long as wide, with slender and slightly divergent arms about as long as

the base.

Total length 5.40 mm. Carapace 2.81 mm long, 2.50 mm wide.

Remarks.—The relative size and shape of the genital segment and abdo-

men in both sexes are characteristic of this new species and will serve well

for identification.

Gloiopotes costatus Wilson

Thirty specimens, including both sexes, were taken from the outside

surface of a sailfish, Istcophorus greyz. Some of these were larger than the

dimensions originally given for the species, but not otherwise different.

Lernaeenicus longiventris Wilson

Two mature females and a development stage were taken from the body

wall of the common jack, Caranz hippos. As this is the first development

stage of the female after attachment to the host to be reported for the entire

genus, two figures and a brief description are here given.

Young female.—Head elliptical, narrowed anteriorly, slightly projecting

on either side at the center, swollen and evenly rounded posteriorly and ex-

tended backward a little over the anterior thorax. The latter joins the head

not at its posterior end but on the ventral surface a little in front of it, and

without definite segmentation. Nearly as wide as the head where it joins the

latter, and somewhat flattened dorsoventrally, it quickly tapers backward

into a narrow cylinder and passes insensibly into the abdomen. This abdo-

men is cylindrical and exceptionally elongated to more than forty times the

length of the head. It maintains the same diameter throughout its entire

length without any traces of segmentation, and the posterior end is smoothly

rounded with no caudal rami.

The first antennae are turned back along the surface of the head and are

almost invisible. The second antennae have two short and stout basal joints

and a strong terminal claw. They are situated just beneath the frontal

margin of the head, and behind them on the midline of the ventral surface

projects the short mouth tube, on either side of which is a maxilla with very

long setae. Farther back the second maxillae project from the ventral surface

of the head, each tipped with a bifid claw. The anterior thorax carries four

pairs of legs which diminish in size backward; the first two pairs are bira-

mose, the last two pairs uniramose, all the rami two-segmented.

Total length 25 mm. Head 0.50 mm long, 0.25 mm wide.

Remarks.—Evidently the first thing that happens to the young female

after attachment to the host is the excessive elongation of the body behind

the head. In this there is no differentiation of body regions; thorax, genital

430 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

Fig. 20.—Dorsal view of female, Caligus patulus. Fig. 21.—Maxilliped. Fig.

22.—Furea. Fig. 23.—First leg. Fig. 24.—Third leg. Fig. 25—Fourth leg. Fig.

26.—Dorsal view of female Caligus tenutfurcatus. Fig. 27—Dorsal view of male.

Fig. 28.—Second antenna of female. Fig. 29.—Maxilliped. Fig. 30.—Furea. Fig.

31.—First leg. Fig. 32—Fourthleg. Fig. 33.—Dorsal view of a female Lernaeenicus

longiventris just after attachment to the host. Fig. 34.—Side view of same more

highly magnified.

segment, and abdomen are all the same diameter and just alike. Later,

with the development of the ovaries, oviducts, and cement glands, the

center of the long cylinder is swollen into the genital segment, while the

anterior and posterior portions remain unchanged.

Oct. 15, 1937 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 431

- Pennella species

Two adult females were taken from the body wall of the same sailfish

Isttophorus grey?, that yielded the Gloiopotes specimens. These were a large

species, 150 mm in length or more, but as the heads were lacking in both

specimens, the species could not be determined with certainty.

ORNITHOLOGY.—Bird bones from archeological sites in Alaska.!

HERBERT FRIEDMANN, U. 8S. National Museum.

The following collections of bird bones were gathered by Dr. A.

Hrdlicka ‘during archeological excavations in the summers of 1935

and 1936. Inasmuch as Kodiak Island was the only area worked in

1935 (also worked to a lesser extent in 1936), we may dispose of it

first, and then go on to the Aleutian areas explored in 1936.

1. BIRD BONES FROM KODIAK ISLAND

During 1935, the whole season was spent on Kodiak Island, and a

very large collection of bird bones was made. The bones were marked

according to the depths from which they came, and therefore, by

inference, dated chronologically. Dr. Hrdlicka tells me that the oldest

may be 1,500—2,000 years old; the most recent are just pre-Russian, or

about 150 years old. Previous collections of bird bones made in 1932

and 1934 have been reported on elsewhere? and a complete account of

the avifauna of the island has also been published.® |

The present collection adds but two new birds to the Kodiak list—

the golden eagle and the red-legged kittiwake—a clear indication that

the bird life of that area is now fairly well-known. The absence of

bones of the white-winged scoter and the pigeon guillemot in the

present collection is the chief point of contrast with the earlier series

of bones collected on Kodiak.

The bones that were perfect enough to be useful as specimens, or

that were of particular interest as records, have been saved and in-

corporated into the skeletal collections of the U.S. National Museum.

Gavia immer (Brunnich). Common Loon. In the 1935 excavations,

bones of this bird were unearthed at all levels (superficial, intermediate,

and deep)—2 humeri, 2 tibiotarsi, 3 tarsometatarsi, and 2 metacarpals. In

1936 a tarsometatarsus and a metacarpal were collected. It is not possible

to identify these bones subspecifically, but the small form elasson Bishop

is the one known (from skins) to occur on Kodiak Island.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived August 30, 1937.

2 This JOURNAL 25: 44-51. 1935.

3 Chicago Acad. Sci. Bull. 5: 13-54. 1935.

432 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

Gavia adamsi (Gray). Yellow-billed Loon. All but the deepest layers

exposed in 1935 revealed bones of this loon—1 humerus, 3 coracoids, 3 meta-

carpals, 1 femur, 2 tarsometatarsi, 1 pair of mandibles, and 2 tibiotarsi. A

skull was unearthed in the course of the 1936 operations.

Gavia arctica pacifica (Lawrence). Pacific Loon. The presence of os-

seous remains in all depths excavated indicates the regularity of occurrence

of the Pacific Loon in Kodiak Island. In 1935 2 tibiotarsi, 3 tarsometatarsi,

and 5 metacarpals were collected; in 1936, 1 skull, 1 femur, and 1 tarsometa-

tarsus.

Gavia stellata (Pontoppidan). Red-throated Loon. A single tibiotarsus

was collected in 1936; no bones referable to this species were gathered in

1935.

Colymbus grisegena holboelli (Reinhardt). Holboell’s Grebe. Ten hu-

meri and 9 tarsometatarsi, representing all age levels, were taken in 1935;

1 humerus was found in the 1936 collections.

Colymbus auritus Linnaeus. Horned Grebe. Two humeri, one from the

deepest and one from the superficial layer, were unearthed in 1935.

Diomedea albatrus Pallas. Short-tailed Albatross. Numerous osseous

parts were found at all levels in 1935—2 tibiotarsi, 1 synsacrum, 3 skulls,

1 humerus, 1 coracoid, 3 metacarpals, 8 tarsometatarsi; in 1936—1 skull,

1 synsacrum, 3 metacarpals, 2 tarsometatarsi, 1 femur, and 1 ulna.

Puffinus sp. Shearwater. The following bones, obviously those of

shearwaters and probably referable to Puffinus tenwirostris, cannot be

identified with certainty, due to lack of named comparative material. In

1935 all levels revealed a total of 14 humeri and 3 tarsometatarsi; in 1936,

2 skulls and 6 humeri were obtained.

Fulmarus glacialis rodgersi Cassin. Pacific Fulmar. A lone skull of this

bird was collected in 1936.

Phalacrocorax pelagicus Pallas. Pelagic Cormorant. An abundantly

represented species with all levels yielding quantities of bones. In 1935, over

200 tibiotarsi, more than 100 femurs, 66 tarsometatarsi, 165 humeri, and

28 synsacra were collected; in 1936, the material involved 1 skull, 25 humeri,

9 tibiotarsi, 2 synsacra, 1 ulna, 1 coracoid, 3 tarsometatarsi, and 5 femurs.

Cygnus columbianus (Ord). Whistling Swan. The 1935 diggings un-

earthed 4 fragmentary humeri and 1 synsacrum, all from the more super-

ficial layers.

Cygnus buccinator Richardson. Trumpeter Swan. A synsacrum and

2 tarsometatarsi were found in the superficial levels and another tarsometa-

tarsus in the intermediate depths in 1935; in 1936 a metacarpal and the

head of a humerus were collected.

Philacte canagica (Sevastianoff). Emperor Goose. All age levels yielded

a small number of bones of this goose in the 1935 diggings—1 tarsometa-

tarsus, 1 femur, and 5 tibiotarsi; the 1936 operations netted 3 skulls and 3

tibiotarsi.

Ocr. 15, 1937 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 433

Anser albifrons (Scopoli). White-fronted Goose. Two tarsometatarsi,

one superficial and one deep, were exhumed in 1935. This bird is still known

from Kodiak Island solely on the basis of osseous remains.

Glaucionetta clangula americana (Bonaparte). Golden-eye. During the

1936 diggings, 9 humeri referable to this duck were found. The subspecific

determination is based merely on the knowledge that americana has been

found to be the subspecies of golden-eye found on the island.

Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus). Old-squaw. The intermediate layers

worked in 1935 yielded 9 humeri of this duck; the 1936 operations likewise

turned up 9 humeri.

Histrionicus histrionicus (Linnaeus). Harlequin Duck. Eleven humeri,

from all but the deepest deposits, were taken in 1935. They probably belong

to the subspecies paczficus Brooks.

Polysticta stellert (Pallas). Steller’s Eider. In the 1935 diggings, 34

humeri, representing all age layers, were collected; 3 additional humeri were

dug up in 1936.

Somateria v-nigra Gray. Pacific Eider. Hrdlicka obtained 1 skull, 5

humeri, and 7 tarsometatarsi in the superficial diggings in 1935; in 1936 he

collected 3 skulls.

Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus). King Eider. Large numbers of bones

were found in all the layers excavated in 19835—73 coracoids, 36 tarsometa-

tarsi, 122 humeri. In 1936 some 25 humeri and 3 tarsometatarsi were ob-

tained.

Melanitta perspicillata (Linnaeus). Surf Scoter. In 1935 Hrdlicka col-

lected 12 humeri, 8 from superficial deposits, 4 from intermediate depths;

in 1936 he obtained 3 humeri. :

Oidemia americana Swainson. American Scoter. Eight humeri, rep-

resenting all depths, were collected in 1935; in 1936, in a collection much

smaller in extent, no fewer than 25 humeri and 1 skull were unearthed.

Aquila chrysaetos canadensis (Linnaeus). Golden Eagle. A sternum

from the superficial layers excavated in 1935 is the only record for this eagle

from Kodiak Island. There is nothing surprising, however, in the occurrence

of this species there, as it occurs on the neighboring mainland.

Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Linnaeus). Bald Eagle. The bald eagle is

very common on Kodiak Island, and its bones were found in good numbers

in all diggings during both years. In all, some 5 skulls, 4 pairs of mandibles,

23 humeri, 95 metacarpals, 2 pairs of clavicles, 2 radii, 7 ulnae, 9 sterna,

1 scapula, 18 coracoids, 12 synsacra, 14 femurs, 27 tibiotarsi, and 35 tar-

sometarsi were collected.

Lagopus rupestris kelloggae Grinnell. Kellogg’s Ptarmigan. A single

humerus and a synsacrum taken in the superficial layers in 1935 represent

this bird.

Haematopus bachmani Audubon. Black Oyster Catcher. In the super-

ficial strata dug up in 1935, Hrdlicka found a humerus of this shore-bird.

434 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

Larus hyperboreus Gunnerus. Glaucous Gull. Six tarsometatarsi were

found in the upper levels in 1935.

Larus glaucescens Naumann. Glaucous-winged Gull. All depths ex-

cavated in 1935 revealed osseous remains of this gull—1 skull, 6 tarsometa-

tarsi, 9 coracoids, and 14 humeri; in 1936 another humerus was collected.

Larus argentatus smithsonianus Coues. Herring Gull. The herring gull

is represented by bones from all age levels in the 1935 diggings—5 coracoids,

24 humeri, 12 tarsometatarsi; it is also represented by 3 humeri collected in

1936. The subspecific determination is a geographic inference.

Rissa tridactyla pollicaris Ridgway. Pacific Kittiwake. Twelve humeri

from all depths in the 1935 diggings are referable to this gull.

Rissa brevirostris (Bruch). Red-legged Kittiwake. Two humeri from

the superficial layers of the 1935 excavations appear to represent this spe-

cies, and thereby constitute the first record for Kodiak Island and a note-

worthy extension in range for the gull.

Uria sp. Murre. Undoubtedly both species of murres, Uria aalge

californica and Uria lomvia arra, are represented, but it is not possible to

distinguish them on the basis of osseous remains. All diggings yielded large

quantities of murre bones—23 skulls, 13 coracoids, 3 sterna, 3 synsacra, and

about 500 humeri.

Synthliiboramphus antiquus (Gmelin). Ancient Murrelet. This species

is represented by 3 humeri in the 1936 collection.

Cyclorrhynchus psittacula (Pallas). Paroquet Auklet. Bones of this

auklet were found sparingly in all the diggings of both years—25 humeri in

all.

Aethia cristatella (Pallas). Crested Auklet. Seven humeri of this form

were taken from the superficial and intermediate levels, both years.

Fratercula corniculata (Naumann). Horned Puffin. Considering the

abundance of this bird on Kodiak Island, it is surprising that so few of its

bones were found—2 humeri from the superficial levels of the 1935 diggings

are the only bones collected.

Lunda cirrhata (Pallas). Tufted Puffin. Found in all but the deepest

levels, both years. Altogether some 8 tarsometatarsi, 1 skull, and 1 humerus

were unearthed.

Surnia ulula caparoch (Muller). American Hawk Owl. A skull found

in the upper layers in 1935 represents this bird.

Pica pica hudsonia (Sabind). American Magpie. In the superficial

levels excavated in 1935, Hrdlicka collected a skull, 1 humerus, and 1 tar-

sometatarsus of the magpie.

Corvus corax principalis Ridgway. Northern Raven. Commonly rep-

resented in all diggings both years. The following bones were collected: 10

skulls, 3 synsacra, 40 metacarpals, 35 humeri, and 25 tarsometatarsi.

Corvus brachyrhynchos caurinus Baird. Northwestern Crow. Found in

all diggings but in much smaller quantities than the previous species—4

skulls and 7 humeri.

Ocr: 15, 1937 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 435

In the Aleutian Chain excavations were made in 1936 in four

islands—Unalaska, Little Kiska, Atka, and Attu.

2. BIRD BONES FROM DUTCH HARBOR, UNALASKA

Gavia adamsi (Gray). Yellow-billed Loon. One skull, 2 tibiotarsi, 2

metacarpals, and 1 pair of mandibles represent this species.

Gavia arctica pacifica (Lawrence). Pacific Loon. A single metacarpal

of this bird was collected.

Diomedea albatrus Pallas. Short-tailed Albatross. This albatross is

well represented by many bones—4 humeri, 3 synsacra, 1 ulna, 4 pairs

of maxillae, 1 tibiotarsus, 5 metacarpals, 9 tarsometatarsi, and 7 femurs.

Puffinus griseus (Gmelin). Sooty Shearwater. Some 18 humeri are ref-

erable to this bird.

Puffinus sp. Shearwater. The bones here included are probably to be

referred to P. tenuzrostris, but in the absence of comparative, named ma-

terial, I cannot be certain.

Fulmarus glacialis rodgerst Cassin. Pacific Fulmar. Two skulls were

collected.

Phalacrocorax pelagicus Pallas. Pelagic Cormorant. Represented by

16 humeri, 3 tibiotarsi, 7 femurs, and 3 tarsometatarsi.

_Philacte canagica (Sevastianoff). Emperor Goose. Three humeri of

the emperor goose were collected.

Nyroca valisineria (Wilson). Canvas-back. Five humeri are refer-

able to this duck.

Glaucionetta clangula americana (Bonaparte). American Golden-eye.

The subspecific determination of the single humerus collected is based on

geography alone.

Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus). Old-squaw. Of this duck 8 humeri were

found.

Histrionicus histrionicus (Linnaeus). Harlequin Duck. Twelve humeri.

Probably of the western subspecies, paczficus.

Somateria v-nigra Gray. Pacific Eider. A skull and 4 humeri repre-

sent this duck.

Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus.) King Eider. More commonly repre-

sented than the preceding species—24 humeri and 2 skulls were found.

Melanitta deglandi (Bonaparte). White-winged Scoter. Of this species

13 humeri were collected.

Melanitta perspicillata (Linnaeus). Surf Scoter. A single humerus ap-

pears to be of this species.

Oidemia americana Swainson. American Scoter. One humerus.

Mergus merganser Linnaeus. Merganser. One humerus; probably of

the American subspecies.

Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Linnaeus). Bald Eagle. Represented by 3

coracoids, 2 metacarpals, and 3 tibiotarsi. Curiously enough, 2 of the tibio-

tarsi had been broken and healed.

436 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

Lagopus sp. Ptarmigan. Two humeri of a ptarmigan, probably L.

rupestris, were found.

Larus hyperboreus Gunnerus. Glaucous Gull. One femur of this gull

was found.

Larus glaucescens Naumann. Glaucous-winged Gull. Of this species, 1

skull and 4 humeri were unearthed.

Larus argentatus smithsonianus Coues. Herring Gull. Six humeri.

Rissa brevirostris (Bruch). Red-legged Kittiwake. A single humerus

appears to be of this species and constitutes an interesting geographical

record.

Uria sp. Murres. Undoubtedly the 2 species aalge and lomvia are here

mixed, but it is not possible to tell their bones apart. All in all, 148 humeri,

1 skull, and 3 tibiotarsi were found.

Cepphus columba Pallas. Pigeon Guillemot. One humerus.

Synthliboramphus antiquus (Gmelin). Ancient Auklet. Four skulls ap-

pear to be referable to this species.

Aethia cristatella (Pallas). Crested Auklet. Five humeri.

Fratercula corniculata (Naumann). Horned Puffin. One humerus.

Lunda cirrhata (Pallas). Tufted Puffin. Two humeri.

Corvus corax principalis Ridgway. Northern Raven. Of this bird, 3

humeri and 3 metacarpals were dug up.

3. BIRD BONES FROM LITTLE KISKA

Gavia immer (Brunnich). Common Loon. One humerus, 1 metacarpal,

1 tibiotarsus.

Gavia adamsi (Gray). Yellow-billed Loon. One sternum, 1 humerus, 1

tibiotarsus.

Diomedea albatrus Pallas. Short-tailed Albatross. Four tarsometatarsi,

3 metacarpals, 13 fragments of synsacra, 3 fragments of sterna, 7 humeri

(5 fragments only), 5 skulls, 15 pair of maxillae, 1 pair of mandibles, 1 pair

of clavicles, 15 femurs, 1 tibiotarsus.

Puffinus griseus (Gmelin). Sooty Shearwater. Two humeri.

Phalacrocorax pelagicus Pallas. Pelagic Cormorant. Three tarsometa-

tarsi, 62 humeri, 26 femurs, 6 skulls, 14 sterna, 12 synsacra, 1 coracoid, 8

tibiotarsi.

Cygnus columbianus (Ord). Whistling Swan. Two ulnae, 2 radii.

Branta nigricans (Lawrence). Black Brant. One skull, 2 sterna.

Philacte canagica (Sevastianoff). Emperor Goose. Forty-seven humeri,

1 ulna, 2 synsacra, 3 femurs, 4 metacarpals, 3 tarsometatarsi.

Anser albifrons (Scopoli). White-fronted Goose. Eleven humeri, 2

femurs.

Mareca americana (Gmelin). Baldpate. Three humeri.

Charitonetia albeola (Linnaeus). Buffle-head. One humerus.

Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus). Old-squaw. One humerus.

Oct... 15, 1937 FRIEDMANN: BIRD BONES 437

Histrionicus histrionicus (Linnaeus). Harlequin Duck. Three humeri,

1 skull.

Polysticta stelleri (Pallas). Steller’s Eider. Five humeri.

Somateria v-nigra Gray. Pacific Eider. Thirteen sterna, 8 skulls, 2

clavicles, 7 metacarpals, 3 coracoids, 1 ulna, 29 humeri, 2 synsacra, 1 tar-

sometatarsus, 2 tibiotarsi.

Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus). King Hider. Three humeri, 1 femur,

3 metacarpals, 3 sterna, 1 synsacrum, | tibiotarsus.

Melanitia degland: (Bonaparte). White-winged Scoter. Eight humeri,

1 skull.

Melanitta perspicillata (Linnaeus). Surf Scoter. One humerus.

Mergus serrator Linnaeus. Red-breasted Merganser. One skull.

Haliaeetus leucocephilus (Linnaeus). Bald Eagle. One humerus. 2

metacarpals.

Larus hyperboreus Gunnerus. Glaucous Gull. One skull, 1 femur.

Larus glauscens Naumann. Glaucous-winged Gull. Eight humeri, 1

femur.

Larus argentatus smithsonianus Coues. Herring Gull. Four humeri, 1

skull.

Uria sp. Murres. Probably both species aalge and lomvia mixed to-

gether. One skull, 13 humeri, 1 femur, 4 sterna.

Cepphus columba Pallas. Pigeon Guillemot. Two skulls, 8 humeri.

Brachyrhamphus marmoratus (Gmelin). Marbled Murrelet. One ster-

num.

Synthliboramphus antiquus (Gmelin). Ancient Murrelet. One humerus,

1 sternum. |

Aethia cristatella (Pallas). Crested Auklet. Twenty-one humeri, 5

sterna.

Aethia pusilla (Pallas). Least Auklet. Three sterna.

Cerorhinca monocerata (Pallas). Rhinoceros Auklet. Three humeri.

Fratercula corniculata (Naumann). Horned Puffin. Twenty-nine humeri.

Lunda cirrhata (Pallas). Tufted Puffin. Twenty-one humeri, 4 sterna.

Nyctea nyctea (Linnaeus). Snowy Owl. One femur.

Corvus corax principalis Ridgway. Northern Raven. Eleven humeri,

3 metacarpals, | synsacrum.

4. BIRD BONES FROM ATKA ISLAND

Diomedea albatrus (Pallas). Short-tailed Albatross. One humerus.

Branta nigricans (Lawrence). Black Brant. One humerus.

Philacte canagica (Sevastianoff). Emperor Goose. One humerus.

Melanitta deglandi (Bonaparte). White-winged Scoter. One humerus.

Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Linnaeus). Bald Eagle. One synsacrum.

Larus glaucescens Naumann. Glaucous-winged Gull. One tibiotarsus.

Corvus corax principalis Ridgway. Northern Raven. Four humeri.

438 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

Qo. BIRD BONES FROM ATTU ISLAND

Diomedea albatrus Pallas. Short-tailed Albatross. Three skulls, 1 pair

of maxillae, 2 synsacra, 3 tarsometatarsi, 2 metacarpals, 7 femurs.

Puffinus griseus (Gmelin). Sooty Shearwater. Five humeri.

Puffinus sp. Shearwater. Six humeri, probably P. tenuzrostris.

Fulmarus glacialis rodgerst Cassin. Pacific Fulmar. One humerus.

Phalacrocorax pelagicus Pallas. Pelagic Cormorant. Four sterna, 3

synsacra, 4 skulls, 3 coracoids, 11 ulnae, 31 humeri, 1 tarsometatarsus, 26

femurs, and 16 tibiotarsi.

Branta nigricans (Lawrence). Black Brant. Four humeri.

Philacte canagica (Sevastianoff). Emperor Goose. One femur, 14 hu-

meri.

Anser albifrons (Scopoli). White-fronted Goose. Two tarsometatarsi.

Somateria v-nigra Gray. Pacific Eider. One sternum, 4 skulls, 1 cora-

coid, 4 humeri.

Melanitta deglandi (Bonaparte.) White-winged Scoter. One humerus.

Larus hyperboreus Gunnerus. Glaucous Gull. Two skulls.

Larus glaucescens Naumann. Glaucous-winged Gull. Eleven humeri,

17 ulnae, 2 metacarpals.

Larus argentatus smithsonianus Coues. Herring Gull. Three humeri.

Larus canus brachyrhynchus Richardson. Short-billed Gull. Two hu-

meri.

Uria sp. Murres. Four humeri, 1 skull.

Cepphus columba Pallas. Pigeon Guillemot. Two humeri.

Corvus corax principalis Ridgway. Northern Raven. Two humeri, 1

tarsometatarsus, 2 ulnae, 1 skull.

ENTOMOLOGY.—The genus Lysiognatha Ashmead.! R. A. CusH-

MAN, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. (Com-

municated by C. F. W. MUESEBECK.)

Many “‘rare”’ insects are rare only until something of their seasonal

and environmental habits is discovered. Until the spring of 1933

Lystognatha was a “‘rare’”’ insect. In 1895? Ashmead described the

genus and its type species, comstocki1, from three specimens collected

near Ithaca, N.Y., in 1872 by H. H. Smith. No other specimens had

been recorded, and so far as I know only one other, a specimen with-

out abdomen taken in Colorado by C. F. Baker and for many years

reposing among unclassified material in the National Museum, had

been collected.

1 Received July 20, 1937.

2 Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 3: 276. 1895.

Oerls 1937 CUSHMAN: LYSIOGNATHA 439

REDISCOVERY OF LYSIOGNATHA

In 1933 J. C. Bridwell became interested in the sawflies of the genus

X yela, and observed them ovipositing in the young staminate cones

of the Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana) at Clifton, Va. He also col-

lected some of the parasitic Hymenoptera that he found frequenting

the pine trees. These he submitted to me for identification. Among

them I was surprised to find four female specimens representing two

species of Lyszognatha, collected about May i, 1933.

SEASONAL HISTORY AND BIOLOGY

On April 28 and 29, 1934, Mr. Bridwell and I visited groves of

young pine trees in Virginia a few miles from Washington, D. C., and

found Lysiognatha very abundant. At this time a large majority of

the specimens were males. A week later specimens were much less

numerous and all were females. This indicates that the males emerge

before the females, and also that April 28 was not far from the earliest

emergence date for Lysiognatha. During this period the larvae of Xyela

were reaching full growth, and about May 5 were leaving the cones in

large numbers. Examination of the nearly 200 specimens of Lysio-

gnatha collected disclosed the same two species taken in 1933 by Mr.

Bridwell and also many specimens of a third species.

While examining larvae of Xyela for evidence of parasitization we

found many bearing on or near their heads peculiar eggs, which we

were able, by comparing them with ovarian eggs, to identify as those

of Lysiognatha. The egg of Lysiognatha is comparatively large, white,

elongate oval, slightly curved, and slightly larger at the cephalic end.

It is attached to the host by a short pedicel thrust through the skin of

the host. Imbedded in the foot of the stalk is a black heavily sclero-

tized body that apparently serves as an anchor. Fig. 1,6, shows an

egg dissected from the ovary of Lysiognatha and Fig. 1,c, three eggs

attached to a Xyela larva.’ The position of the egg on the host sug-

gests the surmise that the peculiar mandibles of Lysiognatha may be

employed for holding the host during oviposition.

It is very evident that hatching never takes place until after the

host has entered the soil for pupation, for of the many eggs that we

observed on Xyela larvae just after their emergence from the cones,

none had hatched. In fact, it was not until July 3, more than two

months after the discovery of the egg, that a newly hatched larva

was observed. In hatching the larval Lysiognatha does not entirely

3 Preliminary notice of the rediscovery of Lysiognatha and of the identity of its

egg was published in Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 36: 262. 1934.

440 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

emerge from the eggshell, but uses it as an anchor for holding to its host.

On August 6 the first full-grown larva was found. It is a typical

ichneumonid larva of the externally parasitic type, as shown by the

figure of the head, Fig. 1,d. Subsequently many larvae were found in

their thin, shining, transparent cocoons within the cocoons of X yela.

The first pupa was found on September 20 and by September 26

most of the larvae had pupated. Although Xyela cocoons were col-

lected and examined as late as December 17, Lysiognatha had not

advanced beyond the pupal stage, and it is evident that it hibernates

in that stage.

TAXONOMY

Position in classification.—At the time of the original description

of Lysiognatha, Ashmead created for it the subfamily Lysiognathinae,

which he placed as the first subfamily of the Ichneumonidae. In 1900,

however, in his Classification of the ichneumon flies, he treated it as a

subfamily of the Alysiidae because of the position and form of the

mandibles. The Spanish hymenopterist, G. Ceballos, examined the

types of L. comstocki at the National Museum in 1928, and sub-

sequently’ expressed the opinion that it is ichneumonid.

‘In my opinion the cephalic and mandibular characters are adaptive,

whereas the venation and the free second abdominal suture, together

with the characters of the larva, are phylogenetic characters and

hence of much more significance in determining the affinities of the

group. In venation and abdominal structure there is no essential

difference between Lysiognatha and many ichneumonid, especially

ichneumonine, genera, and it is to the Ichneumonidae that I think

it should be relegated.

The association of Lysiognatha with the primitive Xyela would

seem to indicate a primitive position for it within the Ichneumonidae.

On the other hand, the form of the head and of the mandibles and the

method of reproduction indicate a much more recent origin than that

of many other Ichneumonidae. Whatever the placing, the form of the

head and of the mandibles would render the group anomalous. In the

more conservative characters of venation, form of abdomen, and form

of ovipositor it is perhaps most like the Ichneumonini, while its

method of reproduction allies it with the Tryphonini. In my opinion

the proper placing of the group is low on the phylogenetic line be-

tween the Ichneumonini and the Tryphonini. The anomalous form of

the head and that of the mandibles are sufficient to warrant the rec-

ognition of the Lysiognathinae as a distinct subfamily.

4 Mem. Real Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat. 25:20. 1929.

Ocriid, L937, CUSHMAN: LYSIOGNATHA 441

Subfamily and generic characters—Head in front view (Fig. 1,a) broader

than long, with mouth very broad, mandibles articulating below eyes, the

articulating membrane extending upward behind eyes; malar space oblit-

erated; mandible nearly twice as long as broad at base, nearly parallel

sided, with two large, slightly out-turned teeth, from each of which a promi-

nent carina runs back along margin toward base so that outer face of

mandible toward apex is concave; clypeus correspondingly broad, extending

from eye to eye, ten or more times as broad as long medially, where it is

Fig. 1—a, head of Lysitognatha longicauda Cushman; b, ovarian egg of Lysio-

gnatha sp.; c, eggs of Lystognatha sp. in situ on larva of Xyela sp.; d, head of larva of

Lysiognatha sp.

shortest; maxillary palpus 5-jointed; labial palpus 4-jointed (erroneously

given as 3-jointed by Ashmead); head behind eyes buccate, temple nearly

or quite reaching outside tangent of eye, occiput deeply concave and mar-

gined by a distinct carina; antennae short, slender, filiform, about 22—25-

jointed, scape semiglobose, squarely truncate at apex, first joint of flagellum

shorter than second and slightly thickened toward base.

Thorax stout, shining, weakly sculptured; epomia lacking; notauli shal-

low; sternauli lacking; prepectus defined; mesolcus deep, not closed pos-

teriorly ; propodeum incompletely areolated, median carinae diverging from

base to apex, basal area small quadrangular, areola and petiolar area con-

fluent; lateral carinae present or absent; spiracle very small, circular, situ-

ated somewhat before middle.

Legs stout, rather long; calearia 1:2:2, short, inner calcaria on middle

and hind legs not much longer than outer; claws small, simple.

442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

Wings broad; stigma broadly triangular; areolet deltoid, oblique, sessile

or petiolate; second recurrent with separated bullae; second discoidal cell

broad at base; abscissula shorter than intercubitella; nervellus broken below

middle.

Abdomen in female short and broad, sessile, little longer than thorax;

first tergite large, slightly longer than broad, sides divergent, dorsal carinae

extending well onto disk, spiracle basad of middle; other tergites strongly

transverse, apical ones weakly sclerotized; ovipositor long, subsagittate but

not serrate at apex; hypopygium rather prominent; venter entirely mem-

branous. Abdomen in male more slender than in female, broadest near apex;

first tergite much longer than broad; second nearly as long as broad; apical

tergites more strongly sclerotized than in female.

KEY TO SPECIES

1. Vertex with a deep median, longitudinal sulcus extending back onto

occiput and interrupting the occipital carina............2.. 7. 2

Vertex with at most a faint sulcus; occipital carina not interupted....3

2. Female largely. ferruginous.~ 2. >... }220. comstockit Ashmead

Female largely blackisi. 2... te aes 2 ee ee sulcata, n.sp.

3. Occipital carina sharply curved or angulate medially; ovipositor sheath

hearly. as' long as: bodys... cee vo ah eee ee longicauda, n. sp.

Occipital carina evenly and broadly curved medially; ovipositor sheath

much :shorter. than’ Dody. o.4.. 2s. .e=ne an eee es bridwelli, n. sp.

Lysiognatha comstockii Ashmead

Lysiognatha comstockit Ashmead, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 3: 276. 1895.

Known only from the three specimens of the type-series. The two females

are in the U. 8. National Museum, the holotype without wings and anten-

nae and the paratype without abdomen.

This is the palest of the four species, at least in the female, being of a

ferruginous color with abdomen almost stramineous. It also differs from the

next following species, to which it is most closely related by the possession

of the vertical sulcus, in having the thorax polished and virtually without

sculpture and the tergites beyond the second evenly sclerotized throughout.

Lysiognatha sulcata, n. sp.

Closely related to comstocki and possibly not distinct, but judging from

the meager material in both species it differs constantly in the female in the

blackish head and thorax and the more distinctly sculptured and less pol-

ished thorax, and in having the tergites beyond the first so weakly sclero-

tized along the apical and lateral margins that in dried specimens they are

much distorted. The last may be due to a teneral condition, but the fully

developed color argues against this possibility. Furthermore, the difference

of nearly two months in the collecting dates could hardly be accounted for

by the difference in latitude.

Female.—Length 3.25 mm; antenna 2.75 mm; ovipositor sheath 1.75 mm.

Head polished, virtually without sculpture; a deep sulcus extending from

between the ocelli nearly to the occipital foramen and interrupting the occip-

ital carina.

Thorax subpolished, subtly alutaceous; mesoscutum weakly and sparsely

punctate; propodeum more strongly alutaceous, the carinae faint; areolet

sessile.

Oor ls, 1937 CUSHMAN: LYSIOGNATHA 443

Abdomen beyond first tergite weakly sclerotized around margins of ter-

gites, first tergite subpolished, distinctly longer than broad.

Black; face, clypeus, mouthparts (except mandibular teeth), lower margin

of cheek, frontal orbit, under side of scape, of pedicel, and of base of first

flagellar joint, tegulae, radices of wings, and front and middle coxae and

all trochanters whitish; abdomen beyond first tergite brown fading to yel-

lowish toward apex; wings hyaline, stigma testaceous, veins darker; front

and middle femora pale stramineous, their tibiae and tarsi somewhat in-

fuscate; hind coxa piceous with apex pale, femur stramineous, tibia and

tarsus fuscous.

Male.—Essentially like female except that abdomen is narrower and’

evenly sclerotized; first tergite nearly twice as long as broad with sides

parallel beyond spiracles; abdomen darker, with tergites except first mar-

gined with yellow; and stigma fusco-testaceous.

Type-locality.—Clifton, Va.

Type.—No. 52160, U. S. National Museum.

Two females from the type-locality Apr. 26—May 3, 1933; 2 males, Dale-

earlia, D. C., June 1, 1934, and one male, Alexandria, Va., Apr. 28, 1934; all

taken by J. C. Bridwell on Pinus virginiana.

Lysiognatha longicauda, n. sp.

Distinct from sulcata in the obsolete sulcus of vertex and merely angu-

lated, not interrupted, occipital carina; and, in the female, in the completely

sclerotized tergites and much longer ovipositor.

Female.—Length 3.25 mm; antenna 2.75 mm; ovipositor sheath 2.75 mm.

Head finely but distinctly punctate; sulcus of vertex distinct only just

before occipital carina, which has a distinct angulation but is not inter-

rupted medially.

Thorax shining, alutaceous especially on pleura and propodeum, mesoscu-

tum and scutellum distinctly finely punctate; propodeal carinae distinct;

areolet subsessile or petiolate.

Abdominal tergites completely sclerotized; first tergite distinctly aluta-

ceous, very slightly longer than broad.

Color pattern the same as in sulcata, but the dark color more piceous,

sometimes largely replaced by reddish; dorsal part of head, scutellum and

the thoracic sutures frequently paler; legs usually darker; abdomen beyond

first tergite, except apical 2 or 3 tergites, piceous; stigma fusco-testaceous,

paler at base and apex.

Male.—Abdomen more slender than in female, first tergite nearly twice

as long as broad; dark color of head and thorax black, rather than piceous;

abdomen dorsally piceous, except narrow yellowish margins of tergites.

Host.—Xyela sp.

Type locality.—Alexandria, Va.

Type.—No. 52161, U. S. National Museum.

Forty-six females and 54 males taken on pine at Clifton, Va. (Apr. 26-

May 3, 1933), Alexandria, Va. (Apr. 28, May 2 and May 6, 1934), and Bar-

croft, Va. (May 6, 1934), all by J. C. Bridwell, and at Falls Church, Va.

(Apr. 29 and May 6, 1934) by R. A. Cushman.

444 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

Lysiognatha bridwelli, n. sp.

Female.—Length 3.0 mm; antenna 2.0 mm; ovipositor sheath 1.75 mm.

Distinct from all of the other species in the evenly curved, neither inter-

rupted nor angulated occipital carina and barely visible median sulcus of

vertex; and from longicauda, which it most closely resembles, in the much

shorter ovipositor. Otherwise the species agrees with the above description

of longicauda, except that the ground color of head and thorax, whether

piceous or reddish, is more nearly uniform.

Male.—Differs from the female as does the male of longicauda from its

female.

Host.—X yela sp.

Type locality —Alexandria, Va.

Type.—No. 52162, U.S. National Museum.

Thirty-nine females and 38 males taken on pine at Alexandria, Va. (Apr.

28-29 and May 2 and 6, 1934), Barcroft, Va. (May 6, 1934), and Dalecarlia,

D. C. (May 1, 1934) by J. C. Bridwell, and at Falls Church, Va. (Apr. 29

and May 6, 1934) by R. A. Cushman.

MALACOLOGY.—Four new species of fresh-water mollusks from

China.t Sur Fone CHEN. (Communicated by Paut Bartscu.)

In a collection of Chinese fresh-water mollusks received by the

U.S. National Museum from the Rev. D. C. Graham are four un-

described species which are here described and named.

I wish here to express my appreciation to the authorities of the

U.S. National Museum and to Dr. Paul Bartsch, the Curator of the

Division of Mollusks, for the privilege of studying the family Melani-

idae from China in their collection.

Melania (Melanoides) suifuensis, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2.—1

Shell of medium size, stout, elongate-conic, turreted, pale yellow through-

out excepting the interior of the aperture, which is whitish. The nuclear

whorls are decollated in all the specimens before me. Postnuclear whorls

well rounded, marked with axial crescentic ribs of which 14 occur on the

second and third of the remaining whorls, 15 on the fourth, 17 on the fifth

and sixth, 19 on the penultimate, and 18 on the last whorl. The spaces

separating the ribs about equal them in width. The spiral sculpture consists

of fine threads of which 16 occur between summit and periphery on the last

whorl. The suture is strongly impressed. Periphery strongly angulated with

the axial ribs terminating at the angulation. Base short, well rounded, and

marked by the feeble continuations of the axial ribs; it is also marked by

obsolete microscopic spiral threads. The aperture is elliptical; the peristome

is thin, simple; parietal wall covered with a slight callus; columella arched.

The operculum is thin with 3.2 turns and has left subcentral nucleus. The

radula has the formula: 3-1-3 :2-1-3:4:5.

The type of U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 365666, was collected by Rev. D. C.

Graham at Suifu, Szechuan Province, China. It has 8 whorls remaining

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re-

ceived July 30, 1937.

Ocr, 15, 1937 CHEN: FRESH-WATER MOLLUSKS 445

which yields the following measurements: Length 21.1 mm; diameter 8.0

mm; length of aperture 6.6 mm.

