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Vou. 33

BOTAN Y.—Ceroxylon ferrugineum André, the Salento waxpalm.!

BomMuHarp, U.S. Forest Service.

The waxpalms (Ceroxylon)? grow in the

Andean region of northwestern South

America from Caracas in Venezuela to

southern Peru, or possibly into Bolivia. In

some areas waxpalms occur in such num-

bers that they dominate the landscape,

forming forests of ivory columns, known as

‘“nalmares.’”? These palms are extremely

beautiful—the graceful pinnate leaves

crown a usually tall, slender trunk, which is

covered with wax. The resinous wax can

be scraped from the trunk and fashioned

into candles and matches. The leaves are

used for thatch and the trunks for con-

struction. The outer wood is very hard.

The genus is justly celebrated. Certain

of the species are unique among living

palms—they are the tallest, grow at the

highest altitudes, and endure the coldest

temperatures of any palms in the world.’

The most renowned waxpalms, which were

first made known by Alexander von Hum-

boldt, are those of the Quindio region in the

Central Cordillera of Colombia. C. quin-

diuense (Karst.) Wendl. (= Klopstockia

quindiuensis Karst.) is the very tall (60

meters, or about 200 feet) species that

grows on the eastern slope at elevations

from 2,000 to 3,000 meters (nearly 10,000

feet) and endures temperatures just above

freezing. The very different species on the

western slope has apparently been without

a botanical designation; a valid name for it,

published with a brief description in 1879,

1 Received October 9, 1942.

2 The genera Klopstockia Karsten and Beetho-

venta Engel are at present referred to Cerozylon

Humb. & Bonpl.

3 BOMHARD, Miriam L. The waxpalms. Smith-

sonian Inst. Ann. Rept. 1936: 303-324, 4 pls., 2

figs. 1937. Spanish translation: Las palmeras de

cera. Bol. Soc. Geograf. Colombia 6(4): 250-273,

3 pls. 1940.

JANUARY 15, 1943

No. 1

Miriam L.

has escaped the attention of botanists. It

is the purpose of this paper to bring to light

that the name C. ferruginewm André‘ ap-

plies unmistakably to this species and can

refer to no other palm.

Although Cerorylon was established in

1807,5 founded upon a single species, C.

andicola Humb. and Bonpl., the genus is

even now not well understood botanically.

It is stated that Humboldt found this palm

in the most elevated part of the Andes (the

Quindio region), which separates the valley

of the Magdalena River from that of the

Cauca; more specifically, ‘It is found be-

tween the snow-capped summits of To-

lima, San Juan, and Quindfo.. . between

1750 and 2825 meters.” This is a roughly

triangular area on the eastern slope of the

Quindio Pass and must be considered as

the type locality of C. andicola. The Ceroxy-

lon described in such glowing terms by

Humboldt himself in his Vues des Cordil-

léres® is probably not the one figured in

connection with the formal description of

the species by Bonpland in 1807. In fact,

Bonpland states on page 4 of Plantes

Equinoxiales that ‘‘Humboldt drew this

plant on the spot; but the size of the draw-

ing being smaller than that of the fascicles

which we are going to publish under the

name of Plantes equinoxiales, we have been

obliged to make a larger drawing from it:

it is this which I present here. It was made

by Monsieur Turpin, who combines the

eminent knowledge of a botanist with the

talent of a skillful artist.’”’ The species is

4AnpRE_ Epovarp. L’Amérique équinoziale

(Colombie-Equateur-Pérou). Le Tour du Monde

37(945): 101. Feb., 1879.

5 Humpoupt, A., and BoNnpLaNpD, A. Plantes

équinoxiales 1: 1-6, pls. la, 1b. Paris, 1807.

6 HumBotpT, A. Vues des Cordilléres, pp. 13-

19, pl. 5. Paris, 1810.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

characterized by a single spathe and violet-

colored fruits; the inner perianth (corolla)

consists of three separate petals. The habit

figure shows a bulge in the trunk.

No palm answering to the description and

illustration of the type species has ever

again been encountered. It is true that vast

regions where the genus abounds still re-

main to be explored. Although C. andicola

has not yet been rediscovered in Colombia,

the figure and description may one day

prove to belong to a waxpalm of Ecuador,

where species with a bulged trunk do exist.’

As early as 1856, Hermann Karsten, who

described a new waxpalm genus, Klop-

stockia,® stated that he had been unsuccess-

ful in locating Humboldt’s C. andicola on

the eastern side of the Quindio, nor had

he seen any waxpalms that agreed with the

description of the genus. In 1858,!° there-

fore, he published K. quindiuensis (trans-

ferred to Ceroxylon by Wendland) for the

waxpalms he found “‘in the Quindio at the

foot of Tolima, altitude from 2200 to 2280

meters.”’ All the palms he saw had tall

straight trunks (not ventricose), there were

several spathes as in other members of

Klopstockia, the fruits were coral-red, and

the corolla was partly united below.

Humboldt appears to have been some-

what in error concerning the altitudinal

limits for palms on the eastern slope. It is

known that he crossed the Quindio divide

and was then forced to camp for several

days because of rains, but there is no indi-

cation that he noted the different character

of the waxpalms surrounding him then on

the western slope.

In March, 1876, however, Edouard André,

traversing the Quindfo trail from east to

™C. ventricosum Burret is bulged and has

grouped leaf segments. C. utile (Karst.) Wendl.

was described by Karsten as having aggregate leaf

segments but he made no mention of a ventricose

trunk. It is of interest that Richard Spruce listed

a palm in Ecuador as being C. andicola (Notes of

a botanist on the Amazon and Andes... during the

years 1849-1864, vol. 2: 268. 1908).

8 KaRSTEN, HERMANN. Plantae Columbianae.

Linnaea 28: 251-255. 1856.

® KarsTtEN, HERMANN. Die Vegetationsorgane

der Palmen. Phys. Abh. Kongl. Akad. Wiss.

Berlin, 1847: 73-235, pls. 1, 2. 1849. Also Kar-

STEN, Linnaea, 1856: 251.

10 KARSTEN, HERMANN.

1—2, pl. 1. Berlin, 1858.

Florae Columbiae 1:

VOL. 33, NO. 1

west, that is, from Ibagué to Cartago, and

following the exact route that Humboldt

took in October, 1801, at once observed

that a different species occurred on the

western side. André headed a scientific expe-

dition (mission) to Colombia, Ecuador, and

Peru, having sailed from St. Nazaire on

November 7, 1875. He returned to Europe

at the end of September, 1876. His official

report" enumerates his extensive collections

of herbarium specimens, seeds, living plants,

insects, minerals, and other specimens of

scientific interest. His travel and explora-

tion account was published in a series of

articles, L’ Amérique équinoxiale, which ap-

peared intermittently in Le Tour du Monde,

from 1877 to 1880. This weekly journal is

well printed and excellently illustrated. It

was devoted to accounts of travel and ex-

ploration.

The name Ceroxylon ferrugineum was

first published by André, with a brief de-

scription (amounting to a contrast of this

palm with that on the eastern slope which

he continues to refer to C. andicola), in Le

Tour du Monde, vol. 37, no. 945, p. 101,

1879. It might be well to quote at some

length from page 101. André states:

On the faith of Humboldt and other voyagers,

I indicated in a study of Ceroxylon andicola*

that the altitude where they grow is between

1750 and 2825 meters. I am today correcting

these figures from my own observations. On the

eastern slope of the Quindio, I have not en-—

countered this tree before 2,000 meters altitude

and I have followed it up to 3,000 meters. The

most abundant ‘‘palmares’’ are situated in the

vicinity of Las Cruces between the elevations of

Toché and La Céja. In going towards Ibagué, one

encounters the palm until near Mediacion. The

zone where it abounds only extends 15 to 20

kilometers, as a bird flies, north and south from

the mesa of Herveo to the massif of the Quindio.

...I have vainly searched the oak forests

(Quercus Humboldti) which the celebrated Ger-

man traveler said accompanied the wax palm.

The oaks, which scarcely go beyond 1800 meters

and which I had already noted... belong to a

* See Illustration horticole, 1874, p. 9, with

figure.

11 ANDRE Epovarp, in Archives Missions Sci-

entifiques 5 (sér. 3): 49-83. 1879. On p. 55 André

reports that he sent specimens of the Quindio

waxpalms to Paris; also that many points con-

cerning Humboldt’s C. andicola remain obscure

and that he hopes he will be able to clarify them.

JAN. 15, 1943

temperate, not a cold, country. These reasons

make me believe that Humboldt has confused the

true Cerozylon andicola, that of Las Cruces, with

another species, smaller, as yet little known (C.

ferrugineum). It is characterized especially by

the rough surface of its berries, and it abounds in

the Andes, principally on the west of the Central

Cordilleras and almost into the Republic of

Ecuador.

After crossing the crest (3,485 meters),

André observed that the vegetation was at

first quite similar to the unimpressive high-

altitude flora of the opposite side. Continu-

ing his descent toward Salento and the

Cauca valley, he remarks, on page 106:

“But as soon as the barometer indicated

2800 meters altitude and large trees domi-

nated, then giant oaks appeared, this time

intermingled with the other species of wax

palm of which I spoke previously, Ceroxylon

ferrugineum.”’ He states further, on page

108, that the waxpalms disappeared along

his route on the western slope at 1,800

meters.

Baron von Thielmann, in Vier Wege

durch Amerika (1879), says on page 374

that he arrived at the lower limit of the

waxpalm at 1,750 meters, near the Rio

Quindio (western slope). His footnote to

this remark is worth quoting:

According to the statements of the latest plant

explorer in this region, Ed. André, these wax

palms at the western base of the Quindio were not

identical with those of the eastern slope, but be-

longed to the related species, Cerorylon ferru-

gineum. The wax palm of Humboldt in the narrow

sense, Ceroxylon andicola, inhabits according to

André only the eastern slope of the Cordillera

between 2,000 and 3,000 meters.

Interestingly enough, the name Ceroxylon

ferrugineum has appeared in botanical lit-

erature but not ascribed to André. This may

be due to the fact that André’s name was

published in a journal devoted to travel.

Indeed, this name has been variously listed

as being of horticultural origin,” or credited

122 KERCHOVE (DE DENTERGHEM), OSWALD. Les

palmiers. Paris, 1878. On p. 238 of the Index

Général, Ceroxylon ferugineum (sic) Hort., is

listed as an invalid name, being in boldface type

which he uses to indicate invalid species. The

origin of C. ferrugineum as a horticultural name,

and this appears to be the earliest printing of it,

can only be surmised. André was himself espe-

cially interested in ornamentals. He returned from

South America in 1876 and had sent large quanti-

BOMHARD: THE SALENTO WAXPALM 3

to Regel,*® to Wallis,“ or to Linden.” The

entry as a valid name given in Index Kew-

ensis 1s as follows: “ferrugineum, Regel,

Gartenfl. (1879) 163. t. 977.—N. Granat.”

In this brief article (June, 1879) Regel

makes known three palms that were col-

lected by G. Wallis somewhere in tropical

America. Regel states that the name Cero-

xylon ferrugineum seems to have been given

only provisionally by Wallis to this palm.

There is no description. Figure 3 of plate

977 consists of three elements: a habit

sketch of some feather-leaved palm (there

are no spathes, nor is it discernible whether

the pendant inflorescences are in fruit or in

flower), a fruit with burst pericarp, and a

seed showing the micropyle. The fruit and

seed may possibly belong to some Cerory-

lon; the habit sketch is unidentifiable. Dr.

Max Burret!* is eminently correct in con-

signing this name to “nomina delenda’’;

that is, insofar as Regel’s Gartenflora is con-

cerned. But this is not the first date of

ties of palm and other seeds, living plants, etc., to

J. Linden’s horticultural establishment in Ghent,

as mentioned on p. 70 in his official report (Ar-

chives Missions Scientifiques, 1879). There was

ample time for the name to be known among

horticulturists between André’s return and his

publication of it. If it did not originate with him—

and this seems unlikely—at least he is the first to

have given characters to the different palm on the

western slope of the Quindio.

Dr. Burret also cites the name as a horticultural

one. See footnote 16 as well as footnote 14 (Dahl-

gren’s Index of American palms).

13 REGEL, EDUARD. Gartenflora 28: 163-164, pl.

977, fig. 3. June, 1879.

14 REGEL, EDUARD. Op. cit. 389. In the index the

name appears as follows: ‘‘Ceroxylum (sic) fer-

rugineum Wallis 163.” See also DAHLGREN, B. E.,

Index of American palms. Bot. Ser. Field Mus.

Nat. Hist. 14: 86. 1936. The entry on this page

as an invalid name is ‘‘ferrugineum Hort. Wallis,

RegelGartentl-- nomen). 7’

15 LINDEN, J. Plantes introduits et mises pour la

premiere fois dans le commerce par lI’ établissement

J. Linden. Illus. Hort. 28 (sér. 4, no. 1): 15-16.

1881. It has previously been mentioned that

André sent some of his South American material

to J. Linden for introduction. The entry on p. 16

of Linden’s palm list reads, under Ceroxylon:

‘“ferrugineum, Lind., Colombie.”’

16 BuRRET, M. Die Gattung Ceroxylon Humb. et

Bonpl. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. u. Mus. Berlin-Dahlem

10 (98): 853. 1929. The name is listed under the

heading ‘‘Species nimis imperfecte notae vel

nomina delenda’”’ as follows: ‘“‘Ceroxylon fer-

rugineum Hort. in Regel Gartenflora XXVIII

(1879) 163, tab. 977, fig. 3.”’ He suggests that the

species be looked upon as a ‘“‘Species delenda.”’

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

publication of C. ferruginewm. Inasmuch as

vol. 37 (the first semester of 1879) of Le

Tour du Monde begins with no. 939, there

seems to be little question that no. 945 ap-

peared in the third week of February, 1879.

(The even earlier horticultural nomen in

Kerchove may be disregarded. See foot-

note 12.)

André collected herbarium specimens of

4,300 species, with one to ten duplicates for

each number.’ His herbarium collection

numbers reached 3,175 by the time he ar-

rived at Pasto (this includes his trip over

the Quindio). Two waxpalm specimens col-

lected by André (nos. 2426 and 2563) are

deposited in the herbarium of the New

York Botanical Garden. The labels bear the

designation, ‘‘Mission scientifique de Ed.

ANDRE, HERBARIUM AMERICAE AEQUINOCTI-

ALIs.”’ Specimen no. 2426 was collected on

March 9, 1876, between Las Cruces and

Quindio, that is, on the eastern slope. It

consists of portions of two glabrous spa-

dices, one with some male flowers. The date

of collection for specimen no. 2563 is March,

1876; the locality, ‘‘Quindio-Salento-Tam-

bores.”” Tambores does not appear on re-

cent maps of the area, but it is clearly indi-

cated on André’s map no. 5 (his route from

Quindfo to Cartago, thence south to Buga)

about two-thirds of the distance from Sa-

lento toward Cartago.!® This specimen con-

sists of the upper portion of a fruiting

spadix to which, unfortunately, no fruits

are attached. The axis and branches are

clothed with a rusty-brown scurf—the ob-

vious ferruginous character on which An-

dré based his very appropriate name, fer-

rugineum. Fig. 1, F, shows a small branch

of André’s specimen.

17 ANDRE Epovuarp, in Archives Missions Sci-

entifiques, 1879, p. 69.

18 ANDRE, Epouarp. Le Tour du Monde 37:

(945): 99. 1879.

19 Hxamination of this and later collections of

C. ferrugineum shows that this covering is rather

remarkable in character. Although the spadix ap-

pears at first glance to be clothed with rusty

tomentum, it is clear under a lens that there are

no trichomes. The scurf that clings to the surface

appears to have been developed from numerous

papillae or crater-like projections which occur on

the basic surface of the spadix axis. The scurf is

not easily rubbed off with the fingers. It ignites

quickly when touched off with a match and the

odor emanating from it in burning is similar to

that when the wax on the trunk is ignited.

VOL. 33, NO. 1

It is likely that fruits accompany other

specimens of André 2563. André mentions,

on page 100 of vol. 37 (Le Tour du Monde),

in connection with the felling of a tree

of ‘‘C. andicola” (east slope of the Quindfo),

that the thousands of berries, some leaves,

spathes, and trunk sections that he sent

to Europe had become the property of

the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris.

It is reasonable to suppose that adequate

material of C. ferrugineum was also col-

lected by him.

He specifically stated, however, that the

fruits were characterized by their rough-

ness, thus differing from those of the species

on the eastern slope. Specimens of this

smaller palm from the western slope of the

Quindio, collected by E. P. Killip, of the

Smithsonian Institution, and Dr. T. E.

Hazen, of Columbia University, in 1922,

have berries whose surface is roughened by

small pustules.2® There are two sheets in

the U. S. National Herbarium of Kullip

9049, collected July 25-31, 1922, near Sa-

lento in the Department of Caldas, between

1,700 and 1,900 meters altitude. One con-

sists of an upper section of a leaf; the other,

of a portion of fruiting spadix, with the

fruits in an attached pocket. A photograph

of the palm is also affixed to the sheet. A

single sheet of Killip 9049 in the New York

Botanical Garden consists of a similar leaf

portion, section of spadix, and pocket of

fruits. Two mounts comprise the U. 8S. Na-

tional Herbarium specimen of Hazen 10149,

collected August 25-28, 1922,.in the Quin-

dio valley, toward Rio Boquio, between

1,600 and 1,700 meters. Part of a leaf is

mounted on one sheet; a spadix section

with several fruits attached and a pocket of

fruits make up the other. The spadices of

these specimens, with rather stout zigzag

branches, are unmistakably ferruginous; the

surface of the spherical fruits, buff-colored

when dry is definitely pustulate or “peb-

bly.” These specimens were collected in the

same region as André no. 2563 and are un-

doubtedly C. ferrugineum.”

20 BOMHARD, Miriam L. Op. cit.: 315.

21 On the eastern slope of the Quindio, Killip &

Hazen 9525 was collected on August 2, 1922, be-

tween La Céja and Agua Bonita, at 2,500 to

3,100 meters altitude. This specimen consists of

only a portion of a leaf; a photograph is also

JAN. 15, 1943

The most recent, and at the same time

the most complete, collection of the Salento

waxpalm that I have seen was made by Dr.

David Fairchild, July 11, 1941, on the ex-

tensive ranch of Dr. J. F. Galloway, at

1,828 meters. The ranch, on which there

are hundreds of waxpalms, is situated on

the Quindfo River above Salento. Kullip

9049 was also collected on the Galloway

place. Dr. Fairchild not only collected

seeds for plant introduction but also

made a special effort to secure herbar-

ium material (Fairchild 1023). I have been

privileged to examine parts of a leaf, an

entire fruiting inflorescence with spathes,

fruits, seeds, and sections of the trunk. In a

letter to Dr. Walter T. Swingle, Dr. Fair-

child wrote from Bogotdé, July 14, 1941:

“They are magnificent palms in a setting

so beautiful that you want to stay there

forever ...I saw no palm that I thought

was quite 200 feet. One that had fallen Dr.

Galloway stepped off and it was only 43

paces long. It was a smallish example, I

think. Dr. Galloway promised to measure

one accurately and let me know. I shall be

surprised if any go over 200 feet and most of

them I wager will measure under that. This

fact does not detract from their amazing

beauty and the marvelous character of this

organism, which can stand up perfectly

affixed. It is probably, from the locality at least,

C. quindiuense. It is unfortunate that there are

no fruits. The segments of this part of the leaf

(probably taken from below the middle) are about

68 cm long and 4 cm wide. They are whitish-scaly

on the under surface; the rachis is also whitish-

scaly below and on the sides as well. The leaf is

apparently much more robust than in C. fer-

rugineum.

Mr. Killip collected Ceroxylon specimens on

March 27 and 28, 1939, along the new Quindio

highway, between Cajamarca and the summit of

the Divide (eastern slope), at 2,488 meters. The

highway more or less parallels the old Quindfo

trail, which has now fallen into disuse, but runs

7 to 10 miles south of it. His specimen no. 34540

consists of part of a spadix, which appears to be

glabrous but is actually faintly scurfy (puberulous

where the scurf seems to have rubbed off), and

fruits, which are deposited in the separate fruit

collection of the U. S. National Herbarium. They

were a reddish color when fresh but are gray

when dry; superficially, they are quite smooth.

It is almost surely C. quindiuense, or very closely

related to that species. The seeds are black as in

C. quindiuense. One of these fruits and a cross-

section of the seed are shown in Fig. 1, A and B,

for comparison with C. ferrugineum.

BOMHARD: THE SALENTO WAXPALM 5

straight in the winds of some considerable

violence—60 km per hour would be a maxi-

mum I think—that blow down the pass.”

A complete description of the Salento

waxpalm can not form a part of this paper.

Knowledge of the flowers is lacking, but ar-

rangements made with Dr. Galloway should

soon provide flowering material. Certain

measurements are also lacking. There is

need of an adequate description of the living

trees.22 A very general account of Fairchild

1023, which is not offered as a technical de-

scription, is given below.”

22 To be fully understood botanically, palms are

best studied by investigators who have frequent

and ready access to them in their native habitat.

Fortunately, Dr. Armando Dugand, director of

the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales of the Uni-

versidad Nacional de Colombia, with head-

quarters at Bogota, has become interested in

palms. Among several papers already published

toward a comprehensive survey of the Colombian

species, a preliminary list, Palmas de Colombia,

appeared in Caldasia 1: 10-84, 1940. For Cerozy-

lon, see pp. 37-39 of this article.

23 The following account is being given to serve

as a partial record of Fairchild 1023 (C. fer-

rugineum), since it seems worth while to set down

any data that may add to the knowledge of a

species. This specimen was collected close to the

type locality of André. The trunk is at least 40,

and not more than 60 meters tall. It measures

about 30 cm in diameter toward the base, tapering

gradually to 15 em or less near the summit. The

leafscars, which are waxy, do not completely en-

circle the trunk (see pl. 2, Smithsonian Inst. Ann.

Rept. 1937). Five turns bring the ninth scar di-

rectly above the first. The vascular elements

stand out on a section as stiff black bundles.

The reduplicate segments, with strong midrib,

of the large pinnate leaves are placed uniseriately,

without a pulvinus, at rather regular intervals on

either side of the rachis. The segments toward the

apex of the leaf, closely spaced, are nearly op-

posite, whereas those near the middle, at 2-2.5

ecm intervals, are subopposite or alternate. (The

lowest section of the ‘‘blade’’ of material I

have examined apparently comes from a smaller

leaf than the rest of the material. However, in it

the 5 or 6 lowest segments are shorter, narrower,

and grouped closely together at the base of the

“‘blade.’’) The longest segments of the sections I

have seen measure 75 cm; these are widest (about

3.5 cm) some distance above their point of inser-

tion, tapering toward the apex, which is cleft.

The relatively soft, lax segments are glabrous and

green above; whitish-scaly beneath. The slender

rachis is also glabrous (perhaps somewhat resin-

ous) above; the lower face is similar to the under

surface of the leaves in its whitish- or grayish-

scaly indument; the sides are glabrous. A portion

of the leaf, taken from the section where the seg-

ments are longest, shows the rachis, which is 2

cm wide at this point, to advantage. There is a

shallow groove on the upper face; the lower is

rounded-cenvex. A cross-section of the rachis is

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

It seems evident from his treatment of

Ceroxylon™* that the eminent palm spe-

cialist Dr. Max Burret is, unfortunately,

aware neither of André’s publication of C.

ferrugineum, inasmuch as he gives only the

Regel citation, nor of his herbarium speci-

rectangular or, better, vertebra-shaped, rather

than triangular as in so many pinnate palm leaves.

The sides of the rachis slant downwards at only a

slight angle from the upper to the lower face. The

margins of the upper and lower faces are some-

what extended in phlange-like fashion (probably

slightly emphasized in the dry material); the in-

sertion of the segments, therefore, appears to be

partially concealed in the shallowly U-shaped

sides of the rachis.

The paniculately branched fruiting spadix is

about 24 dm long including the peduncle, which

measures 15 dm. It is covered with ferruginous

scurf throughout. The axis of the spadix is about

2.5 cm across at its base. There are about 75 pri-

mary branches including the smallest ones at

the apex. These branches are comparatively stout;

strongly thickened where they arise from the

main axis. The longest, 20 cm above the base,

measures 60 cm. The secondary branches have the

zigzag, tendril-like appearance of other Ceroxylon

specimens I have seen, but the undulations seem

to be more angular. The short thick pedicels of the

fruits are set at the undulation angles. (The

flowers are, of course, solitary.) Fig. 1, F, showing

a branch of André 2563, should make this clear.

I hesitate to describe the spathes, which, al-

though still attached to the fruiting peduncle in

this specimen, are already somewhat lax and

spent owing to age, and furthermore, are so fragile

that they shatter rather easily. Moreover, the

character of the spathes can best be seen when

a palm is in flower. The measurements here given

are only approximate and provisional. Dr. Fair-

child specifically mentioned that there were three

spathes, covered with grayish pubescence. How-

ever, I find remnants of a fourth partial spathe or

bract, which opens from the main axis 30 cm be-

low the body of the spadix. Assuming that the

peduncle of this specimen, which, like the spathes,

is covered with rufous almost velvety scurf, was

severed fairly close to the trunk, then the first

spathe (15 dm long) comes from near the base;

the second (about 18 dm in length) arises about 5

cm above the first; and the third (about 19 dm

long) comes off 15 cm above the second, is 8 or 9

cm wide, and strongly folded near the tip.

According to Dr. Fairchild the fruits were

“deep orange color’? when fresh. They fade to a

buff yellow on drying. These are 16 mm in diam.

and 17 mm in height (Fig. 1, C). The position of

the three stigma remains may be noted to one

side of the base of the fruit, where the perianth

persists. The outer, rather thin-leathery exocarp

is roughened by pustules and is slightly speckled.

(Fruits that are not entirely dried out are sub-

lustrous because of the wax.) The fleshy mesocarp

is rather friable; mucilaginous when placed in

water. The papery, gray endocarp adheres lightly

to the seed. The seeds (there is one in each fruit)

average 12—12.5 mm in diameter and 13 mm or

slightly more in height. They are chestnut-brown

VOL. 33, NO. 1

mens. It may be assumed that he believes

C. andicola occupies the Quindio region

from Ibagué all the way to Cartago. Fur-

thermore, apparently owing to the fact that.

a Ceroxylon specimen collected by August

Fendler, in Venezuela but with no other

data,> came to his attention, Dr. Burret has

added the ferruginous character to the spa-

dices of C. andicola.?* He has published the

and have a roughish surface. The point of attach-

ment is knoblike and the micropyle is prominent

just to the side of the knob. The albumen is

equable and the embryo subbasilar (Fig. 1, D

and £).

24 BurRET, M. Notizblatt 10(98), 1929. See the

key, pp. 841-842; the discussion of C. andicola,

pp. 842-844, and C. quindiuense, pp. 845-846, in

which it is stated that C. quindiuwense has been

mainly mistaken for C. andicola.

2% Thus far I have examined two Ceroxylon

specimens bearing the label ‘‘PLANTAE VENE-

ZUELANAE. Prope coloniam Tovar legit A. Fend-

ler.’ That in the New York Botanical Garden

is dated 1854-55; the other, in the herbarium of

the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,

is dated 1856—57. There are no additional data.

Three other specimens in the Gray Herbarium,

all dated 1854-55, are undoubtedly of the same

collection as that in New York. Although it is

true that the spadices of all are ferruginous and

the fruits rough, the latter are mainly twinned,

smaller than those of C. ferrugineum, and the

surface is much more uneven—verrucose with

crater-like projections. Moreover, the sides of

the rachis—and therefore the appearance of the

insertion of the leaf segments—is quite unlike

that of specimens of C. ferrugineum. From ail

accounts, it seems practically certain that Fendler

did not travel in Colombia. Dr. H. W. Rickett,

bibliographer of the New York Botanical Garden,

wrote me in a letter of April 26, 1941, that Fendler

took up residence in Colonia Tovar, a small

colony 35 miles west of Caracas, Venezuela, in

1853. Except for the winter of 1855-56 spent in

the United States, he seems to have been in the

general region of Colonia Tovar, collecting many

plant specimens, until 1858. No doubt, there are

Ceroxylon species with ferruginous spadices and

rough fruits which await investigation in parts of

South America other than the western slope of

the Quindfo.

26 BuRRET, M. Palmae neogeae. Notizbl. Bot.

Gart. u. Mus. Berlin-Dahlem 11(105): 319-820.

1932. In this later note concerning Ceroxylon

andicola, Dr. Burret refers to his treatment of the

genus in Notizblatt, 1929, and again mentions the

Fendler specimen. He states that in the light of

specimens Killip 9049, Hazen 10149, and Killip

& Hazen 9525, which were sent him for determina-

tion, he is puzzled, especially since no. 9525, col-

lected at the higher altitude, appears to be C.

quindiuense, whereas those of the lower altitude

seem to him to be C. andicola. He has determined

no. 9525 as C. quindiuense with a question and

adds that it is perhaps C. andicola. He determined

the other two as C. andicola.

Dr. Burret himself previously pointed out

Jan. 15, 1943

name C. furfuraceum with Latin description

for the Fendler specimen but has placed it

under his discussion of C. andicola. I can

find no indication in Bonpland’s description

(1929) that Triana 720, with its male flowers, is

doubtless Klopstockia quindiuensis. The Triana

material is thought to have been collected with

Karsten, who later described K. quindiuensis. I

have examined Triana 720 and 723, collected

between 1851-57. A section of leaf and a spadix

branch (no. 720 has two branches mounted)

make up these specimens. The male spadices are

apparently glabrous (actually somewhat puberu-

lous under a lens) and glaucous or waxy. The flow-

ers agree perfectly with Karsten’s fig. 4, plate 1,

Florae Columbiae; the spadix also shows tertiary

branching. Moreover, the male spadices of the

Triana specimens are strikingly similar to the

male spadix of André 2426, collected on the east-

ern slope, except that the latter, although glau-

cous, is not puberulous. Dr. Burret further states

BOMHARD: THE SALENTO WAXPALM 7

or figures that the spadices of this species

are other than glabrous, nor is there any

statement in the comparatively detailed

description of the fruits that the surface is

verrucose.

that it is impossible to imagine that male and

female plants of the same species would differ

in the very striking indument of the spadices. I

might add that Ceroxylon is described by Bon-

pland as polygamo-monoecious, whereas Karsten’s

Klopstockia is dioecious, polygamo-dioecious, or

monoecious.

It would be enlightening to know the character

of the specimen in the Humboldt herbarium in

Paris purported to be the type of C. andicola,

but without exact locality. Although a clear

photograph of it is in the U. S. National Her-

barium, Mr. Killip’s negative no. 365, the

branches of the spadix section are so dense that

I am unable to glean much concerning its char-

acter.

Fig. 1.—A, Glabrous fruit of Killip 34540, Ceroxylon quindiuense or near this species; collected on

the new Quindfo highway between Cajamarca and the summit of the Divide, at 2,438 meters. The

position of the three persistent stigmas to one side of the base of the fruit is indicated.

tudinal section of seed showing position of the embryo.

D, Outer view of a seed, showing the position of the micropyle in relation to the

E, Longitudinal section of seed D, with position of embryo

F, Branchlet of ferruginous spadix, André 2563. Drawn by Leta Hughey. (All X23

Killip 9049.

hilum. C. ferrugineum, Fairchild 1028.

indicated.

except F, which is natural size.)

B, Longi-

C, Pustulate fruit of C. ferrugineum,

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Dr. Burret does cite André in L’I]lustra-

tion Horticole, 1878, as to his observations

concerning Humboldt’s altitudinal data.

This excerpt from the Le Tour du Monde

articles, although quoted, is not quite iden-

tical with the statements that appeared in

that journal in February, 1879, inasmuch

as André withholds the name of the species

on the western slope of the Quindio. This

portion of the excerpt reads, ‘‘another spe-

cies, smaller, as yet little known, of which

I shall speak later.’’?? Dr. Burret also cites

Baron von Thielmann’s Vzer Wege durch

Amerika, but appears to have overlooked

André’s name, mentioned in a footnote.

27 AnpRH, EpovuaRrp. Les palmares de Ceroxylon

andicola en Colombie. Illust. Hort. 25: 176. 1878.

BOTAN Y.—New names in Quercus and Osmanthus.!

(Communicated by WiuuiaM A. Dayton.)

U.S. Forest Service.

New names for four natural hybrids in

Quercus and validation of a combination in

Osmanthus are needed for the revision of the

Check list of the forest trees of the United

States, now nearing completion. The four

names in use in Quercus all must be rejected

as later homonyms under Articles 60 (3)

and 61 of the International Rules of Bo-

tanical Nomenclature (Ed. 3. 1935). As no

other names are available, new epithets are

desired under Article 69. Two of the names

were used earlier for fossils, which are not

included in indexes of living plants. How-

ever, the rules of botanical nomenclature

apply to recent and fossil plants alike (Ar-

ticle 9).

Though it may be questioned whether it

is useful or necessary to give hybrids bi-

nominal names like species, as permitted

by Article 31, this established custom is

followed here for uniformity. In genera of

many species that cross readily, the number

of natural and artificial hybrids may exceed

the total number of species. For example,

the number of named natural hybrids of

Quercus in the United States, already more

than 70 and still growing, is greater than

the number of native arborescent species of

the genus. Experimental evidence of the

1 Received October 17, 1942.

VOL. 33, No. 1

Recognition of André’s publication es-

tablishes the botanical identity of the dis-

tinct species of waxpalm that occurs on the

western slope of the Quindifo, in the region

of the town of Salento and of the rivers

Boquio and Quindio. The full extent of its

range is unknown. The elevations at which

it grows may be placed, from available data,

at 1,600 to 2,800 meters. The material thus

far collected in the Salento area is quite uni-

form in character. André’s brief descrip-

tion,?® substantiated by his own and later

collections, appears to be sufficiently ade-

quate to validate the name Cerozylon fer-

rugineum André.

28 The description seems to meet the require-

ments of articles 36 and 37 of the International

Rules.

ELBERT L. LiTTLe4, JR.,

origin and parentage has been presented

for very few of these supposed oak hybrids.

Muller (Amer. Midland Nat. 27: 478. 1942)

has recently suggested that some so-called

hybrids of Quercus may be only miscella-

neous variations unworthy of names. —

X< Quercus asheana Little, nom. nov. AsHE Oak

Quercus cinerea Michx. XQuercus laevis

Walt.

Quercus cinerea Xcatesbaet Ashe, Journ.

Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 11: 88. 1894;

Small, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 22: 76,

pls. 234, 235. 1895.

Quercus brevifolia Xcatesbaer Sudw., U. S.

Dept. Agr. Div. Forestry Bull. 14: 170.

1897.

<Quercus ashet Trel. (Q. catesbaet Xc-

nerea), Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 56: 48.

1917; nomen nudum. Sarg., Man. Trees

North Amer. ed. 2, 254. 1922; nomen

nudum.

<XQuercus ashei Trel., Mem. Nat. Acad.

Sci. 20: 13, 156, 200. 1924. Non Quercus

ashet Sterrett, Journ. Elisha Mitchell

Sel SOCK Stl oa O22.

A new name is needed for the hybrid between

Quercus cinerea Michx. (Hist. Chénes Amér.

no. 8, pl. 14. 1801) and Quercus laevis Walt.

(Fl. Carol. 234. 1788; Q. catesbaet Michx.) be-

cause XQuercus ashei Trel. is a later homonym

Jan. 15, 1943

dating from 1924 instead of 1917 (Article 45).

<Quercus ashei Trel. (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soe.

56: 48. 1917) founded only upon “‘(Q. catesbaet

X<cinerea),’’ without description or citation of

a previous one, must be rejected as a nomen

nudum, because under Article 31 the name of

a hybrid is subject to the same rules as names

of species. Mention of the two supposed parent

species without description would not be valid

publication of a hybrid binomial under Articles

37 and 44,

Before the name XQuercus ashet Trel. was

properly published in 1924 by reference to

Ashe’s early description, Quercus ashei Sterrett

had been valJidly published in 1922 for another

oak. Quercus ashet Sterrett was renamed Quer-

cus similis Ashe (Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci.

Soc. 40: 43. 1924), which is to be rejected under

Article 60 (1) as superfluous, and was also re-

duced to a synonym of Quercus stellata f.

paludosa Trel. (Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. 20: 104,

105. 1924). Thus, Quercus ashei Sterrett is a

synonym, and Quercus asher Trel. is a later

homonym. The new epithet for the hybrid,

the range of which is recorded as Georgia, also

honors the discoverer of this oak, the late Wil-

liam Willard Ashe.

< Quercus burnetensis Little, nom. nov.

BuRNET Oak

Quercus macrocarpa Michx. XQuercus vir-

ginia Mill.

x<Quercus coloradensis Ashe, Bull. Torrey

Bot. Club 49: 268. 1922.

Non Quercus coloradensis Lesq., Mus.

Comp. Zool. Bull. 16: 46. 1888 (fossil,

Kocene, Colorado).

The later homonym XQuercus coloradensis

Ashe, named for a river in Texas, is a hybrid

between Quercus macrocarpa Michx. (Hist.

Chénes Amér. no. 2, pl. 2, 3. 1801) and Quercus

virginiana Mill. (Gard. Dict. Ed. 8, Quercus

no. 16. 1768). This hybrid was discovered by

Ashe along the Colorado River above Marble

Falls in Burnet County, Tex., from which

county the new name is taken.

Quercus coloradensis Lesq. is a fossil species

from the Tertiary (Eocene epoch, Denver for-

mation) at Golden, Colo. It was described by

Lesquereux from two specimens collected in

1883, but Knowlton (U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof.

Paper no. 155: 54. 1930) later could locate only

one specimen, which was so fragmentary that

LITTLE: NEW NAMES IN QUERCUS AND OSMANTHUS 9

it was not worth figuring. Trelease (Mem. Nat.

Acad. Sci. 20: 27. 1924) cited Quercus colo-

radensis Lesq. among the fossil oaks of America

but did not mention XQuercus coloradensis

Ashe, which was published just two years be-

fore Trelease’s monograph. Camus (Les Chénes

2: 754. 1939) noted that Ashe’s hybrid was a

later homonym but did not rename it.

< Quercus cravenensis Little, nom. nov.

CAROLINA Oak

Quercus cinerea Michx. XQuercus mari-

landica Muenchh.

x<Quercus carolinensis Trel. (Q. cinerea

x marilandica), Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc.

56:48. 1917; nomen nudum. Sarg., Man.

Trees North Amer., ed. 2, 266. 1922;

nomen nudum.

<Quercus carolinensis Trel., Mem. Nat.

Acad. Sci. 20: 14. 1924. Non Quercus

carolinensis Muenchh., Hausvater 5:

254. 1770. Non Quercus caroliniensis

Young [Young, William, Jr.], Cat. Arbr.

Arb. Pl. Herb. Amer. 53. 1783; nomen

subnudum.

Quercus cinerea X nigra Ashe, Journ. Elisha

Mitchell Sci. Soc. 11: 91. 1894.

The hybrid between Quercus cinerea Michx.

(Hist. Chénes Amér. no. 8, pl. 14. 1801) and

Quercus marilandica Muenchh. (Hausvater 5:

253. 1770) should be given a new name, as

<Quercus carolinensis Trel. is a later homonym.

XQuercus carolinensis Trel. was published in

1917 as a nomen nudum based merely upon

““(Q. cinerea X marilandica)’ and without de-

scription. In 1924 it was validly published by

reference to Ashe’s earlier description of Quer-

cus cinerea Xnigra. The new name XQuercus

cravenensis is based upon the same description

by Ashe (Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 11:

91. 1894), though the parent species formerly

known as Quercus nigra now bears the name

Quercus marilandica. The hybrid has been re-

corded from Craven County, N. C., from which

the new epithet was taken, and from Georgia

and Texas.

Strangely, XQuercus carolinensis Muenchh.,

which was not included in the Index Kewensis,

has not been mentioned by recent authors,

though it was validated as a binomial in the

same rare work with three other pre-Linnaean

species. These three important species of east-

ern United States are Quercus marilandica and

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES .

Q. palustris, published by Muenchhausen on

the preceding page, and Q. coccinea, published

after Q. carolinensis on the same page.

As the identity of Quercus carolinensis

Muenchh. is not clear, it seems best to pass

over it as a nomen dubium (Article 63). No use-

ful purpose would be served by adopting it and

adding to the confusion among the old names of

the genus already replacing other names and

used with different meanings. Quercus caro-

linensis Muenchh. was based entirely upon

Quercus Caroliniensis, virentibus vents muricata

of Catesby (Nat. Hist. Car. Fla. Bahama Is.

1: 21, pl. 21, fig. 1. 1731), who in turn com-.

pared it with a slightly different, earlier species,

Quercus Virginiana rubris venis, muricata of

Plukenet (Alm. Bot. 309. 1696; Phytogr. pl. 54,

fig. 5. 1691). Linnaeus (Sp. Pl. 996. 1753) cited,

as synonyms of his variety Quercus rubra B,

both Catesby’s and Plukenet’s species, but

Muenchhausen without explanation asserted

that Q. carolinensis was different from Quercus

rubra. It was suggested by Valckenier Suringar

(Rijks Herbarium Leiden Meded. 56: 11. 1928)

that probably Linnaeus had not seen Catesby’s

and Plukenet’s plants but referred to their

drawings instead. Linnaeus’s variety 8 was des-

ignated later as Quercus rubra subserrata Lam.

(Eneyel. Méth. Bot. 1: 720. 1785), with Cates-

by’s and Plukenet’s names as synonyms. Sar-

gent (Rhodora 17: 38. 1915; 18: 46. 1916) inter-

preted Catesby’s figure of a single leaf and an

acorn to represent the northern red oak. When

he proposed that Quercus rubra L. be rejected

as a nomen ambiguum, Rehder (Journ. Arnold

Arb. 19: 283-284. 1938) indicated also that

Catesby’s name apparently was referable to

the northern red oak. Svenson (Rhodora 41:

522. 1939), in advocating the name Quercus

rubra L. (emend. Du Roi) for the northern

red oak, mentioned ‘“‘the very crude figure

by Catesby.” Though Quercus carolinensis

Muenchh. possibly might be interpreted as an

available name for the northern red oak, it is

hoped that this name of uncertain identifica-

tion will not be adopted for any species.

Quercus caroliniensis Young, published in a

commercial catalog with a very brief, indefinite

French description, should be rejected as it is

scarcely more than a nomen nudum and is not

recognizable. It was not listed in the Index

Kewensis.

VOL. 33, No. 1

< Quercus filialis Little, nom. nov.

VARILEAF Oak

Quercus phellos L. XQuercus velutina Lam.

XQuercus inaequalis Palmer and Steyer-

mark, Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 22: 521.

1935. Non Quercus inaequalis Watelet,

Descr. Pl. Foss. Bass. Paris 136, pl. 35,

fig. 8. 1866 (fossil, Eocene, France).

XQuercus filialts is a new name for the hy-

brid between Quercus phellos L. (Sp. Pl. 994.

1753) and Quercus velutina Lam. (Encyel.

Méth. Bot. 1: 721. 1785). xQuercus inaequalis

Palmer and Steyermark must be rejected for

this hybrid because it is a later homonym of

the fossil species, Quercus inaequalis Watelet,

from the Tertiary (Eocene epoch) in Belleu,

France. (Incidentally, Watelet’s fossil species

was reduced to a synonym of Pasaniopsis

retinervis Sap. and Mar. by Fritel, Journ. de

Bot. 22: 160. 1909.) The range of this hybrid, —

according to Palmer and Steyermark, is from

southeastern Missouri to Arkansas and Louisi-

ana. The new epithet refers to the hybrid origin

as the filial generation or offspring of a cross

between parents of different species.

Sargent (Silva North Amer. 8: 180, pl. 436.

1895) interpreted XQuercus heterophylla Michx.

f. (Hist. Arb. Amér. 2: 87, pl. 16. 1812) as a

hybrid between Quercus phellos and Quercus

velutina, the supposed parents of XQuercus

filialis. However, Hollick (Bull. Torrey Bot.

Club. 15: 303-309, illus. 1888) concluded that

<XQuercus heterophylla Michx. f. was a hybrid

between Quercus phelios and Quercus rubra

(now Quercus borealis var. maxima (Marsh.)

Sarg.). Later (Sci. Amer. 121: 422, 429-430,

432, illus. 1919), he demonstrated this parent-

age to be correct by planting acorns of the

hybrid and obtaining among the young trees

individuals like the two parent species and

many intermediate ones. Small (Man. South-

east. Fl. 428, 430. 1933) designated xQuercus

dubia (without author) as a hybrid between

Quercus phelios and Quercus velutina.

Osmanthus megacarpus (Small) Small ex

Little, comb. nov. BigrrRuIT OSMANTHUS

Amarolea megacarpa Small, Man. South-

east. Fl. 1043, 1507. 1933.

Osmanthus megacarpa Small, Man. South-

east. Fl. 1043. 1933; as synonym.

JAN. 15, 19438

Osmanthus megacarpa Small; Gray Herbar-

ium Card-Index, Issue 141; ‘In synon.”’

Osmanthus megacarpus Small; Hill, Index

Kew. Sup. 9: 196. 1938; ‘in syn.”

When he published the new genus A marolea

Small (Man. Southeast. Fl. 1043, 1507. 1933),

a segregate from Osmanthus Lour. (family

Oleaceae), Small described one new species,

Amarolea megacarpa Small, listing at the end

CROIZAT: NOTES ON AMERICAN EUPHORBIACEAE il

of the description and as a synonym the name

“TOsmanthus megacarpa Small].”’ This name

in Osmanthus, just cited as a synonym, was not

validly published there under Article 40. The

Gray Herbarium Card-Index and Index Kew-

ensts Supplementum both stated that the name

was published in synonymy and thus did not

validate it. The combination is published here

merely to avoid making it unintentionally.

BOTAN Y.—Notes on American Euphorbiaceae, with descriptions of eleven new

species.)

municated by E. P. Ki.ure.)

It was my privilege to visit the United

States National Herbarium during the sum-

mer of 1941, and the descriptions and notes

that follow are based largely upon material

seen at that time. Herbaria at which the

specimens cited in this paper are deposited

are indicated thus: AA, Arnold Arboretum;

GH, Gray Herbarium of Harvard Univer-

sity; US, U. 8S. National Herbarium.

Andrachne L.

Pax and Hoffmann completely misunder-

stood this genus within the American range.

They treat? Andrachne phyllanthoides Nutt. as

a species of Savia Willd., a manifest error as

the floral morphology of these two genera is

very different and they are not even closely

related. Andrachne is nearest Phyllanthus and

Actephila, whereas Savia is consanguineous

with Cleistanthus and Amanoa. Further, these

authors place A. brittonit Urb. in the section

Phylianthidea, which is another error as this

species is not close to A. microphylla Baill.,

the standard-species of that section, but is

probably nearest to A. telephioides L. An-

drachne ? cuneifolia Britton, which is over-

looked by Pax and Hoffmann in their account

of the American species, is not an Andrachne

but a species of Phyllanthus (see the new com-

bination effected under Phyllanthus).

Andrachne microphylla (Lam.) Baill. Et. Gén.

Euphorb. 577. 1858; Muell.-Arg. in DC.

Brodr., 1573-237, 1866; Pax & Hoftm.

Pflanzenreich IV. 147. 15: 178. 1922:

1 Received August 12, 1942.

* Pflanzenreich IV. 147. 15: 184. 1922; Nat.

Pflanzenfam. 19c: 66. 1931.

Lon Croizat, Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University.

(Com-

Croton microphyllum Lam. Encycl. Méth,

22 212-786.

Phyllanthidea microphylla Didr. Kj6b. Vid.

Meddel. 1857: 150. 1857.

So far as I am aware, nothing in the litera-

ture indicates that this species has been re-

ported since the time of Dombey. A fragment of

the type, generously given me by Professor

Humber of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle,

Paris, shows that here belong (1) Pennell 14492

—Peru: Depto. Lima: Near Viscas, along Rio

Chillén, alt. 1,800—2,000 meters (US); (2)

Haught 39—Peru: Depto. Piura: Prov. Paita:

Talara (US; distributed as ‘‘Tragia?’’).

Andrachne ciliato-glandulosa (Millsp.) Croiz.,

comb. nov.

Phyllanthus ciliato-glandulosus Millsp. Proce.

California Acad. JJ, 2: 219. 1889.

Tragia ciliato-glandulosa M. E. Jones, MS.

in sched. (an tantum?).

This annual, endemic to Lower California,

so closely resembles A. microphylla as to be

very easily confused with it. Its characters are

those of Andrachne sect. Phyllanthidea, there

being a minute pistillode in the female flower.

Millspaugh erred in crediting this species to

Phyllanthus sect. Menarda, with which it has

no relationship. The occurrence of very similar

plants in Peru and lower California is not al-

together unexpected, but it is interesting to

note that A. aspera Spreng., endemic from the

Punjab to Morocco, is very closely allied to

A. microphylla and A. ciliato-glandulosa, and

that A. phyllanthoides from the United States,

is near A. colchica, from the Caucasus. The

distribution of al] these species is undoubtedly

pre-Tertiary.

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Phyllanthus L.

Phyllanthus cuneifolius (Britton) Croiz., comb.

nov.

Andrachne ? cuneifolia Britton, Mem. Torrey

Club 16: 72. 1920.

Apparently near P. orbicularis H.B.K., as it

seems to have the stipitate ovary and the pe-

culiar & disc of that species.

A species published with a question mark

as to the genus is not a nomen provisorium.®

Phyllanthus botryanthus Muell.-Arg. in DC.

Rrodr. 152273235 SoG:

Glochidion botryanthum Pax & Hoffm. Nat.

Pflanzenfam. 19c: 58. 1931.

The two following collections, on comparison

with Plée 55 and 56 (type material, AA), belong

here: (1) Pittter 10521—Venezuela: San Mar-

tin, Rio Palomar (AA); (2) Puttier 11914—

Venezuela: Miranda: Puente de Turumo, road

from Petare to Guatire, ‘“‘Small tree in forest,

up to 4 meters” (AA).

Pax and Hoffmann have an untenable con-

cept of Glochidion. This may be retained as a

genus only with the understanding that its

species form a natural group that it is not pos-

sible to define with reference to a set of con-

ventional characters. Glochidion is ‘“‘good’’ in

India, China, Indochina, and Malaysia but is

apt to turn ‘“‘bad” in New Guinea and Oceania,

for here its characters merge with those of

Phyllanthus. Naturally, it is a serious error to

introduce Glochidion to the floras of America

merely because certain species of American

Phyilanthus have styles that tend to remain

connate rather than to expand. These species

may exhibit the technicalities of the style that

are used to circumscribe Glochidion, but since

they lack a natural affinity with this genus

they can not be treated under it. I know few

other families in which the problems of generic

definition are so involved as those of the

Euphorbiaceae, a genus under this family more

often than not standing or falling on account of

considerations that do not immediately bear

upon the peculiarity of its floral morphology.

Phyllanthus L. Sect. Elutanthos

Croiz., sect. nov.

Foliis fructibusque magnis, inflorescentiis

® See Croizat, Journ. Arn. Arb. 21: 499. 1940;

op. cit. 22: 137. 1941.

VOL. 33, NO. 1

laxe racemosis ramis filiformibus habitu effu-

sis; perianthio utriusque sexus 6-lobo, stamini-

bus saepissime in columnam connatis, disco in

2 subconnato vel libero, in @ libero. Species

typica: Phyllanthus glaucescens H.B.K. (=P.

adenodiscus Muell.-Arg.).

Leaves and fruit usually large to very large

but these not woody; inflorescence laxly race-

mose, 10-30 cm long, axillary or pseudoter-

minal, its axes mostly slender or filiform;

flowers o& numerous, prevailingly clustered in

groups, @ fewer, basal or apical; perianth

usually 6-lobed, o with 1-3 stamens connate

within a staminal column or more seldom free,

@ with a disk of erect, subconnate, or free

glands alternating with the lobes. 3

Prevailingly Mexican and Central American

woody endemics with a striking habit, reminis-

cent of certain Menispermaceae (e.g., Hyper-

baena Miers), at first suggesting a genus other

than Phyllanthus but closely related to classic

species of this genus in every technical detail

of their floral morphology. Standard-species:

Phyllanthus glaucescens H.B.K. Nov. Gen. 2:

115. 1817 (=P. adenodiscus Muell.-Arg. Lin-

naea 32: 23. 1863).

The material of this section is insufficient and

too imperfect to make an adequate key to the

species, at least one, P. oaxacanus Brandeg.,

lacking staminate flowers. The following out-

line, however, will be of some use in distin-

guishing them. Two new species described

below are included.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Staminal column none; stamens 3, solute......

cote Sit ree oat: P.. coalcomanensis Croiz.

Staminal column present; stamens connate.

Anthers 2....P. tequilensts Robins. & Greenm.

Anthers 6.

Male flowers delicate, lobes longer than

broad; staminal column slender; axes of

inflorescence often squamulose...........

TAN ie as 2 ene ne eae P. glaucescens H.B.K.

Male flowers delicate; axes of inflorescence

bearing flowers from pulvinate buds.....

Ai. thes Guat te Bera IC ae P. huallagensis Croiz.

Male flowers not delicate with broadly ovate

lobes; staminal column robust; axes of

inflorescence not squamulose.

Inflorescence long, diffuse............

gid lia cals eee AC a P. laxiflorus Benth.

Inflorescence short...) 42 4 ser eee

P. chiapensis Brandeg.

Male-flowers unknowml..-< 902.) . «ce =i-scee

P. oaxacanus Brandeg.

eoeeseceee eee se © o ©

Jan. 15, 1943

Phyllanthus coalcomanensis Croiz., sp. nov.

- Arbor; foliis magnis ad 15 em longis; in-

florescentia laxiflora; floris # perianthio 6-lobo,

ca. 6 mm lato, staminibus 3 liberis, glandulis

discretis; floris @ perianthio 6-lobo, disco e

glandulis discretis, ovario globuloso, stylis 3

reflexis. Ad P. glaucescentem H.B.K. accedit,

at staminibus discretis statim dignoscitur.

A tree or shrub about 3 m high, the older

bark reddish, wrinkled and lenticeled, quite

glabrous; leaves 5-15 cm long, 4.5-12 em broad,

blackish when dried (only young leaves seen),

thinnish, probably slightly glaucescent beneath

in life, broadly ovate, very broadly acuminate

at the tip, truncate to truncate-cordate at the

base, with about six pairs of spreading pri-

maries, widely branching toward the margin

of the blade; petiole not over 1 cm long; stipules

nearly petaloid in texture at least at the mar-

gin, irregularly broad-ovate, entire, much

veined, up to 1 cm long, 0.7 em wide; inflores-

cence o' of effuse, many-flowered sub-filiform

lateral and subterminal racemes up to 25-30

em long, monoecious; inflorescence 9? perhaps

fascicled and axillary but, more likely, occupy-

ing the basal part of some or all the @ axes;

flower o: perianth about 6-7 mm broad on a

slender pedicel about 6-8 mm long, the lobes

6, hyaline, costate in center, ligulate, rounded

at the tip, about 3 mm long, alternating with

as many disciform to globulose glands (nec-

taries), these not forming a continuous disk:

stamens 3, free, connate merely at the base;

filaments fleshy about 1 mm long ,the anthers

transverse; flower 92: perianth (not dissected,

only one seen) up to 20 mm broad on a pedicel

about 15 mm long, the lobes apparently 5,

blackish when dry, thinly hyaline at the mar-

gin, broadly ovate to rotundate, about 8 mm

long and broad; ovary globulose, quite gla-

brous, manifestly suleate on the keels and

commissures, about 4 mm long and wide; styles

3, reflexed, apparently shortly bilobed at the

tip, about 1-1.5 mm long; glands as many as

the lobes and alternating with them, erect,

puncticulate at the upper lip, apparently not

connate into a close disk.

Type: Hinton 15857, Mexico: Michoacdén,

Distr. Coalecomdn, Aquila, 400 meters. “Tree

3 meters high. Flowers white, raceme pendu-

lous, in barranca”’ (US). Syntype: Hinton

15859, same locality and date, ‘‘2 meters high.

CROIZAT: NOTES ON AMERICAN EUPHORBIACEAE 13

Flowers purple, racemes pendulous; different

from 15857” (US).

Hinton 15857 and 15859 are the same spe-

cies, the collector having been misled by the

changing color of the flowers, apparently

purple at unfolding or before unfolding, white

in full anthesis.

Phyllanthus huallagensis Standl. MS. in

sched.

Arbor, foliis ad 9 cm longis, subtus glauces-

centibus: inflorescentia racemosa ad 25 cm

longa; floris @ perianthio ca. 4 mm lato,

staminibus 3 in columnan connatis, glandulis

discretis; floris @ perianthio ca. 6 mm lato,

glandulis subconnatis, ovario globuloso ad 2

mm lato, stylis 3 brevibus. Phyilanthum

tequilensem Robins. & Greenm. admonet.

A tree, 6 m high, quite glabrous, the older

bark much lenticeled and fissured, reddish

brown; leaves 4-9 cm long, 3-5 cm broad,

brownish when dried, firmly chartaceous,

glaucescent beneath in life and slightly so in

dried specimens, round-elliptic, shortly and

broadly acuminate at the tip, cuneate to

round-cuneate, not cordate at the base, with

about six pairs of broadly ascending primaries,

conspicuous beneath, less so above, the veinlets

fairly conspicuous; petiole less than 5 mm long;

stipules triangular, small, apparently not long

persistent; inflorescences of axillary and sub-

terminal, slender but not filiform racemes up to

20-25 cm long, bearing numerous clustered

o flowers arising from manifestly pulvinate

buds and many less 9 flowers, as seen in an

apical position; flower o@: perianth about 4

mm broad, borne on a slender pedicel about 10

mm long, the lobes 6, more or less ovate to

elliptic, about 2 mm long and 1.5-2 mm broad,

alternating with 6 small glands; stamens 3,

fused into a staminal column about 1 mm long;

flower @: perianth about 5-6 mm broad, borne

on a pedicel about 3.5 mm long, the lobes 6,

more or less ovate, 1.5-2 mm long, alternating

with six suberect curved glands, almost con-

nate to form a continuous disc underneath the

ovary; ovary globose, about 2 mm long and

broad; styles 3, short, more or less reflexed and

cleft at the tip.

Type: Klug 4240, Depto. San Martin, Peru:

Juan Jui, Alto Rfo Huallaga, alt. 400-800

meters, in forest, Jan. 1936 (AA).

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

This is the only species of this section known,

so far, from Peru, somewhat reminiscent of

P. tequilensis Robins. & Greenm. from Mexico

and not too far removed from P. botryanthus

Muell. from Venezuela.

As a further help in sight-identification of

species of the section Elutanthos, the following

ranges are given: P. coalcomanensis, Michoa-

ean, Mexico; P. tequilensis, Jalisco, Mexico;

P. glaucescens (including P. adenodiscus, which

might be retained as a variety in a critical

study of this group, but does not impress me as

having a clear specific status), the entire east-

ern coast of Mexico from British Honduras

and Yucatan to Tamaulipas, Mexico; P. lazt-

florus, Guatemala; P. chiapensis, Chiapas,

Mexico—very near P. laxiflorus as far as seen;

P. huallagensis, Depto. San Martin, Peru; P.

oaxacanus, Oaxaca, Mexico. These ranges are

fairly indicative of the various centers of

endemism for the Euphorbiaceae of this region.

Phyllanthus neoleonensis Croiz., sp. nov.

Fruticulus ligneus, intricatus; foliis vix 2 cm

longis, petiolis quam stipulis brevioribus, vix

2 mm longis; inflorescentia cymulosa, axillari;

perianthio floris @ ca. 2 mm lato, 6-lobo,

staminibus 3 ad basem liberis, glandulis 6

liberis; perianthio floris @ ca. 5 mm lato, 6-

lobo, stylis brevibus; semine trigono, arillo

granuloso scabro. Phyllanthum galeottianum

Baill. atque P. liebmannianum Muell.-Arg.

admonet.

A low, woody and much intricate shrub,

probably not over 1—2 feet high, the innova-

tions herbaceous or subherbaceous, quite gla-

brous, the older shoots woody, slender, some-

times zigzag; leaves 1-2 cm long, 0.5-1.5 cm

broad, obovate to elliptic, rounded and ob-

scurely mucronate at the tip, more or less

rounded to cuneate at the base, pale olive

above, grayish or pink-grayish underneath, the

primaries obscure, delicate, about 4-5 pairs;

petiole less than 2 mm long; stipules 2-3 mm

long (that is, longer than the petioles), seta-

ceous towards the tip, irregularly broadened

towards the base, venulose, mostly purplish;

inflorescences bisexual in axillary cymules;

flower o: perianth about 2-2.5 mm wide on a

slender pedicel about 4 mm long, the lobes 6,

elliptic to elliptic-ovate, 1.5 mm long, 0.75 mm ~

broad, alternating with as many roundish

VOL. 33, No. |

glands: stamens 3, free except at the very base;

flower ¢@: perianth about 5 mm wide, on a

pedicel about 10 mm long: lobes 6, about 2—2.5

mm long, 1.5-2 mm wide, ovate, sometimes

acuminate and slightly glandular at the tip,

glands 6, erect, curving against the ovary, not

connate into a disc; ovary glabrous, 2 mm long

and wide or less, sulcate; styles 3, short, barely

bilobed at the apex; seed trigonous, 2 mm long,

1.5 mm broad, the testa brown, smoothish,

the aril black, as a loose, hard, granular dust

on the testa.

Type: Pringle 13881 bis, Nuevo Leén, Mex-

ico: Limestone ledges, Sierra Madre, near

Monterrey (GH). Syntypes: C. H. & M. TI.