Twenty-one specimens from the same source as the type, yield the fol-

lowing additional information: They have an average number of 7.9 whorls;

the greatest number of whorls being 9.1, and the least 7.2. They present an

average length of 18.6 mm; the greatest length being 20.9 mm, and the least

15.8 mm. Their average diameter is 7.0 mm; the largest is 7.8 mm. and the

least 5.9 mm. The length of aperture averages 5.9 mm; the largest length of

aperture is 6.5 mm, and the least 5.2 mm. They have an average number of

ribs as follows: 14.7 on the second of the remaining whorls, 14.6 on the

third, 14.8 on the fourth, 15.5 on the fifth, 17.0 on the sixth, 18.0 on the

seventh and last whorls.

This species resembles Melania ningpoensis Lea, but lacks the spiral

keels on the base.

| 2 3

Fig. 1.—1, Melania (Melanoides) suzfuensis. X2. 2, Paludomus (Hemimitra) yun-

nanensis. X5. 3, Paludomus (Hemimitra) kwetchowensis. X5. 4, Paludomus minen-

Sis. 2:

Paludomus (Hemimitra) yunnanensis, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2.—2

Shell quite small, ovate-conic, olive brown. Nuclear whorls eroded in all

the specimens before me. Postnuclear whorls inflated, strongly rounded,

and marked with microscopic incremental lines; spiral sculpture absent. The

last whorl shows three dark brown bands. The first which is much narrower

and darker is a little below the summit, the second one is half way between

the first and third, the latter being at the periphery; a lighter zone equalling

the medium dark band separates this from the other two. The suture is

well impressed. The last whorl is rather inflated with rounded periphery. The

base is short, well rounded, with a dark brown median spiral band. Aperture

pyriform; peristome thin, simple; parietal wall with a thin callus; columella

arched. The operculum is thin, horny with 2.4 turns, bluntly pointed pos-

teriorly, and broadening anteriorly with subcentral nucleus. The radula

has the formula: 2-1-2:2-1-3:6:11.

The type, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 467598, was collected by Rev. D. C.

Graham in the Yangtze River, near Shiikiang, Yunnan Province. China,

and yields the following measurements: Number of whorls 3.0; length 6.9

mm; diameter 4.5 mm; length of aperture 4.0 mm.

446 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 10

Twenty-nine specimens from the same source give us the following addi-

tional information: They have an average number of 2.9 whorls remaining;

the greatest number of whorls is 3.3, and the least 2.3. They present an

average length of 5.7 mm; the greatest length is 7.3 mm, and the least 3.6

mm. Their average diameter is 4.0 mm; the largest is 4.8 mm, and the least

2.6 mm. The length of aperture averages 3.4 mm; the largest length of aper-

ture is 4.3 mm, and the least 2.2 mm.

This species is also found in Suifu, Szechuan Province, China. Twenty-

two specimens, U.S. National Museum Cat. No. 467599, collected by Rev.

D. C. Graham, give the following measurements: They have an average

number of 3.0 whorls remaining; the greatest number of whorls is 3.6, and

the least 2.1. They present an average length of 5.6 mm; the greatest length

is 7.1 mm, and the least 4.5 mm. Their average diameter is 4.0 mm; the

largest is 4.9 mm, and the least 3.2 mm. The length of aperture averages

3.3 mm; the largest length of aperture is 4.0 mm, and the least 2.5 mm.

This species resembles Paludomus baccula Reeve in many respects but it

is much smaller, and the anterior end of the aperture is more pointed; it is

also spirally banded.

Paludomus (Hemimitra) kweichowensis, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2.—3

Shell rather small, solid, smooth, elongate-conic, dark brown throughout

excepting that part immediately below the suture which is greenish yellow.

The apex is eroded. The postnuclear whorls are inflated, well rounded, and

marked with fine lines of growth. Spiral sculpture is absent. Three spiral

dark brown bands are present on each whorl; they are especially conspicu-

ous on the last turn. One of these, much narrower, is slightly below the

summit, the second one, much lighter than the other two, is half way be-

tween the first and third, the latter being at the periphery; a lighter zone

equalling the medium dark band separates this from the other two; there

may also be a more or less well developed basal band. Suture strongly im-

pressed. Periphery well rounded. The base is moderately long and well

rounded. The aperture is ovate-pyriform; peristome simple, slightly reflexed;

parietal wall covered with a slight callus; columella arched. The operculum

is thin with 3.2 turns, ovate, bluntly pointed posteriorly and broadly

rounded anteriorly with subcentral nucleus, that is somewhat to the left

of and below the center. The radula has the formula: 3-1-3 :2-1-3:5:8.

The type, U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 467596 was collected by Rev. D. C.

Graham at Shih-men-kan, Kweichow Province, China. It has 6.5 whorls

and measures: Length 10.7 mm; diameter 5.7 mm; length of aperture 5.0

mm.

Ninety-three additional specimens from the same source give the following

measurements: They have an average number of whorls 5.0; the greatest

number of whorls is 6.5, and the least 3.8. They present an average length

of 9.7 mm; the greatest length is 13.5 mm, and the least 5.6 mm. Their

average diameter is 5.2 mm; the largest is 6.2 mm, and the least 3.5 mm. The

length of aperture averages 4.6 mm; the largest length of aperture is 5.9

mm, and the least 3.0 mm.

This species is very much like Melania leprosa Heude, but is much smaller

and has the columella more uniformly arched, and the body whorl larger;

it is also spirally banded.

Paludomus minensis, n. sp. Rigs: LZ

Shell thick, stout, ovate, bluish purple covered with a greenish yellow

periostracum; the interior of the aperture is chestnut colored. Nuclear

Oct. 15, 1937 CHEN: FRESH-WATER MOLLUSKS. 447

es)

Fig. 2.—1, Melania (Melanoides) suifuensis. a Paludomus (Hemimitra) yunnan-

ensis. 3, Paludomus (Hemimitra) kweichowensis. 4, Paludomus minensis. Radulae,

x 200. Opercula, X15.

448 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 10

whorls 2.0, smooth and well rounded, forming a blunt apex. Postnuclear

whorls strongly rounded and marked with axial incremental lines. Spiral

sculpture absent. Suture moderately impressed. Periphery well rounded.

Base short and well rounded. Aperture ovate-pyriform, bluntly pointed

posteriorly and broadly ovate anteriorly; peristome simple, slightly thick-

ened internally; parietal wall heavily calloused; columella arched. Oper-

culum ovate and moderately thick, with 2.7 turns. The radula has the for-

mula: 4-1-4:3-1-2:3:4.

The type U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 467605, was collected by Rev. D. C.

Graham in Min River near Kienway, Szechuan Province, China, and yields

the following measurements: Number of whorls, 4.8; length 21.2 mm; diam-

eter 15.1 mm; length of aperture 12.9 mm.

Three specimens from the same source yield the following additional in-

formation: They have an average number of 4.4 whorls; the greatest num-

ber of whorls is 4.6, and the least 4.2. They present an average length of 22.2

mm; the greatest length is 23.3 mm, and the least 21.6 mm. Their average

diameter is 14.9 mm; the largest is 15.6 mm, and the least 14.1 mm. The

length of aperture averages 13.4 mm; the largest length of aperture is 13.7

mm, and the least 12.9 mm.

The species, most closely resembling this form, is Paludomus conicus

Gray. The present species, however, is stouter and has a smooth surface

without sculpture.

CONTENTS

Hypro.tocy.—The chemical character of the erotind waters of ee

South Atlantic Coastal Plain. Margaret D. Fostmr......... 4

Botany.—New species of Sphaceloma on Aralia and Mentha.

By. JENKIN ALS iS, die te ie nis mk oie eae ee ee a

PALEOBOTANY.—Fossil bea Ope from eg ey Oregon AN

Wi SRO WN hoa ews ie ieee ees

ZooLogy.—New rodents from Middle America. E. A. GoLpMAN. .

ZooLocy.—Some parasitic copepods from Panama Bay. Connon, ee y

WILSON 6c 0 io gle On Ua den wo Rees g' cutee ee eae’ Windus ee

ORNITHOLOGY.—Bird bones from pais tage sites in Alaska. Her- ion

BERT FRIEDMANN........-. vista 4 fate Datel Ce ee heat gerne ae

eat nls gmat genus Lysiognatha sagas Ss ae. Guise bs

MM as. is SE ein: | a ee eee

je?

Maxaco.ocy.—Four new species of fresh-water mollusks from China,

Be ond Cont ee

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 27 NOVEMBER 15, 1937 No. 11

PALEONTOLOGY .—Linter, a new taxodont genus from the Upper

Cretaceous of Texas... Luoyp WILLIAM STEPHENSON, U. 8. Geo-

logical Survey.

An elegant little taxodont bivalve mollusk from the Nacatoch sand

of the Navarro group of Texas appears to belong to a heretofore un-

described genus and species for which the name Linter acutata is now

proposed. This shell has been found at three localities in Navarro

County.

The genus is also represented by one specimen belonging to a dis-

tinct species, here named Linter burrana, from the San Miguel for-

mation of Maverick County, Texas, a formation stratigraphically

lower than the Nacatoch sand, and correlated with the upper part

of the Taylor marl of central Texas.

These species belong to a group of taxodont shells having vertically

striated ligamental areas, to which F. Stearns MacNeil, in an accom-

panying paper in this JOURNAL, and in a paper now in press as United

States Geological Survey Professional Paper 189-A, applies the new

family name Noetidae, based on the genus Noetia Gray, and the new

subfamily name Trinacriinae, based on the genus T'rinacria.

Genus LINTER Stephenson, n. gen.

Type species: Linter acutata Stephenson.

Etymology: Latin linter, a boat or skiff..

This genus is characterized by its long and sharply acute umbonal ridge,

its short Arca-like hinge, and its broadly excavated triangular cardinal

area situated mainly back of the beak; at the forward end of the area under

the beak is a small, triangular, amphidetic, ligamental area, faintly stri-

ated at right angles to the hinge line; the rest of the area is smooth with

only incremental lines showing. The hinge is slightly arched and is set with

10 or more irregular, short, transverse to slightly oblique teeth, separated

by deep sockets.

The genus is represented by 8 specimens from Texas, 7 from the Nacatoch

sand, described below under the specific name Linter acutata, and 1 from

the stratigraphically lower San Miguel formation of Maverick County, de-

scribed under the name Linter burrana.

1 Published by permission of the Director, U. 8. Geological Survey. Received

September 13, 1937.

450 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

Linter acutata Stephenson n. sp. Figs. 1-3

Shell small, subtrigonal in outline, strongly convex. Beaks prominent,

opisthogyrate, slightly separated, situated about 3/10 the length of the

shell from the anterior extremity. The umbonal ridge is sharply angular,

the median surface meeting the postero-dorsal slope at an acute angle, the

crest of the ridge slightly overhanging as it approaches the beak. A broad,

very shallow radiating depression extends to the postero-ventral margin in

front of the umbonal ridge. The umbonal ridge stands higher than any other

part of the shell, and from it the surface rounds down gently to the anterior

and ventral margins; the posterodorsal slope is long, broad, and broadly

excavated, the concavity being slightly modified by a broad median swell;

this surface meets the cardinal area at a broad, obtuse angle. The cardinal

Figs. 1-5.—Linter acutata Stephenson. 1, side view of the holotype, a right valve,

<2 (U.S.N.M. no. 75974). 2, dorsal view of the holotype, X2. 3, an enlarged, some-

what generalized drawing of the hinge and cardinal area of the holotype, X9. Figs.

4, 5.—Linter burrana Stephenson. 4, side view of the holotype, X2 (U.S.N.M. no.

75978). 5, dorsal view of the holotype, x2.

area is triangular and broadly excavated; its lower straight edge is about

2.25 mm long in the holotype, and its posterior edge meets the posterodor-

sal slope at an obtuse angle; the anterior edge is partly concealed by the in-

curving of the sharp tip of the beak. Under the beak is a small, shallow,

triangular, ligamental pit, which bears 5 or 6 obscure, transverse striations;

the rest of the area is smooth with the exception of fine incremental lines.

The hinge plate is short and narrow; as seen on the holotype it is obscure

but appears to be set with 10 or more irregular taxodont teeth which cen-

trally are nearly transverse to the hinge line but toward the ends become

more or less oblique; the anterior teeth are chevron-shaped. The inner sur-

face is partly exposed posteriorly in one shell and exhibits radial striae

which are strongest near the pallial line. The anterodorsal margin is steeply

inclined but curves below into the regularly rounded anterior margin, which

in turn curves into the broadly convex to nearly straight ventral margin;

the long, nearly straight, though slightly sinuous, posterodorsal margin

meets the ventral margin at a sharp acute angle, forming a pointed extrem-

ity; the posterodorsal margin is strongly inclined forward and meets the

hinge line at a very wide obtuse angle. The surface is marked with fine,

Nov. 15, 1937 STEPHENSON: LINTER 451

somewhat irregular incremental lines, crossed by very fine, obscure, radiat-

ing ridges which are a little stronger and wider apart on the antero- and

posterodorsal slopes; the crossing of the two sets of lines tends to form a

faint punctate sculpture; these features are too fine to show clearly in the

illustration, and vary in strength on different individuals.

Dimensions of the holotype, a right valve: Length, 11.3 mm; height, 6.8

mm; convexity, 3 mm.

Types: Holotype, a right valve, U.S.N.M. no. 75974; 2 paratypes,

U.S.N.M. no. 75975; 1 paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 75976; 4 paratypes, U.S.

N.M. no. 75977.

Distribution in Texas ——Navarro group, Nacatoch sand: Public road south

of the St. Louis Southwestern (Cotton Belt) Railroad, about 5 miles south-

southwest.of Corsicana, Navarro County (holotype and 2 paratypes, U.S.

G.S. coll. 7573) ; from a small branch west of the Corsicana-Chatfield road,

at the north end of M. R. and M. J. Thompson’s property, 2 miles north of

Corsicana, Navarro County (1 paratype, U.S.G.S. coll. 9553, collected by

O. B. Hopkins in 1916); borrow pit just east of U.S. Highway 75, at foot of

the north-facing slope of Chambers Creek valley, 4 miles north of the

Court House at Corsicana, Navarro County (4 paratypes, U.S.G.S. coll.

17366).

Linter burrana Stephenson n. sp. Figs. 4, 5

One incomplete individual from the San Miguel formation, Maverick

County, differs from Linter acutata mainly in its proportionately greater

length and in its greater size, being nearly twice as long. In L. acutata the

height is about 0.60 or 0.61 times the length, whereas in L. burrana the

height is about 0.53 times the length. The specimen is an internal mold of both

valves with the thin shell peeled off and lost from more than half the surface;

the portion of the shell that remains is badly corroded, but shows the

growth lines fairly completely; the posterodorsal slopes also show a series of

fine, obscure radiating lines which are strongest near the acutely angular

umbonal ridge, and become fainter inward toward the margin. The shell

is gone from the beaks, and also from the forward portion of the cardinal

area. The posterodorsal slopes are long, broad, broadly excavated, and

extend with a moderately steep descent to the posterior extremity. The an-

terior adductor scar is proportionately small and elongated and is bordered

posteriorly by a narrow radial internal rib that appears on the mold as a

groove. The mold bears the impressions of fine, somewhat irregular, radiat-

ing, internal lines that are strongest toward the marginal ends.

Dimensions: Length 20.8 mm, height 11 mm, diameter 10.8 mm.

The species is accompanied at its type locality by a goodly number of

poorly preserved pelecypods and gastropods (U.S.G.S. colls. 1887 and 8233),

most of which have been only generically identified; among them are shells

of Ostrea saltillensis Bose, and Polinices rectilabrum (Conrad).

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 75978. |

Occurrence.—San Miguel formation (upper Taylor age): From layers of

indurated calcareous sandstone in the north-facing slope of Sauz Creek,

just north of the abandoned stone headquarters house of the old Burr

Ranch, 2 miles northwest of Paloma siding, 23 miles north by east of Eagle

Pass, Maverick County, Texas (U.S.G.S. coll. 8233).

452 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

PALEONTOLOGY.—The systematic position of the pelecypod genus

Trinacria.!| F. Srgarns MacNee, U. S. Geological Survey.

(Communicated by Ltoyp W. STEPHENSON.)

During the course of some researches into the structure and evolu-

tion of the ligament of arcid pelecypods the writer was fortunate

enough to find, in a collection recently acquired by the U.S. National

Museum, a few specimens of T’rinacria cancellata (Deshayes) from the

Calcaire Grossier, on which the fibrous ligament was perfectly pre-

served. These throw new light on the relationships of this genus. In

addition some specimens of a new genus from the Upper Cretaceous

of Texas, collected and described in manuscript by L. W. Stephen-

son of the U. 8S. Geological Survey, were recognized as representing a

primitive type of Trinacriinae. It is the purpose of this paper to make

the structure of the ligament of Trznacria known, to outline briefly the

evolution of the genus, and to delimit the subfamily Trinacriinae

which was recently proposed by the writer in U. 8. Geological Survey

Professional Paper 189-A.

The writer is indebted to the authorities of the U. S. National

Museum for the privilege of studying Museum collections and to

Dr. L. W. Stephenson for making the name of his Upper Cretaceous

genus, Linter, available under separate title in this publication.

NOMENCLATURE

The availability of the name Trigonocoelia Nyst and Galeotti

(1835) for the group of shells generally referred to as Trinacria Mayer

(1868) has been a subject for difference of opinion since Deshayes

usage of the former in 1860. Wood and Stoliczka expressed the opin-

ion, which was probably shared by Conrad and Newton, that, inas-

much as the original list for T’rzigonocoelia contained two distinct

genera, and one of them, the “‘pectunculacés”’ species, belonged to the

genus Limopsis Sasso (1827) (type by monotypy, Arca aurita Broc-

chi), the name Trigonocoelia was still available for the ‘“‘nuculacés”’

species. Mayer was apparently unaware that the original list for

Trigonocoelia was divided into shells of two types, for he accused

Deshayes of applying the name to an entirely different type of shell

than that for which it was proposed. Mayer believed that Nyst and

Galeotti’s name was proposed as a substitute for Limopsis, because

the latter was a hybrid name, and accepted the substitution on that

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Re-

ceived September 8, 1937.

Nov. 15, 1937 MACNEIL: TRINACRIA 453

ground. He was thus incorrect in suppressing Limopsis and for the

reasons he gave he was equally incorrect in proposing the new name

Trinacria. His name is a valid one, however, by virtue of Herrmann-

sen’s designation of Arca aurita Brocchi as the type of T'rigonocoelia

in 1849 (1). This is the first and only valid designation of a type for

Trigonocoelia the writer has been able to find, and curiously enough

it appears not to have been mentioned by later authors. On whatever

nomenclatorial errors the name Trinacria has gained acceptance,

Herrmannsen’s designation settles the problem unless a contrary

designation made between 1835 and 1849 is discovered. Dall raised

the question as to whether Trigonocaelix Conrad (1865) [a typo-

graphical error] was not to have priority over Trinacria. Had not

Conrad later corrected it to Trigonocaelia (2) a telling case might be

made for it. Conrad’s correction differs from Nyst and Galeotti’s

spelling by the diphthong ae for oe. Inasmuch as the name had been

spelled indiscriminately before, Deshayes spelling it ae in the generic

discussion and oe in the systematic text, and Chenu spelling it oe

in his index and ae in the text it appears best to disregard both

Trigonocaelix and Trigonocaelia.

RELATIONSHIPS OF TRINACRIA

Type (by subsequent designation, Gardner, U. S. Geol. Survey

Prof. Paper 142-A, p. 21, 1926), Trigonocoelia crassa (Deshayes).

Eocene, Paris Basin.

The almost universal assignment of Trinacria to the Limopsidae

has been based on its possession of a deep ligamental pit, the assump-

tion being that both Trznacria and Limopsis possessed a simple liga-

ment connection partly submerged in the shell. A critical study of

the structure of the ligament in these genera revealed that they are

of two distinct types, that of Limopsis being a modification of the

chevroned type, whereas that of Trinacria is a highly specialized

form of the vertically striated type. This knowledge, along with the

discovery of the Upper Cretaceous genus Linter (Fig. 1a), makes it

possible to trace almost without interruption the steps in the evolu-

tion of Trinacria from its ancestral form to the highly specialized

Miocene species occurring in the Alum Bluff group of Florida.

Presumably Linter was derived from some early member of the

Striarcinae. It differs from Breviarca principally in being considerably

lighter and in being strongly opisthogyrate, with a sharp umbonal

keel and a small ligament area, nearly all of which is restricted to the

part of the cardinal area anterior to the beaks. The cardinal area is

454 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

also well developed posterior to the beaks but devoid of ligament

except for a narrow, sub-umbonal wedge. This posterior cardinal area

appears to be slightly out of the plane of the ligament area. The

vertical ligament elements of [inter are delicate, being of about the

same texture as in Breviarca.

Development of Trinacria from Linter consisted of the beaks be-

coming more opisthogyrate and nearer the hinge line so as to cut off

the anterior extension of the ligament. The posterior end of the car-

dinal area became shorter and more out of the plane of the ligament

area, merging directly with the posterior slope. With the anterior

part of the area cut off and the posterior end obsolete the narrow,

subumbonal, posterior wedge of ligament remaining had to become

thickened and submerged to retain strength. The central teeth on the

types of Linter are not well preserved but there appears to be a break

between the anterior and posterior rows. In Trinacria, owing to a

much shortened hinge line, the two rows often come together but are

sharply divided by a difference in direction.

Two species referable to T’rzinacria have been described from the

Cretaceous, Trinacria galeata (Miller) (3) from the Greensands of

Vaals, Aachen; and T'rinacria cor Popenoe (4) from the Upper Cre-

taceous of California. A line drawing of the latter made from speci-

mens kindly loaned the writer by W. P. Popenoe is shown in Fig. 1b.

This species shows the characters mentioned above for early forms

of Tronacria. The beaks are completely opisthogyrate, the umbonal

keel very sharp, the ligament restricted and slightly entrenched, the

cardinal area narrow and indistinct posteriorly, and the hinge line

short.

Evolution within the genus Trinacria consisted of a secondary

lengthening of the shell, orthogyration of the beaks and greater re-

moval of them from the hinge line, lessening angulation and final

rounding of the umbonal ridge, deeper entrenchment of the ligament

with a tendency to grow more to the anterior in later species, and a

greater separation of the anterior and posterior rows of teeth.

Trinacria deltoidea (Lamarck) (Calcaire Grossier) (Fig. lc, drawn

from a specimen from Houdan, France) shows the secondary ortho-

gyration of the beaks with the consequent widening of the antero-

dorsal growth lines. The ligament is more deeply entrenched and ex-

tends more to the anterior than in the extremely opisthogyrate Cre-

taceous species. This species is very similar to 7. cuneus (Conrad),

from Claiborne, Alabama.

Trinacria cancellata (Deshayes) (Calcaire Grossier), the species in

Nov. 15, 1937 MACNEIL: TRINACRIA 455

which a perfectly preserved ligament was found, is very similar to

T. deltordea, differing mainly in being less inflated, more elongate,

and in having more pronounced radial sculpture.

— ~QDpe= SPCC

+ ; e€

Fig. 1.—a. Linter acutata Stephenson. 0. Renee sé cor Popenoe. c. Trinacria

deltoidea (Lamarck). d. Trinacria media (Deshayes). e. Trinacria meeki Dall. f.

Trinacria pectuncularis (Lea). g. Halonanus (Trinacriella) cossmannt (Dall). h.

Halonanus (Trinacriella) perplana (Conrad). 1. Halonanus pulchra (Gabb). The

lengths indicated by the straight lines below the individual figures are over-all dimen-

sions of the shell, natural size.

Remnants of the fibrous layer have also been observed in speci-

mens of 7’. media (Deshayes) (Fig. ld, Bartonian, Ezanville, France),

a species closely related to 7. ledoides (Meyer) from Claiborne. In

these specimens the ligament material is somewhat disarranged but

three ligament grooves are quite clearly indicated on one specimen.

456 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 11

This species is more elongate than 7’. deltoidea and the beaks are more

orthogyrate. The umbonal ridge is not sharply carinate but sharply

rounded and approaches that of T’.. crassa (Deshayes), the genotype,

in which the umbonal ridge is definitely rounded in adults. Trinacria

media and T. crassa approach the Miocene species from Florida,

T. meeki Dall (Fig. le), in the rotundity of the umbonal ridge but

differ in being more trigonal and in that the rows of teeth are not

widely separated as in the latter. In 7. meeki the umbonal ridge is

broadly rounded in adults and the beaks have returned to a nearly

orthogyrate attitude. The base of the ligament is more expanded.

Trinacria meeki might be regarded as subgenerically distinct from

typical Trinacria, but it seems just as satisfactory to regard it as a

terminal species of the genus. T'rinacria pectuncularis (Lea) (Fig. 1f)

from Claiborne has a moderately expanded, somewhat anteriorly

directed ligament pit and separated rows of teeth, but differs from

T. meeki mainly in being higher and subquadrate rather than elongate

and subovate.

In addition to the typical species of T’rinacria found in the Clai-

borne group of the southeastern United States there exist two other

groups of shells that appear closely related to them. It will be difficult

to discuss these forms specifically until they have been monographed,

but they are typified by Noetia pulchra Gabb (Fig. 12) from Texas,

for which the generic name Halonanus (5) has been proposed, and

Pectunculus perplanus Conrad (6) from Claiborne; and Trinacria

perplana (Conrad) Harris (7) (Fig. 1h) for which the subgeneric name

Trinacriella is here proposed under the genus Halonanus.

Trinacriella ranges in shape from subquadrate to subelliptical or

subovate, some forms being nearly circular. Aside from the difference

in shape it is distinguished from T’rinacria by its heavier shell and

wider cardinal plate. The widening of the cardinal plate enabled the

anterior and posterior rows of teeth to reestablish contact with each

other and a series can be seen ranging from 7’. cossmanni Dall (Fig.

1g), in which the rows are well separated, to 7. perplana (Conrad)

(Fig. 1h) in which they run together. In addition the ligament pit

exhibits a series ranging from nearly equilateral in 7’. cossmanni to

more anteriorly directed as in 7’. perplana and T’. ellipsis (Lea). The

former pattern is regarded as aberrant whereas the latter bears re-

semblance to that of some species of T’rinacria, especially the Clai-

borne species 7’. pectuncularis (Lea), through which the two genera

may be connected. The ligament pattern of 7’. perplana also ap-

proaches that of typical Halonanus.

Nov. 15, 1937 MACNEIL: TRINACRIA 457

Halonanus differs from both Trinacria and H. (Trinacriella) in being

definitely noetiform with a well developed cardinal area, although

H. decisa (Conrad) (not figd.) appears to be intermediate between

the typical form and Trinacriella perplana. Halonanus differs from

the Noetinae in that its sculpture consists of only one set of ribs

whereas the Noetinae are characterized by both primary and second-

ary ribs. Its ligament differs from that of Noetza in that in that genus

there is an initial vertical element beginning directly beneath the

umbo whereas in Halonanus pulchra there is an initial anterior diago-

nal groove which later develops into a vertically striated ligament.

This condition has been observed nowhere else among the prionodont

bivalves and is accounted for by the fact that the cardinal area of

Halonanus is a secondary structure analogous to the primary cardinal

area of Linter, the initial anterior diagonal ligament groove being a

remnant of the anteriorly directed ligamental pit observed in T'r-

nacriella and still well developed in Halonanus decisa. The ligament

material is usually lost in specimens of T'rinacriella and Halonanus

decisa but a few specimens seen by the writer retain enough to show

that the ligament contained vertical elements, even in the forms with

more oblique pits. The secondary cardinal area of Halonanus, sensu

stricto, is foreshadowed in the incipient cardinal area observed in some

species of Trinacriella, particularly T. perplana.

CLASSIFICATION?

A partial classification of arcid Pelecypoda to include the subfamily

Trinacriinae follows. This arrangement is based primarily on liga-

ment structure but is correlated with dentition, orientation, sculp-

ture, and other shell characters.

Order FILIBRANCHIA Pelseneer

Suborder PRIONODONTA MacNeil

Superfamilies CYRTODONTACEA, PARALLELODONTACEA,

GLYCYMERACEA, ARCACEA

Superfamily GLYCYMERACEA MacNeil

Families GLYCYMERIDAE, CUCULLAEIDAE, NAVICU-

LIDAE, LIMOPSIDAE, NOETIDAE

The superfamily Glycymeracea exhibits much less stability in ligament

structure than the Parallelodontacea and Arcacea, and most of the aber-

rant types of ligaments are found here. It is interesting to note that all

2 This classification is based on Arca antiquata as type of Arca. If the Commission

should accept a recommendation before it at the present time to regard Arca noae as

type, the following changes would become necessary: Glycymeracea would become

Arcacea; Arcacea would become Anadaracea; and Naviculidae would become Arcidae.

458 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 11

opisthogyrate shells and all shells bearing a flange on the muscle scars fall

in this superfamily.

Family NOETIDAE MacNeil

Subfamilies STRIARCINAE, TRINACRIINAE, NOETINAE

The family Noetidae includes all of the forms having vertical ligament

elements.

Subfamily TRINACRIINAE MacNeil

This subfamily includes the three genera, Linter Stephenson, Trinacria

Mayer, and Halonanus Stewart, and the subgenus Trinacriella MacNeil

(under Halonanus).

LITERATURE CITED

. HERRMANNSEN, A. N. Indicis generum malacozoorum 2: 600. 1849.

. Conrad, T. A. Jour. Am. Conchology 1(2):190a. 1865.

HouzaPFeL, E. Paleontographica 36: 213, pl. 23, figs. 3-5. 1889.

Porrenog, W. P. Jour. Paleontology 11(5): 380, pl. 45, figs. 1-8. 1937.

Stewart, R. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Special Pub. 3: 78. 1930.

. Conrad, T. A. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Jour., Ist ser., 7: 134. 1834.

. Harris, G. D. Bull. Amer. Paleontology 6(31): 43, pl. 19, figs. 10, 11. 1919.

NO oR WN

~ PALEOBOTAN Y.—On the presence of the fern Weichselia 7n Colom-

bia, South America.1 Epwarp W. Berry, Johns Hopkins Uni-

versity. |

Some months ago I received from Phillip L. Merritt, under the

label of the Ministerio de Industrias y Trabajo, Bogota, Colombia,

a package of fossil plants. These were collected near Mutiscua, which

is between 10 and 11 miles slightly south of west of Pamplona in the

northern part of the Department of Santander, and is shown on

Hettner’s map of the Cordillera of Bogota.?

This material is of considerable interest and comprises 6 specimens

which are covered with the impressions of the rachis and fronds of the

fern known as Weichselia, which was almost world-wide in its dis-

tribution during the Mesozoic. The matrix is a rather soft, grayish

mudstone, very similar to the shales on the Island of San Lorenzo,

off the port of Callao, Peru, which are also packed with Wezchselza,

the only apparent lithologic difference being that the shales from

Peru are slightly lighter in color.

The Colombian matrix has not been studied petrographically, but

from its somewhat soapy feel, and its general similarity to that con-

taining the Peruvian fossils, I regard it as probably representing a

carbonaceous pyritiferous mudstone in which, because of tectonic

1 Received August 23, 1937.

2 HETTNER, ALFRED. Die Kordillere von Bogotd. Petermann’s Mitt. Erginzung

Bd. 22, No. 104, 1891.

Nov. 15, 1937 BERRY: WEICHSELIA 459

movements and circulating waters, the carbon and the sulfide were

oxidized.

The plant impressions are typical of Weichselia, the larger frond

fragments showing a stipe of about 3.5 millimeters diameter, and

elongated parallel pinnae of lengths up to 10 or 11 centimeters, with

the characteristic netted venation of the pinnules frequently in ex-

cellent preservation. Associated with the frond fragments are im-

pressions of the sort that have often been interpreted as stems of

Equisetites, as by Neumann, Schlagintweit, and others, which Zeiller

considered, in the case of the Peruvian material, as the larger stems

or petioles of Wezchselia. Impressions of this sort, indistinguishable

from the Peruvian material, are associated with the frond fragments

in the present collection in lengths of about 11 centimeters, and with

diameters of 2.5 to 3 centimeters.

The impression material of this frond genus, first described as a

species of Pecopteris by Stokes & Webb in 1824, and named by

Stiehler in 1857, is rather readily recognizable, and has been dis-

covered in many parts of the world. It has been discussed by many

authors, the bibliography amounting to upwards of fifty titles. In the

latest discussion, that by Edwards in 1933, a rather good case is made

out for correlating the impressions known as Weichselia with the

structural material of stems, or more probably petioles, which have

been described under the name of Paradoxopteris.* Despite all the

available evidence and this correlation, the botanical affinity of

Weichselia is not settled beyond a strong presumption that it is to

be found in the family Marattiaceae, or in an allied and wholly extinct

group.

A number of different species of Wezchselia have been proposed.

In describing the Mesozoic flora of Peru I followed Zeiller in using

the specific designation Wezchselia peruvianum,* which was based in

the first instance on the impressions of large petioles which Neumann

had mistakenly described as Equisetites peruanus. Although I saw no

fertile specimens from Peruvian localities such as Zeiller thought he

had, I considered that the reflexed basal pinnules might serve to

differentiate the Peruvian from the European material. Edwards has

shown, however, that this feature occurs also in some specimens of

the European genotype Weichselia reticulata.

In spite of the lack of definite distinguishable characters I find it

2 Epwarps, W. N. On the Cretaceous fern Paradoxopteris and its connection with

Weichselia. Annals of Botany 47: 317-341. 1933.

4 Berry, E. W. Johns Hopkins Studies in Geology 4: 52-55. 1922.

460 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

hard to believe that a single botanical species ranged over five conti-

nents—Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South America—and from

at least the dawn of the Lower Cretaceous® to the Cenomanian stage

of the Upper Cretaceous. Peruvian material was recorded in 1922

from ten different localities, and subsequently in the collections made

by the Ellsworth Expedition from the coal measures of Huallanca in

the Department of Ancachs, this species was found to be exceedingly

abundant.

I may add that the North American occurrence of Weichselia in

the Black Hills, about which I expressed some doubt in 1922, is per-

fectly authentic. I have since had a large amount of typical but very

fragmentary material from that region.

Karsten, years ago, collected Weichselia at Santa Maria in north-

eastern Venezuela. This find was discussed by Schlagintweit® who

concluded that its age was Neocomian. From Santa Maria through

Mutiscua via the Andean geosyncline to the southernmost of the

abundant Peruvian occurrences is a distance of about 2,500 miles.

Occurrences of this species in Texas and in the Black Hills region of

South Dakota carry its range northward to 44° north latitude, so

that its known north-south range in the western hemisphere covers

about 55° of latitude.

Regarding the exact age of the new material from Colombia no

conclusion based upon paleobotanical evidence is possible. The Euro-

pean type is more common at Neocomian and Barremian horizons

than later in the Cretaceous, but according to Edwards it ranges up

through the Aptian to the Albian (upper Greensand) in England. In

eastern Asia an Aptian age is supposed, and some of the north African

occurrences have been regarded as Cenomanian. The Black Hills

occurrences in North America are associated with a dicotyledonous

flora and have been regarded as of Albian age. All that can be said of

the age of the Mutiscua specimens is that they are probably Lower

Cretaceous, but whether early or late in that period can not be deter-

mined, although, if the Peruvian occurrences have any weight, which

is by no means certain, the balance of evidence would point to an

earlier rather than a later Lower Cretaceous age.

Schuchert’s map of the early Lower Cretaceous in the Caribbean

and northern South America shows no seaway on the site of the

5 The horizon of the Peruvian material in the Department of Lima has been in-

correctly termed Wealden. It is considered by Peruvian geologists to be Neocomian,

but it may well be as old as Portlandian. Probably Tithonian would be the proper

designation.

6 SCHLAGINTWEIT, O. Centralblatt f. Min. Geol. & Pal. 19(20): 315-319. 1919.

Nov. 15, 1937 FOX: NEARCTIC SPIDERS 461

Venezuelan Andes, such a seaway first appearing on his map of the

early Middle Cretaceous, whatever that may mean.’ It is, of course,

impossible to criticize such generalized maps covering such synthetic

geologic time, but it is certainly a fact that Lower Cretaceous is

present throughout the extent of the Venezuelan Andes from Colom-

bia eastward to Trinidad.

ZLOOLOGY.—The Nearctic spiders of the family Heteropodidae.'

Irvine Fox, lowa State College, Ames, lowa. (Communicated

by C. F. W. Muesebeck.)

The spiders of the group under discussion are generally held to

comprise a distinct family having affinities with the Thomisidae and

the Clubionidae; from the former they are distinguished particularly

by the possession of teeth on the cheliceral margins and from the

latter chiefly by the laterigrade legs and the more or less distinct

membranes at the apices of the metatarsi. They are further charac-

terized by the possession of a carapace which is as wide as long or

slightly longer than wide, and by the scopulate tarsi which are armed

with two claws. The eyes are eight in number and arranged in two

transverse rows of four each.

The conception that these characters are of sufficient importance

to warrant the maintenance of a distinct family is generally sub-

scribed to by modern arachnologists, but there yet exists some dis-

agreement concerning the proper family denomination. Two names

have been commonly used, Heteropodidae Thorell and Sparassidae

Simon; the former name appears to be the correct one. Thorell in

1873 suggested that Heteropoda and related genera be separated from

the Thomisidae and combined into a new family, Heteropodidae.’?

In 1874 Simon revised the European species of this group under the

family name Sparassidae,* and this and subsequent revisions had the

effect of making Sparassidae the more extensively used name. On the

basis of priority, however, Heteropodidae is the correct family name

and Sparassidae is its synonym.

There is evident considerable confusion among authors concerning

the proper usage of the names, Sparassus, Olios, and Eusparassus.

The genus Sparassus was erected by Walckenaer in 1805,‘ and S.

7 ScHUCHERT, CHARLES. AHistorical geology of the Antillean-Caribbean region, maps

4 and 5, 1935.

1 Received August 18, 1937.

2 Remarks on the Synonyms of European Spiders, Upsala, p. 606, 1870-1873.

3 Ann. Soc. Ent. France 4: 2438. 1874.

4 Tableau des Araneides, p. 40, 1805.

462 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 11

argelasius Walck. was subsequently designated as type by Thorell.®

S. argelasius was re-described by Walckenaer in 1806,° by Latreille

(under Micrommata) in 1818,’ and again by Walckenaer in 1837.8

Simon considered S. argetasitus Walck. 1805 to be a nomen nudum and

accepted M. argelasius Latreille 1818 as the earliest available name.°®

At the same time he decided that M. argelasius Latreille represented

a group distinct from any previously described and made it the type

of his new genus Eusparassus. Since publication of these views

Simon’s arrangement has been generally accepted, and Eusparassus

has been considered a good genus, while Sparassus has been com-

pletely ignored.

Walckenaer’s original description of 1805, while not detailed

enough to permit recognition of the species, is sufficient to constitute

a valid description, hence S. argelasitus Walck. 1805 can not correctly

be regarded as a nomen nudum, but must be considered a valid name.

Latreille in his description of 1818 indicated conclusively that he was

re-describing Walckenaer’s species rather than describing a new one

of his own, and further states that the species was recognized by

Walckenaer as his argelaszus. If the species that Latreille described

in 1818 was different from the one described in 1805 by Walckenaer,

as Simon apparently believed, the later name rests upon an error of

identification and is invalid under Article 31 of the International

Rules of Zoological Nomenclature. Since Latreille expressly states

that Walckenaer recognized the species as the one he himself had

described, there seems to be little reason to assume that Walckenaer’s

descriptions of 1805, 1806, and 1837, and Latreille’s of 1818 do not

refer to the same species. From this discussion it is apparent that the

genus Sparassus Walck. is available and has as a synonym Fusparas-

sus Simon; its type is Sparassus argelasius Walck., which name is to

be used for the not uncommon European species now known as

Eusparassus argelasvus (Latreille).