Mueller 314 & 315, same locality as the type

(AA); Pringle 10810, Monterrey (GH);

Pringle 1198, Sierra Madre (GH).

The Muller material was originally deter-

mined with doubt as P. ferax Standl., a species

that P. neoleonensis superficially resembles in

its vegetative characters but from which it

differs in the much more robust habit and in the

details of floral morphology. Phyllanthus

galeottianus Baill., which is in all probability

represented by Pringle 4443, collected near

Guadalajara, Jalisco (GH), is unlike P. neo-

leonensis because of its more robust habit and

its stamens being connate to form a staminal

column. A plant bearing some resemblance to

P. neoleonensis, but more delicate and probably

not different from P. liebmannianus Muell.-

Arg., is represented by Purpus 2313, Zacuapan

and vicinity, Veracruz (GH). Lastly, Gawmer

508, Gauwmer 1817, Gawmer & Sons 23543 (all

AA), distributed as P. lathyroides, are prob-

ably conspecific with P. ferax Standl. (Bartlett

12157, Petén, Guatemala; US).

Phyllanthus mexiae Croiz., sp. nov.

Frutex; foliis setaceis, bracteis in ramulis

florigeris (vulgo pro foliis laudatis) ad 4 cm

longis; inflorescentia cymulosa axillari; floris

@ perianthio ca. 2 mm lato, staminibus 3 in

columnam connatis; floris @ perianthio ca. 7

mm lato, 6-lobo, ovario vix 1 mm magno,

stylis 3 brevibus.

A shrub, quite glabrous, the innovations

smooth and ribbed; leaves (strictly speaking)

none, transformed into acuminate stipules 2

mm long or less, marcescent at the axil of the

stiffly spreading, leafy-bracteate florigerous

JAN. 15, 19438

axes; bracts of the florigerous axes (‘‘leaves’’)

2.5-4 em long, 2—2.5 em broad, elliptic-ovate,

thinly membranous, greenish above, pale gray-

ish below but probably not glaucescent, very

broadly acuminate, sometimes mucronate at

the tip, more or less broadly and irregularly

cuneate at the base with 5-7 pairs of thin pri-

maries; petiole about 3 mm long; stipules tri-

angular, not over 2 mm long, marcescent or

deciduous; inflorescences bisexual in lax clusters

in the axils of foliaceous bracts (‘‘leaves’’);

flower o: perianth 2 mm broad or less, on a

capillary pedicel 3-5 mm long, the lobes thin,

hyaline, the glands 3 surrounding the base of

the column formed by 3 connate stamens, about

1.5 mm long; flower ?: perianth about 7 mm

broad on a pedicel about 10 mm long, the lobes

6, ovate-elliptic, 3 mm long, 1.5 mm broad,

hyaline, thinly greenish-costate along the mid-

dle, alternating with as many erect, incurved,

more or less regular glands; ovary glabrous,

somewhat depressed, about 1 mm long and

wide, with 3 reflexed styles, short and mani-

festly cleft at the tip.

Type: Ynes Mexia 6718, Ecuador, Prov. of

Leon, Canton Pajilli: Hacienda Solento, near

Santa Rosa, alt. 1,000 meters, “shrub 5 m.

high, in forest in cloud belt. Fish-poison,”’ Nov.

1934 (US).

In certain groups of Phyllanthus true leaves

are present, the florigerous axes being often

reduced, bracteate, and, strictly speaking,

leafless branchlets (see P. laxiflorus). In other

groups of the same genus the true leaves are

represented only by scales, the aspect and func-

tion of foliage being assumed by the bracts of

the florigerous axes (see P. mexiae). These

peculiarities, seldom if ever noticed, are of the

utmost importance because they furnish a

ready key to the understanding of all the very

variable inflorescences of the phyllanthoid

alliance. It is worthy of note that true leaves

appear on seedlings of species (e.g., EH. ntrurt

L.) which in their more mature aspect bear

only “‘leafy’’ florigerous axes.

Croton L.

Croton aristophlebius Croiz., sp. nov.

Ligneus; apicibus brunneo-ochraceis, sub-

argillaceo-tomentosis; foliis elliptico-lanceolatis

ad 12 cm longis, venulis venisque valde im-

pressis, primariis ca. 9-12 jugis; perianthio

CROIZAT: NOTES ON AMERICAN EUPHORBIACEAE 15

floris 2: lobis sub fructu discretis, ca. 6 mm

longis, pedicello ca. 15 mm longo, columella

ad 7 mm longa.

Crotonem celtidifolium Baill. habitu bene

simulat at indumento toto caelo discrepat.

A tree or shrub; innovations brown-ochra-

ceous, the indumentum of rough, very persist-

ent, subargillaceous trichomes; leaves 6-12 cm

long, 2-5 cm wide, elliptic-lanceolate, acumi-

nate to short-caudate at the tip, round-cuneate

at the base, glabrous, dull green, smooth above,

with sharply impressed veins and veinlets,

underneath pale-ochraceous, the indument

compactly scurfy-tomentose, the veins about

9-12 pairs, anastomosing near the entire mar-

gin, the tertiary veins sharp; petiole 1.5-2.5

cm long, vestite like the innovations, bearing

2-4 pedicelled, disciform glands at the apex on

the abaxial face of the blade; stipules almost

none; inflorescence of spicate, bisexual axes,

rather slender, up to 15-20 cm long; flower <@:

perianths immature, about 2 mm long; flower

2 (only the perianth seen after fruiting) : calyx

about 12-14 mm wide, on an ascending, ulti-

mately recurved pedicel about 14-17 mm long,

rather slender, the lobes 5, entire, ligulate to

elliptic, short-acuminate to rounded at the tip,

nowhere imbricating, 5-6 mm long, 1.5-2 mm

wide, not accrescent; petals as setaceous brown-

ish ligulae between the sepals; columella after

dehiscence about 7 mm long.

Type: Bro. Daniel 1912, Depto. Antioquia,

Colombia: Piedras Blaneas, July 1938 (US).

A strong species, distantly suggesting C.

celtidifolius Baill. but with a very different

indumentum.

Caperonia St.-Hil.

Caperonia chiltepecensis Croiz., sp. nov.

Herba, indumento delicato interdum glandu-

loso; foliis elliptico-lanceolatis vel obovatis,

nervis primariis ca. 10—14-jugis, haud profunde

dentatis; floris # perianthio delicato, sepalis

triangularibus ca. 1.5 mm _ longis, petalis

tenuissimis, ligulatis ad 2 mm longis, stamini-

bus ca. 10 in serie duplici dispositis; floris @

perianthio ad 5 mm magno, sepalis petalisque

cum o sat congruentibus, ovario depresso 1

mm longo, 2 mm lato,dorso processibus 5~7 in

cocco quolibet ornato. Caperoniam zaponetam

Mansf. Peruvianam potius in mentem vocat

quam C. palustrem, at magis delicata est.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Herb with dimorphic pubescence of short,

appressed setulose eglandulose hairs and more

or less spreading, delicate glandulose trichomes,

these not over 1 mm long; leaves fairly thin,

greenish on both faces, 5-8 em long, 2-4 cm

broad, elliptic-lanceolate at the apex of the

shoot, more or less regularly obovate at its base,

sparingly and weakly setulose on both faces, the

indumentum scattered below, mostly restricted

to the primaries above, the primaries in 10-14

pairs, thin, ascending the tertiaries manifest,

the serration shallow, the teeth barely spread-

ing at their apex, the petiole 5-10 mm long;

stipules setaceous, up to 3-4 mm long; inflores-

cences on slender axillary axes, short-branching

or dichotomous, up to 8-10 cm long: flower @:

perianth delicate, about 3 mm broad; sepals 5,

about 2.5 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, triangu-

lar; petals very thin, ligulate, about 2 mm long,

1.5-2 mm broad; stamens apparently 10, alter-

nating in two even series, the lower subsessile,

the upper borne upon a staminal column 1-1.5

mm long with filaments 0.5-1 mm long; flower

Q: perianth 4-5 mm broad, with a pedicel

about 2.5 mm long; sepals 5, elliptic, entire,

slightly glandular and cucullate at the apex,

somewhat strigulose on the back: petals 5, very

thin, white, 2-3 mm long, abruptly produced at

the base into a filiform claw about 1 mm. long,

otherwise ligulate, rotundate at the apex;

ovary depressed, 1 mm long, 2 mm broad, each

keel bearing 5-7 triangular processes, fleshy at

the base, glandulose at the apex: styles 3 flabel-

late, irregularly cleft into 5-6 nearly terete

branches, about 3-4 mm long.

Type: Martinez-Calderén 334, Mexico, Oa-

xaca: Distr. Tuxtepec, Chiltepec and vicinity,

20 meters, 1941 (US).

Despite its being much more delicate in all

its parts this species seems to be most closely

allied with C. Zaponeta Mansf., from Peru

(Klug 3954, GH). It differs from C. palustris

St. Hil. in the finer indument, in the less open

and spreading serration, in the different epi-

carp, and in the general outline of the foliage.

Jatropha L.

Jatropha deutziiflora Croiz., sp. nov.

Stimulosa, folia visa ad 35-27 cm magna,

7-loba, basi optime sinuata; inflorescentia longe

pedunculata ca. 40 cm longa; perianthio floris

? ca. 10 mm longo, lobis 5 albicantibus, car-

VOL. 33, NO. 1-

nosulis, calyptratim deciduis; ovario glaberrimo

3 mm longo in disco insidente integro ca. 1 mm

crasso, stylis 3, quolibet apice in laciniis 6

diviso. Cum J. longipede Pax e descriptione

congruere videtur, in sect. Calyptrosolene.

Probably a large shrub, the specimen con-

sisting only of a leaf, a petiole, and a cyme with

2 flowers; leaf large, about 27 cm long, 35 cm

broad, quite glabrous on both faces, very thin,

brittle, greenish on both faces with brownish

veins, 7-lobed, the 3 median lobes subsimilar,

about 20 cm. long and 8 cm wide, with about

7-9 pairs of broadly spreading primaries and

with distant tertiaries often running parallel to

the main veins, the margin of the lobes coarsely

and not profoundly dentate, lined by numerous

stimulose hairs, these not over 1.5—2.5 mm long,

inconspicuous, almost parallel with the margin

the lateral lobes faleating and shorter, the

external 2 hardly more than lobules, 5-6 cm

long, about 3.5 em broad, the base of the leaf

cut to form a wide sinus very nearly lined by

the excurrent midribs of the outer lobes, the

petiole quite herbaceous, ribbed, glabrous; in-

florescence a long-peduncled cyme about 40

cm long, armed below with ascending, rather

small, stimulose hairs, becoming almost un-

armed and finely puberulous at the tip, the

flowers much crowded upon short dichotomous —

branches; perianth @ about 10-11 mm long,

the 5 lobes about 8 mm long, 3 mm broad,

obovate to subspatulate, fleshy, quite whitish,

falling off neatly from the persistent greenish

base of the perianth; ovary quite glabrous, 3

mm long, 2 mm broad, on a continuous disk

about 1 mm thick; styles 3 about 2.5-3 mm

long, each divided at the tip into about six

branches, these sometimes shallowly cleft or

lobed at the apex.

Type: Martinez-Calderén 77, Mexico, Oa-

xaca: Tuxtepec, Chiltepec and vicinity, alt.

about 20 meters, July, 1940-February, 1941

(US).

Nearest to J. longipes Pax from Colombia.

Differs from the Mexican species of sect.

Calyptrosolen, to judge from descriptions, in

the glabrous ovary.

- Manihot Mill.

Manihot aesculifolia (H.B.K.) Pohl, Pl. Bras.

Ic. Descr. 1: 55. 1827; Muell.-Arg. in DC.

Prodr. 157: 1065. 1866; Pax & Hoffm.

Pflanzenreich IV. 147. 2: 58. 1910.

Jan. 15, 1943

Janipha aesculifolia H.B.K. Nov. Gen. 2: 85.

pl. 109. 1817.

Pax describes this species as having ‘‘limbus

membranaceus, basi cordatus, concolor,” list-

ing only the type, collected by Humboldt on

the Gulf of Campeche. Bangham 300, Hon-

duras: San Pedro Sula, 1929 (AA), erroneously

distributed as M. dulcis, so perfectly agrees

with the type-illustration of M. aesculifolva in

its vegetative and in floral characters that I

have little hesitation in referring it to this spe-

cies, despite its having a leaf that is not ‘‘con-

color’ but strongly glaucescent at the lower

face.

Manihot dulcis (J. F. Gmel.) Pax, Pflanzen-

reich, IV. 147. 2: 71. 1910.

Jatropha dulcis J. F. Gmel. Onom. Bot. 5:

7. 1772-1778, fide Pax.

Three collections from Peru, which very

likely represent the same species are: Killip &

Smith 22722, Depto. Ayachuco: Aina; Klug

2662, Depto. San Martin: Pongo de Caina-

rachi; Skutch 5009, Depto. Loreto: Rio Ucayali

(all AA). In this plant the leaf is almost always

3-foliate, sparingly pubescent to glabrate on

the veins, innovations, and floral axes. The

_ Skutch collection has a fruit that lacks ‘‘wings,”’

which, taken together with all the other charac-

ters, identifies the specimens cited as M. dulcis,

in the sense of Pax. Killip & Smith 22722 shows

remnants of a fine rufous pubescence and may

be M. dulcis var. ferruginea (Muell.-Arg.) Pax,

accepted by Mueller for the subandine regions

of Peru (DC. Prodr. 152: 1063. 1866, under

M. palmata (Vell.) Muell.-Arg.), but questioned

there by Pax. Manthot pavoniana Muell.-Arg.,

another Peruvian species, agrees so far as the

descriptions with the cited collections in some

characters, but differs in the glabrous perianth

and stamens. Killip & Smith 22722 and Klug

2662 have been identified as M. utilissima Pohl,

a determination which the fruit of Skutch 5009

now shows to be untenable.

Gymnanthes Swartz

Gymnanthes texana Standl. Proc. Biol. Soe.

Washington 39: 135. 1926.

This species is to be excluded from the

Euphorbiaceae. Inspection of Tharp 3634,

the type in the U. 8. National Herbarium,

CROIZAT: NOTES ON AMERICAN EUPHORBIACEAE Ly

having convinced me that the plant was not

of this family, I called it to the attention of

HK. J. Palmer, of the Arnold Arboretum, and of

V. L. Cory, of the Texas Agricultural Experi-

ment Station in Sonora. Both these botanists

promptly recognized it as Forestiera reticulata

Torr., an identification confirmed by the char-

acters of the wood of Tharp 3634, which show

unquestionable kinship with the Oleaceae. I

am deeply indebted to Mr. Cory for the fol-

lowing additional data (tn litt., Nov. 24, 1941):

‘“Tharp’s] material is identical with that which

I collected on a hillside sixteen miles north of

Comstock on August 15 of this year. My study

had convinced me that this was Forestiera

reticulata Torr. Mr. Ernest J. Palmer reports

that my material undoubtedly is of that spe-

cies. The peculiar thing about this plant is the

remarkable difference between the pistillate

and the staminate aspect. In my limited obser-

vation, the former grows to an height of six

feet or more, with leaves that are prominently

porulose beneath, and the plant is, in appear-

ance, a typical Forestiera. On the other hand,

the staminate plant, or at least the one I have

seen growing, is a foot or less in height with the

aspect of a shrubby species of Croton and the

leaves imperceptibly porulose. I made addi-

tional collections from this plant on November

12 and at this time it was easy to take it as a

Forestiera and not a spurge.”’

The following synonymy is consequently

affirmed :

Forestiera reticulata Torr. U. 8S. & Mex. Bound.

Bot. 168. 1859=Gymnanthes texana Standl.

Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 39: 135. 1926.

Senefeldera Mart.

The generic name has been spelled Sene-

feldera and Sennefeldera, and Mueller-Argo-

viensis has proposed! the latter spelling as an

alternative to the former. The correct version

is Senefeldera as given® by Pax and Hoffmann,

the genus having been named by Martius in

honor of Alois Senefelder (1771-1834), a citizen

of Munich, and the inventor of lithography.

The name of the lithographer of Vellozo, Flora

Fluminensis, as shown on the title-page of this

work, is Senefelder.

4 Mart, Fl. Bras. 112: 528. 1874.

5 Pflanzenreich LY. 147. 5: 23. 1912.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Senefeldera verticillata (Vell.) Croiz., comb.

nov.

Omphalea verticillata Vell. Fl. Flum. 10: pl.

15. 1827.

Senefeldera multiflora Mart. Flora 242, Beibl.

2: 29. 1841; Pax & Hoffmann, Pflanzen-

reich IV. 147. 5: 23. 1912.

Pax and Hoffmann and J. Mueller have

placed O. verticillata Vell. in the synonymy of

S. multiflora Mart., failing, however, to effect

the combination required under the Interna-

tional Rules. I present this combination here,

believing that Vellozo’s plate 15 (not 152, as

cited by Pax and Hoffmann) is correctly under-

stood by all these authors to illustrate Sene-

feldera, not Omphalea.

Senefeldera macrophylla Ducke, Arch. Jard.

Bot. Rio de Janeiro 4: 113. 1925.

To this species or to a very nearly related

one belongs A. C. Smith 2960 (AA), collected

on the southern slopes of the Akarai Mountain

in the drainage basin of Rio Mapuera, Pard,

Brazil, 1938.

Senefeldera nitida Croiz., sp. nov.

Arbor; foliis 10-18 em longis, 6.5—8 em latis,

late ellipticis, apice breviter acuminato-mu-

cronatis, more proprio nitidis, venis primariis

ca. 12-jugis; capsula submatura 1.5 cm longa,

2.5 cm lata, laevissima.

A medium-size tree with quite glabrous in-

novations; leaves 10-18 cm long, 6.5-8 cm

broad, very broadly elliptic and very broadly

and shortly acuminate-mucronate, coriaceous,

brownish, glossy on both faces but especially

above, quite entire, very obscurely cordate at

the base and here barely glandular, the glands

scarlike and inconspicuous; primaries about 12

pairs, all patent, thin but sharp, the anas-

tomoses inconspicuous, the petiole 3-4 cm long;

inflorescence seen only in fruit and mostly

broken off, typical of the genus, subapical and

many-branched, the branches stoutish; only

one capsule seen, almost ripe, 1.5 em long, 2.5

cm broad, manifestly trigonous and depressed,

the rounded keels of the cocci thinly grooved,

the epicarp quite smooth.

Type: Krukoff 7126, Brazil, State of Ama-

zonas: Basin Rio Madeira, Municipality Hu-

mayta, on plateau between Rio Livramento

and Rio Ipixuna, 1934 (AA).

VOL. 33, NO. 1

Distributed as S. karsteniana Pax & Hoffm.,

Triana 5791-1, in the Colombian National

Herbarium, collected at Villavicencio, the clas-

sic locality of S. karsteniana, and in all prob-

ability this species, is certainly different from

Krukoff 7126. The peculiarly glossy foliage is

characteristic.

Senefeldera skutchiana Croiz., sp. nov.

Arbor; foliis 15-10 cm longis, 8-3 em latis,

late ellipticis, nervis primariis ca. 10—14-jugis

utrinque conspicuis, glandulis nullis vel subnul-

lis, petioli apice atrato; inflorescentia apicali,

paniculam decompositam simulante; floribus

o& vulgo ternatis, staminibus 5-8 in bracteolae

axilla ad 2 mm longae, margine hyalino erosae;

floribus @ bracteis 3 integris lanceolatis cir-

cumdatis, ad 2.5 mm longis, interdum flore

laterali @ auctis, ovario ad 2 mm longo sub-

fusiformi, stylis carnosis vix divaricatis.

A medium-sized tree, quite glabrous; leaves

10-15 cm long, 3-8 cm broad, firmly charta-

ceous to subcoriaceous, greenish when dry,

broadly elliptic, short-acuminate to apiculate

at the tip, the apex of the blade slightly glandu-

lar at the end of the midrib and here somewhat

reflexed, broadly cuneate to subrotund at the

base, the margins entire, the primary veins

about 10-14 pairs, sharp on both faces not all

anastomosing, the glands almost wanting, only

the apex of the petiole slightly enlarged, black-

ish when dry, and the base of the blade in

certain leaves obscurely spotted above, near

the insertion of the petiole, the petiole com-

paratively slender, 2.5-8 cm long; inflorescence

apical, of numerous spiciform stiffish axes,

about 20 cm long and wide, appearing as if

compound-panicled, the #@ flowers very nu-

merous, the @ fewer and basally borne

or tending to be mixed with the staminate on

certain axes; flowers co usually borne in 3’s

in the axil of an ovate to elliptic-ovate scale,

1.5-2 mm long, erose and thin at the margin,

the central flower very seldom reaching matur-

ity in the lower part of the florigerous axes

but usually evolute and alone in the upper one

by abortion of the lateral flowers, the pedicel

with a low articulation, about 2 mm long,

bearing adaxially a bract, open and holding

5-8 stamens about 1.5-2 mm long; flower

9: perianth of 3 lanceolate entire imbricate

bracts, sometimes glandular at the base inside,

Jan. 15, 1943

about 1.5-2.5 mm long, with an occasional

lateral & flower; ovary 1.5—-2 mm long, taper-

ing at both ends with rather fleshy styles not

divaricate, as seen, about 3 mm long.

Type: Skutch 4967, Peru, Depto. Hudnuco,

Tingo Marfa, alt. 2,500 feet, a tree 60 feet high

with yellowish flowers, August, 1940 (AA).

Syntype: Skutch 4961, same locality and date,

at 2,300 feet, (AA).

A very distinct species, suggesting at first

sight some rutaceous plant (for instance, re-

sembling Evodia), with comparatively slender

and numerous florigerous axes.

Pedilanthus Neck.

I reinstated® Tithymalus Mill., this being the

earlier validly published name for this group,

but Pedilanthus has subsequently been pro-

posed’ as a nomen genericum conservandum by

Wheeler. In view of the existing international

situation it is not likely that the Botanical

Congress can decide in the near future between

Tithymalus and Pedilanthus. Thus, not to

deepen the existing controversy and further to

disturb nomenclature, I accept Pedilanthus as

proposed by Wheeler.

Pedilanthus coalcomanensis Croiz., sp. nov.

Arbor 15-pedalis: innovationibus inflores-

centis lanulosis; bracteis floralibus conspicuis,

vinosis, ad 2.5 cm longis; cyathio horizontali

calcarato 15 mm longo, 10 mm lato; appendice

integra ad 10 mm longa, apice callosula, dorso

impresso-canaliculata, glandulis 4, lobis su-

peris 3 connatis, apice acuminatis, lobis la-

teralibus 2 apice rotundato-carinatis; floribus

@ (staminibus) ad 30; flore 9 (ovario) ad 4

mm longo (ut adest), gynophoro 5-7 mm longo,

stylo filiformi ad 13 mm longo, apice breviter

trifido, cruribus ad 2 mm longis. Species more

proprio bracteata, appendice cyathii integra.

A tree about 5 m high; innovations lanu-

lose, older wood with a grayish smooth bark,

glabrous; leaves seen none; inflorescence sur-

rounded by conspicuous bracts of variable

length but probably not longer than 2.5 em

and about 1.75-2.25 cm broad, ovate, mu-

cronulate, subcordate at the broadly clasping

base, wine-colored at the margins, softly whit-

6 Amer. Journ. Bot. 24: 703. 1937.

7 Contr. Gray Herb. no. 124: 47. 1939.

CROIZAT: NOTES ON AMERICAN EUPHORBIACEAE

ish pubescent, indument lanulose; internodes

of the cyme scarcely over 1 cm long, all lanu-

lose; cyathium manifestly calecarate, about 15

mm long, and 10 cm broad, the anterior margin

rounded, the posterior evidently produced,

horizontal or nearly so, wine-colored, on a

pedicel about 10-12 mm long, sparingly lanu-

lose; appendix entire, about 10 mm long, that

is, shorter than the cyathium, bearing three

grooves above, ending in an entire or scarcely

lobulate glandular tip; glands four, set under

the fornicate appendix, not stipitate, rather

small; upper calyx-lobes 3, connate for a longer

or shorter tract, about as long as the lateral

calyx-lobes, acuminate; stamens (in reality, @

flowers) about 20-30, 10-15 mm long; ovary

(2 flower), as seen, about 4 mm long, 2.5 mm

broad, glabrous, on a gynophore about 5-7

mm long; style filiform, 10-13 mm long, shortly

trifid at the tip, the branches 1.5-2 mm long,

slightly cleft to bilobed.

Type: Hinton 15765, Mexico: Coaleomdén,

Michoacdn. Sierra Naranjillo 1,550 m, tree

5 m, bracts red, locally known as candelvlla,

in woods, 1941 (US).

The apparently involved morphology of the

cyathium of Pedilanthus can easily be ex-

plained, if only it is realized that this cyathium

is homologous with a much coarctate inflores-

cence of Dalechampia, the upper part of the

inflorescence, which bears glands and & flower

in this genus, being replaced by a chamber

with glands in Pedilanthus. The lower part of

the inflorescence carries three @ flowers in

Dalechampia but only one @ flower and nu-

merous @ flowers in Pedilanthus. It stands to

reason that the structural details of the cy-

athium of Pedilanthus have as much taxonomic

significance as those of the inflorescence of

Dalechampia and that, unlike Huphorbia and

Chamaesyce, Pedilanthus can readily be keyed

on floral characters once the proper position

and evolution of these characters is understood.

Millspaugh’s fundamental paper® keys out

the species of sect. Hupedilanthus in two

groups,? one having an appendix entire, the

other bipartite. The latter group is once again

divided into two lesser divisions, with and with-

out colored floral bracts. Pedilanthus coalco-

manensis thus belongs to a group of its own,

8 Field Mus. Bot. 2: 353-371. 1913.

9 Op. cit. 354.

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

having an entire appendix and colored floral

bracts. I find no species, either in the herbaria

I have visited or in the descriptions I have read,

that agree with this new one.

Pedilanthus personatus Croiz., sp. nov.

Frutex ad 10 ped. altus; innovationibus pu-

berulis; cyathio calearato, horizontali ad 12

mm longo, 8 mm lato, appendice 8 mm longa,

acuminata, ad basem imam partita, glandulis

4, quarum 2 in infundibulo sacciformi ex ap-

pendice fornicata, 2 in suturis inter lobos su-

peros lateralesque; lobis superis 3, longe

acuminatis vix connatis; floribus # (stamin-

ibus) ad 20 vel ultra; flore 9 (ovario) tomen-

tello ca. 2.5 mm longo, gynophoro optime

articulato, stylo ca. 10 mm longo, stigmatibus

brevissimis.

A shrub 10 feet high; stems pale green, pu-

berulous at the tips, the inflorescence congested

in apical, very short cymes; leaves and bracts

not seen; cyathium puberulous, about 10-12

mm long and 8 mm broad, the appendix fully

8 mm long, rather pointed, cleft down to its

obscurely saccate base, bearing at the base and

on either side 2 stipitate glands; lateral lobes 2,

rounded at their apex; upper lobes 3, subcon-

nate and readily separating, about 10 mm long,

slightly spatulate at the tip, the lateral 2 bear-

ing each a gland along the line of connation

with the adjacent lobes, these two glands being

visible from the outside in a characteristic

manner (hence the specific name); stamens

(@ flowers) numerous, 20 or more; ovary ( 2

flower) finely grayish-tomentellous, about 2.5

mim long, on a gynophore deeply articulate, ca.

10 mm long, the style about 10 mm long, in-

crassate at the base; stigmas very short, ap-

parently cleft and elobulate.

Type: J. B. Edwards 581, Honduras, Coma-

guaya, in semiarid notaries. at 1,800 feet,

locally called “ditamo real,’’ Repenany 1933

(AA).

Distributed as P. macradenius Donn. Smith,

an altogether different species. It keys near

P. oerstedit Kl. & Garcke and P. aphyllus Boiss.,

but it does not agree in the slightest with the

latter, as interpreted by Millspaugh’ and il-

lnsimnned by Botteri 968 (GH). Pedilanthus

oerstedit is published with an inadequate de-

scription, there being a possible question

10 Op. cit. 367.

VOL. 33, NO. 1

whether its status is better than that of a

nomen nudum. Its classic locality is not far

from that of P. personatus but it may not be

the same species if, as it is affirmed" by Boissier

and by Millspaugh, it is closely related with P.

aphyllus, The specimen of P. oerstedit is now

inaccessible.

Euphorbia L.

Euphorbia crispata Hornem. Hort. Bot. Hafn.

Suppl. 58. 1819; Link, Enum. Pl. Hort.

Berol. Edit. Alt. 2: SMS 22%

Euphorbia undulata Bernh. ex Hornem.

Hort. Bot. Hafn. 2: 507.’ 181s Waller

(Schlecht.) Enum. Pl. Hort. Berol. Suppl. 28.

1813, nomen nudum. Non E. undulata M. a B.

Fl. Taur.-Caue. 1: 371. 1808.

Euphorbia pubescens Desf. Fl. Atl. 1: 386.

1798 (excl. syn. Vahlit); Gussone, Syn. FI. Sic.

1: 541. 1842, and 2: 828. 1848; Reich. Ic. Fl.

Germ. 5: pl. 188, fig. 4769. 1841; Boiss. in

DC. Prodr. 15?: 134. 1862; Batt. & Trab. FI.

Algér. 795. 1890 (excl. var.) ; Lojacono-Pojero,

Fl. Sic. 2?: 333. 1904; Jahand. & Maire, Cat.

Pl. Maroc 2: 464. 1932 (saltem p. p.). Non £.

pubescens Vahl, Symb. Bot. 2: 55. 1791.

With Jacquin,!* Gussone, and Lojacono-Po-

jero I believe that Desfontaines and the au-

thors who have followed him erred in their

interpretation of Vahl’s E. pubescens, the

whole trend of the evidence standing against

Desfontaines’s and Boissier’s decisions. The

correct binomial for the plant called by these

authors E. pubescens is E. crispata Hornem.,

so far as I may learn from the literature. It is

strange that Vahl’s species, not to mention mis-

applications, should have accumulated not less

than four probable synonyms, as follows: (1)

E. vahlia Jacq. Eel. 1: 99. in not. 1813; (2)

E. vahliana Guss. Syn. Fl. Sic. 2: 829. in not.

1843; (3) HE. bonae Mutel, Fl. Frang. 3: 151.

(in not.) 1836; (4) EH. cossoniana Boiss., in DC.

Prodr. 152: 135. 1862; Vahl, Mutel, and Bois-

sier practically giving the same descriptions

and suggesting the same comparisons with E,

helroscopia L.

Martinez s. n., Chapultepec, near Mexico

City, July, 1940, belongs to H. crispata Hor-

nem. (EH. pubescens auct., non Vahl), and is ap-

parently the first record of this Mediterranean

plant as an escape in American floras.

11 DC. Prodr. 152: 6. 1862.

122 Hel. 1: 98-99. pl. 66. 1813.

JAN. 15; 1943

DRECHSLER: OOMYCETES ASSOCIATED WITH ROOT ROT 21

BOTAN Y.—Antagonism and parasitism among some oomycetes associated with root

rot.

Among the many species of Pythium that

may be isolated, especially in wet seasons,

from softened, discolored, or decaying por-

tions of the roots, stems, or basal leaves of

herbaceous cultivated plants, some prove

ineffective, under ordinary circumstances,

for bringing about the root rot, stem rot, or

erown rot with which they were found as-

sociated. When these relatively innocuous

fungi are not attended by more strongly

pathogenic forms, their occurrence in dis-

eased plants is usually held to derive from

some limited capacity for parasitism where-

by they are enabled to attack phanerogamic

hosts that have become much weakened, or

in part moribund, as the result of unfavor-

able external conditions. On the other hand,

when, as very often comes to pass, an in-

nocuous species is found accompanied by

a demonstrably pathogenic form—or, per-

haps, even by two or three such forms—

there is reason to presume usually that it

entered the plant as a secondary invader,

and then propagated itself saprophytically

by drawing nourishment from tissues al-

ready killed by an earlier invader. However,

a more complicated system of biotic rela-

tionships would seem to obtain in many

cases of root rot where any one of the three

echinulate species I described under the

names P. oligandrum, P. acanthicum, and

P. pertplocum (9) is present as secondary

invader, since on transparent agar media

these species freely display destructive para-

sitism on many root-rotting forms con-

generic with them.

When, for example, Pythium ultimum

Trow and P. oligandrum both grow out from

a piece of decaying pea (Pisum sativum L.)

root into a Petri plate of maizemeal-agar

culture medium—as, indeed, has often hap-

pened in subjecting diseased pea roots from

Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, and New

York, to procedure suitable for isolation of

oomycetes—the former is attacked by the

latter in spectacular manner. The same

parasitic development can be brought to

1 Received July 16, 1942.

CHARLES DRECHSLER, Bureau of Plant Industry.

light conveniently by planting the two fungi

some distance apart on a maizemeal-agar

plate. Along the line where the two growing

mycelia meet, the advance of P. ultemum

is abruptly halted and its hyphae become

enveloped in innumerable places by in-

tricately ramifying branches of P. oli-

gandrum (Fig. 1). Soon these branches pene-

trate into the enveloped hyphae and extend

prolongations longitudinally within them to

assimilate the degenerating protoplasmic

contents. Here and there the internal fila-

ments send out ramifications that attack

other hyphae of P. ultsmum. Conidia and

young oogonia of P. ultimum are also at-

tacked, though apparently with less readi-

ness than young vegetative hyphae. Often

the destruction is so rapid and thorough-

going that in only scattered portions of the

ultimum mycelium is sexual reproduction

permitted to reach a stage where the thick

oospore wall affords reliable protection.

Pythium debaryanum Hesse and P. trregu-

lare Buism. (3), which occur as casual agents

of root rot and damping-off almost as fre-

quently as P. ultimum, have likewise been

observed undergoing violent attack by P.

oligandrum, not only in dual cultures pre-

pared purposely for such observation, tak-

ing place in the transparent medium merely

continues the destruction, but also in iso-

lation plate cultures where manifestly the

destruction spontaneously begun in such

natural substrata as tomato (Lycopersicon

esculentum Mill.) roots, pansy (Viola tricolor

L.) roots, sugar-beet (Beta vulgaris L.)

seedlings, and peach (Prunus persica Sieb.

& Zuce.) seedlings. P. mammillatum Meurs

(13), often found in discolored rootlets of

field tomatoes in Maryland and Virginia,

is attacked by P. oligandrum in dual cul-

tures no less severely than the three familiar

damping-off species with which it belongs

taxonomically as a member of an inti-

mately interrelated series. In the same

series must be included also an apparently

undescribed species found occurring abun-

dantly during May, 1939, on pansies seri-

ously affected with root rot in the District

Da pe JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of Columbia; the fertilization of its large

oogonia, which often measured 28 to 33y in

diameter, by an antheridium consisting fre-

quently of an adjacent hyphal segment,

relating it more particularly to P. ultimum.

This species, too, is very destructively para-

sitized by P. oligandrum in dual cultures,

penetration of its hyphae being accom-

plished after they have been closely en-

veloped by ramifications of the spiny form

(Fig. 2, A). Again, when P. splendens

Braun, a species less intimately related to

those commonly causing damping-off, is

grown in dual culture with P. oligandrum,

it suffers elaborate envelopment of its

hyphae, which then are permeated longi-

tudinally by narrow filaments of the spiny

form and expropriated of their degenerating

contents (Fig. 2, B). P. salpingophorum

Drechsl. (9) similarly is attacked with spec-

tacular effect, while P. butlert Subr., P.

graminicolum Subr., and P. arrhenomanes

Drechsl., as also the three interrelated pro-

liferous species I described under the names

P. helicoides, P. oedochilum, and P. palin-

genes (9) suffer less severely in encounters

with P. oligandrum.

As Pythium acanthicum and P. peri-

plocum have only occasionally been ob-

tained from softened or discolored roots,

isolation plate cultures have afforded little

opportunity for observing the behavior of

these echinulate species toward the con-

generic forms known to cause root troubles.

However, when the two species are grown

in dual cultures with various congeners

pathogenic to phanerogamic plants, para-

sitic activity similar to that of P. okgandrum

comes to light: P. ultimum, P. debaryanum,

P. irregulare, P. mammillatum, P. splendens,

P. salpingophorum, and the ulttmum-like

form found prevalent in pansy roots, being

attacked in a most destructive manner,

whereas, in general, P. buileri, P. gramini-

colum, P. arrhenomanes, P. helicoides, P.

oedochilum, and P. palingenes incur less

ruinous injury. That aquatic congeners are

subject to similar adverse action is evident

from the readiness with which, in dual cul-

tures, delicate ramifications of P. acanthi-

cum (Fig. 2, C, a; D, a) as well as of P. peri-

plocum (Fig. 2, EK, a) invest the hyphae of

VOL. 33, NO. Il

P. marsipium (Fig. 2,-C, b; D, b; E, b)j4

species I recently described (12) from de-

caying leaves of the white waterlily, Nym-

phaea tuberosa Paine.

The three species of Pythium thus given

to attacking other members of the genus

are distinguished, even when growing alone,

by a delicate mycelial habit achieved

through unusually abundant development

of slender branches that arise laterally from

axial filaments of moderate width. No such

copious production of slender branches suit-

able for envelopment of alien hyphae occurs

in the vegetative growth of P. megalacan-

thum de Bary sensu Buisman (3), a form

associated with flax (Linum usitatissimum

L.) scorch in The Netherlands, or of the two

closely related American species, similarly

provided with large oogonia, which I de-

scribed (9) as P. mastophorum and P. poly-

mastum. The separateness of the two spiny

series, indicated by marked differences both

in make-up of sexual apparatus and in

mycelial texture, is further evidenced by

ready parasitism of the three delicate

species on all three of the coarse species.

The parasitism of P. acanthicum on P.

mastophorum, initiated by extensive en-

wrapment of mastophorum filaments (Fig.

2, F), has in some instances led to more

severe injury than usually eventuates in

any of the other eight combinations of host

and parasite that are possible between the

two series. Since the oogonia of the coarse

forms are often invaded even during rela-

tively late stages in their growth, their

capacious spiny envelopes often come to

surround from three to six alien echinulate

oogonia, each usually containing a mature

oospore of normal structure.

Pythium anandrum, which I originally de-

scribed from decaying underground buds of

rhubarb (Rheum rhaponticum L.) in Mary-

land (9), and which more recently was also

found associated with crown rot of rhubarb

in California (14), has its oogonia orna-

mented with tapering protuberances that

in general shape resemble the oogonial

spines of P. oligandrum, but its mycelium

lacks any extensive development of fine

ramifications, being rather similar in coarse-

ness and manner of branching to the myce-

JAN. 15, 1943 DRECHSLER: OOMYCETES ASSOCIATED WITH ROOT ROT 23

lium of P. debaryanum or of P. irregulare. drum, though for the most part not with

As might be expected, in view of such simi- much severity. However, P. acanthicum and

larity, the species is attacked by P. oligan- PP. periplocum ordinarily show more pro-

Fig. 1.—Pythium oligandrum attacking P. ultimum in dual culture on maizemeal agar;

approximately 400. Photomicrograph taken by Marguerite S. Wilcox.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

nounced aggressiveness in their attack on

P. anandrum, many of the hyphae envel-

oped by them being subsequently invaded

and expropriated of contents. Pythiogeton

autossytum, a pythiaceous fungus that I

isolated and described (10) from softened

leaf-sheaths of the common cat-tail, Typha

latifolia L., also is attacked only feebly by

P. oligandrum, yet suffers appreciable injury

when grown in dual culture with either P.

acanthicum or P. periplocum. Wherever a

filament of P. periplocum (Fig. 2, G, a;

H, a) encounters one of P. autossytum (Fig.

2, G, b; H, b) it envelops the latter with

branches whose somewhat lobate, rounded

tips evidently become affixed by means of an

adhesive secretion, after the manner of ap-

pressoria.

While Pythium oligandrum thus is inimi-

cal in varying degree to many pythiaceous

fungi, it is itself affected unfavorably by a

number of oomycetes found associated with

root rot. When grown in dual culture with

the congeneric P. complens Fischer [= P.

gracile Schenk sensu de Bary (1, 2), P.

gracile (de Bary) sensu Ward (16), P. toru-

losum Coker & Patterson (4)], which occurs

widely in the decaying roots of numerous

phanerogamic plants, including, for example,

pansies, peas, sugar beets, beans (Phaseolus

vulgaris L.), spinach (Spinacia oleracea

Mill.), and sugar cane (Saccharum offici-

narum L.), a few of its hyphae are attacked

and invaded for short distances (Fig. 3, A).

It suffers much more severe injury from

Plectospira myriandra Drechsl., a saproleg-

niaceous fungus originally isolated from

tomato rootlets (7). A growing mycelium of

P. oligandrum is abruptly halted in its ad-

vance wherever it encounters a growing

mycelium of P. myriandra. Everywhere in

the zone of encounter the hyphae of P. oli-

gandrum are elaborately enveloped by rami-

fications put forth from axial filaments of

P. myriandra (Fig. 3, B). An increased

opaqueness of the enveloped hyphae soon

announces the onset of progressive disor-

ganization within them. Some of the affected

hyphal parts are penetrated and invaded

lengthwise, with consequent disappearance

of their degenerating protoplasmic ma-

terials; though, on the whole, utilization of

VOL. 33, NO. 1

such materials would seem hardly com-

mensurate with the expenditure entailed in

enwrapping the Pythiwm filaments.

Injury from encounter with Plectospira

myriandra is incurred likewise by Pythium

pertplocum and Pythium acanthicum, and in

varying measure also by many other con-

generic species less intimately related to

Pythium oligandrum, including those most

frequently found responsible for damping-

off, root rot, stem rot, and fruit rot. More-

over, destructive behavior toward pythia-

ceous fungi is not limited to P. myriandra,

but is displayed with equally telling effect

by three root-rotting strains of Aphano-

myces obtained from infected roots,—two

of the strains in question having been iso-

lated from discolored roots of flax and

spinach, respectively (11), several years

before the third was isolated from softened

cortex of a pansy root dug up in Arlington,

Va., on May 4, 1939. Judging from the ori-

gin and positional relationships of their

antheridial branches, the flax and spinach

strains appear certainly referable to A.

cladogamus, a species I based originally on

cultures obtained from tomate rootlets (8);

and the pansy strain, despite some aber-

rance, would seem better referable to this

species than to any other hitherto described.

At all events the three strains, when grown

in dual culture with numerous species of

Pythium, show decided parallelism in their

strongly antagonistic behavior. Thus, when

the spinach strain encounters the pythia-

ceous form from decaying waterlily leaves,

which, owing to its production of very large

globose intramatrical reproductive bodies,

appears identical with the form that Diss-

mann (6) assimilated to P. undulatum Pet.,

it puts forth elaborate ramifications to en-

velop and destroy the alien hyphae (Fig. 3,

C) much after the same manner in which

the pansy strain puts forth elaborate rami-

fications to envelop and destroy hyphae of

P. dissotocum Drechsl. (Fig. 3, D), a species

causing important damage to sugar cane

under unfavorable conditions (15).

Less aggressive antagonism is usually dis-

played by Aphanomyces cochlioides Drechsl.,

a water mold often causing damping-off and

root rot of sugar beets in wet fields (8).

JAN. 15, 1943 DRECHSLER: OOMYCETES ASSOCIATED WITH ROOT ROT

Fig. 2.—Attack of three echinulate species of Pythium on several pythiaceous fungi

in dual cultures; all parts drawn to a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera

lucida; X1000. A, Pythium oligandrum, a, enveloping a filament of an ultimum-like

congeneric species from pansy roots, b. B, P. oligandrum, a, enveloping and invading a

filament of Pythium splendens, b. C, D, Pera acanthicum, a, enveloping Pythium

marsipium, b. “E, Pythium periplocum, a, enveloping a filament of P. marsipium, b.

F, Pythium acanthicum, a, enveloping a ‘filament of Pythium mastophorum, b. G, H,

Se, periplocum, a, enveloping Pythiogeton autossytum, b.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 1

Seances tt

C. Drechsler dei.

Fig. 3.—Harmful relationships between various oomycetes; all parts drawn to a

uniform magnification with the aid of a camera lucida; 1000. A, Pythiwm complens, a,

attacking and invading Pythium oligandrum, b. B, Plectospira myriandra, a, attacking

P. oligandrum, b. C, Spinach strain of Aphanomyces cladogamus, a, attacking a filament,

b, of Pythium undulatum sensu Dissmann. D, Pansy strain of A. cladogamus, a, attack-

ing Pythiwm dissotocum, b.

JAN. 15, 1948

When this saprolegniaceous parasite en-

counters Pythium debaryanum or P. mam-

millatum in dual culture, it abruptly halts

the advance of the alien mycelium and

causes protoplasmic degeneration in termi-

nal portions of alien hyphae along the zone

of encounter; the injury evidently coming

about, for the most part, from mere pro-

pinquity, since often no special involve-

ment of alien hyphae can be detected.

Growing in opposition to P. myriotylum

Drechsl., which frequently is responsible for

field decay of watermelon fruits in Florida,

A. cochlioides has sometimes been observed

extending rangy hyphae to wind loosely

about alien filaments here and there, and

occasionally has, in addition, been seen put-

ting forth short branches to promote proto-

plasmic degeneration in these filaments, or

even to invade them internally on a small

scale.

From their pathogenic behavior under

experimental conditions there is reason to

believe that both Aphanomyces cochlioides

and A. cladogamus operate mainly as direct

parasites on the phanerogamic plants in

which they occur habitually. The direct

parasitism of Pythiwm periplocum and P.

acanthicum in causing blossom-end rot of

watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.)

fruits could not readily be questioned even

if experimental evidence of their infective

capabilities were lacking, for when occur-

ring in specimens of this rot the two echinu-

late species are usually unaccompanied by

other likely agents of decay. In the eco-

logical assemblage of oomycetes here under

consideration, a capacity for bringing about

disease in higher plants can manifestly co-

exist with a capacity for attacking and in-

juring other members of the assemblage.

However, as the several saprolegniaceous

fungi hitherto found attacking higher plants

all have smooth oogonia, it appears prob-

able that the spiny A. exoparasiticus, de-

scribed by Couch (5) as being parasitic on

various phycomycetes, may not be patho-

genic to any species of phanerogams.

The parasitic and antagonistic relation-

ships between oomycetes associated with

root rot come into strongest expression

where both of the fungi concerned are in a

DRECHSLER: OGMYCETES ASSOCIATED WITH ROOT ROT He

high state of vegetative vigor. In dual cul-

tures that have been started by planting

the two species some distance apart hyphal

envelopment and hyphal degeneration, if

present, is always most pronounced in the

narrow zone where the growing mycelia en-

counter each other, that is, in the zone

where, without exception, young vigorous

hyphae of the aggressor come upon equally

young hyphae of the opposing form. Dual

cultures incubated at a temperature of

28°C., which is fairly close to the optimum

temperature for mycelial growth in many

species of Pythiwm, usually show more ex-

tensive hyphal envelopment than similar

cultures incubated at 18°C. Hyphal envelop-

ment is usually more abundant when rather

soft maizemeal agar, containing 15 grams of

agar-agar to the liter, is employed than

when the medium used contains 25 grams

of agar-agar to the liter. As Pythium oligan-

drum, P. acanthicum, and P. periplocum

initiate and conclude sexual reproduction

earlier than most congeneric forms, and as

they usually exhaust their mycelia almost

completely in producing sexual apparatus,

areas in dual cultures first occupied by these

species may later be invaded by other

species of Pythiwm without much hindrance

except, perhaps, from accumulated staling

products.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Bary, A. pE. Untersuchungen tiber die

Peronosporeen und Saprolegnieen und

die. Grundlagen eines natiirlichen Sys-

tems der Pilze. Abh. Senckenb. Naturf.

Ges. 12: 225-370. 1881.

. Zur Kenntnis der Peronosporeen.

Bot. Zeit. 39: 521-530, 537-544, 553-

563, 569-578, 585-595, 601-609, 617-

625. Sse

(3) Buisman, C. J. Root rots caused by phy-

comycetes. Meded. Phytopath. Lab.

‘Willie Commelin Scholten” Baarn 11:

1-51. 1927.

(4) Coxrer, W.C., and P. M. Patrerson. A

new species of Pythium. Journ. Elisha

Mitchell Sci. Soc. 42: 247-250. 1927.

(5) Coucu, J. N. Notes on the genus Aph-

anomyces with a description of a new

semiparasitic species. Journ. Elisha

Mitchell Sci. Soc. 41: 213-227. 1926.

(6) DissmMann, E. Vergleichende Studien zur

Biologie und Systematik zweter Pythium-

(2)

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Arten. Arch. Protistenk. 60: 142-192.

1927.

(7) DrecustER, C. Two water molds causing

tomato rootlet injury. Journ. Agr. Res.

34: 287-296. 1927.

. The beet water mold and several re-

lated root parasites. Journ. Agr. Res.

38: 309-861. 1929.

. Some new species of Pythium.

Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 20: 398-

418. 19380.

-. A species of Pythiogeton isolated

from decaying leaf-sheaths of the common

cat-tail. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci.

22: 421-449. 1932.

. Occurrence of a species of Aph-

anomyces on roots of spinach and flax.

Phytopathology 25: 14-15. 1935.

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

VOL. 33, NO. 1

. Three species of Pythium with

proliferous sporangia. Phytopathology

31: 478-507. 1941.

(13) Merurs, A. Wortelrot veroorzaakt door

schimmels uit de geslacten Pythium

Pringshem en Aphanomyces de Bary,

95 pp. Baarn, 1928.

(14) MippuEeTon, J. T. Crown rot of rhubarb

caused by Pythium spp. Phytopathol-

ogy 31: 863. 1941.

(15) Stevenson, J. A.,and R. D. Ranps. An

annotated list of the fungi and bacteria

associated with sugarcane and its prod-

ucts. Hawaiian Planters’ Rec. 42:

247-313. 1938.

(16) Warp, H. M. Observations on the genus

Pythium (Pringsh.). Quart. Journ.

Micr. Soe. (n. ser.) 23: 485-515. 1883.

(12)

ZOOLOGY.—A _ redescription of Typhlonema salomonis Kreis (Nematoda).

JoHN T. LuckEr, Bureau of Animal Industry.

Male and female specimens of a nema-

tode from the digestive tract of skinks of the

genus Mabuya, collected in 1939 in Belgian

Congo by Arthur Loveridge, of the Museum

of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univer-

sity, are believed by the writer to represent

Typhlonema salomonis Kreis, 1938. This

genotype was based on female characters,

and partly because of this the systematic

position of the genus T'yphlonema has been

regarded as uncertain.

The available specimens are not from the

type host or locality of Kreis’s species. The

writer’s identification of them, therefore, is

based entirely on morphological grounds.

It should be emphasized, however, that

there are certain discrepancies between the

morphology of the females, as determined

by the writer, and the characteristics

ascribed to JT. salomonis by Kreis.2 The

African specimens have an anus, weakly de-

veloped, but distinct, equal lips and the

typical ascaridoid complement of cephalic

papillae. In view of well-established facts

concerning the structure of ascaridin nema-

todes generally, it seems very likely, how-

ever, that a reexamination of Kreis’s speci-

mens, if undertaken, will show that they

1 Received September 29, 1942.

2 Kreis, Hans A., Bettrdge zur Kenntnis para-

sitischer Nematoden. VIII. Neue _ parasitische

Nematoden aus dem Naturhistorischen Museum

Basel. Zentralbl. Bakteriol., 1 Abt. Orig., 142

(5-6): 329-352. 1938.

also have an anus and the usual number, as

well as a normal distribution, of cephalic

papillae. Hence, because the available fe-

males agree with Kreis’s description in the

important points of vulva position and

structure of eggs, both of which are un-

usual, as well as in many other details, the

writer has no hesitancy in regarding them

as belonging to the genus T'yphlonema. Aiso,

there appears to be no acceptable evidence

and little chance that the specimens from

Mabuya differ specifically from Kreis’s spec-

imens from Gecko. Therefore, there is here

presented, as a recharacterization of T.

salomonis, the following description of the

female and male specimens from Africa in

an effort to delineate more satisfactorily

the characteristics and affinities of Typh-

lonema. |

Typhlonema salomonis Kreis, 1938

Description.—Lips flat, weakly developed;

each probably corresponding to apical portion

only of typical ascaridoid lip. Cephalic papillae

of internal circle very prominent; amphids and

the four double papillae of external circle well

developed; ventrolaterals present, but small

and rather weakly developed (Figs. 1, 3). Oral

opening roughly triangular; stoma small, ap-

parently consisting of sclerotized protorhab-

dions partly surrounded by esophageal tissue

(Fig. 2). Esophagus with short, histologically

differentiated vestibule (Figs. 2, 5); corpus

ayes

mee

PEAT

—

oer

: od u

KNGe

Wane) MY

‘st

COC)

———=———

Figs. 1-18.—Typhlonema salomonis: 1, Head (female), en face aspect. 2, Anterior extremity (fe-

male), optical section through protorhabdions and vestibule, slightly oblique dorsal aspect. 3,

Cephalic region (female), showing papillae of dorsal lip, superficial dorsal aspect. 4, Egg from anterior

portion of uterus, embryonated but lacking protein coat, optical section. 5, Female, esophageal

region, lateral aspect. 6, Male, caudal region, lateral aspect. 7, Female, tip of tail, lateral aspect.

8, Spicule (left), lateral aspect. 9, Male, lateral aspect. 10, Female, lateral aspect. 11, Cross section

(female) slightly anterior to anus, showing musculature. 12, Egg from posterior portion of uterus, in

cleavage stage, optical section. 13, Gubernaculum, lateral aspect. 14, Male, caudal region, ventral

aspect. 15, Portion of cross section (female), showing muscle cells. 16, Egg from ovijector, em-

bryonated and with fully developed protein coat, optical section. 17, Female, anal region, lateral

aspect. 18, Male, optical section through cloacal region, showing appearance of muscles slightly

beneath ventral surface.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

highly muscular, proportionately long, slender,

of almost uniform diameter except for slight

swelling in postcorpal region; isthmus short,

but definite, of lesser diameter than post-

corpus; bulb ovoid, well developed, containing

well developed valvular apparatus (Fig. 5).

Deiriids apparently absent. Excretory pore at

level between bulb and postcorpus of esopha-.

gus; terminal excretory duct moderately long

(Fig. 5). Lateral alae, narrow, distally bifid, ex-

tending from near cephalic region to near clo-

acal region in male; absent in female. Muscula-

ture, polymyarian-platymyarian in anterior

part of body and polymyarian-coelomyarian in

midbody (Figs. 11, 15). Body laterally com-

pressed in some fixed specimens (Fig. 11), ex-

cept in esophageal region, but nearly cylindrical

in others.

Female—Maximum length in available spec-

imens about 16.85 mm; length in young, but

gravid specimens ranging down to about 8.5

mm. Body of more or less uniform diameter ex-

cept for gradual tapering in anterior one-tenth

to cephalic extremity (diameter about 40-

50) and sudden tapering posteriorly to tip of

tail. Maximum dorsoventral width about 0.59

mm in large specimens and about 0.30 mm in

smallest specimens. Anus (Figs. 10, 17) un-

usually far removed from posterior extremity.

Tail long, equivalent to about one-sixth to

one-fifth of body length: diameter throughout

most of its length almost as great as that of

midbody; tapering in its extreme posterior por-

tion only and terminating in a small acutely

pointed process (Figs. 7, 10). Vulva prominent,

located alongside bulb, isthmus, or postcorpus

of esophagus, behind excretory pore (Figs. 5,

10). Reproductive system opisthodelphic; in

young specimens the moderately long vagina

passes posteriorly from the vulva to a long

ovijector which unites with two slender parallel

uteri which extend posteriorly into the tail re-

gion, sometimes nearly to posterior tip of body

where they unite with oviducts; oviducts re-

flexed anteriorly and somewhat coiled, leading

to ovaries which pass anteriad and parallel to

region just anterior to anus where their tips

are reflexed posteriorly (Fig. 10). In fully grown

specimens the uteri are somewhat distended

and coiled, particularly in caudal region, some-

times entwined about intestine and sometimes

also coiled anteriorly and extending almost to

VOL. 33, NO. 1

region of esophageal bulb so fundamental plan

of reproductive system is obscured. Ovovivip-

arous; uterine eggs of eccentric oval to spheri-

cal shape, provided with monopolar knob, and

of roseate hue, the coloration apparently lo-

calized in perivitellus space. Eggs in posterior

portions of uteri in various cleavage stages, of

variable size, tending to be distorted by pres-

sure, with moderately thick, dense shell pro-

vided with monopolar thumb-like projection

(Fig. 12); in middle portions of uteri some eggs

embryonated, frequently with shell thinner

than in less developed or mature eggs and also

tending to be larger than these eggs (Fig. 4);

in anterior portions of uteri, in oviduct and

vagina, the eggs are larvated, almost spherical

and are provided with well-developed rugose,

mammillated protein coat anchored in part to

true shell by monopolar thumblike process of

latter and forming around this process a

bluntly rounded knob (Fig. 16), the true shell

being thicker than in uncoated embryonated

eggs, apparently as result of compression. Fully

developed eggs are about 60y to 87y long, in-

cluding the monopolar knob, and about 50yu

to 60u wide.

Male.—Much shorter and comparatively

more robust than female; about 3.1 mm long by

about 0.24 mm in maximum dorsoventral

width; esophagus about 0.37 mm long. Repro-

ductive system simple (Fig. 9); testis reflexed

near middle of body. Tail subulate, terminating

in an extremely minute spike, curved sharply

ventrad and anteriad in available fixed speci-

mens; about 0.22 to 0.24 mm long. Cuticle in

region just anterior to cloaca thrown up into

prominent transverse folds not appearing to be

homologous with mamelons and not bearing

plectanes, appearing to be provided with close-

set longitudinal intrastrial ridges. Preanal

sucker absent, but circumcloacal elevation

present (Figs. 6, 9, 14); arrangement of muscu-

lature in pericloacal region as shown in figure

18; caudal alae absent. Caudal papillae con-

sisting of 16 pairs, including 5 preanal sub-

lateral pairs and 11 pairs distributed as follows:

4 subventral pairs in the circumcloacal or

adanal position, 3 of them on the circumcloacal

elevation and 1 lateral to it; 7 definitely post-

anal pairs, 4 of them subventral (first, third,

fifth and seventh pairs from the caudal tip) and

3 sublateral (second, fourth and sixth pairs

JAN. 15, 1943

from caudal tip; Fig. 6). The posteriormost

pair on the circumcloacal elevation is weakly

developed (Fig. 14). Five pairs of the postanals

are grouped near the caudal tip; the two sub-

lateral pairs in this group are smaller than the

three subventral pairs (Fig. 14). Gubernacu-

lum cuneiform, very prominent, robust,

strongly sclerotized, alate, about 0.143 mm

long; provided with a proximal pair of tri-

angular latero-ventrally directed wings; distal

tip usually protruding from cloacal opening and

rather sharply pointed (Figs. 6, 9, 13, 14).

Spicules two, elongate, very slender, about

0.130 mm long, lightly sclerotized, slightly ex-

panded proximally, with bluntly pointed alate

hyaline distal tip (Figs. 6, 8, 9).

Hosts.—Gecko vittatus Houtt. (type host);

Mabuya striata (Peters); Mabuya megalura

(Peters).

Location.—Stomach and intestine.

Distribution—Makira, Solomon Islands;

Molinga River, Idjwi Islands, Belgian Congo.

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. nos.

40695; 40698; 45308. (Specimens also in Mus-

eum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univ.)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY Bo

Remarks: Kreis? placed Typhlonema in the

Oxyuroidea and in the subfamily Oxyurinae.

Walton,’in a key to some oxyuroid genera from

reptiles, tentatively included the genus under

the Oxyuridae, remarking on the difficulty of

placing it systematically and stating that it

shows affinities to both Atractidae and Oxy-

uridae. On the basis of the foregoing descrip-

tion, it is the writer’s opinion that Typhlonema

belongs in the Ascaridoidea, as conceived by

Chitwood and Chitwood,‘ and in the family

Cosmocercidae. Although the musculature in

Typhlonema is polymyarian, whereas the fam-

ily Cosmocercidae is characterized by authors

as meromyarian, in other respects the genus

appears to be far more closely related to certain

cosmocercid genera than to any belonging in

the four other ascaridoid families recognized

by the Chitwoods.

3 Watton, A. C. Some oxyurids from a Gala-

pagos turtle. Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington 9(1):

1-17. 1942.

_4 Cuitwoop, B. G., and Cuitwoop, M. B., An

introduction to nematology, sect. 1, pt. 1, 53 pp.

1937.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

378TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 378th meeting of the Board of Managers

was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on

November 16, 1942. President Curtis called

the meeting to order at 8:01 p.m., with 17 per-

sons present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. D.

ROSSINI, R..J. SkEcER, J. E. Grar, F. H. H.

honunrs, Jt., F. G. BrickweppE, F. C.

Kracek, W. G. BromBacueEr, F. M. SETZLER,

H. L.-Hatuer, A. Wermore, F. B. SILsBes,

K. W. Pricz, L. W. Parr, H. G. Dorsey, and,

by invitation, G. A. Cooper and A. SEIDELL.

The minutes of the 377th meeting were read

and approved. :

President CurTIs announced the appoint-

ment of F. B. Sitsper (chairman), J. E.

Graf, and C. L. Garner to constitute a special

committee to consider recommendations for

increasing the income of the Academy.

For the committee to consider ways and

means of decreasing the expenses of the

Academy, Chairman BrickKweppE presented a

complete and detailed report embodying a

number of recommendations. In acting upon

this report, the Board authorized the appoint-

ment of a special committee to consider a

change in the number of issues of the JouRNAL

from 12 monthly to 6 bimonthly issues a year

without decreasing the total number of pages

or the amount of material published each year,

and also to consider a change in the kind of

printing of the JourNat from the present

typeset printing to a photographic offset

process. Suggestions regarding certain other

possible economies were referred to the 1943

Executive Committee.