The genus Olzos, as it was originally described by Walckenaer in

1837 included an extremely heterogeneous assemblage of several gen-

era. In 1880 Simon restricted it to the species congeneric with O.

spongitarsus (Dufour) which he selected as the type.!° He also indi-

cated that Sparassus argelasitus Walckenaer 1805 was the same as

5 Nova acta. Reg. Soc. Sc. Upsaliae 7: 176. 1869-1870.

6 Histoire Naturelle des Aranevdes, facic. 4: fig. 2. 1806.

7 Nouveau Dictionnaire d’ Histoire Naturelle 20: 516. 1818.

8 Histoire Naturelle des Insectes Apteres 1: 584. 1837.

° Histoire Naturelle des Araignees 2: 1020. 1903.

10 Act. Soc. Linn. Bordeaux 34: 297. 1880.

Nov. 15, 1937 FOX: NEARCTIC SPIDERS ~ 463

Dufour’s species, yet he retained the later name. Subsequent authors

were divided in their usage of the names Olios and Sparassus, some

considering Olzos a good genus, while others reasoned that since O.

spongitarsis (Dufour), the type of Olios, was asynonym of S. argelasius

Walck., the type of Sparassus, then Olios was a synonym of Sparas-

sus." However, Simon in 1903 stated that the previous synonymiza-

tion of O. spongitarsis (Dufour) with S. argelasius Walck. was entirely

gratuitous, as Walckenaer’s original description was too brief to per-

mit identification. On this account Olzos is, in the present paper, re-

garded as the proper name for the species related to spongitarsus

Dufour, while Sparassus is applied to the argelasius Walckenaer

group.

The following pages are concerned with only the nearctic species of

Heteropodidae; three new species and a new genus are described, and

keys to the nearctic genera and species are given. The family is repre-

sented in the United States by three genera of which two, Tentabunda

and Heteropoda, contain but one species, while the third, Olios, com-

prises six species.

I wish to express my appreciation to the authorities of the United

States National Museum for the courtesy shown me while studying

the collections in their charge. I am deeply obliged to Miss Elizabeth

B. Bryant of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, to Dr. W. J.

Gertsch, and Mr. H. K. Wallace of the American Museum of Natural

History, and to Professor R. V. Chamberlin of the University of Utah

for their generosity in lending material for study.

KEY TO THE NEARCTIC GENERA OF SPARASSIDAE

1. Spinnerets set upon a distinct basal segment........... Tentabunda

Spinnerets normal, not set upon a distinct basal segment............ 2

2. Anterior median eyes as large as or larger than the anterior lateral.

Clypeus much lower than the diameter of an anterior median eye..

Bee ey oe te weet pee a Wis ee (hanes eee Ses hah chet RPL. pola Olios

Anterior median eyes smaller than the anterior lateral. Clypeus higher

than the diameter of an anterior median eye............ Heteropoda

TENTABUNDA, N. gen.

A genus in the subfamily Sparianthidinae. Cephalothorax robust, longer

than wide. Eyes in two rows, with the anterior row straight or slightly pro-

curved, the posterior row very procurved and broader than the anterior.

Anterior median eyes slightly larger than the anterior lateral; posterior eyes

subequal or with the posterior lateral eyes slightly larger than the posterior

median. Median ocular quadrangle wider than long. Clypeus equal in height

11 CAMBRIDGE, F. Biologia Centrali-Americana 2: 122. 1905.

464 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

to at least more than half the diameter of an anterior median eye. Lower

cheliceral margin armed with six or seven small denticles, upper margin

armed with three or four robust teeth. Anterior tibiae provided with 2-2-1

or 2-2-2 spines below; anterior metatarsi provided with one pair of spines

below. Spinnerets six in number, set upon a distinct common basal segment.

Genotype.—Pseudosparianthis cubana Banks, 1909, known from Cuba and

Florida.

Tentabunda cubana (Banks), n. comb. Figs. 5 and 11

Pseudosparianthis cubana Banks. Second Rep. Centr. Exper. Sta. Cuba, p.

165, pl. 45, fig. 4, 1909.

Pseudosparianthis cubana Bryant, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo. Cambridge,

74:192. 1933.

Female.—Total length, 10.69 mm. Carapace, 5.45 mm long, 3.86 mm at

the widest place, 2.77 mm wide in front. Abdomen, 5.25 mm long, 2.97 mm

wide. Carapace uniform reddish brown above without distinct markings,

clothed with sparse pubescence. Sides concolorous with the dorsum, lack-

ing distinct submarginal stripes. Chelicerae dark brown, much darker than

the carapace. Sternum and coxae light yellowish brown, labium and endites

reddish with white distal patches. Legs clear light yellow below and reddish

above, without annulations. Dorsum of the abdomen with a grayish ground

color upon which is a dark pattern consisting of a series of six or seven chev-

rons continuing to the spinnerets. Venter much lighter than the sides being

light gray with sparse dark punctations. Spinnerets six in number, set upon

a distinct common basal segment.

Anterior row of eyes slightly procurved, narrower than the very procurved

posterior row (17/21). Anterior median eyes slightly closer to each other

than to the anterior lateral and somewhat larger than the latter. Eyes of the

posterior row subequal and equidistant, separated by more than two

diameters. Median ocular quadrangle wider than long (18/15), narrower in

front than behind (16/18), the posterior eyes about four-fifths as large as

the anterior. Clypeus equal in height to about four-fifths the diameter of an

anterior median eye. Chelicerae, 2.07 mm in length, lower cheliceral margin

armed with seven small denticles, upper margin armed with four robust

teeth. Tibiae I and II with 2-2-1 spines below, metatarsi I and II armed

with one pair of spines below. Tibia and patella I, 6.24 mm long (tibia

alone, 3.96 mm); tibia and patella IV, 5.25 mm long (tibia alone, 3.47 mm).

Epigynum wider than long (25/20), anteriorly provided with a wide

atrium from which a distinct median suture extends posteriorly dividing

the caudal portion of the epigynal plate into two equal halves. For further

details regarding the structure of the epigynum see Fig. 5.

Described from a female specimen collected by T. H. Hubbell fourteen

miles west of Palm Beach, Florida, October 29, 1934 and in the possession

of the American Museum of Natural History.

Male.—Total length, 7.00 mm. Carapace, 3.56 mm. long, 3.27 mm at the

widest place, 1.68 mm wide in front. Abdomen, 3.56 mm long, 2.48 mm wide.

Carapace lighter than in the female, being yellowish rather than reddish

and having a sparser pubescence. Chelicerae light yellowish brown, con-

colorous with the carapace. Sternum, coxae, labium, and endites whitish

without distinct markings. Legs clear, concolorous with the sternum be-

low, above yellowish and concolorous with the carapace. Dorsum of the

abdomen as in the female, but in general somewhat lighter.

Anterior row of eyes slightly procurved, narrower than the very pro

Novy. 15; 1937 FOX: NEARCTIC SPIDERS 465

curved posterior row (12/14). Eyes of the anterior row subequidistant with

the anterior median slightly larger than the anterior lateral. Eyes of the

posterior row subequal and equidistant, separated by about one and one-

half diameters. Median ocular quadrangle wider than long (14/12.5), nar-

rower in front than behind (12/14), the posterior eyes about four-fifths as

large as the anterior. Clypeus equal in height to about four-fifths the diam-

eter of an anterior median eye. Chelicerae, 1.19 mm long; lower cheliceral

margin armed with seven small denticles, upper margin armed with four

robust teeth. Tibiae I and II with 2-2-2 spines below, metatarsi I and II

with one pair of spines below, and unlike the female with a basal and sub-

median lateral spine on each side. Tibia and patella I, 5.835 mm long (tibia

alone, 3.86 mm); tibia and patella IV, 4.75 mm long (tibia alone, 3.27 mm).

Tibia of the palpus wider than long (22/15), expanded retrolaterad and

more or less triangular in shape, tribranchiate with the tarsus articulated

to the prolateral branch. For further details regarding the structure of the

palpal organ see Fig. 11.

Described from a male specimen collected by M. Broyles at Coronado

Beach, Volusia Co., Florida in August, 1935 and in the possession of the

American Museum of Natural History.

The genus Tentabunda according to the present interpretation includes

also the species described as Pseudosparianthis variabilis Cambridge,”

known from Mexico, and Pseudosparianthis antiguensis Bryant,? known

from the West Indies. The members of Pseudosparianthis are distinct from

those of Tentabunda particularly in that the anterior metatarsi are armed

with two pairs of spines rather than with one pair. The genus Pseudospari-

anthis is not known to occur in the nearctic region.

Oxios Walckenaer

Ins. apteres, 1: 563, 1837. Genotype: Micrommata spongitarsis Dufour.

Cephalothorax robust, not at all or but slightly longer than wide. Eyes

in two rows, each of which may be procurved, straight, or less commonly

recurved, with the anterior row narrower than the posterior. Eyes of the

anterior row subequal or with the anterior median eyes slightly larger than

the anterior lateral and closer to the latter than to each other. Eyes of the

posterior row subequidistant and subequal or with the posterior median

eyes slightly smaller than the posterior lateral. Clypeus much narrower

than the diameter of the anterior median eyes. Lower cheliceral margin

armed with three or four teeth. Anterior tibae normally armed with 2-2

spines below.

KEY TO THE NEARCTIC SPECIES OF OLIOS'*

1. Chelicerae yellowish or reddish brown, not contrasting strongly with the

GOSH Oh-bMeseATa PACE mer te Gu aeie WIE a tal! etkhet 5 ee Seta 2

Chelicerae jet black, contrasting strongly with the dorsum of the cara-

PACE hn ee ae eS 5 Le SULT a O. fasciculatus

he WEAR . O01, a aapa np eins oe ROW ep ha Men. 4 Sia a ae RE RNC Ale te ai JEsA SEE ae

Rew Aes ak at ihre cat ee ee) a Ra | SAS a eterna 2 Se We Pho I 5

12 CAMBRIDGE, F. Biol. Centr. Amer. II: 119, pl. VIII, fig. 21. 1900.

3 Bryant, EF. B. Univ. lowa Studies X: 13, pl. I, fg. 4 1923.

14 It has not been possible to place Olios franklinus Walckenaer because of the in-

adequate original description

466 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

3. Tibial apophysis divided into two distinct branches which are not longer

than the: tibia... es) es ke ee 4

Tibial apophysis not divided into two distinct branches, and as long as

the ‘tibiae: Link ao eee O. schistus (Fig. 10)

4. Distal spinose process of the tibia about two and one-half times as long

as either of the branches of the tibial apophysis... .O. TS ee

Fig. 8

Distal spinose process of the tibia not longer than the branches of the

tibial apophysis: 4..2.404 ee eee ee eee O. abnormis (Fig. 2)

5. Epigynal atrium much wider than long...... O. bibranchiatus (Fig. 6)

Epigynal atrium as long.as or longer than wide. ........... 2) ee

6. Epigynal atrium much longer than wide...... O. mohavensis (Fig. m

Epigynal atrium about:as wide’as long. .¢..... “2s. ... 22). ) eee

7. Anterior border of the epigynal atrium with a large posteriorly ieee

lobes: fe Ain Salida ea ee ee ee O. albinus (Fig. 3)

Anterior border of the epigynal atrium without such a lobe. .O. schistus

(Fig. 7)

Olios fasciculatus Simon Figs. 1 and 9

Olios fasciculatus Simon. Act. Soc. Linn. Bordeaux 34: 307. 1880.

Olios giganteus Keyserling, Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien 33: 681, pl. X XI,

fig. 28, 1883.

Olios concolor Keyserling, Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien 33: 682, pl. XXI,

fig. 29, 1883.

Olios fasciculatus Banks, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 23: 585. 1901.

Olios pragmaticus Chamberlin, Proc. California Acad. Sci. 12: 659, fig.102.

1924.

Female.—Total length, 19.00 mm. Carapace, 6.93 mm long, 7.43 mm at

the widest place, 4.65 mm wide in front. Abdomen 11.78 mm long, 9.00 mm

wide. Carapace irregular light reddish brown above, pars cephalica with a

median longitudinal light narrow band extending from a short distance an-

terior to the thoracic groove to a point midway between the posterior me-

dian eyes; pars thoracica provided with a deep groove from which light bands

radiate. Sides of the carapace with light submarginal bands. Chelicerae

black, contrasting strongly with the carapace. Sternum and coxae light

yellowish brown; labium and endites somewhat darker bearing white distal

patches. Legs concolorous with the sternum being light yellowish brown

without distinct annulations. Dorsum of the abdomen lighter than the cara-

pace, grayish with brown streaks and spots, provided with a basal white

mark outlined with dark which extends caudad in the form of a dark line

reaching to the posterior termination of the abdomen. Venter lighter than

the sides with indications of two median parallel dark lines.

Anterior row of eyes slightly recurved and narrower than the procurved

posterior row (22/27). Eyes of the anterior row subequal, the anterior

median eyes closer to the anterior level than to each other, being separated

from each other by more than a diameter, from the anterior lateral by two-

thirds of a diameter. Eyes of the posterior row subequidistant, separated by

more than twice the diameter of a posterior median eye, the posterior

median eyes two-thirds as large as the posterior lateral. Median ocular

quadrangle slightly wider than long, slightly wider in front than behind,

the posterior eyes about two-thirds as large as the anterior. Clypeus equal

in height to about two-thirds the diameter of an anterior median eye.

Chelicerae, 3.56 mm in length; lower cheliceral margin armed with four

Nov. 15, 1937 | FOX: NEARCTIC SPIDERS 467

teeth of which the basal two are small and weak while the distal two are

large and robust, upper margin armed with two small teeth, one large and

one small. Tibiae I and II with 2-2 spines below. Tibia and patella I, 11.39

mm long (tibia alone, 7.43 mm); tibia and patella IV, 9.41 mm (tibia alone,

6.24 mm).

Epigynum very small, about as long as wide with the atrium about as

wide in front as behind and provided with an incomplete median septum

which extends barely half-way down its length. Side pieces lightly or not

at all chitinized. For further details regarding the structure of the epigynum

see Fig. 1.

Described from a female specimen collected at Oracle, Arizona, July, 1898

by E. A. Schwartz and in the possession of the United States National

Museum.

Male.—Total length, 12.00 mm. Carapace, 6.44 mm long, 6.04 mm at the

widest place, 3.56 mm wide in front. Abdomen, 5.94 mm long, 3.47 mm

wide. Dorsum of the carapace somewhat darker than in the female, but with

the same markings. Chelicerae dark brown to black. Sternum orange brown

lighter than the legs which are dark brown. Dorsum, sides, and venter of

the abdomen colored as in the female.

Anterior row of eyes slightly recurved or straight, narrower than the

procurved posterior row (22/27). Anterior median eyes slightly larger than

the anterior lateral, closer to the anterior lateral than to each other being

removed from each other by one-half a diameter, from the anterior lateral

by one-third of a diameter. Eyes of the posterior row subequidistant, sep-

arated by more than twice the diameter of a posterior median eye, the poste-

rior median eyes two-thirds as large as the posterior lateral. Median ocular

quadrangle about as wide as long, about as wide in front as behind, the

posterior eyes two-thirds as large as the anterior. Clypeus equal in height

to one-third the diameter of an anterior median eye. Chelicerae, 2.38 mm

long; lower cheliceral margin armed with three robust teeth, upper margin

armed with two teeth. Tibiae I and II with 2-2 spines below. Tibia and

patella I, 11.48 mm long, (tibia alone, 7.92 mm); tibia and patella IV, 9.90

mm long (tibia alone, 7.13 mm).

Patella of the palpus longer than wide (11/8), tibia longer than the patella

(15/11), armed with a subapical apophysis extending retrolaterad which is

longer than the width of the tibia and more or less hook-like distally. The

tarsus is wide and provided with an embolus that completes at least five

turns. For further details regarding the structure of the palpus see Fig. 9.

Described from the holotype of Keyserling’s O. concolor, collected at

Punta del Aqua, New Mexico and in the possession of the United States

National Museum.

Records.—Arizona: Fort Yuma, immature female; Madera Canyon, Santa

Rita Mountains, June, 1898, male (E. A. Schwartz, collector). Mexico:

Sonora, female (H. M. Stanley, Collector); Guanajuato, two females, Sep-

tember 1, 1886 (Alfred Duges, Collector); Guaymas, female, (all in the

United States National Museum). Utah: Zion Park, 1937, male and female

(A. M. Woodbury, Collector) in the Collection of Prof. R. V. Chamberlin. ;

St. George, July 6, 1931, several males and females (W. J. Gertsch, Collec-

tor) in the American Museum of Natural History.

I wish to express my appreciation to Miss Elizabeth B. Bryant of the

Museum of Comparative Zoology for comparing specimens of O. fasciculatus

Simon with the paratype of O. pragmaticus Chamberlin.

I ar es

: : yp

in gh

Fi a

igs. 1-11. (See opposite page for explanation.)

Nov, 15,1937 FOX: NEARCTIC SPIDERS 469

Olios schistus Chamberlin Figs. 7 and 10

Olios schistus Chamberlin, Pomona College Jour. Ent. and Zoo., 12:10, pl.

4, figs. 2 and 3, 1920 (Advance Reprint in 1919).

Female.—Total length, 12.5 mm. Carapace, 4.95 mm long, 4.55 mm at the

widest place, 3.17 mm in front. Abdomen, 7.5 mm long, 5.64 mm wide. Cara-

pace irregular dark reddish brown above, the pars cephalica noticeably

lighter than the pars thoracica; dorsal groove distinct, from it light bands

radiate to the sides which are provided with light sub-marginal bands. Cheli-

cerae reddish brown more or less concolorous with the pars cephalica. Ster-

num orange brown, lighter than the coxae which are dark brown; labium

and endites reddish bearing white distal patches. Legs reddish with numer-

ous small punctations on all the joints, the tibiae with indications of a nar-

row dark annulus basally. Dorsum of the abdomen irregular-reddish brown

streaked with light and dark, and in this specimen, without distinct mark-

ings. Sides densely provided with dark spots and streaks; venter somewhat

lighter, with a broad median dark band extending from the epigynum to

the spinnerets.

Anterior row of eyes slightly recurved, narrower than the slightly pro-

curved posterior row (19/23). Eyes of the anterior row subequal, the ante-

rior median eyes closer to the anterior lateral than to each other, being sep-

arated from each other by more than a diameter, from the anterior lateral

eyes by five-sevenths of a diameter. Eyes of the posterior row subequal and

subequidistant, separated from each other by about two and one-half

diameters. Median ocular quadrangle about as long as wide, slightly wider

behind than in front, the posterior eyes about five-sevenths as large as the

anterior. Clypeus equal in height to slightly more than one-half the diameter

of an anterior median eye. Chelicerae, 2.08 mm long; lower cheliceral mar-

gin armed with four teeth of which the basal two are small and weak, while

the distal two are large and robust; upper margin armed with two teeth, one

large and one small. Tibiae I and II with 2-2 spines below. Tibia and patella

I, 7.23 mm long (tibia alone, 4.74 mm); tibia and patella IV, 5.64 mm long

(tibia alone, 3.56 mm).

Epigynum consisting of a more or less oval atrium flanked by heavily

chitinized side pieces. For further details regarding the structure of the

epigynum see Fig. 7.

Described from a female specimen collected at San Diego, California and

in United States National Museum. A female from San Jacinto is also in

that institution.

Male.—Total length, 8.10 mm. Carapace, 4.00 mm long, 4.16 mm at the

widest place, 2.48 mm wide in front. Abdomen, 4.85 mm long, 3.46 mm wide.

Carapace light brown above with distinct reddish punctations. Chelicerae

concolorous with the carapace, bearing reddish punctations. Sternum and

coxae yellowish brown with minute punctations; labium and endites red-

dish with distal white patches. Legs light brown, densely provided with

dark punctations, tibiae with an annulus basally. Dorsum of the abdomen

Fig. 1.—Olios fasciculatus Simon, epigynum. Fig. 2.—O. abnormis Keyserling,

male palpus, ventral view. Fig. 3.—O. albinus, n. sp., epigynum. Fig. 4.—0O. mo-

havensis, n. sp., epigynum. Fig. 5.—Tentabunda cubana (Banks), epigynum. Fig. 6.

—Olios bibranchiatus, n. sp., epigynum. Fig. 7.—O. schistus Chamberlin, epigynum.

Fig. 8.—0O. bibranchiatus, n. sp., male palpus, ventral view. Fig. 9.—O. fasciculatus

Simon, male palpus, ventral view. Fig. 10.—0O. schistus Chamberlin, male palpus,

lateral view. Fig. 11.—Tentabunda cubana (Banks), male palpus, ventral view. .

470 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 11

gray with dark brown maculations; the distinct design consists of a basal

gray lanceolate mark outlined in dark which extends to the posterior termi-

nation of the abdomen in the form of an irregular dark band. Sides and ven-

ter streaked with reddish maculations.

Anterior row of eyes slightly recurved, narrower than the procurved

posterior row (32/39). Eyes of the anterior row subequal, the anterior me-

dian eyes separated from each other by slightly more than a diameter, from

the anterior lateral by about one-third of a diameter. Eyes of the posterior

row subequal and equidistant, separated by more than two diameters.

Median ocular quadrangle about as long as wide, slightly wider behind

than in front, the posterior eyes about two-thirds as large as the anterior.

Clypeus equal in height to about one-half the diameter of an anterior median

eye. Chelicerae, 1.68 mm long; lower cheliceral margin armed with four

teeth of which the basal two are small and weak, while the others are large

and robust; upper cheliceral margin armed with two teeth, one small and

one large. Tibiae I and II with 2-2 spines below. Tibia and patella I, 7.23

mm long (tibia alone, 5.15 mm); tibia and patella IV, 6.53 mm long (tibia

alone, 4.46 mm).

Patella of the palpus about as long as wide, tibia more than twice as

long as the patella, with a broad distally expanded apophysis which is as

long as the joint, and two distal processes of which one is longer than the

other. For further details regarding the structure of the palpal organ see

Hig e:

Described from a male specimen collected at Claremont, California and

in the Collection of Prof. R. V. Chamberlin.

This species is most closely related to O. peninsulans Banks, known from

Baja California, and is distinguished from the latter primarily by the char-

acter of the tibial apophysis of the male palpus which is distally truncate

and bifid instead of sloping to a point. In general structure and appearance

it resembles O. abnormis Keyserling from which it may also be differentiated

by the structure of the tibial apophysis.

Olios bibranchiatus, n. sp. Figs. 6 and 8

Sparassus minax Banks, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 23:585. 1901. (Not Olios

minax (Cambridge))

Male.—Total length, 11.00 mm. Carapace, 5.25 mm long, 4.95 mm at the

widest place, 2.97 mm wide in front. Abdomen, 5.45 mm long, 3.96 mm wide.

Dorsum of the carapace orange brown with lighter bars and streaks. Clypeus

and chelicerae more or less concolorous with the carapace, the claws black-

ish. Sternum and coxae clear light brown, without dark markings; labium

and endites somewhat darker, bearing white distal patches. Legs reddish

brown with minute dark punctations but without annulations. Abdomen

irregular brown and gray above, with evidences of dark chevrons posteriorly.

Venter and sides lighter than the dorsum, clear yellowish without dark

markings.

Anterior row of eyes slightly recurved, narrower than the procurved pos-

terior row (17/21). Anterior median eyes slightly larger than the anterior

lateral, separated from each other by about a diameter, somewhat closer to

the anterior lateral than to each other. Eyes of the posterior row subequi-

Nov. 15, 1937 FOX: NEARCTIC SPIDERS 471

distant and separated by about twice the diameter of a posterior median

eye, the posterior lateral eyes somewhat larger than the posterior median.

Median ocular quadrangle about as long as wide, wider behind than in

front, the posterior eyes about five-sevenths as large as the anterior. Cly-

peus equal in height to about five-sevenths the diameter of an anterior

median eye. Chelicerae, 2.18 mm long; lower cheliceral margin armed

with four teeth of which the basal is small and weak while the distal three

are large and robust; upper margin armed with two teeth, one large and one

weak. Tibiae I and II with 2-2 spines below. Tibia and patella I, 10.30 mm

long (tibia alone, 7.33 mm); tibia and patella IV, 8.81 mm long (tibia alone,

6.34 mm).

Patella of the palpus longer than wide, tibia slightly longer than the

patella; tibial apophysis bibranchiate, the anterior branch with a conspicu-

ous node distally, from the base of this branch a pointed process as long as

the tibia itself extends anteriorly. For further details regarding the structure

of the palpus see Fig. 8.

Female.—Total length, 14.85 mm. Carapace, 6.44 mm long, 5.74 mm at

the widest place, 3.66 mm wide in front. Abdomen, 8.22 mm long, 5.00 mm

wide. Carapace yellowish brown above without dark markings, clothed

with a white pubescence. Clypeus and eye region concolorous with the dor-

sum; chelicerae dark brown, the claws blackish. Sternum and coxae yellow-

ish brown without dark markings; labium and endites darker, with white

distal patches. Legs concolorous with the dorsum of the carapace being

clear light yellowish brown without annulations. Abdomen light brown, with

indications of a basal dark median lanceolate mark; venter lighter than the

dorsum, unmarked.

Anterior row of eyes recurved, narrower than the procurved posterior

row (21/26). Eyes of the anterior row subequal, the anterior median eyes

closer to the anterior lateral than to each other, being separated from each

other by slightly more than a diameter, from the anterior lateral by five-

eighths of a diameter. Eyes of the posterior row subequidistant, separated

from each other by about twice the diameter of a posterior median eye, the

posterior lateral eyes slightly larger than the posterior median. Median

ocular area wider than long (23/18), somewhat wider behind than in front,

the posterior eyes about five-eighths as large as the anterior. Clypeus equal

in height to five-eighths the diameter of an anterior median eye. Chelicerae,

3.46 mm long; lower margin armed with four teeth, of which the basal is

small while the distal three are large, upper margin armed with two teeth

of which one is large and the other small. Tibiae I and II with 2-2 spines

below. Tibia and patella I, 9.00 mm long (tibia alone, 5.94 mm); tibia and

patella IV, 7.72 mm long (tibia alone, 5.25 mm).

The epigynum is subject to some variation; in some cases a distinct

median inverse T-shaped septum is present (as in the allotype, Fig. 6), while

in others the longitudinal bar of the septum is indistinct or lacking. Para-

typic material in the American Museum of Natural History exhibits this

difference, but the transverse bar of the septum is the same in each case.

Type locality—Arizona: Male holotype from Madera Canyon, Santa

Rita Mountains, May, 1898 (E. A. Schwartz, Collector), in the United States

National Museum (U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 1274). Female allotype from Santa

Fe, New Mexico, also in the United States National Museum. Two male

paratypes and three female paratypes from Oro Blanco Mts., 12 miles from

Nogales, Arizona, July, 1937, in the American Museum of Natural History.

472 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

Olios abnormis Keyserling Fig. 2

Olios abnormis Keyserling, Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien 33: 679, Pl. XXI,

Eig Zi soe:

Male.—Total length, 8.10 mm. Carapace, 4.36 mm long, 3.96 mm at the

widest place, 2.28 mm wide in front. Abdomen, 3.96 mm long, 2.87 mm wide.

Carapace light reddish brown above, with streaks of dark brown on the pars

cephalica, sides without submarginal light bands. Clypeus, eye region, and

chelicerae concolorous with the dorsum. Sternum yellowish, with minute

reddish punctations; coxae and endites clear yellowish brown, without red-

dish markings, labium somewhat darker. Legs reddish brown with numerous

minute punctations; tibia with a dark annulus at their proximal ends. Ab-

domen yellowish brown, provided with a distinct median design which con-

sists of a basal lanceolate white mark outlined with reddish brown which

extends to the posterior termination of the abdomen in the form of an irregu-

lar dark brown line. Sides and venter densely provided with reddish macula-

tions.

Anterior and posterior eye rows slightly procurved, the former shorter

than the latter (85/42). Anterior median eyes separated from each other by

about a diameter, from the anterior lateral by about three-fifths of a diame-

ter and larger than the latter (6/5). Eyes of the posterior row subequal and

equidistant separated from each other by about two diameters. Median

ocular quadrangle wider than long (17/15), about as wide in front as be-

hind; the posterior eyes about five-sevenths as large as the anterior. Clypeus

equal in height to about three-sevenths the diameter of an anterior median

eye. Chelicerae, 1.68 mm long; lower cheliceral margin armed with four teeth

of which the distal three are large and the basal is weak; upper margin armed

with two teeth one large and the other small. Tibia I and II with 2-2 spines

below. Tibia and patella I, 6.43 mm long (tibia alone, 4.36 mm); tibia and

patella IV lacking in the specimen.

Patella of the palpus longer than wide (15/12), tibia about twice as long

as the patella, with a thick retrolateral bibranchiate apophysis, about as

long as the width of the joint, and two distal processes, one of which is

spinose while the other is distinctly hook-like. For further details regarding

the structure of the palpus see Fig. 2.

Described from a male specimen collected at Kits Peak, Rincon, Babo-

quivari Mountains, Arizona, July 31—Aug. 3, 1916, by F. E. Lutz and in the

Collection of the American Museum of Natural History. A single male in

poor condition from Los Angeles, California, is in the United States National

Museum.

Olios mohavensis, n. sp. Fig. 4

Female.—Total length, 16.80 mm. Carapace, 6.83 mm long, 6.04 mm at

the widest place, 4.06 mm wide in front. Abdomen, 9.91 mm long, 5.60 mm

wide. Dorsum of the carapace muddy brown, the pars cephalica much lighter

than the pars thoracica and provided anteriorly with two parallel lines which

extend forward between the posterior median eyes. Clypeus and chelicerae

concolorous with the pars cephalica, the claws blackish. Sternum and coxae

light yellowish brown; labium and endites somewhat darker, bearing white

distal patches. Legs uniform light yellowish brown without annulations.

Abdomen orange brown above, provided with a dark basal lanceolate mark

from whose sides project several dark lines; this mark is flanked. on each

side by a submedian and a subterminal punctation. Venter lighter than the

sides, provided with two short dark lines.

Nov. 15, 1937 FOX: NEARCTIC SPIDERS 473

Anterior and posterior rows of eyes slightly procurved, the former nar-

rower than the latter (22/27). Eyes of the anterior row subequal, the anterior

median eyes closer to the anterior lateral than to each other, being separated

from each other by more than a diameter, from the anterior lateral by five-

eighths of a diameter. Eyes of the posterior row subequidistant, separated

by more than two times the diameter of a posterior median eye, the posterior

lateral eyes somewhat larger than the posterior median. Median ocular quad-

rangle about as wide as long, as wide in front as behind; the posterior eyes

about two-thirds as large as the anterior. Clypeus equal in height to about

five-eighths the diameter of an anterior median eye. Chelicerae, 3.00 mm

long; lower cheliceral margin armed with four teeth of which the basal is

small and weak while the distal three are large and robust, upper margin

armed with two teeth, one large and one small. Tibiae I and II with 2-2

spines below. Tibia and patella I, 10.49 mm long (tibia alone, 7.52 mm);

tibia and patella IV, 9.41 mm long (tibia alone, 6.73 mm).

Epigynum about as long as wide, consisting of a deep chitinized atrium

flanked by heavy side pieces. For further details regarding the structure of

the epigynum see Fig. 4.

Type locality —California: Female holotype from Mohave Desert (no

further data) in the United States National Museum (U.S.N.M. Cat. No.

1273).

Olios albinus, n. sp. Fig. 3

Female.—Total length, 12.87 mm. Carapace, 4.95 mm long, 4.65 mm at the

widest place, 3.17 mm wide in front. Abdomen, 7.43 mm. long, 5.94 mm wide.

Dorsum of the carapace whitish, the pars cephalica outlined with minute

punctations. Eye region, clypeus, and chelicerae tinged with orange, the

claws of the chelicerae blackish. Sternum and coxae white, labium and en-

dites light brown with whitish distal patches. Legs uniform white below,

above whitish with sparse punctations except for the metatarsi and tarsi

which are brown contrasting with the other joints. Dorsum of the abdomen

whitish tinged with brown, a basal lanceolate mark is outlined by brown

spots and continues posteriorly in the form of an irregular median longitudi-

nal. band. Venter lighter than the dorsum and sides, being white and un-

marked.

Anterior row of eyes straight, narrower than the slightly procurved pos-

terior row (19/23). Anterior median eyes closer to the anterior lateral than

to each other, separated from each other by about a diameter, from the

anterior lateral eyes by about five-sevenths of a diameter and larger than

the latter. Eyes of the posterior row subequal and equidistant, separated by

about two diameters. Median ocular quadrangle wider than long (20/17),

slightly wider behind than in front, the posterior eyes about five-sevenths

as large as the anterior. Clypeus equal in height to about one-half the diame-

ter of an anterior median eye. Chelicerae, 2.18 mm long; lower cheliceral

margin armed with three teeth, upper margin armed with two. Tibiae I

armed with 2-2 spines below; spination of the animal’s left tibia II irregular,

apparently involving 2-1r-2-Ir spines below, spination of the right tibia

normal, involving 2-2 spines below. Tibia and patella I, 7.13 mm long (tibia

alone, 4.65 mm); tibia and patella IV, 5.45 mm long (tibia alone, 3.66 mm).

Epigynal area small, the atrium more or less heart shaped, provided with

a lobe which extends caudally from the anterior border and divides the an-

terior three-fourths of the atrium into two parts. For further details regard-

ing the structure of the epigynum see Fig. 3.

474 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

Type localityi—Arizona: Female holotype from Phoenix, May, 1935, in

the Collection of Prof. R. V. Chamerlin.

HETEROPODA Latreille

Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat., XXIV: 135. 1804. Genotype: Aranea venatoria

Linnaeus.

Cephalothorax about as wide as long or slightly longer than wide. Eyes

in two rows with the anterior row straight or procurved and narrower than

the straight or slightly recurved posterior row. Anterior median eyes smaller

than the anterior lateral and usually closer to the latter than to each other.

Posterior median eyes usually smaller than the posterior lateral. Clypeus

higher than the diameter of an anterior lateral eye. Lower cheliceral margin

armed with four teeth, upper margin armed with two or three teeth. Anterior

tibiae armed with 2-2-2-2 spines below.

Heteropoda venatoria (Linn.)

Aranea venatoria Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. 12th Ed. p. 1035, 1767.

This often-described cosmopolitan tropical species has long been known to

occur in our Southwestern states and in Florida. Inasmuch as it has been

considered by many authors and good descriptions and figures are generally

available, it is not redescribed at this time.

ENTOMOLOGY.—The cinerosus group of the genus Laevicephalus

(Homoptera: Cicadellidae).1 P. W. Oman, Bureau of Entomol-

ogy and Plant Quarantine.

The six species treated in this paper form a remarkably homo-

geneous group on the basis of habitus, coloration, and certain struc-

tural details of the genitalia, and by these characters may be dis-

tinguished from other members of the genus Laevicephalus. The

ground color of the head is pale cinereous to pale, sordid yellow;

never green or greenish tinged. The crown has a pair of oblique fus-

cous or brown dashes at the apex and two pairs of similarly colored,

irregularly quadrate spots on the disk. The facial sclerites are usually

fuscous, the clypeus, at least laterally, is marked with transverse bars

of brown or fuscous, and the thorax and abdomen are variously

marked with fuscous.

The male valve is large and triangular, the plates broad and rather

short and furnished laterally with a few spine-like setae. The distal

portion of the style is definitely foot-shaped in outline and serrate

on the posterior margin. The base of the aedeagus is furnished with a

more or less flaring, submembranous portion for muscular attach-

46 Excellent figures may be found in F. Cambridge’s Biologia Centrali-Americana,

II: 120, pl. VIII, figs. 22a—c, 23a-f. 1905. For the synonymy of this species see also

Petrunkevitch’s catalogue in Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 29: 488. 1911.

1 Received August 12, 1937.

Nov. 15, 1937 OMAN: LAEVICEPHALUS A475

ment. The pygofers of both sexes are densely set with numerous stout

setae and the seventh sternite of the female has the posterior margin

either incised or emarginate and bordered with fuscous or black

medially.

With the exception of specimens from southern Utah and south

central Washington, all the available distribution records for members

of the cinerosus group are from California.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE CINEROSUS GROUP

1 Posterior margin of seventh sternite of female broadly emarginate; male

preces buntly “rounded distally. 5.27... ea incongruus, N.sp.

Posterior margin of seventh sternite of female not broadly emarginate;

Mate PI hess POUNCE CISA er eres ro ote, fe APS MONO Yl . 2

2(1) A rather short and robust species, fore wings not extending beyond tip

Gime ORV er ie Pe Mee Ee rin eS aa A OS es, pacificus, D.sp.

Elongate and slender species, fore wings extending beyond tip of

2 NEU RDSSVERD S02 Ce Wg eG gh EG CP Nr SE ae AR ae ee EA Rae =

3(2) Male plates not contiguous for entire length, the tips diverging. Pos-

terior margin of seventh sternite of female with two pairs of dentate

projections, the inner pair nearly as large as the outer pair..........

Re eit ee ar Curate RT Nh aM eee ee Se! Sty 3 cinerosus (Van D.)

Male plates contiguous for entire length. Posterior margin of seventh

sternite of female either not quadridentate or, if so, with inner pair of

BIpleciiens much smaller than.outer pair.) .: 0.2... ee at 4

4(3) Processes of aedeagus reduced to short, dentate projections. Posterior

margin of seventh sternite of female triangularly produced and nar-

RONG ABEISCOn Cpe tau cite wey (eee etree ne Oe joaquinus, N.sp.

Processes of aedeagus longer, not dentate. Posterior margin of seventh

SPcemite OL fcniale NOt Garrowly Weised 4.0. 2 Pesbe. oases os les 5

5(4) Aedeagus with two pairs of pointed processes distally. Inner pair of

dentate projections on posterior margin of seventh sternite of female

TEL UUTO ET CEN acne at ry ME RO ek ge dO A Pe ae ef angelus, n.sp.

Aedeagus with one pair of pointed processes distally. Inner pair of

dentate projections on posterior margin of seventh sternite of female

MTEL IIRC E Fe sors tis) Oe Das aif RRR se siskiyou, n.sp.

Laevicephalus incongruus, n. sp. igs. to

Larger and paler than cinerosus, with the male plates blunt and the pos-

terior margin of the seventh sternite of the female broadly emarginate.

Length of male 4—-4.5 mm, of female 4.5-4.9 mm.

Ground color sordid yellowish white, oblique dashes on anterior margin

of crown fuscous, marks on disk of crown pale brown, fuscous borders of

cells of fore wing faint or absent, fore wings subhyaline.

Seventh sternite of female rather short, the median one-half of the pos-

terior margin emarginate about one-third the distance to base. Male valve

unusually large; plates short and blunt, not contiguous on median line.

Distal portion of aedeagus slender and strongly decurved, apex bifurcate.

Basal portion of aedeagus unusually large and flaring. Style slender.

Holotype male, allotype female, and 85 paratypes, including specimens of

both sexes, collected above Mint Canyon, Calif. June 8, 1935, by the writer

476 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 11

3S-CINEROSUS

/-INCONGRUUS

JIA

ww)

5-sisxivou

4-ANGELUS

4A 5A

6-JOAQUINUS

8-PACIFICUS 9-

7-INCONGRUUS CINEROSUS

12-JOAQUINUS

jSoncoNenone. /4-CINEROSUS IS-PACIFICUS

Fig. 1.—Laevicephalus incongruus, dorsal view of internal genital structures of

male; 1A, lateral view of aedeagus. Fig. 2.—L. pacificus, dorsal view of internal geni-

tal structures of male; 2A, lateral view of aedeagus. Fig. 3.—L. cinerosus, dorsal view

of internal genital structures of male; 3A, lateral view of aedeagus. Fig. 4.—L. an-

gelus, dorsal view of internal genital structures of male; 4A, lateral view of aedeagus.

Fig. 5.—L. siskiyou, dorsal view of internal genital structures of male; 5A, lateral view

of aedeagus. Fig. 6.—L. joaquinus, dorsal view of internal genital structures of male;

Nov. 15, 1937 OMAN: LAEVICEPHALUS A77

and Mrs. Oman. Types in the collection of the United States National

Museum (No. 52203). In addition to the type series, there are specimens at

hand from Mint Canyon, Calif. (Oman), and Mt. Diablo, Calif. (Oman).

Laevicephalus cinerosus (Van Duzee) Figs. 3, 9, 14

Deltocephalus cinerosus Van Duzee, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 19: 305, 1892.

Length 3.5-4 mm. Ground color pale, sordid yellow; markings varying

from pale brown to fuscous. Marks on disk of crown faint, longitudinal lines

on pronotum indistinct. Cells of fore wing bordered with fuscous, veins

pale. Fore wings extending beyond tip of abdomen.

Seventh sternite of female short laterally, posterior margin with a small

median emargination and on each side of this a pair of short, angled, den-

tate projections. Male plates rather short, diverging posteriorly, tips

pointed.

Aedeagus rather stout, with three pairs of pointed projections arising from

near tip and extending basad and slightly outward as follows: An elongate,

slender pair laterally, a short, slender pair latero-ventrally, and a short pair

latero-dorsally. Style relatively slender.

Originally described from 1 male and 4 females collected in California by

Coquillett. The male of this series, which is in the collection of Iowa State

College, Ames, Iowa, is here designated lectotype. I am indebted to Mr.

L. D. Tuthill for drawings of the aedeagus of this specimen.

Material from the following California localities has been examined: Los

Angeles County (Coquillett), Warner Springs (Oman), Cajon Pass (Oman),

Del Mar (Oman), Newton (Oman), and Perris (Oman). Two females from

southern Utah are referred here also.

Laevicephalus pacificus, n. sp. Figs, 228, 15

Smaller and more robust than cznerosus, with the male plates contiguous

for their entire length and the aedeagus with only two pairs of processes.

Length of male 3-3.25 mm, of female 3.5-3.75 mm.

Ground color as in cinerosus, oblique dashes at apex of crown short,

markings on disk of crown pale brown. Fore wings of male equalling ab-

domen in length, those of female shorter than abdomen, cells marked with

fuscous especially around edges. Hind wings of both sexes much shortened.

Posterior margin of seventh sternite of female with a small median emargi-

nation, and a pair of blunt, dentate projections on each side of this. Male

plates rather broad, contiguous on median line, and tapering abruptly to

pointed apices.

Aedeagus rather stout, with two pairs of pointed processes as follows: A

slender pair arising laterally on shaft before apex and extending laterad and

basad, and a stout pair arising from a latero-ventral position near the apex

and extending ventrad, basad, and slightly laterad. Style slender.

Holotype male, allotype female, and 17 male and 19 female paratypes

6A, lateral view of aedeagus. Fig. 7—L. incongruus, seventh sternite of female.

Fig. 8.—L. pacificus, seventh sternite of female. Fig. 9.—L. cinerosus, abe sternite

of female. Fig. 10.—L. siskiyou, seventh sternite of female. Fig. 11.—L. angelus,

seventh sternite of female. Fig. 12.—L. joaquinus, seventh sternite of female. Fig.

13.—L. incongruus, external genitalia of male. Fig. 14.—L. cinerosus, external geni-

talia of male. Fig. 15.—L. pacificus, external genitalia of male.

478 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

from Montara, Calif., June 13, 1935, collected by the writer and Mrs. Oman.

Types in collection of the United States National Museum (No. 52204).

In addition to the type series there are specimens at hand from San Fran-

cisco, Calif. (Oman).

Laevicephalus siskiyou, n. sp. Figs. 5, 10

Related to pacificus by the shape of the male plates, but less robust;

similar to cinerosus in general form; markings darker than in either of those

species. Length 3.6—4.2 mm.

Ground color as in cinerosus. Oblique fuscous dashes at apex of crown

fused posteriorly with the anterior pair of marks on disk of crown. Posterior

pair of marks on crown brown. Longitudinal stripes on pronotum distinct.

Fore wings subhyaline, veins whitish cinereous, cells bordered with brown

or fuscous.

Seventh sternite of female similar to that of cinerosus, but with median

emargination smaller and inner pair of dentate projections shorter. Male

plates as in paczficus, but shorter and more sharply pointed.

Aedeagus relatively slender and elongate, with a single pair of short,

stout, pointed processes extending basad and laterad from near the tip.

Style rather broad, outer point very blunt.

Holotype male, allotype female, and 2 male and 36 female paratypes from

Mt. Shasta City, Calif., June 29, 1935, collected by the writer and Mrs.

Oman. Also 3 male and 8 female paratypes from south of Mt. Shasta City,

same date and collectors. Types in collection of the United States National

Museum (No. 52205). In addition to the type series there are specimens at

hand from the following localities in Siskiyou County, Calif.: north of Weed

(Oman), Bray (Oman), and Dunsmuir (Oman). Specimens of this species

are also at hand from Cliffdell, Wash. (Oman), and Cottonwood Flats, Mt.

Ranier, Wash. (Oman).

Laevicephalus angelus, n. sp. Figs. 4, 11

Superficially identical with siskiyou, but with the dentate projections of

the seventh sternite of the female even shorter and the aedeagus with two

pairs of pointed processes. Length 3.75—4.25 mm.

Color as in siskiyowu but with marks on crown either fused or divided and

usually not so dark as in that species.

Seventh sternite of female as in cinerosus but with median emargination

and dentate projections of posterior margin even smaller than in szskiyou.

Male plates as in siskzyou.

Aedeagus shorter than that of s¢skiyou and with two pairs of rather short,

curved processes arising from near the tip, one pair extending dorsad, lat-

erad, and slightly basad, the other pair extending laterad and basad and

slightly ventrad. Style relatively slender, outer point blunt.

Holotype male, allotype female, and 10 male and 37 female paratypes

from above Mint Canyon, Calif., June 8, 1935, collected by the writer and

Mrs. Oman. Also 3 male and 11 female paratypes from Mint Canyon, June

7, 1935, same collectors. Types in collection of the United States National

Museum (No. 52206).

Laevicephalus joaquinus, n. sp. Figs. 6, 12

Larger, paler, and with less definite markings than cinerosus, and with

the posterior margin of the seventh sternite of female produced medially.

Length of male 4 mm, of female 4.5 mm.

Nov. 15, 1937 BALL: NEW MEMBRACIDAE 479

Ground color pale creamy white, oblique, dashes at apex of crown short,

markings on disk of crown pale brown. Fore wing subhyaline brown; veins

white, occasionally bordered with brown or fuscous.

Seventh sternite of female very short laterally, postero-lateral portions

somewhat membranous, posterior margin produced medially and with a

very narrow median incision which extends nearly half way to base of seg-

ment. Male plates rather broad and short, similar to those of pacificus but

slightly broader near tips. Pygofer longer than in paczficus.

Aedeagus rather slender, bearing near the tip two pairs of short, tooth-

like projections in the dorso-lateral and ventro-lateral positions. Style broad.

Holotype male, allotype female, and 1 male and 6 female paratypes from

Califa, Calif., June 12, 1935, collected by the writer and Mrs. Oman. Types

in collection of the United States National Museum (No. 52207).

ENTOMOLOGY.—Some new North American Membracidae E. D.

Batu, University of Arizona.

The writer is planning a revision of the tribe Ceresini along similar

lines to that of his Telamoninae and finds as usual that a number of

new species must be characterized before it can be completed. The

occasion is taken to describe a number of new forms in the different

groups.

Ceresa ancora Ball, n. sp.

Larger than bubalus with much longer, heavier and strongly recurved

horns. The metapodium convex in both diameters. Length 10 mm, width

across horns 7-8 mm.

Metapodium widening more rapidly than in bubalus to the stout recurved

horns that are about twice as long as those in that species, as seen from above

the metapodium across the horns is straight in bubalus but strongly convex in

this species. As soon from the side, the pronotum is arched about as in buba-

lus, not nearly as strongly as in testacea. Female segment with a deep triangu-

lar notch reaching to the base. Male genitalia of the testacea pattern with

the genital box usually open, the plates vertical, the styles flat tapering to

acute black tips and are incurved and pressed against the plates. The

oedaegus long, spatulate, with an acute apex and a pair of backward point-

ing spines at the base. In testacea, the styles are much narrower and more

curved, the oedaegus is spoonshaped and the basal spines curve out.

Color green with a submarginal light line on pronotum which broadens

and runs up under the horns. The posterior face of the horn and the tip of

pronotum brown.

Holotype & and a paratype male Patagonia, Oct. 5, 1935, allotype 9

and two paratype females Atascasa Mt., Sept. 29, 1935, four paratypes

Nogales and four Patagonia taken from the 7th of September till the 20th

of October. All taken along the Mexican border in Arizona by the writer.

Ceresa infantilis Ball, n. sp.

Smaller than vitulus or constans, the smallest species known. With the

metapodium strongly convex, shining, and the horns reduced to mere points,

scarcely longer than the humerals. Length 6 mm, width 2 mm.

1 Received September 20, 1937.

480 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 11

Metapodium short, rapidly expanding to the blunt horns, as seen from

the side the pronotum slopes to the middle, with a stronger arch than in

vitulus. The disc of the metapodium is convex, the lateral margins thick and

rounding, resembling a Stictocephala but with the small but definite horns of

a Ceresa. Female segment rather long with a deep triangular notch reaching

nearly to the base. Male plates short, stout, triangular, held almost vertical

by the broad stout styles that are black-tipped and obliquely truncate,

behind them an anchor-like structure appears, and then the long oedaegus

resembling the head of a needle.

Color (green in life) fading to tawny, the nervures darkening toward the

tip. A white margin to the apical part of the pronotum and a white arch on

each side starting behind the horn and bordering the curve of the pronotum

till it joins the lateral white line.

Holotype 2 and three paratypes labeled Acapulco, Mex., Aug. 24, 1936,

taken at kilometer post 299, allotype o& and four paratypes taken at kilo-

meter post 426, three at post 382 Aug. 29, 1936; all taken on the Mexico

City to Acapulco Road by Ball and Stone, and five paratypes labeled

Guacimo, Costa Rica, June 16, 1903 J.C.C.

This species is described at this time to call attention to the fact that

there are two widely different types of male genitalia found in the material

that has been included under vitulus Fab. This is the oldest (1775) described

species and one of the smallest, and as now determined has the widest dis-

tribution (from the sand hills of Dakota and Nebraska through both Mexico

and the West Indies to most of South America). Goding lists ten synonyms

and there are probably others. No one has mentioned the male genitalia in

descriptions (although Fowler mentions as a generic character “The elon-

gate styles of the male.’’ He must have seen them in vitulus, his first species

and assumed that they were generic), but the widely distributed tropical

and subtropical species that fits the size, shape of horns and the white arch

on the sides of the pronotum of vitulus has the plates compressed and the

styles extending as long, double curved horn-like appendages, two or three

times their length beyond them, while in infantilis the styles are flat,

swordlike and stand at right angles to the pygofers on either side of the

plates. There is a wide variation in horn length in both groups but as far

as observed the genital characters are constant.

Stictocephala fulgida Ball, n. sp.

Resembling collina Van D. in the smooth, rounding pronotum, still

broader and more shining. Pale green with milk-white mottling and a milky

‘“Y”’ on the dorsum. Length 6-7 mm, width 3 mm.

Metapodium nearly one-half broader than in collina and much lower, as

low as in gillettez but with the metapodium smoother than in collina instead

of much rougher and more deeply pitted as in gilletter. Female segment very

short with a broad rectangular notch. Male plates broad at base, slightly

inflated before the two tall, curved brown-tipped pygofer spines, then con-

stricted and almost parallel to the broad slightly divaricate tips.

Color pale greenish and milky, polished, the pronotum with milky spots

and a definite ‘‘Y’’ running from the shoulders nearly to the apex. The male

with the last abdominal segment usually black.

Nov. 15, 19387 BALL: NEW MEMBRACIDAE 481

Holotype o allotype 9 and five paratypes St. Johns, Arizona, Aug. 27,

1934 seven paratypes Granite Dells, Oct. 6, 1929, and two Huachuca Mts.,

June 15, 1930, all taken in the mountains of Arizona by the writer.

Stictolobus juniperinus Ball, n. sp.

Resembling trilineatus Funk, smaller, narrower with the three white lines

replaced by five broken lines in front and three pair of white flecks poste-

riorly. Pale green, lined and mottled with white. Length 6 mm, width 2 mm.

Metapodium low, overhanging the face instead of vertical as in trilineata,

pronotum slightly sinuate anteriorly, then nearly straight to the slightly

depressed apex, transversely rounding instead of laterally compressed.

Elytra with three discoid cells as in subulata, the apical cell large, triangular,

with the petiole usually shorter than the cell instead of longer as in trilineata.

Female segment long, deeply, acutely notched. Male plates small constricted

and depressed between immense flat black-tipped erect pygofer spines, that

are narrowed to blunt points and expose a dark anchor-like structure and a

long needle-like oedaegus.

Holotype o& allotype 2 and 10 paratypes, Patagonia, Sept. 20, 1930, and

eight paratypes Tucson Oct. 20, 1929, all taken in the mountains of Arizona

by the writer.

This species is strikingly distinct in its color pattern and unique male

genitalia.

Atymna reticulata Ball, n. sp.

Resembling szmplex Van D. much smaller with a lower crest, size of

querci, nearly, but with a very different male. Pale green, unmarked except

for a row of dots along crest. The elytra with a number of extra cells in the

apical part. Length 2 6mm; o' 5mm.

Metapodium much less elevated than in szemplex, very similar to querct

but with the apex much more produced. The clypeus produced into an

acute point. Venation typical; the apical cell large, almost oval, an irregu-

lar number of supernumerary cells in the apical part. Color pale green, the

male slightly tawny, a row of fine dots along the crest.

Holotype 2 and paratype female Santa Rita Mountains, July 13, 1930,

allotype & Santa Rita Mountains, July 5, 1933, and a paratype female

Tucson, Sept. 29, 1929. All taken in the mountains of Arizona by the writer.

The acute clypeus will at once separate this from any other described

species.

Xantholobus arenatus Ball, n. sp.

Resembling coconinus Ball in size and general form of the rounding crest,

much narrower and less inflated posteriorly and with a ‘“‘ten pin’’ color

pattern like nigrocincta. Female gray with a double saddle. Male tawny

gray with a white margined red “‘ten pin.”’ Length 2 4.8mm; o 4.5 mm.

Pronotum from the side a uniform crescent in the female, low and but

slightly curved back of the humerals in the male. In the female tectiform

with a double inflation posteriorly and a single median one. The inflations

tan colored with white borders on a gray background. Male tawny with

white irrorations, the face and below including the femora black. A tawny

red, white-bordered ten pin resting on the two humps with a white dot be-

tween. Elytra subhyaline, the nervures broad, dark, the appendix smoky.

Holotype 2 one paratype female allotype o and six paratype males to-

gether with the nymphs taken at Leverton, Texas, May 5, 1934, by the

482 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

writer. The triangular shape and striking pattern make this species an easy

one to recognize.

BrYANTOPSIS Ball, n. gen.

A typical Polyglyptint resembling Publilia Stal., except that there is a

definite anterior horn especially marked in the female, superficially re-

sembling Metheisa Fowl, especially in the shape and length of the horn in

the male, but differing radically in venation which has warranted Goding

in placing this latter genus in the Smilinz.

As seen from the side with an anterior horn extending obliquely upwards

as in Phyla for one-third the body length in the female the horn compressed

at apex, cut off obliquely and occasionally expanded. There are three lateral

carinae. The pronotum covers most of the elytra, is acutely tectiform with

four or five lateral carinae, the inner one with branches to the highest part

of crest. The face is slightly longer than in Publilia, the venation of the elytra

similar.

Type of the genus Bryantopsis ensiger, n.sp. Named in honor of O. W.

Bryant, whose careful and painstaking observations have brought to light

this as well as many other rare forms.

Bryantopsis ensiger Ball, n. sp.

Resembling Polyglyptoides cornigerus Stal in general size and appearance,

but with a much broader horn in the female and different venation which

allies it with Publilia. Resembling Publilia modesta in body shape and vena-

tion, larger with a long flattened horn in the female and a shorter pointed one

in the male. Length with horn 2 7mm; o% 6mm.

Female with the dorsal line in profile a uniform arch slightly higher than

in P. modesta. The horn extending upward and forward at an angle of 45°

from the line of the costa, strongly compressed, the apex acute and cut off

horizontally. The margins are parallel or it is slightly widened at apex. The

male horn is about half as long as the female, compressed, but triangular in

profile. There are three lateral carinae on the horn and about five on the

sides of the pronotum.

Color light brown, the males a little darker, a narrow oblique white band

before the apex of pronotum. The tip of horn darker, the dorsal carina

broadly light with dark interruptions, the lateral carinae are often light with

dark interruptions giving a grizzled appearance.

Holotype @ allotype & and 9 pairs of paratypes taken by O. W. Bryant

in White House Canyon, Santa Rita Mountains, Arizona, Sept. 25, 1936.

Var. humerosus Ball, n. var.

Form and size of the species except that there are large elongated cres-

centiform ivory or pale yellow areas extending from the humeri half way

back on each side. In the male, only the crescentiform margin appears.

Holotype 9 Huachuca Mountains, July 29, 1935, taken by the writer

5, 1936 by O. W. Bryant.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1105TH MEETING

The 1105th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October

10, 1936, President SILSBEE presiding.

The program consisted of an invited paper by Bruno LANGz of the Kaiser

Wilhelm Institute, Berlin-Dahlem, and informal communications by Messrs.

Brice and W. J. Humpureys. These were discussed by Messrs. KRacEK,

McNisu, Mouuer, Brice, and others.

Bruno Lanes: The theory and application of photo-electric cells —The first

part dealt briefly with the photo-electric cell and its physical properties.

Tracing photo-electric experiments to Hallwachs, who in 1888 demonstrated

the emission of electrons from certain metals when exposed to light, the

alkali cells and their limitations were described. The new photo-elements,

_the development of which was begun in 1884 by Fritts in New York, produce

considerably greater currents without booster circuits. In describing the

self-generating photo elements in some detail, especial reference was made

to their physical and chemical properties by means of actual demonstrations.

The second part dealt with the use of photo-electric cells for radiation

measurements, particularly light meters, in conjunction with various filters.

With the Multiflex Galvanometer a sensitivity up to 1/100th foot candle

per scale division is obtainable. This outfit is of great value in micrometric

measurements for microscopes with slit ocular and ocular photo-cell. In

describing the recording light meters, it was pointed out that the Multiflex

Galvanometer may also be fitted with a photographic recording device to

accurately determine the duration of light intensities. A “Sun Motor” the

armature of which was rotated by a current generated in a small photo-

electric cell, the size of a pocket watch, was demonstrated. It was pointed

out that photo-electric measurements can also be made of ultraviolet and

x-ray radiation.

The third part dealt with photo-electric elements in optical instruments,

particularly in replacing the human eye for accurate measurements of

luminosities. The ocular photo-cell on standard microscopes used in evaluat-

ing line spectra as well as micro specimens, x-ray films and sound film strips

was demonstrated.

The fourth part dealt with special apparatus for testing the permeability

of filters. The photo-electric reflexion meter for the rapid and convenient

determination of absolute values was demonstrated in detail. Another form,

known as the gloss meter, is finding applications in many major industries.

A colorimeter for turbidity measurements, that will duplicate readings on

the same substance, regardless of time elapsed between readings, and un-

affected by the visual acuity of the observer, was described. In addition to

fluids, solid and powdered substances can be measured, and filters may be

employed. It is also suitable for pH measurements. Its application in the

determination of iron, manganese, titanium, phosphorous, silicic acid and

arsenic, as well as of mercury, of sulphatic ions, of methylene blue, chinolin

red, and phenol, aluminum, chlorophyll and vitamin, was stressed, and its

industrial applications for the control of signals and switching mechanisms,

for water works turbidity control, and smoke alarms aboard ocean liners and

484 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

for electric power house generators were discussed. A new type of coherer

relay as light barrier and as twilight switch was demonstrated. It was

pointed out that invisible rays may be employed for the protection of homes,

banks and vaults, introducing a new factor of safety. (Author’s Abstract.)

In an informal communication, Mr. Brice described and demonstrated a

photo-electric apparatus built by the American Instrument Company for

the Department of Agriculture, for the purpose of measuring the colors of

sugar, resins, etc. In a second informal communication Mr. Humphreys,

under the title ‘“Tuckerman vindicated” exhibited a slide of an old print

showing the scene after a “‘ball of lightning’’ had fallen into a barnyard,

and by thus presenting photographic evidence, claimed to have demonstrated

the truth of a story attributed to Mr. Tuckerman that such an event had

occurred.

1106TH MEETING

The 1106th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, October 24,

1936, President SILSBEE presiding.

The program consisted of an invited paper by Karu F. Herzrep of the

Catholic University of America entitled: Recent investigations on the liquid

state. Discussed by Messrs. Gipson, KRAcEK, FRANKLAND, HAWKESWORTH,

HumpuHreyYs, WHITE, and BRICKWEDDE.

1107TH MEETING

The 1107th meeting of the Society was held in the Cosmos Club Audi-

torium, November 7, 1936, Vice-President GIBSON presiding.

Program: R. L. Sanrorp: Magnetic testing of prison bars.—A brief de-

scription of an instrument developed primarily for the purpose of testing

prison bars but which can be used for other practical applications of mag-

netic analysis. It is essentially an alternating-current bridge whose indica-

tions depend upon differences in the shapes of the magnetic hystereses loops

of the test specimen and a reference specimen of known quality. The instru-

ment is simple to operate, portable, comparatively rugged, and operates

from the ordinary alternating-current lighting circuit. (Author’s Abstract.)

W.H. Swancer: Failures in metals —In the examination at the National

Bureau of Standards of many metal structural members that failed in serv-

ice, defective material has seldom been found as the cause of the failure.

By far the greatest number of failures resulted because the member, al-

though sound metallurgically, did not have adequate resistance to the

imposed service conditions. Resistance to corrosive conditions can be pro-

vided by inert coatings. Adequate resistance to service stresses must be

provided by the design. Incorrect calculation of stresses or incorrect infor-

mation on the strength of the material are infrequent causes of failure.

Errors in executing the design are frequent sources of failure. Inadequate

fillets, sharp re-entrant angles or projecting fins, machine tool marks, con-

stitute points of localized stress concentration which are much more damag-

ing to the resistance of the material to dynamic or cyclic stresses than to

static stresses. Fatigue fractures almost invariably originate at a point of

localized stress concentration. Corrosion acting simultaneously with cyclic

stresses accentuates the localized stress concentration effect, thereby causing

a further decrease in resistance to fatigue fracture. Fatigue fractures or

fractures resulting from corrosion-fatigue are the most commonly occurring

causes of failure in metals used as structural or machine members. (A uthor’s

Abstract.)

Nov. 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 485

These papers were discussed by Messrs. WHITE, HAWKESWORTH, GISH,

HeEY.L, SALE, TUCKERMAN, and BAECHER.

1108TH MEETING

The 1108th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November

21, 1936, President SILSBEE presiding.

The program consisted of reports on the Edinburgh Assembly of the

International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics.

WILuiaM Bowie: General report on meeting. —The Sixth General Assembly

of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics was held in Edin-

burgh, Scotland, in September, 1936. There was a large attendance of dele-

gates and guests from thirty-one countries. The assembly was marked with

great friendliness on the part of the delegates and a spirit of cooperation in

the attack of geophysical and geodetic problems that extended beyond the

areas of any one country.

The International Geodetic and Geophysical Union was organized at

Brussels in 1919, when delegates from a number of the allied powers as-

sembled to provide an organization that would care for the international

aspects of scientific research. There was created at the Brussels meeting the

International Research Council with a number of unions. The Union of

Geodesy and Geophysics has as branches seven associations representing

geodesy, seismology, terrestrial magnetism and electricity, meteorology,

hydrology, vulcanology and oceanography. The statutes of the Council and

the Union had provisions that were rather distasteful to the scientific men

of the central powers. This was inevitable because war fever had not abated

in July 1919, when the scientific meeting was held at Brussels. A few years

later, however, the statutes were modified and all references to the war

were eliminated. There are now thirty-five countries adhering to the Inter-

national Union of Geodesy and Geophysics although some of them are not

active members since they are delinquent in their dues. Guests from Ger-

many and Austria were present at the Edinburgh meeting. It is expected

that those countries will join the Union in the not distant future. The Soviet

government has decided to adhere to the Union in 1937,

The Union has as its objective the coordination of the efforts of the work-

ers in the fields of earth sciences of all of the countries of the world. Triennial

assemblies are held at which the delegates set forth what work has been

accomplished, what problems remain and how those problems may be suc-

cessfully attacked. During the seventeen years of existence the Union and

its associations have been very effective in advancing the several branches of

the earth sciences with which they are concerned. Without such an organiza-

tion there would be little or no opportunity for effective coordination of

effort.

The opening meeting of the Assembly was a very interesting one with

speeches of welcome made by the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, the Principal

of the University of Edinburgh, the President of the Royal Society of Lon-

don and the President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. These speeches of

welcome were responded to by the President of the Union. Aside from the

scientific meetings of the Union, the associations and the committees, there

were a number of social events, which were enjoyable in themselves and

which enabled the delegates and guests to become better acquainted.

One of the outstanding accomplishments of the Assembly was the crea-

tion of a committee on Continental and Oceanic Structures, of which Prof.

Ricuarp M. Fiexup of the Department of Geology of Princeton University

486 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

is chairman. It is expected that a committee in each of the adhering coun-

tries will be organized for the purpose of cooperating with the international

one. Another event that occurred which is of interest to all American scien-

tific men was the unanimous decision to accept the invitation presented by

the chairman of the American delegation to hold the next general assembly

of the Union at Washington, D. C. in 19389.

There were 33 delegates and 18 members of their families representing the

United States at the meeting in Edinburgh. They were unanimous in their

praise of the Assembly and of the friendship and courtesy shown by the

officials and citizens of Edinburgh. (Author’s Abstract.)

W. D. Lampert: Report on geodesy.—The work of the Association of

Geodesy at Edinburgh was done mainly in committee. The speaker reported

briefly on those committees the sessions of which he was able to attend.

These were: (1) Earth tides; (2) Variation of Latitude; (3) Gravity; (4) the

Geoid. Oddly enough, the last-named committee is a new one. A center to

further the work of isostatic reduction was established under the direction

of Prof. Hn1skaNeNn of Helsingfors. He expects to do the work mainly with

the aid of his students; he will receive a small grant from the Association and

perhaps a further grant from the Finnish Government.

A Committee on Continental and Oceanic Structure was established by

the union. This is an inter-associational committee to promote the applica-

tion of geophysical methods to the large-scale problems of geological struc-

ture. Prof. R. M. Frevp of Princeton is chairman and Dr. J. A. FLEMING

is secretary; the membership includes geologists as well as geophysicists of

various sorts. (Author’s Abstract.)

EK. W. EickeLBEerG: Report on secsmology.—The history of the Interna-

tional Seismological Association itself merging with the International Asso-

ciation of Geodesy and Geophysics and American participation in the meet-

ings was reviewed. From the contributions of the adhering countries the

Secretary maintains the Central Bureau at Strasbourg, France. Normal

expenses include the reports of meetings, preliminary determinations of

earthquake epicenters, support of the International Seismological Summary

and other useful activities. The purpose of the meeting was to report prog-

ress, discuss new projects and present papers of broad significance; and to

standardize methods. Among the subjects discussed were the significance

of the first motions given on the earthquake record and the importance of

making this information available. Methods of developing travel time tables

and curves received consideration. There were discussions of papers by

delegates from the United States covering a wide field of activity and among

them a discussion of shaking platform tests at the National Bureau of

Standards by WENNER and McComs and the torsion pendulum as an ac-

celerograph analyzer, by NruMANN. Four members of the PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY were on the program.

The national reports show that the United States is well to the fore in

seismological investigation. A joint Commission on Ocean Basins was formed

to study the application of geophysics in this part of the earth. There were

several excursions to regions where known faults are associated with earth-

quake activity. (Author’s Abstract.)

J. A. Fuemine and L. V. BerKNER: Report on Terrestrial Magnetism and

Electricity The Edinburgh meeting of the Association was noteworthy be-

cause of its distinctly international aspect. Sixty-five delegates and guests

represented 17 countries—Austria, Australia, Czechoslovakia, Denmark,

Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Japan, Latvia, Norway,

Nov. 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 487

Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States of America.

Eight meetings were held. Part of a day was taken in one joint meeting of

the Commission on Oceanic and Continental Structure and one full day was

given over to a delightful excursion to inspect the Eskdalemuir Observatory.

There were 20 reports from national committees and over 60 communica-

tions, the majority of which concerned researches requiring international

coordination and cooperation.

Good progress in the geophysical sciences during the three years since the

Lisbon Assembly was reflected in the address of the President, in the report

of the Secretary, and in the reports of the national committees. Of particular

significances were the important advances indicated by the presidential

address and the suggested directions which future geophysical investiga-

tions might advantageously follow. The President noted the full cooperative

and harmonious relations maintained by the Association with the Commis-

sion of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity of the Interna-

tional Meteorological Organization. These relations make the two bodies of

mutual benefit and assure elimination of duplication of effort and expense.

The wise use of the Association’s resources, both moral and financial, in

support of the Polar-Year Commission’s Bureau in Copenhagen has greatly

advanced the reductions of data obtained during the second Polar Year.

An outstanding announcement at the meeting was that by the Hydrog-

rapher of the British Admiralty who informed us that the plans for the non-

magnetic vessel Research, to resume the magnetic and electric surveys of

the oceans originally carried on by the Carnegie, had been completed, and

that in this effective assistance had been received from Mr. W. J. PETERS

of the Carnegie Institution of Washington as also in the design and plans

for the necessary instruments to be used on board. He further advised that

just as the meeting was being held the contract for the construction of this

vessel, which is but slightly larger than the Carnegie, had been let at a cost

approximately twice the original estimate. Other outstanding events since

the Lisbon meeting include development of magnetic observatories in the

world net, more intensive research of observational data, progress in inter-

national magnetic standards, and development of methods for recording

continuously electric conditions in the ionosphere.

Nineteen resolutions pertaining to international research and cooperation

in the fields of our Association were adopted. Emphasis was laid on the

necessity of distributing adequately publications of the Association in a

resolution adopted also by the Union as a whole. The preparation and

publication of a list of magnetic and electric observatories, together with a

thesaurus of values, was authorized, this material to be prepared by the

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-

ington and the Potsdam Observatory of Germany. The necessity of control

of variometers and of examination at regular intervals in the operation of

observatories was emphasized. The Association recommended that every

observatory provide means to secure registration of extreme values during

severe magnetic storms and also that reproductions of magnetograms be

supplied the Central Bureau of the Association for photographic reproduc-

tion on film, thus permitting economical and widespread distribution of

records for purposes of discussion and study. A committee was appointed to

consider and report during the next three years upon steps to promote inter-

national intercomparisons of magnetic standards. Two resolutions dealt

with the effect on magnetic observatories of electrification of railways, and

it was requested that information concerning effects be sent to the Central

488 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 11

Bureau of the Association so that material might be available for the use

of those organizations whose effectiveness is threatened by proposed elec-

trification of railways.

It was agreed to continue the magnetic character-numbers on the scale

of 0, 1, and 2, and also the numerical magnetic activity-figures according to

the agreement at the Stockholm Assembly in 1930 but to replace the sum

(HRy+ZRz) by the daily range of declination expressed in minutes of arc.

Arrangements were made for the printing and distribution of activity-figures

for the Polar Year 1932-33 and for the extension of magnetic character-

numbers to observatory results obtained prior to 1906.

The importance of suitable arrangements by all governments for the com-

plete realization and continuation of the minimum program for interna-

tional repeat-observations as adopted at the Lisbon Assembly was empha-

sized. A resolution was passed congratulating the British Admiralty, the

Astronomer Royal, and the Chairman of the British National Committee

for Geodesy and Geophysics upon the realization of the plans for the non-

magnetic ship Research, and it was suggested that other maritime nations

should consider the construction of such non-magnetic vessels. Already the

U.S.8.R. is building a ship for such investigations in the arctic seas and

the Japanese Government is making arrangements for magnetic observa-

tions at sea.

The reports of frequent records during the International Polar Year of

giant pulsations in Iceland led to the adoption of a resolution authorizing

the Executive Committee to arrange for the installation of recording vari-

ometers in Iceland and to invite collaboration of magnetic observatories.

This phenomenon is one which seems to be somewhat local in character.

With regard to investigations in atmospheric electricity, a resolution was

adopted recommending continued investigations of the atmospheric-electric

elements at observatories now recording their variations and the initiation

of such studies at other observatories. It was especially emphasized that

observational data about the electrical state of the troposphere and of the

stratosphere over land and sea should be augmented.

Emphasis was given in a resolution on the need of more earth-current

data and the provision of additional earth-current stations at well-distribut-

ed points and especially on islands surrounded by the deep sea. It was rec-

ommended that the field-intensity component of the electric current in the

Earth be taken as positive when it corresponds to a flow either towards the

north or towards the east and, further, that the azimuth of the resultant

earth-current intensity-vector be reckoned from north through east to 360°.

The desirability of prompt publication of Polar-Year data was expressed

in one resolution. The Association is in favor of having a classification of

literature on terrestrial magnetism and electricity drawn up as a part of the

international decimal system.

To carry on the activities of the Association until the General Assembly

which is to be held in Washington in 1939, existing committees were con-

tinued as follows: On the selection of sites of new observatories for terrestrial

magnetism and electricity; Auroral committee; Committee on the study of

the relationship between solar activity and terrestrial magnetism; Commit-

tee on magnetic secular-variation stations; Committee on the study of elec-

trical characterization of days. Three reporters were designated, namely: On

numerical characterization of days, on international collaboration for pro-

moting the study of the influence of the moon on geophysical phenomena,

and on ion-counters.

Nov. 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 489

One joint committee of the International Commission of Terrestrial Mag-

netism and Atmospheric Electricity and of the Association was continued,

namely: On methods and codes to adequately describe magnetic disturb-

ances and perturbations. A joint committee of the International Scientific

Radio Union and of the Association was also formed. New committees were

established as follows: On magnetic charts—(1) organization of work, and

(2) methodology; on registration of giant pulsations in Iceland; on methods

of observatory-publication; on classification of magnetic literature; to pro-

mote comparisons of international magnetic standards.

_ Administrative matters included the adoption of statutes and election of

officers. The new officers are as follows: President, FLEMING; Vice-Presi-

dents, MaurRaIn, and CHAapMaAn; Secretary and Director of Central Bureau,

Gopi; additional members of the Executive Committee, KERANEN and

TANAKADATE through 1939, and van Disk, Cricuton, MITCHELL, and

STORMER through 1942.

In conclusion, this Assembly of the Association has shown fruitful colla-

boration and progress during the last three years; it is to be hoped that the

ever-widening prospects presented may furnish ample incentive to achieve

further understanding and interpretation of the many experimental data

nature so generously provides. (Author’s Abstract.)

Mr. WrEIGHTMAN: Report on meteorology.—In organizing the program for

the meeting it was decided to adopt as the basic theme The problem of

atmospheric disturbances, which resolves itself quite easily and naturally into

Six separate divisions covering the different branches of meteorology, as

follows: (A) Definition of the disturbances; (B) Origin of disturbances; (C)

Structure of cyclones; (D) Interaction of different atmospheric layers; (E)

Radiation and its role in atmospheric disturbances; (F) Precipitation, rime

and fog. In addition to seventeen papers on the first five of these divisions,

there were about a dozen of a nature difficult to classify under the above

heads. The papers were mentioned by title and some comments made con-

cerning a few of them.

The meetings were well attended and many interesting discussions fol-

lowed the reading of the papers. A few of the papers were read by title. In

all, it was the feeling of the delegates that the gathering had been an unquali-

fied success. The officers elected were as follows: President: Dr. 8. CHAP-

MAN; Vice-Presidents: P. WEHRLE and W. R. Greaa; Secretary: J. BJERK-

NES.

1109TH MEETING

The 1109th meeting, constituting the 66th annual meeting, was held in

the Cosmos Club Auditorium, December 5, 1936, President SILSBEE pre-

siding.

The treasurer reported that exclusive of liquidation of securities the in-

come of the Society during the past fiscal year was $1400.26, the expendi-

tures, excluding reinvestment of funds, amounted to $1410.71. The fiscal

year was entered with $1000 of the investment account in cash. During the

year $500 of the invested funds of the Society were liquidated and $1386.29

were invested. ,

The treasurer’s report showed an active membership of 298 of whom 255

were in good standing.

The secretaries reported the following were elected to membership during

the year: S. F. Acker, Norwoop Apams, N. G. ANDERSON, C. E. BENNETT,

W. M. Bueaxney, Horace R. Byzrs, Irwin L. Cootmr, R. C. DARNELL,

490 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 11

CuHaRLes E. Gauss, Karu F. Herzretp, Peter Hipnert, D. P. JoHNson,

H. Paut Kaurman, M. Fauu Kersey, R. H. Lex, A. HucHierr Mason,

G. H. Morsz, Oscar NorGorpen, Ernest J. PARKIN. FRaNcIS E. WASHER,

ALBERT WERTHEIMER, H. M. Woo.ery.

The following deaths were reported: CHRISTIAN Hurr (a member since

1926), Henry B. Heprick (a member since 1918).

The following officers were declared elected for the year 1937: President,

F. WENNER; Vice-Presidents, F. G. BRicKWEDDE and E. W. Woo.uarp;

Recording Secretary, H. E. McComs; Treasurer, W. G. BRoMBACHER; and

Members-at-large of the General Committee, F. E. Jounston and J. A.

DUERKSEN.

During the year the sixth Joseph Henry Lecture, in memory of the first

president of the Philosophical Society, was given by Hrerpert DINGLE,

Imperial College of Science and Technology, London.

At the conclusion of the business meeting a humorous talk was presented

by G. Gamow entitled Cosmos-rays.

Informal communications were presented by Messrs. A. G. McNisH and

Ey TELUER:

L. R. Harstap, Recording Secretary

1110TH MEETING

The 1110th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club Auditorium, Saturday,

December 19, 1936, President WENNER presiding.

Program: T. WAYLAND VAUGHAN: Notes on Proceedings of the Association

of Physical Oceanography, September 17 to 24, 1936, at the Sixth General

Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics in Edinburgh.

Officers. The President of the Association was Martin Knudsen, Vice-Pres- .

ident, E. Fichot, Secretary, J. Proudman. The members of the Executive

Committee who were present were D. J. Matthews, B. Helland-Hansen,

and Thomas G. Thompson. Since the meeting in Lisbon in 1933 two mem-

bers of the Executive Committee, J. Joubin and G. Magrini, had died. T.

Witting, Caballero y Lastres, and Odén de Buen were absent.

Attendance. Although I made no attempt to keep a record of the attend-

ance at the different sessions of the Association, I noted that there were

representatives from the following countries: Austria, Denmark, Finland,

France, Germany, Great Britain, Indo-China, Monaco, Morroco, Nether-

lands, Norway, and the United States of America, making twelve countries

altogether. A few other countries may have been represented. The total

attendance at the sessions was about fifty, but, again as no accurate record

of those who were present was kept, there may have been a few more. One or

more representatives from each of the countries listed presented papers or

took part in the scientific discussions. It is to be regretted that several coun-

tries that are active in oceanographic research were not represented, for

instance the U.S.S.R. and Japan.

Regions covered by Scientific Papers. There were scientific papers on the

Norwegian Sea, Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean, and

Pacific Ocean including Bering Sea. One paper dealt with the seas surround-

ing Antarctica. A regrettable gap in the program was that we had no paper

on the Arctic Ocean.

Subject covered. Nearly every aspect of physical oceanography received

consideration. There were papers on the cetermination of gravity at sea,

bottom configuration, marine bottom deposits, oceanic circulation, tides,

Nov. 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 491

submarine solar radiation, the chemical features of sea water, and the inter-

relations of the sea and the atmosphere. Reports on the result of several

important expeditions were presented and accounts were given of the work

of leading organizations, such as that of the International Hydrographical

Bureau.