For the committee to consider recommenda-

tions for increasing the income of the Academy,

Chairman SILSBEE presented a complete and

detailed report. As a result of the suggestions

made, the Board authorized the appointment

of a committee to contact the U. 8. Office of

Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs with

regard to the purchase by them of subscriptions

to the Academy’s JouRNAL for transmission to

the more important libraries in South America.

The Secretary reported the deaths of two

members.

Senior Editor SrrGrerR reported that the

December number of the JouRNAL might need

to be sharply curtailed to insure keeping within

the 1942 allotment. The Board authorized the

Kditors to expend, if necessary, up to $65

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

beyond their 1942 allotment to prevent curtail-

ing the December number of the JOURNAL un-

duly. The extra allotment thus provided is the

amount of estimated balances unexpended

from other items in the 1942 budget of the

Academy.

The changes in the Standing Rules of the

Board, proposed at its previous meeting, were

approved, as follows:

(1) Under the present Rule 3, delete the present

version and substitute the following: ‘‘There

shall be four standing committees, as follows:

Executive Committee, Committee on Meetings,

Committee on Membership, and Committee on

Monographs. Two members of the Board shall be

appointed to serve on the Executive Committee.

The Committee on Membership shall include at

least three persons reappointed from the preced-

ing year. All appointments shall be for one year

unless otherwise specified, and shall be made by

the President, who shall announce them at the

first meeting of the Board following the annual

meeting.”

(2) Under the present Rule 8, delete the second

sentence.

(3) Between the present Rules 6 and 7, insert

the following new Rule: ‘‘Associate Editors of the

JOURNAL Shall be appointed by the President for

a term of three years.”’

VOL. 33, NO. 1

The Board instructed the Custodian and

Subscription Manager of Publications, W. W.

Dr1eHu, to provide the Board with information

on the list of free subscriptions to the JoURNAL

and on the number and distribution of Govern-

ment subscriptions. .

The meeting adjourned at 10:38 p.m.

314TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 314th meeting of the Academy was held

jointly with the Philosophical Society of Wash-

ington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club at 8:15 p.m. on November 19, 1942, with

President Curtis presiding. W. G. Brom-

BACHER introduced the speaker. :

DEANE B. Jupp, physicist in the section on

photometry and colorimetry at the National

Bureau of Standards, delivered an address on

Color blindness and its relation to the detection of

camouflage. Dr. Jupp indicated the require-

ments for camouflaging ground positions cor-

rectly, showed which of these requirements can

be met in a practical way, and described under

what conditions color-blind observers can spot

certain camouflaged positions.

There were about 135 persons present.

FrepDERIcCK D. Rossini, Secretary.

@Obituary

ALFRED N. Finn, chief of the glass section,

National Bureau of Standards, died on Sep-

tember 21, 1942, at Lincoln, Nebr. He had

been in ill health for the past year and had

retired from active work.

Mr. Finn was born in Denver, Colo., in 1882.

He received his A.B. degree in 1906 and his

M.A. in 1909 from the University of Denver.

After several years as an instructor at the

University of Denver he was appointed in 1911

as an assistant chemist at the National Bureau

of Standards. His work dealt with cements,

paints and oils, boiler waters and boiler com-

pounds, protective coatings for metals, and

corrosion of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In

1919 he accepted a position as chief chemist

and metallurgist for the Hydraulic Steel Co.,

Cleveland, Ohio, but later returned to the

Bureau as chief of the glass section.

Mr. Finn was an authority on glass tech-

nology and had charge of the Bureau’s produc-

tion of optical glass. He also directed the

making of a glass disk 70 inches in diameter

and 11 inches thick for use as a reflector in an

astronomical telescope now in use at the Ohio

Wesleyan University. He had been a member

of the following organizations: Washington

Academy of Sciences, American Chemical

Society, American Ceramic Society, American

Society for Testing Materials, Optical Society

of America, and American Institute of

Chemists.

P. H. Bates.

CONTENTS

Botany. ee Jerruginewm André, the §

Borany. —New names in Quercus and Osmanthus Rupee iP

ZooLtocy.—A Go of Typhlonema salomonis Kreis (Nomad

Joun’T, TUCKER. ss55 6. CY ae a ee ee ee

PROCEEDINGS: TM ADAM

Opiruary: At¥rep N; Finns; . 2 2) 2, BG

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

ORNITHOLOGY.—Two new birds from Morelos, Mexico.’

University of Michigan Museum of Zoology.

FRIEDMANN.)

While studying the Mexican birds be-

longing to the United States National Mu-

seum and to the Fish and Wildlife Service,

United States Department of the Interior,

I discovered two previously unrecognized

subspecies from Morelos and neighboring

states. For permission to describe these

forms I am under obligation to Dr. John

W. Aldrich, biologist of the Fish and Wild-

life Service. This study was aided by a grant

from the Faculty Research Fund by the

Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate

Studies in the University of Michigan.

Chamaethlypis poliocephala pontilis,

n. subsp.

Type —U.S.N.M. 186396; adult

Puente de Ixtla, Morelos; June 8, 1903; E. W.

Nelson and E. A. Goldman, original no. 10144.

Characters —Agrees in color with Chamae-

thlypis poltocephala poliocephala (Baird), from

Sinaloa to Nayarit, but wing and tail longer.

_ Agrees with C. poltocephala ralphi (Ridgway),

from Texas, in having whitish eyelids and pale

posterior underparts (i.e., lower breast and

belly mixed with pale yellow, white, and buffy;

flanks pale buffy brown), but throat and upper

breast deeper yellow; back more olive, less

grayish; wing and tail longer.

Differs from C. poliocephala palpebralis

Ridgway, from Caribbean Mexico, in having

whitish (instead of yellowish) eyelids; paler

coloration throughout; and larger size.

Chamaethlypis poliocephala caninucha (Ridg-

way) and C. poltocephala icterotis (Ridgway),

both from Central America, have black eyelids

and are smaller and much more brightly

colored.

1 Received October 29, 1942.

FER 22 1048

FEesruAry 15, 1943

male;.

Nox 2

PIERCE BRODKORB,

(Communicated by HERBERT

Measurements.—Four males: wing, 61.5-63

(62.3) ; tail, 66-68.5 (67.3). Three females: wing

55.5—-58.5 (57.0); tail, 59.5-61.5 (60.3).

In poliocephala the wing measures 57—58.5 in

the male (@? 52); tail, 60.5-62 (9 57.5). In

ralphi the wing is 57.5-60 ( 952.5-55); tail,

57.5-65 (2 56.5-58.5). In palpebralis the wing

is 54.5-60 ( 9 538-57); tail, 56.5-65 ( 9 55.5-62).

Range.—Pacific watershed of central Mexico,

in states of Morelos and Michoacan.

Material examined.—Morelos (Puente de

Ixtla, 1; Yautepec, 1); Michoacdn (Queréndaro,

1; Zamora, 1; Los Reyes, 2). Also adequate

series of the described forms, including the

types of poliocephala, ralphi, palpebralis, can-

nucha, and icterotis.

Sicalis luteola mexicana, n. subsp.

Type—wu.S.N.M. 186386; adult male;

Puente de Ixtla, Morelos; June 8, 1903; E. W.

Nelson and E. A. Goldman, original no. 10149.

Characters. —Differs from Sicalts luteola chry-

sops Sclater, of the Caribbean slope of Mexico,

in larger size; paler, more golden yellow (less

greenish yellow) crown, rump, and underparts;

dark streaks of crown narrower and not extend-

ing forward beyond eye.

Measurements.—Eleven males: wing, 68—72.5

(70.0); tail, 43-49 (45.8). Two females: wing,

66-70 (68.0); tail, 43.5-46 (44.8).

In chrysops 13 males measure as follows:

wing, 63-67 (65.8); tail, 41-44.5 (438.7). Three

females: wing, 60-65 (62.0); tail, 4148.5 (42.0).

Remarks.—The type of chrysops, for which

the locality is given simply as ‘‘Mexico merid.,”’

was received from the dealer Parzudaki. The

figure of the type (Ibis, 1872: pl. 2, fig. 1)

clearly indicates a dark bird. The measure-

ments of the type published by Sclater (Proc.

Zool. Soc. London, 1861: 376) and by Sharpe

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 12: 384. 1888) are not

identical, yet both sets of measurements show

that the type was a small individual. I therefore

restrict the type locality of chrysops to Orizaba,

Veracruz, where the small, dark subspecies cur-

rently passing under the name is known to oc-

cur, and which town was a likely place of origin

for a collection in 1861.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

This species of finch was heretofore unknown

in literature from the Pacific side of Mexico.

Range.—Pacific watershed of central Mexico,

in states of Morelos and Puebla.

Material examined.—sS. l. mexicana: Morelos

(Puente de Ixtla, 12); Puebla (Atlixco, 2). S. l.

chrysops: Veracruz (Orizaba, 1); Chiapas

(Palenque, 15).

ENTOMOLOGY.—WNew genera and species of Neotropical bark beetles (Coleoptera:

Scolytidae.)!

tine.

_ Described here are two new genera of

Neotropical bark beetles, belonging to the

subfamily Ipinae, tribe Pityophthorini, one

of them containing two and the other three

previously undescribed species. One of the

genera is based upon material in the United

States National Museum and recognized as

new for a number of years, while the other

is from material only recently received from

Panama.

Gnatholeptus, n. gen.

Very similar to Pityophthorus Fichhoff in

habitus and in many structural details. Body

subcylindrieal, weakly to moderately shining;

frons flattened, finely, closely punctured with

fine hairs in the female; eye large, emarginate,

facets coarse; antenna similar to that of Pity-

ophthorus, with club distinctly longer than 5-

segmented funicle, ovate, with first two sutures

strongly but incompletely septate; mandible

long, slender, curved, extending well in front of

rest of mouthparts, biting surface gougelike,

comprising one-fourth or less of inner margin;

pronotum margined at base, with anterior area

concentrically asperate, summit rather low,

with weak transverse impression; elytral de-

clivity sloping, weakly to moderately sulcate at

each side, third interspace with or without

granules, vestiture moderate.

Genotype: Gnatholeptus mandibularis, n. sp.

This genus, although superficially similar to

Pityophthorus and, indeed, much like certain

of the species groups of that genus in many de-

tails such as antennal structure, can immedi-

ately be separated by the extraordinary de-

velopment of the mandibles. In all known spe-

1 Received September 10, 1942.

M. W. Buackman, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran-

(Communicated by C. F. W. MuUESEBECK.)

cies of Pityophthorus, as well as in most of the

Scolytidae, the mandibles are short and stout,

with the biting or chewing surface comprising

nearly all the inner margin. In Gnatholeptus,

however, the mandibles are long, curved, and

comparatively slender. As their bases are

widely separated and as only the distal fourth

to sixth meet to form the biting surface, they

form a sort of arch through which the ventral

mouthparts may be seen.

It would be interesting to know the feeding

habits and mode of life of Gnatholeptus to see

what advantage is gained by such unusual

mandibles. All the specimens of this genus,

however, were taken at light, and nothing is

known of their food or habits.

Gnatholeptus mandibularis, n. sp.

Female—Light reddish brown; 1.77 mm

long, 3.10 times as long as wide.

Frons convex above, finely, sparsely punc-

tured, shining, flattened between eyes below,

feebly concave in median area, finely, densely

punctured, with a dense brush of fine, yellow,

plushlike pubescence of moderate length. Hye

rather large, half divided by a deep, V-shaped

emargination, facets rather coarse. Antenna

similar to that of Pztyophthorus, with club 1.44

times as long as 5-segmented funicle, 1.30 times

as long as wide, widest through third segment;

sutures arcuate, the first two strongly but in-

completely septate. Mandible long, slender,

with biting surface confined to only the distal

fourth of the inner margin.

Pronotum 1.18 times as long as wide, widest

on posterior half; posterior border margined,

feebly arcuate, posterior angles scarcely

rounded; sides straight and subparallel on pos-

terior half, broadly rounded in front, anterior

Fes. 15, 1943

margin with numerous low, very wide serra-

tions; summit near middle, not high; anterior

area with very broad, low asperities in nearly

regular concentric rows; posterior area feebly,

broadly impressed behind summit, finely,

rather shallowly punctured, with interstices

feebly shining, distinctly reticulate; median

line narrow, weakly elevated, impunctate; ves-

titure of fine hairs on anterior area, disk sub-

glabrous.

Elytra equal to pronotum in width and 1.64

times as long, 1.94 times as long as wide; sides

nearly straight and subparallel on anterior

three-fourths, rather broadly rounded at pos-

terior angles, with extreme apex subacuminate

owing to elevation of sutures; surface mod-

erately shining; punctures moderately large,

deep, in slightly irregular, rather crowded strial

rows, only the first impressed; interspaces

narrow, rugulose, nearly impunctate except at

base and near declivity; disk and sides nearly

glabrous. Declivity sloping, bisulcate; suture

elevated throughout, more strongly at apex,

with fine semierect hairs; first and second

striae and intervening second interspace form-

ing rather narrow, moderately deep sulcus,

punctures much smaller than on disk, third in-

terspace elevated, forming summit of lateral

callosity, with a row of three small, rather

pointed tubercles; interspaces finely punctured

and with fine erect hairs.

Male unknown.

Type locality—Barro Colorado Island, Pan-

ama.

Host.—Unknown.

Type material—Holotype and 13 paratypes,

U.S.N.M. no. 56418.

The type series was collected at light, June

20, 1941, by James Zetek.

Gnatholeptus panamensis, n. sp.

Rather light reddish brown (somewhat im-

mature); 1.56 mm long, nearly exactly 3.0

times as long as wide; similar to mandvbularis,

n. sp., but with mandibles longer and each

bearing a tuft of hairs, and elytral declivity

without granules in third interspace.

Head retracted, concealing frons; epistomal

margin in its median sixth extended to form a

projection nearly three times as long as its

basal width. Eye coarsely faceted, large, nearly

half divided by a V-shaped emargination. An-

tenna similar in general to that of mandibularis.

BLACKMAN: NEW NEOTROPICAL BARK BEETLES 39

Mandible even longer and more slender than

in mandibularis, its shaft in middle third bear-

ing a tuft of very fine, stiff, yellow hairs, arising

from its dorsal surface and extending distad;

biting surface confined to distal sixth of its

inner margin.

Pronotum 1.19 times as long as wide, widest

near base; posterior border margined, feebly

arcuate, posterior angles scarcely rounded;

sides very feebly arcuate, broadly rounded in

front, anterior margin with many very low,

broad serrations (more numerous and less de-

veloped than in mandibularis); anterior area

with concentric rows of very low, broad asperi-

ties, fused to form nearly entirely regular,

concentric ridges; summit rather low, at

middle; posterior area feebly, transversely im-

pressed behind summit; surface feebly shining,

faintly reticulate; punctures fine, shallow; me-

dian line narrow, scarcely elevated, impunc-

tate; disk subglabrous, anterior area with fine,

short hairs.

Elytra equal to pronotum in width and 1.65

times as long, 1.91 times as long as wide; sides

subparallel on anterior two-thirds, narrowly

rounded, not acuminate behind; surface rather

weakly shining; punctures deep, moderate in

size, in nearly entirely regular rows, only the

first impressed; interspaces moderate, slightly

wider than in mandibularis, finely rugulose,

nearly impunctate on central disk, with a few

very fine, short hairs. Declivity more sloping

than in mandibularis; suture rather wide, about

equally elevated throughout, with a few fine,

erect hairs; first stria strongly impressed, punc-

tures obsolete; second stria not impressed, the

narrow sulcus formed largely by impression of

first stria; third interspace without granules

and not so strongly elevated as in mandibu-

laris;. interspaces with a few fine punctures

bearing fine, semierect hairs.

The form described is believed to be a fe-

male. The other sex is unknown.

Type localityx—Barro Colorado Island, Pan-

ama.

Host.—Unknown.

Type material—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no.

56419. The holotype was taken at light, June,

1941, by James Zetek.

Tachyderes, n. gen.

Body cylindrical with surface more or less

shining; frons convex above, transversely im-

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

pressed between eyes; antenna with 5-seg-

mented funicle, club notably longer, oval, com-

pressed, with three arcuate sutures indicated

by setal rows, none of them septate; eye of

moderate size, inner line emarginate, facets

fine to coarse; pronotum little if any longer

than wide, margined at base and on sides be-

hind, anterior area strongly, rather sparsely

asperate, summit moderately elevated above

the shining, finely punctured posterior area;

elytra finely punctate-striate, subglabrous on

disk; declivity arched, very feebly or not at all

sulcate, vestiture scanty to abundant.

Genotype: Tachyderes floridensts, n. sp.

Tachyderes floridensis, n. sp.

Female—Light reddish brown; 2.06—2.43

mm long, holotype 2.80 mm long, 2.60 times

as long as wide.

Frons very wide between eyes; convex above,

weakly concave between eyes; surface shining,

finely granulate, with one or several large

granules or small tubercles above concavity;

hairs fine, rather short, inconspicuous except

in profile. Eye moderately large, short oval,

about one-third divided by a wide emargina-

tion; facets coarse. Antenna with club flat-

tened, ovate, 1.29 times as long as wide, no-

tably longer than funicle, with three subparallel,

arcuate sutures indicated by setal rows, none

of them septate.

Pronotum 1.11 times as wide as long, widest

near base, posterior border indistinctly mar-

gined, nearly straight, posterior angles not

rounded; sides feebly arcuate on posterior

third, semicircularly rounded in front, without

anterior lateral constriction; anterior margin

with eight strong, coarse serrations, longer

than wide (occasionally only seven are present) ;

summit central in position and moderately

high; anterior area steeply arched, with

slightly irregular, concentric rows of coarse,

moderately sparse, wide asperities; posterior

area shining, broadly transversely impressed,

with shallow, fine, indistinct punctures; median

line impunctate, not elevated; vestiture fairly

conspicuous on anterior area, very inconspicu-

ous on disk. :

Elytra equal to pronotum in width and 1.89

times as long, 1.71 times as long as wide; sides

subparallel on anterior two-thirds, narrowly

rounded behind; surface light reddish brown,

VOL. 33, NO. 2

moderately shining, reticulate; punctures mod-

erately small, shallow, close, in nearly regular

strial rows, the first rather weakly impressed;

interspaces nearly impunctate on disk and

sides, with very few, fine, short hairs. Declivity

sloping, suture weakly elevated; first stria dis-

tinctly impressed, with punctures obsolescent;

second stria slightly impressed, with interven-

ing second interspace forming a very shallow,

narrow sulcus: interspaces with a few very fine,

shallow punctures, bearing moderately short,

erect, spatulate bristles.

Male.—Much smaller, 1.51 mm long, 2.30

times as long as wide; frons convex above,

transversely impressed below, more finely

sculptured than in female; pronotum with mar-

ginal serrations reduced or partly obsolete; ely-

tra with dorsal contour arcuate from base to

apex, sculpture weak.

Type locality —Paradise Key, Fla.

Additional localtties—Haiti, Virgin Is-

lands, Mexico, Texas.

Host.— Rhacoma crossopetalum L.

Additional host.— Hevea brasiliensis Muell.

Type matertal.—Holotype, allotype, and 60

paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 56415.

The holotype and 2 paratypes were taken

March 9, 1919, on Paradise Key, Fla., by

H. 8. Barber; the allotype and 45 paratypes

were reared from Rhacoma crossopetalum, Big

Pine Key, Fla., by Barber and Schwarz; 1

paratype each from Biscayne and Key West,

Fla., were collected by Hubbard and Schwarz;

1 paratype, Royal Palm, Fla., March 21, 1929,

by W. 8. Blatchley; 5 paratypes taken by

W. H. Jenkins from Hevea brasiliensis at

Bayeux, Haiti; 5 paratypes from Tampico,

Mexico, by E. A. Schwarz; 1 paratype taken

by Jones and Pratt at Brownsville, Tex.,

March 20, 1908; 1 paratype, St. Croix, Virgin

Islands, H. A. Beatty, collector.

Tachyderes parvus, n. sp.

Female.—Reddish brown; 1.71 mm long,

2.61 times as long as wide; considerably

smaller than floridensts and darker in color.

Frons very wide between eyes, feebly shin-

ing, convex above, somewhat flattened be-

tween eyes, strongly granulate-punctate, with

granules coarser above and at sides, and nearly

lacking below in median line, hairs sparse, fine,

short and inconspicuous. Eye smaller than in

Fars. 15, 1943 BLACKMAN: NEW NEOTROPICAL BARK BEETLES ov

Figs. 1-6.—1, Antenna of female of Tachyderes floridensis, n. sp.; 2, fore tibia of T’. floridensis,

female; 3, antenna of Gnatholeptus mandibularis, n. sp.; 4, fore tibia of G. mandibularis; 5, frontal view

of G. mandibularis; 6, frontal view of G. panamensis, n. sp. The drawings were made by Mrs. Mary

F. Benson under the author’s supervision. 3

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

floridensis and facets much finer, nearly one-

third divided by a rather wide emargination.

Antenna similar to that of other species, club

with sutures not so strongly arcuate, none of

them septate.

Pronotum almost exactly as wide as long,

widest near base, posterior outline nearly

straight, weakly margined, posterior angles

scarcely rounded; sides nearly straight and sub-

parallel on posterior half, moderately rounded

in front, with anterior margin bearing nine

moderately large serrations (smaller than in

floridensis); summit very slightly behind mid-

dle, moderately high; anterior area with ir-

regularly concentric rows of asperities, higher

and sharper and more numerous than in

floridensis; posterior area feebly shining, mod-

erately, transversely impressed, with small,

moderately shallow punctures; median line im-

punctate; vestiture scanty.

Elytra slightly wider than pronotum, and

1.69 times as long, 1.65 times as long as wide;

sides subparallel on anterior three-fifths, then

gradually narrowed, rather narrowly rounded

behind; surface dark reddish brown, moder-

ately shining, finely reticulate; punctures mod-

erately fine, moderately shallow, in nearly reg-

ular strial rows, only the first row faintly im-

pressed; interspaces nearly impunctate on disk

and sides, with a few minute hairs. Declivity

moderately sloping, first and second striae

slightly impressed, the punctures obsolescent;

interspaces with a few rather short hairs, not

thickened as in floridensts.

Male unknown.

Type locality —Cayamas, Cuba.

Host.—Unknown.

Type material.—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no.

56416, collected by E. A. Schwarz.

Tachyderes harringtoni, n. sp.

Female.—Reddish brown; 1.38 mm long,

2.55 times as long as wide; smaller than either

parvus or floridensis.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Frons strongly convex, granulate, sub-

opaque above, impressed in median area below,

shining, finely punctured, with fine, inconspicu-

ous hairs. Eye moderately small, facets rather

fine, less than a third divided by a wide emar-

gination. Antenna similar to that of flori-

densts but with sutures of club more weakly

arcuate.

Pronotum nearly as wide as long, widest

near base, posterior outline nearly straight,

finely but distinctly margined, posterior angles

scarcely rounded; sides feebly arcuate, nearly

semicircularly rounded in front, with anterior

margin bearing moderate-sized serrations;

summit moderate, slightly behind middle; an-

terior area with rather sparse, broad, rather

low asperities, irregularly, subconcentrically

arranged; posterior area feebly shining, broadly,

shallowly, transversely impressed,- with small,

rather indistinct punctures, the interstices

finely reticulate; median line impunctate, not

elevated; vestiture moderate on anterior area,

scanty and inconspicuous on posterior area.

Elytra equal in width to pronotum and 1.70

times as long, 1.68 times as long as wide; sides

subparallel on anterior two-thirds, moderately

rounded behind; surface reddish brown, sub-

opaque to feebly shining, finely reticulate;

punctures of moderate size, rather shallow, in

nearly regular strial rows, only the first stria

feebly impressed on disk; interspaces finely

rugulose, with a few fine, shallow punctures,

and with a very few fine, short hairs. Declivity

of the usual type for the genus, with first stria

impressed, the punctures obsolete on first, re-

duced on other striae; interspaces with short,

erect, cinereous, spatulate hairs more numerous

than on other species of the genus.

Male unknown.

Type locality —Yaguacua, Bolivia.

Host.—Unknown.

Type material—Holotype and five para-

types, U.S.N.M. no. 56417, collected by G. L.

Harrington in March, 1924.

Fes. 15, 1943

ENTOMOLOGY .—WNew species of syrphid flies in the National Museum.!

HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 39

FRANK

M. Hutu, University of Mississippi (Communicated by ALAN STONE.)

This paper concludes a study of mis-

cellaneous syrphid flies in the United States

National Museum that was begun several

years ago. Earlier reports upon this material

have appeared in this JouRNAL. I wish to

thank C. T. Greene and Dr. E. A. Chapin

for many helpful courtesies and facilities

in the study of these flies. The types are in

the National Museum; paratypes where

available are in the author’s collection.

Mesogramma guttifera, n. sp.

Distinct in the pairs of oval spots upon the

abdomen; the pattern suggests certain species

of Xanthandrus.

Female —Length 7 mm. Head: Vertex shin-

ing black; front for a trifle more than the me-

dian third shining blue-black, the sides bright

yellow; frontal pile white, vertical pile black.

Face and all but the posterior portion of cheeks

pale yellow, white pilose, the former very short

in profile; a very low tubercle lies at the point

of greatest forward production. Antennae light

brown, the third joint dark but reddish below

at base. Thorax: Humeri, the lateral margins

throughout, a complete marginal border upon

the shining, brownish-black scutellum, the pos-

terior half of the mesopleura and upper half

of the sternopleura, all light yellow. Disk of

mesonotum dull black with a broad, median

vitta, which in some lights is light gray, in

others bright steel-blue. There are on each side

_of this vitta three additional vittae, the middle

one of which is much wider, suturally divided,

and all three of which are margined at least

narrowly with dark blue-black color. Abdomen

narrowly oval, shining blackish marked with

pairs of translucent, oval, yellow or light brown

spots. First segment light yellow, black on pos-

terior half. Second segment with a pair of oval

yellowish spots, transverse, lying in the middle

of each half of the segment, but broadly con-

fluent with each other medially. Third segment,

in the middle of each half, with a large sub-

quadrate, but almost trapezoidal, slightly

diagonal spot, the two well separated. Fourth

segment with similar spots of almost the same

1 Received August 10, 1942.

size, their corners barely more rounded. Fifth

segment with similar but smaller and much

more rounded oval spots. Legs yellow; the

hind femora with a wide, subapical black an-

nulus, their tibiae dark brown at base and

apex, narrowly yellow in the middle, their tarsi

blackish; other tarsi brownish. Wings hyaline;

stigma dark brown.

Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 56421),

Guatemala City, IV, 10 (J. M. Aldrich).

Baccha amabilis, n. sp.

Somewhat similar to flavipennis Wiedemann,

with narrower abdomen and fewer linear vittae.

Male—Length 7 mm. Head: Vertex shining

black. The front on upper third is opaque black

viewed vertically, and at the eye margin at

each lower angleof this triangle thereis a small,

punctate, white, hemispherical pubescent spot.

The very swollen front is shining brown below,

yellowish above the antennae. Face tubercu-

late, metallic black, with another white pubes-

cent spot on each side at the upper eye margin.

Antennae small, light brown, the third joint

orange below; second joint nearly as long as

third. Thorax very dark brown, with a pair of

linear, widely separated, very obscure, gray or

blue-black vittae; medially there is a pair of

close, still more faint, brown-black vittae.

Scutellum lght brown, translucent, its pile

and that of mesonotum erect, black, its basal

fringe of five or six hairs pale. Abdomen moder-

ately slender, parallel-sided from beyond the

second segment, that segment constricted a

little upon the basal half; color of abdomen

light orange-brown, with darker vittae. Third

to fifth segments with a pair of very narrowly

separated (confluent upon the fifth segment)

and narrow, medial vittae; these segments, on

each side, with a pair of narrow, lateral vittae,

each pair of which is confluent upon its pos-

terior half, and whose outer section comprises

the lateral margin itself. Second segment light

brown with a small, rounded, yellowish, diffuse

spot near the middle upon each side. Abdom-

inal pile black, fairly long and abundant on

the sides of the first segment. Legs: All the

femora light yellow, except a wide subapical

annulus upon. the hinder pair; remainder of

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

first two pairs yellowish except the tarsi; their

tarsi and remainder of hind legs blackish

brown; all pile blackish; middle femora with a

long fringe on the posterior surface. Wings

light gray, very gradually becoming smoky

brown on the basal third.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 56422),

Iquitos, Peru, March—April, 1931 (R. C. Shan-

non).

Baccha nepenthe, n. sp.

Related distantly to conopida Phillipi. This

species is characterized by the very slender,

light colored, basal petiole of the abdomen,

the broadly expanded black terminal part, and

the slight dip in the third vein.

Male.—Length 10 mm. Head: Front, face

and cheeks, and antennae reddish brown, the

third antennal joint somewhat darker above.

Thorax: Mesothorax black except upon the

pleura, humeri, wide lateral margins, scutellum

and an extensive area in front of the scutellum,

all of which are reddish brown. Pile everywhere

extremely short, thick, and pale. There is a

median gray-pollinose vitta; also there is a

transverse vitta, similar though fainter on each

side on the anterior margin of the suture. Ab-

domen very spatulate, the second segment long

and cylindrical and together with the narrow

lateral corners of the first segment and the

greatly compressed base of the third segment

light orange-brown. Remainder of the ex-

panded, flattened abdomen black and black

pilose. Legs light reddish brown. Wings: An-

terior margin brownish to the end of the stig-

mal cell, this cell a little darker and the brown

color expanded centrally. Third longitudinal

vein slightly curved near the middle, the sub-

apical cross vein very sigmoid.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 56423),

Bonita, Fla., 5-20-1932 (A. R. Taylor). Ex

Dactylopius tomentosus. Also one male and one

female paratype in U.S.N.M. One paratype in

author’s collection.

Baccha nymphaea, n. sp.

Related to carlota Curran; distinguished by

the bicolored nonfasciate abdomen; lateral

mesonotal margins continuously yellow almost

to scutellum.

Female.—Length 11 mm. Head: Vertex and

an annular ring before the antennae black.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Front, face, and cheeks yellow, the first tend-

ing to brown. Antennae elongate, the first two

joints yellowish brown, the third joint black,

narrowly reddish below, the arista light brown.

Thorax: Mesonotum light ochraceous-brown

with four black vittae, the medial pair chiefly

confluent along their medial margins and di-

verging posteriorly and evanescent some dis-

tance from the scutellum. Between the black

vittae there is golden pubescence. Scutellum

and all of pleura subtranslucent pale yellow.

Abdomen subtranslucent yellow to a little be-

fore the middle of the third segment and

throughout most of the sides of the third seg- ~

ment. Remainder of abdomen brownish black

with black pile. Legs yellow, the bases of the

tibiae whitish yellow, the hind tarsi more

brownish above. Pile yellow except upon the

hind trochanters and medial surface of their

coxae. Wings with the stigmal cell and both

sides of the third longitudinal vein to a point

about the middle of the stigmal cell light brown.

Third longitudinal vein rather arcuate, the

subapical cross vein sigmoid.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 56424), Cam-

pinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil (H. F. G. Sauer). One

paratype, same data, in author’s collection.

Baccha eruptova, n.sp. ~

Related to peruviana Shannon but differing

in the abdominal proportions and pattern.

Female.—Length 15 mm (abdomen 10 mm);

wing 10.5 mm. Head: Vertex shining black with

a bluish tinge. Upper half of the front, except

narrowly along the sides, opaque black, lower

half strongly shining blue-black; narrow sides

of front for two-thirds of its height, linearly

white pubescent and this pubescence discontin-

uous with that on the sides of the face. Frontal

and upper facial pile black. Face tuberculate,

metallic black, the sides yellowish and white

pubescent; cheeks black. Antennae black, of

normal shape, the inner end of second joint a

little produced. Thorax brown-black, obscurely

shining, with a pair of slender, widely separated,

very obscure, dark brown pollinose vittae. Scu-

tellum dark brown, shining, its pile and that of

mesonotum black and short; its fringe in part —

black, rather long, of thirty or more bristles.

Squamae and fringe dark brown. Abdomen

elongate, the second and sixth segments of

about equal length, the former as wide apically

Fras. 15, 1943

as the latter at base; third to fifth segments of

slightly decreasing length, the third four-fifths

as long as second, and about twice as wide at

its apex as at the narrowest width of the second

segment; last segment cylindrical at base and

strongly compressed laterally at apex. Color of

abdomen shining blackish to dark mahogany,

the basal corners of the second and third seg-

ments light mahogany, and on the second this

color extends two-thirds of the length of the

segment along its sides. There is a narrow-

pronged, opaque triangle (black in oblique

view) in the middle of the second segment,

and a wider shorter one upon the third segment.

Abdominal pile black, abundant and rather

long on the sides of the first segment. Legs dark

brown, the hinder pair black as far as the

middle of the basitarsal joint, yellowish white

and similarly pilose upon the terminal portion;

elsewhere the legs are black pilose. Wings

brown on the basal two-fifths as far as anterior

cross vein.

Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 56425),

Iquitos, Peru, March—April 1931 (R. C. Shan-

non). ;

Volucella brunnigaster, n. sp.

Somewhat similar in general appearance to

mellea Jaen., but distinguished by the scutellar

depression and numerous other differences.

Male.—Length 12 mm. Head: Front, face,

and cheeks reddish orange-brown, rather deep,

the low tubercle with long black pile. The sides

of the face with reddish-golden pubescence,

a few similar hairs and a few long hairs above.

Antennae orange-brown, the third joint twice

as long as basal width, the arista with 15 dorsal

rays. Thorax shining black with a golden cast,

the sides dark brown, the bristles black, the

pile thick, short, yellowish, among which are

numerous very long and slender black hairs;

no prescutellar bristles. Scutellum brown with

rugose transverse depression and six pairs of

black marginal bristles. Scutellar pile, except

in the corners, black. Abdomen translucent,

orange-brown, with some black upon the first

two segments. The first segment, except the

sides, and a medial, narrow and posteriorly

attenuated vitta on the second segment black.

Pile of abdomen widely black upon the pos-

terior half of the third and fourth segments and

narrowly toward the sides on the posterior mar-

gin of the second segment, otherwise golden.

HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 41

Legs black. The apices of the femora, the wide

base of all the tibiae, and their apices narrowly

reddish brown. Tarsi brown, becoming black-

ish upon their distal joints. Wings: Veins mar-

gined with brown, the central cross veins a little

darker and an obscure spot at the end of the

subcosta. Marginal cell very widely opened.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 51351), Meta

District, Colombia, B. Guevara collector, 1932.

One paratype, same data, in author’s collec-

tion.

Volucella viridigaster, n. sp.

Related to verdigaster, n. sp., but with less

extensive vittae and fascia upon the abdomen

and the wing veins not conspicuously margined.

Male.—Length 11 mm. Head: Front, face,

and cheeks pale whitish yellow. There is a pale,

diffuse, brownish vitta separating face and

cheeks and one down the middle of the deep-

conical face. The low tubercle is densely short

black pilose, the front longer black pilose, the

sides of the face white pilose and pubescent.

Antennae orange, the third joint two and one-

half times as long as the basal width. Thorax:

Mesonotum black, the sides light brownish

yellow, the bristles black, the scutellum sub-

translucent brownish yellow with five pairs of

black bristles, a shallow preapical depression

and black pile. Pile of thorax chiefly black with

considerable whitish pile anteriorly. There are

no prescutellar bristles. Squamae light yellow

with brown fringe. Abdomen pale green trans-

lucent: the middle of the first segment, a nar-

row medial expanding vitta on the second seg-

ment black and confluent with a linear, black

posterior border; the black border evanescent

laterally; a similar evanescent black border on

the third segment. Pile of abdomen black,

short, dense, and appressed except over the

basal portion of each segment. Legs black, the

apices of the femora, the bases of the tibiae and

the basal tarsal joints dark brown. Wings pale

brown, cross veins clouded, the marginal cell

widely opened.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 51350), Eeua-

dor, F. Campos R. A paratype, same data, in

author’s collection.

Volucella verdigaster, n. sp.

Related to inconsistens Curran, but with wide

black median vittae on the abdomen as well

as fasciae.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Male.—Length 12 mm. Head: Middle of

front black, the sides of front and face pale

yellow. The cheeks and broad middle of the

face black. Face deep conical, the pile thick

over the tubercle and chiefly black with some

shorter pile mixed with longer black hair on the

sides. Antennae dark brown, the third joint

twice as long as basal width, the arista with 27

dorsal rays. Thorax: Mesonotum black with a

bluish and violaceous tinge, the humeri, a pre-

sutural and prenotopleural, besides a pair of

prescutellar spots and a pair of elongate spots

almost adjacent to the postcalli, all light

yellow. Thoracic bristles and pile black except

for some short white pile upon the yellow spots

and in the midline anteriorly. No prescutellar

bristles. Scutellum dark brown with transverse

rugose depressions and five pairs of long black

bristles. Abdomen black with large, subrec-

tangular, apple-green translucent spots in the

lateral corners of the second segment, and

more irregular spots in the lateral corners of

the third and fourth which extend posteriorly

to cover the entire lateral margin. Pile very

dense, rather long, nearly erect, and black

except upon the pale areas, where it is whitish.

Legs black and black pilose. Wings hyaline,

strongly clouded with brown along all of the

cross veins and the distal portions of the second,

third and fourth longitudinal veins; marginal

cell widely opened.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 51354), and

one paratype, Bogotdé, Colombia, B. Guevara

collector, in U.S. National Museum; one para-

type, same data, in author’s collection.

Volucetla flavogaster, n. sp.

This species suggests zonaria Linnaeus, of

Europe. It is characterized by the linear black

fascia of the abdomen and other markings.

Male.—Length 14 mm. Head: Entire face

except for a pale, diffuse vitta separating face

and cheeks bright yellow, golden pilose. The

eyes of the male instead of being holoptic are

merely approximated. Antennae orange, the

third joint short, one and one-half times as

long as basal width, the dorsal margin concave.

The long arista has 26 dorsal rays. Ocellar pile

orange. Thorax: Mesonotum orange-brown

with a sublateral black vitta broken at the

suture, and on the posterior area of the dorsum

a pair of submedial anterolaterally attenuated

VOL. 33, NO. 2

blackish spots. There are 9 or 10 prominent,

black, prescutellar bristles, and all the lateral

bristles are black. Scutellum orange-brown,

swollen, with four pairs of black bristles. Squa-

mae and fringe yellow. Abdomen orange-yellow

marked with black as follows: Whole of the

first segment, a basal fascia on the second ex-

panded in the middle into a vitta that connects

with a very narrow line at posterior margin;

laterally this posterior marginal line is conflu-

ent with a transverse, narrow fascia occupying

the lateral fourth of the segment just beyond

the middle. Third segment with a narrow,

basally attenuated, medial black vitta, a still

narrower, posterior, black marginal marking,

which is confined to the margin and not con-

nected with the narrower transverse fascia.

Fourth segment similar except that the mark-

ing along posterior margin is absent and the ~

transverse fascia now occupies the middle of

the long convex segment. Legs light yellow, the

femora somewhat more brownish, their pile

blackish on the lateral surfaces; elsewhere the

pile is golden. Wings strongly tinged with yel-

low, the posterior margin pale brown, the

marginal cell closed and stalked, it and the cell

behind it light brown.

Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 51356),

Chinkiang, China, May 1923. A paratype,

same data, in author’s collection; also two

paratypes from Nanking, China, one in the

Vienna Museum, one in author’s collection.

This is a very pretty species, and I have not

been able to identify it with any Asiatic species

known to me.

Graptomyza globigaster, n. sp.

This species suggests flavorhyncha Hull in

the pattern of its abdomen; the fasciae are not

medially expanded, however, and the face is

short.

Female.—Length 6 mm. Head: Front, face,

and cheeks pale yellow, marked with black; a

narrow medial black stripe on the front and

brownish down the middle of the face, darker

between face and cheeks. Four or five blackish

hairs on the tubercle and a few shorter ones

below. Antennae elongate, orange, the third

joint grayish above and three and one-half

times as long as wide. The arista is nonplu-

mose. Thorax: Mesonotum broadly black, the

humeri, propleura, most of the mesopleura pos-

Fes. 15, 1948

teriorly, the wide lateral margins of the mesono-

tum and the area before the scutellum, all pale

yellow. Scutellum dark brown, blackish over

the broad central concavity. Thoracic and

scutellar bristles black, the short pile yellow.

Abdomen oval-globose, subtranslucent, orange-

brown marked with black as follows: a black

fascia lying on the posterior portion of the

second segment attenuated medially and medi-

ally indented behind and withdrawn from the

margin; this fascia is continuous with an

abruptly diagonal and slender, sublateral black

vitta on each side of the third segment, which

extends to the posterior corner and leaves the

anterior corner pale. The posterior portion of

the third segment is marked with a similar

diverging black fascia, which, however, is

broadly interrupted medially but also attenu-

ated; laterally it connects narrowly with a

wider and similar sublateral vitta. Fourth

seement with a long, median vitta and a pair

of sublateral, shorter, more posterior black

vittae; these black vittae are wide and an-

teriorly rounded and none of them reaches the

basal margin. Legs pale yellow, the apical

fourth of the hind femora and all of hind tibiae

black and chiefly black pilose, elsewhere the

pile is pale. Wings hyaline with a pair of pale,

slightly oblique, brownish fasciae beginning

at the ends of the first and second longitudinal

veins. The first of these bands reaches the base

of the lower cross vein, the second reaches and

follows the subapical cross vein. There is a small

brown spot at the end of the subcostal vein.

Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 52904), and

2 paratype females in U. S. National Museum,

Island of Biliran, Philippines, C. F. Baker,

collector. Paratype, same data, in author’s

collection.

Brachypalpus trilineata, n. sp.

Differing from any described species in the

narrow, pale fascia of the abdomen.

Female—Length 14 mm. Head: Front and

HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 43

vertex shining black, the sides of the former

narrowly yellow pubescent, all pile except a

few black hairs at ocelli and above the anten-

nae, yellowish. The prominent face is bare, dull

_and very dark mahogany, the cheeks shining

black. Face with a very large, low, long tuber-

cle, and a quite wide, thickly golden pubescent

stripe reaching from eye to epistoma and con-

tinued broadly up the sides of the face to

unite below the antennae. Antennae short,

black, the third joint almost circular in outline.

Thorax rather light brownish pollinose with

rather obscure, broad vittae. Pleura thickly

covered with ochre-colored pollen. The abun-

dant pile of pleura and mesonotum is ochra-

ceous, except for a few long, erect, black hairs

on the posterior third of the mesonotum.

Seutellum shining black, long, yellow-pilose,

with a copious ventral fringe. Abdomen very

broad and flat, with nearly parallel sides, a

little wider in the middle of the abdomen.

Abdomen dully shining black, marked with

yellow to brown fascia. First segment light

brownish basally. Second segment with a trans-

verse, yellow-brown, basomedially indented,

_parallel-sided fascia near the middle running

almost to the lateral margin. Third and fourth

segments each with a subbasal, narrower,

parallel-sided, light-yellow and yellow-pollinose

fascia reaching the lateral margin; the fascia

upon the fourth segment is slightly arcuate,

especially toward the sides. Abdominal pile

rather short, appressed and black except upon

the first segment and the sides of the base of the

second segment. Legs: Femora black: all the

tibiae and tarsi except their distal joints, light

orange. Wings light brown, the stigmal cell no

darker, the stigmal cross vein heavy. The small

cross vein is located four-fifths of the length of

the discal cell from its base.

Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 56426),

Tjibodas, Mount Gede, Java, 4.09, Bryant and

Palmer, collectors. p:

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 2

ZOOLOGY.—North American monogenetic trematodes: VI. The family Dicli-

dophoridae (Diclidophoroidea).:| EmMmMrmrt W. Pricz, Bureau of Animal In-

dustry.

As in previous sections of the series, this

paper deals with flatworms that live as ex-

ternal parasites on cold-blooded verte-

brates. The members of the family Dicli-

dophoridae are for the most part parasites

of marine fishes, living on the gills and oc-

casionally in the mouth. The organization

and purpose of this paper are the same as

for previous installments (Price, 1937, 1938,

1939a, 1939b, 1942).

DICLIDOPHOROIDEA Price, 1936

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptor in form of two

lateral, oval or circular suckers opening into

the oral cavity. Posterior haptor variable in

shape and position, usually at the posterior

end of body, sometimes ventral or lateral,

usually provided with two rows of suckers or

clamplike adhesive organs having a compli-

cated, heavily cuticularized, riblike, supporting

structure; posterior tip of haptor often ter-

minating in a tonguelike structure or ‘‘lan-

guette’’ frequently armed with one to three

pairs of hooks. Digestive system consisting of

a prepharynx serving as an oral cavity, a

bulbous pharynx, a short esophagus, and an

intestine consisting, except in Dvzplozoon, of

two principal branches provided with numerous

median and lateral diverticula. Eyes absent.

Male and female genital apertures usually

opening to exterior through a common pore

situated ventrally. Cirrus armed or unarmed.

Testes usually numerous, postovarial, occa-

sionally preovarial. Ovary elongate, folded.

Vaginae present or absent, usually opening

dorsally. Parasites of fishes, or of crustaceans

parasitic on fishes.

Type family.—Diclidophoridae Fuhrmann,

1928.

KEY TO FAMILIES OF DICLIDOPHOROIDEA?

1. Framework of haptoral suckers consisting of 8

principal pieces (Fig. 1, A)............ eae

Depa saatote tenes DIcLIDOPHORIDAE Fuhrmann

1 Received September 7, 1942.

2 No entirely satisfactory key can at present be

formulated to distinguish the families of Diclido-

phoroidea. The principal group characters are in

Framework of haptoral suckers consisting of

fewer than 8 principal pieces............ 2

2. Framework of haptoral suckers consisting of 3

pieces (Fig. 1, F)... HEXosTOMATIDAE Price

Framework of haptoral suckers cgnsisting of

more than 3 pieces: .. :...0.a..se ee 3

3. Haptoral suckers relatively strongly muscular

(Fig. 1, B); vagina double (absent in Octo-

macrum), openings lateral. .<. 0. 225.

OCR tee ores ae DiscocoTyLiDAE Price

Haptoral suckers relatively weakly muscular;

vagina’ when present, usually single and

opening dorsally... .. 5.2.2 Sense eee 4

4. Haptoral suckers usually numerous, framework

as shown in Fig. 1,°C....0.4 262 See

he ee MicrocotTyLipAE Taschenberg

Haptoral suckers variable in number, frame-

work not as above. .......:.<. a. 5

5. Haptoral suckers usually numerous, framework

as in Fig. 1, D....GasTRocoTyLipag, n. f.

Haptoral suckers few in number, framework

AS elas Hae pule ye eee MAaZzOCRAEIDAE Price

Family Diclidophoridae Fuhrmann, 1928

Synonym.—Choricotylidae Rees and Llewel-

lyn, 1941.

Diagnosis—Haptor terminal, usually bear-

ing four pairs of cuplike adhesive structures

having a complicated, heavily cuticularized

framework of the general type as shown in

Fig. 1,A. Cirrus usually armed with a circle of

curved hooks, which are crescentic in cross

section.’ Seminal receptacle usually, if not al-

ways, present. Vaginae usually absent.

Type genus.—Dichidophora Diesing, 1850.

KEY TO SUBFAMILIES OF DICLIDOPHORIDAE

Haptoral sucker clamplike or pincerlike........

Pel Penns CCNA Mets DIcLIDOPHORINAE Cerfontaine

Haptoral suckers cuplike.. 2°. .2. sso eceeeeee

SEPM CEOS Meare gai a4. CYCLOCOTYLINAE, n. subf.

Subfamily Diclidophorinae Cerfontaine, 1895

Diagnosis.—Haptor with four pairs of pe-

dunculated clamplike suckers of the type shown

in Fig. 1, A. Cirrus armed. Vaginae absent.

Type genus.—Diclidophora Diesing, 1850.

the number and shape of the pieces composing the

framework of the haptoral suckers; so far no de-

scriptive terms have been proposed for these

structures that will impart a sufficiently clear

picture of their appearance.

3 The hooks of the genital coronet are crescentic

in cross section and this frequently gives them the

appearance of being ‘‘double pointed.”

ee ee a ee ee ee

Fes. 15, 1943

KEY TO GENERA OF DICLIDOPHORINAE

1. Haptor distinctly set off from body proper...

<2: ee Diclidophoroides, n. gen.

Haptor not distinctly set off from body proper

ae Mies e /@) (@ \e) =) 28, a 0, e « = 8. 6 © ‘6 je © se) @ so 2 ee 6 8 © «© @ os

2. Testes postovarial....... Octodactylus Dalyell

Testes preovarial and postovarial...........

2 ee Diclidophora Diesing

Fig. 1.—Types of haptoral suckers in the super-

family Diclidophoroidea: A, Diclidophoridae; B,

Discocotylidae; C, Microcotylidae; D, Gastro-

cotylidae; E, Mazocraeidae; F, Hexostomatidae.

Genus Diclidophora Diesing, 1850

Synonyms.— Dactycotyle Beneden and Hesse,

1863; Dactylocotyle Marschall, 1873.

Diagnosis.—Haptor not set off from body

proper, bearing four pairs of pedunculated,

clamplike suckers. Testes numerous, preova-

rial and postovarial. Eggs with polar prolonga-

tions. >

Type species.—Diclidophora longicollis Die-

sing, 1850 [ = D. merlangi (Kuhn, in Nordmann,

1832)].

The genus Diclidophora was proposed by

Diesing (1850) for two species, D. longicollis

Diesing and D. palmata (F. 8. Leuckart), the

former being Octostoma merlangi Kuhn (in

Nordmann, 1832) renamed. Both of these spe-

cies were regarded by Cerfontaine (1895) as

PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES 45

congeneric with Dactycotyle pollachit Beneden

and Hesse, 1863, the type (subsequent desig-

nation by Stiles and Hassall, 1908) of Dacty-

cotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863 (= Dactylo-

cotyle Marschall, 1873). Of the two species

originally included in the genus Diclidophora,

D. palmata (F.S. Leuckart) is apparently iden-

tical with Octodactylus inhaerens Dalyell (1853).

Since the original species of Diclidophora, as

well as several species subsequently added to

the genus, are clearly divided into two groups

on the basis of testicular distribution, it ap-

pears desirable to recognize both Diclidophora

Diesing and Octodactylus Dalyell as valid gen-

era. Diclidophora merlangi (Kuhn) of Mac-

Callum, 1917, having characters of the sub-

family but not being congeneric with either

Diclidophora or Octodactylus, is placed in the

new genus Diclidophoroides.

The species comprising the genus Dicli-

dophora (s. str.)4 are D. merlangi (Kuhn, in

Nordmann, 1832),5 from Gadus merlangus in

Kurope; D. denticulata (Olsson, 1876),n. comb.,

from Pollachius virens; D. luscae (Beneden and

Hesse, 1863), n. comb., from Morrhua lusca;

and D. pollachit (Beneden and Hesse, 1863),

n. comb., from Pollachius pollachius.

4 Dactylocotyle minor Ishii (1936) renamed D.

thunni Ishii, in Ishii and Sawada (1938), does

not belong to the genus Dactylocotyle (= Diclido-

phora) but is a species of Mazocraes.

5 Dollfus (1922) has raised the question as to

the authorship of the name merlangi, which was

credited to Kuhn by Nordmann (1832), and pre-

fers to regard Nordmann as the author since the

name credited to Kuhn was only a manuscript

name. In spite of the fact that the name ‘“‘Octo-

stoma merlangi Kuhn” is a manuscript or label

name, which probably accompanied specimens

that were sent by Kuhn to Rudolphi and later

studied by Nordmann, the following are reasons

for recognizing Kuhn as the author: Nordmann

placed the name “‘Octostoma merlangt Kuhn’’ as

a synonym of ‘‘Octobothrium(?) merlangi”’ (= Di-

clidophora merlangi), thereby crediting Kuhn

with the name of the species. Opinion 4 of the

International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature

states that ‘‘Manuscript names acquire standing

in nomenclature when printed in accordance with

the provisions of Art. 25, and the question as to

their validity is not influenced by the fact whether

such names are accepted or rejected by the author

responsible for their publication.”’ The name in

question was used for the species now known as

Diclidophora merlangi and the conditions under

which it was used conform to those stipulated

under Art. 25; therefore, there seems to be no

question as to the validity of the name, and the

authorship of the species should, accordingly, be

credited to Kuhn, in Nordmann, 1832.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Diclidophora denticulata (Olsson, 1876),

n. comb.

Figs. 2-3

Synonyms.—Octobothrium denticulatum Ols-

son, 1876; Dactylocotyle denticulatum (Ols-

son, 1876) Cerfontaine, 1895; D. carbonarii

Cerfontaine, 1895.

Description—Body 7 mm long by 1.6 mm

wide at level of ovary, tapering gradually an-

teriorly. Anterior haptors in form of a pair of

suckers, each about 170u in diameter, opening

into oral cavity. Posterior haptor more:or less

rectangular, about 2.1 mm long, not set off

from body proper, bearing four pairs of pe-

dunculated clamplike suckers; no terminal

hooks. Suckers about equal in size, 680u wide,

supported by complicated cuticular structure

(Fig. 3); wall of suckers muscular; outer an-

terior quadrant of suckers armed with 30 to

AQ lancelike spines. Oral aperture subterminal;

pharynx oval, 487u long by 153u wide; re-

mainder of digestive tract not observable in

available material. Male genital aperture me-

dian, about 595u from anterior end of body;

cirrus about 95u in diameter, armed with 13

inwardly curved hooks. Testes numerous,

small, extending from about one-third of total

body length from anterior end to about level

of anterior end of haptor. Ovary N-shaped,

median, about 400u in front of anterior limit

of haptor. Vitelline follicles abundant, ex-

tending from level of female genital pore to

posterior end of haptor. Seminal receptacle and

vitelline reservoir preovarial. Genito-intestinal

canal not observed. Uterus long and slender,

in median field. Female genital aperture me-

dian, about 190u posterior to male genital

aperture. No fully formed eggs present in

available specimen.

Host.— Pollachius virens (Linnaeus).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.—United States (Woods Hole,

Mass.) and Canada (St. Mary Bay, Nova

Scotia).

Specimen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 6508.

This species was originally described by

Olsson (1876) from specimens collected from

Gadus virens (=Pollachius virens) from the

Skaggerak, and, later, Cerfontaine (1895) gave

a detailed description of the parasite. In North

America there appear to be three records of its

occurrence: Linton (1900) reported the find-

ing of one specimen by Prof. H. M. Kelly at

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Woods Hole, Mass., and Stafford (1904) and

Cooper (1915) reported this species from Can-

ada. The specimen reported by Linton is the

one on which the above description is based.

This specimen, a toto mount, was in fair con-

dition despite the fact that two of the clamp-

like suckers of the haptor had been torn off.

D. denticulata is readily distinguishable from

the other members of the genus by the presence

of spines on the haptoral suckers.

a: a

S294.9 92980 &, S

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ose

2 °

S200

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of 5

05°90 &

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024 0 tae

ae 35

Bee

Se Seu

BOQ So

eaecees

doko:

eo UTS OLS

TAS ASS SS SEO

a2 oe

oot

Figs. 2-3.—Diclidophora denticulata: 2, Com-

plete worm, ventral view; 3, clamplike haptoral

sucker. Figs. 4-6.—Diclidophoroides maccallumi:

4, Complete worm, ventral view; 5, clamplike

haptoral sucker; 6, cirrus.

Genus Octodactylus Dalyell, 1853

Synonym.—Pterocotyle Beneden and Hesse,

1863.

Diagnosis —Haptor not distinctly set off

from body proper. Testes confined to post-

ovarial portion of body. Eggs usually without

polar prolongations.

Type species.—Octodactylus inhaerens Dal-

yell, 1853 [ =O. palmata (F. 8. Leuckart, 1830),

n. comb.]. :

Fes. 15, 1943

This genus contains Octodactylus palmata

(F. 8. Leuckart, 1830)® (syns. O. inhaerens

Dalyell, 1853; Octobothrium digitatum Rathke,

1843; Dactylocotyle molvae Cerfontaine, 1895),

from Molva molva; O. minus (Olsson, 1876), n.

comb., from Gadus poutasson; and O. morrhuae

(Beneden and Hesse, 1863),7 n. comb., from

Gadus morrhua. As none of these species occurs

on North American hosts, the genus will not

be considered further.

Diclidophoroides, n. gen.

Diagnosis.—Haptor distinctly set off from

body proper. Testes postovarial. Otherwise

similar to Octodactylus.

Type species.—Diclidophoroides maccallumi,

Nn. sp.

| In addition to the type species, it is possible

that Dactylocotyle phycidis Parona and Perugia,

1889, from Phycis blennoides in Europe may

belong here. The description of D. phycidis,

however, is too inadequate for definite generic

allocation. Heterobothriwm ecuadort Meserve

(1938) from Cheilichthys annulatus and H.

galapagensis Meserve (1938) from Paranthias

_ furcifer, both from the Galapagos Islands, are

tentatively included in Diclidophoroides, the

new combinations being D. ecwadori (Meserve)

and D. galapagensis (Meserve), respectively.

The pincerlike or clamplike nature of the hap-

toral suckers definitely eliminates these two

species from the genus Heterobothrium. Only

the type specimens of Meserve’s species were

available for examination, but these show the

haptors to be fairly well set off from the body

proper, although not so distinctly so as in D.

maccallumi; the haptoral suckers are subsessile

and equal in size.

Diclidophoroides maccallumi, n. sp.

Figs. 4-6

Synonyms.—Diclidophora merlangt MacCal-

lum, 1917; Dactylocotyle minor (Olsson, 1876) of

Manter, 1926; D. phycidis Parona and Pe-

6 MacCallum (1917) reported finding on the

gills of Lota maculosa ‘“‘a rather delapidated speci-

men of what seems to answer to the description

of D. palmata.’’ This specimen has been examined

and found not to be a trematode, consequently

the report of this species from North America is

erroneous.

7 The form reported by Scott (1901) from Gadus

callarius (=G. morrhua) under the name of

Pterocotyle morrhuae is probably not this species.

PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES 47

rugia, 1889, of Stafford, 1904; Choricotyle mer-

langi (MacCallum, 1917) Llewellyn, 1941.

Description.—Body elliptical, 4.2 to 6.9 mm

long by 1.5 to 2.1 mm wide. Anterior haptor in

form of a pair of suckers, each 76 to 115yu wide,

opening into oral cavity. Posterior haptor

somewhat rectangular, 1.8 mm long by 2.3 mm

wide in largest specimen, distinctly set off from

body proper, bearing four pairs of peduncu-

lated clamplike suckers, peduncles and suckers

of different sizes, first pair smallest and pos-

terior pair largest, with complicated cuticular

supporting structure (Fig. 5); smallest suckers

170 to 255u wide, largest 425 to 510u wide.

Posterior tip of haptor armed with 2 pairs of

minute hooks. Oral aperture subterminal;

pharynx oval, 157 to 170u long by 70 to 114y

wide; remainder of digestive tract not traceable

except in haptor, here branches observed to

enter peduncles of suckers. Genital aperture

median, 247 to 340u from anterior end of

body. Cirrus muscular, 38 to 95u in diameter,

armed with a circle of 13 to 16 inwardly curved

hooks. Testes relatively numerous, small, in

median field posterior to ovary; a few testes

sometimes lateral to ovary. Ovary elongate, N-

shaped, median, equatorial. Vitelline follicles

abundant, extending from a short distance

back of genital aperture to posterior end of

body proper. Seminal receptacle anterior to,

and to right of, ovary; vagina and genito-intes-

tinal canal not observed. Uterus slender, in

median field. No eggs present in available speci-

mens (eggs non-filamented, according to Man-

ter, 1926).

Host.— Urophycis chuss (Walbaum).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole,

Mass., and Mount Desert Island, Maine) and

Canada.

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. nos.

35106 (type and paratypes), 35585, and 35586.

Diclidophoroides maccallumi appears to be

the same species as that described by Manter

(1926) as Dactylocotyle minor (Olsson) from

Urophycis chuss, and as that reported by

Stafford (1904) under the name D. phycidis

Parona and Perugia from the same host in

Canada. That Diclidophorotdes maccallumi is

distinct from the form described by Olsson

(1868) as Octobothrium palmatum Leuck. f.

minor seems clear, since the haptor in Olsson’s

form shows the pedunculated suckers to be

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

equal in size and not unequal as is the case in

the specimens described by Manter, or in the

specimens collected by MacCallum.

MacCallum thought that this species might

be identical with Dactylocotyle merlangi (Kuhn),

but Dollfus (1922) has pointed out that the

two species are not identical and that the name

merlangt MacCallum should be retained for the

species described by MacCallum (1917), since

merlangt (Kuhn, of authors) belongs in the

genus Dactylocotyle (= Diclidophora). Unfor-

tunately Dollfus’s proposal, which is concurred

in by Llewellyn (1941), is untenable, as mer-

langi (Kuhn) was placed in the genus Diclt-

dophora by Kr¢yer (1838-40, p. 606) and also

by MacCallum (1917); consequently Dvclido-

phora merlangi MacCallum is a homonym and

must be renamed.

Diclidophora spp.

Linton (1905) reported Dactylocotyle sp. from

the gills of Brevoortia tyrannus and Diclido-

phora sp. from the gills of Orthopristis chrysop-

terus. The first of these forms was illustrated

but not described and the second was described

briefly as follows: ‘‘This specimen is very frag-

ile, the posterior finger-like processes appear-

ing to be somewhat macerated. Dimensions,

in millimeters; length 1.68, length exclusive

of posterior sucker 1.28; diameter at anterior

end 0.08: maximum diameter of body 0.52, of

sucker region 0.96; diameter of one of the 8

small suckers 0.13.”