Cooperative Projects. A number of projects that require international co-

operation were discussed. Among them were: a proposal for an international

survey of the Gulf Stream area; the units which should be used in the specifi-

cation of the different common constituents of sea water and on the neces-

sity of a world-wide uniformity of procedure; the desirability of fixing stand-

ard levels for oceanic observations; the new edition of the general bathy-

metric chart of the oceans; the criteria and nomenclature for the major

divisions of the ocean bottom; the study of ocean swell in the proximity of

shore and a plan for the international study of marine erosion on the sea-

shore; and the organization of geophysical work in the Mediterranean sea.

There were discussions jointly with other associations of the Union. One of

these, the interaction between the sea and the atmosphere, was at a joint

meeting of the Association for Meteorology and that for Physical Oceanog-

raphy. Another joint discussion with other Associations was the use and

value of geophysical methods in the attack upon the structural problems of

oceanic and continental areas. The discussions were very stimulating, even

inspiring.

Committees. The old Committees on tides, mean sea level and its varia-

tions, and (jointly with other Associations) the study of so-called tidal waves

(raz de marée), were continued. Several new Committees were appointed

covering several of the subjects that were topics for general discussion.

Among these there were committees for an international survey of the Gulf

Stream, for the units to be used in the specification of the different chemical

constituents of sea water, for the designation of standard levels for oceanic

observations, for the criteria and nomenclature of the major division of the

ocean bottom, and jointly, with the Association for Meteorology, one on the

interaction between the sea and the atmosphere. As I did not take down the

names of all those who were appointed as members of the different Commit-

tees, it seems inadvisable to give an incomplete list.

New Officers. The following officers of the Association were elected, B.

Helland-Hansen, President; Fichot, Vice-President; J. Proudman, Secretary.

During the meeting there was on September 19 an excursion of particular

interest to the oceanographers, on the Scottish Fisheries steamer Explorer,

under the able leadership of J. B. Tait, hydrographer of the Scottish Fish-

eries Service. It was an all day excursion on the Firth of Forth. The vessel

went from Leith docks to the mouth of the Forth. On the excursion Mr.

Carruthers gave a demonstration of the use of a current meter designed by

him; and D. J. Matthews demonstrated the use of a frameless water bottle

recently designed by him. On the same day there was a parallel excursion on

the Armauer Hansen, the research vessel of the Geophysical Institute in

Bergen, under the leadership of Helland-Hansen. Those who took part in

the excursion had an opportunity to see both vessels.

Conclusions. From the notes above made it will be seen that great interest

was manifested in the proceedings of the Association by the presence of

delegates from many countries and the rather large attendance at the dif-

ferent sessions of the Association. Nearly all of the important oceanic areas

of the world were considered and there were papers of high quality on almost

every aspect of physical oceanography. Many projects requiring interna-

492 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 11

tional cooperation were discussed and committees were appointed to bring

about appropriate international action. The meeting was very successful.

(Author’s Abstract.) |

Discussed by Messrs. McNisu, Humpureys, SMirH and WENNER.

O. E. Muinzer: Notes on Proceedings of the Association of Hydrology,

September 1936, at the Sixth General Assembly of the International Union of

Geodesy and Geophysics in Edinburgh.—The outstanding feature of the

hydrology meetings in Edinburgh was the three-day conference on snow,

conducted by the Commission on Snow, with the cooperation of the Com-

mission on Glaciers. This conference was arranged through the energetic

and cooperative efforts of Dr. J. E. Church, of the University of Nevada,

who was the organizer of the Commission on Snow and is still its Chairman.

Unfortunately, on account of serious illness in Moscow, he did not reach

Edinburgh until after the snow conference, but the conference was neverthe-

less very successful. The American Section of Hydrology was represented

by four eminent authorities on ice and snow, namely, Professors Hobbs and

Gould and Messrs. McLaughlin and Elges.

At the regular hydrology meetings about one day each was devoted to the

Commissions on Streams, Lakes, Underground Waters, and Practical Ap-

plications, and many important problems covering a wide range in the

science of hydrology were discussed. The meetings were attended by a small

group of able hydrologists, most of whom have a broad scientific interest in

hydrology but with less specialization than among the hydrologists in the

United States. There was an enthusiastic delegation from France and most

of the smaller European countries were represented by one or more able men,

among whom I may mention Mr. Smetana, of Czechoslovakia, the genial

and energetic President of the Association of Hydrology, Mr. Lutschg, of

Switzerland, the President elect, and Mr. Slettenmark of Sweden, the Vice-

President elect. Mr. Dienert, of France, continues as the Secretary of the

Association.

Action was taken to hold a round table at the Washington meeting in

1939 on the problem of making greater use of the hydraulic laboratories

in research in hydrology and other departments of earth physics.

Discussed by Messrs. VAUGHAN and Heck.

H. E. McComps, Recording Secretary

is et

bod

CONTENTS|

PALEONTOLOGY.—Linter, a new caxoahy genus from the upper

taceous of Texas. Luoyp W. STEPHENSON..............

PALEONTOLOGY.—The systematic position of the Sagan zen

: Trinacria. F. Stearns MAcNEW............--.2.....04) coe

PaLuosorany.—On the presence of the fern Weichselia in Colombit

South America. Epwarp W. Burry...... Soa. eda ae mn

ZooLoGy.—The Nearctic “Soya of the eters Heteropodidae, -

VING FO seus oe Py tia os aR Peeves eee ee

K.NtroMoLoGy.—The cinerosus ny of the aan Laev e a

(Homoptera: Cicadellidae). P. W. Oman.......... te

EnromoLogy.—Some new North American Menitueaalaeet? ofa 3!

Bae eres tek eM Die en's Me's Te) omer ee

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. . so ah ae

This Journal is indexed in the International Inder to Periodicals ,

- *.

DECEMBER 15, 1937 No, 12

Ww PEL

AS ae

Ye Cc

Sn Foe, aj

“TN AL MISES

Sng — sy :

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Roitanp W. Brown Espen H. Toot FREDERICK D, Rossini

U. 8S. @EOLOGICAL SURVEY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

RAYMOND J. SEEGER C. F. W. Mvurseseck

4 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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AGNES CHASE Henry B. Cot.ins, Jr.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MOL. 27 DECEMBER 15, 1937 | No. 12

CHEMISTRY.—The carotenoid pigments of the sweet potato (Ipomoea

batatas, Poir.).1|. M. B. Martacx, Food Research Division,

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils.

It has been shown (1, 2) that the sweet potato is a good source of

vitamin A. This fact and the natural color of the tuber leads one to

suspect the presence of at least one of the four known carotenoids

which possess the property of acting as a precursor of vitamin A.

For the purpose of identifying the predominant carotenoid pigments

from the sweet potato, the deeply colored variety known as ‘‘Porto

Rico” was obtained from the local market. Twenty pounds of fresh

tubers were ground through a meat grinder and allowed to fall into

a salt solution. To this mixture was added an equal volume of ninety-

two per cent alcohol. The excess solvent was removed in a press and

the process repeated with sixty per cent alcohol. The alcoholic ex-

extracts were discarded. Alternate extraction with acetone and

petroleum ether yielded solutions which were worked up as follows:

In each case the solution was evaporated to dryness in vacuo and

taken up in a small amount of carbon disulphide, and absolute alcohol

was added. This yielded a crop of large pleochromatic crystals. On

concentration of the mother liquor considerable colorless material

separated, and, therefore, saponification with sodium methylate was

resorted to. The petroleum ether solution from the saponified material

was repeatedly shaken with eighty-five per cent alcohol.

The residue remaining after evaporation of the petroleum ether

layer was taken up in a small volume of carbon disulphide, and abso-

lute alcohol was added. Crystals of pigment separated on standing

and after concentration of the mother liquor.

Attempts to isolate crystalline xanthophylls from the alcohol phase

proved futile because of the small amount of pigment and the large

amount of colorless impurities. However, a fraction was obtained

which gave a blue color with formic acid and with concentrated

hydrochloric acid, indicating the presence of violaxanthin. A spectro-

1 Food Research Division Contribution No. 340. Received September 20, 1937.

493

494 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

gram was obtained, the absorption maxima of which were very close

to that of the mixture known as leaf xanthophyll.

Chromatographic adsorption (8) of the recrystallized pigment on a

Tswett column of calcium hydroxide yielded four colored zones rang-

Fig. 1.—Sweet Potato Carotene.

ing from reddish-brown at the top through purple and pale yellow to

orange at the bottom. On further treatment of these bands only the

TABLE 1.—POSITIONS OF CENTERS OF THE ABSORPTION BANDS,

IN ANGSTROM UNITs.

NS) t Potat Leaf Xanthophyll Fracti

Carotene NCanetene 1 Xanthophyll enon eka Sect Potts

Room Liquid Air Room Liquid Air Room Liquid Air Room Liquid Air

4815 5000 4825 5010 4760 4900 4755 , ~ 4895

4490 4670 4500 4680 4430 4580 4440 4590

4230 . 4375 4230 4375 4190 4300 4190 4310

lowest one produced sufficient material for actual isolation of crystals.

These (Fig. 1) melted at 182° and gave absorption maxima? as shown

in Table 1. These data indicated the coloring matter to be 6-carotene.

2 The writer is indebted to G. E. Hilbert and E. F. Jansen for all of the spectro-

photographic work presented in this paper.

Duc. 15, 1937 SWALLEN: CATHESTECUM 495

It is evident from the above results that the predominant pigment

of the sweet potato is beta carotene with a small amount of xantho-

phylls, one of which is violaxanthin.

LITERATURE CITED

1. MacLeop, F. L., Tatpert, A., and Toousz, L. E. The Vitamin A and B Con-

ee of the Nancy Hall Sweet Potato. Jour. Home Economics 24: 928-929.

2. MacLeop, F. L., Armstrone, M. R., Heap, M. E., and TALBERT, LL. A. . The

Vitamin A Content of Five Varieties of Sweet Potato. Jour. Agr. ‘Research 50:

181-187. 1935.

3. ZECHMEISTER, L., und CuHounoxy, L. v. Dreissig Jahre Chromatographie.

Monatshefte fur Chemie 68: 68-80. 1936.

BOTANY.—The grass genus Cathestecum.! Jason R. SWALLEN,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

Cathestecum was described in 1830 by Presl, based on a single

species, C. prostratum. A second, C. erectum, was described by Vasey

and Hackel in 1884. Griffiths in 1912 added two more, C. multifidum

and C. stoloniferum, the latter invalid. The genus was placed in

Zoysiae by Bentham and Hooker, in Festuceae by Hackel, and in

Chlorideae by Griffiths as an ally of Pentarrhaphis and Bouteloua, the

position accepted by Hitchcock and the writer.

Because of insufficient. material, the genus has not been well under-

stood. Griffiths noted that the species are variable, but a study of

more specimens has made it possible to coordinate specific characters

and recognize three additional species, C. annuwm, C. varium, and

C. brevifolium. Cathestecum stoloniferum Griffiths was based on

Atheropogon stolonifer Fourn. The type (Liebmann 588) was not

examined by Griffiths, but was later found among specimens kindly

lent by the Copenhagen Herbarium in 1915. It is a pistillate plant of

Pringleochloa stolonifera Scribn. as Scribner supposed, although

Fournier described the lower florets as hermaphrodite. The species

figured as C. stoloniferum by Griffiths in his revision is new, C. varium.

Griffiths included in C. erectum and C. stoloniferum some specimens

which are here referred to three new species.

Presi’s description of the florets as hermaphrodite is scarcely correct

since they are nearly always unisexual, sometimes sterile, and very

rarely perfect. The genus is complicated by the fact that two of the

species, C. erectum and C. brevifolium, have dimorphous spikes. The

two forms are sometimes on different parts of the same plant, as on

two adjoining tufts connected by a stolon, but usually they are ap-

1 Received October 13, 1937.

496 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

parently on entirely separate plants. In one form all the florets are

staminate, or the upper sterile, whereas in the other the florets of the

lateral spikelets are staminate or sterile, and the lower floret of the

central spikelet is pistillate, the upper ones staminate, or the upper-

most sometimes sterile. The structure of the lemmas is also different

in the two forms as described under each species.

A fragment from the type of C. prostratum was kindly deposited

in the U. S. National Herbarium in 1907 by the Botanischer Garten,

Deutsche Universitat, Praha, Czechoslovakia. Types of all the other

species are in the U. 8. National Herbarium.

CATHESTECUM Presl, Rel. Haenk. 1: 294. pl. 42. 1830.

Annual or perennial grasses, frequently stoloniferous, with relatively short

flat blades and 3 to 10 V-shaped or rhomboid spreading spikes, evenly ar-

ranged on opposite sides of the slender flattened axis; spikes falling entire,

consisting of three spikelets, the lateral ones 2-flowered, staminate or sterile,

rarely pistillate, the upper floret sometimes much reduced; central spikelet

3-flowered, the lower floret usually pistillate, sometimes staminate, very

rarely perfect, the upper florets staminate or sterile; first glume short, that

of the central spikelet usually flabellate; second glume about as long as the

spikelet, acuminate, sometimes minutely lobed and mucronate; lemmas

dissimilar, the lower ones cleft about one fourth their length, the awns from

between the lobes equaling or slightly exceeding them, the upper ones deeply

cleft, the awns villous in the lower part, extending as much as 3 mm beyond

the lobes; in spikes wholly staminate, the lemmas all alike; palea nearly

equaling the lemma, the nerves excurrent in short awns.

Type species: Cathestecum prostratum Presl.

Distribution: Endemic to Mexico and Central America, one species extend-

ing into southern Texas and Arizona.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Plants annual.

Culms slender, not more than 25 cm long (usually less than 15 em), freely

branching from all the nodes, the upper one with two or more slender

leafless: flowerme branches... .. .. as)... skal oe ee 1. C. prostratum

Culms coarse, as much as 50 cm long, if less than 25 em long the upper

node with a single inflorescence or sometimes a second hidden in the

mICet tins Staak tetatias 70) ck Seales ah wel) ek WR ae ge 2. C. annuum

Plants perennial.

Plants cespitose; third floret reduced to a cluster of 5-7 awns on a naked

SUID E CE iy eee Aenea OEOURE, 6 HEME doe eth, o oe eee eee 3. C. multifidum

Plants stoloniferous; third floret glumaceous, 3-awned.

Lower florets of lateral spikelets pistillate, rarely one of them staminate,

the upper usually sterile, rarely pistillate or staminate; lower

lemmas usually densely pubescent. ................ 4. C. varium

Lower florets of lateral spikelets staminate or sterile; lower lemmas

glabrous or only sparsely pubescent. Spikes dimorphous.

Lateral spikelets with well developed usually staminate florets;

blades, at least some of them, commonly more than 2 cm long,

often involute, not becoming curled: stolons comparatively short,

conspicuously, EU CMMMA aioe 5 «SRS ais oN 5e ale 5. C. erectum

Dec. 15,1937 | SWALLEN: CATHESTECUM 497

Lateral spikelets imperfectly developed, the florets mostly sterile,

the lemmas reduced; blades flat, mostly 1-2 cm long, rarely

longer, becoming curled with age;stolons long, widely spreading,

WGe eam C Myla, ee eis eee ee ee Ra 8 ay? 6. C. brevifolium

1. Cathestecum prostratum Presl

Cathestecum prostratum Presl, Rel. Haenk. 1: 295. pl. 42. 1830. Type collected

in Mexico by Haenke, the exact locality not given.

Annual; culms slender in small dense tufts, decumvbent-spreading, genicu-

late at the nodes, freely branching, 4-35 cm long, glabrous; sheaths, except

the lowermost, shorter than the internodes, glabrous, or sparsely pilose near

the margins and in the mouth, with a pubescent line across the collar; ligule

ciliate, about 0.3 mm long; blades flat, acute, glabrous on the lower surface,

scabrous and sparsely pilose on the upper, the margins scabrous, 1-5 cm

long, 1-2 mm wide, the upper ones and those on the short branches much

reduced; inflorescences terminal and axillary from the upper sheaths; spikes

ascending or finally spreading, about 4 mm long not including the awns;

first glume of lateral spikelets narrow, acuminate, about 2 mm long, that of

the central floret broad, scale-like, less than 1 mm long; second glume 3 mm

long, hirsute, those of the lateral spikelets acuminate, that of the central

spikelet broader, abruptly acute or subobtuse, sometimes lobed, mucronate;

florets 3 mm long, dissimilar; lower floret of the lateral spikelets sterile, the

lemma glabrous or sparsely pilose, shallowly lobed, the awns equaling or

only slightly exceeding them, the upper floret staminate, the lemma cleft to

the middle, the awns extending 1 mm beyond the lobes, hispid on the lower

part; lower floret of the central spikelet pistillate, the lemma, sparsely pilose

on the back and on the margins, the lobes about 1 mm long, the awns sub-

equal, 1.5 mm long, scabrous and more or less hispid, the upper florets

staminate, the lemmas similar to those of the upper florets of the lateral

spikelets, but more deeply lobed, the awns extending 2-3 mm beyond the

lobes; stamens 1.5 mm long.

Limestone hills, central Mexico.

More tos: Jojutla, Pringle 8707.

Without locality, Haenke (type).

2. Cathestecum annuum Swallen, sp. nov.

Annuum; culmi ramosi, geniculati, decumbentes, 15-50 cm alti; vaginae

internodiis multo breviores, glabrae, marginibus pilosis; ligula ciliata,

0.5-1 mm longa; laminae planae, firmae, acuminatae, infra glabrae, supra

pilosae, marginibus scabris, 3-8 cm longae, 2-3 mm latae, superiores

reductae; spicae 5-9, 6 mm longae, rachi producta; gluma prima spicularum

lateralium acuminata, 2 mm longa, spiculae centralis flabellata; gluma

secunda acuminata, 4-5 mm longa, mucronata, hirsuto-villosa; flosculi

spicularum lateralium masculi vel steriles, leommatibus 3.5-4 mm longis,

lobatis, aristis quam lobis paulo longioribus; flosculus inferior spiculae

centralis femineus, lemmate 4 mm longo, lobato, aristis quam lobis 0.5-1 mm

longioribus; flosculi superiores spiculae centralis masculi, glabri, fissi, aristis

quam lobis 2-3 mm longioribus, subtus hispidis, superne scabris.

Annual; culms branching, geniculate, decumbent-spreading, rooting at

the lower nodes, 15-50 em tall, glabrous; sheaths mostly shorter than the

internodes, glabrous or more or less pilose in the throat and on the margins;

ligule ciliate, 0.5-1 mm long; blades flat, firm, acuminate, glabrous on the

498 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 12

lower surface, pilose on the upper, the margins very scabrous, 3-8 cm long,

2-3 mm wide, the upper ones reduced; spikes 5-9, about 6 mm long, the

rachis prolonged as a slender hairy bristle; first glume of the lateral spikelets

acuminate, 2mm long, that of the central spikelet minute, flagellate; second

glume acuminate, often minutely lobed and mucronate, 4-5 mm long,

hirsute-villous at least on the lower half of the keel; florets of the lateral

spikelets staminate or sterile, the lemmas 3.5—-4 mm long, sparsely pilose

on the margins, the lobes 1.5 mm long, the awns equaling or slightly exceed-

ing them, appressed hispid; lower floret of the central spikelet pistillate, the

lemma 4 mm long, glabrous or sparsely pilose on the lower part of the back,

shallowly lobed, the lateral lobes 1 mm long, the awns strong, extending

0.5-1 mm beyond the lobes, glabrous, the upper florets staminate, the lem-

mas a little shorter than that of the lower floret, glabrous, deeply cleft, the

lateral lobes 2.5 mm long, the awns extending 2-3 mm beyond the lobes,

hispid on the lower half, scabrous on the upper; stamens 3 mm long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium no. 1720269, collected on open

gravelly ground, Balsas, Guerrero, Mexico, altitude 1500 feet, September 9,

1910, by A. 8. Hitchcock (no. 6776) (Amer. Gr. Nat. Herb. no. 393, distrib-

uted as Cathestecum erectum Vasey & Hackel).

Prairies and open ground along railroad, Guerrero, Mexico.

GUERRERO: Balsas, Hitchcock 6776 (type), 6800. Apipiluleo, Hitchcock

6697.

3. Cathestecum multifidum Griffiths

Cathestecum multifidum Griffiths, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 14: 360. f. 24. 1912.

Type collected at Iguala, Mexico, by Griffiths, September 9, 1909.

Perennial; culms slender, densely tufted, erect or geniculate at the lower

nodes, branching, 15-40 cm tall, glabrous, the nodes pubescent; sheaths

glabrous, pilose in the throat, the lower crowded, the upper much shorter

than the internodes; ligule ciliate, 0.56 mm long; blades flat, acuminate,

glabrous or sparsely pilose on the upper surface, the margins very sparsely

papillose-pilose, 2.5—-8 em long, 1—1.5 mm wide, the upper culm blades much

reduced; spikes, 5-10 mostly secund, 3-4 mm long excluding the awns, the

rachis prolonged as a slender bristle; first glume very narrow, acuminate,

about 2 mm long, sparsely hirsute; second glume of lateral spikelets acumi-

nate, hirsute, 2.5 mm long, of the central spikelet broader, pilose, notched,

with a stout awn nearly 1 mm long from between the teeth; lower floret of

the lateral spikelets staminate, the lemma 2.5 mm long, 3-lobed, the lobes

mucronate, the upper florets staminate or sterile, 2mm long, deeply 5-cleft,

the divisions aristate; lower floret of the central spikelet pistillate, the lemma

3 mm long, glabrous on the back, the margins sparsely pilose, the tip 3-

lobed, the lobes acuminate, sometimes mucronate, the upper florets stami-

nate or sterile, about 2.5 mm long, deeply 5-cleft, sometimes to the base,

the lobes narrow, acuminate, the awns 2-3 mm long, the uppermost floret

sometimes reduced to awns.

Rocky hills, Oaxaca, Mexico.

Oaxaca: Iguala, Griffiths without number (type). Oaxaca, Hitchcock 6120,

6164. Monte Alban, C. L. Smith 950. Ixcotel (Distrito del Centro), Conzatti

3607.

4. Cathestecum varium Swallen, sp. nov.

Perenne, stoloniferum, stolonibus gracilibus, internodiis 3-15 em longis;

culmi graciles dense caespitosi, ramosi, erecti vel geniculati, 10-15 cm alti;

Dec. 15, 1937 SWALLEN: CATHESTECUM 499

vaginae glabrae, infirmae basi dense villosae; ligula ciliata, 0.3 mm longa;

laminae planae, firmae, acutae, pungentes, infra glabrae, supra scabrae et

sparsae pilosae, 1-6 cm longae, 1-2 mm latae, superiores reductae; spicae

3-5, divergentes; gluma prima spiculorum lateralium truncata vel acumi-

nata, 1.5-2.5 mm longa, spiculae centralis flabellata, 1 mm longa; gluma

secunda hirsuto-villosa, acuminata, minute lobata, aristis ad 1 mm longis;

flosculus inferior spicularum lateralium femineus, lemmate 4 mm longo,

dense pubescente, lobato, aristis quam lobis 1—-1.5 mm longioribus, flosculus

superior neuter, raro masculus vel femineus, fissus, aristis quam lobis 2.5-3

mm longioribus; flosculus inferior spiculae centralis femineus, lemmate eis

inferioribus spicularum lateralium simili, flosculi superiores neutri vel

masculi, glabri, eis superioribus spicularum lateralium similes.

Perennial, stoloniferous, the stolons slender, wiry, with commonly arched

internodes, 3-15 em long; culms in small dense tufts, slender, branching,

erect or geniculate at the nodes, 10-15 cm tall, glabrous; lower sheaths

crowded, glabrous, or the lowermost densely villous at the base, pilose in the

throat, the upper ones much shorter than the internodes, glabrous; ligule

ciliate, about 0.3 mm long; blades flat, firm, acute, pungent, glabrous on the

lower surface, scabrous and sparsely pilose on the upper, the margins

scabrous, 1-4 cm long (rarely to 6 cm), 1-2 mm wide, the uppermost culm

blades much reduced; spikes 3-5, spreading, on a slender flexuous axis

1.5—2 cm long; first glume of lateral spikelets irregular, truncate to acumi-

nate, 1.5-2.5 mm long, that of the central spikelet flabellate, about 1 mm

long; second glume hirsute-villous, acuminate or minutely lobed, awned

from between the lobes, the awn as much as 1 mm long, that of the central

spikelet broader than those of the lateral spikelets; lower floret of the lateral

spikelets usually pistillate, sometimes staminate, the lemma 4 mm long,

usually densely pubescent but occasionally glabrous, lobed, the lobes about

1 mm long, awned from between the lobes, the lateral awns about equaling

them, the central extending 1—1.5 mm beyond them; upper floret usually

neuter, rarely staminate or pistillate, sometimes much reduced, the lemma

4 mm long, cleft to below the middle, the awns from between the lobes ex-

tending 2.5-3 mm beyond them, villous on the lower part; lower floret of;the

central spikelet pistillate, sometimes apparently perfect, the lemma similar

to the lower lemmas of the lateral spikelets, the upper florets neuter or

staminate, glabrous, the lobes and awns as in the upper florets of the lateral

spikelets.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium no. 1720270, collected on dry soil

under mesquite, Tehuacan, Puebla, Mexico, August 9, 1910, by A. 8. Hitch-

cock (no. 6072; Amer. Gr. Nat. Herb. no. 395, distributed as Cathestecum

stoloniferum).

Dry rocky hills and in mesquite, Puebla and Oaxaca, Mexico.

PureBLa: Tehuacan, Hitchcock 6072 (type); Rose & Hay 5924. San Luis

Tultitlanapa, Purpus 3569.

Oaxaca: Tomellin, Hitchcock 6238; Griffiths 9764. San Antonio Valley,

C. L. Smith 958.

5. Cathestecum erectum Vasey & Hack.

Cathestecum erectum Vasey & Hack. Bull. Torrey Club 11: 37. pl 45. 1884.

Type collected between El Paso and Presidio, Texas, by Havard (no. 2).

Perennial, stoloniferous, the stolons slender, wiry, conspicuously arching,

the internodes elongate; culms in small dense tufts, simple or branching,

500 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 12

erect or somewhat geniculate-spreading, 15-380 cm tall, glabrous; lower

sheaths crowded, pilose in the throat, the lowermost densely villous at the

base, the upper ones more distant, glabrous; ligule ciliate, about 0.3 mm

long; blades flat or commonly loosely involute, 3-6 mm long, 1—-1.5 mm wide,

glabrous on the lower surface, scabrous and sparsely pilose on the upper;

spikes usually pale, dimorphous, one form entirely staminate, the other with

the lower floret of the central spikelet pistillate, the upper floret and those

of the lateral spikelets staminate or neuter, the spikes all of the same kind

in a single inflorescence, parts of the same plant (joined by stolons) some-

times with both kinds of spikes; staminate spikes: first glume 1 mm long;

second glume acuminate, glabrous or nearly so, that of the lateral spikelets

3 mm long, that of the central spikelet about 4 mm long; lemmas similar,

3 mm Jong, glabrous, irregularly lobed, awnless or mucronate; pistillate

spikes: glumes villous, otherwise like those of the staminate spikes; lemmas

of the lateral spikelets similar, 3 mm long, glabrous, cleft to the middle, the

awns from between the lobes equaling or barely exceeding them, more or

less hispid; florets of the central spikelet unlike, the lower lemma glabrous

or sparsely pubescent, cleft one third of the length, the awns from between

the lobes glabrous, subequal or the central a little longer, somewhat exceed-

ing the lobes; upper florets similar to those of the lateral spikelets, the awns

slightly longer, extending 1-2 mm beyond the lobes; anthers 2 mm long.

Dry rocky hills and prairies, southwestern Texas, Arizona, and northern

Mexico to Salvador.

Texas: Presidio, Szlvews 734; Havard 30. Hot Springs, Silveus 649.

Bone Spring (Tornillo Cr.), Havard 2. Study Butte (Brewster Co.), Moore

& Steyermark 3300. South of Marathon, Swallen 1123. Without locality,

Nealley in 1890.

ARIZONA: Without locality, Palmer in 1869.

Sonora: Alamos, Palmer 705 in 1890. Guaymas, Palmer 161 and 345 in

1887; Hitchcock 3546, 3551. Yaqui River, Palmer 17 and 18 in 1869. Imuris

to Santa Ana, Griffiths 6834. Hermosillo, Hitchcock 3535, 3597. Altar, Wig-

gins 5974; Pringle in 1884. Llano, Hitchcock 3528.

CHIHUAHUA: Batopilas, Palmer 66 in 1885.

SINALOA: Imala, Palmer 1459, 1460 in 1891. Culiacan, Brandegee 1, 2.

“La Noria,”’ Mexia 295.

Couima: Armeria, Hitchcock 7024.

GUERRERO: Rio Balsas, Orcutt 4166.

Oaxaca: San Geronimo, Mell 2144.

GUATEMALA: Zacapa, Kellerman 7887.

SALVADOR: La Union, Hitchcock 8776.

6. Cathestecum brevifolium Swallen, sp. nov.

Perenne, stoloniferum, stolonibus gracilibus, late repentibus, internodiis

ad 12 cm longis; culmi caespitosi, graciles, ramosi, erecti vel geniculati,

5-10 cm alti; vaginae glabrae vel sparse pilosae, imae basi dense villosae;

laminae planae, acutae, cirratae, infra glabrae, supra scabrae et pilosae,

1—2.5 cm longae, 1—2 mm latae; spicae 3-8, purpureae, divergentes, biformes;

spica mascula: gluma prima angusta, 1 mm longa; gluma secunda latior,

acuta vel acuminata, glabra vel sparse pilosa, 2.5-3 mm longa, minute lo-

bata, mucronata; lemma inferius 3 mm longum, sparse pilosum, lobatum,

mucronatum, lemma superius 2.5 mm longum, lemmata inferiori simile sed

lobis longioribus; spica feminea: spiculae laterales imperfectae; gluma prima

1 mm longa; gluma secunda acuminata, 2.5 mm longa, pilosa vel hirsuto-

Dec. 15, 1937 BERRY: GYROCARPUS 501

villosa; flosculi reducti, steriles, raro masculi; gluma prima spiculae cen-

tralis 1 mm longa, secunda 3 mm longa, lobata, mucronata, hirsuto-villosa;

flosculus inferior femineus, lemmate 3 mm longo, sparse pubescente, lobato,

aristis quam lobis paulo longioribus; flosculi superiores masculi vel neutri,

lemmata 2.5 mm longa, fissa, aristis quam lobis 1-3 mm longioribus.

Perennial, soloniferous, the stolons slender, wiry, widely spreading, the

internodes as much as 12 cm long (usually less than 10 em), not conspicu-

ously arched as in C. erectum; culms in small dense tufts, slender, usually

branching, erect or geniculate at the nodes, 5-10 em tall (rarely to 15 em),

glabrous; lower sheaths crowded, glabrous or sparsely pilose with a tuft of

long hairs at the mouth, the lowermost densely villous at the base; blades

firm, flat, acute, becoming conspicuously curled with age, glabrous on the

lower surface, scabrous and pilose on the upper, the margins scabrous,

1—2.5 em long (rarely to 5 em), 1-2 mm wide; spikes 3-8, usually purple,

spreading, dimorphous as in C. erectum; staminate spike: first glume narrow,

1 mm long; second glume broader, acute or acuminate, usually glabrous or

sometimes sparsely pilose on the keel, those of the lateral spikelets 2.5 mm

long, that of the central spikelet 3 mm long, minutely lobed, mucronate;

lower lemmas 3 mm long, sparsely pilose, shallowly lobed, mucronate from

between the lobes, the upper ones 2.5 mm long, similar to the lower but with

somewhat deeper lobes; pistillate spikelets: lateral spikelets imperfectly

developed, the first glume 1 mm long, the second glume acuminate, 2.5

mm long, pilose to hirsute-villous on the keel, the florets much reduced,

sterile, or the lower one rarely staminate; first glume of central spikelet

similar to those of the lateral spikelets, the second 3 mm long, minutely

lobed, mucronate, hirsute-villous at least on the keel, the lower floret pistil-

late, the lemma 3 mm long, sparsely pubescent on the back, the lobes one

fourth the length of the lemma, the awns from between the lobes slightly

exceeding them, the upper florets staminate or neuter, the lemmas 2.5 mm

long, deeply cleft, the awns extending 1-3 mm beyond the lobes; stamens

1.3-1.6 mm long.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium no. 884043, collected on thin grav-

elly soil, Tequila, Jalisco, Mexico, October 5, 1893, by C. G. Pringle (no.

4559).

Sterile clay or rocky hills and gravelly soil, Jalisco and Colima, Mexico.

JALisco: Guadalajara, Palmer 270 in 1886; Hitchcock 7278, 7300; Pringle

4046. San Nicolas, Hitchcock 7200, 7202. Tequila, Pringle 4559 (type).

Valencia, Hitchcock 7003.

GUANAJUATO: Irapuato, Hitchcock 7436.

Couima: Colima, Palmer 12 in 1897, and 1261 in 1891.

PALEOBOTAN Y.—Gyrocarpus and other fossil plants from the

Cumarebo field in Venezuela. Epwarp W. Brrry, The Johns

Hopkins University.

Through the friendly interest of Dr. H. G. Kugler, the Trinidad

Leaseholds, Limited, forwarded to me in the late summer of 1936,

a small collection of fossil plants which had been collected by Dr.

Suter of that company near the village of Cuque in the Cumarebo oil

1 Received September 20, 1937.

502 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 12

field of Venezuela. This field is on the Caribbean coast of the state

of Falcon a few miles east of the base of the Paraguana peninsula.

The horizon is the ‘‘Mammonal zone”’ of the Damsite series, which

is considered to be of upper Miocene age. The matrix is a fine, light

buff or brownish clay, said to be separated by well developed bedding

planes of coarser material. The clay is crowded with plant fragments,

mostly leaves, and its texture indicates accumulation in quiet water,

so that one would expect perfectly preserved leaves rather than the

more or less comminuted fragments such as have been found.

The collection is of special interest from several points of view,

notably in that it consists of but 26 small pieces of matrix of which

half contain nothing that is determinable and the remaining 13

pieces contain not only four new species but four additional known

species that can be positively identified with forms described from the

Forest sand of the Island of Trinidad, B.W.I. From the character of

the material contained in this small collection from Cuque it would

seem that a much more extensive and varied suite of plants could be

obtained from this horizon.

The Damsite series, according to Liddle, comprises 3000 feet of

shales, limestones and sandstones, with extensive marine faunas of

upper and middle Miocene age. It is considered to be of about the

same age as the Palmarejo formation and younger than the lower

Miocene Betijoque formation, from both of which I have described a

few fossil plants. It can not be said that the printed information on

the stratigraphy of Venezuela is either complete or precise, despite

the brave showing of Liddle’s useful account, nor is this the place to

discuss it even were the facts available.

The present collection is too limited to afford conclusive evidence

as to its precise age or environment, but I see no reason for doubting

that it is upper Miocene, since the four previously known species were

all described from the Forest sand of Trinidad and three of these,

Anacardites americanus, Colubrina miocenica and Sideroxylon masti-

chodendroides, were definitely from the upper part of that formation.

Recent collections of fossil plants from Trinidad, not yet described in

print show the Szderoxylon in the Forest clay overlying the Forest

sand, and both the Sideroxrylon and Anacardites at a locality known

as the Mud Plant which is said to lie 1700 feet above the plant horizon

in the Forest clay.

As will be seen from the following list of species represented, all of

the plants are angiosperms and all but one are dicotyledons. They

represent 8 genera in 7 families and 7 orders, and it would seem that

Dec. 15, 1937 BERRY: GYROCARPUS 503

the presence of the unique aroid Caladiosoma is sufficiently conclusive

evidence of a wet tropical climate in a densely forested region, were

such evidence thought necessary. Two of the genera, both represented

by fruits or seeds—Melloa doubtfully, and Gyrocarpus more certainly

—have not before been found fossil and the latter is of unusual

interest.

Monocotyledonae

Arales

Araceae

Caladiosoma miocenica

Dicotyledonae

Rosales

Leguminosae

Mimosites suterr

Leguminosites cuquensis

Sapindales

Anacardiaceae

Anacardites americanus

Rhamnales

Rhamnaceae

Colubrina miocenica

Laurales

Hernandiaceae

Gyrocarpus miocenica

Ebenales

Sapotaceae

Sideroxylon mastichodendroides

Personales

Bignoniaceae

Melloa (?) cuquensis

Caladiosoma miocenica Berry

Caladiosoma miocenica Berry, Pan. Am. Geol. 44: 38, pl. 5, 1915; Johns

Hopkins Studies in Geology 6: 83, pl. 10, figs. 1-4, 1925.

A single fragment collected by Dr. Suter in the Cumarebo field shows a

two centimeter length of two stout secondaries with the intervening lamina

and with the absolutely characteristic tertiary venation of this species. Had

it not been for the more complete material known from Trinidad, B.W.I.,

it would have been impossible to identify the tiny fragment from near

Cuque. As it is the identification is as certain as anything can be on this

mundane sphere.

The type was described from the Forest sand of Trinidad and a reference

504 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

to the published figures, particularly of the tertiary venation, will convince

the student that my statement of the impossibility of making a mistake has

not been exaggerated.

Mimosites suteri Berry, n. sp. Fig. 1

Leaflets small, elongate elliptical, somewhat inequilateral, widest me-

dianly, slightly more narrowed at the rounded tip than at the rounded base,

apparently sessile. Margins entire. Texture subcoriaceous. Length about

11 mm. Maximum width about 4.5mm. Midvein stout, straight, prominent.

Secondaries numerous, thin, partially immersed, comptodrome.

The species is represented by a complete leaflet and several fragments. It

is a type of leaflet not uncommon in the various families of this extensive

alliance and can be compared with existing leaflets in Cassia, Drepanocarpus,

Fig. 1.—Mimosites sutert Berry, n. sp. Fig. 2.—Leguminosites cuquensis Berry,

n.sp. Fig. 3—Melloa? cuquensis Berry, n. sp. Fig. 4.—Gyrocarpus miocenica Berry,

Nn. sp.

Platypodium, Mimosa, Caesalpinia, and many other genera. It can probably

be matched by fossil forms described under a variety of names from other

regions and different geological horizons, but such comparisons are lacking

in significance. It is referred to the form genus Mzmosites following tradition,

and also because the Mimosaceae probably contains more genera with leaf-

lets of this type than do the other families of Leguminosae. The species is

named in honor of the collector, Dr. Suter of Trinidad Leaseholds, Ltd.

Leguminosites cuquensis Berry, n. sp. Fig. 2

Leaflets elliptical, nearly symmetrical, widest medianly, with full and

rounded entire margins and about equally rounded at the apex and base.

No trace of a petiolule. Extremely thick and coriaceous in texture. Midvein

very stout, straight and prominent. Secondaries thin, diverging from the

midvein at wide angles, regularly curved and camptodrome, almost com-

pletely immersed in the leaf substance, as are the tertiaries. Length about

3 cm. Maximum width about 2 cm.

Dec. 15, 1937 BERRY: GYROCARPUS 505

This is a type of leaflet which is frequently referred to Sophora and might

well represent that genus. It is referred to Leguminosites since it might

equally represent Cassia, Dalbergia, Copacfera or other unrelated genera in

this prolific alliance. Lacking generic certainty there is little point in com-

parisons with either fossil or living species. Description is attempted since

it may have stratigraphic value at some future time.

Anacardites americanus Berry

Anacardites americanus Berry, Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology ~

Gs 104) pled dies 3. 1925,

This species was described from the Forest sand of the Island of Trinidad,

B.W.I. A single incomplete specimen is contained in the small collection

from near Cuque, Venezuela. It represents a leaflet of some undeterminable

member of the Anacardiaceae, Anacardites being a form genus proposed

especially for material of this sort and the name does not imply any close

relationship to the existing genus Anacardium. It has recently been found in

the Forest clay and at the Mud Plant in Trinidad.