The illustration of the form from Brevoortia

tyrannus indicates that it is probably a new

species and may not belong to the genus Dvcli-

dophora, but the details were not clearly

brought out and as no description was given, it

seems inadvisable to name it. The description

of the form from Orthopristis chrysopterus is

too inadequate to warrant further considera-

tion.

-Cyclocotylinae, n. subf.

Synonym.—Diclidophorinae Cerfontaine, 1895

in part.

Diagnosis.—Haptor with four pairs of ses-

sile, subsessile, or pedunculated cuplike suckers,

each provided with a heavily cuticularized

framework of the type shown in Fig. 1,A.

Cirrus armed (except in Cyelocotyloides) with

hooks as in Diclidophorinae. Vaginaz usually

absent.

VOL. 33, No. 2

Type genus.—Cyclocotyla Otto, 1823.

KEY TO GENERA OF CYCLOCOTYLINAE

1. Cirrus hooks absent... .Cyclocotyloides, n. gen.

Cirrus:‘hooks present... 20). 3-2 ee 2

2. Vaginae present..... Diclidophoropsts Gallien

Vaginae absent: ...0..0 5 ace vacte Ae 6 eee 3

3. Framework of anterior pair of haptoral suckers

orientated inversely as compared with those

of posterior 3 pairs... 2.42250) eee

Rae ear ee Heterobothrium Cerfontaine

Framework of all 4 pairs of haptoral suckers

occupying same relative orientation......4

4. Testes both pre- and postovarial............

sees wie Geneece Naa Alea Cyclobothriuum Cerfontaine

Testes entirely postovarial................ 5

5. Posterior pair of suckers sessile and widely re-

moved from anterior 3 pairs of pedunculated

SUCKENSE aaa Pedocotyle MacCallum

Posterior pair of suckers either subsessile or

pedunculated and not separated from other

PAIS. Ss os ele ooo yl ese ole es 6

6. Vitellaria extending into haptor.............

Sie Gish een hoe Ree ee Cyclocotyla Otto

Vitellaria not extending into haptor.........

FIR os olan ee RT Neoheterobothrium, n. gen.

Genus Cyclocotyla Otto, 1823

Synonyms.—Octostoma Otto, 1823, not Kuhn,

1829; Cyclostoma Otto, 1823, not Lamarck,

1799; Cyclobothrium Cerfontaine, 1895, in part;

Choricotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863; Dicl-

dophora Diesing, of Goto, 1894, in part; Meso-

cotyle Parona and Perugia, 1889.

Diagnosis.—Haptor distinctly set off from

body proper; suckers either subsessile or pe-

dunculated, more or less equally spaced. Genital

atrium non-muscular; cirrus armed; testes post-

ovarial. Vaginae absent; vitellaria extending

into haptor.

Type species.—Cyclocotyla bellones

1828. .

This genus was proposed by Otto (1823) for

a parasite collected from the ‘Rucken-Haut

eines Hornhechts” at Naples. The description

of the species is limited to external characters,

but the figure shows it to be closely related to,

and possibly the same as, Cyclobothrium char-

cott, which was described by Dollfus (1922a;

1922b) from a crustacean parasitic on the skin

and in the mouth of Trachurus trachurus and

Box boops. A comparison of the essential char-

acters of these forms with those of the type and

other species at present included in the genus

Choricotyle Beneden and Hesse (1863) shows

them to be sufficiently similar as to be regarded

as congeneric.

Otto,

Fes. 15, 1943

As present constituted the genus Cyclocotyla

contains the following species: Cyclocotyla bel-

lones Otto, 1823, from ‘‘Hornhecht,” C. char-

coti (Dollfus, 1922), n. comb., from Cymothoa

(Meinertia) oestroides parasitic on Trachurus

trachurus and Box boops; C. chrysophryi (Bene-

den and Hesse, 1863), n. comb., from Chryso-

phrys aurata and Pagellus centrodontus; C.

caulolatili (Meserve, 1938), n. comb., from

Caulolatilus princeps; C. elongata (Goto, 1894),

n. comb., from Pagrus tumifrons; C. labracis

(Cerfontaine, 1895), n. comb., from Labrax

lupus; C. neomaenis (MacCallum, 1917), n.

comb., from Lutianus analis; C. pagelli (Gal-

lien, 1937), n. comb., from Pagellus centro-

dontus; C. prionotti (MacCallum, 1917), n.

comb., from Merulinus carolinus; C. smarts

(Ijima, in Goto, 1894),8n. comb., from Smaris

vulgaris (on caudal segment of a Cymothoa);

C. squillarum (Parona and Perugia, 1889), n.

comb., from Bopyrus squillarum; and C. tasch-

enbergit (Parona and Perugia, 1889), n. comb..

from Sargus rondeleti1. Of these, only C.

— neomaenis and C. prionott are known to occur

on North American hosts.

Cyclocotyla neomaenis (MacCallum, 1917),

n. comb.

Figs. 7—9

Synonyms.—Diclidophora neomaenis Mac-

Callum, 1917; Choricotyle neomaenis (MacCal-

lum, 1917) Llewellyn, 1941.

Description.—Body fusiform, 9 mm long, in-

cluding haptor, by 1.1 mm wide. Anterior hap-

tor in form of a pair of suckers, each 80y in

diameter, opening into oral cavity. Posterior

haptor 2.5 mm long, distinctly set off from body

proper by an isthmuslike constriction, bearing

four pairs of pedunculated clamplike suckers.

Suckers of anterior three pairs about equal in

size, 460u wide, and those of posterior pair

much smaller, 320u wide; suckers of general

type of other representatives of genus, but with

heavy corrugations of surface of inner wall of

cuter quadrants, and with fleshy linguiform

pad in depth of sucker cavity; cuticular sup-

porting structure somewhat more complicated

than that of other species (Fig. 8); no hooks

observed between posterior pair of peduncles.

Oral aperture subterminal; pharynx oval, 80u

8 The question of authorship of this species in

this case parallels that of Diclidophora merlangi.

PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES

long by 64y wide; remainder of digestive tract

not observable. Excretory apertures laterodor-

sal, slightly anterior to level of genital aperture;

remainder of excretory system not observable.

Genital aperture median, about 696 from

anterior end of body. Cirrus 88u in diameter,

armed with 12 inwardly projecting hooks.

Testes relatively few, in median field posterior

to ovary. Ovary preequatorial: odtype pre-

ovarial, massive, surrounded by numerous uni-

cellular glands. Vitelline follicles numerous,

occupying almost entire body width from level

of genital aperture to posterior end of body

proper, extending into haptor. Vagina and

genitointestinal canal not observed. No eggs

present.

Host.—Lutianus analis (Cuvier and Valen-

ciennes).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution. —United States (Key West,

Fla.).

Spectmen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 35587

(type).

This species was described from a single

specimen collected by the late Dr. G. A. Mac-

Callum at the New York Aquarium, from a

muttonfish obtained from Key West, Fla. The

species differs from all others of the genus in the

peculiar structure of the haptoral suckers.

Cyclocotyla prionoti (MacCallum, 1917),

n. comb.

Fig. 10

Synonyms.—Diclidophora prionot. MacCal-

lum, 1917; Choricotyle prionots (MacCallum,

1917) Llewellyn, 1941.

Description.—Body elongate, 3 to 3.7 mm

long by 540 to 640u wide, anterior end with

constriction between tip of body and genital

aperture. Anterior haptor in form of a pair of

suckers, about 88u in diameter, opening into

oral cavity. Posterior haptor palmate, about

640 to 720u long, with four pairs of peduncu-

lated suckers about 240u in diameter; pe-

duncles of suckers relatively long and thick.

Oral aperture subterminal; pharynx piriform,

about 160u long by 88u wide; remainder of

digestive system not ascertainable in available

specimens. Genital aperture median, about

400u from anterior end of body. Cirrus 40 to

48u in diameter, armed with 10 inwardly curved

hooks. Testes 21 to 32 in number, relatively

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

large, median, postovarial. Ovary tubular,

folded, median, about one-third of body length

from anterior end. Vitelline follicles relatively

large, extending from slightly anterior to geni-

tal aperture to posterior end of haptor. Seminal

receptacle oval, relatively large, posterior to

ovary and to right of median line. Genitointes-

tinal canal and vagina not observed. Odtype

postovarial, surrounded by prominent mass of

unicellular glands. No eggs in available speci-

mens.

Host.—Merulinus carolinus (Linnaeus).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole,

Mass.).

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm.

35589 (cotypes), 35590, and 35591.

Coll.

20!

So,

BSRe So BPS

SPS GRE ash rae

nos.

CLs \

’

Lt iyys

VOL. 33, NO. 2

This species is closely related to Cyclocotyla

chrysophryt (Beneden and Hesse); it differs

from that species, in so far as one can determine

from the original description, in the number of

genital hooks (8 in C. chrysophryi and 10 in

C’. prionott). MacCallum (1917) stated that the

number of genital hooks was 13, but this is an

error.

Genus Cyclobothrium Cerfontaine, 1895

Synonym.—Diclidophora Diesing, of Goto,

1894, in part.

Diagnosis.—Haptor indistinctly set off from

body proper; suckers sessile. Genital atrium

nonmuscular; cirrus armed. Testes numerous,

preovarial and postovarial. Vaginae absent.

BOI o

am Rog Omer 5

Hy coat wr

SOAP

= Dea cry tS) Gy

SHES a aaew,

wa By aoe BS ES

Beonresgn earners

EERE AR SEER §

Pence

Srstenae

oa enl

ics

Ee.

Tes >

(

\\ >

“Wy

VW y

rittyy

. ie

ey)

Figs. 7-9.—Cyclocotyla neomaenis: 7, Complete worm, ventral view; 8, haptoral sucker; 9, cirrus.

Fig. 10.—Cyclocotyla prionoti, complete worm, ventral view.

11, Complete worm, dorsal view; 12, haptoral sucker; 13, haptoral languette; 14, cirrus.

Figs. 11-14.—Neoheterobothrium affine:

Figs. 15-18.—

Neoheterobothrium cynoscioni: 15, Complete worm, ventral view; 16, haptoral sucker; 17, haptoral

languette; 18, cirrus.

Fig. 19.—Pedocotyle morone, complete worm, dorsal view.

Fes. 15, 1943

Type species.—Cyclobothrium sessilis (Goto,

1894) Cerfontaine, 1895.

This genus comprises Cyclobothrium iniistri

Yamaguti (1937), from Intistius dea; C. semi-

cossyphi Yamaguti (1938), from Semicossyphus

reticulatus; and C’. sessilis (Goto, 1894), from

Choerops japonicus and Semicossyphus reticu-

latus; all three species are from Japanese hosts.

Genus Heterobothrium Cerfontaine, 1895

Synonym.—Diclidophora Diesing, of Goto,

T894, in part.

Diagnosis.—Haptor separated from body

proper by a long slender isthmus: suckers ses-

sile, framework of anterior pair orientated in-

versely with respect to that of posterior three

pairs. Genital atrium nonmuscular, cirrus

armed; testes postovarial. Vaginae absent;

vitellaria not extending into haptor.

Type species.— Heterobothrium

(Goto, 1894) Cerfontaine, 1895.

The type and only species of this genus was

obtained from the gills of Tetrodon sp. in Japan;

it is not known to occur on North American

hosts.

tetrodonis

Neoheterobothrium, n. gen.

Diagnosis—Haptor separated from body

proper by a long slender isthmus; suckers

pedunculated, with framework of all pairs

orientated in same manner. Other characters

as in Heterobothrium.

Type species.— Neoheterobothrium affine (Lin-

ton, 1898), n. comb. .

The species referable to this genus are Neo-

heterobothrium affine (Linton, 1898) from Para-

lichthys dentatus and N. cynosciont (MacCal-

lum, 1917), n. comb., from Cynoscion regalis,

both from North America; and possibly Octo-

bothrium leptogaster (F. 8S. Leuckart, 1830)

(=N. leptogaster (F. S. Leuckart, 1830), n.

comb.) from Chimaera monstrosa in Europe.

Neoheterobothrium affine (Linton, 1898),

n. comb.

Figs. 11-14

Synonyms—Octoplectanum affine Linton,

1898; Diclidophora affinis (Linton, 1898)

Linton, 1901; Choricotyle affine (Linton,

1898) Llewellyn, 1941.

Description.—Body elongate, 11 to 20 mm

long by 2 to 3 mm wide, divided into three

parts, namely, body proper, isthmus and hap-

PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES ol

tor. Anterior haptor consisting of a pair of

suckers 120 to 170y in diameter, opening into

oral cavity. Posterior haptor 2 to 3 mm. in

diameter, consisting of 8 digitate appendages

bearing suckers 425 to 510u in diameter sup-

ported by a heavily cuticularized framework

as shown in Fig. 12. Between peduncles of

posterior pair of suckers is a small projection

or “languette,’’ about 50u long by 25u wide,

apparently bearing two pairs of hooks (hooks

missing but insertions clearly visible). Oral

aperture subterminal; pharynx piriform, 170

to 180u long by 110 to 170u wide; intestinal

branches with prominent lateral diverticula as

far back as isthmus, then without diverticula,

extending into haptor. Genital aperture me-

dian, about 510 to 680u from anterior end of

body; cirrus armed with a circle of incurved

hooks, 12 to 16 in number, each about 20u

long. Testes numerous, number not ascertain-

able, postovarial, in median field. Ovary

folded, median, approximately in equatorial

region of preisthmian portion of body. Vitelline

follicles extending from a short distance pos-

terior to level of genital aperture to distal part

of preisthmian portion of body. Seminal recep-

tacle and genitointestinal canal not observed.

Egg about 150u long by 57y wide, with pro-

longation at each pole.

Host.—Paralichthys dentatus (Linnaeus) and

P. lethostigmus Jordan and Gilbert.

Location.—Mouth.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole,

Mass., and Grand Island Region, La.).

Spectmens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll.

4876 (type), 4875, and 8156.

The redescription of this species as given

here is based on toto mounts of the type and

other specimens described from Woods Hole,

Mass., by Linton (1898; 1901; 1940). The prep-

arations were not very good and some de-

tails could not be made out. Melugin (1940) has

reported this species from Louisiana.

Neoheterobothrium affine resembles Octobo-

thrium leptogaster (F.S. Leuckart) [ = Neohetero-

bothrium leptogaster (F. S. Leuckart)] as de-

scribed by Olsson (1876) and by Parona and

Perugia (1892) in possessing a long, slender

isthmus between body proper and haptor. The

two species are also similar in that both possess

a hook-bearing lobe or “‘languette’”’ between the

peduncles of the posterior pair of haptoral

Nos.

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

suckers (see Ruszkowski, 1934, for description

of the hooks of O. leptogaster). The presence of

a “Janguette”’ in these species may not be of

especial significance, however, as many of the

members of the family Diclidophoridae possess

this structure. In spite of obvious similarities

there is little likelihood of the two species being

identical because of their host affinities, there

being an extraordinary host specificity among

the Monogenea.

Neoheterobothrium cynoscioni

(MacCallum, 1917), n. comb.

Figs. 15-18

Synonyms.— Diclidophoracynosciont MacCal-

lum, 1917; Choricotyle cynoscioni (MacCallum,

1917) Llewellyn, 1941.

Description.—Body elongate, 7 to 10 mm

long by 400 to 616u wide, attenuated poste-

riorly. Anterior haptor in form of a pair of

suckers 120u in diameter opening into oral

cavity. Posterior haptor somewhat palmate,

about 640u long, with four pairs of peduncu-

lated suckers, and with small, flaplike lobe

bearing two pairs of hooks between peduncles

of last pair of suckers; suckers about 288u in

diameter, with heavily cuticularized framework

as shown in Fig. 16; posterior lobe 120yu long

by 72u wide, outer hooks 12u long and inner

hooks 28 to 30u long. Oral aperture subter-

minal; pharynx piriform, 120u long by 80y

wide; esophagus and intestinal branches not

traceable in available specimens. Genital aper-

ture median, about 430 to 460u from anterior

end of body. Cirrus 48 to 50u in diameter,

armed with eight hooks. Testes 28 to 30 in

number, relatively large, occupying median

field posterior to ovary. Ovary tubular, folded,

median, about one-third of body length from

anterior end. Vitelline follicles extending from

level of genital aperture to about midway be-

tween level of last testis and anterior margin of

haptor. Seminal receptacle oval, relatively vo-

luminous, posterior to ovary and slightly to

right of median line. Genitointestinal canal and

vagina not observable. No eggs present.

Host.—Cynoscion regalis (Bloch and Schnei-

der).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.—United States (Woods fiole!

Mass.).

Specumens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll.

35592 (type) and 35593.

Nos.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

The type specimen of this species is greatly

elongated and somewhat mutilated; it was col-

lected by the late Dr. G. A. MacCallum August

26, 1914. Three additional specimens are avail-

able, collected by MacCallum July 2, 1924;

these are in much better condition than the

type, and the greater part of the above de-

scription is based upon these specimens. In the

type specimen the small lobe or ‘languette”’

at the posterior end of the haptor was folded

over one of the peduncles and was not observed

by MacCallum.

Cyclocotyloides, n. gen.

Diagnosis.—Haptoral suckers pedunculated.

Genital atrium strongly muscular; cirrus un-

armed; otherwise similar to Cyciocotyla.

Type species.—Cyclocotyloides pinguis (Lin-

ton, 1940), n. comb.

Only one species, the type, is referable to

this genus. C. pinguts was described by Linton

(1940) as Diclidophora pinguis and was based

on specimens from the mouth of Albatrossia

pectoralis. The specimens available to the writer

were fragmentary and nothing can be added to

the original description. The absence of clamp-

like haptoral suckers excludes this species from

the genus Diclidophora and the presence of a

muscular genital atrium and the absence of an

armed cirrus exclude it from other genera of

the Cyclocotylinae.

Genus Diclidophoropsis Gallien, 1937

Diagnosis.—Haptoral suckers pedunculated.

Genital atrium nonmuscular; cirrus armed;

testes postovarial. Vaginae present; vitellaria

extending into haptor.

Type Ree tissiert Gal-

lien, 1937.

The type and only species was described by

Gallien (1937) from specimens collected on

Macrurus laevis in the Atlantic Ocean south of

Ireland.

Genus Pedocotyle MacCallum, 1913

Synonym.—Podocotyle MacCallum, 1913, not

Dujardin, 1845.

Diagnosis.—Haptor linguiform, not distinct

from body proper, bearing three pairs of pe-

dunculated suckers at anterior end of haptor and

one pair of smaller sessile suckers near posterior

end. Testes postovarial. Wager extending

into haptor.

Fes. 15, 1943 PRICE:

Type species—Pedocotyle morone MacCal-

lum, 1913.

Pedocotyle morone MacCallum, 1913

Fig. 19

Synonym.—Podocotyle morone MacCallum,

1918.

Description.—Body slender, 5.9 mm long by

500u wide, apparently flat and ribbonlike, sides

parallel. Anterior haptor in form of two angers,

115u in diameter, opening into mouth cavity.

Posterior haptor linguiform, not distinguish-

able from body proper, with 3 pairs of peduncu-

lated suckers at its anterior end and one pair of

smaller sessile suckers near posterior end. An-

terior pedunculated suckers 228y in diameter,

with heavily cuticularized supporting structure

similar to that in Neoheterobothrium cynosciont

(see Fig. 16); peduncles about 228y long by

1804 in diameter; suckers of posterior pair

about 76y in diameter, apparently of the same

structure as those of anterior pairs (crushed in

type specimen). Mouth terminal; pharynx piri-

form, 150u long by 83u wide; esophagus and

intestine not discernible in available specimen.

Genital aperture median, about 375u from

anterior end of body. Cirrus muscular, 57y in

diameter, armed with 10 inwardly curved

hooks. Testes 14 in number, about 115y in

diameter, in median field between ovary and

anterior end of haptor. Ovary tubular, folded,

median. Vitelline follicles occupying greater

part of body from level of genital aperture to

near posterior end of haptor. Seminal recep-

tacle small, posterior to ovary and to right of

median line. Genitointestinal canal and vagina

not observed. Odtype prominent, surrounded

by numerous unicellular glands. No eggs in

available specimen.

Host.—Morone americana (Gmelin).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (New York).

Specimen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 35594

(type).

This species, based on a single specimen and

originally described by MacCallum (1913a;

1913b), is peculiar in the arrangement of the

suckers of the posterior haptor; because of its

unique appearance, further comment as to its

differentiation from related forms is unneces-

sary.

NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES 53

DICLIDOPHORIDAE OF UNCERTAIN POSITION

Genus Platycotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863

Diagnosis.—Haptor rectangular, bearing four

widely separated pedunculated suckers; ter-

minal hooks absent.

Type species—Platycotyle gurnardi Beneden

and Hesse, 1863.

The type and only species of the genus is

known only from the very inadequate descrip-

tion given by Beneden and Hesse (1863); this

worm was collected from the gills of Trigla

gurnardus in Europe.

LITERATURE CITED

VAN BENEDEN, PIERRE JOSEPH, and Hxusss, C.

EK. Recherches sur les bdellodes (hirudinées)

et les trématodes marins. Mem. Acad. Roy.

Sci. Belgique 34: 1-142. 1863.

CERFONTAINE, Pauu. Le genre Dactylocotyle.

Bull. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belgique 65 (ser. 3,

29): 918-946. 1895.

Coopzr, A. R. Trematodes from marine and

fresh- water fishes, including one species of

ectoparasitic turbellarian. Trans. Roy Soc.

Canada (sec. 4, ser. 3) 9: 181-205. 1915.

DaLyELL, JOHN GRAHAM. The powers of the

Creator displayed in creation....2: xili

+359 pp. London. 1858.

Disesine, Kart Morirz. Systema helminthum

1: xii+679 pp. Vindobonae. 1850.

DouuFrus, Ropert PH. Cyclobothrium char-

coti n. sp. Trematode ectoparasite sur Mei-

nertia oestroides (Risso). Parasites recueillis

pendant la croistére océanographique du

‘‘Pourquoi-pas?”’ sous le commandement du

Dr. J. B. Charcot, en 1914. Bull. Soc. Zool.

France 47: 287-296. 1922a.

. Complément a la description de Cyclo-

bothrium charcoti mihi. Bull. Soc. Zool.

France 47: 348-352. 1922b.

GALLIEN, Louis. Recherches sur quelques tré-

matodes monogénéses nouveaux ou peu con-

nus. Ann. Parasitol. 15(1): 9-28; (2): 146—

154. 1937.

Goto, Srrraro. Studies on the ectoparasitic

trematodes of Japan. Journ. Coll. Sci., Imp.

Univ., Tokyo, 8: 1-273. 1894.

IsHil, Nospuraro. Some new ectoparasitic

trematodes of marine fishes. Zool. Mag.,

Tokyo, 48: 781-790. 1936.

and SAWADA, TosHISADA. Studies on

the ectoparasttic trematodes. In Livro Jubilar

Prof. Travassos, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil,

pp. 281-244. 1988.

KrgyYER, Henprik. Danmark’s Fiske 1: cii

+616 pp. Kjgbenhavn. 1838-40.

Linton, Epwin. Notes on trematode parasites

of fishes. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 20: 507-

548. 1898.

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

. Fish parasites collected at Woods Hole

in 1898: pp. 267-304. Washington. 1900.

Parasites of fishes of the Woods Hole

Region: pp. 405-492. Washington. 1901.

Parasites of fishes of Beaufort, North

Carolina. Bull. Bur. Fish. 24 (for 1904):

321-428. 1905.

Trematodes from fishes mainly from

the Woods Hole Region, Massachusetts.

Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 88: 1-172. 1940.

LLEWELLYN, J. A review of the monogenean

family Diclidophoridae Fuhrmann, 1928.

Parasitology 33: 416-430. 1941.

MacCauuium, G. A. Notes on four trematode

parasites of marine fishes. Centralb. Bak-

_teriol. (Abt. 1) 70: 407-416. 1913a.

. Corrigendum to notes on four trematode

parasites of marine fishes. Centralb. Bak-

teriol. (Abt. 1) 72: 256. 1918b.

. Some new forms of parasitic worms.

Zoopathologica 1:(48)—75. 1917.

MANTER, HarotpD WInFRED. Some North

American fish trematodes. Illinois Biol.

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MELUGIN, JANE. Studies on marine fish trema-

todes of Louisiana. Abstr. Theses, Louisi-

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new ser. 1): 89. 1940.

MeEsERVE, FRANKG. Some meonoronaiie trema-

todes ‘from the Galapagos Islands and the

neighboring Pacific. Allan Hancock Pacific

Expeditions 2: 29-88. 1938.

von NorpMANN, ALEXANDER. Mikrogra-

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Acta Acad. Nat. Curios., Bonnae, 11: 273-

314. 18238. :

ZOOLOGY.—Notes on Mexican urocoptid mollusks.

National Museum.

The preparation of a monograph on the

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coptidae by Dr. Carlos de la Torre and my-

self has made it necessary to subject the

entire family to a critical overhauling. This

has brought to light considerable misunder-

standing on the part of the older authors,

1 Published by permission of the Secretary

of the Smithsonian Institution. Received October

16, 1942.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Parona, C., and Prrueia, A. Note sopra

trematodi ectoparassitt (Res Iigusticae, 17).

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_ North American monogenetic trema-

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19388.

. North American monogenetic trematodes

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1939a.

. North American monogenetic trema-

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. North American monogenetic trema-

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Index-catalogue of medical and veterinary

zoology. Subjects: Trematoda and trematode

diseases. Hyg. Lab. Bull. 37: 401 pp.

1908.

YamaGutTl, Satyu. Studies on the helminth

fauna of Japan. Part 19. Fourteen new ecto-

parasitic trematodes of fishes. 1-28 pp.

Tokyo, 1937.

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Japan. Part 24. Trematodes of shes

Jap. Journ. Zool. 8: 15-74. 1938

Paut Bartscu, U. 8.

due largely to the fact that at the time when

they were working little was known of the

anatomy and structure of the columella, the

lamellation of the interior shell, and even

less of the circumscribed ecologic conditions

under which these animals exist. Today

some of the deficiencies have been met, more

or less, and the mass of material available

for study furnishes a clearer viewpoint, and

the results of the revisional work show a

Fes. 15, 1943

consistent zoogeographic pattern. For the

new species here described I am indebted

largely to the energetic efforts of Miss

Marie E. Bourgeois.

Genus Bostrichocentrum Strebel

Bostrichocentrum Strebel, Beitr. Kentn. Fauna

Mexico, pt. 4: 80. 1880.

Type: Bostrichocentrum tryont Pfeiffer.

This group appears confined to central Mexi-

co. The known species are listed with their type

— localities:

tamaulipense Bartsch: Camargo, Tamaulipas

hidalgoensis Bartsch: Bonanza, Zimapan, Hi-

dalgo

veracruziana Dall: Misantla, Veracruz

veracruzicolum, n. sp.: Veracruz

ronzoni, n. sp.: Pajaro Verde, Puebla

pilsbryi Dall: City of Puebla, Puebla |

tryont Pfeiffer: Matamoros de Izucar, Puebla

eurybia Bartsch: Near Rio Balsas, Guerrero

galathea Bartsch: Near Rio Balsas, Guerrero

goldmant Bartsch: Tamazulapan, Oaxaca

gealer H. Adams: Putla, Oaxaca

B. hogeana von Martens, Maltrata, Veracruz,

is doubtfully referred here.

Bostrichocentrum veracruzicolum, n. sp.

Fig. 4

_ Shell cylindroconic, flesh colored with the

nucieus and the early postnuclear whorls pale

horn colored. The nucleus consists of 2.7 turns,

which are well rounded, microscopically granu-

lose, and form an obtuse apex. The five post-

nuclear whorls following increase regularly in

size, after which the shell becomes cylindric.

They are marked by retractively curved axial

riblets, which gradually become less strongly

developed and on the cylindric portion are

merely indicated as incremental lines: The post-

nuclear whorls on the conic portion are well

rounded, while the later turns are almost flat-

tened. The suture is well constricted. The last

whorl is short, narrowly umbilicate, with well-

rounded base crossed by axial riblets, which are

irergular in their development, size, and spac-

ing. The last whorl is usually solute, though at

times adnate to the parietal wall. The solute

portion rarely extends over one-tenth of a turn.

The aperture is very broadly pear shaped, the

narrow portion being at the posterior angle.

The peristome is moderately expanded and re-

flected. The columella is hollow and bears a

strong fold a little posterior to the basal wall on

BARTSCH: MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS 55

the penultimate whorl, which fades out on the

turn preceding it.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536877, was received

from Miss Bourgeois, who states that it was

collected in the neighborhood of Orizaba or

Cordoba, or a little farther south, in the state of

Veracruz. It has 12.8 whorls and measures:

height, 12 mm; diameter, 2.9 mm. U.S.N.M.

536878 contains two topotypes, and another

topotype is in the collection of Miss Bourgeois.

In type of sculpture this species resembles

B. pilsbryt but is easily differentiated by its

much smaller size and less elongate form.

Bostrichocentrum ronzoni, n. sp.

Fig. 3

Shell small, pupiform, white, with the nu-

clear whorls horn colored. The nuclear turns

and the first four postnuclear whorls increase

regularly in size to form a conic apex. The rest

of the shell is cylindric, the last whorl being

slightly contracted. The nucleus consists of 2

turns, which are strongly rounded and minutely

granulose. The postnuclear whorls are marked

by numerous closely spaced, well-developed,

axial riblets, which are separated by intercostal

spaces that vary from mere impressed lines to

equal the width of the ribs. Beginning with the

middle of the cylindric portion, the axial ribs

become stronger and more distantly spaced,

reaching their greatest width on the last turn.

All the postnuclear whorls are well rounded.

Suture well impressed. Periphery of the last

whorl well rounded. Base short, well rounded,

narrowly openly umbilicated, and marked by

the continuation of the axial ribs. Aperture sub-

ovate; peristome slightly expanded and re-

flected, usually adnate on the parietal wall to

the preceding turn though at times slightly

solute. The columella is hollow and bears a

fold a little above the basal wall which is very

strong in the penultimate whorl and extends

feebly throughout the rest of the spire. The

columella shows retractively curved incre-

mental lines.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536874, was received

from Miss Bourgeois and was collected by Dr.

M. del Campo at Pajaro Verde, Puebla. It has

12.2 whorls and measures: height, 10.1 mm;

diameter, 3.9 mm. U.S.N.M. 536875 contains

two topotypes and an additional topotype is in

Miss Bourgeois’s collection. U.S.N.M. 536876

contains five additional specimens, which are

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

said to have come from either Cordoba or

Orizaba, the exact locality being not definitely

known. An additional specimen from this lot

also isin Miss Bourgeois’s collection.

This species in sculpture resembles B. tryont

but can readily be distinguished by its much

smaller size. It has much finer sculpture than

B. eurybia and stronger sculpture than B.

galathea.

Genus Haplocion Pilsbry

Haplocion Pilsbry, Man. Conch. 15: 89. 1902.

Type: Holospira pasonis Dall.

The known species, with their type localities,

are:

bryantwalkerit Pilsbry: Rio-Conchos near Rio

Grande, Chihuahua

semisculpta Stearns: San Carlos Cafion, Chi-

huahua

townsendi Bartsch: Cerro Chilicote, Chihuahua

coahuilensis Binney: Cienega Grande, Coahuila

minima von Martens: Hermosillo, Sonora

remondt Gabb: Valle de Sahuaripa, Sonora

guaymasensis, n. sp.: Guaymas, Sonora

percostata Pilsbry: Sonora

mazatlanica, n. sp.: Mazatlan, Sinaloa

mathewsont Bartsch: D. F. Mexico,

mariae Bartsch: Ixtapan de la Sal, Mexico.

campot, n. sp.: Las Grutas, Guerrero

bartscht Pilsbry & Cockerell: Balsas, Guerrero

fusca von Martens: Omilteme, Guerrero

pasonis Dall: El Paso, Texas

mesolia Pilsbry: Sanderson, Texas

tantalus Bartsch: Arizona or New Mexico

Haplocion guaymasensis, n. sp.

Fig. 1

Shell elongate-pupiform, flesh colored. The

nucleus consists of 2.5 well-rounded, micro-

scopically granulose turns. These, combined

with the first four postnuclear whorls, form a

conic apex. The remaining turns are cylindric.

The postnuclear whorls are well rounded and

crossed by decidedly retractively slanting axial

ribs, which are separated by spaces double the

width of the ribs or even wider. Suture strongly

constricted. The last two turns are inflated and

strongly rounded. Base short, strongly rounded,

openly umbilicated and marked by the weak

continuation of the axial ribs. The last whorl

is solute for about one-tenth of a turn. Aperture

subcircular; peristome broadly expanded and

reflected. The columella is rather broad and

hollow and smooth.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536883, was collected

by Miss M. E. Bourgeois near the beach at

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Guaymas, Sonora. It has 13 whorls and meas-

ures: height, 12 mm; diameter, 4 mm. U.S.N.M.

522967 contains two topotypes.

This species resembles most nearly Haplocion

mazatlanica but differs in being stouter and in

having the whorls much less rounded and the

axial ribs more distantly spaced.

Haplocion mazatlanica, n. sp.

Fig. 6

Shell small, cylindroconic, pale horn colored.

The nucleus consists of 2.5 well-rounded granu-

lose turns. The postnuclear whorls are decidedly

inflated, strongly rounded, and marked by

somewhat sinuous, retractively curved axial

ribs, which are almost as wide as the spaces

that separate them. Suture very strongly con-

stricted. The last whorl is short. Base short,

strongly rounded, narrowly openly umbilicated,

and marked by the continuation of the axial

ribs. Aperture subcircular; peristome broadly

expanded, widest on the inner lip and parietal

wall. Columella moderately stout, hollow with

a slight twist in the later whorls.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536884, was collected

by C. R. Orcutt at Mazatlan. It has 14 whorls

and measures: height, 13.5 mm; diameter, 4.1

mm. U.S.N.M. 381625 contains four topotypes.

This species resembles most nearly Haplocion

guaymasensis but differs from it in being

slenderer and having the whorls much more in-

flated and the axial ribs more closely spaced.

Haplocion campoi, n. sp.

Fig. 7

Shell cylindroconic, pale horn colored with

the interior of the aperture pale brown. The

nucleus consists of 2.5 well-rounded whorls, of

which the last half of the first is wider than the

rest of the turns. They are minutely granulose.

Beginning with the sixth postnuclear whorl the

shell assumes a cylindric form. All the whorls

are almost flattened, well rounded, and marked

by retractively curved, well-rounded, strongly

developed axial ribs, which are about as wide

as the spaces that separate them on the early

turns, but a little less wide on the later whorls.

Suture strongly constricted. The last whorl is

somewhat attentuated and rather long. The

base is short and rimate at the umbilicus and

crossed by the continuation of the axial ribs.

The last whorl is solute for about one-eighth of

a turn. Aperture subequal; peristome moder-

‘Fes. 15, 1948 BARTSCH: MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS

SSS

PORES

Figs. 1-7.—New species of Mexican urocoptid mollusks: 1, Haplocion guaymasensis ;

2, Coelostemma presidioensis ; 3, Bostrichocentrum ronzont, 4, Bostrichocentrum veracruzicolum;

5, Coelostemma antricola; 6, Haplocion mazatlanica; 7, Haplocion campot.

(All figures X6)

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ately expanded and reflected. Columella slender

and almost solid in the later whorls, but more

hollow in the earlier turns, almost straight.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536880, has 15 whorls

and measures: height, 17 mm; diameter, 4.6

mm. It was collected by Dr. Martin del Campo

at Las Grutas, Cacahuamilpa, (Guerrero.

U.S.N.M. 536881 contains nine topotypes.

U.S.N.M. 536882 contains four additional topo-

types collected by Miss M. E. Bourgeois.

This species in the inflation of the whorls re-

sembles Haplocion mariae Bartsch but differs

from it in being much larger and in having the

ribs more closely spaced.

Genus Coelostemma Dall

Coelostemma Dall, Nautilus 9: 50. 1895.

Type: Holospira elizabethae Pilsbry.

Following are the known species, with their

type localities:

dallz Pilsbry: Sierra Guadelupe, Coahuila

strebeliana Pilsbry: Sierra Guadelupe, Coahuila

lichenophora Dall: Encarnacion, Hidalgo

bourgeoisiana Bartsch: Ixtapan de la Sal,

Mexico

antricola, n. sp.: Las Grutas, Guerrero

igualaensis Bartsch: Iguala, Guerrero

balsasensis Bartsch: Rio Balsas, Guerrero

adria Bartsch: Rio Balsas, Guerrero

adana Bartsch: Rio Balsas, Guerrero

elizabethae Pilsbry: Amula, Guerrero

herrerae Bartsch: Silacayoapan, Oaxaca

presidioensis, n. sp: Presidio, Veracruz

The following species whose columellar struc-

ture is unknown are doubtfully placed here:

cretacea Pfeiffer: Mexico, without specific

locality

microstoma Pfeiffer: Mexico, without specific

locality

imbricata von Martens: Mexico, without specific

locality

teres Menke: Puebla

teres var. B Crosse & Fischer: Puebla

Coelostemma antricola, n. sp.

Fig. 5

Shell elongate-cylindroconic, with the nu-

cleus and the early post-nuclear whorls horn

colored, the rest flesh colored. The nucleus con-

sists of 2.5 well-rounded, minutely granulose

whorls. The succeeding seven turns increase

rapidly in size to form a conic apex. The rest

of the shell is cylindric, but the whorls become

slightly contracted from the broadest expansion

at the junction of the cylindric portion and the

VOL. 33, NO. 2

conic part anteriorly. The conic part and the

last whorl are marked by strong, rather dis-

tantly spaced axial ribs. Here these are only

about half as wide as the spaces that separate

them and they develop slight nodules at the

slightly overhanging portion of the turns at

the suture. On the cylindric portion the axial

ribs become much finer and more closely spaced.

Suture moderately strongly constricted. The

last whorl is somewhat prolonged, slightly

angulated at the periphery. Base short, slightly

rounded, rimate at the umbilicus, and marked

by the continuation of the axial ribs. The last

whorl is solute for about one-fifth of a turn.

Aperture subtriangular; peristome moderately

expanded and reflected. The columella is very

broad, widest in the later part of the conical

portion of the shell, hollow, and marked by

slender, retractively curved, axial riblets.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536885, was collected

at the base of a limestone boulder in a ravine

near Las Grutas, Cacahuamilpa, Guerrero. It

has 18.3 whorls and measures: height, 21.1

mm; diameter, 5.6. mm. A topotype is in Miss

Bourgeois’s collection.

This species recalls Coleostemma bourgeoistana

but is much larger and much more cylindric.

Coelostemma presidioensis, n. sp.

Fig. 2

Shell small, pupoid, pale horn colored, the

later whorls flesh colored, which is also the

color of the interior of the aperture. The nucleus

consists of 2 well-rounded, microscopically

granulose whorls. The nucleus, plus the suc-

ceeding five turns, complete the conic spire, the

remaining turns being more or less cylindric,

contracting slightly toward the base. All the

whorls are moderately well rounded. On the

conic portion they are covered by rather strong,

distantly spaced ribs, which are only about one-

half to one-third as wide as the spaces that

separate them. On the central part of the

cylindric portion the ribs become much finer

and more closely spaced. On the penultimate

whorl they are almost obsolete, while on the

last whorl they are again very strong and very

distantly spaced, the intercostal spaces being at.

least four times the width of the ribs. Suture

very strongly constricted. Base very short,

narrowly umbilicated, and marked by the

strong continuation of the ribs which extend

over the umbilicus. Aperture subtriangular;

Fes. 15, 1943

peristome moderately expanded, reflected, and

thickened. The columella is stout, almost one-

fourth the width of the interior of the whorls,

and crossed by slender, slightly retractively

curved axial ribs.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536886, was collected by

Miss M. E. Bourgeois at Presidio, Veracruz. It

SCHULTZ: TWO MARINE FISHES NEW TO ALASKA 59

has 13 whorls and measures: height, 12 mm;

diameter, 5 mm.

The small form and pupoid shape will dif-

ferentiate this from all other species except pos-

sibly Coelostemma imbricata von Martens, in

which the middle whorls are not cylindric.

ICHTHYOLOGY .—Two marine fishes new to the fauna of Alaska, with notes on

another species.'

Recently in identifying a collection of

fishes taken in Alaskan waters by Dr.

Waldo L. Schmitt, two of the species

proved to be new to the known fauna of

Alaska and of North America. Additional

information is given on another species.

Sebastodes polyspinis Taranetz and

- Moiseev

Fig. 1

Sebastodes polyspinis Taranetz and Moiseev,

| wm Taranetz, Vestnik dv. Eiliala Akad.

Nauk SSSR no. 1-3: 69. 1933; Taranetz,

Bull. Pacific Sci. Inst. Fish. Oceanog., 2:

94. 1937.

The discovery of six specimens of Sebastodes

in Schmitt’s collection with XIV dorsal spines

all belonging to the same species was a surprise,

because among the hundreds of specimens of

this group examined from the American side of

the North Pacific, all have had XIII dorsal

spines. From time to time species of Sebastodes

have been reported from the Asiatic side of

the North Pacific Ocean with XIV spines, but

these specimens are thought to be the first re-

corded from Alaska. My studies indicate that

the Alaskan specimens belong to the species

Sebastodes polyspinis. Although there are some

minor differences, such as in color, it is thought

best not to describe them as a new form with-

out first making direct comparisons with the

types of S. polyspinis, which is not now possible

because of the war.

The following key was prepared from the

available specimens and literature, and by

means of it one should be able to identify the

North Pacific species of Sebastodes with XIV

1 Published by permission of Secretary of the

Be eenion Institution. Received September 5,

Lronarp P. Scuuutz, U. 8. National Museum.

dorsal spines that have a flattish to convex

interorbital space.

la. Tubes in the lateral line 44 or fewer.

2a. Lateral line tubes 35; vertical scale rows

from upper edge of gill opening to base of

caudal fin about 65; scales above lateral

line at base of first soft ray of dorsal 6

and below lateral line at origin of anal 16;

mandible scaly; pectoral rays 16, lower

8 unbranched and swollen; anal rays III,

8; dorsal XIV, 13; interorbital a little

convex; nasal and preocular spines pres-

ent; parietal, postocular, and nuchal

with weak spine; color reddish, marked

with about 5 indefinite dark saddles

along the back; peritoneum black; mouth

cavity and gill cavities dusky; Japan...

Sebastodes owstoni Jordan and Thomp-

son?

2b. Tubes in lateral line 40; mandible probably

naked; pectoral rays 17; anal III, 10;

dorsal XIV, 15; interorbital space flat;

nasal and parietal spines strong; pre-

ocular, supraocular and postocular very

weak; tympanic, coronal and nuchal ab-

sent; color red, no spots. Southeast coast

of Siberia... .Sebastodes pavlenkot Wales?

16. Tubes in lateral line 45 or more.

3a. Tubes in lateral line about 63; vertical

rows of scales above lateral line about

115; scales above lateral line 11 or 12

and 17 below; pectoral rays 19, 9 lower

ones unbranched; anal III, 7; dorsal

- XIV, 138; gill rakers 12+27; mandible

scaly; interorbital convex; nasal spine

small but sharp; other cranial spines

absent; peritoneum black; color brown-

ish, top of head and upper sides

clouded with dusky; lateral line run-

2 Sebastodes owstont Jordan and Thompson,

Mem. Carnegie Mus. 6 (4): 270, pl. 31, fig. 3.

1914; Jordan and Hubbs, Mem. Carnegie Mus.

10(2): 260, 1925; Scumipt, P. J., Trans. Pacific

Committee Acad. Sci. USSR 2: 94. 1931.

3 Sebastodes ruber Pavlenko, Fishes Peter the

Great Bay, Trd. Obsc. Test. Kanzani, p. 42. 1910

(name preoccupied); Sebastodes pavlenkot Wales,

Copeia, No. 1, p. 10. 1980 (new name).

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ning in a conspicuous light streak;

upper part of opercles with a black

spot. Japan... Sebastodes itinus Jor-

dan and Starks4

3b. Tubes in lateral line 45 to 50; vertical

scale rows 85 to 100; gill rakers on first

gill arch 10 to 12 +26 or 27; peritoneum

black; interorbital convex; nasal spines

small but sharp; other cranial spines

absent.

4a. Mandible naked; vertical scale rows

about 100 (these data based on a

specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 102454,

from Okhotsk Sea); pectoral rays

19, lower 10 or 11 unbranched; anal

rays III, 8; dorsal rays XIV, 17;

gill rakers about 10+26; black

streak along maxillary; one below

eye, then a white streak, then a

broad blotch behind eye; two

blotches on opercle; an indistinct

blotch or bar below spiny dorsal and

another below soft dorsal. Asiatic

side Bering Sea. . . Sebastodes glau-

cus (Hilgendorf)5

4b. Mandible scaly; vertical rows 88 to 91;

pectoral rays 18, lower 8 or 9 un-

branched; anal rays III, 7 or 8;

dorsal XIV, 14 or 15; lips of lower

jaw dusky; a blackish streak along

lower part of maxillary; another

oblique black streak from under eye

across preopercle, a pale one above

and behind eye dusky; opercle with

2 dusky blotches; upper median fins

dusky; body above more or less

coarsely reticulated or marbled with

dusky; mouth and gill cavities with

traces of dusky shades here and

there; base of pectoral with dusky

area; trace of a wide pale band along

upper sides and another along lower

sides, both probably reddish in life.

Bering Sea; Shumagin and Aleu-

tian Islands... Sebastodes poly-

spinis Taranetz and Moiseev

Since the publication by Taranetz (1933:

69-70) is mostly in Russian, I give below a

4 Sebastodes itinus Jordan and Starks, Proc.

U.S. Nat. Mus. 27: 99, fig. 1, 1904. Fig. 1 has but

XIII dorsal spines, but Dr. G. S. Myers informs

me that the type has XIV dorsal spines, and there

are 63 lateral-line tubes instead of 54 as published.

5 Sebastes glaucus Hilgendorf, 8S. B. Ges. Naturf.

Freunde, p. 170. 1880. Although I have not been

able to locate the specimen from Bering Island

reported upon as S. glaucus (by Jordan and Gil-

bert, Rept. U. S. Fur Seal Comm., pt. 3: 447.

1898; Jordan and Evermann, U. S. Nat. Mus.

Bull. 47, pt. 2: 1777, 1898; and Jordan and

Starks, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 27: 97. 1904), it

probably is not this species but Sebastodes poly-

spinis Taranetz and Moiseev.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

translation (made for me) of the description

of S. polyspinis:

“Description of our specimens: D XIV

(XIII), 138-15; A III, 7-8; gill rakers on the

outside surface of first arch 9-12 +23-26; P 18

(4 fish); tubes in lateral line 48-50 (57?); 28

vertebrae (4 fish) with urostyle.

“The body is covered with ctenoid scales;

accessary scales are missing; the head, except

the gill membranes, is covered with very small

scales; the smallest are situated on the upper

and lower jaws on the brachiostegal rays, and

on the front of the head; ridges on the head are

not developed except the parietals; on the

operculum there are 2 sharp spines: on the pre-

operculum there are blunt spines, two or three

of them are split at the ends; nasal spines

hidden in the skin: base of skull curved; pari-

etals not connected; interorbital space is con-

vex; lower jaw protrudes forward and has a

strong knob on the symphysis.

“The next to the last dorsal spine extends

half way out along the last; the second anal

spine is shorter and thicker than the third one.

‘“‘Color in formalin: Sides of body are dark

without spots; the dorsal part is darker; the

ventral side pale; the edges of the first dorsal

black; peritoneum black; other fish vary from

pale to brown with black spots.

“TD, XIV, 13; A IIL, 8; RP. 18; scilleraers

12 +26; lateral line tubes 48-50. The length of

the head is 107 mm. The length of the body

360 (?); without caudal 305; diameter of eye

21.0; diameter of orbit 25.5; interorbital space

23.1; upper jaw 47.2; lower jaw &9.0; height of

the head 88.3; length of the longest gill raker

14.7; maximum height of the body 110.5;

minimum 25.9; length of pectoral (from the

upper edge of the base to the end of longest ray

when the fin is folded against the body) 80.7;

base of pectoral 29.0; length of pelvic 62.2;

length of base of pelvic 35.9; length of base of

first dorsal 111.5; second dorsal 59.7; length of

base of anal 42.9; height of longest dorsal spine

(fifth) 33.4; height of 13th spine 16.1; of 14th

24.8; length of second anal spine 29.6; length

of third anal spine 29.8

“From other species S.. pavlenkot Wales

(=8S.ruber Pavlenko) differs by the number of

pores in lateral line, by the absence of spines

on the upper part of the head, and in other de-

tails. No other type of Sebastodes has 14 dorsal

Fes. 15, 1943

spines except S. giawcus to which ours is not

related. Our fish differs from S. jordani, S.

goodei, S. paucispinis by the presence of 14

spines in the first dorsal and in the number of -

pores in the lateral line.

“A fish referred to by P. J. Schmidt as S.

ciliatus (S. taczanowskii according to Soldatov

and Lindberg, p. 156, not S. ciliatus Tilesius)

appears to be the same, but because of slight

variations in formulae we can not affirm it con-

clusively as P. J. Schmidt does not check on it

further.

“Distribution: from about Pribilof Islands

to east coast of Kamchatka.”

The data presented in Tables 1 and 2 form

the basis for the identification of the Alaskan

specimens as S. polyspinis, which were col-

lected as follows:

U.S.N.M. no. 119375. Alaska: 22 miles ENE.

Castle Rock, off Big Koniuji Island (Shumagin

Islands), trawl, 95-120 fathoms, October 2, 1940,

1 specimen, 208 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 119379. Alaska: Pavlof Bay,

trawl, 10-30 fathoms, September 25, 1940, 1 spec- —

imen, 117 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 19376. Alaska: King Cove, trawl,

15-22 fathoms, October 16, 1940, 2 specimens,

189 and 144 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 119378. Alaska: Castle Bay,

trawl, 45-60 fathoms, October 29, 1940, 1 speci-

men, 153 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 119377. Alaska: Olga Bay, trawl,

38-95 fathoms, November 4, 1940, 1 specimen,

145 mm.

SCHULTZ: TWO MARINE FISHES NEW TO ALASKA

TaBLE 1.—Counts AND M£8ASUREMENTS OF SEBASTODES

POLYSPINIS TARANETZ AND Molsexrv. (All measurements

expressed in hundredths of the standard length.)

Types

from Alaskan

Characters Bering Specimens

Sea

iorsal’spinesti sae eee se aXe XIV | XIV

Dorsallsoft raysesss-0905: 442-4: 13-15 14 15

PAA RAY See os Beceat iaysnteas crcl senatens QUE Petey} IU 2/ III, 8

( 9 to 12

Gill rakers first arch........... + 12427 | 11426

23 to 26

Rectoralerays nee ieee ee 18 18-18 18

Unbranched lower pectoral rays. — 9-9 8

Tubes lateral line.............. 48-50 50 48

Vertical scale rows........-.--- — 91 85

Scales above lateral line........ = 11 10

Scales below lateral line........ — 17 16

Standard length in millimeters..| 305 208 117

Diametemotaorbivmen ce seule: 8.38 9.62 9.4

Interorbital space...........-- 7.01 7.69 Doth

Length of maxillaries of upper jaw| 15.4 15.4 15.6

Length of lower jaw.........-- 19.4 17.8 17.5

Longest gill raker.............- 4.82 5.05 ee,

Depth (greatest). .5.....-....- 36.2 BY 7/ OAR

Least depth caudal peduncle.... 8.46 9.13 9.4

Length of pectoral fin.......... 26.4 PA PA 28.6

Length of pelvic fin............ 20.4 20.9 20.1

Length of base first dorsal...... 36.7 BILL ots) Bl 6

Length of base second dorsal....| 19.6 20.7 22.6

Length of base of anal......... AZ 15.8 15.4

Length of longest dorsal spine

(SEM) esos oo ees Paces eee 10.9 12.5 12.8

Length of thirteenth dorsal spine. 5.28 Uo MAil 8.53

Length of fourteenth dorsal spine 8.16 10.1 12.8

Length of second anal spine..... 9.68 bea 12.8

Length of third anal spine...... 9.78 iil fs) aa

Wengethuot neadeneemcrtasercrr — S32 34.2

reorbivalawid theres cesta — 1.68 1.88

Length of caudal peduncle..°... — 20.9 OB oi

Postorbital length of head...... — 15.6 16.2

Taste 2.—Counts REcoRDED For CERTAIN SPECIES OF SEBASTODES wiTH XIV Dorsal SPINES

a Ae Lower unbranched

Species Soft dorsal Soft anal Pectoral pectoral rays

13 14 15 16 iL7/ Uf 8 9 10 16 17 18 19 8 9 | 10 | iL

polyspinis...| 1 5 1 - - 3 4 - — - - 7 - 1 6 = =

GUQUCUS....--| = _ et tes 1 - 1 — - - - — 2 - - 1 1

MMS .0.---- 1 = — - - 1 - = = = = = 1 1 oe Zs

OWStONUe ee || L = - - - — 1 = = 1 zs cs zt = = ee

pavlenkoi....| — - il - - - = = 1 = 1 a) 2 = ik i a

I US OS Pg ep ee er nD ee le Oe

RII ce

Number of gill rakers on first gill arch

Pe LI TSN STE ce TSN sR cs Sac

Species Above angle |Below angle Total gill rakers Pore in lateral line

io | 11 | 12 | 26 | 27 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 |35-37.38-40/41-43'44-47/48-50'51-53 54-57 58-60 61-63

polyspinis...| 3 2 2 5 2 2 3 iL - - - 4 33 = = = =

QUAUCUS 2: « 1 - — 1 = 1 = as = es = 1 i é. je = es

METIS 66 bed Oe - —- 1 - 1 - = il ee = Ey Eby = = fie 2

owstont...... - - - — = = = wa ES 1 = = a = = es ah wt

pavlenkov....| — - - - - = = zs BS 2 1 es ss a sg = Bs Ae

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Fig. 1.—Sebastodes polyspinis Taranetz and Moiseev. Photograph of an Alaskan specimen.

Eurymen gyrinus Gilbert and Burke

Eurymen gyrinus Gilbert and Burke, Bull.

U. 8. Bur. Fish. 30: 64. 1912 (type,

U.S.N.M. no. 74377, from Avatcha Bay,

east coast Kamchatka); Schmidt, P. J.,

Compt. Rend. (Doklady) _ Acad. Sci.

URSS 15(5) : 279-280. 1937 (see this paper

for synonyms and literature).

Since the two specimens reported here are

probably the first published record of the oc-

currence of this species on the American side of

the North Pacific Ocean, I record in Table 3

data from them.

U.S.N.M. no. 119387, taken in Canoe Bay,

Alaska, September 19-21, 1940, in a gill net at

30-40 fathoms by Dr. W. L. Schmitt.

Triglops metopias Gilbert and Burke

Triglops metopias Gilbert and Burke, Bull. U.S.

Bur. Fish. 30: 50, fig. 8. 1912; Soldatov

and Lindberg, Bull. Pacific Sci. Fish. Inst.

5: 195. 1930; Taranetz, Bull. Pacific Sci.

Inst. Fish. Oceanogr. 11: 109, 110. 1937;

Andriashev, Explor. Mers URSS, Instit.

Hydrolog. Leningrad, fasc. 25: 303, 1937.

Because this species is rare and seldom re-

ported, it was thought best to give here a brief

description.

U.S.N.M. no. 119488, one specimen taken in

Canoe Bay, Alaska, November 4, 1940, by

Dr. W. L. Schmitt.

The following measurements in millimeters

were made on a specimen from Canoe Bay,

Alaska, collected by Dr. W. L. Schmitt,

November 4, 1940: Standard length 107; head

TABLE 3.—CountTs anD MEASUREMENTS ON Two SPECIMENS

or EURYMEN GyRINUS. (Measurements expressed in hun-

dredths of the standard length.)

Specimen

Character SSE

1 2

Standard lencth: ¢ ce ee one 131 140

Headtlength: as25.0-0 ae 42.0 45.4

Hleshy-interorbitaliss +s sae ee 9.93 11.1

Diameter ofveyex, visas eee 7.64 geal

ength ofsnouvees<. 1. eee ee 9.55 slate

Postorbital length of head’... 5) 245 24.4 26.8

Keéngth-ofuppernjiawa ane eee 19.8 20.7

Greatestidepthe: access sor ee 29.8 So iL

beast depth oct we) oe ee eee 6.64 CALS

Length of caudal peduncle........... 8.24 9.86

Mongest ray pectoral ee ee 26.0 26.1

Longest ray, caudals ssh eee 23 22.8

ength basedorsalessee eee ee eee 60.0 SD

Kengthubaserana leew amas lee 29.6 33.5

Dorsalirays: oe se ee ee 31 30

Wah OE) Weel etn a mE mem Run Male Tai ehtie: Meat, hat 16 16

Pectonals sake see ee ee 24. 24

Guillirakersfirstranch yee eee ae 0+8 0+9

32.5; snout 11.1; eye 9.1; interorbital space 3.0

postorbital length of head 12.5; greatest depth

of body 15.2; least depth of caudal peduncle

_ 8.8; length of caudal peduncle 15.5; maxillaries

(tip of snout to rear of maxillary) 15.0; length

of longest (sixth) dorsal spine 12.2; longest soft

dorsal ray 12.8; longest anal ray 11.0; longest

caudal fin ray 18.5; shortest (middle) caudal fin

ray 12.8; longest pectoral fin ray 26.2; longest

pelvic ray 15.2; length of base of soft dorsal

44.5: length of base of anal fin 43.5; snout to

origin of first dorsal 29.7.

The following counts were made: Dorsal X,

26; anal 24; pectoral 20; plates in lateral line

51; gill rakers 0 +7,

Frs. 15, 1943

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 63

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

379TH MEETING OF THE BOARD

OF MANAGERS

The 379th meeting of the Board of Managers

was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on

December 14, 1942. President Curtis called

the meeting to order at 8:07 p.m., with 19

persons present, as follows: H. L. Curtis,

F. D. Rosstn1, N. R. Smiru, W. W. Dieut,

eee Gran HF. H. H. Roperts, Jr., F. G.

BricKWEDDE, H.B. Cou.ins, JRr., F.C. KRacrK,

Ms Serzuer, J. B. Reesipe, Jr., J. E.

~McMorrrey, Jr., W. A. Darron, W. Ram-

Bere, E. W. Pricer, L. W. Parr, C. L. GARNER,

and by invitation G. A. Cooper and A.

SEIDELL.

The minutes of the 378th meeting were read

and approved.

President CurRTIS announced that R. J.

SEEGER (chairman), F. G. BRicKWeppg, R. W.

Brown, G. A. Coorrr, and F. D. Rossin1

would compose the Committee to make recom-

mendations concerning the printing and pub-

lishing of the JouRNAL, and that ALEXANDER

WETMORE would compose the Committee to

investigate the purchase by the U. S. Office of

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JOURNAL presented a report carrying the fol-

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JOURNAL.

The meeting adjourned at 9:39 P.M.

315TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 315th meeting of the Academy was held

jointly with the Anthropological Society of

Washington in the Assembly Hall of the

Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on December 17,

1942, with President Curtis presiding. JULIAN

H. Stewarp, Vice-President of the Anthropo-

logical Society, introduced the speaker.

Matruew W. StTiruinG, Chief of the Bureau

of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian

Institution, delivered an address entitled

Anthropological explorations in Netherlands New

Guinea. Mr. Stirling described how an expedi-

tion of 700 men, sponsored jointly by the

Netherlands Government and the Smithsonian

Institution and operating under his direction,

entered New Guinea from the north by the

Mamberamo River and reached the Snow

Mountains, where an interesting negrito popu-

lation living in a stone-age culture. was dis-

covered and studied. The lecture was illustrated

with moving pictures. About 175 persons were

in attendance.

FREDERICK D. Rossint, Secretary.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Obituary

In THE sudden death of Hmnry Corsin

Futter on August 26, 1942, at New Haven,

Conn., the Academy has lost an active member,

the vice-president of its Biological Section, and

his associates have lost a valued friend. He was

born on November 13, 1879, at Worcester,

Mass., where he also secured his basic chemical

education at the Worcester Polytechnic Insti-

tute. After graduation in 1901 he was engaged

by commercial houses in analyzing drugs and

chemicals used in the production of medicines.

Later he entered as a chemist the U. 8S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture under Dr. Harvey W.

Wiley, whom he referred to as his mentor,

working on problems incident to the Food and

Drug Act of 1906. Collaborating with Dr. Wiley

in his work for Good Housekeeping, Fuller did

much of the analytical work on the articles

discussed in ‘‘1001 tests’? published in 1914.

During the period covered by the World War,

Fuller was in the Institute of Industrial Re-

search of Washington, at the same time super-

vising drug propagation on a commercial scale

and managing a drug farm in Virginia, growing

digitalis and other important medical plants—

1914-19. Although active officially, he found

time to publish three books of note: Medical

preparation, 132 pages, 1912; The chemistry and

analysis of drugs and medicine, 1,072 pages,

1920; The story of drugs, a popular exposition of

their origin, preparation, and commercial im-

portance, 358 pages, 1922. He published also a

number of shorter papers on current chemical

subjects. He was secretary of the Scientific

Section of American Pharmaceutical Associa-

tion, 1917-18. He spent some time in Europe

during 1922 and 1924 on problems concerning

the wine industry of Italy and France.

One of Fuller’s avocations, in which he used

great care and discrimination, was the bringing

together a wonderful collection of stamps, con-

taining 27,000 different forms, which is more

than one-quarter of all the world’s issue. The

United States part is noted for its rare stamps

and for the completeness of its series.

Ornithology also was a pet avocation, and he

never lost an opportunity to observe birds in

their native haunts. Birds are so closely as-

sociated in their habitat with varied and diverse

forms of other life that he who follows them

VOL. 33, NO. 2

a ese 5

yy te

Se A eee eee

soon learns that Nature has in store other —

treasures for those interested, and that the

Great Outdoors is a real paradise for those who

delve. This was as Fuller thought. On an oc-

casion, in order to broaden his view of the

wilder country and its animal and plant life,

he made a trip through the West to the Pacific

States and British Columbia with friends who

were familiar with the whole region. Every time

he saw a bird or mammal new to him in life,

he was thrilled by the experience.

As a well-known chemist and nature lover

with his easy and cordial manner of approach,

Fuller had a wide and varied acquaintance, —

especially among kindred spirits whose prob-

lems were similar to his. He was a good court

witness, defending his case with clearly stated

facts, and with a facile tongue effective in either

thrust or parry. He was much interested in the

activities of a debating club that he entertained

at his home, and he took special delight in the

wide variety of subjects that come up from

time to time and the expertness with which

they were handled by real authorities.

Fuller was a man of good breeding, with a

fine sense of honor, strict regard for his obliga- —

tions, and consideration for the rights and feel-

ings of others; hence a gentleman, whom we

shall sorely miss. He had such perfect under-

standing with his children that this close com-

munion with their father always will be among

their most cherished memories.

He was an associate member of the American

Ornithologists’ Union, member of the Washing-

ton Biologists’ Field Club (president), Bio-

logical Society of Washington (president),

Baird Ornithologists Club, Washington Acad-

emy of Sciences, Cosmos Club, American

Chemical Society, American Pharmaceutical

Association, Society of Chemical Industry,

London, and Fellow of the American Institute

of Chemists.

He is survived by his widow; a son, Henry

Shepard Fuller, M.D.; and two daughters, Mrs.

Thomas Watson and Miss Josepha Fuller.

A. K. FISHER.

CONTENTS

OrniTHoLocy.—Two new birds from Morelos, Mexico. Piercu

BRODKORB.. 20. Gass UL a

Enromonoey. —New genera and species of Neotropical bark beetles

(Coleoptera: Scolytidae).. M. W. BLACKMAN.................

EntomoLoGcy.—New species of syrphid flies in the National Museum.

FRA MEG ERS eee Sos ele Mi wietaee Laat cuetbe dss Whi (ick aes ae

ZooLocy.—North American monogenetic trematodes: VI. The family

Diclidophoridae (Diclidophoroidea). Emmetr W. Pricn...:....

ZooLtocy.—Notes on Mexican urocoptid mollusks. Paun BArtscH...

IcHTHyoLocy.—Two marine fishes new to the fauna of Alaska, with

notes on another species. Lronarp P. ScHULTZ...............

PROGEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY). 2s Oe OO a ae PN et 0s Sac eaee as :

OBITUARY : HENRY CORBIN PULLER. 60 ong er i a ee

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Page

ites

Marcu 15, 1943

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 33

Marcu 15, 1943

No. 3

BOTAN Y.—The travels of Thomas Coulter, 1824-1827. Rocrrs McVauau,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

_ Dr. Thomas Coulter, an Irish botanist?

who lived and traveled in Mexico from 1825

until about 1834, made large collections of

herbarium specimens and less extensive col-

lections of living plants, especially of cacti.

The most detailed published account of

Coulter’s life and work in Mexico is that by

Coville (1895). The Mexican collections

comprised more than 50,000 specimens, ac-

cording to the brief biographical sketch of

Coulter published the year after his death

(Romney Robinson, 1844). The herbarium

specimens were distributed, after Coulter’s

death, from Trinity College in Dublin; be-

fore distribution they were assigned num-

bers according to their supposed systematic

position, the numbers probably totaling

about 1,700. Some of the replicate sets were

distributed to American herbaria, the most

nearly complete ones now being found at

the Gray Herbarium and in the Torrey

Herbarium at the New York Botanical

Garden. All the Coulter specimens in

American herbaria, however, seem to lack

data relative to the time and place of col-

lection, having been distributed under the

numbers assigned at Dublin but without

any other notations. The “‘first set’’ of the

collection, according to Coville, went to the

herbarium at Kew, and many of the speci-

mens were cited, with collection number

and locality, by Hemsley in the botany of

the Biologia Centrali-Americana (1879-

1888). As pointed out by Coville, little has

been published concerning the details of

Coulter’s travels in Mexico, and the speci-

mens cited by Hemsley have remained the

chief source of information on this score.

The present paper contains an account of

1 Received November 21, 1942.

2 Born 17938, died 1843.

(Communicated by B. Y. Morrison.)

the botanist’s itinerary from the time of his

departure from London, in September,

1824, until October, 1827. This account has

been drawn up from Coulter’s own note-

book, lent by his nephew, Joseph A. Coul-

ter, to Dr. F. V. Coville, and now on deposit

in the files of the Division of Plant Ex-

ploration and Introduction, Bureau of

Plant Industry.

Most of the notes taken by Thomas

Coulter in Mexico are those relative to his

observations while traveling; he carried a

compass, sextant, barometer, thermometer,

and two chronometers and recorded all the

details of his instrumental data and his cal-

culations thereon. Although evidently much

interested in the plants and animals he saw,

he did not write of any collections he may

have made but confined himself to brief

notes upon the places he visited and occa-

sional comments upon his experiences. His

entries were made at irregular intervals ex-

cept when he traveled, when he seems to

have been careful to record the movements

of each succeeding day. He was employed

by the Real del Monte Mining Co., and his

travels took him to the several areas in

which they had interests. Landing at Vera-

cruz on January 28, 1825, he went as rapidly

as possible to Real del Monte. After some

months spent there (except for two trips to.

Mexico City) he traveled up the old high-

way to Zacatecas, where he stayed more

than a year, making in the meantime one

trip to the mines at Bolafios, Jalisco. Leav-

ing Zacatecas in January, 1827, Coulter

made his way to the mining district at

Zimapan, Hidalgo, where he made his head-

quarters at least until October of that year.

He seems to have made few collections while

traveling, if one may judge by the numbers

AP ~

20 y

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of specimens cited by Hemsley; approxi-

mately 300 numbers are cited from Zima-

pan, nearly 150 from Real del Monte, and

nearly 50 from Zacatecas, but no more than

15 in all from along the routes connecting

these places. This may have been due in

part to the exigencies of travel by mule, as

noted by Ward (1828, p. 316): “In Mexico,

you never stop upon the road to bait, but

perform the whole distance, whatever it

may be, without a halt. It is better for the

horses and mules, as they have a longer time

together for rest and food, which, in so hot

a climate, they do not enjoy without water,

and this cannot be given them, in any

quantity, until the day’s work is done.”

The first entry in Coulter’s notebook is

dated, at London, August 18, 1824, and is

followed in the next few weeks by several

having to do with the ragulation of the

chronometers. On September 21 Coulter

boarded his ship, the Thalza, and on the

next day she sailed from Gravesend. She

reached Funchal, Madeira, on October 13

or 14 and left again on November 5. An-

tigua was sighted on November 29, and on

December 8 the ship came to anchor off

Port Maria, Jamaica. Coulter found it im-

possible to take his baggage overland to

Kingston, so obtained passage in a small

boat and reached Kingston on the 14th.

At Kingston, through a gentleman whom

he had known previously in Ireland, Coulter

secured permission to continue his trip on

the British ship Primrose, which carried the

mails to Veracruz, and left Jamaica on

January 6, 1825. On January 27 the ship

came to anchor just south of Veracruz, and

the next day Coulter passed the customs

and received his passport at Mocambo. His

experiences for the next few days may be

told in his own words:

Friday Feby. 4th. 1825 I have not got mules be-

fore today. Set out at four oclock. As far as

Xalapa, which we reach on the 8th (five days) the

road lies thro’ the tierras calientes—& as the coun-

try is rather flat, with a good deal of wood, we see

but little of it—We rest a day (9th) at Xalapa—I

make the acquaintance [of] the Count de Sache

(is it so he spells it) who is travelling here to col-

lect—& go out a shooting with his aide [whom

Coulter calls Ferd. Deppe de Berlin].

Feby. 10th Proceed. from Xalapa the road

ascends rapidly, but is good. The scenery exceed-

VOL. 33, NO. 3

ingly alpine but this ceases in one day. We sleep

at La Joia—& may now consider ourselves on the

tableland. [La Joia, 6 or 7 miles northwest of

Jalapa, appears on Humboldt’s (1812) map as

‘‘La Hoya’; Ward (1828, p. 196) uses the latter

spelling; a nearby mountain appears as “La

Jolla” on Ward’s maps.]

Feby. llth At La Cruz Blanca we quit the

great road to Mexico & take to the Steppe, pass-

ing at first thro’ a fine forest of pines & sleep at

Sierite Leonce [spelling?].

On the 12th the party passed Santa

Gertrudis, on the 13th Virreyes, on the 14th

‘St. Miguel Franco,” and on the 16th Santa

Buenaventura. The route for these five days

was at first southwest, then northwest,

approximately along the course now fol-

lowed by the Ferrocarril Interoceanico.

Humboldt shows the route between Jalapa

and Franco, which is apparently the “St.

Miguel Franco” of Coulter; La Cruz Blanca,

or Cruz Blanca, is about 10 miles northeast

of the modern Perote, Veracruz; Sierite

Leonce is apparently near the Cerro de

Leén, about 6 miles southwest of Perote.

Near this point, or about 6—7 miles south-

west of Perote, Coulter’s road forked ; Santa

Gertrudis lay on the more northern road,

about 2 miles from the fork. Beyond Vir-

reyes, in the state of Puebla, the road turned

again to the northwest; Franco is in eastern

Tlaxcala and Santa Buenaventura is in

the northwestern part of the same state.

Coulter continues:

17th Pass Apan [i.e. Apam, Hidalgo] & stop at

an Hacienda—good horses here but dear—(Tala-

hiote) [i.e. Tlalayote, Hidalgo]. We have now

been seven days on the steppe with hills on each

side of us—& might still continue on it to Tu-

lancingo—but take a shorter road to Real del

Monte.

18th After a league of plains we take to the

mountains—« reach a considerable pueble on the

borders of a pretty large plain. 19th reach Guaj-

olote, on the companys possessions. Sunday,

Feby. 20th, 1825. Real del Monte.

On leaving Apam, Coulter seems to have

doubled back to the east to reach Tlalayote,

then turned to the northwest before reach-

ing Tulancingo. Guajolote is 8 or 10 miles

east of Pachuca, Hidalgo.

Real del Monte (often appearing on mod-

ern maps as Mineral del Monte) was an an-

cient mining center, the site of some of the

workings of the Real del Monte Mining

Mar. 15, 1943

Co., with whom Coulter had a 3-year con-

tract as medical attendant. At the mine he

made his headquarters for some months.

The entries in his diary were made here at

various times from February 20 until April

16. On this latter date he left for Mexico

City, sleeping at San Mateo and reaching

the capital on the 17th. He stayed in Mex-

ico at least until the 27th, but on the 29th

he was back in Real del Monte, where he

stayed until June 15. From June 17 to June

28 he was in Mexico again, and from June 30

until October 31 the entries indicate that

he was at Real del Monte more or less con-

tinuously.

On October 31, 1825, Coulter began what

was to be a three weeks’ trip to Zacatecas.

His daily entries during this trip give his

movements in the minutest detail; he at-

tempted to fix his position at intervals each

day by means of compass bearings on prom-

inent points, by the courses of streams, by

barometric readings, and by the estimated

distances traveled. The route led westward

from Pachuca to Tetepango and Tula,

Hidalgo, and thence along the old highway

from Mexico to Zacatecas. The details are

well shown on Humboldt’s maps (1812); the

part of the road between Tula and Silao is

described by Ward (1828, p. 411 et seq.). The

itinerary of Coulter’s trip, as taken from the

entries in his diary, is as follows:

1825

Oct. 31. Real del Monte to Pachuca, Hidalgo.

Nov. 1. Pachuca to Tetepango, Hidalgo.

2. Tetepango, via the pueblo of San Pedro

and via Tula, to San Antonio, Hidal-

go.

. Remained at San Antonio.

. San Antonio to Arroyo Sarco [i.e.,

Zarco], México.

5. Arroyo Zarco to San Juan del Rio,

Querétaro. -

. San Juan del Rio to the city of Queré-

taro.

. Remained at Querétaro.

. Querétaro to Celaya, Guanajuato.

. Celaya to Salamanca, Guanajuato.

. Salamanca to Hacienda de Burras [i.e.,

Burras], Guanajuato, via Santa Rosa

and Jarapitio.

11. Hacienda de Burras to the city of

Guanajuato, via Marfil. During the

day Coulter spent some time at the

Valenciana mine, northeast of the city.

12. Guanajuato to Silao, Guanajuato.

He 09

ooon =>)

MCVAUGH: TRAVELS OF THOMAS COULTER, 1824-1827 67

Nov. 13. Silao to Leén, Guanajuato.

14. Leén to Lagos, Jalisco [sometimes called

Lagos de Moreno].

15. Lagos to Mesén de Sauces, ‘‘a wretched

place.”’ This hostelry, which appeared —

on some contemporary maps of Mex-

ico simply as ‘‘Inn,’’ was known to

Humboldt as ‘‘Venta de los Sauces,”’

and stood at the point where the road

turned from its northwesterly course

from Lagos to run almost due north

to Aguascalientes.

16. Mesén de Sauces to Aguascalientes.

17. Aguascalientes to the hot springs and

return.

18. Aguascalientes to Rincén de Rounos,

Aguascalientes.

19. Visited a¥long-abandoned tin mine, 1

league west of Rincén; left Rincén

after noon; at 4:15 was a league

north of La Punta, and at 5:20

stopped at an unnamed hamlet [ap-

parently near the northern boundary

of the state of Aguascalientes]. |

20. Continued to Soquité [i.e., probably

Zéquite, a few miles southeast of the

city of Zacatecas].

21. Zéquite to Veta Grande, Zacatecas.

22. Veta Grande to Zacatecas.

23. Zacatecas to Veta Grande.

The mines at Veta Grande, north of the

city of Zacatecas, were taken over by the

Bolafios Mining Co. in 1825, according to

Ward (1828). Coulter made his headquar-

ters at Veta Grande for more than a year

and for most of that time was in partial or

complete charge of actual mining operations

(Romney Robinson, 1844; Ward, 1828, p.

628-629); his connection with the Bolafios

Co. is not clear, although its director, a

Captain Vetch, was also the director of the

Real del Monte Co. (Ward, 1828).

From the time of his arrival until Decem-

ber 12, 1825, Coulter seems to have re-

mained at Veta Grande. From Friday to

Sunday, December 2 to 4, he reported a

cold snap, with the minimum temperatures

ranging between 16° and 20° F. On Decem-

ber 8 he says: “‘The Maguays have suffered

but very little by the hard frost of Friday

to Sunday last—Those only that were

about flowering seem a little nipped. They

however do not thrive well here—are

scarcely cultivated.’ Temperatures at Veta

Grande for December 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12,

1825, were later reported by Coulter in his

Notes on Upper California (1835).

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

On the 12th Coulter began a hurried

journey to Bolafios, Jalisco, to attend a Mr.

Martin who was ill of a fever. Leaving at

7:30 p.m., he reached Xeres [i.e., Jerez, now

Ciudad Garcia, about 25 miles west-south-

west of Zacatecas] at 4 the following morn-

ing—with the temperature at 12° F.—and

continued to Santa Maria, which he reached

the same night. Starting early the morning

of the 14th, he reached Bolafios at night. He

stayed at Bolafios until Christmas night; of

his start on the return journey he says:

“That I might not travel on a Sunday I

spend the evening at a ball in the priest’s &

at midnight start on my return to Zacate-

cas.”” On December 28 he proceeded from

Tlaltenango, Zacatecas, to Colotlan, Jal-

isco; on the 29th he went from Colotlan to

Villa Nueva, Zacatecas, and on the 30th he

reached the city of Zacatecas.

After his return from Bolafios Coulter

seems to have spent most of the year 1826

at Zacatecas (more accurately, at Veta

VOL. 33, NO. 3 |

Grande, where he lived), but the entries in

his notebook are few. (The entries are dated

January 12, February 23 and 24, April 9 and

16, May 14, June 11.) Ward (1828, p. 619)

records a visit to Zacatecas, December 21 to

26, 1826, and comments upon the hospital-

ity shown him by Coulter at this time.

The entries in the notebook are nearly

complete for the first months of the year

1827. Coulter left Zacatecas on Monday,

January 15, enroute for the mines at Zim-

apan, Hidalgo. His way is easily followed,

but many of the ranches and haciendas at

which he stopped are not to be found on

modern maps. His direction of travel was

generally southeast:

1827

15. Started for Sauceda and reached El

Refugio, Zacatecas; his day’s jour-

ney was some 20 miles, made in 54

hours.

16. Reached Buenavista in about 6 hours.

17. Reached Ciénaga Grande in 8 hours.

18. Reached Letras in 74 hours.

Jan.

Fig. 1.—The routes followed by Coulter in Mexico, 1825-1827. The circles along the routes indicate

the principal places, and solid dots indicate localities at which Coulter is known to have collected

plants. Broken lines indicate uncertainty as to the exact route followed. The numbered localities are

as follows: 1, Bolafios, Jalisco; 2, Zacatecas, Zacatecas; 3, San Juan del Rio, Querétaro; 4, Zimapéan,

Hidalgo; 5, Real del Monte, Hidalgo; 6, México, D.F.; 7, Jalapa, Veracruz; 8, Veracruz, Veracruz.

"Mar. 15, 1943

Jan. 19. Reached Ojuelos in 6 hours. This ap-

pears to be the Ojuelos in the north-

eastern corner of the state of Jalisco,

but Coulter’s route there from Zaca-

tecas is not entirely clear. A manu-

script map in the British Museum

(B.M. additional ms. 17659A, “‘Mapa

del Reyno de Nueva Galicia Afio de

1812,’ photostat copy in the Library

of Congress) shows Letras (a Ran-

cheria) about 5 miles northwest of

Ojuelos, and Ciénaga Grande (an

Hacienda) about 20 miles west of

Ojuelos. On the same map appear

two haciendas called Buenavista; one

is about 5 miles northeast of Letras,

and the second a few miles north of

Sauceda.

20. Reached a rancho near “Sta. Iphe-

genia”’ in 8. hours.

21. Reached San Felipe, Guanajuato, in 4

hours. :

22. Remained at San Felipe.

23. Reached La Quemada, Guanajuato, in

4+ hours. From San Felipe to San

Miguel he was apparently following

the regular route from San Luis

Potosi to Mexico City.

24. Stopped to shoot, apparently in the

vicinity of La Quemada.

25. Reached Dolores [i.e., Dolores Hidal-

go], Guanajuato.

26. Dolores to San Miguel el Grande [i.e.,

San Miguel of modern maps], Guana-

juato, passing Atotonilco about noon.

27. San Miguel to Rancho de los Ricos, in

43 hours. ‘‘Rancho de los Ricos’’ is

apparently the place appearing on

some maps as Ricos, near the eastern

boundary of Guanajuato, about 15

miles south of east of San Miguel.

28. Passed through Chichimequillas, Queré-

taro (about 10 miles northeast of the

city of Querétaro) and reached Haci-

enda de Mascala [i.e., probably

Amascala, Querétaro, about 5 miles

southeast of the city].

29. Reached San Juan del Rio, Querétaro.

30. Remained at San Juan del Rio.

31. Reached Huichapa [1.e., Huichapdn],

Hidalgo, in 9 hours. At San Juan del

Rio he left the road to Mexico and

turned eastward.

Feb. 1. Huichapdn to La Bahia in 7 hours.

2. La Bahia to Zimapdn, Hidalgo. The

route followed is not entirely clear, as

La Bahia seems not to appear on

modern maps of Hidalgo. Coulter left

La Bahia at 7 a.M., reached the edge

of the barranca of the Rio Tula at

9:45, crossed the river by the bridge

MCVAUGH: TRAVELS OF THOMAS COULTER, 1824-1827 69

about noon, and reached Zimapdan at

6 p.m. His note says that he passed

“by left (S) of San Juanico,”’ so it is

probable that he crossed the river

either at _Izmiquilpdn or at Tula, the

latter being the site of one of the few

bridges over the Rio Tula. If he then

followed a course more or less parallel

to the river, he must have passed to

the south and west (“‘left’’) of San

Juanico.

The notebook contains entries dated at

Zimapan, February 4, 5, 11, and 24, and one

final entry dated October 11, 1827. In Coul-

ter’s Notes on Upper California he reports

observations made at Zimapan between

April 8 and 15; this presumably refers to the

year 1827 or to a later year, for at the same

time in 1825 he was in Real del Monte, and

in 1826 at Veta Grande.

The date of Coulter’s departure from

Zimapan is unknown, but it may have been

at the expiration of his 3-year contract,

either late in 1827 or early in 1828. In the

early part of the latter year he sent to A. P.

DeCandolle a shipment of living cacti,

which the latter reported upon at a meeting

on July 22, 1828. Forty-seven species were

described as new, so that at least a short

time must have elapsed between their ar-

rival in Europe and their presentation by

DeCandolle (DeCandolle, 1828). Allowing

time for their passage across the Atlantic by

sailing vessel, we may fix the time of their

dispatch from Veracruz at about the first of

May, or perhaps earlier. One may suppose

that the shipment had been gathered by

Coulter during the closing months of his

stay at Zimapan and sent abroad upon the

completion of his work there.

Almost nothing is known of Coulter’s life

and activities between the time of his de-

parture from Zimapan and that of his ar-

rival in California, late in November, 1831.

He is known to have been in Sonora, in the

vicinity of Hermosillo, in December, 1829

(Coville, 1895), and from the specimens

cited by Hemsley it seems that he made at

least one trip from San Blas, the seaport of

Tepic, Nayarit, along the old highway

through Tepic to Guadalajara; specimens

labeled ‘“‘San Blas to Tepic”’ or ‘‘San Blas to

Guadalajara” are occasionally cited. He is

also known te have collected at Guaymas,

70 \

Sonora, and at Mazatlan, Sinaloa, and may

well have spent much of the period from

1827 to 1832 in mining centers in the west-

_ ern states of Mexico. If one may judge by

' the specimens cited by Hemsley, Coulter

collected very few plants in western Mexico.

From Zimapan, as pointed out above, ap-

proximately 300 species are listed in the

Biologia Centrali-Americana; from Real del

Monte almost 150 species are noted, and

from Zacatecas about 50. From all western

Mexico together, however, scarcely 75 speci-

mens are cited, and more than half of these

are from ‘‘Sonora Alta,’’ which may refer to

the region about Guaymas or to the region

about Yuma visited by Coulter in 1832.

BOTAN Y.—Four new species of Acanthaceae from Guatemala.

(Communicated by WILLIAM R. Maxon.)

U.S. National Museum.

Recent studies of the Acanthaceae of

Guatemala, especially of material collected

by Julian A. Steyermark on the 1939-40 ex-

pedition of the Field Museum of Natural

History to that country, have resulted in

the recognition of four new species de-

scribed herewith.

Dyschoriste skutchii Leonard, sp. nov.

Herba, caulibus puberulis; lamina foliorum

ovalis vel suborbicularis, apice obtusa vel ro-

tundata basi angustata, parce hispidula; peti-

oli tenues; inflorescentia subcapitata, termi-

nalis, bracteis oblanceolatis; calyx glaber vel

parce hirsutus, segmentis subovatis; corolla

lilacina, minute pubescens; ovarium glabrum.

Stems usually numerous, prostrate, erect or

ascending from a short woody base, puberulous,

the hairs retrorsely curved, white, the roots

thick-fibrous; leaf blades oval to suborbicular,

up to 18 mm long and 14 mm wide, obtuse or

rounded, cuneate at base, bright green, darker

above, sparingly hispidulous (the larger hairs

confined to costa and veins), sometimes ciliate

toward base, the costa and veins (usually 4)

prominent; petioles slender, up to 3 mm long,

more or less puberulous, sometimes ciliate;

flowers crowded in heads at the tips of the

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution. Received December

15, 1942.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 3

LITERATURE CITED

CouLTER, THomAs. Notes on Upper California.

Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc. London 5: 59-70. 1835.

CovILLE, FrepERIcK V. The botanical ex-

plorations of Thomas Coulter in Mexico and

California. Bot. Gaz. 20: 519-531, pl. 35

(map). 1895.

DEeCanpDo.ieE, A. P. [A postscript to his mono-

graph on the Cactaceae.| Mem. Mus. Hist.

Nat. Paris 17: 107-119. 1828.

Hemsitey, W. Borrine. Biologia Centrali-

Americana. Botany, vols. 1-4. 1879-1888.

HumMBotpT, A. DE. Atlas geographique et

physique du royaume de la Nouvelle-Espagne.

Paris, 1812.

RomMNEY Rosinson, JOHN Tuomas. [No

title—A brief sketch of Coulter’s life.}] Proce.

Roy. Irish Acad. 2: 553-557. 1844.

Warp, H.G. Mezico in 1827, vol. 2, 730 pp.,

with map. London, 1828.

E. C. LEONARD,

branches; bracts oblanceolate, somewhat

smaller than the leaves but resembling them in

most respects; calyx up to 13 mm long, the tube

3 mm long, glabrous or sparingly hirsute, the

segments subulate, hirsute, the hairs white,

spreading, up to 0.75 mm long, but gradually

shorter and very minute toward the bristle-like _

tips of the lobes; corolla lavender, minutely and

inconspicuously pubescent, about 13 mm long,

the narrow portion of the tube about 5 mm long

and 1.5 mm in diameter at base, narrowed to

1 mm just above base, thence gradually ex-

panded to 4 or 5 mm at throat, the limb about

8 mm broad, the lobes rounded; stamens 3 and

4 mm long, the anthers ovate, the minute white

mucronate tips of their basal lobes slightly

divergent; ovary glabrous; mature capsules not

seen.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. ~

1586098, collected on an open hillside near

Tecpam, Department of Chimaltenango, Gua-

temala, altitude 2,100 meters, July 22, 1933,

by A. F. Skutch (no. 474). Lehmann 1524 from

Huehuetenango, Guatemala, altitude 1,500

meters, and Steyermark 33063, collected on dry

slopes of pine woods just southwest of Minas

de Croma, Department of Jalapa, Guatemala,

are also this species.

Dyschoriste skutchit is related to D. capitata

(Oerst.) Kuntze but is amply distinct in its

oval or suborbicular leaves and in its puberu-

Mar. 15, 1943

lous stems. In D. capitata the leaves are obovate

and the stems pubescent, with longer and more

spreading hairs. The latter species seems to be

limited to southern Mexico.

Dicliptera vulcanica Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, caulibus parce pilosis; lamina foli-

orum ovata, breve-acuminata, basi obtusa vel

acuta, in petiolum decurrens, parce hirsuta;

petioli tenues, pilosi; cymae pedunculatae;

bracteae floriferae herbaceae, pilosae, puber-

ulae, bractea posterior linearis, anterior ob-

lanceolata; bracteae laterales angusto-lanceola-

tae vel subulatae, chartaceae, puberulae; caly-

cis segmenta lanceolato-subulata, papilloso-

puberula et pilosa; corolla subrufa, pubescens,

labio superiore leviter emarginato, minute api-

culato, inferiore oblongo, trilobo, lobis parvis,

rotundatis; capsulae parvulae; semina plana,

orbiculata, fulva, minute verrucosa.

Shrub up to 2 meters tall; stems sparingly

pilose, the hairs white, spreading or retrorsely

curved, up to 1 mm long, more or less arranged

in 2 lines, or the lower portions of the stems

glabrous; leaf blades ovate, up to 10 cm long

and 5 cm wide, short-acuminate (the tip blunt),

acute or obtuse at base and decurrent on the

petiole, thin, drying dark green, sparingly

hirsute, the hairs spreading, 0.5 to 1 mm long,

confined chiefly to costa and veins (6 or 7

pairs); petioles slender, up to 2.5 cm long,

pilose; flowers borne in axillary peduncled

cymes (3 flowers in each cluster), the peduncles

up to 6 em long, sparingly pilose, usually

branched at tip, each bearing 3 to 5 stalked

flower-clusters; bracts subtending the second-

ary peduncles subulate, up to 5 mm long,

pilose, the pair of outer floral bracts herbace-

ous, both pilose and puberulous (at least some

of the hairs glandular), the posterior one linear,

about 10 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, acute, the

anterior one oblanceolate, 13 mm long and 3.5

mm wide, acute, the interior floral bracts nar-

rowly lanceolate or subulate, up to 8 mm long

and 1 mm wide, chartaceous, puberulous, the

hairs papilliform; calyx 7 to 8 mm long, the

tube subglabrous, the segments about 6 mm

long, lance-subulate, 1 mm wide at base, thence

gradually narrowed to a slender tip, the pubes-

cence a mixture of minute papilliform hairs

and longer pointed ones; corolla 33 mm long,

dull reddish, finely pubescent, the tube about

13 mm long, the lower portion about 3 mm

LEONARD: NEW ACANTHACEAE FROM GUATEMALA oe

broad for 8 mm of its length, thence gradually

and somewhat obliquely enlarged to 6 mm at

throat, the posterior lip oval, about 6 mm wide,

rounded, shallowly emarginate and minutely

apiculate, the anterior lip oblong, about 5 mm

wide, the 3 lobes rounded, about 1 mm long

and wide or slightly wider, the middle one

ciliate; capsule 12 mm long, 5 mm broad,

puberulous; seeds flattened, orbicular, 3 mm in

diameter, brown, minutely verrucose, or smooth

with age.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum

of Natural History, no. 1045321, collected at

base of barranca along stream between Taj-

umulco and Loma Buena Vista, on the north-

western slope of Voleén Tajumulco, Guatemala,

altitude 2,300 to 2,800 meters, February 28,

1940, by Julian A. Steyermark (no. 36861);

isotype in U. S. National Herbarium, no.

1820956.

This well-marked species is characterized by

the thin hirsute leaf blades, the peduncled

cymes, and the peculiar minute papilliform

hairs of the calyx and bracts.

Odontonema steyermarkii Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex glaber; lamina foliorum ovata vel ob-

longa, acuminata, basi angustata, in petiolum

decurrens; panicula parce ramosa; bracteae

subulatae, ciliolatae; pedicelli tenues; calycis

segmenta subulata, parce puberula; corollae

tubus pallide ochraceus, lobis lilacinis, ovali-

bus, rotundatis; ovarium glabrum.

Glabrous shrub up to 2 meters high; leaf

blades ovate to oblong, up to 18 cm long and 8

em wide, acuminate (the tip blunt), narrowed

or rounded at base and decurrent on the petiole,

the costa and veins prominent; petioles up to

3 cm long; inflorescence a sparingly branched

panicle, the flowers borne in umbels of usually

3 to 6 flowers each, the lowermost of these pe-

duncled (5 mm long, successively shorter to-

ward tip), the uppermost sessile; bracts sub-

tending the peduncles subulate, 1.5 mm wide at

base, gradually narrowed to a slender tip, cilio-

late, those subtending the umbels similar but

slightly smaller; pedicels slender, up to 6 mm

long; calyx 3.5 mm long, the segments subu-

late, about 3 mm long and 0.5 mm wide at

base, sparingly puberulous toward tip; corolla

up to 24 mm long, 2 mm in diameter at base,

narrowed about 5 mm above base to 1 mm,

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

thence enlarged to about 4 mm at throat, the

tube pale buff, the lobes lilac, oval, 5 mm long

and 2.5 mm wide, rounded at tip; ovary gla-

brous; fruit not seen.

Type in the Herbarium of the Field Museum

of Natural History, no. 1046653, collected

along road between Finca Pirineos and Calahua-

ché, Department of Quezaltenango, Guate-

mala, altitude 1,200 to 1,300 meters, January

27, 1940, by Julian A. Steyermark (no. 35020);

isotype in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

1820953.

This species may be recognized by its nar-

row, sparingly branched panicles of flowers,

which are said by the collector to be pale buff

and lilac.

Odontonema galbanum Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, caulibus glabris vel parce et minute

pubescentibus; lamina foliorum oblonga, longe

acuminata, basi angustata, plus minusve fal-

cata; panicula angusta, terminalis; bracteae

subulatae, glabrae; calyx glaber, segmentis sub-

ulatis; corolla glabra, galbana, labio superiore

bilobo, lobis parvis, rotundatis, ciliolatis, in-

feriore trilobo, lobis ovalibus, parce ciliolatis;

Ovarium glabrum.

Shrub up to 2 meters high; stems glabrous or

Sparingly and minutely appressed-pubescent;

VOL. 33, NO. 3

leaf blades oblong, up to 36 cm long and 5.5 em

wide, long-acuminate (the tip often curved), —

gradually narrowed at base, rather thin, veiny,

the costa and lateral veins (usually 10 to 12

pairs) fairly prominent; inflorescence a narrow

terminal panicle 20 cm long, the flowers borne

in small sessile or subsessile umbels, the pedi-

cels up to 5 mm long, these and the rachis

glabrous; bracts of the rachis subulate, 3 mm

long and 1 mm wide at base or less, keeled,

glabrous, those subtending the pedicels similar

but smaller; calyx glabrous, 2.5 to 3 mm long,

the segments subulate; corolla glabrous, green-

ish yellow, up to 27 mm long, 2 mm in diameter

at base, narrowed to 1.5 mm just above base,

the throat 3 mm in diameter, the hps 5 mm

long, the upper lip 2-lobed, the lobes 1.5 mm

long, rounded, ciliolate, the lower lip of 3 oval

lobes 3 mm wide, rounded, sparingly ciliolate

at tip; ovary glabrous; fruit not seen.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

1790033, collected in moist forest near Bar-

ranca Hondo, above Lake Lajas, Department

of Escuintla, Guatemala, altitude about 1,200

meters, January 31, 1939, by Paul C. Standley

(no. 63875). Standley 65014, collected at essen-

tially the same locality, is also of this species.

Odontonema galbanum is easy to recognize by

its slender glabrous panicle of greenish-yellow —

flowers.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Some undescribed species of flies of the genus Baccha (Syrphi-

dae).!

STONE.)

This paper presents descriptions of several

species of Baccha. These flies were found

among material lent for study by Dr. C. L.

Fluke, whom I wish to thank for his kind

assistance in my study of the genus. The

types are in Dr. Fluke’s collection. Para-

types where available are in the author’s

collection.

Baccha boadicea, n. sp.

Related to gracilis Williston. Distinguished

by the small spot in the center of the wing and

by the larger size. |

Male.—Length 9.5 mm. Head: face and front

shining black, both yellowish-white pubescent

along the sides, the former bluish centrally and

1 Received November 4, 1942.

F. M. Hutu, University of Mississippi. (Communicated by ALAN

with yellow pile; the face in profile without

tubercle and barely concave beneath the anten-

nae. The pile of the front is dark brown

centrally. The antennae are orange, widely —

black above on the third joint. The vertex is —

shining black with black pile in front, yellow

behind. Thorax: mesonotum shining black,

nonvittate, short golden pilose, the humeri

_ brown, the pleura brownish black with yellow

pile and pollen, the scutellum shining black

with creased rim, short yellow pile and fringe.

Squamae pale. Abdomen: elongate, slender, dark

brown, the first joint almost black, the third

laterally yellow on the base on each side, the

yellow extending about two-fifths the length

of the segment. Fourth segment obscurely but

narrowly yellow basally, its basal pile yellow,

Mar. 15, 1943

its apical pile black. Legs: yellow on the first

two pairs, their femora brownish on the basal

half or more, their pile yellow. Hind femora and

their tibiae, except the narrow bases, brown

and black, respectively, their tarsi pale yellow.

Wing: pale brown with microscopic slender

- alula; stigmal cell dark, and a small spot above

the small cross vein brown.

Holotype, male. Pinas, Ecuador, 1,506

‘meters, July 14, 1941, D. B. Laddey. (Fluke

collection.)

Baccha vespuccia, nN. sp.

Near papilio Hull. The abdominal fascia and

vittae are differently shaped. Abdomen widest

at end of fourth segment.

“Male.—Length 8-10 mm. Head: face and

front brownish yellow, a shining blackish half

circle over the antennae and a black spot on

lunula. Antennae orange, the third joint black-

ish above. Thorax: mesonotum metallic brown-

ish or aeneous-black, with a pair of rather close

brown vittae. The humeri, the lateral margins,

the post calli and the scutellum are light yel-

lowish brown, the latter with a few black hairs

and no fringe. Mesopleurae and pteropleurae

orange; pleura posteriorly blackish. Abdomen:

spatulate, the apex barely wider than the base,

sepia brown, the narrow sides of the first seg-

ment yellowish; the second segment is one and

a half times as long as wide with, on each side,

a diagonal, yellowish fascia meeting in the mid-

line. Third segment with a similar fascia,

divided medially and medially expanded, their

posterior margins indented. Fourth segment

with, on each side, an inverted Y-shaped figure.

Fifth with submedial, yellowish vittae and

short sublateral vittae narrowly connected

basally with the medial ones. Legs: brownish

yellow, the hind femora and tibiae dark brown.

Wings: entirely dark brown; alulae quite nar-

row.

Female.—Front with continuous medial vit-

tae; mesonotum with four violet stripes.

Holotype male, allotype female, and one male

paratype, Nova Teutonia, Brazil; Fritz Plau-

mann. (Fluke collection.)

Baccha aurora, n. sp.

Slender, without alulae. Mesonotum dark

brown and yellow laterally, with two gray pol-

linose vittae. Related to argentina Curran.

HULL: NEW FLIES OF THE GENUS BACCHA 73

Female.—Length 10 mm. Head: face and

front pale yellow, the latter with a linear brown

stripe on the upper part and a tiny black dot on

lunula. Pile short, sparse, and black. Vertex

black with gray pollen. Antennae yellow, the

third joint missing. Thorax: mesonotum brassy

black, with a pair of widely separated, steel-

blue vittae with gray pollen that reach to the

scutellum, and a similar median one on the pos-

terior half. Lateral margins, humeri, scutellum,

and all of pleura except a posterior black stripe,

pale yellow. Scutellum with a few black hairs

and three or four black, central fringe hairs.

Abdomen: rather slender, the first segment

brown, the anterior corners pale yellow with

about 10 black setaceous hairs and a few long

pale ones. Second segment with the base light

brown and a pair of lateral, subquadrate,

brownish-yellow spots just past the middle

which are narrowly separated above; the re-

mainder of this segment is blackish. Third seg-

ment with an obscure, basal, lateral vittate

spot. Fourth segment with a large lateral vitta

extending from the base to the posterior two-

thirds, its posteromedial margin rounded. Fifth

segment shining black. Legs: yellow, the hind

femora and tibiae pale brown with subapical

brown annulus and the tibiae with the middle

paler. Hind basitarsi brownish yellow, the re-

maining joints dark brown. Wing: hyaline;

stigmal cell very dark; no alula.

Holotype: female. Villa Rica, Paraguay,

August 1939, F. Schade. (Fluke collection.)

Baccha niobe, n. sp.

Related to placiva Williston. The pile on the

sides of the first segment is long. Wing apex

with a spot.

Male.—Length 9 mm. Head: face and front

yellow, with a black dot on lunula. Antennae

orange; arista dark brown. The pile of the front

is black. Vertex black, rather shining. Thorax:

mesonotum cinnamon-brown with a violaceous

stripe adjacent to the wide yellow margins.

Pleura yellow with a golden reflection. Scutel-

lum brownish orange with a few slender brown

hairs and no fringe. Abdomen: elongate, slender,

the second and third segments cylindrical.

First segment orange and brown, the second

orange-brown basally, black on the _ pos-

terior half, shining apically, in the middle

with a pair of oblique, leaflike spots that are

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

narrowly separated above; these spots are

margined on all sides by opaque black, the

opaque black forming a triangle behind. Third

segment similar, the oblique spots and the

median black extend narrowly to the base.

Fourth segment with small black triangles in

the anterior corners and a large, orange spot

basally on each side, its medial margins parallel,

its posterior margins oblique and serving to

extend the spots apically to the lateral margins.

Last segment violaceous-black. Legs: yellow,

the hind femora brown at base and with a wide,

brown preapical band, their tibiae broadly

brown through the middle. Wing: light brown,

diffusely blackish at the tip, the alula quite

narrow but equally developed throughout.

Holotype: male. Palmar, Manabi, Ecuador,

200 meters, April 10, 1941, D. B. Laddey; a

paratype male with same data. (Fluke collec-

tion.)

Baccha danaida, n. sp.

Related to sepia Hull. The first abdominal

segment is yellow on the sides, the third seg-

ment has a pair of triangles. The cheeks and

pleura are wholly dark brown.

Male—Length 11 mm. Head: face and

cheeks yellow; the tubercle and a stripe above

are brown; the front is widely black above but

yellow on the sides. It is black pilose. Antennae

orange-brown, the arista darker. Thorax:

mesonotum brassy brown with a pair of wide,

prominent, reddish-brown vittae; the lateral

margins are yellowish brown. The pleurae are

metallic, dark brown, blackish behind, yellow-

ish on mesopleurae and upper sternopleurae.

Scutellum light yellowish brown with sparse

dark hair and no fringe. Abdomen: spatulate,

wide basally, sepia brown, the sides of the first

segment yellow with long black hairs, the

second has a slender, diagonal, laterally ex-

panded pair of fascia; the third as a pair of

central, narrowly separated, triangular spots.

The fourth segment has a pair of comma-

shaped spots, and fifth a pair of basal, obscure

vittae, laterally extended. Legs: first pair

brownish yellow; middle femora light brown,

VOL. 33, NO. 3

their tibiae and tarsi yellowish; hind femora

dark brown, their tibiae black, their basitarsi

brown basally, its apex and all the remaining

segments yellow. Wing: wholly dark brown,

stigma narrow. a |

Holotype: male. Nova Teutonia, Brazil;

Fritz Plaumann. (Fluke collection.) ‘

Baccha saffrona, n. sp.

Abdomen with oblique, triangular vittae,

wing light brown, alula rudimentary. Related

to scintillans Hull.

Male.—Length 9 mm. Head: face and front

yellow, a black dot on the lunula; antennae

orange-brown with blackish arista. Frontal pile

long and black. Thorax: mesonotum light red-

dish brown, the sides yellowish brown. Vittae

if present obscured; scutellum yellowish or

reddish brown, the whole pleura yellow-brown.

Abdomen: slender, subcylindrical, reddish

brown on the first segment and base of second,

the latter with a pair of oblique, leaflike orange

spots near the middle, not meeting above and

margined with opaque black. Third segment

with similar, longer, more triangular spots,

which reach the base of the segment. Base of

segment otherwise blackish, blue-green in the

lateral corners. Fourth segment with a similar

wider spot more widely extended on the base of

the segment, the corners and posterior margin

of this segment and the whole of the fifth seg-

ment, except for a pair of small basal spots,

peacock-blue. Legs: deep yellow, the hind

femora quite brown at base and subapically,

yellow in the middle, their tarsi dark brown

except at base and extreme apex, their tarsi

deep yellow. Wing: wholly light brown, the

stigmal cell darker; the alula quite narrow.

Female.—Similar to the male, spots absent

on fifth segment, the blue areas more violet and ~

the apex of the wings with an ill-defined smoky

spot, the whole wing pale. This may belong to

a different species.

Holotype: male. Palmar, Manabi, Ecuador,

April 7, 1941, D. B. Laddey. Allotype, female;

two paratypes, males, two females, all same

data. (Fluke collection.)

Mar. 15, 1943

LUCKER: A NEW TRICHOSTRONGYLID NEMATODE

ZOOLOGY.—A new trichostrongylid nematode from the stomachs of American

squirrels.

The worms described in this paper were

collected by L. Wayne Wilson from two

squirrels (Sciurus) taken near Moorefield,

Hardy County, W. Va., in November, 1941.

Examination of the specimens revealed that

they were trichostrongyloid nematodes, but

it was immediately apparent that the males

_ were very unusual, since certain of the bur-

sal rays were observed to be chitinized.?

So far as the writer has been able to as-

certain, the only trichostrongyloid nema-

tode in which the occurrence of chitinized

bursal rays has been reported is Béhmiella

perichitinea Gebauer, 1932. Travassos,’ in

his extensive monograph on the Tricho-

strongylidae, agreed with Gebauer,‘ that,

except in this genotype, chitinized bursal

rays are unknown among the Strongyloidea.

The specimens collected by Mr. Wilson

are here described as representing a new

species, closely related to B. perichitinea,

and for it the name B. wilsoni is proposed.

While not admissible as evidence of zoologi-

cal relationship, it is nevertheless of interest

that both B. perichitinea and B. wilsoni are

stomach worms of rodents. The known ro-

dent hosts of the respective worms are not,

however, closely allied species. B. perichi-

tinea was found in a nutria or coypu, Myo-

castor coypus, in Germany. Whether it was

introduced into Europe with the coypt,

which is indigenous to South America, or

normally occurs in European rodents is a

question that as yet can not be answered,

because there appears to be no subsequent

report of its occurrence.

Although previously unrecognized, B.

wilsont evidently has existed in squirrels in

1 Received September 7, 1942.

*In this paper derivatives of the noun chitin

are used not in the chemical sense but as con-

venient descriptive terms to indicate the presence

in the specified locations of a dense, brownish sub-

stance, probably similar to that composing the

spicules of trichostrongylins and identical with it

im appearance.

3 Travassos, Lauro. Revisdo da familia Tricho-

strongylidae Leiper, 1912. Mongr. Inst. Oswaldo

Cruz no. 1, 512 pp., 295 pls. 1937.

_* GeBaver, Orro. Béhmiella perichitinea n. sp.

en neuer Trichostrongylide (Nematodes) des

Nutria. Zeitschr. fiir Parasitenk. 4(4): 730-736,

illus. 1932.

JoHn T. Luckrr, Bureau of Animal Industry.

the southeastern United States for many

years, since 4 females, undoubtedly the

same as B. wilsonz, were found by the writer

among specimens (U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll.

no. 2934) collected by Dr. Albert Hassall

from Sciurus carolinensis in 1897.

Bohmiella wilsoni, n. sp.

(Figs. 1-17)

Description.—Head small; diameter (40y to

50u) approximately the same as that of the ad-

jacent cervical region. Lips absent; oral opening

roughly circular; circumoral membrane present

(Fig. 4). Amphidial pores and tips of ventro-

lateral papillae reaching cuticular surface ad-

jacent to outer margin of circumoral mem-

brane. Submedian papillae four in number,

single, externally directed, their tips slightly

protruding within depressions located slightly

posterior to level of circumoral membrane. In

en face view, semicircular strands of fibrillike

nature may be seen extending outwardly from

beneath margin of circumoral membrane to

base of each submedian papilla; these strands

apparently represent complete union and fusion

of terminal branches of submedian papillary

nerves. Margin of mouth opening apparently

bearing superficially a row of extremely minute

denticlelike structures which are interpreted as

representing a weakly developed corona radi-

ata (Fig. 4). Oral cavity very shallow, saucer-

shaped; lining nonsclerotized. Esophagus com-

municating with buccal cavity by minute tri-

angular opening and with a minute denticle,

formed by lining of dorsal sector, protruding

through opening into mouth cavity (Fig. 6).

Esophagus swollen at anterior extremity;

swollen portion histologically differentiated

somewhat from tissue of remainder and par-

tially surrounds mouth cavity (Figs. 3, 6).

Cuticular covering of dorsal esophageal sec-

tor just posterior to minute terminal den-

ticle forming a comparatively large, more

or less transversely directed onchium with

lumen and orifice at tip, presumably repre-

senting opening of dorsal esophageal gland,

since a fine duct connecting with the lumen

passes posteriorly into the tissue of the dorsal

sector; tip of.onchium not reaching floor of

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

buccal cavity (Figs. 5, 6). Cuticular covering of

each subventral sector of esophagus at level

near base of onchium forming two minute, den-

ticlelike, transversely directed eruptions; also

forming rounded hyaline expansions at an-

terior extremity (Fig. 3). Cervical papillae,

large, located slightly posterior to level of °

nerve ring; excretory pore between level of

nerve ring and cervical papillae (Fig. 7). Lat-

eral alae absent; cuticle of mid-body provided

with about 50 longitudinal ridges.

VOL. 33, NO. 3

deeper than that between the latter and left

lateral lobe (Fig. 10). Ventral rays with com-

mon origin; directed posterolaterally for about

two-thirds their length, curving anteriorly to

bursal margin in their distal one-third, sep-

arated and somewhat divergent, but with their

tips rather close together (Fig. 14). Ventro-

ventrals smallest rays of lateral lobes, appear-

ing as branches of lateroventrals, the latter

having greater flexure than the ventroventrals

and being the most robust of the bursal rays

Figs. 1-2.—Béhmiella wilsoni, n. sp., caudal region of male:

1, Ventral aspect; 2, lateral aspect. (Photomicrographs; mag-

nification approx. X80.)

Male.—lIn 3 available specimens 17.1 to 20.3

mm long by 0.21 to 0.24 mm wide just in front

of bursa; esophagus, 0.84 to 0.94 mm long;

distance from nerve ring and cervical papillae

to anterior extremity, 0.32 to 0.35 and 0.43 to

0.45 mm, respectively; length of spicules, 0.300

to 0.821 mm; axial length of gubernaculum,

0.121 to 0.135 mm, length measured along

curvature, 0.140 to 0.153 mm.

Prebursal papillae well developed (Fig. 14).

Lateral bursal lobes roughly triangular with

mediolateral and posterolateral rays support-

ing apex, originating near median ventral line

of body surface a considerable distance anterior

to genital cone, and with fine veinlike mark-

ings. Cleft between right lateral lobe and com-

paratively small dorsal lobe only slightly

(Figs. 10, 14). Laterals with common origin,

comparatively slender, directed posterolat-

erally, except that externolaterals, which are

parallel and contiguous to mediolaterals

through most of their length, curve anteriorly

away from the latter in distal one-third, so that

their tips—which do not quite reach bursal

margin—are considerably anterior to tips of

mediolaterals (Figs. 10, 14, 17). Mediolaterals

and posterolaterals equal, parallel, and con-

tiguous, longer than externolaterals and other

rays; tips close together, reaching bursal mar- —

gin. Externodorsals more robust than laterals,

but less robust than lateroventrals, apparently

originating high up on stem of dorsal, parallel

and contiguous to posterolaterals for most of

length, but curving anterodorsally away from

rie oe”

Mar. 15, 1943 LUCKER: A NEW TRICHOSTRONGYLID NEMATODE té

Figs. 3-17.—Béhmiella wilsoni, n. sp.: 3, Anterior end (female), ventral aspect, optical section

through dorsal onchium and two subventral esophageal teeth; 4, head (female), en face aspect; 5,

optical cross section through esophagus in region of dorsal onchium, aspect in en face mount of head;

6, anterior end (female), lateral aspect, optical section through dorsal onchium and two pairs of sub-

ventral esophageal teeth; 7, esophageal region (male), lateral aspect; 8, telemon, lateral aspect; 9,

gubernaculum, lateroventral aspect; 10, caudal region of male, dorsal aspect (chitinization represented

by stippling); 11, right spicule, ventral aspect; 12, left spicule, ventro-lateral aspect; 13, caudal region

of female, lateral aspect; 14, caudal region of male, ventral aspect (chitinization represented by stip-

pling); 15, gubernaculum, lateral aspect; 16, telemon, ventral aspect; 17, caudal region of male, lateral

aspect (chitinization represented by stippling, to simplify the figure only part of the left lateral lobe

of the bursa is shown).

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

them distally so their tips, which reach the

bursal margin, are considerably removed from

the tips of the posterolaterals; length about

same as externolaterals (Fig. 14). Dorsal ray

much shorter than other rays, not asymmetri-

cally located, straight; stem wide, bifurcate in

distal one-fourth, each branch typically tridigi-

tate but one may be bidigitate; ventral surface

of stem without accessory branch (Fig. 10).

Lateral rays with dense brownish chitinization

at base and less dense chitinization extending

nearly to tips, particularly along margins (Figs.

1, 2, 10, 14, 17). Externodorsal rays usually

chitinized at base only (Fig. 10). In lateral view

(Figs. 2, 17) chitinized tissues seen to extend

internally and anteriorly from bases of these

rays towards gubernaculum and anteriorly for

a short distance along dorsal body wall, prob-

ably representing for most part modification of

muscular tissues; in ventral view (Figs. 1, 14)

these chitinized extensions appearing as a sort

of median transverse bridge in region of spicule

tips and gubernaculum. Genital cone with two

submedian, thumblike, posteriorly directed

processes. Spicules complex, brownish, con-

sisting of complicated proximal knob and alate

shaft and terminating distally in three proc-

esses, the longest representing a continuation

of main shaft (Figs. 11, 12); proximal ends

located laterally near body wall and in frontal

plane; main shafts extending slightly dorsad

and mediad in proximal two-fifths of length

and rather sharply ventrad and mediad in distal

three-fifths so tips reach median line in cloacal

region (Figs. 1, 2, 10, 14). Shorter of two sub-

sidiary distal prongs of each spicule originating

from mediodorsal surface of main shaft, paral-

leling it and terminating in rather blunt, but

digitate, medioventrally directed tip; remain-

ing subsidiary prong: originating from latero-

dorsal surface of main shaft, paralleling other

prongs in most of length, usually curving dor-

sally away from them to rather sharp but digi-

tate tip (Figs. 11, 12). Gubernaculum brownish,

more or less boat-shaped, with very strongly

chitinized dorsal keel ending proximally in

knob and branching near distal tip to form pair

of lateral crura (Fig. 9) reenforcing small dorso-

lateral triangular alate projections, which

merge with main lateroventrally directed

wings (Fig. 15). In cloacal region light brownish

chitinized structures, representing the telemon,

present; telemon grossly appearing in lateral

view to be organized into three main sections,

one lying along the posteroventral body wall,

one along the lateroventral wall of the cloaca,

and the remaining one along the laterodorsal

wall of the cloaca (Figs. 2, 17), but consisting

of a considerable number of more or less dis-

tinct, yet interrelated and apparently inter-

connected elements (Figs. 8, 16).

Female.—In 6 specimens 37.7 to 43.3 mm

long by 0.40 to 0.58 mm wide at vulva; esopha-

gus, 1.00 to 1.29 mm long; tail, 0.41 to 0.56

mm long; distance from vulva to posterior ex-

tremity 8.2 to 9.6 mm (ratio to body length,

1:4.1 to 1:4.7); eggs 88 to 105u by 50 to 62n.

Tail digitiform, bent slightly dorsad at tip,

without terminal spike or other cuticular or

hypodermal modification (Fig. 13).

Hosts.—Sciurus carolinensis leucotis; S. caro-

linensis; S. niger niger.

Location.—Stomach.

Locality—Moorefield, Hardy County, W.

Va.; Virginia; Newton, Ga.

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 36814

(holotype, male); no. 36853 (allotype); no.

36854 (paratypes, 1 male and several females) ;

no. 45329 (removed from lot no. 2934); no.

42772.

Remarks.—The striking and readily observed

character of ray chitinization is obviously one

of great practical value in identification. The

systematic importance, however, that should

be attached to it is a question concerning which

a consensus is not likely to be reached until

specimens with chitinized rays have been more

widely discovered and studied. Travassos® in-

cluded Béhmiella in the Trichostrongylinae

provisionally only and believed that further

study of the bursa of the genotype might justify

placing the genus in a separate major group.

The writer does not regard ray chitinization as

a fundamental morphological modification and

believes that, by itself, the character should be

assigned no more than specific value. It seems

probable that this was Gebauer’s® opinion also,

since he did not propose Béhmiella simply be-

cause of the occurrence of this phenomenon. ~

perichitinea appears to differ from other tricho-

strongylins sufficiently to warrant considering

it a representative of a distinct genus.

5 Op. cit. 6 Op. cit.

VOL. 33, NO. 3 |

It is in a combination of characters that B.

Mar. 15, 1943 KRULL AND JACKSON: ROUTE OF MIGRATION OF LIVER FLUKE 79

The specimens here described are in many of

their general features similar to B. perichitinea

and are, therefore, regarded as representatives

of the same genus. They differ in many re-

spects, however, from the genotype as de-

scribed by Gebauer and, therefore, are re-

garded as representing a new species.

It is conceded that certain of the described

differences between B. wilsont and B. pert-

chitinea are of possible generic value. Notable

among them are discrepancies in the number of

cephalic papillae and in the nature of the buccal

cavity and of the anterior end of the esopha-

gus, and, corollary to the last, in the derivation,

position, and orientation of the dorsal on-

chium and the denticles associated with it;

also in this category are the presence in B.

wilsont of a circumoral elevation and a rudi-

mentary leaf crown. However, the writer sus-

pects that reexamination of the type specimens

of B. perichitinea may reveal a closer similarity

and relationship to B. wilsoni in these respects

than now is evident.

In addition to the differences thus far al-

luded to, B. wilsont is distinguished from B.

perichitinea by presence of prebursal papillae

and a telemon, absence of cervical alae, less

marked inequality in the depth of the clefts

between the dorsal and lateral lobes of the

bursa, lack of dextral curvature and an ac-

cessory ventral rodlike process in the dorsal

ray, longer spicules of different shape and ori-

entation, larger gubernaculum, larger females

with more anteriorly situated vulva, greater

number of longitudinal cuticular ridges, shorter

dorsal onchium, mediolateral and posterior-

lateral rays longer than externolaterals, and

lateroventral rays thicker than externodorsals.

There also appear to be differences in the ex-

tent of the internal chitinized processes in the

caudal region, notably, the absence in B. wil-

sont of a narrow process extending between the

spicules and the anterior extremity of the dor-

sal process, as well as absence of the pair of

broom-shaped lateral processes, figured for B.

perichitinea.

ZOOLOGY .—Observations on the route of migration of the common liver fluke,

Fasciola hepatica, in the definitive host.

WENDELL H. Kruut and R. Scott

JACKSON, U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry.

The essentials of the life history of the

common liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, have

been known since 1882, when Thomas and

Leuckart, independently, showed that the

snail Lymnaea truncatula served as an inter-

mediate host of this important parasite. In

spite of these and subsequent investigations

there still remain details concerning the de-

velopment of the fluke in the intermediate

and definitive hosts that have not been fully

worked out. Important among these is the

route of migration to the liver of the young

fluke after its excystment in the digestive

tract of the definitive host.

Three possible routes of migration have

been postulated, namely, (1) direct migra-

tion from the intestine to the bile ducts

through the hepatic duct; (2) passive trans-

portation by the portal circulation after

penetration of the intestinal mucosa, the

young fluke gaining access to the bile ducts

by perforation; and (8) penetration of the

1 Received November 2, 1942.

intestine, active migration in the peritoneal

cavity, perforation of the liver capsule, and

migration through the liver parenchyma to

the bile ducts. The first of these possible

routes is the one most generally accepted,

although it is the only one entirely unsup-

ported by experimental evidence. On the

other hand, Bugge (1935) concluded, on the

basis of his examination of numerous in-

fected calves, that the young flukes reached

the liver via the portal system. Sinitsin

(1914) demonstrated young flukes in the

washings from the abdominal cavity of rab-

bits to which encysted cercariae had been

administered and concluded that the flukes

must reach the liver through active pene-

tration of the liver capsule; this observation

was supported by Shirai (1927). Sinitsin’s

theory was further supported by Shaw

(1932), who injected larval flukes directly

into the peritoneal cavities of rabbits,

guinea pigs, and lambs and observed that

the young flukes penetrated the hepatic

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

capsule; juvenile flukes were later recovered

from the liver. While the observations of

these investigators demonstrated the ability

of the excysted metacercariae to gain access

to the liver by penetration of the liver cap-

sule, it was not shown that this route is the

normal one or that the young flukes on

reaching the liver could gain access to the

bile ducts and become mature. Since the

flukes are sometimes found in such ab-

normal locations as the lungs and elsewhere,

and may even be acquired prenatally, it

would seem reasonable to conclude that

migration to the liver via the peritoneal

cavity was not the usual-one. In order to

secure additional information on the course

of migration of F’. hepatica in the definitive

host, a number of experiments involving the

transfer of larval flukes from one definitive

host to another were carried out; the results

of these experiments are presented in this

paper.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The larval flukes used in the transfer

experiments described herein were obtained

by administering to white mice and guinea

pigs (first definitive hosts) cysts of F.

hepatica obtained from laboratory infected

snails. After a number of days had elapsed,

the definitive hosts were killed, the young

flukes recovered either from the peritoneal

cavity or the liver tissue, and transferred

in saline by means of a pipette directly into

the peritoneal cavities of guinea pigs, rabbits

and sheep (second definitive hosts). Guinea

pigs were found to be unsatisfactory for this

purpose, as the flukes failed to reach ma-

turity in them. In making the transfers, a

surgical incision was made in the test animal

in the region of the flank, in the case of ab-

dominal transfers, and between the ribs, in

the thoracic transfers, the operative open-

ings being closed by sutures. The operations

were carried out either under local or general

anesthesia.

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

1. Direct transfer of immature flukes to-abdominal

cavity of rabbits and sheep

Larval flukes were transferred directly to

the abdominal cavities of 20 rabbits and 3

sheep, and the results of these experiments

VOL. 33, NO. 3

are given in Table 1. The data presented in

this table show that young flukes obtained

from one definitive host will, when trans-

ferred to a second definitive host, reach the

liver and become mature in the bile ducts.