Colubrina miocenica Berry

Colubrina miocenica Berry, Johns Hopkins University Studies in Geology

6: 106, pl. 13, figs. 1-3, 1925.

The type is not uncommon in the upper part of the forest sand of the

Island of Trinidad, B.W.I. A single specimen with the base missing is

present in the small collection from near Cuque, Venezuela.

Gyrocarpus miocenica Berry, n. sp. Fig. 4

The present species is based upon a single fairly complete specimen and a

few small fragments of the rather coriaceous wings. It does not differ ap-

preciably from the immature fruits of the existing Gyrocarpus jacquini

Roxburg except that the essential part was apparently spherical instead of

being the very prolate spheroid of both the immature and mature fruits of

the existing species. The thickened covering of the fruit is continued upward

to form two, narrow, thickened, spatulate, mostly longitudinally parallel-

veined wings which in the fossil specimen are pressed in a divergent position

just as are the majority of recent immature fruits in herbarium material.

Carpel about 4 mm in diameter. Wings about 4 cm long (estimated) and

about 7 mm in maximum width.

The mature fruits of the existing species may become very large and

leathery, with opposite wings up to 10 or more centimeters in length, but

they show great variation in size and some are scarcely if any larger than the

fossils. There seems slight doubt but that the fossil represents a Miocene

ancestor of the existing species.

The supposedly single existing species is a stately tree with large quinque-

palmate leaves much like those of Sterculia platanifolia Linné fils. It is not

uncommon in northern South America and is common in the tropics of both

the new and old worlds. The variation in the fruits alone seen in comparing

506 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 12

the fossil with the existing forms leads me to doubt the wisdom of referring

all of the existing forms to a single botanical species.

The present is the first fossil record of the genus and fulfills the necessary

corollary that a genus found in both hemispheres must have had a geological

history.

Sideroxylon mastichodendroides Berry

Sideroxylon mastichodendroides Berry, Johns Hopkins University Studies in

Geology 6: p. 124, pl. 13, figs. 4-8, 1925.

This is a common species in the upper part of the Forest sand of the

Island of Trinidad, B.W.I. A part of a leaf and its counterpart are contained

in the small collection from near Cuque, Venezuela. It has also been found

recently in the Forest clay and at the Mud Plant in Trinidad.

Melloa? cuquensis Berry, n. sp. Fig. 3

A single specimen and its counterpart of a small winged seed are doubt-

fully referred to this genus of the Bignoniaceae on the basis of descriptions

and figures as I have been unable to see seeds of the existing species. Seed

circular, flatly compressed, about 5mm in diameter, with a thickened border,

surrounded by a narrow fairly thick rim-like wing about 2 mm wide; no

venation visible. The hilum and chalaza are at opposite poles of the seed

dividing the wing into 2 equal semicircular segments.

The reference to the Bignoniaceae appears to be reasonably certain but

the genus is somewhat problematical, for adequate comparisons could not

be made because specimens of seeds of the recent genera are seldom pre-

served in available herbaria. No related fossil forms have heretofore been

described. The genus comprises 2 or 3 existing species of lianas ranging from

Venezuela to Brazil. Another genus with similar seeds is Eccremocarpus with

several species of climbing shrubs in the Peruvian region.

PALEOBOTANY.—Further additions to some fossil floras of the

western United States.. Rotanp W. Brown, U. 8. Geological

Survey.

During the interval between the writing and publishing of my last

paper on this subject? new collections have been received, some old

collections have been reexamined, and several articles by other

students dealing with the fossil floras of the western United States

have been published. A survey of this material makes the following

additions and changes necessary. Unless otherwise stated, the speci-

mens figured are deposited in the U. 8S. National Museum.

Populus jenningsi Brown, n. sp. Fig. 3

Description.—A 4-valved, open capsule, 1.8 cm in diameter; valves lance-

1 Received September 238, 1937.

2 Brown, Rotanp W. Additions to some fossil floras of the western United States.

U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 186: 163-206. 1937.

Dre ib, 19SF BROWN: FOSSIL FLORAS 507

ovate, showing the broad placental lines with raised scars where the seeds

were attached.

The matrix in which this fossil was found is similar to that near Missoula,

Mont., from which Jennings? in 1920 described a small flora assigned by him

to the Oligocene. Although he reported two species of Populus—P. smilaci-

folia and P. zaddachi—it seems now that neither of these belongs to Populus

but can be referred to another genus. Fruits generally similar to this fossil

have been described under one name or another from foreign countries, but

so far as I know none has hitherto been reported as Populus from strata in

the United States.

I take pleasure in naming this fossil fruit for Dr. O. E. Jennings, of the

Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa.

Occurrence.—Near O’Keefe Canyon, 11 miles northwest of Missoula,

Mont. Collected by Earl Douglass.

Populus lamottei Chaney & Elias Figs. 4, 5

Populus lamottei Chaney & Elias, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 476 (1):

35, pl. 4, figs. 4, 5, 1936.

Cercidiphyllum crenatum (Unger) Brown. Chaney and Elias, idem, p. 40,

ml ye hese 3:

A reexamination of both the follicle and leaf considered by Chaney and

Elias to be Cercidiphyllum crenatum shows that they represent Populus

instead. The features that more particularly distinguish the typical leaves

of Cercidiphyllum from those of Populus, especially P. tremulozdes, the leaves

of which are most nearly comparable to those of Cercidiphyllum, are the

presence of 3 pairs of lateral veins arising from the top of the petiole, and the

departure of the first prominent secondary vein from the midrib at a point

above the middle of the blade. In the leaf (Fig. 5) assigned to Cercidiphyllum

by Chaney and Elias there are only 2 pairs of lateral primaries, and the

first strong secondary emerges from the left side of the midrib well below the

middle of the blade. The venation is therefore populoid, and the leaf ap-

parently belongs to Populus lamottet.

The follicle (Fig. 4) represents the impression of the interior of two ane

separated valves of a Populus fruit. On the dark placental line the scars

where the seeds were attached can be seen faintly. What appears to be

venation on the valves may be folds or cracks developed before or during

fossilization. This follicle most likely also belongs with Populus lamottez, for

it was found at the same locality as the leaves. It compares in size with the

fruits of a number of cottonwoods, more particularly those of the South-

western States.

Occurrence.—Pliocene, locality P-42, sec. 3, T. 3 N., R. 25 E., southwest

of Beaver, Beaver County, Okla. (Fig. 5); locality P- 44, 34 nites east of

locality P-42, sec. 5, T. 3 N., R. 26 E. (Fig. 4).

3 JENNINGS, O. E. Fossil plants from the beds of volcanic ash near Missoula, western

Montana. Carnegie Mus. Mem. 8(2): 385-450. 1920.

508 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 12

Fagus pacifica Chaney Fig. 11

Fagus pacifica Chaney, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 346 (4): 108, pl.

10, figs. 6-9, 1927.

Chaney described the leaves and fruit of this species from the Gray

ranch, 11 miles east of Post, in the Crooked River basin, Oreg. The impres-

sion of the fruit figured here (Fig. 11) comes from the reddish shales along

Bridge Creek, Oreg., and is the first evidence of the presence of Fagus in the

flora from the shales in that area. The flanges of the nut and the three per-

sistent styles are well preserved.

Occurrence.—Oligocene (according to the usage of the U. S. Geological

Survey), 9 miles north of Mitchell, Oreg.

Quercus bretzi Chaney Fig. 7

Quercus bretzi Chaney, Contrib. from Walker Mus. 2 (5): 171, pl. 12, fig.

4; pl. 138, fig. 3, 1920.

These oblong to obovate shallowly lobed leaves with broad undulate

apexes exhibit characters that suggest relationship to such living American

white oaks as the bur oak, Quercus macrocarpa, and the swamp white oak,

Q. bicolor, of the eastern United States. The type figured by Chaney (his

pl. 12, fig. 4) is a well-nigh perfect example as such paleobotanic materials go.

Occurrence.—Latah formation (Miocene), Spokane, Wash. Collected by

E. E. Alexander.

Quercus columbiana Chaney Figs. 6, 12

Quercus columbiana Chaney, Contrib. from Walker Mus. 2 (5): 170, pl. 13,

firs. 1; 2, 1920:

These elliptic to oblong leaves with relatively acute lobes and apexes of a

single lobe only slightly larger than the lateral lobes may be compared to a

number of living American white oaks, such as the white oak, Quercus alba,

the valley oak, Q. lobata, the Oregon white oak, Q. garryana, and the Rocky

Mountain white oak, Q. utahensis. To which of these specifically, if any, the

fossil species may be related, it seems impossible to determine with the

scanty material now at hand.

The only other definite representative of the white oak group so far re-

corded from the Latah formation is Quercus mccanni Berry’ from Grand

Coulee, Wash. These leaves are remarkably like those of the chestnut oak,

Q. prinus, of the eastern United States. The species, Q. spokanensis Knowl-

ton,® founded on the upper half of a leaf, appears to be the tip of Castanea

orientalis Chaney.

The leaves of the white oak group are distinguished, in most species, from

those of the black oak group by having rounded, blunt lobes, whereas those

4 Berry, E. W. A Miocene flora from Grand Coulee, Washington. U.S. Geol.

Survey Prof. Paper 170: 36, pl. 11, figs. 5-7. 1931.

5 KNOWLTON, F. H. Flora of the Latah formation. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper

140: 37, pl. 19, fig. 3. 1926.

Dec. 15, 1937 BROWN: FOSSIL FLORAS 909

of the black oaks are generally acute and bristle-tipped. On this basis the

black oaks now recognized in the Latah formation are: Quercus merriami

and Q. payettensis. It is possible that these two should be synonymized. The

status of two other species, Q. szmulata and Q. consimilis, has not yet been

satisfactorily determined.

Occurrence.—Latah formation (Miocene), on Poorman Creek, 22 miles

east of Orofino, Idaho (Fig. 6). Collected by Boyd H. Olson. On Potlatch

Creek, between Arrow Junction and Juliaetta, Idaho (Fig. 12). Collected

by Roland W. Brown.

Cercidiphyllum crenatum (Unger) Brown Fig. 9

Cercidiphyllum crenatum (Unger) Brown, Jour. Paleont. 9 (7): 575-577, pl.

68, figs. 1, 6, 8-10, 1985.—_U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 186: 175,

1937.

In my 1935 paper I reported the leaves and capsules, but no seeds, of this

species from the reddish shales along Bridge Creek, Oreg. The seeds are small

and difficult to detect in the reddish matrix, but recently I succeeded in

finding one and its counterpart. These small seeds, averaging 5 mm in length,

are generally crescent-shaped, the seed portion being long and slender and

about the same length as the wing which is attached laterally to the seed

at almost a right angle. Small coniferous seeds (Fig. 8) from the same strata

should not be confused with Cercidiphyllum, because their wings extend in

the direction parallel to the linear axis of the seed.

Occurrence.—Oligocene (according to the usage of the U. 8S. Geological

Survey), 9 miles north of Mitchell, Oreg.

Nymphaeites nevadensis (Knowlton) Brown, n. comb. Fig. 10

Spathyema? nevadensis Knowlton, U. 8. Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. 21 (2):

211 pl. 30, figs. 17, 18, 1900.

Unknown plant. Idem, 212, pl. 30, figs. 16, 24, 25.

Nymphaea diatoma MacGinitie, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 416 (2): 55,

pl. 7, fig. 6; pl. 8, 1933.

Nymphaeites diatoma (MacGinitie) Arnold, Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ.

of Mich. 5 (8): 85, 1937.

The impressions described by Knowlton from the Esmeralda formation

of Nevada as an “unknown plant” are on the same piece of rock as those he

called Spathyema? nevadensis. An examination of the surface of a rhizome of

a living water lily shows large single petiole scars flanked by aggregates of

small root scars; and it is to these, respectively, that Knowlton’s specimens

correspond.

It is possible that some of the smaller aggregates showing a gradation in

size from large to small may be the impressions of the scars on a stem of

Trapa americana, the nuts of which are abundant in the same strata.

The seeds called Castalia? by Berry® also from the Esmeralda formation,

6 Berry, E. W. The flora of the Esmeralda formation. U.S. Nat. Mus. Proc.

72(23): 12, pl. 1, fig. 1. 1927.

510 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

—

LoS

Populus 7,2 Sp 2

Figs. 6, 12 U Fig. 7.—Quercus bretzi Chaney. Fig. 8.—

ig.

comb. ig. 11.—Nut

(Newberry) La Motte.

Dec. 15, 1937 BROWN: FOSSIL FLORAS 511

may have been produced by Nymphaeites nevadensis, but as their identity is

in doubt, they are not now synonymized with the latter species. It is not pos-

sible to determine from Arnold’s sketch whether his N. rotundus, also from

Trout Creek, should be synonymized here.

The fossil figured here (Fig. 10) is an aggregate of circular to polygonal root

sears showing central pits.

Occurrence.—Miocene. Esmeralda formation, Nev.; Trout Creek, Oreg.;

Payette formation, on east side of Snake River, 12 miles west of Weiser,

Idaho (Fig. 10). Collected by Roland W. Brown.

Amelanchier dignatus (Knowlton) Brown

Celastrus dignatus Knowlton, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 204: 71, pl. 11, fig. 5,

1902

Phyllites couleeanus Berry, U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 170: 42, pl. 18,

fig. 12, 1931.

Amelanchier scuddert Cockerell. Berry, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper

154: 252, pl. 55, fig. 4, 1929.

Amelanchier dignatus (Knowlton) Brown, Jour. Paleont. 9: 577, pl. 69, figs.

a0, 1935-—U). &: Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 186:.176, pl. 53, fie. 11,

1937.

Amelanchier magnifolia Arnold, Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ. of Mich.

5 (8): 89, pl. 4, figs. 1, 4, text figs. 2, 3, 1937.

Since my publication of the new combination, Amelanchier dignatus

(Knowlton) Brown, in 1935, I have compared the specimens there combined

with recently acquired new material and have concluded that the types of

A. peritula Cockerell and A. scudderz Cockerell, from Florissant, Colo., and

of A. grayi Chaney, from Crooked River, Oreg., on both stratigraphic and

morphologic grounds, are different from A. dzgnatus and should not be

synonymized with it. The three species thus removed from A. dignatus may

represent a single species, but they at least are uniformily smaller and dis-

play sharper apexes than A. dignatus. Arnold’s A. magnzfolia is clearly the

same as A. dignatus as can be seen by comparing his figures with Knowlton’s

Celastrus dignatus and Berry’s Phyllites couleeanus. The statement that the

leaves of the living A. alnzfolia are much smaller than those of A. magnifolra

is unfortunate. It is true that the average leaf of A. alnzfolia is smaller, but

in my herbarium material of A. alnzfolia collected in Idaho in 1934 are speci-

mens that easily match Arnold’s figures of A. magnifolia.

Cedrela merrilli (Chaney) Brown, n. comb.

Rhus merrilli Chaney, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 346 (4): 125, pl. 16,

figs. 1,2, 1927.

Cedrela pteraformis (Berry) Brown, Jour. Paleont. 9 (7): 579, 1935. Referring

only to Acer sp.? Newberry.— U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 186:

179, 1937. Referring only to Pinus knowltoni Chaney [Mason].

Although the resemblance between the fossil leaflets called Rhus merrilla

to those of the living Rhus sylvestris, of China, is very striking, as pointed out

512 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

by Chaney, two considerations cast doubt on their identification as Rhus.

First, between the secondaries of Rf. sylvestris there are usually two or more

very prominent, short, intermediate secondaries, but in the fossil leaflets

these intermediates are thin, few, and commonly, none. Second, the winged

seeds of Cedrela have been found in the same strata as the leaflets. Because

these leaflets can be matched easily with those from living species of Cedrela

and because they are associated with Cedrela seeds it seems more probable

that they represent Cedrela than Rhus.

In 1935 when I made the discovery that the winged seeds theretofore

identified as Acer and Gordoniza were in reality Cedrela, | was unaware that

fossils of this genus were of widespread occurrence in the middle Cenozoic

floras of the western States. Since then, remains of Cedrela, either leaflets,

capsules, or seeds, have been identified in the collections from Florissant,

Colo.; Crooked River and Bridge Creek, Oreg.; Mascall formation, John

Day basin, Oreg.; Tipton, Sumpter quadrangle, Oreg.; Sucker Creek, Oreg.;

49 Camp, Nev.; Hog Creek, Idaho; and Latah formation, Spokane, Wash.

These occurrences cover a large area, geographically, and a span of time

from upper Oligocene to early Pliocene. It seems probable therefore, that,

instead of a single species, Cedrela pteraformis, several species were in exist-

ence during that interval. Can these postulated species be distinguished in

the fossil materials now at hand?

The earliest western species now known, Cedrela lancifolia (Lesquereux)

Brown’ from Florissant, has narrowly lanceolate leaflets and small seeds.

It can apparently be separated readily from the other species which exhibit

great variability in the size and form of their leaflets and seeds.

The leaflets from Crooked River and Bridge Creek, Oreg., are uniformly

elongate elliptic. Those from the Latah formation are in general relatively

short, elliptic in outline, with rather blunt apexes. Those from the John Day

basin, Trout Creek, and Sucker Creek, Oreg., are lanceolate to broadly ovate-

lanceolate with rather acute apexes. As regards the seeds from these several

localities I have not yet detected in them such morphologic differences as

would serve to distinguish them specifically, but I assume that the capsules

and seeds found at any given locality belong with the leaves occurring in

the same formation.

The fossil species of Cedrela from the western United States, on the basis

of differences in foliage, therefore, now appear to be: C. lancifolia (Les-

quereux) Brown, C. merrilli (Chaney) Brown, C. oregoniana (Lesquereux)

Brown, and C. pteraformis (Berry) Brown.

Occurrence.—Oligocene (according to the usage of the U. S. Geological

Survey), Gray ranch, Crooked River basin; and 9 miles north of Mitchell,

Bridge Creek basin, Oreg.

7 Brown, Rotanp W. Additions to some fossil floras of the western United States.

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 186: 178, pl. 60, figs. 3, 4. 1937.

Dec. 15, 1937 BROWN: FOSSIL FLORAS 513

Cedrela oregoniana (Lesquereux) Brown, n. comb.

Ficus? oregoniana Lesquereux, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Proc. 9: 18, pl. 9, fig. 3,

1888.—Knowlton, U. 8. Geol. Survey Bull. 204: 56, pl. 10, fig. 3, 1902.

Sapindus oregonianus Knowlton. LaMotte, Carnegie Inst. Washington

Pub. 455 (2): 37, pl. 1, fies..2. 3, o2upl..2. figs. 1—4; pl... 3, figs. 2, 4, 5,

1935.

Sapindus affinis Newberry? MacGinitie, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub.

416 (2): 60, 1933.

Cedrela browniana Arnold, Amer. Midland Naturalist 17 (6): 1019, fig. 11,

1936.—Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ. of Mich. 5 (8): 95, pl. 7, figs. 1, 2,

1937.

Cedrela trainit Arnold, Amer. Midland Naturalist 17 (6) : 1018, figs. 1, 2,

1936—Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ. of Mich. 5 (8): 95, pl. 6, figs.

1-3, 6, 1937.

Apocynum indiana MacGinitie, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 416 (2) : 66,

pl. 12, fig. 1, 19383.

Cedrela pteraformis (Berry) Brown, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 186: 179,

pl. 60, fig. 9, 1937. Including also Pinus monticolensis Berry [LaMotte],

Pinus russelli LaMotte, Pseudotsuga masont MacGinitie [LaMottel],

Libocedrus sp. Dorf, and Cedrela pteraformis (Berry) Brown in Arnold,

Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ. of Mich. 5 (8): 95, pl. 6, figs. 4. 7-10,

1937.

The leaflets of this species were characterized in the preceding discussion

of Cedrela merrillz.

Occurrence.—49 Camp, Nev.; Mascall formation (Miocene), John Day

basin, Oreg.; Tipton, Oreg.; Trout Creek, Oreg.; Sucker Creek, Oreg.;

Hog Creek (according to Dorf, Upper Miocene or lower Pliocene), Idaho.

Cedrela pteraformis (Berry) Brown

Cedrela pteraformis (Berry) Brown, Jour. Paleont. 9 (7): 579, 1935. Referring

only to Carpolithus pteraformis Berry and Gordonia pteraformis Berry.

—U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 186:179, pl. 52, fig. 12; pl. 60, figs. 5-8,

10, 1937. Referring only to Umbellularia dayana (Knowlton) Berry and

Sapindus armstrong: Berry.

Cassia spokanensis Berry; U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 156: 253, pl. 63,

fig. 8, 1929.

The specimen called Cassza spokanensis by Berry is the impression of a

large capsule that simulates those of Cedrela. The seeds of Cedrela are

abundant in the Latah formation at Spokane, Wash.

The leaflets of this species were characterized in the discussion of Cedrela

merrilli.

Occurrence.—Latah formation (Miocene), Spokane, Wash.

Acer osmonti Knowlton Kiet

Acer osmonti Knowlton, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 204: 72, pl. 13, fig. 3, 1902.

—Brown. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 186: 180, pl. 58, figs. 16-18,

1937. (See synonymy and discussion.)

Rhus diluvialis Arnold, Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ. of Mich. 5 (8): 93,

pl. 5, fig. 4, 1937.

514 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

Both the samaras and leaves of this species are clearly of the silver maple

(Acer saccharinum) type and may be readily identified. The fragment figured

by Arnold as Rhus diluvialis is the lobe, probably apical, of a leaf of A.

osmonti. The living Rhus trilobata to which this fragment was compared has

rounded not sharp marginal teeth as displayed by the fossil. In the Sucker

Creek collection of the U. 8S. National Museum are specimens of Acer

bendirer Lesquereux, A. glabroides Brown, and A. osmonti Knowlton.

Occurrence.—Latah formation (Miocene) on Orofino Creek, 20 miles east

of Orofino, Idaho. Collected by Boyd H. Olson.

Acer scottiae MacGinitie Fig. 2

Acer scottiae MacGinitie. Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 416 (2):62,

pl. 11, figs. 4, 8; pl. 12, fig. 4, 1933.

Acer septilobatum Oliver. Dorf, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 476

(2): 122, pl. 3, fig. 5, 1936.

The samara figured here (Fig. 2) is almost identical with that figured by

Dorf. Both, however, differ somewhat from the type in having the distal

end of the wing less prominently upturned. All, having long, squarely trun-

cated, proximal ends (the line of attachment to the twin), seem clearly to

belong to the Platanoidea section of Acer.

Occurrence.—Diatomite (probably the Idaho formation of Kirkham) in

road cut 11 miles south of Horseshoe Bend toward Boise, Idaho. Collected

by Roland W. Brown and Don Emigh, Aug. 25, 1934.

Tilia aspera (Newberry) LaMotte Fig. 13

Tilia aspera (Newberry) LaMotte, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 455 (3):

45, pl. 1, figs. 1-8; pl. 2, figs. 1, 2, 1933.

Tilia oregona LaMotte. Idem, 47, pl. 3, fig. 6. [Platanus aspera Newberry,

U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 35: 102, pl. 59, fig. 3. 1898.]

Tilia sp. Arnold, Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ. of Mich. 5 (8): 94, pl. 5, fig.

1, 1987.

The fragmentary bract figured here (Fig. 13) is the sole evidence of Tzlia

so far reported from Sucker Creek, Oreg. A portion of the peduncle bearing

the fruit is preserved, and that is connate with the midrib of the bract for

only a short distance. The peduncle of the bract, it should be noted, is un-

~ usually long as compared with those of most living species of T7lza.

The leaf originally called Platanus aspera Newberry, from Bridge Creek,

Oreg., and referred by LaMotte to Tilia oregona, is a small leaf of T. aspera,

because it has the long, coarse teeth and the conspicuously asymmetric base

that characterize the latter species.

Occurrence.—Miocene, on Sucker Creek, near the Idaho-Oregon boundary.

Nyssa hesperia Berry

Nyssa knowltont Berry. Brown, U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 186: 184,

pl. 62, figs. 1-3, 1987. [Not Nyssa knowltoni Berry, U.S. Geol. Survey

Prof. Paper 154: 261, pl. 59, fig. 7, 1929.]

Nyssa hesperia Berry, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 170: 42, pl. 13, figs.

9-11, 1931.

Dec. 15,1937 BROWN: FOSSIL FLORAS 515

With the acquisition of new material from the Latah formation at Spo-

kane, Wash., it becomes apparent that the specimens figured by me as

Nyssa knowltoni in 1937 differ so markedly in form and secondary venation

from the type described by Berry in 1929 that they should be segregated

from the latter and retain the name N. hesperza. Whether the type of N.

knowltoni is in reality a Nyssa is problematical. Its form and venation find

counterparts in some of the leaves of the living Magnolia acuminata and

also in the entire, somewhat asymmetric leaflets of Rhus toxicodendron.

CHANGES OF NAME AND NEW COMBINATIONS

Acer aquilum Chaney (Contrib. from Walker Mus. 2 (5): 178, pl. 17, figs.

A, 5; pl. 18, fig. 1; pl. 19, fig. 1, 1920)—Acer negundoides MacGinitie.

Acer completum Chaney (idem, 179, pl. 18, fig. 2)—Acer negundoides Mac-

Ginitie.

Acer merriami Knowlton (U. 8. Geol. Survey Bull. 204: 74, pl. 14, fig. 7,

1902) = Platanus dissecta Lesquereux.

Acer septilobatum Oliver (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 455 (1): 25, pl.

A, figs. 1, 2, 1934)=Acer bendzrex Lesquereux. The coarse marginal

teeth distinguish this species from the circinnatum type to which it

was likened, and relate it to the macrophyllum type. I can match Oliver’s

septilobate leaves with specimens of macrophyllum I collected near You

Bet, Calif., in 1936.

Acer septilobatum Oliver. Dorf (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 476 (2):

122, pl. 3, fig. 5, 1936) =Acer scottiae MacGinitie.

Acer sp.? Newberry (U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 35: 115, pl. 46, fig. 8, 1898) =

Cedrela merrilli (Chaney) Brown, n. comb.

Amelanchier magnifolia Arnold (Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ. of Mich.

5 (8): 89, pl. 4, figs. 1, 4, text figs. 2, 3, 1937) =Amelanchier dignatus

(Knowlton) Brown.

Apocynum indiana MacGinitie (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 416 (2): 66,

pl. 12, fig. 1, 1933) =Cedrela oregoniana (Lesquereux) Brown, n. comb.

Cassia spokanensis Berry (U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 156: 253, pl. 63,

fig. 8, 1929) =Cedrela pteraformis (Berry) Brown.

Cedrela browniana Arnold (Amer. Midland Naturalist 17 (6): 1019, fig. 11,

1936) =Cedrela oregoniana (Lesquereux) Brown, n. comb.

Cedrela trainii Arnold (idem, 1018, figs. 1, 2) =Cedrela oregoniana (Lesque-

reux) Brown n. comb.

Cedrela pteraformis (Berry) Brown (part) = Cedrela oregoniana (Lesquereux)

Brown, n. comb.

Cercidiphyllum crenatum (Unger) Brown. Chaney and Elias (Carnegie Inst.

Washington Pub. 476 (1): 35, pl. 4, figs. 4, 5, 1936) = Populus lamottez

Chaney & Elias.

Diospyros elliptica Knowlton (U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 204: 83, pl. 16, figs.

5, 1902) = Castanopsis convexa (Lesquereux) Brooks.

Fagus? bonnevillensis Chaney (Contrib. from Walker Mus. 2 (5): 167, pl.

11, fig. 1, 1920) = Fagus washoensis LaMotte.

Ficus? oregoniana Lesquereux. Knowlton (U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 204: 56,

pl. 10, fig. 3, 1902) = Cedrela oregoniana (Lesquereux) Brown, n. comb.

Libocedrus sp. Dorf (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 476 (2): 108, pl. 1,

fig. 4, 1936) =Cedrela oregoniana (Lesquereux) Brown, n. comb.

516 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

Liriodendron trilobatum Chaney (Contrib. from Walker Mus. 2 (5): 173, pl.

14, fig. 4) =Acer negundoides MacGinitie.

Nymphaea diatoma MacGinitie (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 416 (2):

55, 7, fig. 1, 1933) = Nymphaeztes nevadensis (Knowlton) Brown, n.

comb.

Nymphaeites diatoma (MacGinitie) Arnold (Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ.

of ee 5 (8): 85, 1937) = Nymphaeites nevadensis (Knowlton) Brown,

n. comb.

Nyssa knowltoni Berry (part) = Nyssa hesperia Berry.

Philadelphus bendiret (Knowlton) Chaney. Arnold (Contrib. Mus. Paleont.,

Univ. of Mich. 5 (8):88, pl. 3, fig. 4, 1937) =Sassafras hesperia Berry.

Arnold’s leaf figured as Philadelphus bendtrez is a fragment of an unlobed

leaf of Sassafras hesperia.

Picea? sp. Chaney (Contrib. from Walker Mus. 2 (5): 159, pl. 5, fig. 2,

1920) = Betula fairza Knowlton.

Pinus knowltont Chaney. Mason (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 346

(5): 148, pl. 2, fig. 3, 1927) = Cedrela merrill: (Chaney) Brown, n. comb.

Pinus monticolensis Berry. LaMotte (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub.

455 (5): 110, pl. 5, figs. 1, 4, 1936) =Cedrela oregoniana (Lesquereux)

Brown, n. comb.

Pinus russella LaMotte (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 455 (5): 110, pl.

5, figs. 2, 3, 1936) =Cedrela oregoniana (Lesquereux) Brown, n. comb.

Populus lindgreni Knowlton. LaMotte (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub.

455 (5): 115, pl. 5, fig. 1, 1936) = Populus washoensis Brown, new name.

The type of P. lindgrent Knowlton has numerous, relatively small,

somewhat crenate, rounded, marginal teeth, whereas the specimen

figured by LaMotte has few, large, dentate, blunt-pointed teeth, and

a longer, slenderer petiole.

Pseudotsuga masoni MacGinitie. LaMotte (Carnegie Inst. Washington

Pub. 455 (5): 111, pl. 2, figs. 6, 7, 1936) =Cedrela oregoniana (Lesque-

reux) Brown, n. comb.

Quercus duriuscula Knowlton. Dorf (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 476

(2): 114, pl. 2, fig. 8, 1936) =Quercus columbiana Chaney.

Quercus spokanensis Knowlton (U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140: 37,

pl. 19, fig. 3, 1926) = Castanea orientalis Chaney.

Quercus sp., unnamed leaf. Berry (U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 156,

pl. 50, fig. 15, 1929) = Salix spokanensis (Berry) Brown.

Rhus diluvialis Arnold (Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ. of Mich. 5 (8): 93,

pl. 5, fig. 4, 1937) = Acer osmonti Knowlton.

Rhus merrilli Chaney (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 346 (4): 125, pl. 16,

figs. 1, 2, 1927) =Cedrela merrilli (Chaney) Brown, n. comb.

Rhus payettensis Knowlton (U. 8. Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. 18 (3): 733, pl.

101, figs. 6, 7, 1898) = Fraxinus idahoensts Brown.

Sapindus affints Newberry? MacGinitie (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub.

416 (2): 60, 19383) =Cedrela oregoniana (Lesquereux) Brown, n. comb.

Sapindus oregonianus Knowlton (U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 204: 79, pl. 15,

fig. 3, 1902) = Castanopsis convexa (Lesquereux) Brooks.

Sapindus oregonianus Knowlton. LaMotte (Carnegie Inst. Washington

Pub. 455 (2): 37, pl. 1, figs. 2; 3, 5; pl. 2, figs. 1-4; pl. 3, fies: 2745

1935) =Cedrela oregoniana (Lesquereux) Brown, n. comb.

Scale. Chaney (Contrib. from Walker Mus. 2 (5): 181, pl. 22, fig. 5, 1920)

= Libocedrus praedecurrens Knowlton.

Spathyema? nevadensis Knowlton (U. 8S. Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. 21 (2):

Dec. 15, 1987 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 517

211, pl. 30, figs. 17, 18, 1900) =Nymphaeites nevadensis (Knowlton)

Brown, n. comb.

Sterculia aceroides Knowlton (U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 131: 191, pl.

43, fig. 12, 1923) = Mahonia marginata (Lesquereux) Arnold.

Tilia sp. Arnold (Contrib. Mus. Paleont., Univ. of Mich. 5 (8): 94, pl. 5,

fig. 1, 1937) = Tilia aspera (Newberry) LaMotte.

Tilia oregona LaMotte (Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 455 (3): 45, pl. 1,

fig. 6, 1935. [Platanus aspera Newberry, U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 35:

102, pl. 59, fig. 3, 1898] ) = T7zlia aspera (Newberry) LaMotte.

Unknown plant. Knowlton (U.S. Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. 21 (2): 212, pl.

30, figs. 16, 24, 25, 1900) = Nymphaeites nevadensis (Knowlton) Brown,

n. comb.

ZOOLOGY .—The histology of nemic esophagi. VIII. The esophagus of

representatives of the Enoplida.!. B. G. Cuirwoop, Bureau of

Animal Industry, and M. B. Cuirwoop.

This paper is the eighth of a series (Chitwood and Chitwood, 1934—

1936) describing the esophagi of representatives of various groups of

the Nematoda. In previous papers representatives of the suborders

Rhabditina, Strongylina, Ascaridina, Chromadorina, and Monhys-

terina have been studied. The present paper deals with representa-

tives of the three suborders of the Enoplida, namely, Enoplina, Dory-

laimina, and Diocotophymatina. Of the free-living representatives of

this group only Enoplus, Oncholaimus, Thoracostoma, Cylicolaimus,

and Dorylaimus have received any attention by previous authors and

even these were not studied from the standpoint of nuclear distribu-

tion and nuclear constancy. Among the parasitic forms Hexamermis,

Trichuris, Trichinella and Capillaria have been studied, but recent

observations (Chitwood, 1935) make it necessary to reinvestigate the

esophagi of the trichuroids and mermithoids from the comparative

standpoint. References to the results of previous authors will be made

in the text wherever closely related forms are treated.

The nomenclature and general approach in this paper is the same

as that in previous papers and is explained in Part I of the series.

As in the sixth paper of the series, data are presented in tabular form,

wherever possible, in order to avoid extended descriptions.

Prionchulus muscorum (Mononchidae)

The esophagus of this species is cylindrical, only slightly larger at the

posterior end than at the anterior end, and its proximal-end surrounds the

basal part of the stoma. Grossly, the anterior part differs from the posterior

part in being completely muscular, the posterior part containing lobulations

of the esophageal glands. The lumen varies with the region of the esophagus

but retains a peculiarly modified triradiate character throughout its length.

1 Received August 13, 1937.

518 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 12

This is due to 6 thickenings of the esophageal lining which serve as attach-

ment points for the radial muscles.

The esophagus cannot clearly be subdivided into regions homologous with

those of rhabditids, but in general the muscular part is comparable to the

corpus and the glandular part to the bulbar region. There are 36 radial

muscle nuclei arranged in 6 groups, the first and second groups (11-12) being

anterior to the nerve ring, and the fourth, fifth, and sixth groups (ri3_3.)

posterior to the nerve ring. The nuclei of the first two groups are consider-

ably smaller than those of the remaining groups.

There are 9 marginal nuclei arranged in 3 groups, the first group (mj_3)

being immediately anterior to the third group of radial nuclei (13-13), the

second (mys) lying between the fourth and fifth groups of radial nuclei

(19-24 aNd e539) and the third group (m;_») near the base of the esophagus

and near the level of the sixth group of radial nuclei (131_3.).

There are 44 nerve cell nuclei, 25 being situated anterior and 22 posterior

to the fourth group of radial nuclei. The peculiarities of the pattern of dis-

tribution of nerve cell nuclei are distinctive and, with modifications, char-

acteristic of the Enoplina and close relatives.

Five esophageal gland nuclei are present, 1 (g:) in the dorsal sector and 2

(go 4) in each of the subventral sectors. The dorsal nucleus lies anterior to

the others, near the fourth group of radial nuclei (Fig. 2) while the subven-

tral nuclei are arranged in tandem and posterior to the fifth group of radial

nuclei. Each esophageal gland possesses a separate opening close to the

nucleus.

The esophago-intestinal valve consists of a short internal triradiate layer

of tissue outside of which there is a circular layer, the whole containing 22

nuclei.

Tripyla papillata (Tripylidae)

The esophagus of this species is cylindrical throughout, terminating in a

complex, lobular, esophago-intestinal valve. The stoma is rudimentary, the

stomatal region being entirely surrounded by esophageal tissue; the lumen

is simple, triradiate, and the lining without thickened attachment points

for the radial muscles which are dispersed throughout the sectors rather

than concentrated in special areas.

There are 36 radial nuclei, 12 marginal nuclei, 45 nerve cell nuclei, 5 gland

cell nuclei and 1 nucleus (si) of undetermined character. The relative posi-

tion of most of the nuclei is essentially the same as in Prionchulus except

that there are 4 groups of marginal nuclei instead of 3, the fourth group

being situated anterior to the first group of radial nuclei; the dorsal esophag-

eal gland nucleus (gi) is situated posterior to n39 in Tripyla whereas in

Prionchulus it is anterior to ngs.

The dorsal gland nucleus is the largest nucleus of the esophagus; the gland

in which it lies opens through the small dorsal denticle at the base of the

stomatal region; throughout the anterior part of the esophagus the gland is

small and occupies only a small part of the dorsal sector, but becomes lobed

and extensive in the posterior part of the esophagus. The nuclei of the first

pair of subventral glands are but little larger than the radial nuclei, and those

of the second pair are intermediate in size between the first pair of subventral

gland nuclei and the dorsal gland nucleus. The first pair of subventral glands

have orifices near the level of the dorsal gland orifice, while the second pair

appears to have separate orifices situated near the nerve ring, a short dis-

tance anterior to their nuclei; no subventral gland tissue extends anterior

to the fifth group of radial nuclei.

Dec. 15, 1937 cHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI o19

The posterior lobed structure (commonly termed the ‘“‘pseudobulb,’’) at

the base of the esophagus apparently represents an unusual development

of the esophago-intestinal valve and does not correspond to the base of the

esophagus as commonly supposed. The external, lobed part of this structure

contains 7 large nuclei and the internal part of this structure contains about

96 small nuclei; some of these nuclei lie in a triradiate tissue surrounded by

the external lobed layer, while the others lie posterior to this structure; the

anterior (internal) portion is continuous posteriorly with the intestine. The

above-described formation is homologous with the ‘‘pseudobulb”’ of Trilobus

and does not correspond to the bulbar region of other nematodes.

Prismatolaimus sp. (Tripylidae)

The prismatolaim esophagus resembles that of Trzpyla in being cylindrical

and terminating in a massive esophago-intestinal valve; here, however, the

resemblance ceases. There is a well developed cylindroid stoma surrounded

only at its base by esophageal tissue, and there are three inconspicuous teeth

projecting from the base of the stoma which are very similar to those of the

oncholaims. The lumen is simple, with very faint indications of terminal

dilation of the radii; the lining is unmodified but the radial muscles are con-

centrated rather than dispersed as in Tripyla.

The radial nuclei (30 in number) as well as the marginal and nerve cell

nuclei are arranged in a pattern somewhat closer to that found in Eury-

stomina than to that occurring in any other form. The five subequal esophag-

eal gland nuclei are located in the posterior part of the esophagus, and a

gland duct extends anteriad through the center of each sector to the anterior

end where each opens into the stoma through an orifice in the corresponding

tooth. Orifices of the second pair of subventral glands, if separate from the

first pair, are probably situated near the nerve ring.

The esophago-intestinal valve is triradiate, massive and apparently con-

tains 13 nuclei.

Aliamus sp. (Alaimidae)

The esophagus of this form consists of a rather elongate anterior part and

a moderately short, wide, glandular posterior part. Since the stoma is rudi-

mentary, the stomatal region is surrounded by esophageal tissue. A complete

enumeration of the nuclei was not possible. There are 5 subequal esophageal

gland nuclei, the nucleus of the dorsal gland being slightly larger than the

nuclei of the subventral glands; the orifice of the dorsal gland is situated at

the base of the stomatal region while those of the subventral glands are in

the posterior part of the esophagus. The radial muscles are concentrated

but no attachment points are present. The esophago-intestinal valve is

short, triradiate, and appears to contain 9 nuclei.

Metoncholaimus pristiurus (Oncholaimidae)

The esophagus of Metoncholaimus pristiurus is cylindrical, and esophageal

tissue surrounds only the base of the stoma. Grossly, the anterior and pos-

terior parts of the esophagus are very similar; the part of the esophagus an-

terior to the nerve ring is uniformly muscular while in the part posterior to

the nerve ring the muscle tissue is broken up to a slight extent by lobulations

of the esophageal glands. The lumen is simple, closed and triradiate through-

out, and the cuticular lining is thin and without modified regions for the

attachment of muscles.

520 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 12

There are 12 marginal nuclei arranged in 4 groups of 3 nuclei each, this

distribution being similar to that in Tr7zpyla except that the third group of

marginals is between the third and fourth groups of radial nuclei instead of

between the fourth and fifth groups of radials as in Trzpyla. The radial

nuclei are only 27 in number; they are arranged in 4 groups of 6, and 1 group

of 3 radial nuclei each. The first three groups undoubtedly correspond to the

first 3 groups of radial nuclei in other forms; the fourth group corresponds to

METONCHOLAIMUS EURYSTOMINA PHANODERMOPSIS ANTICOMA LEPTOSOMATUM ENOPLUS

TRIPYLA PRIONCHULUS DORYLAIMUS AGAMERMIS TRICHURIS DIOCTOPHYMA

Fig. 1—Diagrams of esophagi in the Enoplida.

the fifth group in other forms. The last group (re5_27) is composed obviously

of giant nuclei resulting from the failure of one nuclear division (Fig. 2).

There are 43 nerve cell nuclei which correspond in general to the nerve cell

nuclei described in previous forms; the chief differences from forms such as

Tripyla is that there is 1 additional nucleus (n43) in the mid-dorsal row an-

Dec. 15, 1937 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 521

terior to the peculiar dorsal group (Ne9-32) and there are 2 less subdorsal

nerve cell nuclei at the posterior end of the esophagus (ny3_44 of Tripyla).

Three esophageal glands open into the stoma through the 3 teeth. From

their orifices posteriorly, each gland is represented by a small strand of tissue

containing the duct in the center of each sector extending approximately to

the level of nzo_31; posterior to this level they become branched and enter

other intermuscular regions of the sectors. Rauther (1907) described Oncho-

laimus sp. (?vulgaris) as having 5 esophageal glands, 1 dorsal, 2 lateral, and

2 ventral. The lateral glands according to Rauther, open into the lumen some

distance from the anterior end of the esophagus. in Metoncholaimus pristiu-

rus, however, the present writers observed 1 dorsal and 4 subventral glands,

all 5 nuclei being approximately the same size. In so far as the writers have

been able to observe, the 2 subventral glands of each sector have but 1

orifice and their cytoplasm is continuous. If additional orifices are present,

they are probably situated near the subdorsal margins of the subventral

sectors near Ns3o_21.

The esophago-intestinal valve is elongated, triradiate and consists of an

internal trilobed layer containing radial fibers, and a double external layer

of circular fibers; the whole is inclosed in a trilobed mass of tissue. The

nuclei are numerous (number not determined). A single large nucleus, simi-

lar to those of the radial muscle tissue of the esophagus, is situated at the

junction of the esophagus and the esophago-intestinal valve.

Eurystomina americana (Oncholaimidae)

The esophagus of this species is of the type generally termed ‘‘conoid’’;

the anterior end is narrow and muscular, gradually increasing in diameter

posterior to the nerve ring, the posterior third being wide, glandular, and

cylindrical. The lumen is simple, triradiate, but the esophageal lining carries

paired cuticular thickenings in the form of attachment points for the radial

muscles; these thickenings, similar to those of Prizonchulus, Dorylaimus,

Ironus and Cryptonchus, extend from the anterior end of the esophagus to

a short distance posterior to the nerve ring or approximately to the begin-

ning of the glandular part of the esophagus.

The number (12) and arrangement of marginal nuclei is like that in

Tripyla and Oncholaimus. There are 44 nerve-cell nuclei as in T'rzpyla and

Prionchulus, the first 28 of which are arranged as in those forms, while the

remainder differ in many respects in their distribution. Only 30 radial nuclei

are present, these being arranged in 5 groups of 6 each. Only 3 nuclei have

been identified with certainty as belonging to the esophageal glands; all

three of these nuclei are gigantic, the right subventral being considerably

larger than the other two. All three glands open through teeth into the cavity

of the stoma, the right subventral tooth, like the right subventral gland,

being much larger than the other two. In some series there appear to be 2

additional small subventral gland nuclei situated anterior to the large ones.

The esophago-intestinal valve contains only 8 nuclei; the anterior part is

triradiate in cross section while posterior part is dorso-ventrally flattened.

Enoplus communis v. meridionalis (Enoplidae)

The esophagus of Enoplus is cylindrical, slightly enlarged posteriorly, and

shows moderate ‘‘vesiculation”’ in the glandular region. Since the stoma is

reduced—the stomatal region being indicated by the large bifurcate teeth—

this region is entirely surrounded by esophageal tissue. The lumen is simple

522 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

and the esophageal lining unmodified (1.e., without cuticular thickenings)

throughout the length of the esophagus.

There are 12 marginal nuclei, arranged approximately as in Tripyla. Only

33 radial muscle nuclei are present and of these the first 30 comprise the

first 5 groups of radial nuclei which correspond to the first 5 groups of

Tripyla, while the last group of 3 nuclei (r3i_33) apparently represents the

6 nuclei (r3i_3s) composing the sixth group of radial nuclei in that form. The

nerve cell nuclei, 44 in number, correspond to the 44 nerve cell nuclei of

Prionculus and Tripyla, but their arrangement differs considerably. There

are 3 large similar esophageal-gland nuclei (gli_;) and 2 smaller subventral

gland nuclei (g2_3). Just posterior to the latter. an additional pair of ventro-

lateral nerve cell nuclei (si_2) are present.

The three large esophageal glands have their orifices at the base of the

teeth as Rauther (1907) has already shown in Enoplus sp. The vesiculate

appearance of the esophagus when viewed in toto is due to the separation

of radial muscle fibers by gland tissue. The cytoplasm of the glands is rela-

tively greater in proportion to the muscular tissue than in any of the forms

previously described.

The esophago-intestinal valve is short, consisting of an internally trilobed

and an externally circular part; the entire valve contains 12 or 13 nuclei

(actual number not ascertainable).

Anticoma litoris (Enoplidae)

The esophagus of Anticoma is cylindrical and similar to that of Hnoplus;

the anterior part surrounds the stomatal region. Since all of the nuclei have

their homologues in Enoplus, they are arranged in a practically identical

pattern (Fig. 2) and further description seems unnecessary. The gland ori-

fices all appear to be situated at the anterior end of the esophagus, the 2

small subventral glands ending in the marginal regions of the dorsal sector.

The esophago-intestinal valve is like that of Enoplus.

Rhabdodemania minima (Enoplidae)

The esophagus of Rhabdodemania is also like that of Enoplus, except that

the orifice of the dorsal gland is some distance from the anterior end of the

esophagus; the small subventral glands (g2_3) extend nearly to the anterior

end as in Anticoma, and the large subventral glands (gs-s) have swollen

ampulla near the level of their orifices.

Leptosomatum elongatus v. acephalatum (Enoplidae)

The esophagus of Leptosomatum is grossly conoid, of smooth contour and

internally vesiculate. The lumen is simple, triradiate, and the lining thick

but unmodified. The relative proportions of muscular and glandular tissue

give to the esophagus a consistency somewhat like that observed in Hurysto-

mina or Enoplus.

There are 2 groups of 3 marginal nuclei, 3 groups of 6 radial nuclei and

18 nerve cell nuclei anterior to the nerve ring as in Eurystomina and Enoplus.

Posterior to the nerve ring nuclear identification becomes extremely difficult

due to a great increase in the number of these structures, there being ap-

proximately 105 nuclei in the remainder of the esophagus. The ventral gland

nuclei have apparently undergone multiple division, since nuclei lie in all

possible positions and have little or no definite arrangement. The numerous

small nuclei extend into the dorsal as well as the subventral sectors, although

Dec. 15, 1937 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 523

the dorsal gland nucleus has retained its individuality. There is no evidence

of atypical division such as nuclear budding, for the small nuclei are all of

about equal size. The subventral esophageal gland orifices are near the an-

terior end of the esophagus while that of the dorsal gland is situated some-

what posterior.

Leptosomatum is provided with pigment spots or ‘‘ocelli’’ which are gen-

erally considered to be situated dorsal to the esophagus; the spots are acorn-

2 2 ae | eee a BS) ees

Ly | SVIDCICOT D-ILDIOLISV TY)

PRIONCHULUS

Fig. 2.—Tables of nuclear distribution in the Enoplida.

shaped and contain a distinct lens. Schulz (1931) described such ocelli in

Parasymplocostoma formosum, stating that the lens is a continuation of the

external cuticular covering of the body and that the presence of a special

cell lying outside of the esophagus is responsible for this formation. In the

present form, such is not the case. The pigment spot and lens form a swelling

in the wall of the esophagus and are clearly of esophageal derivation. This

is a peculiar situation in the origin of photoreceptors, if such they be, and

supplies definite evidence of the homology of this type of ocellus with the

pigment spots of forms such as Enoplus.

Cryptonchus nudus (Ironidae)

The esophagus of Cryptonchus grossly resembles that of Dorylaimus since

it is clearly divisible into a narrow anterior muscular part and a wide pos-

524 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 12

terior glandular part. The long cylindrical stoma is surrounded by esophag-

eal tissue throughout its. length and the esophageal lining has marked at-

tachment points for the concentrated radial muscles except in the basal

region. The esophageal nuclei seem to follow the pattern seen in Prionchulus

more closely than to any of the other enoploids, but the dorsal gland nucleus

is situated near the level of g,_; instead of being far anterior as in Prionchu-

lus and Dorylaimus. Apparently the glands have orifices in the posterior

part of the esophagus since no tubes extending anteriorly were observed.

The rather thick esophago-intestinal valve is very well developed, triradiate,

and consists of an anterior part which contains at least five nuclei of obvious

esophageal origin followed by a posterior part (cardiac column) containing

about 35 nuclei and apparently represents a differentiated region of the

intestine. .

Tronella prismatolaima (Ironidae)

The esophagus and stoma of Ironella are both cylindroid, the latter being

surrounded by esophageal tissue and the stomatal region set off from the

remainder of the esophagus as a distinct enlargement. The esophageal lining

has large thickened attachment points for the radial muscles. The nuclear

arrangement is apparently like that of Cryptonchus, and the 5 esophageal

gland nuclei are subequal but the glands extend anteriorly through the sto-

matal region nearly to the base of the three bifurcate teeth.

Tronus ignavus (Ironidae)

This form appears to be somewhat intermediate between Cryptonchus and

Tronella, having the gross morphology of Cryptonchus but the teeth of Iron-

ella; the esophageal glands have orifices anterior to the base of the stomatal

region, the subventrals opening near the teeth and the dorsal about midway

between the teeth and base of the stoma.

Phanodermopsis longisetae (Enoplidae)

The general outline of the esophagus of Phanodermopsis, like that of

Eurystomina, is of the type described as “‘conoid,’’ but unlike the latter the

margin of the posterior part of the esophagus is ‘‘crenate.’”’ The crenate ap-

pearance is due to development of the esophageal glands and reduction in

the relative amount of muscular tissue, the strands of which are set off in

relief causing the illusion of cells. The lumen is usually open toward the

margins; the esophageal lining is simple.

The nuclear arrangement anterior to the nerve ring in this form appears

to agree with that of Enoplus, except that the fourth group of radial nuclei

is anterior to Nyo_13 instead of posterior to Nyg—27 as in Hnoplus. Posterior to

the nerve ring the number and distribution of nerve cell nuclei and marginal

nuclei appear to be as in Hnoplus, while there is a fifth group of 6 radial

nuclei near the level of n37_33 (not far from the position of the fourth group

of radial nuclei in Enoplus), and there appears to be 2 groups of 3 radial

nuclei, or a complete sixth group, instead of 1 group of 3 radial nuclei (the

diminished sixth group in Hnoplus) near the posterior end of the esophagus.

There are 2 extremely large subventral gland cell nuclei situated not far

from the posterior end of the esophagus. Near the anterior end of the glandu-

lar region in the dorsal sector there are three bands of tissue each containing

a nucleus; these probably are the dorsal and small subventral (g2-3) gland

nuclei which in this case have moved to the dorsal sector.

The subventral esophageal glands extend to the anterior end of the

Dec. 15, 1937 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 525

esophagus where they open directly into the lumen. The glandular tissue

of the dorsal sector stains very intensely with hematoxylin, and near the

level of m7_» the tissue is distinctly subdivided into a dorsal and 2 subdorsal

marginal lobes, each of which may represent a separate gland. While no

orifice has been observed, it is certain that no glandular material extends

anterior to ngo in the dorsal sector.

The esophago-intestinal valve is short, internally triradiate and externally

circular, the whole containing 8 nuclei.

Soboliphyme baturini (Soboliphymatidae)

The esophagus of Soboliphyme is cylindrical and without subdivisions.

Since there is no stoma, the anterior end of the esophagus projects slightly

into the muscular oral sucker. The esophageal lumen is simple and trira-

diate throughout its length. The orifices of the three esophageal glands are

situated at the extreme anterior end of the esophagus. From each of

these orifices a short terminal cuticle-lined duct extends to a short distance

posterior to the nerve ring where it bifurcates. Each branch is thick-walled

and lined by a peculiar fibrillar layer which is apparently composed of

“cilia.”’ Still further posteriad the ‘‘cilia’’ disappear and the branches fur-

ther subdivide until there may be as many as six parallel tubes in each

sector of the esophagus. At times some of the tubules end blindly, while

others divide. As a rule, the outer or most marginal tubules in each sector

are the ones which terminate blindly while the others continue. There is

little difference in the appearance of the glands except near the base of the

esophagus. At this point the protoplasm of the dorsal gland tubules is reticu-

late and the lumen may contain a reticulated mass; the subventral gland

tubules appear to have acidophilic granules imbedded in the tubule wall

and the protoplasm is more dense than that of the dorsal gland tubes.

Exact information cannot be given regarding the nuclei of the esophagus

since only one complete series of sections was available for study, and in

places these sections may not have been correctly placed. However, the

esophageal glands are multinucleate, each gland containing several hundred

nuclei scattered throughout the length of the esophagus. The radial nuclei

are in groups of 3, there being 2 groups anterior to the nerve ring and 5

or more groups posterior to that region. The marginal nuclei are likewise

arranged in groups of 3. Between the second radial group and the first mar-

ginal group of nuclei 11 nerve cells were observed. The determination of

other nuclei was difficult because of the great number of esophageal gland

nuclei which obscured the picture. The esophago-intestinal valve is triradi-

ate.

Other dioctophymatids

Dioctophyma renale, Eustrongylides ignotus and E. perpapillatus, none of

which has an oral sucker, were all studied in comparison with Soboliphyme.

The esophagus of Dioctophyma is similar to that of Soboliphyme except that

no ‘‘cilia’”’ were observed in the esophageal gland ducts. The dorsal gland

ducts, after their primary bifurcation, were never seen to subdivide though

every section in an incomplete series of 2000 sections was studied. The esoph-

agi of Hustrongylides ignotus and E. perpapillatus were also studied in in-

complete series, the findings agreeing with those in Soboliphyme except

that no cilia or granules were observed in the gland tubules. The tubule

branching occurs in all three glands and only the outer or marginal tubules

in each sector terminate blindly. Slides of these forms always show a marked

526 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 12

differential staining of the glands, the dorsal being acidophilic and the sub-

ventrals basophilic. This is particularly marked when stained in a Mallory

triple stain, the subventrals being orange or red, the dorsal blue. Subventral

gland tubules entering the dorsal sector were only observed in Dioctophyma

but whether or not this occurs in Soboliphyme or Eustrongylides is not known;

no such case has been observed.

Unfortunately our observations of the esophagi of this particular group,

the Dioctophymatina, are not so complete as might be desired. Nevertheless

it does serve further to indicate the possible relationships of the forms. In

this connection, it may be noted that the dorsolateral mesenteries of the

intestinal region begin anteriorly as a single ventral mesentery from the

esophagus, which splits before reaching the body wall subventrally. Gradu-

ally as one traces the mesentery posteriad the split becomes wider, the single

mesentery ultimately forming two subventral mesenteries, two ventrolat-

eral, two lateral, and finally, two subdorsal.

Dorylaimus obtusicaudatus (Dorylaimidae)

The esophagus of this species consists of a short narrow anterior muscular

part and a long wide posterior glandular part. There is no distinct stoma in

the sense that this structure is present in Prionchulus, it having been re-

placed by a well developed stylet. The stylet is joined at its base with the

cuticular lining of the anterior end of the esophagus. The lumen of the

esophagus is at first open, wide, and subtriangular (see Chitwood, 1931, fig.

22, No. 5), gradually becoming smaller, the esophageal lining thicker (Chit-

wood, loc. cit. Nos. 6-7) and with radial thickenings similar to those present

in Prionchulus. These thickenings are largest in the posterior part of the

narrow muscular region but continue throughout the remainder of the

esophagus.

There are 36 radial muscle nuclei arranged in 6 groups as in Prionchulus;

there are 9 marginal nuclei, also arranged as in Prionchulus; comparison

with the latter form indicates that in Dorylaimus ngs, 30, and 4 are absent,

but it may be that they are merely obscured by glandular tissue. It may also

be noted that the group Ne9_32. is more compact than in other forms. A nucleus

(st) not present in other forms, is characteristic of the Dorylaimidae. This

nucleus, situated in the anterior muscular part of the esophagus is that of

the formative or generative cell of the stylet.

Four well developed esophageal gland nuclei, 1 in the dorsal sector (g:),

2 in the left subventral sector (gz and g,) and 1 in the right subventral sector

(g5), are present. The other esophageal gland nucleus (g3) is much smaller

than the former and easily overlooked. The dorsal gland nucleus lies rela-

tively much farther forward than in Prionchulus. Each gland has a separate

orifice situated near the level of its nucleus. The dorsal gland is very much

lobed and branches of it enter into all sectors of the esophagus. The sub-

ventral glands, on the contrary, remain within their sectors and their tubules

are relatively smaller.

The esophago-intestinal valve is elongate, dorso-ventrally flattened and

contains about 27 nuclei.

Other dorylaimoids

The esophagi of such forms as Actinolaimus, Leptonchus and other close

relatives of Dorylaimus appear to be histologically identical to that of the

latter form, while that of T'rziplonchium differs considerably. The short bul-

bar region in Triplonchium is literally packed with nuclei, presumably be-

Dec. 15, 1937 cCHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 527

cause all of the nuclei of the more elongated glandular region of Dorylaimus

are concentrated in less space. The dorsal gland nucleus and those of the

first pair of subventrals are subequal in size and smaller than those of the

second pair of subventrals. The esophageal lining appears to be simple, un-

modified, but this may be due to its extreme minuteness.

Agamermis decaudata (Mermithidae)

The esophagus of Agamermis decaudata undergoes considerable transfor-

mation during its development. In order to understand satisfactorily the

esophagus of the later parasitic stages and adults a brief résumé of the

earlier stages 1s necessary.

Christie (1936) described the morphology of the various larval stages of

A. decaudata and the essentials of this description are as follows: In the pre-

parasitic larva the digestive tract consists of a stylet followed by the esopha-

gus and intestine. The anterior part of the esophagus is narrow, muscular,

surrounded near the middle of its length by the nerve ring; the narrow ante-

rior part is followed by a short elongated muscular swelling posterior to which

there is a long glandular region. In the latter region the esophagus proper is

very narrow and surrounding it are three large elongated esophageal glands

and 2 rows of 8 smaller cells, the stichocytes. The largest gland is unicellular,

right subdorsal in position, and extends from the esophageal swelling to the

base of the esophagus; the two unicellular subventral esophageal glands are

left subventral in position and extend posteriorly from the esophageal swell-

ing to about ¢ the length of the glandular part of the esophagus; the sticho-

eytes extend from slightly anterior to the base of the subventral glands to

the posterior end of the esophagus. At this time the intestine does not extend

anterior to the base of the esophagus.

Shortly after entrance into the host the three esophageal glands become

atrophied while the stichocytes become larger and the intestine begins grow-

ing anterior to the base of the esophagus.

The present study was based on partially grown parasitic larvae about 5

mm long (approximately 1 to 2 days in host) at which stage the external

cuticle is still thin, though otherwise the larvae is in much the same condi-

tion as it is at the time of its emergence from the host.

At this stage the esophagus is no longer distinctly muscular in any region,

the elongated swelling posterior to the nerve ring has disappeared, and the

trophosome extends anteriorly nearly to the level of the anterior esophageal

glands. The stichocytes are large, forming a double row of elongated cells

with their ends touching one another.

Anterior to the nerve ring the lumen is internally hexagonal, the lining

thick and externally rounded to subtriangular in cross section. There is a

group of 9 small nuclei near the oral opening, which appear to be radial or

marginal in character. The surrounding esophageal tissue is spongy, with-

out apparent symmetry. Posterior to;these nuclei, there are 12 large rather

irregularly arranged nuclei (r_12) anterior to the nerve ring. Between the

nerve ring and the orifice of the dorsal esophageal gland the esophageal

nuclei, lining, and general structure are like,that part anterior to the nerve

ring. In this region 15 large nuclei (13-37) and at least 5 nerve cell nuclei

(n;_5) are present. The region of the esophageal glands contains 4 nerve

cells (ng_9) and 3 large nuclei (res_39) in addition to the 3 gland nuclei (gi_3).

Each gland has at least 1 distinct orifice, sometimes several.

Posterior to the gland nuclei (gi_3), the chief part of the esophageal tissue

containing the esophageal lumen is flattened between the two large rows of

528 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

stichocytes. The tissue surrounding the lumen (which corresponds to the

ordinary muscular and fibrous parts of the esophagus) contains 18 large

nuclei (r3:_43) and 2 nerve cell nuclei (ni-12) between the beginning of the

stichosome and the posterior end of the esophagus. The esophageal lumen

in this region varies in shape but is for the most part rounded; the esophageal

lining is thin and without evidence of triradiate or hexaradiate structure.

Each stichocyte is a large unicellular gland having 1 distinct orifice from

which a wide irregular tubule extends into the cell where it branches into

many smaller tubules. Posteriorly the esophageal lumen ends blindly in a

mass of fibrous esophageal tissue and apparently is without direct connec-

tion with the intestine or trophosome. Several minute nuclei present in this

region may correspond to the nuclei of the esophago-intestinal valve of

other nematodes.

Discussion.—The fact that the 3 primary esophageal glands are highly

developed in the preparasitic larva and undergo atrophy after entrance into

the host indicates that they probably function during penetration into the

host. The hypertrophy, during larval development, coincides with the time

in parasitic life at which most rapid development takes place and, these

glands are considered as being the chief digestive glands during this stage of

of life. When the larva reaches maturity the stichocytes undergo reduction

in size, and in the adult stage, when no nourishment is taken in, their pores

are no longer apparent.

Regarding the number and arrangement of non-glandular nuclei, it may

be pointed out that the number of large nuclei (r_4s) corresponds with the

total number of radial and marginal nuclei in Dorylaimus but the observed

number of nerve cells (nj-12) and nuclei of unknown nature (the possible

nerve cell nuclei (si_9)) is much smaJler. Perhaps some of the nuclei were

overlooked, or perhaps the decreased number may have been due to de-

generation. Since radial and muscular fibers are only represented by a

spongy network in the parasitic stage studied, normal function of the esoph-

agus as a sucking organ is impossible; hence, nerve cells would be of little

benefit in coordinating muscular activity.

Trichuris ovis (Trichuridae)

The esophagus of Trichuris consists of an anterior part (corpus) and a

greatly elongated posterior part (bulbar region) embedded in a series of

gland cells, the stichosome. The anterior part is divisible into sections, the

first part being entirely muscular, narrow, slightly constricted at the nerve

ring and the second part glandular and rather wide. The lumen of the entire

corpus is definitely triradiate, without special modifications. A group of 3

minute nuclei (s;_3) and a group of somewhat larger nuclei (¢:_3) are situated

anterior to the nerve ring. The esophagus gradually becomes larger in diam-

eter posterior to the nerve ring and a group of 3 marginal nuclei (m1_3) is

followed by a group of 6 radial nuclei (rs). The first glandular substance

makes its appearance in the esophagus just posterior to the radial nuclei.

Between this level and the beginning of the stichosome 2 additional groups

of 3 radial nuclei (r7_9) (T10-12), 6 smaller nuclei (ss;_9), and 3 large gland cell

nuclei (g;-3) are situated. In one of the 6 series studied a fourth gland cell

nucleus, slightly smaller than the others, appeared to be present. The

esophageal gland nuclei (gi_3) extend anteriorly to within about 50y of the

beginning of the enlarged portion of the corpus. Sometimes what appeared

to be orifices were observed near this level but it cannot be definitely stated

Dec. 15, 1937 CHITWOOD AND CHITWOOD: NEMIC ESOPHAGI 529

that what was observed were actually orifices of the esophageal glands.

There was no evidence that any ducts extend anteriorly beyond this level.

In the posterior or stichosome region the esophagus is embedded in a

single row of large subcylindrical cells or stichocytes. The lumen varies from

subtriangular to triradiate to hexaradiate. The wall and external covering

of the esophagus both retain their identity throughout the stichosome region.

Large and small nuclei are present within the wall, the large nuclei cor-

responding to the radial nuclei of the anterior part of the esophagus and the

small nuclei possibly corresponding to the s or ec types or nuclei of the

esophagus of other forms. Contrary to the generai opinion, the esophagus

is muscular and capable of dilation and contraction throughout its length.

In areas close to the large radial nuclei only sarcoplasm is present but

further distant, where the nucleus would not interfere with muscular activ-

ity, well developed radial fibers may be demonstrated by proper staining.

The numerous large stichocytes forming the stichosome or ‘‘cell body”’

are actually esophageal glands. Each cell has a duct through the wall of the

esophagus to the lumen and this duct branches into many tubules within

the cell. The orifices of the stichocytes alternate, one entering from the left

subventral side, the other from the right subventral side, etc. The sticho-

cytes are more numerous in Trichuris than in Agamermis, and apparently

their number may vary within a limited range.

Posteriorly the esophagus joins the intestine through a dorsoventrally

elongated esophago-intestinal valve. The most distal stichocyte often pro-

trudes posteriorly past the beginning of the intestine, and at the same level

2 large cells (cc.) are attached to the esophagus and intestine. The nature

of these cells is not known; they do not appear to be in intimate protoplasmic

connection with the intestine, esophagus, or stichosome, and stain differently

from all three of these structures; it is suggested, without great conviction,

that these cells may be coelomocytes.

Discussion—Ward (1917) divided the Nematoda into two groups,

Myosyringata and Trichosyringata, assuming for the latter group, which

included Trichuris and Mermis, a fundamentally peculiar esophagus formed

as an intracellular tube. However, Chitwood (1930) has pointed out that

the esophagi of Trichuris and Trichinella are triradiate and not intracellular

tubes as stated by previous writers.

Concerning the nature of the stichosome or cell body, Rauther (1918)

considered the stichocytes as gland cells and observed orifices of the first 2

or 3, but no orifices thereafter. Chitwood (1930) overlooked the orifices of

these glands and considered the stichosome as an outgrowth of the intestine.

G. W. Miiller (1929) and Christenson (1935) considered the stichocytes as

intimately connected with the hypodermis. Later Chitwood (1935) corrected

these errors, finding the stichocytes to be esophageal glands. Additional

intraesophageal glands are described here for the first time.

As regards the nature of feeding trichurids, the following are several

points of interest:

(1) Fiilleborn (1923) described a stylet in the larvae of Trzchuris and Li

(1933) observed this structure in adult Trichuris. This point has been veri-

fied by the present writers. Stylet bearing nematodes usually feed by press-

ing the head against a membrane, protruding the stylet through the mem-

brane and sucking the material through the stylet into the esophagus.

(2) The esophagus in trichuroids always has a well developed anterior

muscular part and in this paper it has been shown that muscles capable of

the dilation necessary for sucking are present in the posterior part.

530 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

(8) Both Miller and Christenson regarded the stichosome a hypodermal

development, which is contrary to our observations. Miiller considered the

bacillary bands as regions of ‘‘feeding pores,’’ while the present writers agree

with Jagerskidld (1901) in classifying them as hypodermal glands.

Christenson is of the opinion that the stichosome is a hypodermal develop-

ment since he states: “The writer . . . is of the opinion that they (the sticho-

cytes) originate from the hypodermis since in Capillaria aerophila they are

intimately connected with that layer. It seems possible that during the de-

velopment the alimentary canal first forms and specializes into its com-

ponent parts. As the epithelogenous muscles develop the muscle fibers arise

in the subcuticular portion of the hypodermal cells, and the nucleus and

cell body are ‘pushed’ toward the center of the worm where they enlarge

and surround the esophagus, all the while maintaining their relationship

with the hypodermis through anastomising processes. In this fashion their

origin would be somewhat similar to that of the esophageal glands which

are formed in many nematodes.”’ The supposed connection between the

stichosome and bacillary band, namely the mesenterial tissue is zsolation

tissue and belongs to neither the esophagus nor the body wall, but is mesen-

chymatous in origin (see Chitwood & Chitwood, 1937) and contains its own

nuclei; furthermore, as shown by Martini (1903-1910) the musculature is

not epithelogenous but mesodermal and finally, the esophageal glands of

nematodes are formed from the stem cell and may in development leave

the esophageal wall, but they are always in the esophagus at the time the

esophageal primordium is laid down.

(4) Several investigators, including Guiart (1908) found blood engorged

specimens of T'richuris, while G. W. Miller (1929) considered the esophagus

as non-functional; apparently Miller was unaware of previous reports.

G. G. Smirnov (1936) after a comprehensive survey of the literature con-

cluded that there was no convincing evidence that trichuroids feed on blood;

he was also unable to obtain such evidence from sectioned material. In one

series of sections studied by the present writer red corpuscles were numerous

in the esophageal lumen, a total estimated at about 700; this observation

confirms the findings of Guiart.

These above facts together with the extreme minuteness of the esophageal

lumen indicate that Trichuris is possibly an obligatory hematophagous

animal; this is supported by the reports of Whipple (1909) and of Garin

(1913) of the occurrence of Trichuris of hemolytic enzymes.

LITERATURE CITED

Cuitwoop, B. G. The structure of the esophagus in the Trichuroidea. J. Parasit. 17:

35-42. 19380.

—— A comparative histological study of certain nematodes. Ztschr. Morph. 23

(1/2): 237-284. 19381.

—— The nature of the ‘‘Cell body” of Trichuris and ‘“‘Stichosome” of Agamermis.

J. Parasit. 21(3): 225-226.

Cuitwoop, B. G., and Cuitrwoop, M. B. The histology of nemic esophagi.

Parts I-II. Z. Zellforsch. 22: 29-37, 38-46. 1934.

Part III. This Journau 24: 557-562. 1934.

Part IV. Ibid. 25: 230-237. 1985.

Part V. Ibid. 26: 52-59. 1986.

Part VI. Ibid. 26: 331-346. 1986.

Part VII. Ibid. 26: 414-419. 1936.

An introduction to nematology. Sec. 1, Part 1. 1937.

CHRISTENSON, R. O. Studies on the mor phology of the common fox lungworm, Capillaria

aérophila. (Creplin, 1839.) Tr. Am. Mier. Soc. 54(2): 145-154. 1935.

Dre 1571937 SAYLOR: CHASMATOPTERINAE 531

CuristIb, J. R. Life history of Agamermis decaudata, a nematode parasite of grass-

hoppers and other insects. J. Agric. Res. 52(3): 161-198. 1936.

ExsertH, J. Beitrdge zur Anatomie and Physiologie des Trichocephalus dispar. Z.

Wiss. Zool. 10: 233-258. 1860.

Untersuchungen viber Nematoden. Leipzig, 77 pp. 1863.

FULLEBORN, F. Ueber den ‘‘Mundstdchel’”’ der Trichotracheliden-Larven und Bemer-

kungen ueber die jtingsten Stadien von Trichocephalus trichiurus. Arch. Schiffs.-u.

Tropenhyg. 27: 421-425. 1928.

Garin, C. Recherches physiologiques sur la fixation et le mode de nutrition de quelques

nématodes parasites du tube digestif de Vv homme et des animaux. Univ. Lyon.

n. s., I. Se. Med. (34): 160 pp., figs. 1-55. 1913.

Gurart, J. Le trichocephale vit aussi dans V’intestin greie et se nourrit de sang. Lyon

Méd. 110(6): 325-326. 1908.

JAGERSKIOLD, L. A. Weitere Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Nematoden. K. Svenska

Vetenskaps-Acad. Handl. 35(2): 1-80. 1901.

Li, H. C. On the mouth-spear of Trichocephalus trichurus and of a Trichocephalus

sp. from monkey, Macacus rhesus. Chinese Med. J. 47(11—12): 1343-1346. 1933.

Man, J. G. pz. Anatomische Untersuchungen wiber freilebende Nordsee-Nematoden.

82 pp. Leipzig. 1886.

— Nématodes libres. Résultats du voyage du 8. Y. Belgica. Exped. Antarct. Belt.

Anvero, 55 pp. 1904.

Mituuer, G. W. Die Erndhrung einiger Trichuroideen. Z. Morph. 15(1/2): 192-212.

1929.

Ueber Mermithiden. Ibid. 24(1): 82-147. 1931.

RavuTHER, M. Bevtrdge zur Kenntnis von Mermis albicans. v. Sieb. Z. Jahrb. Abt.

Anat. 24(1): 1-76. 1906.

— Ueber den Bau des Oesophagus und die Lokalisation der Nierenfienktion bei freile-

benden Nematoden. Ibid. 24: 703-740. 1907.

Mitteilungen zur Nematodenkunde. Ibid. 40: 441-514. 1918.

Scuuuz, E. Betrachtungen wiber die Augen freilebender Nematoden. Zool. Anz. 95

(9/10): 241-244. 1981.

Smirnov, G. G. On the question of hematophagia in threadworms and whipworms.

Trudy Sec. Parasit., U.S.S.R. Inst. Exper. Med. 2: 229-239 (Russian with English

summary). 1936.

TurxK, F. Ueber einige im Golf von Neapel freilebende Nematoden. Mitt. Zool. Stat.

zu Neapel. 16: 281-348. 1903.

Warp, H. B. On the structure and classification of North American parasitic worms.

J. Parasit. 4(1): 1-12. 1917.

WuirpeLE, G. H. The presence of a weak hemolysis in the hookworm and its relation to

the anemia of uncinariasis. J. Exper. Med. 11(2): 331-3438. 1909.

ENTOMOLOGY.—The beetles of the subfamily Chasmatopterinae in

the New World (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)... LAWRENCE W.

SAYLOR, Bureau of Biological Survey. (Communicated by

EK. A. CHAPIN.)

According to the Junk and Leng Catalogues the tribe Chasmatop-

terini includes seven genera, four of which are listed from the United

States. Present studies, however, indicate that of these four genera,

one (Oncerus) belongs near the subfamily Aclopinae because of the

presence of the exposed labrum, which is foreign to the rest of the

Melolonthinae; a second (Podolasia) is very different in general

habitus and does not belong here, as is explained more fully below; the

third (Pseudacratus) is a synonym of the fourth (Chnaunanthus) and

1 Received October 5, 1937.

532 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

the latter then is the only representative of this group in the New

World.

I have seen but three examples of Podolasia, one in Mr. E. G.

Linsley’s collection from Brownsville, Texas, and two in the United

States National Museum from ‘Ft. Ringgold (May and June),”

and from “near Hansville, base of Henry Mts., Utah, June, E. Bowles

collector.’’ Although the mouthparts and connate abdominal seg-

ments appear to place this genus with the Chasmatopterinae the

general habitus and the remaining morphological features are

radically different and prevent its inclusion in this subfamily. Until

specimens can be dissected, the exact place of the genus in the

scheme of classification must remain in doubt. It is quite probable,

however, that Acoma will be its nearest relative.

Oncerus belongs near the Aclopinae, and a paper on the species of

this and a related new genus is about ready for publication.

While the Chasmatopterinae is listed in our catalogues as a tribe

under the subfamily Melolonthinae, a careful examination of the

characters forbids its placement with that group. All species of the

Melolonthinae proper have at least the last two or three spiracles in

the chitinous abdominal plates while the present genera, Chnaunan-

thus and Chasmatopterus (as well as Oncerus) have the spiracles

entirely in the membrane, and therefore are more closely related to

the Glaphyrinae, Pleocominae and others. These cannot be placed

with Acoma of the Pleocominae which also has the spiracles in the

membrane because of many differences: the labrum is small but near

the clypeal apex in the Chasmatopterinae, but very small and far

back from the apex in Acoma; the antennae are of entirely different

conformation in the former, being very short and with the small, oval

club composed of segments capable of fitting one into another, and

the club is much shorter than the funicle, while the latter (Acoma) has

the antennae quite long, much longer than the funicle and the seg-

ments are not capable of folding one into the other; also, the abdomi-

nal segments in the Chasmatopterinae are connate with the sutures

nearly or entirely effaced, while Acoma has entirely free ventral

abdominal segments and the sutures are quite obvious. Other char-

acters of less importance but much supplementary value are the cleft

tarsal claws, small eyes, and diurnal habits of Chnauwnanthus as opposed

to the entirely simple claws and the very large eyes, fitted for noctur-

nal life, of Acoma.

Many characters, such as the position of the spiracles, and es-

Duc. 15, 1937 SAYLOR: CHASMATOPTERINAE 533

pecially the absence of the large exposed mandibles and labrum pre-

vent the placement of the Chasmatopterinae with either the Glaphy-

ridae spuriae of Burmeister or the Aclopinae, so that a separate

subfamily is necessary for its reception. This new subfamily may be

called the Chasmatopterinae, and is characterized by the position of

all the spiracles in the abdominal membrane, the hidden labrum and

small concealed mandibles, the cleft tarsal claws, the small oval

antennal club and the semiconnate or connate ventral abdominal

segments.

The genus Chnaunanthus, our sole representative of the subfamily,

is represented by three species, one of which is here described as new.

In contrast to the published statements of authors that in this group

there is no front tibial spur I wish to point out that such is almost

always present in the female, and may be absent in the male. It is

more likely that it is so fragile as to be readily lost through wear. In

Chasmatopterus the front tibial spurs are usually present and con-

spilcuous.

The two common genera of the subfamily may be more completely

separated as follows (I have not seen specimens of the remaining two

genera in the subfamily, the African Microdoris Burm., and the

Chinese Diphycerus Fairm.):

Front inner tarsal claw of male deformed, the outer as in the remaining

claws on the other legs; front femora bidentate; labrum in lateral view

very conspicuous, especially in @ ; front tibial spur always large and

CaM MCUOUS.. BIO PCAM.) 05.05) Gee wad Lose dsheones wae Chasmatopterus

Front inner claw of male not deformed, of the same size and shape as the

remaining claws; front femora tridentate; labrum in lateral view very

small and hardly noticeable; front tibial spur usually lacking. (Ameri-

TAIL!) 5 SE ie ae ahd het ese ae ge A ke en Chnaunanthus

Dr. E. A. Chapin of the National Museum has made helpful sug-

gestions in the present studies, and the author also wishes to thank

him for the loan of material.

CHNAUNANTHUS

Chnaunanthus Burmeister, Hand. Ent. 4: 31, 1844.—\Lacordaire, Gen. Col.