These data also indicate that the average

time for the flukes to reach fertile maturity

in rabbits is somewhat less than in sheep,

the range being 62 to 99 (average 71) days

in rabbits and 79 to 101 (average 86) days

in sheep (includes period in first definitive

host). Since only three sheep were involved

in these experiments it is possible that had

a larger number of animals been used the

average time required for the flukes to ma-

ture might have been slightly less.

The importance of a sufficient flow of bile

for the fluke in the bile duct is shown by the

data for rabbit 1. These flukes although 88

days old when recovered were still im-

mature, being only 9 and 12 mm long, re-

spectively, when relaxed. They had lodged

in the minor, peripheral bile ducts of the

lobes of the liver, whereas the flukes which

make a normal growth are usually found in

the largest ducts.

Usually conspicuous points of entrance of

juvenile flukes are discernible on the liver

surface. The lesions persist for weeks, and

the ability to repair such damage seems

to vary considerably with different species.

Healing is more rapid and complete in ~

guinea pigs than in sheep and rabbits.

In order to ascertain whether the transfer

of immature flukes from one host animal to

another affected the rate of maturity, en-

cysted metacercariae were administered per

os to three rabbits and one sheep. The first

rabbit received 11 cysts; eggs appeared in

the feces 66 days later and 1 fluke was re-

covered at necropsy. The second rabbit

received 17 cysts; eggs appeared in the feces

in 69 days, and six flukes were recovered at

necropsy. The third rabbit received 40

cysts; eggs appeared in the feces in 81 days,

and six flukes were recovered at necropsy.

The sheep (no. 12039) received 130 cysts;

eggs appeared in the feces in 75 days, and 21

mature flukes were recovered from the bile

ducts when the animal was necropsied 30

days later. ;

The results of these experiments parallel

Mar. 15, 1943 KRULL AND JACKSON: ROUTE OF MIGRATION OF LIVER FLUKE

those obtained by direct transfer of the

immature flukes and show that the time

required for reaching maturity is not ma-

terially affected by the manipulations neces-

sary during the transfers.

2. Direct transfer of immature flukes to the pleural

cavity of rabbits

Since the liver fluke has been reported on

a number of occasions from abnormal loca-

tions, even under circumstances indicating

prenatal infection,” the prevailing opinion is

that in order for the flukes to reach unusual

locations they must be transported by the

circulation. In order to secure information

on this point, limited experiments were con-

ducted as follows:

Four 30-day-old larval flukes spuiined

from the liver of a mouse were transferred

2 One case of liver fluke infection was observed

in the vicinity of Logan, Utah, in a 6-weeks-old

calf; the flukes were all mature.

to the thoracic cavity of a fully grown rab-

bit. This animal was examined two months

later and the thoracic organs appeared

normal; examination of the liver, how-

ever, revealed a single specimen of F. he-

patica, 20 mm long by 7 mm wide, in one

of the bile ducts. In a second rabbit, about

one-fourth grown, two 22-day-old flukes

were transferred to the thoracic cavity; this

animal was examined a month later and a

single fluke 25 mm long by 6.5 mm wide that

had just reached maturity was recovered

from the liver. A typical entrance point was

observed in the liver capsule indicating that

the fluke had reached the liver by migration.

A third rabbit, almost fully grown, re-

ceived by direct transfer into the thoracic

cavity four 30-day-old flukes. A week later

this animal developed paralysis of the hind

quarters and died a week after the symp-

toms appeared. On examination one lung

was found to be hemorrhagic, a portion of

TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF INFECTIONS OF FASCIOLA HEPATICA IN RABBITS AND SHEEP PRODUCED BY THE DIRECT

TRANSFER OF IMMATURE FLUKES TO THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY

Age of

Age of flukes

Animal Source of Length of flukes at Flukes IDEA GS at time of Bayete a Flukes

designation flukes flukes time of transferred 2 Sze oviproduc- Doster sabre recovered

in feces® = or sheep

transfer tion6

Mm Days Number Days Days Days Number

Rabbit 1 Mouse = 7 2 0 — 81 21

Rabbit 2 do = 8 3 66 74 76 1

Rabbit 3 Mice 1.0-1.5 8 2 66 74 73 2

Rabbit 4 Mouse 1.0-1.5 9 2 61 70 66 if

Rabbit 5 do 33-(U) se 16 3 52 68 55 3

Rabbit 6 do 3.0+ 16 11 50 66 63 11

Rabbit 7 do = 16 5 54 70 66 4

Rabbit 8 do = 9 2 0 — 78 0

Rabbit 9 Mice 2.0-4.0 20 8 45 65 58 8

Rabbit 10 Mouse 1.0-1.5 8 6 0 — 35 61

Rabbit 11 do 6.5-8.0 28 3 34 62 36 2

Rabbit 12 do 6.5-8.0 28 3 44 42 62 2

Rabbit 13 do 6.5-8.0 28 1 44 a2 64 il

Rabbit 14 do 6.5-8.0 28 3 34 62 62 1

Rabbit 15 do 6.5-8.0 Dh 4 —_ — 15 3!

Rabbit 16 do 6.5-8.0 30 4 46 76 88 3

Rabbit 17 Mice — 30 4 — — 19 21

Rabbit 18 Guinea pig 8.0 29 1 — — Hil 0

Rabbit 19 do 6.0 ol 2 — — 99 2

Rabbit 20 do 6.0 31 3 68 99 68 2

Sheep 12023 Mice less than 1.0 5 15 74 79 697 =

Sheep 12083 do 1.0-2.0 11 41 90 101 100 103

Sheep 12026 do 2.0-4.0 20 4s4 59 79 77 17

1 Immature.

2 Animal not destroyed, fluke eggs still numerous.

3 Some flukes immature.

4 Transfer made through cannula; some young flukes may have been lost.

5 Days in rabbit or sheep.

6 Total days in mouse or guinea pig and rabbit or sheep.

the pericardium was thickened and con-

gested, and the thymus was hemorrhagic

with adhesions between it and the thoracic

wall. No flukes were recovered directly from

the organs, but one specimen that showed

considerable growth was recovered from the

water in which the thoracic organs were

manipulated. It is assumed that the paraly-

sis occurring in this case was the result of

the fluke infection as no cases of this sort

have occurred during several years in the

rabbit colony from which this animal was

obtained.

In the fourth experiment three 27-day-old

flukes were transferred to the thoracic

cavity of a mature rabbit. This animal died

22 days after the transfer. On necropsy the

parietal pleura in the region of the operative

Opening was roughened, and there were

small hemorrhages in the intercostal mus-

cles. Flecks and strands of fine connective

tissue were present on the surface of the

lung and areas of scar tissue were observed

in the lung tissue which were probably the

result of injuries caused by the migrating

flukes. The pleural sac was ruptured me-

dially posterior and dorsal to the heart and

a portion of the lung had passed through

this opening and had become strangulated.

The strangulated portion of the lung was

consolidated and was showing evidence of

necrosis; adhesions and connective tissue

deposits were present in this region. No

flukes were recovered from this animal.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

These experimental data show that, if

juvenile flukes reach the peritoneal cavity

of rabbits and sheep, they migrate to the

liver, penetrate the capsule and paren-

chyma, enter the bile ducts, and mature.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Furthermore, it is shown that entrance

through the bile duct is precluded as neces-

sary in the infection of rabbits and sheep;

however, it is not eliminated as a possible —

infection route. In view of the experiments

recorded in this paper, particularly those

concerning the transfer of flukes to the

thoracic cavity, and because of the large

size of some of the flukes transferred, the

circulatory system as a transfer route also

is precluded as being necessary; however, a

source of blood seems to be essential for

survival; the juvenile flukes are able to

secure blood because of their ability to pene-

trate tissues. Since 78 percent (56 flukes) of —

the 72 juvenile flukes used in the transfer

experiments with rabbits were recovered

in necropsies, there is reason to believe that

infection via the peritoneal cavity is the

principal, if not the sole route, of infection.

The limited experiments involving the —

transfer of juvenile flukes to the thoracic

cavity indicate that obscure symptoms of

disease, or death, may be traced to liver

flukes, even though the flukes themselves

may not always be recoverable.

LITERATURE CITED

Buace, G. Die Wanderungen der Leberegel in

den Organen der Schlachttiere. Berlin

Tierarztl. Wchnschr. 51 (5): 65-68, figs.

1-4. 1935.

Suaw, J.N. Studies of the liver fluke (Fasciola

hepatica). Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc.

81: 76-82. 1932.

Surat, M. The biological observation on the

cysts of Fasciola hepatica and the route of

migration of young worms in the final host.

Sci. Rep. Govt. Inst. Infect. Dis., Tokyo,

6: 511-523. 1927.

Sinitsin, D.F. New observations on the biology

of Fasciola hepatica. Centralbl. Bakt. I

Abt. Orig. 74: 280-285. 1914.

VOL. 33, NO. Sm

Mar. 15, 1943

ZOOLOGY.—Pycnogonida of the Bartlett collections.

HEDGEPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 83

JOEL W. HEpDGPETH.

(Communicated by Watpo L. ScumMirTT.)

Most of the pycnogonids collected by

Capt. Robert A. Bartlett in Greenland and

Arctic America up to the year 1935 were

sent to Dr. Louis Giltay, formerly of the

Royal Museum of Natural History, Brus-

sels, Belgium, who prepared a short manu-

script on them. Unfortunately Dr. Giltay

died before the manuscript was ready for

the printer.? At the request of Dr. Waldo L.

Schmitt, I have prepared this paper on the

pycnogonids taken by Captain Bartlett in

the Arctic and have included the identifica-

tions made by Dr. Giltay, which are desig-

nated by an asterisk.

Although the collections made by Cap-

tain Bartlett from the coasts of Greenland

add no new species to the known fauna of

that region, those from Fox Basin represent

a hitherto unreported region for these ani-

mals. The specimens from Fox Basin com-

prise the most extensive collection of pyc-

nogonids from the American Arctic that

has yet been made. Heretofore, our knowl-

edge of this fauna has been supplied prin-

cipally by Cole’s list (1921) of three species

from Dolphin and Union Strait, a single

record of Nymphon serratum from James

Bay (Giltay, 1942), and the earlier records

by Rodger (1893) from the coast of Labra-

dor.

Of the 14 species represented in the Bart-

lett collections 9 are from Fox Basin. These

are all well-known Arctic species whose

previously established distribution is sum-

marized in Stephensen’s (1933) excellent

paper on Greenland pycnogonids. American

Arctic pycnogonids are still poorly repre-

sented in our collections, however, and it is

certain that future collecting will add many

species to our lists.

I have not seen the material identified by

Dr. Giltay. As his manuscript consisted

only of identifications, I am responsible for

the synonymies, remarks, and arrange-

ments of this paper. All the specimens, ex-

1 Received December 28, 1942.

2 Dr. Louis Giltay died on July 25, 1937. A

biographical notice with bibliography was pub-

lished by V. van Straelen in Bull. Mus. Roy. Hist

Nat. Belgique 14 (23). (1938).

cept where otherwise noted, were procured

by Captain Bartlett on personally spon-

sored expeditions. The localities from which

pycnogonids were secured are listed in

geographic sequence from north to south,

beginning with Fox Basin (Fig. 1.) The col-

lections, with the exception of two lots

taken by the Hudson Bay Fisheries Ex-

pedition of 1930 on a steam trawler, the

S. S. Loubyrne, are in the United States

National Museum.

Family NYMPHONIDAE Wilson, 1878

Genus Boreonymphon G. O. Sars, 1891

Boreonymphon robustum (Bell)

Boreonymphon robustum Stephensen, 1933, pp.

A—5, fig. 1 (map); p. 38, fig. 11.

Localities—Walrus grounds, Murchison

Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77°45’N., sta-

tion 124, Aug. 7, 1938, 1 large 92, encrusted

with sponges, hydroids, and foraminifers.

King Francis Josef Fjord, NE. Greenland,

No. 6A, Aug. 4, 1936, 1 specimen.

Distribution. —A widely distributed Arctic

species, perhaps circumpolar but not yet known

from between latitudes 120° W. and 160° E. It

is often taken in considerable numbers. Steph-

ensen (p. 38) suggests that this species may live

on Umbellula encrinus and other corals.

Genus Nymphon J. C. Fabricius, 1794

Nymphon hirtipes Bell

Nymphon hirtipes Wilson, 1878, pp. 22-23, pl.

5, figs. 2-3; pl. 6, fig. 2a—k.

Nymphon hirtum Wilson, 1880, pp. 495-497,

pl. 7, figs. 38-41.

Chaetonymphon hirtipes Sars, 1891, pp. 103-

LOW ple chi fies Jak.

Chaetonymphon hirtipes Cole, 1921, p. 4.

Chaetonymphon hirtipes Stephensen, 1933, pp.

8-9, figs. 2, 10 (maps).

Localities —*Entrance to Fury and Hecla

Straits, Sept. 3, 1933, 30 fathoms, 3 specimens

(Norcross-Bartlett Expedition).

*Hast end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay,

75° 40’ N., 78° 50’ W., station 7, Aug. 3, 1935,

140-210 fathoms, bottom sample, gravel, 39

specimens (incl. ovig. @).

SS TY

EFFIE

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 3

Oo123

45 10

Scale of miles (app)

-Chalon

Robertson Bay

EUAN Cormick Bay

Die eas : YY,

RISSEY—

j Northumberland >

<\y

ari E Granville Bay

ron

ae Carey Is Meee aty

Saunder Ia. Ya

Dalrymple Rock @

Wostenholme Id.

P| Peary

4 Monuments Cape York

Dudley Digges

Sony Qizo

Hudson Bay ;

JV. Hedgpeth, del.

Fig. 1.—A, Detail of NW. Greenland, showing localities represented in the Bartlett collections;

B, The American Arctic

(only those localities from which pycnogonids have been collected are indi-

cated). *Type locality of Boreonymphon robustum (approximate;

@Type locality of Colossendets proboscidea (approximate).

probably also of Nymphon hirtipes).

A Pe See eae Re ad

Mar. 15, 1943

*Thule, North Star Bay, NW. Greenland,

76° 32’ N., 68° 45’ W., Aug. 27, 1932, 12 fath-

oms, | specimen (Peary Memorial Expedition).

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.

Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 124, Aug.

7, 1938, otter trawl, 5 specimens.

Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app.

71 43’ N., station 134, Aug. 7, 1938, otter

trawl, 1 specimen.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.

Greenland, app. 77° 38’ N., station 146, Aug. 8,

1938, otter trawl, 5 specimens. |

Along west side of Wolstenholme Island, sta-

tion 43, July 23, 1940, 12 fathoms, 1 specimen.

Between north shore of Parker Snow Bay

and Conical Rock, NW. Greenland, station 25,

July 22, 1940, 25-45 fathoms, +7 specimens.

Off Conical Rock, NW. Greenland, 76° 3’ N..,

67° 30’ W., station 76, July 29, 1938, dredged,

=o.

One mile northwest of Conical Rock, NW.

Greenland, station 37, July 22, 1940, 25-60

fathoms, 7 specimens.

*Angmagsalik, SE. Greenland, Aug. 30, 1930,

dredge, 1 specimen.

Off SE. Greenland, 61° N., 62° 30’ W., sta-

tion 166, Aug. 24, 1939, mite trawl, mud and

pebbles, 5 specimens.

Prince Christian Sound, SE. Greenland,

61° 10’ N., station 175, Aug. 25, 1939, 80-90

fathoms, otter trawl, 2 specimens.

Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 207,

Aug. 25, 1939, 40-100 fathoms, otter trawl, 1

specimen.

*NE. Greenland, 74° 21’ N., 16° 30’ W.,

July 29, 1931, 120 fathoms, 1 specimen (Nor-

cross-Bartlett Expedition).

*NE. Greenland, 74° 04’ N., 17° 58’ W.,

July 30, 1931, 120 fathoms, 4 specimens (Nor-

cross-Bartlett Expedition).

Distribution.—An Arctic and boreal-Arctic

species, widely distributed in the northern At-

lantic and from Kara Sea to NW. Greenland

in the Arctic. Cole’s record from Dolphin and

Union Strait is the westernmost record. It is

known also from eastern United States, Halifax

to Massachusetts Bay (Wilson). Apparently

it is not circumpolar. Other hitherto unpub-

lished records are Baldwin-Ziegler Polar Ex-

pedition, June, 1901, Aberdare Channel, east

of Alger Island, Franz Josef Land, 7 specimens;

and station 19, S. 8S. Loubyrne, Hudson Bay

HEDGPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 85

Fisheries Expedition, 61° 11’ N., 90° W., Au-

gust 15, 1930, 75 fathoms, mud and stones, 1

specimen.

Nymphon brevitarse Kroéyer

Nymphon brevitarse Stephensen, 1933, pp. 10-11.

Localities.—*SE. corner of Fox Basin, 66°

46’.N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 34-37 fath-

oms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land

Expedition).

South shore of Southampton Island, Hudson

Bay, 63° 10’ N., 85° 25’ W., station 3, Aug. 3,

1933, from floating seaweed, 1 specimen (Nor-

cross-Bartlett Expedition).

Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon,

NW. Greenland, station 29, Aug. 2, 1937, 25-40

fathoms, rocky bottom, 3 specimens.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.

Greenland, 77° 45’ N., station 127, Aug. 7, 1938,

1 specimen.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.

Greenland, app. 77° 38’ N., station 146, Aug. 8,

1938, 1 specimen.

Distribution.—An Arctic species, from Spits-

bergen to NW. Greenland and Fox Basin. From

shallow water, not more than 50 fathoms.

Rodger (1893) reports the species from the

Straits of Belle Isle. One specimen was col-

lected by the Baldwin-Ziegler Expédition in

Aberdare Channel, Franz Josef Land.

Nymphon grossipes (O. Fabricius?) Kréyer

Nymphon grossipes Stephensen, 1933, pp. 11-

Localities —*Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W.,

Aug. 10, 1927, 14 specimens (Putnam Baffin

Land Expedition).

Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927,

4 specimens. Identified by Giltay as N. miz-

tum, a synonym of JN. grossipes. (Putnam

Baffin Land Expedition.)

Southeast corner of Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N.,

79° 15’ W., Aug. 18, 1927, 34-37 fathoms,

dredge, 1 specimen. Identified by Giltay as N.

mixtum. (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition.)

*Southeast corner of Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N.,

79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 37 fathoms, dredge,

15 specimens (incl. ovig. &@o@) (Putnam

Baffin Land Expedition).

*Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24-25, 1927, 25

fathoms, 10 specimens CP diamaaa Battin hand

Expedition).

*Fox Basin, Aug. 26, 1927, 25-31 fathoms, 1

specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

East end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay,

75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., Aug. 3, 19385, 140-210

fathoms, gravel, 1 specimen. Identified by

Giltay as N. mixtum.

*South end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay,

75° 40’ N., 78° 58’ W., Aug. 4, 1935, 48-80

fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen.

*South end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay,

75° 40’ N., 78° 59’ W., Aug. 4, 1935, 68-120

fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen.

Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon,

NW. Greenland, station 27, Aug. 2, 1937, 25-

40 fathoms, rocky, 3 specimens.

*Walrus feeding grounds, 5 miles north of

Cape Chalon, Prudhoe Land, NW. Greenland,

July 27, 1932, 1 specimen.

Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app.

77° 45’ N., station 126, Aug. 7, 1938, otter

trawl, 1 specimen.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.

Greenland, app. 77° 38’ N., station 146, Aug. 8,

1938, 1 specimen.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.

Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 124, Aug. 7,

1938, otter trawl, 3 specimens.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.

Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 127, Aug. 7,

1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen.

Northumberland Island, NW. Greenland,

station 49, Aug. 7, 1937, dredge, 1 specimen.

*Northumberland Island, NW. Greenland,

Aug. 1926, 1 specimen.

Off Dalrymple Rock, Wostenholme Sound,

July 22, 1926, 2 specimens (1 ovig. @).

Off northwest shore of Wostenholme Island,

NW. Greenland, station 57, July 23, 1940, 13-

25 fathoms, 1 specimen.

Off Wostenholme Island, NW. Greenland,

station 44, July 23, 1940, 13-17 fathoms, 1

specimen.

Off Wostenholme Island, NW. Greenland,

station 46, July 23, 1940, 138-17 fathoms, 1

specimen.

One mile northwest of Conical Rock, NW.

Greenland, station 38, July 23, 1940, 25-60

fathoms, dredge, 1 specimen.

Kerkoliak, Salve Island, Melville Bay, NW.

Greenland, Aug. 28, 1932, dredge, 1 specimen.

Identified by Giltay as N. miztum.

Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 207,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 3

Aug. 25, 1939, 40-100 fathoms, otter trawl, 2

specimens.

Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 196,

Aug. 25, 1939, 60—70 fathoms, 1 specimen.

Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 218,

Aug. 25, 1939, 60-70 fathoms, 3 specimens.

*Clavering Fjord, NE. Greenland, Aug. 2,

1930, 1 specimen.

Nymphon mixtum Kroyer and N. glaciale

Sars can not be separated from N. grossipes, as

Stephensen (p. 12) has shown, and I concur

with his synonymy.

Distribution.—A widely distributed and very

variable species, found on the North American ~

coast as far south as Long Island Sound on the

east and Puget Sound on the west. It is circum-

polar, Arctic, and boreal-Arctic; littoral to

+500 fathoms.

Nymphon longitarse Kroyer

Nymphon longitarse Norman, 1908, pp. 212-

213.

Nymphon longitarse Cole, 1921, p. 4.

Nymphon longitarse Stephensen, 1933, pp. 13-

14, fig. 3 (map).

Nymphon longitarse Losina-Losinsky, 1933, pp.

67-68.

Nymphon longitarst Hilton, 1942a, pp. 3-4.

Locality.—Frobisher Bay, Baffin Land, about

60 fathoms, 1 specimen.

Distribution.—A boreal-Arctic species, widely

distributed from the coasts of Norway and

Britain in Europe to Cape Cod on the American ~

coast (rarely south to about lat. 40° N., but not

to Cape Hatteras as suggested by Norman in

his distribution table, p. 199). It is also cir-

cumpolar, having been recorded from Point —

Barrow (Cole) and from eastern Siberian waters

(Losina-Losinsky). Hilton lists its from Kodiak

and “Alaskan waters.” It is a littoral to sublit- q

toral species.

Nymphon sluiteri Hoek

Nymphon sluitert Cole, 1921, pp. 3-4.

Nymphon sluitert Stephensen, 1933, p. 14, fig. 4

(map).

Localities —*East end of Cobourg Island,

Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 55’ W., Aug. 3,

1935, 150-280 fathoms, muddy, 1 specimen.

Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon,

NW. Greenland, station 29, Aug. 2, 1937, 25—

40 fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen (juv.).

Mar. 15, 1943

Distribution.—A circumpolar Arctic species,

found in shallow water in the high Arctic and

in deeper water in the southern part of its

range (Faroes and Jan Mayen). Several speci-

mens were collected by the Baldwin-Ziegler

Polar Expedition in Aberdare Channel, Franz

Josef Land, June, 1901.

Nymphon sluitert has also been collected in

the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where two specimens

were dredged by Dr. Georges Préfontaine at

Trois Pistoles, Quebec, in 200 meters, July,

1932 (U.S.N.M. 66540). This appears to be the

southernmost record for this species. It does

not appear to reach New England waters as do

other Arctic species like Nymphon hirtipes and

Pseudopallene circularis. Possibly its occurrence

in the Gulf of St. Lawrence is rare or sporadic.

Nymphon elegans Hansen

Nymphon elegans Stephensen, 1933, p. 17.

Localities —Fox Basin, 45 miles east of Cape

Dorchester, Aug. 8, 1927, 1 specimen (Putnam

Baffin Land Expedition).

*Southeast corner Fox Basin, 66° 45’ N.,

79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 34-37 fathoms,

dredge, 5 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Ex-

pedition).

*Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24-25, 1927, 25

fathoms, 3 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land

Expedition).

*Fox Basin, Aug. 26, 1927, 25-31 fathoms,

dredge, 2 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Ex-

pedition).

*Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10,

1927, 6 specimens (Putnam Baffin' Land Ex-

pedition).

*Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80° 07’ W., Aug.

1927, dredge, 2 specimens (Putnam Baffin

Land Expedition).

*Hast end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay,

75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., Aug. 3, 1935, 140-210

fathoms, gravel, 10 specimens.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.

Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 124, Aug. 7,

1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen.

Distribution——An Arctic species, from the

Kara Sea to W. Greenland, and Fox Basin.

Usually taken in somewhat deeper water, i.e.,

about 100-300 fathoms.

Nymphon serratum G. O. Sars

Nymphon serratum Stephensen, 1933, pp. 18-19.

HEDGPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 87

Nymphon serratum Giltay, 1942, p. 459.

Localities —*Southeast corner Fox Basin,

66° 46’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 18, 1927, 34-37

fathoms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin

Land Expedition).

Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon,

NW. Greenland, station 29, Aug. 2, 1937, 25-

40 fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, app. 77°

45’ N., station 124, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl,

1 specimen.

Whale Sound, NW. Greenland, Jar H, July

28, 1937, rocky bottom, 1 specimen.

One mile northwest of Conical Rock, station

37, July 22, 1940, 25-60 fathoms, 1 specimen.

West Greenland, 70° 20’ N., 56° W., June 12,

1884, Ensign C. 8. McLain, U.S.N., coll., 1

specimen.

Distribution —An Arctic, sublittoral species

from Kara Sea to W. Greenland and Hudson

Bay (Giltay). Another specimen from Hudson

Bay was taken by the 8.8. Loubyrne (Hudson

Bay Fisheries Expedition), station 31, Aug. 22,

1930, 41 fathoms, gravel. It is occasionally

taken in the Atlantic just south of Wyville-

Thomson Ridge (Stephensen).

Fig. 2

Nymphon megalops Stephensen, 1933, p. 19.

Localities —*Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80° 07’

W., Aug., 1927, dredge, 2 specimens. Identified

by Giltay as N. sarst. (Putnam Baffin Land

Expedition.)

Nymphon megalops G. O. Sars

Fig. 2.—Right chela (reversed) of Nymphon

megalops, showing rounded outgrowth.

Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon,

NW. Greenland, Jar W, Aug. 2, 1937, 1 specimen.

Walrus feeding ground, Murchison Sound,

NW. Greenland, app. 77° 42’ N., station 135,

Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 2 specimens. —

There seems to be no significant difference

between this species and Meinert’s (1899, pp.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

48-49) Nymphon sarsi. The right chela of the

specimen (<) from between Cape Alexander

and Cape Chalon has a large rounded deformity

(iig2 2).

Distribution.—An Arctic species, from west-

tern Norway to Fox Basin; south to about

61° 30’ N., in the Faroe Channel. Usually from

deep water.

Family PALLENIDAE Wilson, 1878

Genus Pseudopallene Wilson, 1878

For reasons to be discussed in detail in an-

other paper, the use of Phozichilus Latreille

(hitherto used for Endeis Philippi by practi-

cally all authors) for Pseudopallene Wilson as

recommended by Norman (1908, pp. 231-233)

and Marcus (1940, p. 128) is rejected as an

unnecessary confusion. It is much simpler to

abandon Phowichilus entirely.

Pseudopallene spinipes (O. Fabricius)

Pseudopallene spinipes Stephensen, 1933, p. 21.

Localities—East end of Cobourg Island,

Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., station 8b,

Aug. 3, 1935, 140-200 fathoms, gravel, 1 speci-

men.

Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 197,

Aug. 25, 1939, 60-70 fathoms, 1 specimen.

Off Cape Farewell, 8. Greenland, station 208,

Aug. 25, 1939, 60-70 fathoms, washed from sea-

weed, 1 specimen.

Distribution—An Arctic species, from wes-

tern Norway, Kara Sea, Franz Josef Land,

and West Greenland; sublittoral.

Pseudopallene circularis (Goodsir)

Pseudopallene circularis Stephensen, 1933, pp.

20-21.

Localities.—Southern part of Fox Basin,

66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927, 2 specimens

(Putnam Bafhn Land Expedition).

Southern part of Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80°

07’ W., Aug. 12, 1927, 32-37 fathoms, dredge, 1

specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

*Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24-25, 1927, 25

fathoms, dredge, 3 specimens (Putnam Baffin

Land Expedition).

*Fox Basin, Aug. 25, 1927, 25-31 fathoms,

dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Ex-

pedition).

‘Southern part of Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N.

80° 07’ W., Aug., 1927, dredge, 1 specimen

(Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

Walrus feeding grounds, Murchison Sound,

NW. Greenland, app. 77° 42’ N., station 135,

Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen.

Walrus feeding grounds, Murchison Sound,

NW. Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 127,

Aug. 7, 1938, 1 specimen.

Just back of Cape Farewell, S. Greenland

station 210, Aug. 25, 1939, 70 fathoms, 1 speci-

men.

Distribution.—A boreal-Arctic species, from

Okhotsk Sea to West Greenland, south to the

Firth of Forth and southern Norway on the

coast of Europe and to Cape Cod in American

waters; littoral to shallow water. It is much

smaller in the southern parts of its range.

Family AMMOTHEIDAE Dohrn, 1881

Genus Eurycyde Schiédte, 1857

Eurycyde hispida (Kroyer)

Eurycyde hispida Stephensen, 1933, p. 27.

Localities —*Southern part of Fox Basin,

66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927, 2 specimens

(Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

*Southeast corner Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N.,

79° 15’ W., Aug. 12, 1927, 34-37 fathoms

specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

*Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24, 1927, 25

fathoms, 13 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land

Expedition).

*Fox Basin, 67° 45’ N., 79° 09’ W., Aug. 24,

1927, 38 fathoms, 3 specimens (2 ovig. & <)

(Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). :

*Fox Basin, Aug. 26, 1927, 25-31 fathoms, 2

specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

*Fox Basin, 67° 438’ N., 80° 07’ W., Ausg.,

1927, dredge, 3 specimens (Putnam Baffin”

Land Expedition).

Walrus feeding grounds, Murchison Sound,

NW. Greenland, app. 77° 42’ N., station 136,

Aug. 7, 1938, 1 specimen.

Distribution.—An Arctic, littoral to sublit-

toral species, ranging from the Kara Sea to

Baffin Land and Greenland (Stephensen) and — q

as far south as Kristiansund on the Norwegian

coast. It is unknown from Iceland.

Family COLOSSENDEIDAE Hoek, 1881

Genus Colossendeis Jarzynsky, 1870

Colossendeis proboscidea (Sabine)

Colossendeis proboscidea Stephensen, 1933, p.

28, fig. 6 (map).

Locality.—*Southeast corner Fox Basin, 66°

VOWGoor NO. 3 ‘

Mar. 15, 1943

46’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 34-37 fath-

oms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land

Expedition).

Distribution.—Possibly a circumpolar Arctic

Basin species, from shallow water to about 500

fathoms. Unknown outside of Arctic waters

(Stephensen).

ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REMARKS

The status of our present knowledge of

the distribution of pycnogonids in the

American Arctic is summarized in Table 1.

There are undoubtedly many more species

in this sector; Stephensen (1933, pp. 32-83)

lists at least 30 species from the waters west

of Greenland alone, and the 14 species in

the table are but half that number. While

this is a considerable addition to the 6 spe-

cies mentioned by Cole (1921, p. 5) for the

region, our records from the north of Can-

ada are far from extensive, and the locali-

ties represented are remarkably few. It is

worthy of note that the American Arctic is

the type locality for two of the character

species of the Arctic Basin, Boreonymphon

robustum and Colossendeis proboscidea (Fig.

i B).

In recent preliminary papers, Hilton

(1942a, b) has listed some pycnogonids from

the Bering Sea and Alaskan waters that

may establish the cireumpolar distribution

of certain well-known Arctic species when

more adequately identified. Although it is

HEDGPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 89

impossible, from the preliminary diagnoses,

to recognize or identify any of the species

_mentioned ‘in these papers, the occurrence

of Nymphon gracile Leach in Alaskan

waters (Hilton, 1942a, p. 7) is doubtful.

This might be Nymphon brevitarse; N. gra-

cile (sometimes confused with N. rubrum

Hodge or N. brevirostre Hodge, e.g., Nym-

phon gracile Sars, 1891, non Leach—see also

Stephensen, 1935, pp. 9-10) is a European

species, from Denmark to the Mediter-

ranean. “‘Nymphon gracillipes’”’ (stromt?) 1s

also listed (zbid., p. 4), from the Bering Sea

at Albatross station 3540 (Aug. 9, 1893,

56° 34’ 00” N., 167° 19’ 00” W., 57 fath-

oms). Two new species of Pseudopallene, P.

setosa and P. spinosa, are alluded to (Hilton,

1942b, p. 39), one or both of which might be

the variable Pseudopallene circularts.

LITERATURE CITED

Cots, L. J. Pycnogonida. Report Canadian

Arctic Expedition 1913-1918. 7 (F): 1-6.

1921.

Gintay, L. New records of Pycnogonida from

the Canadian Atlantic coast. Journ. Fish.

Res. Board Canada 5 (5): 459-460. 1942.

Hiuron, W. A. Pantopoda. Pantopoda chiefly

from the Pacific. Pomona Journ. Ent. and

Zool. 34(1): 3-7. 1942a.

. Pantopoda (Continued). Ibid. 34(2):

38-41. 1942b.

Losina-Losinsky, L. K. Pantopoda vostoch-

nykh morei S. S. S. R. Inst. Issled. Morei

§. S. S. R. (Leningrad) 17: 43-80, 13 figs.

1933.

TABLE 1.—DisTRIBUTION OF PYCNOGONIDS IN THE AMERICAN ARCTIC (ExcLusiIvE OF WEST GREENLAND)

Baffin Land

Species Labrador |(and Cobourg] Hudson Bay | Fox Basin saat a 2m HOES ome

nion Strait Barrow records!

Island)

Boreonymphon robustum.....|...+++++++5: SoS eS 2S es vr ele, Sete arc Pi locka ucgen osm nie riicnc: Meni eto chen TB GE INT.

97° W.

Nymphon hirtipes.........-- < x x x

RCDULGUISC mus wikis «enw. 80) 8h Re aCe MIM bees, aicsae cpa easciges x

OPCRTHDES Slee hoa ee SK SO he sia ay sacha ease et Sato we Ne atc pena ats x

NEG TECLES CP e a tcuce icc abe a lisse bh eie elcues. ie « SCE AS Ai i epee scars apa eo as desis “sh ah sya x< x

HUI, 6 Meas Bene eee x Sa a | Pearcy aie tame [ey ase aca Ruatene SK

GATTO Se BS Cee x< SY ia al scenes Ror Seen x

QU ATLUTD c, ‘ca 0 OEM CIC FOE Gato er ohm ee) ioc cnicacO. CRCROECrcae x

TAG SIACIES AV Saeaeey Oo aaa Oct RO SOI | ccs RO neces Cane ace eenaC nC <

TOOROOO Eo Sa eb OUOrOrOe Cro Cet Ox Gi cenOrO Ie OIC x

PZSCUdOPAGILENE SPINUDES. . = ..2|-2+56-- += x

CURCULOTUS acs sche so ss = x SGU US ell exe Rae tecyoro <

Burycyde hispida. .......202)acc cece nee SGip rae crake aatesarants x

Colossendeis proboscidea....|....--+-+ +2 sfece cere cere s fees cece ee ces|ns Sg) Lia ON, Rete Tt, ct eRe ee a 75° Ni

100° W

1 Both of these records are type localities. Nymphon hirtipes probably has the same type locality as Boreonymphon robustum,

but I have not had access to the original paper to verify this. Both species were described by T. Bell in The Last of the Arctic voy-

ages, by Edward Belcher, vol. 2, pp. 400-411, 1855.

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Marcus, E. Os Pantopoda brasileiros e os

demais sul-americanos. Bol. Fac. Fil., Cien.

Letr. S. Paulo 19 (Zoologia 4): 3-179, figs.

1-17. 1940.

MEINERT, F. Pycnogonida. Danish Ingolf

Exp. 3(1): 1-71, pls. 1-5. 1899.

Norman, A. M. The Podosomata (=Pycno-

gonida) of the temperate Atlantic and Arctic

Oceans. Journ. Linn. Soc. London 30: 198-—

238, pls. 29-30. 1908.

Ropesr, A. Prelaminary account of natural

history collections made of a voyage to the Gulf

of St. Lawrence and Davis Straits. Proce.

Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 20: 154-163. 1893.

VOL. 33, NO. 3

Sars, G. O. Pycnogonidea. Norwegian

North Atlantic Exp. 6 (Zoology 20): 1-168,

plse lo. bao:

STEPHENSEN, K. Pycnogonida. Godthaab Ez-

pedition 1928. Meddel. Gronl. 79(6): 1-46,

12) figs: 1933:

Pycnogonida from Norway and adja-

cent waters. Bergens Museums Arbok 1935,

Naturv. rekke 7: 2-39, 1 fig. 1935.

Witson, E. B. Synopsis of the pycnogonida of

New England. Trans. Conn. Acad. 5:1—26,

Ve. Near IMSS

Report on the Pycnogonida of New

England and adjacent waters. Report U. 8.

Comm. Fish. 1878: 463-506, pls. 1-7. 1880.

ICHTHYOLOGY.—Notes on the affinity, anatomy, and development of Elops saurus

Linnaeus.}

C. Tate Regan in “A Revision of the

Fishes of the Genus Elops” (Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist. (ser. 8) 3: 37-40. 1909), among

other revisions, recognized the inhabitants

of this genus on the Pacific coast of America

as distinct from E. saurus of the Atlantic

coast, with which they had been considered

identical. He named the Pacific coast spe-

cies H. affinis. In the same paper, Regan

recognized the form with small scales (the

one with large scales being E. lacerta Cuvier

and Valenciennes) of the west coast of

Africa as also distinct from E. saurus, giving

it the name EL. senegalensis. Recently I have

studied many specimens of EF. saurus, in-

cluding growth series, ranging from lepto-

cephali with virtually undeveloped fins, ex-

cept for the forked caudal, to large adults.

The specimens were collected in many lo-

calities on the Atlantic coast of America

from Cape Cod to Recife, Brazil, and the

West Indian Islands. I have had for com-

parison several leptocephali and a moder-

ately large series of adults from several lo-

calities on the Pacific coast of America from

Guaymas, Mexico, to Payta, Peru; also

three adults from Elmina, Ashantee, Africa.

The validity of the species mentioned,

recognized as new by Regan, originally ap-

parently described from few specimens, has

been confirmed by this study.

Elops affinis seems to differ from LE.

saurus only in the greater number of gill

rakers, wherein FE. senegalensis agrees with

E. saurus, as shown by Table 1. However,

1 Received November 9, 1942.

SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND, Fish and Wildlife Service.

the scales in a lateral series are fewer in E.

senegalensis than in E. saurus, as indicated

in Table 2. E. senegalensis differs from E.

saurus and E. affinis also in having fewer

vertebrae. Ten specimens of HE. saurus have,

respectively, 73, 74, 75, 75, 75, 77, 78, 79,

80, and 80 vertebrae in the main axis. Nine

leptocephali of the same species have, re-

spectively, 77, 78, 78, 78, 79, 80, 82, 82, and

82 myomeres (enumerations somewhat un-

certain because of indistinctness of myo-

-meres posteriorly). The only adult F. affinis

examined has 77 vertebrae, and six lepto-

cephali have, respectively, 76, 77, 79, 80,

and 81 myomeres. The single adult #.

senegalensis examined has 67 vertebrae.

These enumerations are in agreement with

those given in Dr. Regan’s revision.

So far as I know, the validity of Elops

affinis has not been questioned. On the other

hand, it was accepted by Meek and Hilde-

brand (Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool.

ser., 15 (1): 176. 1923), who compared sveci-

mens from the opposite coasts of Panama.

The situation with respect to Hlops sene-

galensis is somewhat different, as it has been

synonymized with EH. saurus, at least, by

Fowler (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 70

(1): 155. 1936), though accepted by Boul-

enger (Cat. Fresh-water Fish. Africa 4: 152.

1916). Although only three specimens from

Africa have been available to me for exam-

ination, it is evident from the many speci-

mens from the Atlantic coast of America

studied that the range i the number of

scales in the lateral series in American speci-

Mar. 15, 1943

mens does not include the African material

examined (see Table 2), nor that reported

upon by Regan, who gave a range of 94 to

98 scales in the lateral series. The specimen

of E. senegalensis examined for vertebrae by

me, as already stated, has 67 segments in

the main axis, which is essentially in agree-

ment with Regan, who gave 68 or 69. This

range, 67 to 69, in the number of vertebrae

in the African specimens, then is fully dis-

tinct from the range in 10 American speci-

mens, which is 73 to 80. Although no other

differences were found, there can be no

doubt on the basis of those set forth that the

African specimens are distinct from the

American ones. Therefore, E. senegalensis

stands as a valid species.

It may be noted, incidentally, that the

specimens from Payta, Peru (U.S.N.M.

88707), gives aslight extension of the known

range of Elops affinis, which previously ap-

parently has been recorded only from as far

south as ‘“‘Hcuador.”’ The range northward,

given as ‘“‘California’’ by Meek and Hilde-

brand (Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool.

ser., 15: 177. 1923), apparently should have

been Lower California. The northernmost

locality from which I have seen specimens is

Guaymas, Mexico.

The air bladder in Elops saurus, which

has a very thin transparent wall, occupies

the full length of the abdominal cavity.

Ventrally it adheres to the alimentary canal

and dorsally to the body wall. Contrary to

Tarpon atlanticus, which has much cellular

HILDEBRAND: NOTES ON ELOPS SAURUS

tissue within the air bladder (see Babcock,

The tarpon, ed. 4: 50. 1936; and Hildebrand,

Sci. Monthly 44: 246, footnote. 1937), EZ.

saurus has none whatsoever. The air blad-

der of EL. saurus agrees essentially with that

of Albula vulpes, except that in the latter the

wall is somewhat thicker, and within the

bladder, at about midlength, are two small

kidney-shaped bodies of cellular tissue.

The alimentary canal in Elops saurus, ex-

cept for the stomach, which consists prin-

cipally of a large blind sac, is a straight tube

(see Fig. 1). The blind sac projects forward

to the throat. Throughout its length it lies

ventrally of the main canal and parallel

with it. A lobe of the liver, which occupies

the space between this projection and the

heart, forms a “‘hood’’ over its blind end.

Another lobe of the liver shields its left side,

while its right and ventral sides are covered

by a “‘comb”’ of caeca bound firmly together

with connective tissue. In the length of the

alimentary canal this species is in agreement

with Tarpon atlanticus and Albula vulpes,

and also as to the presence of a large blind

sac. However, in the two species mentioned

last, the blind sac of the stomach projects

backward instead of forward. In the pos-

session of numerous caeca H#. saurus and

T. atlanticus agree, and differ from A.

vulpes, which has only about 13.

The eggs and earliest stages of the lepto-

cephali of Elops saurus remain unknown.

The youngest larvae, judged principally by

the development of the fins, among the

TaBLE 1.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF GILL RAKERS IN ELops saurus, E.. AFFINIS, AND E.. SENEGALENSIS

Upper Limb Lower limb

Species

5 | 6 2 8 Se LON See LON te et Se ee eT e eGaie id, isi Tosi s20

| LFS 5 a oS a Oe ee 5 16 | 14 | 14 —|—| 5 Wb o|) TGS |) at ye TIS) 3 — = | = | =

LSGGS . 5 856i ee ee — }|— | — | — | — | 4 4 }—]—]—]—}]—|—} 2 3 4 Mh 3

LEP ATGICTSOS ES Se ae ae — 2 1}/—}—/]—J] — | — 1 2;—;]—|—]}]— — |—}|—

TABLE 2.— FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SCALES IN LATERAL SERIES IN ELOpPs

SAURUS, EK. AFFINIS, AND EL). SENEGALENSIS

Oblique series counted just above lateral line

Species

92/93/94|95|96|97/98)|99} 100) 101] 102) 103/104] 105) 106) 107 | 108/109) 110)111)112)113)114)115)116/117|118)119)120

EPID TEES Sc rails) s),0 1656: 65-3 —|—|—|—|— /—|—|—| —} —}—} 1 }—| 2}11/2);2)'1);2)11);2)'1)'1)}1)/2+'—)1)};—) 1

LUDO Seine —|—|—|—|—|— | — |— — } —} — J} —} 1} —)} it} i} mm) 1} 8} 2 ym} —)] 1 ye] lt pel ele)

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

many at hand are, respectively, 34, 35, and

37 mm long. Although these specimens have

the forked caudal fin well developed, the

other fins remain undifferentiated. These

young larvae are also the most strongly

compressed, that is, the thinnest and most

unsubstantial ones in the collections stud-

ied. Two other larvae, although of about

the same length, 34.5 and 36.5 mm long,

are Slightly more advanced, as a thickening

within the finfolds indicates the develop-

ment of the dorsal and anal fins (see Fig. 2).

Figs. 1-3.—Elops saurus Linnaeus: 1, Diagram

of alimentary canal showing its forward-project-

ing blind sac with a ‘‘comb” of pyloric caeca; 2,

leptocephalus, one of the earliest stages known,

drawn from a specimen 35 mm long; 3, recently

transformed ‘‘young adult,’’ drawn from a speci-

men only 20 mm long. All drawings by Mrs.

Alice C. Mullen.

The largest leptocephali seen are, respec-

tively, 42, 42, and 44 mm long. These speci-

mens may represent about the maximum

length attained by the larvae. However, the

development at any particular length is

quite uneven, as already indicated, and

more clearly shown subsequently. The de-

velopment in these large larvae has pro-

gressed somewhat further than in those

previously mentioned, as the rays in the

dorsal and anal fins are somewhat differ-

entiated, the pectoral fins appear as tufts

of membrane and the development of pelvic

fins is suggested by thickened places in the

abdominal wall. A considerably older speci-

VOL. 33, NO. 3

men, “reduced” in length to 27 mm, has the

dorsal and anal fins sufficiently developed to

permit the enumeration of the rays, and the

pectorals show signs of rays, though the

pelvics remain undifferentiated. While the

body remains strongly compressed, it never-

theless has become more substantial. Other

specimens of the same length are more re-

tarded as the dorsal and anal rays are

scarcely differentiated.

In all the leptocephalus stages known the

head is strongly depressed, and the snout

viewed either ventrally or dorsally, is rather

sharply triangular. Pigmentation in pre-

served specimens consist of two series of

dark spots running the full length of the

abdomen, a row being situated on each side

of the alimentary canal, which in this spe-

cies, as in larval herring and other herring-

like fishes studied, is loosely attached to the

body.

The smallest young adult, that is, a speci-

men that has become rather robust, though

still more strongly compressed than fully

developed adults, with all the fins, except

the pelvics, well developed, is only 16 mm

long. This specimen represents the maxi-

mum shrinkage among the many young

studied. The rather numerous young adults

in the collections at hand show a wide range

in development. For example, a specimen

scarcely 20 mm long (see Fig. 3) is fully as

well developed as others around 30 mm

long. Then, there is a 30-mm specimen in

the collection that has advanced fully as

far in acquiring characters of the adult as

others 35 to 40 mm long. A great difference

in development of color also is evident. The

20-mm specimen, already mentioned, has

some of the silvery color of the adult, with

all the color markings of the leptocephalus

missing, whereas some specimens around

30 mm long remain pale, and retain the two

series of dark dots on the abdomen of the

juveniles already described.

The small, exceptionally advanced speci-

mens were all taken in brackish to nearly

fresh water pools and ponds, near the sea,

whereas the retarded specimens were taken

at sea. The indication, then, is that the en-

vironment greatly affects development.

Even though development is not uniform,

Mar. 15, 1943

it nevertheless may be stated that generally

when the leptocephali have become reduced

to a length of about 20 mm they are virtu-

ally young adults. At that stage the fins,

exclusive of the pelvics, are well developed,

considerable thickening of the body has

taken place, the outline of the gular plate is

visible under magnification, and usually

general pigmentation is under way. Scales

begin to appear at a length of about 50 mm

and by that time the teeth in the jaws,

which are in a single series in the lepto-

cephali, definitely are in bands. Scalation

and pigmentation are complete at a length

of 60 to 65 mm, and the young then are very

similar to full-grown adults.

The leptocephali of this species evidently

do not grow so large as those of Albula

vulpes, as the longest leptocephalus of Elops

saurus in the collections studied is only 44

mm long, whereas the largest one of A.

vulpes has a length of 70 mm, and many

others of that species are only slightly

shorter. Furthermore, the leptocephali of

A. vulpes have a rather heavier body. The

larvae of the two species are readily distin-

guishable by the shape of the head. In E.

saurus the head is rather broad and strongly

depressed, and the snout as seen from above

or from below is rather sharply triangular.

In A. vulpes the head is notably narrower,

not especially depressed, and the snout is

conical. The larvae may be distinguished,

also, by the number of myomeres, as EL.

saurus has about 77 to 82, whereas A. vulpes

has about 66 to 72. When the dorsal and

anal fins become sufficiently developed to

permit the enumeration of the rays, the spe-

cies are readily separated by the number of

rays, as EL. saurus has 21 to 25 dorsal and 14

to 17 anal rays, whereas A. vulpes has 14 to

17 dorsal, and only 8 or 9 anal rays.

The young of Tarpon atlanticus remain

largely unknown, only one specimen about

20 mm long (no longer extant) having been

described (Hildebrand, Copeia, 1934, No.

1: 45). This specimen was in the transition

stage. It was readily distinguishable from

both F. saurus and A. vulpes by the fewer

myomeres, of which only 52 were present,

and by the short dorsal with 12 rays and

the long anal with 20 rays.

HILDEBRAND: NOTES ON ELOPS SAURUS 93

The spawning season and the place where

Elops saurus spawns remain unknown.

However, ripe or nearly ripe fish have been

found. One female with large roe was caught

at Beaufort, N. C., on October 23, and 20

ripe or nearly ripe fish, consisting of 7 males

and 13 females, were taken in February on

the Canal Zone (Hildebrand, Zoologica 24:

25. 1939). These 20 fish were chosen at ran-

dom from hundreds that became stranded

when. the Gatun Locks were dewatered in

1935. As every fish examined, selected from

among the many present, contained gonads

in an advanced state of development, it per-

haps may be assumed that at least most of

many hundreds present were gravid fish. It

seems proper to conclude, therefore, that at

least some spawning takes place during our

winter months.

Leptocephali in the various stages of de-

velopment, already described, were col-

lected at Beaufort, North Carolina, during

January, February, March, April, May,

October, November, and December. Lepto-

cephali were collected in Texas, mostly at

Corpus Christi, in February, March, April,

and November. Others were taken in the

Florida Keys in November, and in Cuba

during May. Young adults, in or just past

the transition stage, were collected at Beau-

fort, N. C., in March, May, June, July, and

August; in Aransas Pass, Tex., in June; and

at Key West, Fla., in March and Novem-

ber. This wide spread of time over the year

of the capture of the young, even in one

locality, as at Beaufort, N. C., suggests

either that spawning takes place during

most of the year or that the development

is unequal.

If the slow development of the lepto-

cephali of the fresh-water eels may be used

as a criterion, even the youngest leptoceph-

ali of Elops saurus described may be several

months old. Also, if the life history is sim-

ilar to that of the eels the youngest larvae

of Elops saurus at hand may have been cap-

tured far from the place of their birth. It

apparently may be stated with some degree

of certainty that the early stages of the

leptocephali do not occur in the shallower

waters in the vicinity of Beaufort, N. C.,

where more or less advanced stages de-

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

scribed herein are moderately common. In

that vicinity intensive collecting with sev-

eral types of gear, was carried on during

every month over a period of many years

in the inshore waters and to a somewhat

lesser extent offshore to a depth of about

12 fathoms. The suggestion that spawning

probably takes place far offshore presents

itself.

Although no gravid examples of Albula

vulpes were seen, the leptocephali and young

adults were taken somewhere along the At-

VOL. 33, NO. 3

lantic and in the West Indies between Beau-

fort, N. C., and Panama, virtually through-

out the year (collections for October and

December only being missing). Many lepto-

cephali and young adults of this species

from the Pacific coast of Panama and a few

from Colombia taken during February,

March, and “autumn” also have been

examined. Therefore, the remarks as to

spawning made in the preceding pages prob-

ably apply equally as well to this species as

to Elops saurus.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

380TH MEETING OF THE BOARD

OF MANAGERS

The 380th meeting of the Board of Managers

was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on

January 11, 1943. President Curtis called the

meeting to order at 8:05 p.m., with 19 persons

present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. D. Ros-

stnI, H. S. Rappteyz, N. R. Smiru, R. J.

SEEGER, J. E. Grar, F. G. BricKWEppgE, F. C.

Kracek, A. Wermors, J. E. McMurtrey,

JR., W. A. Dayton, W. RAMBERG, E. W. PRICE,

L. W. Parr, C. L. Garnmr, H. G. Dorsry, and

by invitation G. A. Cooprr, A. SEIDELL, and

L. V. JUDSON.

The minutes of the 379th meeting were read

and approved.

President CurTIS announced appointment of

the following committee to obtain more sub-

scriptions of the JouRNAL from Government

bureaus: F. G. BrickwEppE (chairman),

W. W. Dient, and F. H. H. Rospzrts, Jr.

For the Committee on Membership, Chair-

man KracrExk presented nominations of 12

persons (11 resident and 1 nonresident).

The Committees on Awards for Scientific

Achievement for 1942, ALEXANDER WETMORE,

general chairman and chairman of the Com-

mittee for the Biological Sciences, H. N. Eaton,

chairman of the Committee for the Engineering

Sciences, and L. V. Jupson, chairman of the

Committee for the Physical Sciences, presented

the names of three candidates for the awards,

which were approved by the Board for an-

nouncement at the annual meeting of the

academy.

The Secretary reported three deaths, three

resignations, and three retirements.

The Board authorized the President to ap-

point a Committee on the A.A.A.S. Research

Grant for 1948, which will amount to $150 for

the Academy.

The meeting adjourned at 9:27 p.m.

FREDERICK D. Rossrn1, Secretary.

@bituaries

The death on July 138, 1942, of Henry

GRANGER KnicuT, chief of the Bureau of

Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering,

United States Department of Agriculture,

marked the passing of one of the most notable

and interesting figures among American agri-

cultural chemists. His 16 years as director of

three widely separated State experiment sta-

tions and his 15 years as chief of a Federal bu-

reau gave him an administrative experience in

agricultural chemistry that has few parallels

in the history of American science.

Knight was born on July 21, 1878, at Ben-

nington, Kans., on a prairie farm, from which

his parents moved a few years later to Port

Townsend on Puget Sound. He entered Wash-

ington State University at Seattle where he

earned his way by various activities. After ob-

taining his A.B. degree at Washington in 1902,

he spent one year as student and assistant in

chemistry at Chicago University, and then re-

turned to Washington as Assistant Professor of

Chemistry.

In 1904 Knight accepted the double appoint-

ment of professor of chemistry and State chem-

ist at the University of Wyoming, the duties of

which he resigned in 1910 to accept the direc-

torship of the Wyoming Agricultural Experi-

ment Station. His administrative duties were

further increased in 1911, when he was ap-

pointed dean of the Wyoming College of Agri-

culture. While at Wyoming Knight published

Mar. 15, 1943

four bulletins on the chemical composition of

Wyoming forage plants; he wrote bulletins

also on the death camass and woody aster,

plants poisonous to livestock. In 1916-17 he did

postgraduate work at the University of Illinois

for which he obtained his Ph.D. degree for a

thesis on acidity and acidimetry of soils. In

1918 Knight resigned his position in Wyoming

to accept the directorship of the Oklahoma Ex-

periment Station and the deanship of its school

of agriculture. Political disturbances caused

him to resign this position in 1921. After a

year’s postgraduate study at Cornell Univer-

sity as honorary fellow, Knight accepted a call

to the University of West Virginia as director

of its experiment station and in 1926 as dean

of its school of agriculture.

In 1927, when the U. S. Bureau of Soils and

the Fixed Nitrogen Laboratory were merged

with the research work of the Bureau of Chem-

istry, direction of the newly constituted Bu-

reau of Chemistry and Soils was awarded to

Dr. Knight, who had the courage to accept

what lack of homogeneity had caused others to

decline. Although he strove valiantly toward

welding a discordant collection of activities into

a unified bureau, the task was an impossible

one, the result being transfer of the soils, fer-

tilizer, and insecticides work to other bureaus.

These losses, although discouraging, were more

than counterbalanced by Knight’s acquiring

direction of four new regional research labora-

tories. It was while giving his last depleted re-

sources of mind and body to organizing these

laboratories for the needs of war that Henry

G. Knight paid the inevitable price.

Dr. Knight preferred to be recognized more

as an organizer and administrator of research

than as an actual contributor to science. His

extensive experience as a director of State ex-

periment stations helped greatly toward es-

tablishing more cordial relations between these

institutions and the Federal Department of

Agriculture. The extent of his influence within

the Department of Agriculture is indicated by

his membership in 12 intradepartmental com-

mittees. From 1930 to 1942 he served as chair-

man of the Editorial Committee for the Jour-

nal of Agricultural Research. He was president

of the American Institute of Chemists in 1933-

35, and in May 1941 received from Vice-

President Wallace the Institute’s gold medal

OBITUARIES 95

for outstanding accomplishments in agricul-

tural chemistry. Temperamentally he was a

man of jovial disposition who will long be held

in affectionate remembrance by a host of

friends.

C. A. BROWNE.

THomas Leonard WALKER, who died on

August 6, 1942, was born near Brampton, On-

tario, on December 30, 1867, of English parent-

age. His father, William Walker, was a native

of Whitby, England, while his mother, Hannah

Sanderson Walker, came from Scarborough,

England. He attended schools in both Bramp-

ton and Orangeville, Ontario, and then entered

Queen’s University, Kingston, from which he

received the silver medal in chemistry and the

degree of master of arts in 1890, and at a later

period the Gowan Prize in botany.

For a short time after his graduation from

Queen’s University he was employed as chem-

ist at the Murray Mine, and for two years was

laboratory demonstrator in the Faculty of

Mines, Queen’s University. He was awarded

one of the first 1851 Exhibition Scholarships

and continued his studies under Prof. F. Zirkel

in the University of Leipzig, where, in 1896, he

was awarded the degree doctor of philosophy.

At a later time he also continued his studies in

crystallography in the University of Heidel-

berg with Prof. Victor Goldschmidt.

In 1897 Dr. Walker was appointed assistant

superintendent of the Geological Survey of

India. While in India he made a scientific ex-

pedition across the high passes of the Hima-

layas into Tibet, making incidentally a collec-

tion of Himalayan mosses, many of which were

new to science.

In 1901 he returned to Canada to become

professor of mineralogy and petrography in the

University of Toronto, a position that he held

until his retirement in 1937. In 1913 the Royal

Ontario Museum of Mineralogy, Toronto, ap-

pointed him its first director. Through the years

Dr. Walker worked indefatigably for the Mu-

seum. By collecting, judicious purchase, and

exchange he built up a Museum of Mineralogy

that ranks among the best seven in the world.

Dr. Walker was one of the founders and the

first vice-president of the Mineralogical Society

of America, in 1920, and president in 1922. He

was a fellow of the Geological Society of

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

America (1903) and vice-president (1922 and

1931). He was made an honorary member of

the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and

Ireland in 1937 after being an ordinary member

since 1913. He was a fellow of the Royal Soci-

ety of Canada (1919) and president of Section

IV (Geological Sciences) 1927-28; a fellow of

the Geological Society of London; fellow of the

Royal Geological Society of Cornwall; member

of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metal-

lurgy; and a member of this Society. For many

years he was a member of the committee on the

measurement of geologic time in the National

Research Council (United States).

He was an indefatigable worker and accom-

plished much that was worth while. His thesis

for the doctorate started an intensive study of

the conditions governing the deposition of the

nickel-copper ores of the Sudbury basin. His re-

ports on the tungsten and molybdenum ores of

Canada called attention to materials that have

become of great importance. He was one of the

pioneers in the use of the 2-circle goniometer on

this continent and wrote his Crystallography

to make this method more readily available in

the English language.

_ The mineral temiskamite, almost simultane-

ously described under the name maucherite,

which was described by him, was the cause of

much dispute as to its true composition. The

latest examination by means of X-rays agrees

within reasonable limits with the composition

as given by Walker, although the name mau-

cherite is preserved as having prioity in publi-

cation. Other minerals that were described by

him are spencerite, chapmanite, schoepite, en-

electrite, and, in collaboration with the writer,

ellsworthite.

VOL. 33, NO. 3

In view of the limited facilities for publishing

in English articles dealing with mineralogy and

petrography Dr. Walker started the series of

“Contributions to Canadian Mineralogy from

the Department of Mineralogy and Petrog-

raphy in the University of Toronto” in 1921.

This publication has appeared annually since

that time, except for the year 1936, when he

was stricken with his fatal illness. It was then

deferred until the next year when a double

number was issued.

Special recognition was given to the accom-

plishments of Dr. Walker in 1938 when the

University of Toronto granted him the degree

doctor of science (honoris causa), and in 1941

the Royal Society of Canada conferred him

further honor by the bestowal of the Flavelle

Medal for his important contributions to min-

eralogical science.

He traveled widely and was a member of

nearly every International Geological Congress

during his academic career, and on each occa-

sion he brought home material to enrich the col-

lections of the University and of the Royal On-

tario Museum of Mineralogy.

Dr. Walker will be remembered because of

the men he trained. He will also be long remem-

bered as the builder. of a great mineral museum.

To these great objectives he devoted his life,

and his accomplishments -were of no mean

order.

In 1906 Dr. Walker married Mary Augusta

Woods, daughter of the late Sir James Woods,

of Toronto. He is survived by his wife and also

by two sons, James Woods Walker and William

P. Walker, and one daughter, Euphemia B.

Walker.

A. L. PARSONS.

( CONTENTS |

es ye travels of Thomas Coulter, 1824-1

‘Vavueu. Se Poke eae aoe ae

American saute, JoHN 2 ‘Lucker.