3: 221, 1856.—Bates, Biol. Cent. Amer., Col. 2(2): 180, t. 8, f. 2.—

Dalla Torre, Coleop. Cat. 45: 7, 1912.

Acraius Horn, Yrans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 1: 165; f..1, 1867.—Dalla Torre,

Coleop. Cat. 45: 7, 1912.

Pseudacratus Dalla Torre, Coleop. Cat. 45: 7, 1912.

Oblong-oval, little wider behind, polished, pilose above. Ligula separate

from mentum. Antennae 9-segmented; club 3-segmented, short and oval.

Front coxae conical. Front femora tridentate. Tarsi with all claws cleft, the

upper tooth noticeably shorter; tarsi noticeably longer than the tibiae, the

534 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

latter usually strongly spinose. Head slightly longer than thorax; clypeus

convergent anteriorly. Thorax slightly subangulately rounded at sides,

margins ciliate. Elytra not quite twice as long as thorax. Pygidium usually

hidden from above. Abdominal segments closely connate, sutures barely

Fig. 1.—Head of Chnaunanthus flavipennis, showing clypeal shape. Fig. 2.—Male

genitalia of Chnaunanthus chapint. Fig. 3.—Male genitalia of Chnaunanthus discolor.

Fig. 4— Male genitalia of Chnaunanthus flavipennis.

visible in the male and apparently absent in the female. Male abdomen in

lateral view concave, that of female convex.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

1. Hind angles of the thorax broadly rounded, not at all subangulate; cly-

peus wider than long but not distinctly so, the apex always deeply

emarginate; female pygidium with two longitudinally-impressed sub-

apical foveate areas before apex and these often converging, forming

a. U-shaped suleus. (Utah and Arizona:). 22.224. 722 flavipennis

Hind angles of thorax rounded but subangular; clypeus usually notice-

ably wider than long; apex of clypeus often but little emarginate; fe-

male pyridium not-as:above: 2... ... 0... ee ee 2

2. Pygidium of male longer than wide, very densely hairy all over; female

pygidium usually noticeably concave at apical fourth, always densely

hairy all. over:..< Mexicodio: i. ha hc ee ee ee discolor

Pygidium of male wider than long, moderately hairy at base, subglabrous

apically; female pygidium flattened, with no trace of any apical sulci,

moderately densely hairy near base, subglabrous apically. (Calif. and

DOR) sedis <5 cad iG ww REE RP hea ka chapini

Duc. 15, 1937 SAYLOR: CHASMATOPTERINAE 939

Chnaunanthus flavipennis (Horn)

Acratus flavipennis Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. I: 165, 1867.

Pseudacratus flavipennis Dalla Torre, Coleop. Cat. 45: 7, 1912 (new com-

bination).

Chnaunanthus palmerz Horn, Proc. Calif. Acad. 4: 393, 1894.—Dalla Torre,

Coleop. Cat. 45: 7, 1912. (New synonymy).

This species may be quickly placed by the key characters and the male

genitalia. The elytra vary from testaceous to piceotestaceous, and the thorax

from rufous to rufopiceous.

I have seen 11 specimens, including a pair of Horn’s paratypes; of these

all but 2 Arizona specimens are from Utah. I have been able to examine the

types of Pseudacratus flavipennis through the courtesy of Mark Robinson

and the authorities of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and

was able to confirm the suspicion I have had for some time that both genus

and species are synonomous with the above, the specific name flavipennis

having priority.

Chnaunanthus discolor Burm.

Chnaunanthus discolor Burmeister, Hand. Ent. 4: 32, 1844.—Bates, Biol.

Cent. Amer., Col. 2(2): 180, 1887.—Dalla Torre, Coleop. Cat. 45: 7,

1912. .

The main specific characters are given in the key and the male genitalia

are shown on the plate. This species varies considerably in color, the elytra

ranging from entirely testaceous, through testaceous with black cloudings

on the disc, to almost entirely piceocastaneous; the thorax may be piceoru-

fous, rufous with testaceous marks on the lateral margins, or may (rarely)

be almost entirely testaceous.

Apparently confined to Mexico and Lower California; I have examined

65 specimens from Mexico, all taken in the late fall. I have also seen two

specimens from San Jose del Cabo in Lower California (Fuchs collection)

in the United States National Museum.

Chnaunanthus chapini Saylor, n. sp.

Male.—Size, shape and many characters exactly the same as in Ch. dis-

color. Head with front smooth at base, coarsely densely punctured apically;

clypeus coarsely punctured, apex reflexed, emarginate. Thorax finely mod-

erately densely punctured, disc glabrous (due to wear?); hind angles sub-

angulate but hardly obvious, side margins ciliate. Elytra with sparse erect

hairs. Pygidium convex, polished, densely hairy in basal half, smooth at

apical half. Abdominal segments connate, with the sutures hardly obvious,

sixth segment free.

Female.—Head with front entirely punctured; pygidium flattened, pol-

ished, sparsely hairy in apical two-thirds, subglabrous apically; otherwise

similar to male. Length 3.5-4 mm. .

Holotype and allotype (U.S.N.M. no. 5227) are from Panamint Valley,

Death Valley, California, and were collected in April 1891 by A. Koebele.

A single paratype male, in the author’s collection, is from Oregon, collected

in July, and probably came from the arid parts of that state.

I take pleasure in naming this species in honor of Dr. E. A. Chapin of

the National Museum as a slight token of my appreciation for many favors.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

RECENTLY ELECTED TO RESIDENT MEMBERSHIP IN THE ACADEMY

Liuoyp Vint BERKNER, physicist, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,

Carnegie Institute of Washington, in recognition of his contributions to the

physics of the earth’s outer atmosphere, particularly the development of

methods and measurement of outer atmospheric ionization, and the study

of the relation of this ionization to solar and geophysical effects and to radio

wave propagation.

A. Haroup Buatt, associate professor, Howard University, in recognition

of his achievements in organic chemistry.

WiILBuR 8S. BURBANK, geologist, Section of Metalliferous Deposits, U. S.

Geological Survey, in recognition of his contributions to petrology and

economic geology, in particular, his researches on the structural geology of

Colorado.

Epwarp A. CuaPin, curator of insects, U. 8S. National Museum, in recog-

nition of his contributions to systematic entomology, especially the tax-

onomy of the Scarabaeidae.

WILLIAM RIDGELY CHAPLINE, principal inspector of grazing, U. S. Forest

Service, in recognition of his contributions to forestry research, especially

range research and erosion control.

JESSE Roy CHRISTIE, associate nematologist, Bureau of Plant Industry,

in recognition of his work in zoology, parasitology, and phytopathology.

Mayne Rerp Cok, associate chemist, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils,

in recognition of his researches on the effect of the various wave lengths of

light upon the development of rancidity of oil-bearing foods.

Harry Diamonp, principal physicist, National Bureau of Standards,

in recognition of his contributions to safety in aerial navigation, in particu-

lar, the development of aids in blind flying and blind landing.

Pau F. DIcKENs, associate in medicine in George Washington University

Medical School and Chief of Medical Service, Gallinger Hospital, in recog-

nition of his researches in circulatory and respiratory diseases.

Rouia EvGEne Dyer, assistant director and chief of the Division of In-

fectious Diseases, National Institute of Health, in recognition of his con-

tributions to medical science, in particular, his researches on typhus fever.

WALTER FREEMAN, professor of neurology, George Washington Univer-

sity Medical School, in recognition of his researches in neurology and neuro-

pathology.

Karu F. Herzre.p, professor of physics and head of department, Catholic

University, in recognition of his outstanding contributions in physics and

physical chemistry.

WaLrTER C. Huss, assistant research professor of chemistry, Georgetown

536

Dre! 15, 1937 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 537

University, in recognition of his contributions to the field of biological

chemistry, especially the chemistry of the biologically important sulfur com-

pounds.

ANNA I. Jonas, associate geologist, U. 8. Geological Survey, in recogni-

tion of her work in the geology of the crystalline schists.

Myrna FrRANcEsS JONES, zoologist, Division of Zoology, National Insti-

tute of Health, in recognition of her contributions to parasitology, espe-

cially the life histories of bird tapeworms and their invertebrate hosts.

ANNIE M. Hurp-Karrer, associate physiologist, Bureau of Plant In-

dustry, in recognition of her work on plant physiology, especially on disease

resistance of plants, seed disinfection, properties and buffer systems of plant

sap, absorption of selenium by wheat, and the protection from selenium

injury given by sulfur.

THEODORE Koppanyl, professor of pharmacology and chairman of the

department, Georgetown University, in recognition of his researches in

pharmacology.

SAMUEL Henry McCrory, chief, Bureau of Agricultural Engineering, in

recognition of his contributions to agricultural engineering.

ALBERT R. Merz, chemist, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, in recognition

of his achievements in the field of agricultural and fertilizer chemistry.

Howarp E. MippLeTon, senior soil conservationist, U. 8. Department of

Agriculture, in recognition of his contributions in soil physics and chemistry.

Bren Harry NIcouet, senior chemist, Bureau of Dairy Industry, in

recognition of his contributions to organic chemistry.

Pau. WILSON Oman, assistant entomologist, Bureau of Entomology and

Plant Quarantine, in recognition of his work on leaf hoppers.

JoHN W. Roserts, principal pathologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, in

recognition of his researches on the diseases of apples, peaches, plums, and

cherries.

RoscoE Roy SPENCER, senior surgeon, U. 8. Public Health Service, in

recognition of work in bacteriology and especially for his discovery of the

vaccine for Rocky Mountain spotted fever.

Luioyp A. SPINDLER, associate zoologist, Bureau of Animal Industry, in

recognition of his contributions to parasitology.

ALAN STONE, associate entomologist, Bureau of Entomology and Plant

Quarantine, in recognition of his contributions to the biology and taxonomy

of Diptera.

JAMES STEELE WILLIAMS, associate geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, in

recognition of his work on the carboniferous faunas and formations of the

central and western United States.

Wititarp Hutt Wriaut, senior parasitologist, National Institute of

Health, in recognition of his contributions in the field of therapeutics of

diseases caused by internal parasites.

538 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1110TH MEETING (continued)

F. G. BRIcKWEDDE: Some recent investigations of ortho- and para-hydrogen

at low temperatures.—Hydrogen, of atomic weight one, is a mixture of ortho-

and para-hydrogen (0-H, and p-H2) in varying concentrations. Since the

properties of o- and p-H, differ, the properties of hydrogen are variable.

The hydrogen vapor pressure thermometer which is used to measure tem-

peratures in the range of liquid hydrogen temperatures, 13.9 to 20.4°K, is

therefore, subject to variation, and the experiments which formed the sub-

ject of this report were undertaken by R. B. Scott and the speaker in the

Cryogenic Section of the National Bureau of Standards for the purpose of

finding ways to improve the reliability of this instrument. The results were

reported, however, from the point of view of the information they reveal

o- and p-H, responsible for the observed differences in properties.

The change with temperature of the difference between the vapor pres-

sures of p-H». and n-H» (normal hydrogen whose composition is 75 per-

cent o-H,), dP/dT reveals a difference between the lattice energies of p-

and n-H>, in a condensed phase, the energy of liquid p-H»2 being 2.4 cal

mol greater than the energy of liquid n-H , and the energy of solid p-H»

5 cal mol greater than that of solid n-H».

The change of the lattice energies of liquid solutions of o- and p-H,

with the composition reveals a large deviation from the law of ideal solutions

which states that differences in the properties of solutions are proportional

to the differences in the composition. The vapor pressure data lead to the

following equation which represents the dependence of the internal or lat-

tice energy of solutions of o- and p-H»2 upon the concentration:

dE/dx, = Hy +(1+ 41 2%)

where E, is the energy per mol of solution whose composition is given by the

mol fraction #;=1 —22, EH; is the energy per mol of pure variety 1, and ai,»

is an empirical constant different in value from d,1.

The densities of liquid p-H»2 and n-H, differ by 0.5 percent. Orthohy-

drogen, the freely rotating variety, has a smaller molecular volume and

internal energy than p-H.2, the non-rotating variety. The direction of these

differences is opposite to the direction of the changes observed in other sub-

stances in passing through the transition from the state in which the mole-

cules are oriented to the state in which they rotate freely. The application of

the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle to the problem shows that the p-H,

molecules are not aligned in any preferred direction but rather that the

orientation of the axes of p-H2 molecules are randomly distributed over

all possible directions. The state of molecular orientation in liquid and solid

p-H» corresponds, therefore, with that of free rotation in other substances.

The rotating o-H2 molecules are oriented, their state corresponding more

nearly with that of oriented non-rotating molecules in other substances.

The difference in the intermolecular forces in liquid or solid p-H2 and

o-H» arises, because of the difference in the distribution of the electron

density of p-H, and o-H», molecules. The electron distribution of a p-H2

molecule at liquid hydrogen temperatures (7 =0) is spherically symmetrical.

For o-H2 molecules (j=1) the electron density is greatest either along an

axis (m=0) or over a plane (m= +1).

The ortho-para vapor pressure difference of deuterium was compared with

Dec. 15, 19387 OBITUARY 539

that of hydrogen. The ratio of the difference in the vapor pressures of the

non-rotating variety and the normal mixture to the product of the change

in the ortho-para composition and the vapor pressure of the normal variety,

AP(p- Hy —n- Hs) AP(o0-D: —n- Dez)

|—_——— SD Rl. 200 ee Ds|,

is about the same for Hz and Dz. If, however, the differences in vapor pres-

sures are compared subject to the condition that the change in the compo-

sition of the rotating and non-rotating varieties is the same for H2 and Dz,

it is found that AP/P is larger for D2 than for H». The difference in the

lattice energies of a condensed phase of ortho and para varieties depends

upon d/dT of (AP/P). The vapor pressure data lead to a smaller ortho-para

lattice energy difference for D2 than for Ho».

The vapor pressure of freshly condensed normal hydrogen increases with

time because of the conversion of 0-H, to p-H2, the rate being 0.2 mm

per hour. The rate of increase of the vapor pressure decreases as the concen-

tration of o-H, decreases in accordance with a bimolecular reaction of 0-H,

molecules. The rate of change of the vapor pressure of n-Dz, is so small that

it was beyond the accuracy of our experiments to detect it, the experiments

setting as an upper limit for the change 107? times the rate of change of the

vapor pressure of n-H2. Conversion in the condensed phases of hydrogen

and deuterium results from the collision of rotating molecules with para-

magnetic molecules. The o-H». molecules, and the p-D, and 5/6 th of the

o-D, molecules are paramagnetic, whereas the p-H, and 1/6 th of o0-D,

molecules are diamagnetic and hence are ineffective in bringing about con-

version. The probability of conversion upon collision of two molecules is

proportional to the square of the force of interaction of their magnetic

moments, and thus approximately proportional to the 4th power of the mag-

netic moments of the nuclei. The magnetic moment of the proton is about

2.9 Bohr nuclear magnetons, whereas the magnetic moment of the deuteron

is about 0.75. Taking into account the difference in the ortho-para composi-

tion of n-H, and n-D, a calculation shows that the rate of change of the

vapor pressure of n-Dz may be expected to be of the order of 10~* times the

rate of change of the vapor pressure of n-H2, which is in accord with the

experiments. The average magnetic moment of o-D, is greater than that of

p-D, and, hence, it is to be expected that the order of the conversion reac-

tion p-D, to o-Dz is more nearly first order than second order. (Author’s

Abstract.)

H. E. McComs, Recording Secretary

@Obituary

Lorp Ernest RUTHERFORD, noted British physicist, died October 19,

1937, at Cambridge, England.

He was born at Nelson, New Zealand, August 30, 1871. Educated at

Nelson College, Canterbury College, New Zealand University, and Cam-

bridge University, he received in succession the M.A., B.Sc., and B.A. de-

grees. New Zealand University conferred upon him the D.Sc. degree in 1901,

and many domestic and foreign universities honored him during his sub-

sequent career.

540 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, NO. 12

Lord Rutherford lectured at McGill University, the University of Man-

chester, and Trinity College, of which he was a Fellow. Since 1919 he was

Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of the Cavendish

Laboratory, University of Cambridge. He was also Professor of Natural

Philosophy, Royal Institution, and Chairman of the Advisory Council of

the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research since 1930. His life’s

work and many publications dealt chiefly with the problems of radio-ac-

tivity. He was the pioneer of the modern school concerned with the splitting

of the atom and the transmutation of the elements. For his great achieve-

ments he received the Rumford, Copley, Barnard, Franklin, Albert, and

Faraday medals; the Bressa Prize from the Turin Academy of Science; and

the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, 1908.

Lord Rutherford was President of the British Association for the Advance-

ment of Science, 1923; and President of the Royal Society, 1925-1930. He

was knighted in 1914 and raised to a barony in 1931. He was an honorary

member of the Washington Academy of Sciences.

INDEX TO VOLUME 27

An asterisk * denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

Botanical Society of Washington. 39.

Geological Society of Washington.

Philosophical Society of Washington.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

220, 357.

483, 538.

132, 536.

AUTHOR INDEX

ANDREWS, D. A. *Asymmetrical distri-

bution of stream terraces in south-

eastern Montana. 361.

ASHLEY, GEorGE H. The emergence of

ideas as illustrated from geology.

45.

Batt, E. D. Some new North American

Membracidae. 479.

BarTLeTT, H. H. *Experiences of a

plant collector in Oceania. 40.

Barton, D. C. *Petroleum geophysics.

363. |

BARTSCH, PAUL.

from Cuba.

Bass, N. W. “*Origin of the oil bearing

shoestring sands of northeastern

Oklahoma and southwestern Kansas.

363.

Beattie, R. Kent. *The Dutch elm

disease in Europe. 41.

Beure, C. H., Jr. *Geologic History of

South Park, Colorado. 221.

BERKNER, L. V. See J. A. FLEMING.

486.

Berry, Epwarp W. On the presence of

the fern Weichselia in Colombia,

South America. 458.

Gyrocarpus and other fossil plants

from the Cumarebo field in Vene-

zuela. 6501.

BirDsEYE, C. H. *The uses of aerial

photography. 360.

Buake, 8S. F. Eleven new Asteraceae

from North and South America.

Two new land shells

130.

374,

Bowie, Witiiam. *General report on

meeting. 485.

Bowman, Paut W. *Remarks on the

4th Annual Spring Wild Flower

Show at George Washington Uni-

versity. 41.

BRICKWEDDE, F. G. Some recent inves-

tigations of ortho- and para-hydrogen

at low temperatures. 538.

Brown, Routanp W. Fossil legumes

from Bridge Creek, Oregon. 414.

Further additions to some fossil

floras of the western United States.

506.

Bucuanan, L. L. Notes on Curculioni-

dae (Coleoptera). 312.

Byers, H. G. *The distribution of se-

lenium with geologic implications.

359.

CALLAGHAN, EuGENE. “*Alunite deposits

of the Marysvale region, Utah. 358.

CuasE, AGcnEes. New species of Pas-

palum from Tropical America. 143.

Cuen, Sur Fone. A new species of

Melania from Szechuan Province,

China. 79.

Four new species of fresh-water

mollusks from China. 444.

Cuitwoop, B. G. and M. B. Cuirwoop.

The histology of nemic esophagi.

VIII. The esophagus of representa-

tives of the Enoplida. 517.

CuarK, Austin H. and Carroitut M.

Wiuuiams. Records of Argynnis di-

ana and of some other butterflies

from Virginia. 209.

CocuraNn, Doris M. A necessary change

inanamphibian name. 312.

Cooxr, C. Wytue. The Pleistocene

Horry Clay and Pamlico formation

near Myrtle Beach, 8. C. 1.

Coorrer, G. A. *Devonian correlations

in Michigan and Ontario. 221.

*The Centerfield limestone of New

York and its equivalents in the mid-

west. 359.

CovitLE, Freperick V. Phacelia mus-

telina, a new plant from Death

Valley, California. 196.

541

542 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

CusHMAN, R. A. The genus Lysiognatha

Ashmead. 438.

Darrow, GrorcE M. *Berry breeding. 42.

Davis, Everett F. *Some aspects of

black walnut toxicity, its cause and

effects. 40.

Dayton, Witi1aAM A. Notes on harmel,

or “Syrian rue.”’ 349.

*The range plant handbook of the

Forest Service. 41.

Diznnt, W. W. A basis for mycogeog-

raphy. 244.

DIKMANS, GERARD. A note on the mem-

bers of the nematode genus T'richo-

strongylus occurring in rodents and

lagomorphs, with descriptions of two

new species. 203.

DRECHSLER, CHARLES. A species of 7'r7-

dentaria preying on Difflugia con-

stricta. 391.

EarRpDLeEy, A. J. *Silts of the lower Yu-

kon valley. 220.

EIcKELBERG, E. W. *Report on seis-

mology. 486.

ENtow, CHARLES R. *The agronomy

program of the Soil Conservation

Service. 39.

Frercuson, Auice L. L. Burial area in

Moyaone. 261.

FieLtp, Richarp M. Structure of con-

tinents and ocean basins. 181.

Figetp, W. O., Jr. *“Some recent changes

in Alaskan Coast Glaciers. 368.

FLEMING, J. A. and L. V. BERKNER.

*Report in Terrestrial Magnetism

and Electricity. 486.

Foster, Marcaret D. The chemical

character of the ground waters of the

South Atlantic Coastal Plain. 405.

Fox, Irvine. Notes on Chinese spiders

of the families Salticidae and Thom-

isidae. 12.

The Nearctic spiders of the family

Heteropodidae. 461.

FRANCK, JAMES. The fundamentals of

photosynthesis. 317.

FRIEDMANN, HERBERT. Bird bones from

archeological sites in Alaska. 431.

Guass, JEWELL J. *Sodalite from Mag-

net Cove, Arkansas. 358.

Gopparp, E. N. and T. 8S. LovErina.

*Laramie fault pattern in the Front

Range Mineral belt, Colorado. 360.

GoupMAN, E. A.~ A new pocket gopher

of the genus Cratogeomys from Mex-

ico. 402.

— New rodents from Middle Amer-

ica. 418.

Go.tpmMAN, M.I. *Petrographic features

of salt dome cap rock. 223.

Grecor, Mrs. Hersert H. *Demon-

strations of Japanese flower arrange-

ment. 39.

Gricas, Rosert F. Hybridity as a

factor in evolution. 329.

*Timber-lines as indicators of

climatic trends. 221.

Haut, DavinG. The North and Central

American spider parasites of the

genus Pseudogauraz (Diptera: Chlo-

ropidae). 255.

Heck, N. H. *Geological factors in safe-

guarding against earthquakes. 360.

HERZFELD, Karu F. *Recent investiga-

tions on the liquid state. 484.

Hewett, D. F. *Environment and rela-

tions of the hypogene manganese

minerals. 360.

HispeEen, JAMES H. The chemical appli-

cation of the Raman effect. 269.

Hutu, Frank M. Some neotropical and

oriental syrphid flies in the United

States National Museum. 165.

Hurp-Karrer, ANNIE M. Rubidium

and strontium toxicity to plants in-

hibited by potassium and calcium

respectively. 351.

JENKINS, ANNA E. New species of

Sphaceloma on Aralia and Mentha.

412.

Kitz, Burton F. *Native grasses of

the prairies and plains. 40.

Kirk, Epwin. Clistocrinus, a new Car-

boniferous crinoid genus. 105.

Clithrocrinus, new name for Clisto-

crinus Kirk. 373.

Ksanpa, C. J. See Grorce TUNELL.

221.

LAMBERT, W. D. *Report on geodesy.

486.

Lanc, WattTeR B. Sun symbol mark-

mgs, 137.

LANGE, Bruno. *The theory and appli-

cation of photo-electric cells. 483.

LEonNARD, E. C. Notes on the genus

Staurogyne. 398.

Dec. 15, 1937

LotKa, ALFRED J. Population analysis:

a theorem regarding the stable age

distribution. 299.

LovERING, T.S. *Origin of the telluride

ores of Boulder County, Colorado.

aA ie

See E. N. Gopparp. 360.

MacNeiu, F. Stearns. The systematic

position of the pelecypod genus

Trinacria. 4652.

See W. C. MANSFIELD. 5.

MawnsFIELD, G. R. “*Erosional history

of the Paradise Valley quadrangle,

Idaho. 358.

MANSFIELD, W. C. A new subspecies of

Pecten from the upper Miocene of

North Carolina. 10.

A specimen of “‘Crassatellites’”’ from

the St. Marys formation of Mary-

land. 56.

and F. §. MacNetru. Pliocene

and Pleistocene mollusks from the

Intra-coastal Waterway in South

Carolina. 5.

Marsie, J. P. *Age of monanite from

Mars Hill, North Carolina. 221.

Martin, G. W. A new type of hetero-

basidiomycete. 112.

Matuiack, M. B. The carotenoid pig-

ments of the sweet potato (Ipomoea

batatas, Poir). 493.

Mernzer, O. E. *Notes on Proceedings

of the Association of Hydrology,

September 1936, at the Sixth General

Assembly of the International Union

of Geodesy and Geophysics in Edin-

burgh. 492.

Our watersupply. 865.

Merritt, HE. D. *Plants and civiliza-

tions. 1383.

Menrti£, J. B., Jr. *Glacial features of

the Nushagak district, Alaska. 222.

Morton, C. V. New species of Costa

Rican plants. 304.

Morata, K. J. Hydrogen ion concen-

tration and the formation of copper

complexes. 101.

OBERHOLSER, Harry C. Description of

three new screech owls from the

United States. 354.

Oman, P. W. The cinerosus group of

the genus Laevicephalus (Homoptera:

Cicadellidae). 474.

AUTHOR INDEX

543

Peters, James L. A new genus for

Pseudoptynx solomonensis Hartert.

81.

Prick, Emmett W. North American

monogenetic trematodes. I. The

superfamily Gyrodactyloidea. 114,

146.

RAPER, KENNETH B.

slime mold. 42.

ReeEp, J. C. “*Significance of amygdales

in Columbia River lava. 223.

Ricker, P. L. *Wild flower cultural

preferences. 40.

Roperts, JOHN W. *The spraying of

plants, botanically considered. 48.

SAKANISHI, SHIO. *Japanese flower ar-

rangement. -39.

SANDHOUSE, GRAcE A. The bees of the

genera Augochlora, Augochloropsis,

and Augochlorella (Hymenoptera:

Apoidea) occurring in the United

States. 65.

SanForD, R. L. *Magnetic testing of

prison bars. 484.

SayLor, LAwreENcE W. The beetles of

the subfamily Chasmatopterinae in

the new world (Coleoptera: Scara-

*Why study a

baeidae). 531.

SHarpPe, C. F. Stewart. *Physio-

graphic research on soil erosion.

361.

SHEPARD, Francis P. *Evidence of a

greatly lowered sea-level. 221.

SILSBEE, Francis B. Explorations in

the super-conducting state. 225.

SprnDLER, L. A. Resistance to intestinal

trichinosis in experimental animals

induced by feeding metabolic prod-

ucts of encysted trichinae. 36.

STterpHENSON, L. W. *Flat-bottomed

stream erosion by wetting and dry-

ing; 220.

Linter, a new taxodont genus from

the upper Cretaceous of Texas. 449.

The stratigraphic significance of

Kummelia, a new Eocene bivalve

genus from New Jersey. 58.

Stewart, T. D. and W.R. WepEet. The

finding of two ossuaries on the site

of the Indian village of Nacotchtanke

(Anacostia). 218.

SWALLEN, JASON R. The grass genus

Cathestecum. 495.

544 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

Swancer, W. H. *Failures in metals.

484.

Swartz, J. H. *Some resistivity deter-

minations of salt water boundaries.

360.

TREADWELL, A. L. Polychaetous an-

nelids collected by Captain Robert A.

Bartlett in Greenland, Fox Basin,

and Labrador. 28.

Tuck, RaupH. *The

field, Alaska. 359.

TUNNELL, GEORGE and C. J. KSAnpa.

*Some general conclusions from in-

vestigations of the calaverite group.

221,

Van DersaL, Wm. R. *Moving pictures

of seed collecting in the northeastern

states. 40.

Van OrstTRAND, C. E. *Temperatures

in the lava beds of East Central and

South Central Oregon. 357.

VAUGHAN, T. Wayuanp. *Notes on

Proceedings of the Association of

Physical Oceanography, September

17 to 24, 1936, at the Sixth General

Matanuska coal

Assembly of the International Union

of Geodesy and Geophysics in Edin-

burgh. 490.

VIGNEAUD, VINCENT DU. Some aspects

of the study of insulin. 365.

WaLKER, Ecpert H. New species and

nomenclatorial changes in eastern

Asiatic Myrsinaceae. 198.

Warp, Henry B. *Salmon phychology.

134.

WEDEL, W. R. See T. D. Stewart.

213.

WEIGHTMAN, Mr. *Report on Meteor-

ology. 489.

WILLIAMS, CARROLL M. See Austin H.

CLARK. 209.

Witson, CHARLES B. Some parasitic

copepods from Panama Bay. 423.

WooprinG, WENDELL P. *Depositional

environment of Lower Pliocene oil-

bearing formations of the Los An-

geles Basin, California. 221.

YounG, Rosert A. Phyllostachys sul-

phurea var. viridis var. nov. and

P. edulis (Carr.) H. de L. 348.

SUBJECT INDEX

Anthropology. The finding of two ossu-

aries on the site of the Indian vil-

lage of Nacotchtanke (Anacostia).

T. D. Stewart and W. R. WEDEL.

BAS:

Archeology. Burial area

Auice L. L. FERGUSON.

in Moyaone.

261.

Botany. A basis for mycogeography.

W. W. Disxu. 244.

A new type of heterobasidiomycete.

G. W. Martin. 112.

A species of Tridentaria preying on

Difflugia constricta. CHARLES

DRECHSLER. 391.

*Berry breeding. GrorGcE M. Dar-

Row. 42.

*Demonstrations of Japanese flower

arrangement. Mrs. HERBERT H.

GREGOR. 39.

Eleven new Asteraceae from North

and South America. S. F. BLAKE.

374.

*Experiences of a plant collector in

Oceania. H. H. Bartuett. 40.

“Japanese flower arrangement.

SuHio SAKANISHI. 39.

*Moving pictures of seed collecting

in the northeastern states. Ww.

R. Van Dersau. 40.

*Native grasses of the prairies and

plains. Burton F. Kitrz. 40.

New species and nomenclatorial

changes in eastern Asiatic Myr-

sinaceae. Eaprert H. WALKER.

198.

New species of Costa Rican plants.

C. V. Morton. 304.

New species of Paspalum from Tropi-

cal America. AGNES CHASE.

148.

New species of Sphaceloma on Aralia

and Mentha. ANNA E. JENKINS.

412.

Notes on harmel, or “Syrian rue.’’

WiuiiaM A. Dayton. 349.

Notes on the genus Staurogyne.

E. C. LEONARD. 398.

Phacelia mustelina, a new plant from

Death Valley, California. FREp-

ERICK V. COvILLE. 196.

Phyllostachys sulphurea var. viridis

var. nov. and P. edulis (Carr.) H.

de L. Rosert A. Youne. 348.

*Plants and civilizations. E. D.

MERRILL. 1338.

“Remarks on the 4th Annual Spring

Wild Flower Show at George

Washington University. Pau

W. Bowman. 41.

*Some aspects of black walnut tox-

icity, its cause and effects. Ev-

ERETT F. Davis. 40.

“The agronomy program of the Soil

Conservation Service. CHARLES

R. Entow. 39.

“The Dutch elm disease in Europe.

R. Kent Beattiz. 41.

The grass genus Cathestecum.

R. SWALLEN. 495.

“The range plant handbook of the

Forest Service. W. A. Dayton.

Al.

“The spraying of plants, botanically

considered. JoHN W. ROBERTS.

43.

“Why study a slime mold. KeEnN-

NETH B. Raper. 42.

“Wild flower cultural preferences.

P. L. Ricker. . 40.

Chemistry. Hydrogen ion concentration

and the formation of copper com-

plexes. K. J. Murata. 101.

Some aspects of the study of insulin.

VINCENT DU VIGNEAUD. 365.

The carotenoid pigments of the sweet

potato (Ipomoea batatas, Poir.).

M. B. Matuack. 493.

The chemical application of the

Raman effect. JamEs H. HIBBEN.

JASON

269.

Entomology. Notes on Curculionidae

(Coleoptera). L. L. BucHanan.

a12.

Records of Argynnis diana and of

some other butterflies from Vir-

ginia. AusTIN H. CLARK and

CarRRoLL M. Wiuuiams. 209.

‘Some neotropical and oriental syr-

phid flies in the United States

National Museum. Frank M.

Bvnn,/165.

545

546 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 27, No. 12

Some new North American Mem-

bracidae. E. D. Batu. 479.

The bees of the genera Augochlora,

Augochloropsis, and Augochlorella

(Hymenoptera: Apoidea) occur-

ring in the United States. GRAcE

A. SANDHOUSE. 65.

The beetles of the subfamily Chas-

matopterinae in the new world

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Law-

RENCE W. Saytor. 531.

The cinerosus group of the genus

Laevicephalus (Homoptera: Cica-

dellidae). P. W. Oman. 474.

The genus Lysiognatha Ashmead.

R. A. CusHMANn. 438.

The North and Central American

spider parasites of the genus

Pseudogaurax (Diptera: Chloropi-

dae). Davin G. Hatu. 255.

Genetics. Hybridity as a factor in evolu-

tion. Ropsert F. Griaes. 329.

Geology. *Age of monozite from Mars

Hill, North “Carolina, WJ. P.

MaRBLE. 221.

*Alunite deposits of the Marysvale

region, Utah. EuGmnm CaALuLaG-

HAN. 358.

*Asymmetrical distribution of stream

terraces in southeastern Montana.

D. A. ANDREws. 361.

*Depositional environment of Lower

Pliocene oil-bearing formations of

the Los Angeles Basin, California.

WENDELL P. Wooprine. 221.

*Devonian correlations in Michigan

and Ontario. G. A. CoopEr.

221.

*Environment and relations of the

hypogene manganese minerals.

D. E. Hewett. 360.

*Hrosional history of the Paradise

Valley quadrangle, Idaho. G. R.

MANSFIELD. 358.

*Evidence of a greatly lowered sea-

level. Francis P. SHEPARD. 221.

*Flat-bottomed stream erosion by

wetting and drying. L. W. STs-

PHENSON. 220.

*General report on meeting. WIL-

LIAM BowIiE. 485.

*Geological factors in safeguarding

against earthquakes. IN EL.

Heck. 360.

*Geologic History of South Park,

Colorado. C. H. Berunre, Jr.

74 Oi

*Glacial features of the Nushagak

Alaska J. B. Mertie, Jr. 222.

*Laramie fault pattern in the Front

Range mineral belt, Colorado.

EK. N. Gopparp and T. S. Lov-

ERING. 360.

*Origin of the oil bearing shoestring

sands of northeastern Oklahoma

and southwestern Kansas. N. W.

Bass. 363.

*Origin of the telluride ores of Boul-

der County, Colorado. T. S.

LovERING. 220.

*Petrographic features of salt dome

cap rock. M.I. GoupmMan. 223.

*Petroleum geophysics. D.C. Bar-

TON. 363.

*Physiographic research on soil ero-

sion. C. F. Srewarp SHARPE.

361.

*Significance of amygdales in Colum-

bia Riverlava. J.C. RexEp. 223.

*Silts of the lower Yukon valley.

A. J. EaARDLEY. 220.

*Sodalite from Magnet Cove, Ar-

kansas. JEWELL J. Guass. 358.

*Some general conclusions from in-

vestigations of the calaverite

group. GEoRGE TUNNELL and

C. J. Ksanpa. 221.

*Some recent changes in Alaskan

Coast Glaciers. W. O. FIExp, JR.

363.

*Some resistivity determinations of

salt water boundaries. J. H.

Swartz. 360.

Sun symbol markings. Watrter B.

Lane. 137.

*Temperatures in the lava beds of

East Central and South Central

Oregon. C. E. Van ORSTRAND.

357.

*The Centerfield limestone of New

York and its equivalents in the

midwest. G. A. Cooper. 359.

*The distribution of selenium, with

geologic implications. H. G.

ByErRs. 359.

The emergence of ideas as illustrated

from geology. GrorGE H. AsH-

LEY. 40.

Dec. 15, 1937

*The Matanuska coal field, Alaska.

RaupH Tuck. 359.

The Pleistocene Horry clay and Pam-

lico formation near Myrtle Beach,

Ss. C. €C. WytHE Cooke. 1.

*The uses of aerial photography.

C. H. Brrpstye. 360.

*Timber-lines as indicators of cli-

matic trends. Rosert F. Griaes.

224

Geophysics. *Notes on Proceedings of

the Association of Physical Ocean-

ography, September 17 to 24, 1936,

at the Sixth General Assembly of

the International Union of Geod-

esy and Geophysics in Edinburgh

T. WayLaNpD VAauGHAN. 490.

*Report on geodesy. W. D. Lam-

BERT. 486.

' *Report on meteorology. Mr.

WEIGHTMAN. 489.

*Report on seismology. E. W.

EICKELBERG. 486.

*Report on Terrestrial Magnetism

and Electricity. J. A. FLEMING

and L. V. BERKNER. 486.

Structure of continents and ocean

basins. RicHarp M. Fiexp. 181.

Hydrology. *Notes on Proceedings of the

Association of Hydrology, Sep-

tember 1936 at the Sixth General

Assembly of the International

Union of Geodesy and Geophysics

in Edinburgh. O. E. MernzeEr.

492.

Our water supply.

85.

The chemical character of the ground

O. E. MEINZER.

waters of the South Atlantic

Coastal Plain. Margaret D.

Foster. 405.

Malacology. A new species of Melania

from Szechuan Province, China.

Sur Fone CuHen. 79.

Four new species of fresh-water mol-

lusks from China. Sur Fone

CHEen. 444,

Two new land shells from Cuba.

Pau Bartscu. 130.

Mathematics. Population analysis: a

theorem regarding the stable age

distribution. Aurrep J. LorkKa.

299.

SUBJECT INDEX

547

Obituary. BEAMAN, WILLIAM Majsor

ide

CLAWSON, ARTHUR Brooks. 364.

CoviLLE, FREDERICK V. 88.

Hoop, Ozn1t PortTER. 267.

Moore, CLARENCE BLOOMFIELD.

LATS

NIEUWLAND, JULIUS ARTHUR. 178.

RosInson, BENJAMIN LINCOLN.

224.

Rowunpy, Pau VERE. 364.

RUTHERFORD, Lorp Ernest. 540.

SMyTH, CHARLES Henry, Jr. 224.

THOMSON, Einv. 178.

WHEELER, WILLIAM Morton. 267.

WHITE, WILLIAM ALANSON. 179.

Ornithology. A new genus for Pseudop-

tynz solomonensis Hartert. JAMES

L. Peters. 81.

Bird bones from archeological sites

in Alaska. HERBERT FRIEDMANN.

431.

Description of three new screech owls

from the United States. Harry

C. OBERHOLSER. 354.

Paleobotany. Fossil legumes from Bridge

Creek, Oregon. RoLtanpd’ W.

Brown. 414.

Further additions to some fossil

floras of the western United States.

Rouanp W. Brown. 506.

Gyrocarpus and other fossil plants

from the Cumarebo field in Vene-

zuela. Epwarp W. Berry. 501.

On the presence of the fern Weich-

selia in Colombia, South America.

Epwarp W. Berry. 458.

Paleontology. A new subspecies of Pec-

ten from the upper Miocene of

North Carolina. W. C. Mans-

FIELD. 10.

A specimen of ‘“‘Crassatellites’” from

the St. Marys formation of Mary-

land. W. C. MANSFIELD. 56.

Clistocrinus, a new Carboniferous

crinoid genus. Epwin' KIRK.

105.

Clithrocrinus, new name for Clisio-

crinus Kirk. Epwin Kirk. 373.

Linter, a new taxodont genus from

the upper Cretaceous of Texas.

Luioyp W. STEPHENSON. 449.

Pliocene and Pleistocene mollusks

from the Intracoastal Waterway