‘fluke, Pane ae in Gia. ‘definitive

Kev and R. Scorr JACKSON . :

PE ee

Sime ‘saurus Linnaeus.

ee THE ACADEMY. |

OprrvARIEs: “Huwry GRANGER Knigur; Tuomas L Ona

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JOURNAL

OF THE

"WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 33

ApRIL 15, 1943

No. 4

TOXICOLOGY .—Toxicity of some dinitrophenols to the American dog tick, Der-

macentor variabilis (Say).! Oscar E. Tauser, ANNE Hacer TauBer,?

CHARLES R. Joycn,? and Wiuuis N. Bruce. (Communicated by Cart J.

DRAKE.)

Pastac (11) indicates, without reference

or date, that the first notice of the value of a

nitro dye as an insecticide came through the

observation that clothes moths did not mo-

lest wool dyed with martius yellow (dinitro-

naphthol). In the past 30 years a considera-

ble number of laboratory and field tests

with many dinitrophenols have been con-

ducted on a number of different insects (3,

7, 8, 8a, 9, 9a, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, 15). Some of

these same dinitro compounds have been

recommended as weedkillers, fungicides,

etc. (2, 6, 11, 17). No records of the effects

of any dinitrophenols on ticks have been

found.

Ticks are particularly concerned in the

transmission of relapsing fever and typhus-

like diseases. Recently (1942) Anigstein and

Bader (1) reported evidence suggesting

Amblyomma americanum as an additional

carrier of Rocky Mountain spotted fever.

At this writing, when military training and

actual warfare bring many thousands of

men into possible contact with various po-

tentially dangerous Ixodidae, any sugges-

tions that may contribute to methods for

extermination of ticks should prove timely.

Ticks are very tenacious of life. Past at-

1 Received. February 10, 1943. Journal Paper

No. J-1091 of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment

Station, Ames, Iowa. Project No. 372.

2 Funds for employment provided by Iowa

State Department of Health of Des Moines,

Iowa, and Industrial Science Research Institute

of Iowa State College. The authors are indebted

to Dr. Carl F. Jordan, director of the Division of

Preventable Diseases, Department of Health,

State of Iowa; and Drs. C. J. Drake and C. H.

- Richardson, of Iowa State College, for suggestions

and criticisms.

tempts at control and eradication have

involved such laborious procedures as me-

chanical removal by handpicking or en-

tanglement in sheep wool; dipping domestic

animals; cutting or burning tick infested

brush; or by trapping, poisoning, or shoot-

ing of hosts other than-man and domestic

animals. Since these hosts sometimes also

include such active forms as bats and birds,

the last three of the enumerated methods of

eradication are hardly possible or efficient.

Also, elimination of rodents or other wild

hosts over a large area is likely to upset

some biologic balance and initiate new prob-

lems of another nature.

The experiments to be described were be-

gun as preliminary ground-work for con-

templated field trials to kill ticks in selected

areas by dusting vegetation in which they

are concentrated. Such dustings might reach

the ticks directly as they rested on the vege-

tation or crawled on the ground. It might

reach them when their wild hosts, such as

mammals and ground-feeding birds, moved

through the dusted herbage and brushed

and shook the toxic material on themselves

and their parasites. So far as we can deter-

mine, this proposed approach is a new at-

_tack on the tick problem.

Should this dusting of vegetation prove of

value in killing ticks, such a technique

might be useful in reducing populations of

mosquitoes, chiggers, certain flies, and other

forms that rest on herbage, or wait for vic-

tims while hanging on grass, shrubs, or

other plants. The method might conceiva-

bly be the answer to ridding jungle trails of

blood-sucking land leeches, which are a real

‘S,

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

menace to travelers and soldiers in Indo-

China, Malaya, and other areas of that re-

gion where rainfall is especially abundant.

‘“‘Blanket’’ dusting of refuse piles and dumps

may also serve to bring the toxic dusts to

fleas and lice carried by rats.

With these and other ideas of control in

mind, preliminary tests on fleas and other

pests have been inaugurated to ascertain

killing doses before field work is begun.

These latter results will be published in

subsequent papers.

CHEMICALS

Whenever possible, toxic compounds

were obtained as pure chemicals and diluted

as desired in the laboratory. To insure thor-

ough dispersal, weighed ingredients were

first mixed by spatula on a glass plate, then

shaken in a large jar, and last placed on a

home-made “‘roller-ball-mill” by which a

cylinder, containing the mixture and peb-

bles or glass marbles, was rolled over and

over for several hours (see Fig. 1). Among

the more promising toxic materials were

dinitro-ortho-cresol (DN-o-C), supplied by

Standard Agricultural Chemicals, Inc.;

dinitro-ortho-cyclohexyl-phenol from Dow

Chemical Co.; and ammonium-dinitro-or-

tho-cresylate and guanidine dinitro-ortho-

cresylate from American Cyanamid &

Chemical Corporation. Diluents included

320 mesh sulphur from Stauffer Chemical

Co.; ‘‘Pyrophyllite’’ from E. I. du Pont de

Nemours & Co.; and ‘“‘Pyrite’”’ from Dow.

Other compounds, such as sodium arsenite,

were pure chemicals available from labora-

tory stock.

The outstanding toxicity of 3,5-dinitro-

ortho-cresol, as demonstrated by Decker

and Drake (3), when compared with 24

other dinitro compounds, was the incentive

for using the DN-o-C as the main toxic

agent when these investigations were begun.

Preliminary tests with other compounds

were inserted in the program as the chemi-

cals became available from the manufactur-

ers.

There is some disagreement regarding the

correct naming of the dinitro-ortho-cresol.

Insect toxicologists generally refer to it as

the 3,5-compound, but Filbert (5), of du

Pont de Nemours & Co., states that 4,6-

VOL. 33, NO. 4

dinitro-o-cresol is the correct numbering as

approved both by Chemical Abstracts and

Beilstein.

EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS

Dermacentor variabilis (Say) is a widely

distributed American dog tick. It is impli-

cated in transmission and dispersal of Rocky

Mountain spotted fever. The number of

infested specimens usually runs from 1 in

200 to 1 in 600 (16). In certain areas of lowa

it has sometimes been numerous enough (4) _

to be a potentially dangerous carrier of

spotted fever to human beings.

Adult specimens of D. variabilis were col-

lected by hand from dogs, or by ‘‘flagging’”

in those localities of Iowa where ticks of

this species were known to be numerous.

Ticks thus obtained were kept over moist

sand in cotton-stoppered vials. These col-

lections included ticks of all ages within —

their adult life span. Also, individuals

ranged through all stages of nutrition, in-

cluding full engorgement, interrupted feed-

ing, and starvation. In some cases the pe-

riod of starvation may have been for more

than a year. In addition, the collections

sometimes included spent females, or gravid

females that began to oviposit while under

observation as control or experimental sub-

jects. In short, these adult ticks were of

wild stock and possessed both the good and

bad characteristics of an heterogeneous

population.

Larval ticks were hatched from eggs de-

posited in the laboratory by females taken

in the field. Larvae of a known age were

thus available for tests. Other larvae were

allowed to feed on white-footed mice, Pero-

myscus leucopus noveboracensis (Fischer),

and, after transformation to nymphs, estab-

lished a source of nymphs of known age.

Egg masses were collected in the labora-

tory, and tests were made of some of the

dinitrophenols as tick ovicides.

METHODS

Not the least of the problems this investi-

gation involved was that of devising some

technique of bringing the ticks and the com-

pounds together in a simple procedure that

could be easily and reasonably duplicated. —

After various trials, the following set-up

Apr. 15, 1943

and technique were employed for adult

ticks: A circular opening, 6 inches in diam-

eter, was cut in a piece of cardboard resting

on a sheet of paper toweling. A 2-inch disk

of cardboard was placed in the center of the

6-inch opening. Over the opening was placed

a dusting tower consisting of a tall bell jar

with an opening near the bottom, through

which a dusting nozzle could be inserted

(see Fig. 1). Known weights of dust were

pumped into the tower while the nozzle was

shifted about, inside the apparatus, to in-

sure as even a distribution of dust as possi-

ble. After the dust settled, the tower was

lifted away, and the entire cardboard pat-

tern was removed. A 2-inch circular band of

dust was thus formed on the toweling. Ticks

to be tested were placed in the central dust-

free area, and then recaptured outside the

dust ring after voluntarily walking across it

to the outer dust-free area.

With nymphal ticks, the band of dust was

reduced to 1 inch by merely using a 4-inch

disk to make the inner dust-free surface.

Younger larval ticks were so small and

“bogged down”’ so easily in the dust ring

that a further modification was necessary.

For all larvae, therefore, the following uni-

_ form procedure was used. A small nontoxic

dust ring of pyrophyllite was first set up.

The test larvae were set free inside this

ring. The dust tower was then set in place

and the dust blown in. When the tower was

removed the dusted larvae were picked up

and then confined to vials.

Adult ticks and larger nymphs were eas-

ily handled with tweezers. Larval ticks were

moved about on the pointed tip of a moist-

ened brush.

After treatment, adult and nymphal ticks

were confined separately in small vials and

examined at regular, convenient intervals.

Death of the specimen was recorded when

no movement whatsoever was elicited even

in the close approach to warmth from a

light bulb. Larval ticks were usually kept in

groups of 5 or 10 individuals to the vial.

All untreated controls were kept in the

same type of container and under the same

conditions as the treated ticks.

Actual determinations of the weight of

dust distributed in the ring under the dust

tower gave a quantity equivalent to about

TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS 99

65 to 75 pounds an acre for the adult and

nymph treatments. For larvae, the quantity

was about 20 to 25 pounds an acre.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

All results presented throughout this pa-

per represent data collected under con-

trolled laboratory conditions. Under no

circumstances are they to be construed as

results to be expected with field trials. It

was the intention to carry on field opera-

Fig. 1.—In the background is the tall bell jar

used as a dusting tower. A charge of dust is sus-

pended in its interior. In the foreground is the

mixing-mill used to roll the dust mixtures.

tions during 1942, but by the time these

preliminary laboratory tests were com-

pleted, the season suitable for outdoor tests

was too far advanced. Since these present

results may be of value to other workers

who could make field runs before we can in

the summer of 19438, our data are presented

now. In any event, field trials will be con-

ducted in Iowa in 1943 if the necessary

equipment and labor can be assembled.

Although test specimens were often kept

under observation for a week or more, and

controls were checked for several weeks at

least, only the 24- and 48-hour mortality

percentages are presented here. From the

standpoint of toxicological interest, the 24-

and 48-hour results are probably of most

significance. Beyond 48 hours other factors

than the exposure to the test dust are likely

to come into play. Also, if a tick is a vector

of a disease, the faster it is eliminated the

better, if no other complications are in-

volved.

100

Adult Dog Ticks

One of the first facts that became clearly

evident in the results was the difference in

resistance to DN-o-C between unfed and

engorged adult ticks. This characteristic is

demonstrated in the sample of data pre-

sented in Table 1.

TaBLE 1.—Morta.ity or UNFED AND ENGorRGED ADULT Doe

Ticks (Dermacentor variabilis) saFrTER CONTACT WITH

DINITRO-0-CRESOL DILUTED wiITH PYROPHYLLITE

Nutritional Number Dead at | Dead at

state Diese tested 24 hours | 48 hours

' Percent Percent Percent!

UnftedReeaee: 2 20 35 35

Unfed....... 4 20 40 45

Unfed....... 8 50 64 68

Unfed....... 12 50 2, 88

Engorged.... 8 50 36 36

Engorged.... 12 50 45 A5

1 Throughout this entire paper, percent of mortality is ex-

pressed in the nearest whole number.

Additional evidence that the nutritional

state of these ticks is an important consid-

eration was demonstrated in the summary

of mortality of specimens of this species

kept as controls under laboratory condi-

tions. This summary is given in Table 2.

TABLE 2.—MortTa.ity oF ADULT CONTROL SPECIMENS OF

Dermacentor variabilis

Nie Number . Dead at Dead at

utritional state observed 24 hours 48 hours

Percent Percent

Winfede seins: 180 11 17

Engorged........ 65 3 4.

The high mortality of the unfed indi-

viduals is rather striking, and no explana-

tion can be offered. Unfavorable humidity

is probably a factor under laboratory condi-

tions, even though some efforts were made

to keep the test ticks from dehydration. So

little is known regarding certain limiting

ecological factors in the tick’s life history

that some of our colony-maintenance pro-

cedures were probably faulty. Under the

pressure of present conditions, however, it

was decided not to take time to explore

these rearing problems, but to proceed to

the more important toxicological aspects.

In regard to the high mortality, difference

in the nutritional conditions is naturally the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 4

first suggested clue, but more complicated

relationships may be involved. No attempt

was made to check the life span of individu-

als under field conditions, but there is no

reason to assume that such a high mortality

among adults is a natural one. When one

considers, also, that most unfed ticks were

collected by the ‘‘flagging’’ method, which

entails only slight chances of injury, while

the engorged specimens were often dis-

lodged with considerable difficulty from the

skin of their hosts, the difference in mortal-

ity of the two types is even less easily ex-

plained. Nevertheless, in spite of the high

death rate of unfed controls, the data of Ta-

ble 1 show a good gradient of effect through

the use of increased strengths of the dinitro-

o-cresol.

Just what parts body surface and body

volume, considered separately or together,

might have in effecting the difference in

mortality of unfed and engorged ticks is

also unknown. Engorged ticks generally

picked up considerably more of the chemical

while walking through the band of dust.

However, this factor of actual greater con-

tact by swollen engorged ticks apparently

was not sufficient to counteract the rela-

tively larger amount of dust which the un-

fed ticks acquired. The ratio of body surface

to body volume would, of course, be higher

in the unfed ticks. The smaller, unengorged

specimens could thus acquire a higher in-

ternal concentration of the absorbed poison,

even though the actual contact was less.

TaBLE 3.—MortTauity oF UNFED AND ENGoRGED ADULT DoaG

TicKS AFTER CONTACT wiTH SULPHUR-DILUTED

DINITRO-ORTHO-CRESOL

Nutritional Number Dead at Dead at

state DN-o-C tested 24 hours | 48 hours

Percent Percent Percent

Unfed...... 4 100 57 65

Unfed...... 8 50 73 77

Wnfedeeeee: 12 50 60 68

Unfed...... 20 135 91 94

Unfed...... 25 110 87 98

Engorged... 4 sy 16 28

Engorged... 8 50 42 60

Engorged... 12 25 47 80

Engorged... 25 70 51 96

When ordinary 320-mesh dusting sulphur

was substituted for pyrophyllite as a diluent

for the dinitro-ortho-cresol, a rather well-

Apr. 15, 1943

marked general trend of increased toxicity

was often noted, especially in the lower con-

centrations of DN-o-C. These data are

given in Table 3 (compare with Table 1).

Tests with 100 per cent, 320-mesh sul-

phur in the 2-inch circular band of dust

served to emphasize again the difference in

susceptibility of unfed and engorged ticks.

This information is found in Table 4.

TasBLE 4.—Toxicity or 100 Percent SuLtpHuR (320 Mzsx)

TO THE ADULT Doe Tick

Nutritional Number Dead at Dead at

state tested 24 hours 48 hours

Percent Percent

Unies 120 19 27

Engorged........ 25 3 3

Weather conditions at, and transporta-

tion difficulties to, the usual sites of collec-

tions sometimes made it impossible to ob-

tain, at the right time, as large samples as

were desired for tests. With larger numbers

of individuals, the discrepancy in the 8 per

cent and 12 per cent trials with unfed speci-

mens of Table 3 might be eliminated. The

small sample and the heterogeneous char-

acter of the field-collected ticks may also

account for the lower mortality among the

few engorged ticks tested with 100 per cent

sulphur than among the larger sample of

control ticks in Table 2. Comparison of per

cent mortalities in Tables 1 and 3 shows,

however, that the use of sulphur as a diluent

is a valuable procedure, especially with un-

fed ticks. Similar trials with 100 per cent

pyrophyllite showed no mortality percent-

age above that found for the controls.

No attempt was made to set up experi-

ments to test for synergistic action in the

sulphur and dinitro-ortho-cresol mixtures.

Such tests are planned when next season’s

ticks become available.

Just before the 1942 tests had to be ter-

minated because of increased seasonal dif-

ficulties in obtaining ticks, several other

compounds were received from manufactur-

ers, and preliminary tests were run with the

few ticks then available. One of these chem-

icals, the ammonium dinitro-ortho-cresyl-

ate, has shown excellent promise with cer-

tain insects (8a) and other near relatives of

ticks. Results from these compounds are in

TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS 101

Table 5. Also included in this table are data

from the use of sodium arsenite at 4 per, cent

and 100 per cent levels. These arsenite tests

were included merely as reference and com-’

parison points with a more familiar toxic

dusting compound. |

TABLE 5.—PRELIMINARY RESULTS WITH MiscELLANEOUS Com-

POUNDS UsEep as Dusts on Unrep*Aputt Doe Ticks

er- : Number | Dead at | Dead at

Compound cent Diluent tested | 24 hours} 48 hours

Percent | Percent

NaAs.Os.. 4 | Pyrophyllite 25 8 20

NaAs:20;...| 100 — 25 64 92

Guanidine

dinitro-o-

cresylate.| 12 | Sulphur 30 0 23

Ammonium

dinitro-o-

cresylate.| 12 | Sulphur 30 87 94

Tables 1, 3, and 5 offer the opportunity to

compare the toxicity of several of the com-

pounds tested on unfed dog ticks. At the 12

per cent level, the ammonium dinitro-ortho-

cresylate seems the most toxic of the tested

materials. At the 4 per cent levels, the so-

dium arsenite has about half the mortality

per cent of dinitro-ortho-cresol; and, when

the latter was combined with sulphur, a 25

per cent concentration had approximately

the same toxicity for unfed specimens as 100

per cent sodium arsenite. Guanidine dini-

tro-ortho-cresylate was the least toxic of the

chemicals tried on adult dog ticks.

TABLE 6.—MorTALITY OF NymMpHAL Doc TICKS AFTER CON-

TACT WITH VARIOUS DN-ComMrPounNDs DILUTED WITH SULPHUR

Per- | Number} Dead at | Dead at

Age Compound cent | tested | 24 hours /48 hours

Percent | Percent

5 days. ..| DN-o-C 8 30 50 57

5 days. ..| DN-o-C 12 35 63 66

5 days. ..| DN-o-C 16 50 74. 96

_2 weeks. .| DN-o-C 8 50 62 72

2 weeks. .| DN-o-C 12 50 96 98

2 weeks. .| DN-o-C 16 30 100 —

3 weeks. .| DN-o-C 8 30 97 97

3 weeks. .| DN-o-C 12 75 98 98

3 weeks. .| DN-o-C 16 50 100 —-

3 weeks. .| Guanidine-

DN-o-cres-

ylate. so. a|0 12 30 33 60

3 weeks. .| Ammonium-

DN-o-cres-

ylate 12 80 100 ms

(in 34

hrs.)

adel

102

Nymphal Dog Ticks

As stated previously, some larval ticks

were allowed to feed in the laboratory on

caged wild white-footed mice, and then used

after transformation to the nymphal stage.

All the data secured from tests on nymphs

are set up in Table 6.

Several series of untreated, control

nymphs were set up at the same time. Their

data appear in Table 7.

TABLE 7.—MoRTALITY OF UNTREATED NYMPHAL Dog Ticks

Number Dead at Dead at

Age observed 24 hours 48 hours

Percent Percent

SUG AY Sa cutee see 30 0 0

DP WEEKS hoc 5 tas eer 50 at 22

Siweekse ta tess: 30 13 28

One of the first facts apparent from Ta-

bles 6 and 7 is the decreased vigor of the

nymphs as they become older. This point is

demonstrated not only in the increased

mortality of the controls, but also in the

greater susceptibility to treatment with

poisons. Table 6 also shows a regular pro-

gressive build-up in toxicity as the percent-

age of dinitro-o-cresol is increased. All

nymphs were laboratory reared and were

thus a stock of more nearly homogene-

TaBLE 8.—MortTALITY OF 5-DAYS, 2-WEEKS AND 3-WEEKS OLD

LarvaL Doe Ticks aFTER DUSTING WITH DINITRO-ORTHO-

CRESOL DILUTED WITH PYROPHYLLITE

Dead at

Age of Cal ate oe Ge enone as

DN-o-C tested hour |hours|hours| hours| hours] hours

iRereent Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per-

5 days.| 0.063 30 33 87 | 100

5 days.| 0.125 30 37 | 100

5 days.| 0.25 30 100

5 days.| 0.5 30 1001

5 days.| 1.0 30 1001

5 days.| 2.0 30 1002

2 weeks | 0.063 30 — — — — 0 0

2 weeks | 0.125 30 — a — —_ 23 33

2 weeks | 0.25 30 — 33 — — 67 80

2 weeks | 0.5 30 — 40 — — 72 88

2 weeks | 1.0 30 — 63 70 — 80 90

2 weeks | 2.0 30 76 = 93 — | 100

3 weeks | 0.5 30 — 13 33 37 ot 37

3 weeks| 1.0 30 47 — 67 70 70 73

3 weeks | 2.0 30 57 — 70 73 73 He

3 weeks | 4.0 30 100

1 In 55 minutes.

2 In 20 minutes.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 4

ous test animals whose history was better

known than that of the field-collected adults.

Consequently, discrepancies in resultant

data are not so likely to occur because of

differences in age, nutrition, and other fac-

tors.

In addition, Table 6 makes it clear that of

the two tested cresylates the guanidine

compound is decidedly inferior to the am-

monium dinitro-o-cresylate, and the latter

is superior to the dinitro-o-cresol. While the

12 per cent dinitro-o-cresol attained 98 per

cent mortality in 48 hours, the 12 per cent

ammonium dinitro-o-cresylate brought

about 100 per cent mortality in only three

and a half hours.

Larval Dog Ticks

_ A large supply of larval ticks made it pos-

sible to make runs through a longer series of

concentrations at various ages of the test

species. Trials were run at the following

ages: 5 days, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, and 4 weeks.

The first three ages were tested only with

dinitro-o-cresol diluted with pyrophyllite.

The 4-weeks larvae were tested after it was

found that sulphur made a better diluent

than pyrophyllite, and, unfortunately, it

was not then possible to repeat the previous

tests on younger larvae, using sulphur. Also,

when the 4-weeks larvae were available,

certain other chemicals were received and

these were also tried. And, again, to our re-

gret, it was not possible, last season, to use

these latter compounds on other stages of

ticks. Their data, however, are included as a

matter of record of preliminary trials. Re-

sults on larval ticks will be found in the next

two tables; a dash (—) in the body of the

tables indicates that no check count for

mortality was made at that particular time

interval.

Contrary to the situation in nymphs,

which seem to be less hardy with increasing

age, Tables 8 and 9 show that larval ticks

become more resistant as they get older. For

example, at the 2 per cent level of dinitro-o-

eresol the youngest larvae (5 days old) were

all dead within 20 minutes; the 2-weeks

specimens were all dead at 24 hours; and the

three-weeks larvae had a mortality of 77

per cent at 48 hours. At 4 weeks of age, re-

sistance increased to the point where 8 per

Apr. 15, 1943 TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS 103

TABLE 9.—MorTALITY OF 4-WEEKS OLD LARVAL Doc Ticks AFTER DUSTING

WITH VARIOUS COMPOUNDS

ree Dead at

Compound races Diluent ber 1 3 6 12 24 48

tested} hour | hours | hours | hours | hours | hours

Percent Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per-

cent cent cent cent cent cent

Mem-o-cresol............ 4 | Sulphur 30 3 -- 6 30 50 63

me=o-cresol............- 8 | Sulphur 30 «| 10 67 90 — 100

Mem-O-cresol............ 12 | Sulphur 30 13 97 100!

Mm-o-cresol............ 8 | Pyrophyllite| 30 80 100?

mem=o-cresol............ 12 | Pyrophyllite| 30 97 100

DN-o-2nd butylphenol... 8 | Pyrophyllite| 30 97 1004 .

DN-o-cyclo-hexylphenol. . 8 | Pyrophyllite| 30 67 80 1005

Dicyclohexyl-amine salt of

DN-o-cyclo-hexylphenol 20 | Pyrophyllite| 30 3 20 — 57 100

Dinitroso-resorcinol...... 100 = 0 3 6 =e 100

Tetrachlorophenol....... 100 — 30 33 100

Pentachlorophenol.......} 100 — 30 0 77 — 100

Hexachlorophenol....... 100 — 30 6 57 — 100

Sodium arsenite......... 4 | Pyrophyllite| 30 — 10 — 17 i7/ 27

Sodium arsenite......... 100 — 0 73 87 100

1 Jn 53 hours. 2 In 23 hours.

cent dinitro-o-cresol was necessary to give

100 per cent kill in 23 hours; and with 12

per cent, 100 per cent mortality in 1 hours.

Of the four other dinitrophenols listed in

Table 9, two (the secondary butylphenol

and the cyclo-hexylphenol) give promise of

being as toxic as the dinitro-ortho-cresol, all

tested at the 8 per cent level. The other two

compounds (the amine salt and the resorci-

nol) were tested at much higher concentra-

tions (20 per cent and 100 per cent, respec-

tively) and showed no more toxicity for lar-

val ticks than the 8 per cent DN-o-C.

All three of the -chlorophenols were tried

without dilution, and, even at 100 per cent

concentration, they were no more effective

than DN-o-C in the range of 8 per cent and

12 per cent levels.

Two widely separated concentrations (4

per cent and 100 per cent) of sodium arse-

nite were tested on 4-weeks larvae, and just

as in the case of unfed adult ticks (see Table

5), were considerably less effective than

comparable percentages of dinitro-ortho-

cresol.

The pronounced fragility of the young

larval ticks is re-emphasized by the mortal-

ity data of controls, shown in Table 10. In

this case, the high death rate of young lar-

val ticks is probably a reflection of what

occurs in nature also. When one compares

3 In 12 hours.

4 In 43 hours. 5 In 83 hours.

TaBLE 10.—MortTauity oF UNTREATED CONTROL

LARVAL Ticks

Number Dead at Dead at

Age observed 24 hours 48 hours

Percent Percent

GENS oo oa0e 50 13 27

2 weeks..... 50 0 0

3 weeks..... 7 50 0 0

4 weeks..... 50 0 0

the large number of eggs, which each female

tick produces, with the smaller number of

ticks which reach maturity, it is evident

that there must be some phase of post-hatch-

ing development during which survival is

difficult. Toxic dust treatments may be able

to utilize the lethal possibilities of this criti-

cal period.

Dog Tick Eggs

Two experiments were set up to test

DN-o-C as a tick ovicide.

In the first test 15 clumps of eggs were

placed under a bell jar and dusted with 12

per cent DN-o-C at the rate of about 50

pounds/acre. There was no noticeable de-

crease in hatching, after the usual incuba-

tion period.

In the second test 10 clumps of eggs were

dusted in the same manner but with 25 per

cent DN-o-C. After a sufficient incubation

104

period elapsed, the clumps were examined.

There was an obvious reduction in the num-

ber of eggs that hatched, in comparison with

undusted control clumps kept under the

same laboratory conditions. Eggs at the

bottom of the dusted clumps, those eggs not

directly in contact with the 25 per cent

DN-o-C, were the only ones which pro-

duced young ticks. Those dusted eggs on

top and at the sides evidently were killed.

If these two rough tests are of any sig-

nificance, they indicate a considerable re-

sistance to toxic substances by tick eggs.

In both of the above tests the dusts re-

mained in contact with the eggs throughout

the entire incubation time. Dusts applied

under field conditions would probably not

remain so closely applied during approxi-

mately three weeks of weathering. Attempts

at eradication or decrease of ticks by dust-

ing the eggs would probably not be prac-

ticable. It appears that the egg stage is not

the tick’s most vulnerable period.

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of laboratory tests alone, the

following statements are presented.

1. Unfed and engorged adult specimens

of the American dog tick, Dermacentor

variabilis, possess a decided difference in

susceptibility to contact with dinitro-ortho-

cresol and other dinitrophenols. For exam-

ple, 12 per cent DN-o-C, with pyrophyllite

as a diluent, applied at the rate of 65 to 75

pounds to the acre, has a 48-hour mortality

of 88 per cent with unfed adults; and 45 per

cent with engorged adults.

2. The use of 320-mesh dusting sulphur

as a diluent, in combination with DN-o-C,

makes a more toxic mixture against ticks

than that obtained with pyrophyllite as the

diluent. With 8 per cent DN-o-C, at 48

hours, the per cent of mortality for unfed

adults is 68 per cent with pyrophyllite; 77

per cent with sulphur. For engorged adults,

with 8 per cent DN-o-C, the per cent dead

is 36 with pyrophyllite and 60 with sulphur.

3. Sulphur alone has some toxicity for

unfed adult dog ticks. Applied at the rate of

65 to 75 pounds an acre, 100 per cent sul-

phur killed 19 per cent unfed ticks in 24

hours. It had no effect on the particular

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 30, NO. 4

sample of 25 engorged specimens tested in

the same manner.

4. Even in combination with sulphur,

and at 65 to 75 pounds an acre, DN-o-C

mixtures must contain at least 25 per cent

of the DN compound to produce a kill over

95 per cent within 48 hours. The adult dog

tick is tenacious of life.

5. Ammonium dinitro-o-cresylate gives

promise of higher toxicity than DN-o-C. In

preliminary tests, a 12 per cent concentra-

tion with sulphur is nearly equal in toxicity

to 25 per cent DN-o-C when applied in

identical dosages.

6. Undiluted sodium arsenite is slightly

less toxic to -unfed adult dog ticks than

DN-o-C diluted at 25 per cent with sulphur,

when applied in identical dosages, with

identical technique.

7. Guanidine dinitro-ortho-cresylate does

not show much promise as a tickicide. |

8. Nymphal dog ticks decrease in vigor as

they age during the nymphal stage. This is

shown both by increased mortalities among

untreated controls, and by greater suscepti-

bility to dusting with DN compounds.

9. At. 65 to 75 pounds an acre, a sulphur

and DN-o-C mixture must contain at least

16 per cent of the cresol to kill more than 95

per cent of the younger (5 days old) nymphs

within 48 hours. A 12 per cent DN-o-C will

kill more than 95 per cent of 2 to 3 weeks

old nymphs within 24 hours; 16 per cent

kills 100 per cent in less than 24 hours.

10. With nymphal ticks ammonium DN-

o-cresylate again shows superior toxicity;

12 per cent in sulphur kills 100 per cent of 3-

weeks nymphs in 33 hours.

11. Larval dog ticks become more hardy

with age. For example, when treated with 2

per cent DN-o-C, 5 days old larvae were all

dead in 20 minutes; the 2-weeks specimens

were all dead at 24 hours; and 3-weeks lar-

vae had a mortality of 77 per cent at 48

hours. At 4 weeks of age the DN-o-C con-

centration had to go to 8 per cent to kill 100

per cent in 24 hours.

12. When tested with 4-weeks old larval

ticks, dinitro-o-secondary butylphenol and

DN-o-cyclohexylphenol appear nearly as

toxic as DN-o-C. The dicyclohexylamine

Apr. 15, 1943

salt of DN-o-cyclohexylphenol is decidedly

less toxic than DN-o-C.

13. Dinitrosoresorcinol, and the tetra-,

penta-, and hexa-chlorophenols seem to

have little value as tick larvicides.

14. Dog-tick eggs are quite resistant to

poisoning by DN-o-C. When dusted with 12

per cent DN-o-C, no noticeable reduction in

hatching occurred. Dusting with 25 per cent

DN-o-C killed those eggs with which it

came into direct contact, and on which it

stayed during the entire incubation period.

15. With the above results in mind it

seems an inevitable conclusion that field

control of the American dog tick probably

will be a difficult, but not impossible, prob-

lem if attacked with DN-o-C or N Hy-DN-o-

cresylate. There seems to be no particularly

vulnerable spot during its life history. It is

most easily killed during early larval life,

but that susceptibility does not help much,

for practical purposes, since hatching occurs

over a long period during warm weather.

Only repeated dusting over several months

could take advantage of this weakness.

LITERATURE CITED

1. ANIGSTEIN, Lupwik, and BapErR, MapgErRo

N. New epidemiological aspect of spotted

fever in the Gulf coast of Texas. Science

96: 357-358. 1942.

2. COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL

RESEARCH, COMMONWEALTH OF AUS-

TRALIA. Fifteenth Annual Report. Ex-

cerpts in Science 97: 45-47. 1943.

3. Decxer, G.C., and Draxg, C.J. Prelim-

mary studies on the use of dinitro-o-cresol

dusts in grasshopper control. Iowa State

Coll. Journ. Sci. 14: 345-351. 1940.

4, Eppy, Gaines W., and Joyce, CHARLES

R. Ticks collected on the Tama (Iowa)

Indian Reservation with notes on other

species. lowa State Coll. Journ. Sci. 41:

539-543. 1942. -

5. FinBerT, W. F. Personal communication

to C. J. Drake. 1941.

6. Firzcrraup, J. 8., Ratcrirre, F. N., and

Gay, F. J. The use of mineral oils and tar

oils for wheat weevil control. Journ. Coun-

et and Ind. Research 15: 59-71.

TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS

105

7. GimincHaM, C. T., Masszxz, A. M., and

TATTERSFIELD, F. Toxicity of 3:5-din-

tro-o-cresol and other compounds to insect

eggs, under laboratory and field conditions.

Ann. Applied Biol. 13: 446-465. 1926.

8. GimincHaM, C. T., and TATTERSFIELD, F.

Laboratory and field experiments on the use

of 3:5-dinitro-o-cresol and its sodium salt

for winter spraying. Journ. Agri. Sci. 17:

162-180. 1927.

Sa. HARGREAVES, EK. The action of some or-

ganic compounds when used as stomach

poisons for caterpillars. Bull. Ent. Res.

15; 51-56. 1924.

9. Kacy, J. FRANKLIN, and RICHARDSON,

CHarRLes H. Ovicidal and_ scalicidal

properties of solutions of dinitro-o-cyclo-

hexylphenol in petroleum oil. Journ. Kcon.

Ent. 29: 52-61. 1936.

9a. Lerroy, H. M., and Fintow, R. 8S. In-

quiry into the insecticidal action of some

mineral and other compounds on cater pil-

lars. Mem. Agr. Dept. India 4. 1913.

(Not available; referred to by Har-

greaves.)

10. Marcus, B. A. ‘‘Detal’’ Bestaubung gegen

den Kiefernspanner (Bupalus piniarius

L.). Zeitschr. Angew. Ent. 24: 71-86.

1937.

11. Pasrac, I. Les colorants nitrés et leurs ap-

plications particuliéres. Journ. Lutte

Chim. contre Ennemis Cultures 38 (4):

LO ppy elo:

12. SCHWERDTFEGER, F. Brologische Grund-

lagen der Engerlings-bekampfung.

Zeitschr. Forst. und Jagdwesen. 71: 169—

186. 1939.

13. TATTERSFIELD, F., GimincHam, C. T. and

Morris, H. M. Studies on contact in-

secticides. III. Insecticidal action of

chloro-, nitro-, and hydrozyl-derivatives of

benzene and naphthalene. Ann. Appl.

Biol. 12: 218-262. 1925.

14. TaTTeRsFIELD, F. Relationship between

the chemical constitution of organic com-

pounds and their toxicity to insects. Journ.

Agr. Sci. 17: 181-208. 1927.

15. TuHinm, H. Zur Lage und Gestalfung der

Markdferbekampfung. Abstract in Rev.

App. Ent. (A) 27: 299. 1938.

16. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bu-

REAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND PLANT QUAR-

ANTINE. Insects in relation to national

defense. Circular 12—Ticks. 25 pp.

1942.

17. Westcats, W. A., and Raynor, R.N. A

new selective spray for the control of certain

weeds. California Agr. Exp. Stat. Bull.

634: 36 pp. 1940.

106

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 4

ENTOMOLOGY .—Synoptic revision of the testaceipennis group of the beetle genus

Phyllophaga.!

The specific name testacezpennis (Blanch-

ard) has long been applied to various species

of Phyllophaga resembling the true testacei-

pennis, all moderate-sized, semipruinose

species with a foveate fifth sternite and

Phytalus-like cleft claws (which are mi-

nutely denticulate beneath) having been

combined under this name. The present pa-

per attempts to clarify the taxonomy of this

complex. Drawings of the genitalia of the

species involved are here presented for the

first time. }

Six names have been proposed for species

known to me that belong in the group, and

of these two are here considered as syno-

nyms. Two species are described as new, so

that the group, as treated in this paper,

comprises six valid species. The following

key is based on the male sex; as the females

(allexcept that of raydoma, n.sp., are known)

are difficult to separate, they will have to be

determined primarily by association with

the males.

1. First two segments of hind tarsus of nearly

equal length; elytral hair dense and very ob-

vious, though short, and of nearly uniform

length; fifth sternite not foveate; prothorax

entirely and evenly punctate, with short,

erect, obvious hair of uniform length (Fig.

Garg) -Guatemalane: ones es a eee

SE AW a ete ie Ot at aon RF pubicollis (Blanchard)

First segment of hind tarsus very noticeably

shorter than the second; elytral hairs varia-

ble but elytra never densely covered with

short hairs; fifth sternite distinctly foveate

or at least noticeably impressed apically;

prothorax variably punctate but unevenly

so, and middisk often irregularly impunc-

tate, the hairs of variable length or lack-

Thilo a nae eM ne et a Manat Mitel Cin in erika Mee ore 2

2. Fifth sternite densely punctate but distinctly

not foveate apically, at most slightly trans-

versely impressed; apex of fifth sternite

straight and not at all emarginate......... 3

Fifth sternite densely punctate and very no-

ticeably foveate, midapex distinctly and usu-

ally broadly and arcuately emarginate....4

3. Prothorax strongly shining, rufous, and gla-

brous or apparently so, the front angles

sharp and subrectangular; antennal club

slightly longer than funicle (Fig. 5a, 6).

British Honduras......... bowditchi Saylor

1 Received January 27, 1943.

LAWRENCE W. SAYLOR.

Prothorax subpruinose, rufocastaneous, and

with short hairs and some longer hairs inter-

mixed, front angles obtuse and not particu-

larly noticeable; antennal club distinctly

longer than funicle and subequal to entire

stem (Mig. la, b). Guatemala. 9.) eee

Nad. Foca, cd Race ALE AUR ea en raydoma, nN. sp.

4. Prothorax with hairs minute and hardly no-

ticeable, without longer hairs; color dorsally

distinctly pruinose (Fig. 3a, 6, f). Panama,

Venezuelan. Xo, 203" oe ee odomi, Nn. sp.

Prothorax always with noticeable hairs, these

usually short, with intermixed longer hairs;

color variable, either strongly shining or

PIUIMOSE... oe ss Lode ore 5)

5. Color always very distinctly and very strongly

shining, thorax deep rufous; elytra coarsely

and rugosely punctate and without obvious

striae (Fig. 4a). Costa Rica <. - 23 eee

Me en eee RONS Sos hae 5 sanjosicola Saylor

Color highly variable but always evidently

pruinose, thorax at most castaneorufous;

elytra less rugosely punctured and usually

with distinct striae (Fig. 2a—e). Mexico to

Panama. ee ce ae testacerpenms (Blanchard)

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) testaceipennis

(Blanchard)

Fig. 2, a-e

Ancylonycha testaceipennis Blanchard, Cat.

Col. 1: 134. 1850.

Lachnosterna testaceipennis (Blanchard) Bates,

Biol. Cent.-Amer. 2(2): 195. 1888.

Male: Form oblong-oval, wider behind. Color

testaceous to rufotestaceous, varying to rufo-

castaneous or castaneopiceous, the thorax usu-

ally more rufous; above slightly to markedly

pruinose, dorsal hair variable. Head with front

convex, coarsely, rugosely and closely punctate

with short erect hairs. Clypeus transverse,

disk sparsely to moderately punctured, at times

with smooth areas near the hardly impressed

and faintly biarcuate suture; apex somewhat

reflexed and hardly or not emarginate, the

angles and sides not reflexed and the lateral

angles so broadly rounded as to make the cly-

peal shape semiarcuate. Antenna variable, 9- or

10-segmented, usually the latter; the club small

and thick and usually a little longer than, or

subequal to, the funicle. Thorax with sides

straight before the submedian, obtuse lateral —

dilation, and faintly emarginate behind it, the

angles distinct but very obtuse; disk smooth,

the punctures irregularly placed and separated

Apr. 15, 1943

by 1 to 3 times their diameters, sparser at cen-

ter disk, which often possesses an irregular im-

punctate area; all punctures with short erect

hairs and a moderate number of intermixed

much longer hairs, the discal surface at least

partly pruinose. Scutellum impunctate. Elytral

punctures more regularly placed and separated

by 14 to 3 times their diameters, with short

suberect hairs and some longer ones interca-

lated, especially near suture and base; striae

variable, usually irregular but obvious, the

sutural striae strong. Pygidium convex, polished

or semipruinose, the surface frequently slightly

wrinkled, and the punctures sparse and sepa-

rated by two to four times their diameters, with

short suberect hairs; apex well rounded and cili-

ate. Abdomen polished and subflattened at

middle, and the sutures obliterated between

sternites 2 to 5, the disk very sparsely, finely,

and setigerously punctate, the hairs short and

suberect; fifth sternite with a large median

patch of about three dozen granules, the apical

half of segment foveate and the center apex

appearing widely and somewhat deeply emargi-

nate; sixth sternite nearly as long as fifth, flat-

tened, sparsely set with fine granules and long

erect hairs, and the middle disk with a dis-

tinctly impressed longitudinal sulcus. Claws

very short and rounded, appearing narrowly

cleft very much as in Phytalus; the middle

tooth as long as the apical but twice as wide

through its middle part, its apex reflexed

basally; basal dilation obtuse and the surface

between it and basal tooth minutely denticu-

late. Segments 1—4 of anterior tarsus each with

a small though distinct spine on the inner apical

angle. Hind spurs free, spinose, the longest a

little longer than first tarsal segment; first tar-

sal segment only three-fifths the length of the

second.

Female: Similar to male except: Antennal

club shorter than funicle; pygidium distinctly

narrowed and pointed at center apex, and re-

flexed slightly into a sharp tumosity, the mar-

gin hardly thickened, but the surface below the

“point”’ and on the underside of the pygidium

very wide and smooth, the disk with very short

erect hairs; fifth sternite plane, hardly different

from the fourth; sixth sternite convex and ir-

regularly punctate, the center discal area im-

punctate; claws slightly longer and very dis-

tinctly more widely cleft (see Fig. 2e). Length

13-16 mm.

SAYLOR: THE TESTACEIPENNIS GROUP OF PHYLLOPHAGA

107

Described from Mexico, this is an extremely

common and widespread species, ranging from

Mexico to Panama. Since the original descrip-

tion of half a dozen lines is so inadequate the

species is here described in some detail. Most

closely related to sanjosicola Saylor and odomi

Saylor, this species is readily separated by the

key characters and the form of the male geni-

talia.

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) bowditchi

aylor

Fig. 5, a—b

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) bowditchi Saylor,

Proce. Biol. Soc. Washington 51: 189-190.

1938.

This species is known to me only through the

type series from ‘‘M-tee District of British

Honduras, March.’ It most closely resembles

raydoma Saylor of this species-complex, but the

two species are noticeably different in all views

of the male genitalia, as well as in the external

characters noted in the key.

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) raydoma, n. sp.

Kiet 6. 1a..0

Male: Similar to testaceipennis (Blanchard)

in most respects, differing only as follows: An-

tenna 10-segmented, the club long and sub-

equal to the entire stem in length; scutellum

very sparsely punctate; fifth abdominal ster-

nite nearly flat, only faintly impressed apically

and not at all foveate; first hind tarsal segment

only one-half the length of the second; and the

genitalia are different (see Fig. 1, a—c). Length

14 mm. Width 7.5 mm.

The unique male holotype in the Saylor col-

lection is from ‘‘Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala.”

The species differs mainly from testacerpennts in

characters of the antennal club, the fifth ab-

dominal sternite, and the male genitalia.

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) odomi, n. sp.

Eigse dO,

Male: Color rufotestaceous to rufocastane-

ous or rufopiceous, the thorax and head usually

rufous or darker than the elytra; surface dis-

tinctly pruinose; dorsal surface variably hairy.

Very similar in nearly all respects to testacet-

pennis except as follows: Clypeus at times more

densely punctate and semitrapezoidal; thoracic

hairs always minute and hardly or barely visi-

ble, without any longer intercalated hairs; ely-

tral hairs also minute, with several short hairs

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 4

Fig. 1.—Phyllophaga raydoma, n. sp. Fig. 2.—Phyllophaga testaceipennis (Blanchard). Fig. 3.—

Phyllophaga odom, n. sp. Fig. 4.—Phyllophaga sanjosi7ola Saylor. Fig. 5.—Phyllophaga bowditchi

Saylor. Fig. 6.—Phyllophaga pubicollis (Blanchard).

a, Lateral view of male genitalia; b, dorsal view of male genitalia; c, ventral view of male genitalia;

d, front male claw; e, front female claw; f, ventral view of hind leg of male; g, en-face view of male

genitalia.

Apr. 15, 1943"

adjoining the scutellum; genitalic form related

to that of testaceipennis, but different, especi-

ally in lateral view (see Fig. 3, a).

Female: Similar to female of testacerpennis

except that the thoracic hairs are all minute

and hardly visible (in one female example of

odomi about half a dozen long hairs are visible

just before the midapex but the entire disk is

minutely haired). Length 15-17 mm. Width

7-9 mm.

The male holotype is from ‘‘Madden Dam,

Canal Zone, Panama, collected at light V-18-36

by M. M. Saylor’’; the female allotype and sev-

eral male and female paratypes are from ‘‘Los

Canales, Kaiguata, Venezuela, VII-24-39, Vi-

vas-Berthier Collector.’”? An additional para-

type is from ‘“‘Caracas, Venezuela, D. F., VI-

5-32.” All are in the Saylor collection. I take

pleasure in naming this handsome species for

my close friend and collecting companion C.

Ray Odom, of Virginia. P. odomi differs mainly

from testacetpennis in the thoracic vestiture,

larger size, and the slightly different male

genitalia (which in lateral view appear to over-

hang slightly the upper tooth, but not so much

as in sanjosicola Saylor).

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) sanjosicola Saylor

Fig. 4, a

Phyllophaga sanjosicola Saylor, Rev. Ent. 5(4):

500. 1935.

_ Phytalus valeriana Saylor, Pomona Coll. Journ.

Ent. Zool., Dec. 1934.

Known as yet only from the type series, all

the specimens of which were collected “at light,

San José, Costa Rica, May, 1,000-1,200 m.”

This series is divided between the Saylor col-

lection and the Nevermann collection, which

is now in the United States National Museum.

The slightly larger size, distinctive shining, and

more coarsely punctate surface will readily

separate the species from testaceipennis, as will

also the male genitalia (uppermost portion of

testacervpennis genitalia in lateral view evenly

rounded above the upper tooth, whereas in

sanjosicola the uppermost portion very mark-

edly overhanging the upper tooth).

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) pubicollis

(Blanchard)

Fig. 6, a-g

Phytalus pubicollis Blanchard, Cat. Col. 1: peat

1850.

SAYLOR: THE TESTACEIPENNIS GROUP OF PHYLLOPHAGA

109

Phytalus (?) pubtcollis Blanchard, Bates, Biol.

Cent.-Amer. 2(2): 126, 400. 1888.

Lachnosterna heynet Moser, Stett. Ent. Zeit.,

1918: 164. (New synonymy.)

Male: Elongate, subparallel; color rufocas-

taneous and shining, the thorax and head shin-

ing rufous, above densely haired. Clypeus mod-

erately long, the disk flat, sparsely and coarsely

punctate, smooth near middle: apex subtrun-

cate, unemarginate, and slightly reflexed, the

angles very broadly rounded. Head with the

front slightly convex, densely, coarsely and en-

tirely punctate, with erect hairs of moderate

length. Antenna 10-segmented, unicolorous

castaneous, the club long and subequal to the

entire stem. Thorax with the sides evenly arcu-

ate and hardly dilated at middle, the margin

entire and ciliate; angles very obtuse and not

well marked; disk evenly and entirely punc-

tured, the punctures separated by one and one-

half to twice their diameters, with suberect

short hairs, and many intermixed erect hairs of

moderate length. Scutellum sparsely and setig-

erously punctured. Elytra punctate as thorax,

with dense, short, semierect hairs and a few

longer hairs near base; striae faintly indicated.

Pygidium polished, convex, the disk coarsely

and moderately densely punctate, with short

suberect hairs and sparse, erect longer hairs,

the apex subrounded, narrowed and slightly re-

flexed. Abdomen polished, faintly concave at

middle, very sparsely and finely punctate and

with short hairs (densely and more closely

punctate at sides), and the sutures of sternites

2-5 effaced at middle; fifth sternite flattened,

densely and coarsely punctate at middle, with a

few small procumbent hairs; sixth nearly as

long as preceding and transversely impressed,

the disk finely and setigerously punctate and

without any longitudinal sulcus, the hairs on

disk long but nearly procumbent. Claws very

short and cleft as in testaceivpennis but the upper

(i.e., closest to base) tooth 23 times as wide at

base as the apical tooth. Hind spurs free and

very graceful; the first two hind tarsal segments

subequal and the second only faintly the long-

est. Front tarsi slightly spinose on inner apical

angles.

Female: Differs from male as follows: Anten-

nal club subequal to funicle; pygidium small,

plane, sparsely and not coarsely punctate, with

short suberect hairs, the apex subrounded and

narrowed and the apical fourth of disc some-

110

what smooth; abdomen semiconvex, the fifth

sternites plane, and coarsely, densely punctate,

the sixth convex and similarly punctate; claws

distinctly more widely cleft; first segment of

hind tarsus distinctly shorter than the second.

Length 12.5 to 13 mm. Width 6—7 mm.

I have specimens from ‘‘Coban, Vera Paz,

Guatemala, Conradt collector’ (Biologia ma-

terial), and also from ‘“‘Alta Vera Paz, Guate-

mala.’’ The species was very inadequately de-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

“VOL. 33, NO. 4

scribed from Mexico by Blanchard, who placed

it in Phytalus because of the cleft claws; how-

ever, the female claws are so widely cleft that

the species cannot be included there. As indi-

cated in the key the species is abundantly dif-

ferent from the others in the group but appears

to belong with them in most general characters.

Bates first placed the species in Phytalus and

later removed it to Lachnosterna in the Biologia

Supplement.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

45TH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 45th annual meeting of the AcaDEMY

was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos

Club on January 21, 1943. President Curtis

called the meeting to order at 8:15 p.m., with

about 80 persons present. The minutes of the

44th annual meeting were approved as pub-

lished on pages 85 to 91 of the JouRNAL of

‘March 15, 1942. The reports of the several offi-

cers and of the Committees of Auditors and

Tellers were read and accepted, as follows:

‘Report of the Secretary

During the past year, 23 new members (14

resident and 9 nonresident) were taken into the

AcaDEMY. Three of the new nonresident mem-

berships were in the honorary class. The new

members were distributed among the various

sciences as follows: 3 each in bacteriology and

physics, 2 each in astronomy, chemistry, and

geology, and 1 each in agronomy, anthropol-

ogy, archeology, biochemistry, botany, geo-

chemistry, geography, hydraulics, physiology,

plant pathology, and plant physiology.

Because of retirement from active practice of

their profession, 10 members (7 resident and 3

nonresident) were placed on the retired list.

Resignations were accepted from 11 members

in good standing (9 resident and 2 nonresident).

The deaths of 17 members (8 resident and 9

nonresident) were reported, as follows:

THomas Hersert Norton, White Plains,

N. Y., December 2, 1941.

Cuinton Hart Merriam, Berkeley, Calif.,

March 20, 1942.

WatTeER Forp Reyno.tps, Baltimore, Md.,

May 1, 1942.

EDWARD CENTER GROESBECK, Washington,

D. C., May 9, 1942.

Str JosepH Larmor, Cambridge, England,

May 19, 1942.

Marcus Warp Lyon, Jr., South Bend, Ind.,

May 19, 1942.

Henry GRANGER Knicut, Washington, D. C.,

June 13, 1942.

ANDREW STEWART, Washington, D. C., June

28, 1942.

Harry JoHn McNicuHouas, Washington, D. C.

July 23, 1942.

THomMas LEonaRD WALKER, Toronto, Canada,

August 6, 1942.

Henry CorsBin Fuuier, Washington, D. C.,

August 26, 1942.

ALFRED Newtson Finn, Lincoln, Nebr., Sep-

tember 21, 1942.

Witit1AmM Epwarp Parker, Fort Lauderdale,

Fla., September 30, 1942.

Rospert Wiicox SAYLES,

Mass., October 238, 1942.

CHARLES ScCHUCHERT, New Haven, Conn., No-

vember 20, 1942.

Herman StTasier, Washington, D. C., No-

vember 24, 1942.

JAMES EXpMUND Ivus, Washington, D. C., Jan-

uary 1, 1943.

Chestnut Hill,

On January 20, 1943, the status of the mem-

bership was as follows:

Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total

Resident 423 Bi 3 0 463

Nonresident 132 20 15 4 169

Total 555 57 18 2 632

The net changes in membership during the

past year are as follows:

Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total

Resident —10 4 0 0 —6

Nonresident 5 2 24 0 9

Total —5 6 2 0 3

From February 6, 1942, to January 11, 19438,

the Board of Managers held eight meetings,

with an average attendance of 19 persons. Two

special committees held over from 1941 com-

pleted their work. Of the 10 special committees

appointed by the president during the past

year, 8 have completed their work.

During the past year, the Academy held six

meetings, beginning with the 310th and ending

with the 315th as follows:

On February 19, 1942, jointly with the An-

thropoldgical Society of Washington, with an

address entitled The Aztecs of Mexico by

GrorceE C. VAILLANT, director of the Museum

of the University of Pennsylvania.

Apr. 15, 1943

On March 19, 1942, for the presentation of

the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve-

ment for 1941 to G. ArTHUR CoopER, of the

U. 8. National Museum, in the biological sci-

ences; to THEODORE R. GILLILAND, of the Na-

tional Bureau of Standards, in the engineering

sciences; and to Stpriinc B. Henpricks, of

the U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry, in the

physical sciences.

On April 16, 1942, jointly with the Philo-

sophical Society of Washington, with an ad-

dress entitled Cosmic emotion, by Pau R.

HevY1, chief of the Section on Sound at the Na-

tional Bureau of Standards.

On October 15, 1942, jointly with the Wash-

ington Branch of the Society of American Bac-

teriologists, with an address entitled Structural

differentiation within the bacterial cell as shown

by the electron microscope, by Stuart Mupp,

professor of bacteriology in the School of Medi-

cine at the University of Pennsylvania.

On November 19, 1942, jointly with the

Philosophical Society of Washington, with an

address entitled Color blindness and its relation

to the detection of camouflage, by DEANE B.

Jupp, physicist in the Section on Photometry

and Colorimetry at the National Bureau of

Standards.

On December 17, 1942, jointly with the An-

thropological Society of Washington, with an

address entitled Anthropological explorations in

Netherlands New Guinea, by MatruEw W.

STIRLING, chief of the Bureau of American Eth-

nology, Smithsonian Institution.

Accounts of the first four of these meetings

have already been published in the JouRNAL

- under the Proceedings of the Academy, and

those of the last two will appear shortly. All

the meetings were held in the Assembly Hall of

the Cosmos Club.

Respectfully submitted by FRmepERIck D.

Rossin1, Secretary.

Report of the Treasurer

CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS

RECEIPTS:

Hrom-dues 1940... .. 00... ue $ 20.00

Hromedues 1941. 6k ike es 100.00

Brom dues) 19420... fee. see 2,570.00

romndues 19437 . oo sre ia 65.00

From subscriptions 1941........ 47.20

From subscriptions 1942........ 479.70

From subscriptions 1943........ 330.00

from sales of JOURNAL.......... 69 .60

From sales of directory......... 6.85

From payments for reprints. .... 488 .15

From interest on deposits....... .90

From interest on investments.... 982 .06

@otal Teceipts. 0). 2 ete $5,159.46

Cash balance Jan. 1, 1942....... 4,802.97

To be accounted for........ $9 , 962.43

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY

DISBURSEMENTS:

For Secretary’s Office...........

For Treasurer’s Office...........

For JOURNAL printing 1941......

For JOURNAL printing 1942......

For JOURNAL reprints 1942......

For JouRNAL illustrations 1941...

For JouRNAL illustrations 1942...

For JourNAL Office 1941........

For JoURNAL Office 1942........

For Custodian & Subs. Megr......

For Meetings Committee........

ROTMGInCCLONY. «352 cosa % ees

For refund on JOURNAL sales.....

Total disbursements........

Bank debit memos:

Subscriptions, 1942. 2.5. 653s:

Deposited in Savings Account....

Cash balance Dec. 31, 1942......

Invested in U.S. Series G Bonds. .

$9 , 962.43

13.95

$4 , 456.37

1,506.06

$5 , 962.43

4,000 .00

RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE

Balance as per cash book 12-31-42...

Bank Balance American Sec. &

Trust Co., per statement

Ne hes wk ale VES 1,558.06

Receipts not deposited... . 31.60

$1,589.66

Checks outstanding, not cashed:

INO RO 8 $21.50

Soil ears 2.30

SS reir ss 25.00

S84e 8 ocus 7.50

SS eens 4.80

SRG oe ves: 22.50 83 .60

$1,506 .06

$1,506.06

112

INVESTMENTS

409 Shares stock of Washington Sanitary Improvement Co., par value $10 per share,

COSE aie e ees es e e EGr 0 GPUN na c $ 4,090.00

20 Shares stock* Potomac) Blecbower Com G97. bret -1costna 2) ste ee 2,247.50

4 Certificates Corporate Stock of City of New York, 1 for $500, 3 for $100, cost....... 800 .00

1 Bond of Chicago Railways Co., #1027; interest at 5%, due 1927, par value $1,000 less

S200, COST. ee ois bs We ecore erat culeaIe GUE sig MRI aee Gas Sco Sire eT eae a (sesh

1 Real-estate note of T. Q. Donaldson (#6 of 12) dated June 26, 1937 (extended to

1943)" amterest:.5 94, COSU sai fiacese Sine saw eek Ot ee EOE Ee ence ee Seer ee 1,000.00

2 Real-estate notes of Yetta Korman et al., dated Oct. 5, 1938, for 3 years (#7 of 37 for

$500 ands#8 ot 37 for. $500)! scOSteic cone conte 2 eae TOU a tree 1,000, 00

2 Certificates (1 for $4,000 and 1 for $1,000) First Federal Savings & Loan Assn. Nos.

OVA & LOG Bs tele Ee OG a ph aA ee ele he a 5,000.00

2 Certificates (1 for $4,500 and 1 for $500) Northwestern Federal Savings and Loan

Assn. Nos, [38Q’and laa i. eee SR eR rece A 5,000.00

4 U. 8S. Government Series G Bonds at $1,000 each, Nos. M332990G, M332991G,

M332992G, MS8829938Ge vis hoes ci Oe SE ets Nm 1c) Nee Or Soar 4,000.00

Deposited in Savings Account, American Sec. & Trust Co..............0 eee eeeee 46.65

$23 , 898 .02

Cash Book: balance Dec, 395. W942 ee ag Se irs ele eee ed ad 1,506.06

Total ‘Assets. ie. ee eg eg eae eee $25 , 404.08

Total Assets Dec. 31, 1942.......... $25 , 404 .08

Total Assets Dec. 31, 1941.......... 24,700.09

TinGReais Cae ecits neta $ © ©703.99

After payment of outstanding bills, the net increase in assets for 1942 will be about $300.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 4

ALLOTMENTS

Allotted Expended

Secretanyrs Omen tii. ances ose neem 450 .00 381 .85*

Treasurers! Ofiices aes we ce ae. Fee 200.00 164.13

JO URINGATG si, Ua es Ste Sanh MAT tie Ne a A 2800 .00 +593 .08 =3393 .08 3010.64**

Meetings Committee.............. se 8 ae 325.00 324 .98T

Custodians "Subs. Mere meee eee 75.00 21.3

Membership Committee.................. 10.00 SSS

Bxecutive Committee, 6.24 oe ee 10.00 See

JouR NAT Clerical eAsstiy ee we es eee 240 .00

JOWRNAT EW isch Expense wm ane] anenes wee 60.00} =300 .00 264 .00°°

Madendtime tom Directory. eas en 60.00 30.84

*Does not include unpaid bill of approximately $10.00.

**Does not include, Oct., Nov. or Dec. Reprints nor Nov. or Dec. Printing & Illustrations.

tIncludes all charges for 1942, $38.00 of which has been paid since Dec. 31, 1942.

°Includes all charges for 1942 $12.00 of which has been paid since Dec. 31, 1942.

°*Includes all charges for 1942 $21.91 of which has been paid since Dec. 31, 1942.

Respectfully submitted by Howarp S. Rappieye, Treasurer.

Report of the Committee of Auditors

_ The accounts of the Treasurer of the Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences for the year 1942

were examined by your committee on January

18, 1943. All receipts and imbursements in-

cluded in his report were checked against all

vouchers and balance sheets from the bank.

Vouchers are properly approved and the report

is correct. Securities listed in the Treasurer’s

reports were inspected on January 18, 1943,

and the statement of assets is correct. The or-

derly manner in which the records were kept is

to be highly commended and made the com-

mittee task an easy one.

Respectfully submitted by Joun W. Ros-

ERTS (Chairman), EUGENE Posnsak, and C. H.

SWIck.

Apr. 15, 1943

Report of the Archivist

During the past year little progress has been

made in sorting the material turned over to the

Archivist. A 5-foot steel safe, a 3-drawer steel

file with lock, and a steel storage cabinet have

been borrowed for storing the archives. The

archivist was authorized to open a mysterious

package that had remained sealed since the

founding of the Academy. This package con-

tained the original ballots for charter members

and is open for inspection by any who are in-

terested. A noteworthy archive, found by Dr.

L. O. Howard when he moved his household ef-

fects to New York, was given to the Archives.

This was a large book containing reproductions

of the signatures and documents incident to the

formation of the Royal Society of London. Any

material of value to the Academy inits Archives

will be greatly welcomed by the Archivist from

the members of the Academy.

Respectfully submitted by Natuan R.

Situ, Archivist.

Report of the Board of Editors

Volume 32 of the JourNAL for the calendar

year 1942 consisted of 12 issues of 376 pages

distributed as follows:

Number Num-

Classification of ber of

: Articles Pages

Anthropology 2 18.3

Astronomy 1 28.0

Astrophysics 1 3.0

Bacteriology 1 4.0

Biophysics 2 fOr

Botany 13 66.5

Chemistry 5 PAL 4

Crystallography 1 11.0

Entomology 4 19.9

Ethnology 1 17.0

General Interest 2 14.9

Geodesy 1 5.3

Geology 1 2.3

Geophysics it 15.0

Ichthyology 4 23.3

Index : 1 4.0

Medical Entomolog if 3.0

Obituaries 7 5.0

Paleobotany 1 Sal,

Paleontology 2 10.4 ‘

Proceedings—Academy Les

Proceedings—Anthrop. a

Proceedings—Chem. .- Dye lk

Proceedings—Geol. 6.0

Proceedings—Phil. Tes}

Physics 2 20.4

Zoology 1M 35.6

Total 376.0

These may be summarized as follows:

Biological Sciences ASE eels 56.38%

Physical Sciences 12 106.2) 28:29

General Interest 2 14.9 4.0%

Proceedings; Obit. 39.1 10.4%

Index 4.0 iL

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY

113

This volume included three presidential ad-

dresses; 58 line cuts, and 17 halftones. Of the 55

papers, 33 (60.0%) were contributed by mem-

bers of the Academy. The previous volume con-

tained 62 articles of which 36 (58.1%) were by

Academy members.

Two facts worth noting in the above figures

are:

A. Volume 32 is the smallest volume ever

issued by the Academy since the initial vol-

umes. The following comparative figures, re-

duced approximately to the equivalent number

of pages in the new format, may be of interest:

Average number of pages for the period 1932-1941..... 442

Average number of pages for the period 1915, 1916, 1918,

OM rar sek Mann crapenie: cae oot tee au aUsieclte Ae rater w tae MAGA e rea Seon SHOWN te 539

INumbermoteparesmonmlOlig eee: Meier eie ree 485

The Board of Editors believes that the trend of

the last decade culminating in the 376 pages for

1942 is undesirable and that publication in the

JOURNAL should be stimulated.

B. The Journat undoubtedly fills a need for

the biological sciences (taxonomic articles),

whereas it is not sought for the publication of

articles in the physical sciences. Perhaps this

fact is the underlying reason why the JoURNAL

has been for some time secretly in disrepute

among many Academy members. The Board of

Editors believes that members of the Academy

should contribute more original articles of their

own.

The primary reason for the small size of the

volume just published was not lack of material,

however; on December 15 there were on hand

59 pages in proof and approximately 15 pages

in manuscript. Volume 32 was restricted in con-

tent in order that the budget allotment for the

JOURNAL might not be exceeded. A financial

statement follows together with some compara-

tive figures:

ee Illustrations Reprints

Maximum 1930-1941... $3410.78 $500.70 $618.44

Minimum 1930-1941... 2564.59 227.70 398.17

Average 1930-1941.... 2826.16 344.78 517.07

OA eae desta sa tetas 2650.17 294.46 602.70

OAD eee ru Latamame bay chat ak 2523.47 330.67 *(386.29)

* This amount includes only 10 months; bills for November

and December reprints have not yet been received.

In 1942 authors, institutions, or societies

paid the following amounts to cover the cost of

excess illustrations, additional charges, and re-

prints (see the 1941 figures for comparison):

168.85 90.18 344.55

32.47 107.89 *(367.02)

The Editors’ budget for 1942 was as follows (cf.

1941 figures for comparison) :

Printing,

Illustrations, Clerical Postage and

Reprints, Assistance Incidentals

and Mailing

194 eer $3100.00 $240.00 $60.00

19422 see 240.00 60.00

2800.00

114

The amounts charged to the Editors’ ac-

counts were as follows:

1941... 2941.08 240.00 28.93

1042) ee 2735.05 240.00 25.80

The unexpended balances are:

1941, coy: 158.92 0.00 31.07

1942) er 64.95 0.00 34.20

In addition to the cut in the Editors’ budget

there was a 6 per cent increase in printing

charges by the George Banta Publishing Co.

This resulted in an increase in cost of $58.06

for the last six months, or approximately

$87.08 for the year 1942 (the increase began

with the April issue). The following steps were

taken to meet these financial problems:

A. The format of the JouRNAL was changed

from a single column in 1941 to a double col-

umn in 1942. This resulted in a saving of

$146.31 for the last six months, or approxi-

mately $292.62 for the entire year 1942.

B. The author’s share in the cost of reprints

was increased with the January issue; the prac-

tice of giving an author 50 free reprints was

discontinued with the March issue. It is esti-

mated that a saving of $187 was effected in this

way.

C. Illustrations allowed an author were re-

duced from the equivalent of two pages of line-

cut drawings to one page and a half with the

May issue, and then further reduced to one

page with the November issue. The full effect

of the last reduction will not be felt until next

year; that of the first reduction was estimated

to be small.

D. Unusual costs of foreign, mathematical,

and tabular materials, as well as alterations

made in the proof by the author, were studied

by the Editors. Whereas these may be small in

comparison with the cost of illustrations indi-

vidually, they may become excessive when

totaled, as may be seen from the following

charges to the Academy:

Additional Typesetting

Charges 1939 1940 1941 1942

Foreign material... .. $68.82 $68.70 $75.19 $114.56

ables) jew tia eens 24.55 77.95 96.75 109.34

Mathematical material 67.08 20.12 113.87 26.96

Other Type Charges... 67.05 76.92 61.61 83.21

Alterations. 2.2... 4+. 107.15 99.60 101.60 93.99

It is evident that an article without illustra-

tions, but with sufficient typesetting changes,

may cost the Academy more than one with il-

lustrations, but with few typesetting changes.

The Board of Editors has taken steps to limit

the total additional charges to the Academy.

Members of the Academy can assist in this

economy by preparing their own manuscripts

with greater care and by insisting upon the

same carefulness in articles that they communi-

cate.

The Board of Editors wishes to express its

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 4

appreciation of the excellent editorial assist-

ance of Mr. Paut H. Orusenr. His services have

made possible a more uniform JOURNAL, as well

as a more efficient editorial routine with result-

ing financial gain to the Academy. The Senior

Editor is grateful for the willing cooperation of

the other members of the Board of Editors and

also of all the Associate Editors.

Respectfully submitted by G. ArTHUR

Cooper, JASON R. SwALLEeN, and RayMonpD

J. SEEGER, Senior Editor.

Report of the Custodian and Subscription

Manager of Publications

STOCKS OF PUBLICATIONS

The stocks of the Academy’s publications

have shown an increase during the year due to

continued donations from various sources ac-

companied by a very small number of sales. As

shown in the appended inventory there are 26

reserve sets (eight sets of vols. 1-30 of which

one is incomplete, lacking but six numbers,

seven sets of vols. 1-30 and 11 sets of vols. 16—

30). Most of this reserve, together with the

miscellaneous stocks including all of vols. 1-22,

is stored in Washington, while the chief sup-

plies of vols. 23-32 are stored with the printer

at Menasha, Wis.

INVENTORY OF STOCKS OF PUBLICATIONS—

DECEMBER 31, 1942

(Except where noted these are stored in Wash-

ington, C. in storage provided without

cost by the Smithsonian Institution and by

the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey)

Proceedings of the Washington Acad-

emy of Sciences:

Volumes 1-138 inclusive.......... 50 Sets

Reserve sets of the Journal of the

Washington Academy of Sciences:

Bound volumes 1—29+vol. 30 un-

Downids.oy ie te a ee oe 1 Set

Unbound volumes 1-30 (complete) . 6 Sets*

Unbound volumes 1-30 (incomplete,

lackimge@ Mos). so. ea eee 1 Set*

Unbound volumes 1-30........... 7 Sets*

Unbound volumes 16—-30.......... 11 Sets*

* Some numbers at Menasha.

Nonreserve volumes of the Journal of the Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences (in Washington):

Vol. No. Vols. Vol. No. Vols.

ier sttos elses re ee RR ae 2 19: est Ask Oe 11

CO ees er ree 4 20 obs eee 10

HEME OOM eRe 55S 5 DHS sect Be Cape eee 56

Sih Oe ee aoe 4 22 cain Shaan ee Oe 49

Qe eee cd scone ee 3 7 REE REAPER ARE Ae (5 4

UO ae oker ata Reamee ee PASE nS 2 DATS i. Muni aoe 12

1 En eeeiictccn erence aioe 9 DO UU Se eee 14

A Ae tr ae AEA orttiwe Mendelian ss of DO. o: ee ee ue eee 19

a Lea tre arch elias, coma Reet Le 11 11 Hiss ces See ee 21

De Ne ar i anette Accra Rem 6 De Rt sta MP ied BAW So 11

TOE aaa der 10 DO) coke hs ee 23

DIES S eaeeeis csceiaee Be 19 BOE Ace cle ee ae 29

Licence cee eee 14 o)) ROMA So be ee eager 7

ALS Bie viee Vers a Sr AS eee 13

Apr. 15, 1943 PROCEEDINGS

Also miscellaneous collection of odd numbers of

the Proceedings, the JourNnaL, the Directory

(1897 to 1941 inclusive), and reprints of special

articles.

SUBSCRIPTIONS

Owing to the international situation the sub-

scriptions as well as sales of publications have

been curtailed.

Nonmember subscriptions in United States 103

Nonmember subscribers in foreign countries 28

Nonmember subscribers (inactive) in en-

enemy-controlled areas................ 31

Subscriptions Geological Society of Wash-

RPA coe met Schick es 8 hye wee hl 13

EXPENDITURES

Because conditions have not warranted the

expenditures anticipated the amount actually

used has been but $27.37 of the budget allow-

ance, leaving an unexpended balance of $47.63.

Respectfully submitted by Wriuiam W.

Dien, Custodian and Subscription Manager of

Publications.

Report of the Committee of Tellers

The Committee of Tellers met on January

16, 1943. A total of 230 ballot envelopes were

delivered to the Committee by the Secretary.

Of these, 1 bore no signature and 3 bore the

signature of a member in arrears. In the re-

maining 226 envelopes there were found 206

ballots on the Amendments to the Constitution

and 219 ballots for Officers and Managers of the

Academy.

The count of the ballots on the Amendments

showed the following results:

Amendment No. 1 2 3 4 6 6

For amendment...... 193 198 202 200 205 # 205

Againstamendment... 11 6 2 3 0 0

INotavotingss 0.45. ..- 2 2 2 3 1 Ht

The count of the ballots on Officers of the Aca-

demy showed the following results:

For Against Not

Voting

For President, LELAND W. Parr... 214 0 5

For Secretary, FERDINAND G. BRIcK-

WHTOTDIDIO s Ga Gas sno ol otro ee onc eee 215 0 4

For Treasurer, HowarDS. RapPLEYE 213 0 6

Examination of the preferential ballot for

Managers by the Hare system showed 1 un-

marked ballot and 33 ballots that were invalid

-because. marked with crosses from which no

first choice could be determined, leaving 185

valid ballots. The Droop Quota was therefore

(185 +1) /(2+1) =62. The count of the ballots

showed the necessary quotas for FREDERICK D.

Rossini and JoHN E. Grar.

Respectfully submitted by Water Ram-

BERG, Chairman, Lewis W. Burz, Pavt 8.

ROLLER.

- THE ACADEMY

115

Election of Vice-Presidents

For the respective affiliated societies, the

Secretary presented the following nominations

for Vice-Presidents of the Academy:

Philosophical Society of Washington: RaymMonp

J. SEEGER

Anthropological Society of Washington: FranKx

M. SETzLER

Biological Society of Washington: Harry B.

HUMPHREY

Chemical Society of Washington: Hersert lL.

HALLER

Entomological Society of Washington: Austin H.

CLARK

National Geographic Society: ALEXANDER WET-

Geological Society of Washington: CLARENCE S.

Ross

Medical Society of the District of Columbia:

Frep O. Cor

Columbia Historical Society: ALLEN C. CLarK

Botanical Society of Washington: CHARLOTTE

ELLIOTT

Washington Section of the Society of American

Foresters: WILLIAM A. DayToNn

Washington Society of Engineers: Frank B.

ScHEETZ

Washington Section of the American Institute of

Electrical Engineers: Francis B. SILSBEE

Washington Section of the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers: WALTER RAMBERG

Helminthological Society of Washington: Em-

METT W. PRICE

Washington Branch of the Society of American

Bacteriologists: RaLpu P. TITTsLER

Washington Section of the Institute of Radio

Engineers: Harry D1aAMoNnD

Washington Section of the American Society of

Civil Engineers: OWEN B. FRENCH

The Secretary was instructed to cast a unan-

imous ballot for these nominees.

Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1942

President Curtis announced the recipients

of the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve-

ment for 1942, as follows:

For the Biological Sciences, to—

RopertT S. CAMPBELL, assistant chief of the

Division of Range Research of the U. 8. For-

est Service, in recognition of his distin-

guished service in range research, particu-

larly in the development of range utilization

standards.

For the Engineering Sciences, to—

WALTER RAMBERG, senior physicist in the Sec-

tion on Engineering Mechanics at the Na-

tional Bureau of Standards, in recognition of

his distinguished service in research on the

static and dynamic strength of structural ele-

ments, particularly in relation to aircraft.

116

For the Physical Sciences, to—

Mitton Harris, director of research for the

Textile Foundation and for the Textile Re-

search Institute, both having laboratories at

the National Bureau of Standards, in recog-

nition of his distinguished service in conduct-

ing fundamental research on the composition

and properties of textile fibers.

After a recess during which the 316th meeting

of the Academy (see below) was held, President

CurTIS appointed Past Presidents CHAMBLISS

and CRITTENDEN to escort the new President,

L. W. Parr, to the Chair. After a short address,

President Parr adjourned the meeting.

316TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 316th meeting of the Academy was held

in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club im-

mediately following the 45th annual meeting of

the Academy on January 21, 19438. President

Curtis called the meeting to order and ex-

plained the nature of the program arranged

for this meeting. Reports on governmental

publication of scientific research were pre-

sented by ATHERTON SEIDELL for the U. S.

Public Health Service, by Metvin C. MzeRRILL

and RaupH SHaAw for the U. 8. Department of

Agriculture, and Kasson §S. Gipson for the

National Bureau of Standards. Censorship of

scientific publications going abroad was de-

scribed by Epwarp D. Hitt, of the U. S.

Board of Economic Warfare. Open discussion

followed these reports, and ATHERTON SEIDELL

presented the following statement for the con-

sideration of the Academy:

“The Washington Academy of Sciences recom-

mends that: Research papers originating in gov-

ernmental laboratories and describing additions

to scientific knowledge be published in Federal

journals devoted to specific fields of scientific re-

search and that these journals be issued at regular

intervals and at subscription rates approximately

sufficient to cover their cost. The present method

according to which many individual agencies pub-

lish occasional bulletins or composite collections

of papers in many fields of science is not in the

opinion of the Academy the most-effective method

of distributing the information contained in the

reports.”

No action was taken on this recommenda-

tion.

FREDERICK D. Rossint, Secretary

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

545TH MEETING

The 545th meeting was held jointly with the

District of Columbia Section of the American

Society of Civil Engineers in the main auditor-

ium of the U. S. Chamber of Commerce on

Tuesday, September 22, 1942, at 8:15 p.m.

FRANK Howarb, president of the Standard Oil

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 33, NO. 4

Development Co., spoke on The manufacture

and use of synthetic rubber.

546TH MEETING

The 546th meeting was held at the George

Washington University on Thursday, October

8, 1942, at 8:15 p.m. At the conclusion of the

general meeting, the following divisional meet-

ings were held:

Biochemistry, M. X. SULLIVAN, presiding

The inorganic constituents of bone. S. B. HEN-

pricks and W. L. Hiuu (Bureau of Plant In-

dustry).

The catalase actiwity of the tissues of tumor-

bearing animals. JussE P. GREENSTEIN (Na-

tional Cancer Institute).

Heat-labile, avidin-uncombinable, species-spe-

cific vitamers of biotin. DEAN Burk and R. J.

WInzLER (National Cancer Institute).

Canine cystunuria. Urinary excretion of cyst-

une following the administration of homocystine,

homocysteine, and some derivatives of cystine and

cysteine. W. C. Hess and M. X. SuLLIVAN.

Organic chemistry, H. P. Warp, presiding

The structure of diketene. Francis O. RicE

(Catholic University of America).

Optical rotation as a measure of aromatic sub-

stitution influences. Warp PigmMan (National

Bureau of Standards).

4-Methyl-d-mannose and some of tts deriva-

twes. W. T. Haskins, Raymonp M. Hanw and

C.S. Hupson (National Institute of Health).

Physical chemistry, B. D. VAN EvEra,

presiding

The polymorphism of phosphoric oxide. W. L.

Hu, G. T. Faust, and 8S. B. Henpricxs (Bu-

reau of Plant Industry).

The influence of molecular size on the proper-

ties of cellulose acetate. Mitron Harris and

ARNOLD SooxKNE (Textile Foundation).

Measurement of mositure in gases by electrical

conductance at different pressures. EK. R. Wea-

vER (National Bureau of Standards).

Inorganic and analytical chemistry,

Roun E. STEVENS, presiding

The use of phosphate for the separation of co-

balt from tron. Victor Nort and R. C. WELLS

(Geological Survey).

Radium content of certain ultrabasic rocks.

Gorpon L. Davis (Geophysical Laboratory).

Determination of active oxygen in the presence

of lead and barium. MicHAEL FLEISCHER (Geo-

logical Survey).

Chemical and physical properties of leather.

Puiuie E. Tosias (National Bureau of Stand-

ards).

547TH MEETING

The 547th meeting was held at the Cosmos

Club on Thursday, November 12, 1942, at 8:15

p.M. Max BERGMANN, of the Rockefeller Insti-

tute for Medical Research, spoke on The spect-

Apr. 15, 19438

fic action of proteolytic enzymes: Current prob-

lems and recent advances.

548TH MEETING

The 548th meeting was held at the Cosmos

Club on Thursday, December 10, 1942, at 8:15

p.M. Gustav Ectorr, technical director of the

Universal Oil Products Co., addressed the so-

ciety on Substitute fuels in a world at war.

E. R. Smiru, Secretary.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington

at its annual meeting on January 19, 1943,

elected the following officers: President, GEORGE

S. Duncan; Vice President, Recina FLAn-

NERY; Secretary, WituiAM N. Fenton; Treas-

urer, T. Date Stewart; Members of the

Board of Managers, W. H. Giupert, H. W.

KRIEGER, JULIAN H. STEWARD, J. HE. WECKLER,

W. R. WEDEL.

A report of the membership and activities of

the Society since the last annual meeting fol-

lows: Life members, 2; active members, 41;

associate members, 11; total, 54.

The members elected during the year were:

Rev. GERALD DEsmonp, Miss JENNY REITSMA,

Wi.tu1am H. Spinxs, active members; Mrs.

WI.Lu1AM H. Spinks, associate member.

Two active members, CarL W. BisHop and

JoHN G. CarTER were lost by death. The So-

ciety voted to record its deep sense of loss at the

death of these members and to extend its sin-

cere condolences to their relatives.

The Treasurer’s report is as follows:

Funds invested in Perpetual Building

Association (with interest to

JE). eee $1,702.84

21 shares Washington Sanitary Im-

provement Co. (par value $10

(SE SPS) ee era 210.00

2 shares Washington Sanitary Hous-

ing Co. (par value $100 per

2.02102) 2 er 200 .00

U. S. Savings Bond, Series G...... 500 .00

LS TAD, (0201 er ere 263 .66

$2,876.50

PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Bills outstanding:

To American Anthropological As-

SOCIABION:.- 5s = «4 $40. 40.00

$2, 836.50

Total as of January 19, 1942.... 2,679.94

TERE GO trey eh ees ed's. ke $ 156.56

Division of annual surplus

Previous 1943 T otal

Publication fund.. $50.04 52.18 102.22

Speakers fund ...;, 50.04 52-19 ~ 102.23

Investment fund.. 50.05 52.19 102.24

The Society acted as host to the American

Anthropological Association on the occasion of

the annual business meeting of the latter on

December 28, 1942, at the Cosmos Club.

It was voted that the Anthropological

Society of Washington affiliate with the Inter-

American Society of Anthropology and Geogra-

phy.

Papers presented before the regular meetings

of the Society were as follows:

January 20, 1942, 704th meeting, JosEpH E.

WECKLER, Cundiyo, a Spanish village in New

Mexico.

February 19, 1942, 705th meeting, held

jointly with the Washington Academy of Sci-

ences, G. C. VAILLANT, The Aztecs of Mexico.

March 17, 1942, 706th meeting, ALFRED

Msérraux, The Jesuits in South America.

April 21, 1942, 707th meeting, address of re-

tiring President, FRANK M. SrnrTzuer, Archeo-

logical accomplishments during the past decade

in the United States (this JOURNAL, 32(9): 253-

259. Sept. 1942).

October 20, 1942, 708th meeting, DouGLas

L. Ouiver, Ethnography on Bougainville, Solo-

mon Islands.

November 17, 1942, 709th meeting, FRoE-

LIcH G. Ratnney, Anthropology and the Alaska-

Canada Highway.

December 17, 1942, 710th meeting, held

jointly with the Washington Academy of Sci-

ences, MatrHmw W. StTIRuine, Anthropological

explorations in Netherlands New Guinea.

WiuuiAM N, Fenton, Secretary.

118

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 4

@Obituartes

HERMAN STABLER’s untimely death in Wash-

ington on November 24, 1942, brought profound

sorrow and a sense of irreparable loss to the

Federal Service, the engineering profession, and

his community. Of English descent and Quaker

parentage, Herman Stabler was born on Febru-

ary 3, 1879, at Brighton, Montgomery County,

Md. His early elementary education was fol-

lowed by one year at Pacific College, Newburg,

Oreg., and four years at Earlham College, Rich-

mond, Ind., where he developed a bent for

chemical and civil engineering and received the

B.S. degree in 1899. After a year of special

engineering study at Columbian (now George

Washington) University, Washington, D. C.,

he served for the ensuing two years as instruc-

tor in mathematics and surveying at the Na-

tional Correspondence Institute in that city.

In December 1903 Stabler entered the Fed-

eral service as a hydrographic aid in the Hydro-

graphic (now Water Resources) Branch of the

Geological Survey and until 1909 was engaged

in studies of stream pollution, water quality,

and effect of suspended matter on silting of

streams in various parts of the country. While

in the Reclamation Service in 1909-10 he com-

pleted a systematic study of the waters likely to

be used on reclamation projects throughout the

West to determine the influence of salinity on

vegetable growth and the probable rate of silt-

ing in future reservoirs and canals. During

these studies he devised a method of classifying

waters for industrial purposes from analytical

data expressed ionically, in parts per million,

that is still widely used.

In 1911 Stabler became a member of the di-

vision of hydrographic classification in the

newly created Land Classification Branch,

thereafter succeeding N. C. Grover as chairman

in June 1913, becoming assistant chief in 1920,

and succeeding W. C. Mendenhall as branch

chief in November 1922. In this period he be-

came intimately acquainted with the natural

resources of the West and the problems of their

development through his direction of the exten-

sive field and office investigations required to

determine the power value and reservoir possi-

bilities of streams in public-land States and the

suitability of public lands for designation under

the enlarged homestead acts of 1909 et seq.,

and the stock-raising homestead act of 1916.

He participated actively thereafter in the for-

mulation of Federal policies affecting the use of

public lands and the conservation of their na-

tural resources, and assisted materially in or-

ganizing the work and procedure of the Federal

Power Commission at its beginning in 1920.

On July 1, 1925, Stabler became chief of the

Survey’s Conservation Branch, created on that

date to coordinate and carry on jointly the

functions of land classification, theretofore dis-

charged by the Land Classification Branch, and

the work of supervising operations for mineral

production from public and Indian lands pur-

suant to the Federal mineral-leasing laws;

theretofore done by the Bureau of Mines. To

this position, which he retained to the day of

his death, he brought a broad perspective on

western problems. He was responsible in no

small part for legalizing the entry by Federal oil

and gas lessees into agreements with each other

or with others for the unit or cooperative devel-

opment of oil and gas fields containing Govern-

ment lands; for the replacement of the pros-

pecting-permit system of disposing of Federal

oil and gas lands with a straight leasing system;

for requiring the measurement of oil from Fed-

eral and Indian lands on a 100-per cent basis

less actual impurities instead of an arbitrary

96- or 97-per cent basis that assumed the differ-

ence to be impurities; for the assessment of

compensatory royalty to offset drainage of oil

or gas from Federal lands through wells on ad-

joining non-Federal lands; and for litigation,

seeking to establish the right in the Secretary of

the Interior to determine the value for royalty

purposes of oil produced under Federal leases

and disposed of at prices incompatible with its

actual worth.

Indicative of his character and the variety of

his interests was his confession a few months

before his death that the most memorable and

satisfying experiences of his life were his mar-

riage, November 1, 1905, to Bertha R. Buhler,

of Washington, D. C., who survives him; his

participation in the topographic survey of Col-

orado River as a member of the Survey’s Grand

Canyon Expedition in 1923; his admission to

the hole-in-one club at the Columbia Country

Club, Chevy Chase, Md.; and his service as a

director of the American Society of Civil Engi-

neers from 1935 to 1937.—Joun D. NorTHrop

Apr. 15, 1943

FraNK Dawson ADAMS, a corresponding

member of the AcapEmy, died on December 26,

1942, after a brief illness, at his home in Mont-

real, Canada.

Dr. Adams was born on September 17, 1859,

in Montreal; he was graduated from McGill

University with first rank honors in natural

science in 1878, and, under the inspiration of

Sir William Dawson, chose geology as his major

subject. He continued his studies at Sheffield

Scientific School, Yale University, at Heidel-

berg, Germany, where he obtained the Ph.D.

degree ‘summa cum laude”’ in 1892, and at

Zurich.

He joined the Geological Survey of Canada

in 1880 and continued with that service until

he was appointed lecturer in geology at McGill

University in 1889. Four years later, upon the

retirement of Sir William Dawson, Dr. Adams

was appointed Logan professor of geology and

head of the department. He became dean of the

faculty of applied science in 1908, and later

vice-principal of McGill University and dean of

the faculty of graduate studies and research.

Contemporaneous with his academic work,

Dr. Adams was very active in geological field-

work and research, and approximately 90

papers were published in leading scientific

journals in America and Britain as a result of

his investigations. His experimental work on

the flow of rocks was carried out over a period

of years, and the results contributed largely to

the clarification of geological thought on meta-

morphism in the earth’s crust, the depth of the

zone of flow, and on the study of ore deposits.

Dr. Adams was the recipient of many aca-

demic honors, among which were honorary de-

grees from Bishop’s College, Tufts College,

University of Toronto, Queen’s University,

McGill University, and Mount Allison Uni-

versity. A mere list of some of his distinctions

marks the man as outstanding among his

fellows: fellow of the Geological Society of

America, 1888; fellow of the Geological Society

of London, 1895; recipient of the Lyell medal of

the latter Society, 1906; fellow of the Royal

OBITUARIES

HN;

Society of London, 1907; president of the Ca-

nadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,

1910-11; president, International Congress of

Geologists, 1913; president, Geological Society

of America, 1918; president, Royal Society of

Canada, 1913; honorary member, Institution of

Mining and Metallurgy; honorary member,

American Institute of Mining and Metal-

lurgical Engineers; honorary member, Engi-

neering Institute of Canada; foreign associate,

National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.; cor-

responding member, New York Academy of

Sciences; correspondent of the Academy of

Sciences of Philadelphia; correspondent, Natu-

ral History Society of Ekaterinburg, Russia;

member, American Philosophical Society; cor-

responding member, Geological Society of

Stockholm; foreign honorary member, Ameri-

can Academy of Arts and Science; honorary

member, Mineralogical Society of Russia;

honorary member, Geological Society of Bel-

gium; honorary member, Seismological Society

of America; honorary member, Academia Asi-

atica, Teheran, Persia; foreign member, Swed-

ish, and now Royal Swedish, Academy of

Science.

Dr. Adams was a man of broad culture and

wide travel. For some years after his retirement

from active university work he traveled to

libraries all over the world to accumulate the

basic material for his important book The birth

and development of the geological sciences, his

last major contribution.

Interests as wide as his learning led him to

take an active and leading part in the affairs of

Rotary, the Boy Scouts, the Y.M.C.A., the

Day Shelter for Unemployed Men, and other

equally significant organizations. He was a

devoted Anglican and was greatly interested in

the welfare of the Church. A conclusion may be

made in the words of Dean Dixon, who knew

Dr. Adams intimately: ““Few men have ac-

complished so much in a quiet unobtrusive

way. The thing about his life that impresses me

is the sense of completion which takes away the

sting of death.” J. J. O’NEILL

‘CONTENTS —

ew wt haa 7

tick, Dermacentor variabilis Say. Oscar E. Tauser, ANNE HL

GER Tauper, CHARLES R. Joye, and Wis N. Bruce. . |

" Toxrcotocy.—Toxicity of some dinitrophenols to the » American d do

~ Ewromonoey. —Synoptic revision of fhe testaceipennis ‘group

beetle genus Phyllophaga. LawRENCE Ww. Sayror. . :

~ «

: of ;

v <

PROCEEDINGS: [HE ACADEMY so) Ut oe ee

PRrocenpines: CHEMICAL SOCINTY......... 2.2000. +42.)

PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY......... aoe

Oxrrvarins: HERMAN STapueR, FranK D. Apams........

‘This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Bt ss es

‘ or ‘

ne aS

May 15, 1943

JOURNAL

OF THE

OF SCIENCES

“BOARD OF EDITORS

G. ArtTHuR CooPER JASON R. SwWALLEN L. V. JuDsSON

U. 8S. NATIONAL’ MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

W. Epwarps DEemInae C. F. W. MuEsEBECK

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Haraup A. REHDER Epwin Kirx

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT e Witiram N. FENTON

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

JAMES I, HorrMaNn pe

CHEMICAL SOCIETY POSOINIAN BA

eae

PUBLISHED MONTHLY ns {Va wy

BY THE | a

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

450 AHNaIP St.

AT MreNnasHA, WISCONSIN™

Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis.

Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925.

> Authorized January 21, 1933.

No. 5

Journal of the Wachuievon Academy of Sciences

This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: oy

(1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) —

proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies! (Sy ‘

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OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoLUME 33

ASTROPHYSICS.—The physical chemistry of a cooling planet.

A planet, starting as a mass of vapor torn

from the sun and approaching the present

condition of the earth, must pass through a

number of well-marked epochs as its tem-

perature falls. Its initial and final states may

be studied, but intermediate conditions

must be arrived at by deduction from the

amounts of various elements present and

their physical and chemical conditions at

various temperatures. What would be the

first crust to form, what was the composi-

tion and pressure of the atmosphere at a

certain surface temperature, when did the

ocean start, and how rapidly did it grow?

The answers to these and similar important

geologic questions may be obtained in ap-

proximate form from known data and

principles, yet this field has aroused little -

interest. While the critical constants of a

few elements and the dissociation constants

of many minerals are still unknown, the

lack of these introduces only minor uncer-

tainties in the results.

The writer in 1926 presented a brief out-

line? of the epochs through which a cooling

earth must have passed, omitting most of

the physical relationships (assumed well

kncwn) used in arriving at the conclusions.

Quotations from that paper by geologists

indicate that the subject should be covered

in far more detail. The objective is to recon-

struct a history of the earth, not on a time

scale but on a temperature scale, which is

far more interesting and important to geolo-

gists.

Aside from temperature, the elements to

be dealt with are those listed by F. W.

Clarke in his Data of geochemistry as con-

1 Received March 15, 1948.

2 Nurrina, P. G., Pressures in planetary atmos-

ee Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 16: 254.

26.

May 15, 1943

No. 5

P. G. NutTtTInG.

stituting the 10-mile crust of the earth.

Whether the bulk of the core consists

chiefly of iron is of little consequence in the

surface phenomena under discussion. Hav-

ing a critical temperature probably above

4,500° K., iron would become a fluid sphere

at an early stage. Iron alloys freely with but

relatively few other metals (nickel, chro-

mium, manganese... ), and the nature of

the residual vapors trapped in crustal rocks

suggests the dominance of iron in any al-

loys that may constitute the earth’s core.

Clarke’s tables show how eruptive rocks

(95 percent) dominate the lithosphere, for

the weighted average of all portions, in-

cluding the oceans, the atmosphere, and

all sedimentary rocks, differs very little

from that of the eruptives; also that the

hydrogen as water, the nitrogen of the air,

and the carbon of living things, coal, and

oil, so prominent in our lives, are almost

negligible relative to other elements.

In Table 1 are given Clarke’s weighted

mean relative amounts of the various ele-

ments occurring in the earth’s 10-mile crust,

including the hydrosphere (oceans and

lakes) and the atmosphere. To these have

been added lists of the melting points, boil-

ing points at present atmospheric pressure

and critical temperatures, all on the abso-

lute scale (273+° C.). The fourth column

is obtained from the third by multiplying

by 1.5 according to the Guldberg rule that

the boiling point is always about two-thirds

of the critical temperature on the absolute

scale. It varies from 0.58 to 0.66 in known

cases.

A temperature of 5,000° is reasonable for

a planet just drawn from the sun by a pass-

ing star. At 5,000° there are, of course, no

compounds present, and Table 1 shows that

there can be no liquids, for all elements

121

ZO.

“4 —_

122

TABLE 1.—ELEMENTS OF THE EaRTH’s CRUST

Relative | Melting Boiling Critical

Element abun- point point tempera-

dance SKS: OK. ture °K.

Oxygen...... 46.20 54.8 90 155

Siliconsen ase 25.67 1680 2870 4300

Aluminum... . 7.50 932 2070 3100

Trony2 see es Ail 1708 3300 4900

Calcium...... 3.39 1080 1440 2160

Sodium...... 2.63 370.7 1153 1730

Potassium.... 2.40 335.5 1033 1550

Magnesium... 1.93 924 1380 2070

Hydrogen.... 0.87 14.0 20.4 32

Titanium..... 0.58 2070 3300 4900

Halogens..... 0.22 171 (Cl) 240 360

Phosphorus 0.11 317 553 830

Manganese 0.09 1530 2170 3250

C@arboneenece: 0.08 3800 4500 6700

S, Ba, Sr,N.. 0.15 = — —

Allothers..... 0.47 _— — —

except perhaps carbon are above their

critical temperatures. Transmutations of

elements, such as go on in the larger hotter

stars, will have ceased except for the slow

decay of a few scarce radioactive ones.

Pressures near the center must have been

near what they are now, about 17 X105

atmospheres or 12,500 tons per square inch.

At 5,000° such a mass of dense vapors

would be subject to rapid cooling by radia-

tion from its outer layers. Only a slight cool-

ing would permit combinations of the ele-

ments (as oxides, carbides, etc.) with an

evolution of heat amounting to a few hun-

dreds of (kg) calories per gram. Such com-

pounds would condense to liquids and fall

back as rain to where the temperature was

sufficient to vaporize and redissociate them,

exciting visible line spectra of the elements.

Thus such a mass of vapors would possess a

bright photosphere. Chemical combination

excites only band spectra and these chiefly

in the infra-red. A mass of matter at 5,000°

would in short be a violently agitated body

of elementary vapors having a photosphere

giving off bright-lined spectra of all elements

but containing no liquids or chemical com-

pounds except at extreme heights. The rapid

transfer of heat by dissociation and com-

bination farther out as well as by radiation

and convection is being given attention by

astrophysicists and is of primary impor-

tance.

At 4,000° conditions are vastly altered.

Iron, titanium, and silicon are below their

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 38, NO. 5

critical temperatures and hence will largely

condense to form a liquid core, a core con-

. taining-minor amounts of tungsten, molyb-

denum, and other metals as alloys, and pos-

sibly a little of a few oxides and carbides in

solution. There is little information on

phase relations, critical temperatures, and

dissociation constants at such temperatures.

From the relatively low stability of iron

oxides and carbides, liquid iron at 4,000°

would be expected to float the stable car-

bides and oxides of other metals. In Table

2 are collected the available data on the

higher melting compounds.

TABLE 2.—HIGHER MELTING COMPOUNDS

ee Boiling MS Boiling

Com ies temper. me temper-

temper- Compound |temper-

pound ature ature

ature 6 ature 2

°C C. °C. C.

AUN ses 2,200 |(Decomp.)|} La:O; 2,000 4,200

MgAl.O...|.2,135 — IMIROSeccc 2,800 —_—

Al.O3. . 2,050 2,250 MnO 1,650 _—

BaO)..- 1,923 | (2,000) || Mn;O. 1105 —_

BasiOs; 1,604 — IMIOs 6s 20 0 2,620 3,700

BesN 2,200 |d 2,240 MoC:....| — 4,500

BeO..... 2,570 3,900 Si@: setae 2,700 —

Boron 2,300 2,550 SiOze eee 1,700 |d 2,200

IBe@ apace 2,350 3,500 ThO, 2,800 4,400

IBINGReee 2,730 | (Subl.) ARUN ates 2,930 —

CdSe. s: 1,750 | (Subl.) WW) oaisiostne 3,370 4,727

CaC2..... 2,200 — WiC. cutee 2,777 | (6,000)

CaQurx.- ISPs 2,850 UC 258 2,260 4,100

CeOz..... 1,950 — VOCs outs 2,830 3,900

Cr;C: 1,890 3,800 ZrOz..... 2,700 4,300

Fe.03 1 ’ 565 == ZrSiQy...| 2 ’ 550 =

Fe:C..... 1,875 —

Pressures at 4,000°, due to the atmos-

phere above the liquid surface, can only be

guessed without a much more complete

knowledge of high-temperature compounds.

That pressure was certainly more than

the weight of the 10 mile crust (4,300 atmos-

pheres or 32 tons/sq. inch) and probably

less than ten times that. It was certainly

well over all known critical pressures so

that all elements having critical tempera-

tures below 4,000° were either liquid or

solid. Those having critical temperatures

above 4,000° were vapors.

Of the few compounds probably stable

(undissociated) at such temperatures and

pressures, the carbides of boron, calcium,

chromium, molybdenum, silicon, vanadium,

and uranium and the oxides of beryllium,

May 15, 1943

calcium, magnesium, lanthanum, thorium,

and zirconium seem the most likely. Other

oxides and carbides than those would be too

unstable to exist except as transients in the

outer layers. There were certainly no ni-

trides or silicates of any kind. The spec-

trum of a planet at 4,000° would still consist

chiefly of bright lines with some even re-

versed but all on a continuous background.

- At 3,000-2,500°, while the core is still

liquid iron and iron alloys, the first solids

appear, probably as float on the liquid

sphere. The list of stable oxides and carbides

is the same as at 4,000°. However, some of

these, such as WC and UC,, are heavier

than iron and would sink in it, perhaps de-

composing and losing their carbon to the

iron. Of the compounds that are stable and

solid at 2,500°, probably the more impor-

tant are the oxides of beryllium, calcium,

magnesium, and zirconium; silicon carbide

(carborundum) and titanium nitride. The

light carbides of boron and calcium freeze

at about 2,300°, and should be abundant in

liquid form at 2,500°. There is still no

permanent silica or silicates as these decom-

pose at about 2,200°. Aside from the ap-

pearance of the first stable solids the picture

at 2,500° differs little from that at 4,000°.

Hydrogen and nitrogen require special

consideration at this point. While according

to Clarke (Table 1) hydrogen constitutes

less than 1 percent of the 10-mile outer

layer, it is sufficient to form all the oceans or

enough to cover the entire earth to a depth

of 2,600 meters or 1.6 miles. There was

abundant oxygen to combine with the

hydrogen; there is free oxygen today, in the

air. Very little hydrogen could have been

used up in hydrides for these are readily dis-

sociated at high temperatures. Also very

little nitrogen was used as nitrides for the

same reason and much of it still remains

free. Free carbon, however, is practically

nonexistent. Clarke’s data cover carbon

chiefly as carbonates, hydrocarbons, and

carbon dioxide, but not deeply buried car-

bides of which there may have been large

quantities. At 2,500° there could have been

no hydrocarbons or carbonates; the ques-

tion is the probable division of carbon be-

tween the dioxide and the metal carbides,

NUTTING: PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF A COOLING PLANET

123

particularly silicon carbide, which must

have been abundant in vapor form since it

sublimes far below its melting and dis-

sociation temperatures.

Both water vapor and carbon dioxide are

very stable at high temperatures as shown

in Table 3 taken from Nernst’s Theoretical

chemistry, 5th English edition, p. 783; data

of Bjerrum and others taken about 1912 by

an ingenious and precise explosion method.

Dissociations are given for six temperatures

and three pressures for each gas, in percen-

tages.

TABLE 3.—DISSOCIATION OF WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE

Water vapor Carbon dioxide

°K

: 10

1 atm. | 10 atm. | 100 atm.| 1 atm. | 10 atm. Are

E000 rs | 2258 1.29 0.556 AT 1.14 0.531

x10 | x10 10m SOR | AOR | xX 1OR

1,500. .| 0.0202} 0.00935} 0.00433) 0.0483} 0.0224) 0.0104

2,000..| 0.582 | 0.270 0.125 2.05 0.960 | 0.445

2,500. ..| 4.21 1.98 0.927 |17.6 8.63 4.09

3,000. .}14.4 7.04 33.83" 54.8 32.2 16.9

3,500. ./30.9 6-1 7.79 83.2 63.4 39.8

Log dissociation plotted against either

1/T or log pressure gives essentially a

straight line. Dissociation is small except

at the higher temperatures and decreases

markedly at high pressures. In a contest be-

tween oxygen and silicon for the carbon it is

difficult to say which would be favored but

both compounds would be present.

With a surface temperature of 2,500° the

earth’s atmosphere at lower levels must

have consisted mainly of heavy metallic

vapors and the vapors of a few stable

compounds of high density. These would

condense at higher levels, rain down, and

revaporize. Iron was probably metallic but

may have been present as oxide. At inter-

mediate and higher levels were large known

quantities of water vapor (1.85 tons per >

square inch) mixed with large but uncertain

amounts of carbon dioxide. The water

would condense and rain downward much

as it now does but in enormously greater

volume and never reaching the surface. At

the outer limits would be cool free gases.

The observed outer atmospheres of Jupi-

ter and Saturn invite the question of what

124

happens when the proportion of hydrogen

is large rather than small as on the earth.

Abundant hydrogen, with plentiful nitrogen

and but limited oxygen, would make pos-

sible the formation of much ammonia to

form a cool, stable outer blanket, even with

a core temperature of a thousand degrees.

At 1,500° to 1,200° the surface is vastly

different from what it was at 2,500°. Silica

and szlicates have formed, some in solid

others in fluid condition. All are fairly stable

below 2,000°. They would cover the old

core miles deep and suppress, chiefly as

silicates, all but a few metallic vapors. At

least the more volatile silicates would form

the bulk of the lower atmosphere and would

vaporize, rise, and reprecipitate in enor-

mous storms. The lower layers of silicates

would contain the less volatile metals,

oxides, and silicates; the outer layers were

probably the original igneous rock of the

present lithosphere. There were still no

carbonates and, of course, no hydrocarbons,

and the water was still all in the outer at-

mosphere.

At 500° C. (a dull red heat) many car-

bonates and some hydrates, fluorides,

sulphides, etc., are stable, but most of these

probably formed at lower temperatures,

long afterward. The oceans were still in the

vapor state at high levels of the atmosphere.

Most of the acid anhydrides would be stable

and in the air. Surface showers would con-

sist largely of fused and vaporized salts.

They must have been huge and violent

compared with any present-day storms but

trivial in comparison with the snowstorms

of silica in the range of temperatures from

1,800° to 2,500°. The range from 400° to

700° might be called the chemical epoch.

At the critical temperature of water

374° C., atmospheric pressure was about

252 atmospheres, considerably higher than

the critical pressure of water, 217.8 atmos-

pheres. Hence, condensation of a fraction

(0.137) of the water vapor to liquid water oc-

curred as soon as the temperature fell below

374° C.,and 13.7 percent (=1—217.8/252.3)

of the total water must have become liquid

as cooling proceeded beyond that point.

That fraction of the total water is sufficient

to cover the entire earth to a depth of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

2,607 X0.187=357 meters, or 1,171 feet.

Local pressures in depressions may well

have been several times that depth of water.

Therefore in passing 374° C. pressures

abruptly changed from an evenly dis-

trebuted pressure of 252 atmospheres to one

of 218 atmospheres plus local pressures of

probably 300 atmospheres, an excess of 7

tons per square inch. This abrupt change

from distributed to localized pressure was

pointed out in Science (Oct. 1911) and

further elaborated in my 1926 paper. At

300° C., two-thirds of the water was liquid

and the pressure of the vapor about 85 at-

mospheres; at 200° C., 95 percent was liquid

and the pressure 15 atmospheres.

The first oceans were therefore sizable

bodies of water. Evaporation and precipita-

tion must have been extremely rapid as was

solution and erosion. Localized pressures

must have caused considerable rock move-

ments, chiefly lateral thrusts. The distribu-

tion of crustal strains must have varied

considerably as the depth of the oceans in-

creased. Some of the present elevated areas

(the ‘‘positive’ areas of paleogeographers)

may have originated during this epoch.

The fall of mean surface temperatures be-

low about 370° C. must have marked the

beginning of the epoch of hydration, solu-

tion, and sedimentation—the water epoch—

which is still in progress. At the higher

temperatures, however, rates of solution

and sedimentation must have been many

times present rates. With all oceans boiling,

and a continuously saturated atmosphere

with copious rains of high-temperature

water, all but the most insoluble rocks such

as the granites, must have been rapidly

eroded and redeposited. Overloaded solu-

tions must have been abundant and violent

in their activity, forming material that

would later be comparable with the pegma-

tites. Owing to the size of the first oceans it

appears doubtful whether they ever ap-

proached saturation in any constituent.

Any attempt to calculate the age of the

ocean on the basis of the present rate of ac-

cumulation of its salts must give results far

from the truth.

Living matter and the formation of hydro-

carbons from it became possible only in the

May 15, 1943

very recent thermal history of the earth

when temperatures were not above 50° C.

At about this stage the dense vapor blanket

in the upper atmosphere, which previously

had equalized polar and equatorial tempera-

tures, probably thinned out sufficiently to

permit polar regions to become cooler than

equatorial. Hence, it appears probable that

primitive forms of life originated in the

‘polar regions. The carbon of all living mat-

ter, of course, all came from the CO of the

air, which is only 1 part in 30,000 of that

fixed in the carbonate rocks. All this carbon

is less than 0.1 percent (0.08 percent) of the

earth’s crust. How much more is still deeply

buried as carbides we have no present means

of knowing.

Attention should be called to the simple

relation between the time and the tempera-

ture scales. Since the radiation (in energy

per unit time) from a body is proportional

to the fourth power of its absolute tempera-

ture and in this case the mass is constant,

the specific heat and surface area are ap-

proximately so, and the cooling is all by

radiation to space, the rate of energy loss is

proportional to the rate of temperature

lowering, dT/dt, which in turn is propor-

OCEANOGRAPH Y.—Boundaries of the Humboldt Current.

(Communicated by CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER.)

Stanford University.

Not until Gunther’s report on the work of

the William Scoresby became available was

it possible to delineate with any degree of

accuracy the boundaries of the Humboldt

Current. Yet even at the present time these

limits are still too indefinite to provide for

the drafting of satisfactory graphs or

charts. The southern boundary shifts with

the seasonal march of the prevailing west

wind zone; these shifts have not been deter-

mined, because the above examination oc-

curred during the winter and did not afford

data for summer, early autumn, or late

spring in the Southern Hemisphere. The

northern boundary vacillates with the

southward approach of the warm counter-

current (commonly called El Nifio) during

the southern summer; this advance, al-

1 Received March 31, 1943.

MEARS: BOUNDARIES OF THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT

125

tional to T*. Hence,

dT /dt=CT* or T?=ai+b, by integration.

In other words 7" is a linear function of the

time. The constant b depends on the chosen

zero of time and a upon the time unit, years

or millennia.

The writer has attempted to sketch the

probable early physical history of the earth

on a temperature instead of a time scale

based on known physical chemical data and

on the chemical composition of its surface.

The subdivisions inferred are great natural

epochs; all gas and vapor, the first liquid

core, the first solids, the first stable silicates

and the formation of the silicate crust, the

formation of the first and later carbonates,

the first surface water, the abrupt change in

pressure distribution, and finally the forma-

tion of hydroxides and of hydrocarbons. The

reasoning is speculative rather than deduc-

tive because of the lack of important data,

yet the conclusions check well with known

geologic facts, and it is hoped they may help

to establish others. It is hoped also that it

may further emphasize the value of physical

chemistry in geologic studies.

Euiot G. Mears,

though of annual occurrence, also uae not

been plotted.

Gunther’s own account lacked in “dean

tion. His delimitation of the western bound-

ary of the current proper was hindered by

the invasions of warm-water wedges from

the west during the time of his survey. For

reasons attributed to economy, the expedi-

tion was unable to locate the western bound-

ary of the Humboldt Current’s so-called

‘oceanic twin’’ known as the Peru Oceanic

Current, and, since this ‘‘oceanic twin”

represents water affected by that of the

Humboldt Current proper or its upwelling,

naturally the westward ultimate limits of

the Humboldt Current’s effects have not

been determined.

Furthermore, Gunther’s exact data were

secured in the single year of 1931. Schweig-

ger’s research, which has covered a period of

126

16 years, indicates that 1931 was an ab-

normal year; in fact, it was one of a series

of three years of attempted warm water in-

vasions of major proportions (1942, p. 37).

In that one year Gunther’s observations

were confined to the months from May to

September for the entire examination, and

he laments the brevity of time allotted the

work because of the impossibility it allowed

for noting variations which appeared to be

striking during a single month, for instance,

at Callao. He pointed out that a long-con-

tinued, consistent, and more widespread in-

vestigation was necessary to interpret and

correlate these variations (Gunther, 1936,

pp. 169, 170, 244). Nevertheless, Gunther’s

report represents the most careful scientific

survey of the Humboldt Current that has

been made; it does afford a basis for valu-

able generalizations.

Gunther defines the Humboldt Current

as “a narrow belt of cold water which runs

up the west coast of South America roughly

from Valparaiso to the Gulf of Guayaquil.

...Itis that part of the South Pacific anti-

cyclonic circulation in which the northerly

current is most conspicuous; and whose

physical, chemical and biological character-

istics are most affected by admixture with

water upwelled from the lower layers’’ (p.

109). It stems from the West Wind Drift,

which is a much broader portion of the same

anticyclonic movement.

The origin of the water in the Humboldt

Current has been a much mooted question

since Alexander von Humboldt suggested

that it came from the Antarctic regions

(1822, vol. 2, p. 59). But since Deacon’s re-

port to the Discovery Committee in 1937, it

has become known that the Antarctic Con-

vergence, which is the northern boundary of

Antarctic surface water, occurs in the east-

ern Pacific between 80° and 90° west longi-

tude farther south than 60° latitude (1937,

pp. 38-39). The writer has found no state-

ment of any evidence of the Humboldt Cur-

rent farther south than 473° south latitude,

and Gunther places its probable extreme

southern limit at 41° south latitude (1936,

p. 172). Therefore, it appears that the Hum-

boldt Current takes its origin some 15°

or more northward of the limit of Antarctic

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

surface water. It must be concluded that

from its beginning the current is composed

of subantarctic surface water.

This subantarctic surface water con-

tinues at the surface in the Humboldt Cur-

rent, mixed, of course, with water upwelled

at times from a warm subsurface current,

until the cool current crosses the Sub-

tropical Convergence, which Gunther lo-

cated between 24° and 26° south latitude.

In other words, in the southern winter of

1931, the subantarctic water remained at

the surface as far north as the stretch of

coast between Caldera and Antofagasta

(1936, p. 159), or on about one-third of the

current’s early course. Over approximately

two-thirds of the flow, therefore, but ex-

cluding the upwelled elements, the surface

water is subtropical rather than subantarc-

tic. Often marked by rip tides from horizon

to horizon (Schott, 1935), the subtropical

surface water remains at the surface until

the Humboldt Current reaches its northern

boundary, which is the Tropical Converg-

ence. Here, at the surface, the Humboldt

Current meets tropical water along an ir-

regular line extending roughly from Punta

Aguja to the Galapagos Islands. Since the

current under discussion extends from its

origin in the West Wind Drift to this north-

ern boundary formed by the Tropical Con-

vergence, it can be stated definitely that

exclusive of upwelled elements the Hum-

boldt Current consists at the surface of

“two distinct water masses,” the sub-

antarctic and subtropical.

But since the feature that gives character

to the Humboldt Current-is its upwelling,

Gunther assigns first importance to sub-

antarctic water because the upwelling is

drawn chiefly from subantarctic flow and

comes from subsurface as well as from sur-

face layers. At the Subtropical Convergence

subantarctic water dives below the surface

layer, yet it continues as a subsurface cur-

rent as far as Callao. Throughout the survey

of the William Scoresby, below the sub-

antarctic water, indeed, below surface

layers of whatever constituents, there was a

southward moving, warm return subsurface

current, beneath which Antarctic Inter-

mediate water flowed northward. Normally,

May 15, 1943

the return subsurface current varied in

depth from 40 to 150 meters, and reached a

depth undetermined by Gunther’s report,

for he stated that upwelling never touched

Antarctic water. Yet upwelling ranged from

extremes of 40 meters to 360 meters, with a

mean of 133 meters. During the period of

the above examination, the surface layers

and the subsurface return current were suf-

ficiently thick to prevent the reaching of

Antarctic water by the process of upwelling

(1936, p. 200). This significant finding has

not been accepted as yet by many leading

scientists. For example, C. Vallaux (1989,

p. 80), in reviewing the work of the William

Scoresby, noted that there might be a slow

rise of Antarctic Intermediate water. Sver-

drup (1942, p. 189), in calculating the source

of water within the Humboldt Current, in-

cludes the Antarctic Intermediate water.

Because of upwelling, Gunther’s study

very definitely fixes the lower boundary of

the Humboldt Current at the stated 40 to

360 meters, with a mean of 133 meters,

during the time of his survey; it excludes

entirely all Antarctic water. Whether or not

the current is deeper or shallower at other

seasons and during other years remains to

be shown by future investigations.

His eastern boundary appears, also, to be

fixed. It is the coastline of the South Ameri-

can west coast between the northern and

southern boundaries of the Humboldt Cur-

rent. During times of normal strength and

dominance of the Humboldt Current, it oc-

cupies the position inshore.

However, the writer wishes to point out

that Schweigger’s observations of the warm-

water bands during 1939 and 1941, when the

upwelling seemed to abate within the Hum-

boldt Current, indicate a possible rise to

the surface of portions of the warm, re-

turn southward-moving subsurface current.

Temperatures below the surface at La

Libertad, Ecuador, during 1938, point to a

piling up of hot waters on the northern

boundary of the Humboldt Current at the

same time that the exceptionally strong

Humboldt Current of 1938 reached its ex-

treme minimum of temperature over a

period of 16 years. When upwelling abated,

it would appear that the pent-up, subsur-

MEARS: BOUNDARIES OF THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT

127

face, warm, southward-moving current

moved out more strongly. Schweigger found

a warm, oceanic torrent along the outer

shores of the islands in Pisco Bay during

the autumn of 1939; a few miles southward

of this torrent the normal Humboldt Cur-

rent was encountered again. The torrent-

force might be explained by the proximity

of the strong Humboldt Current, which

forced the return current to take its accus-

tomed place beneath the surface.

That this theory is not entirely imaginary

on the part of the writer is shown by the

fact, that, when upwelling ceases along the

shore washed by the California Current, the

subsurface currert rises to the surface and

is known as the Davidson Current for the

remainder of the year. But when upwelling

returns in the following season, the David-

son Current disappears and there is dis-

covered a subsurface current underneath

(Sverdrup, 1941). |

Therefore the writer would like to amend

the statement of Gunther, and others, that

the eastern boundary of the Humboldt Cur-

rent is inshore along the western coast of

South America between the northern and

southern boundaries of that current. It is

possible that it is inshore only until weak

upwelling allows the rise of the warm return

current to the surface.

The western boundary is far from defi-

nite. With reference again to Gunther’s

designation of the Peru Coastal, or more

commonly called the Humboldt Current,

this limit is the coastal strip of generally

northward flowing water over which up-

welling dominates. It must be noted that

during the winter of his examination, he

found it extended westward offshore ap-

proximately 30 to 130 miles from Chile, and

150 to 250. miles distant from Peru. Al-

though he allowed considerable variation,

due to the season and to warm water wedges

he suspected that the modifications might

exceed his appraisal (1936, pp. 109, 224).

Within these longitudes, the temperature

of the surface seawater dropped from 2°

to 5° C. along the same parallel from the

outermost stations to the innermost of those

taken by the William Scoresby. For it is

well known that the isotherms within the

128

Humboldt Current follow the coastline in-

stead of assuming their normal east-west

direction. The relative uniformity of the

coastal cooling is caused by the upwelling,

which is a distinctive characteristic of the

Humboldt Current.

Therefore, the ultimate boundary of the

current’s influence should be along the

points where the isotherms take their nor-

mal course. Since Gunther’s investigations

ceased before this change occurred, he

pointed out that the extreme westward

limits he assigned to the effects of the cur-

rent were only an estimate. The area of

marine, blue water affected by upwelled

water from the Humboldt Current but not

dominated thereby had a generally west-

ward movement. He termed this outer flow

the Peru Oceanic Current. He conjectured

that the surface seawater, where the tem-

perature was lowered by the upwelling

along shore, extended some 300 miles sea-

ward off the coast of Chile along the 40th

parallel, and from 3,600 to 4,000 miles off

the coast of Peru along the 15° parallel

(1936, p. 224). The above lowered tempera-

ture limits could be detected only with a

thermometer. The further westward exten-

sion of the Humboldt Current which the

writer has discovered in existing literature

appears in a note in Science (Beebe, 1926),

where Dr. William Beebe reports that a

captain on a United States vessel located

the effects as far west as the Marquesas

Islands, a distance of 3,711 miles from Cal-

lao. Perhaps it is reasonable to consider this

the maximum outside limit, since this ob-

servation occurred during the most unusual

year associated with the vagaries of the

Humboldt Current. The date was Septem-

ber, 1925.

When the Challenger data were obtained

it is assumed that conditions were not ab-

normal, but in the absence of records this

conjecture can be questioned. It was from

Challenger data that Thoulet (1928) reached

the conclusion that the waters east of

Easter Island were different in temperature,

salinity, and density from those to the west.

He attributed the difference to the effect of

the Humboldt Current upon the waters to

the east of the island; he called these waters

the Easter Island Sea.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

The stations of the Challenger were too

few to enable Thoulet in 1928 to define

boundaries of the Easter Island Sea other

than to state that the sea was east of Easter

Island. Since this island is approximately

2,000 miles westward from the South

American coast in about. 27° south latitude,

Thoulet’s finding fits roughly into Gunther’s

huge wedge-shaped area estimated to be

affected by the Humboldt Current’s up-

welled waters. Indeed, Thoulet adds this

one specific finding to supplement Gunther’s

observations and deductions.

The discovery made by Byrd’s Expedi-

tion that Easter Island is situated upon the

extensive Easter Island Ridge, which divides

the South*Pacific, appears significant to the

writer because it forms the submarine de-

marcation between the East and West

Pacific. The great submarine rise stretches

from Ross Sea in the Antarctic (Roos,

1937), to the vicinity of the Gulf of Cali-

fornia before it becomes indistinguishable

from the continental shelf on the topo-

graphic map. Perhaps this ridge may be

vitally related to the boundary of Easter

Island Sea and to the ultimate westward ef-

fects of the Humboldt Current, for topog-

raphy has a marked influence on current

flow.

The northern boundary of the Humboldt

Current, proper, has a seasonal variation

that has not been precisely determined.

Rainfall appears to be the most successful

gage of the boundary’s vacillation, for the

dominance of the Humboldt Current is

synonymous with aridity. According to

rainfall records along the Peruvian coast

(Eguiguren, 1894), the usual shift extends

from Santa Elena Peninsula, which is the

northern limit of the Gulf of Guayaquil,

south to Punta Aguja. Farther west the

Galapagos Islands appear to mark the nor-

mal north-south march of annual rainfall,

but the data here have been secured from

occasional expeditions and not from regular

observations (Stewart, 1911).

Although most of the subtropical surface

water is deflected westward of the Tropical

Convergence, at this northern boundary of

the Humboldt Current, there is evidence

that some part, at least, continues as a sur-

face current northward of that convergence.

May 15, 1943

Near the coast, according to Murphy (1939,

p. 27), none of the Humboldt Current sur-

face water reaches beyond the equator.

Barlow (1938) is confident it flows at the

surface northward of the Humboldt Current

proper to the Gulf of Panama. Gunther

(pp. 158-59) noted that a portion of the

Humboldt Current surface water had sunk

below the tropical water at the Tropical

Convergence, and that it was still flowing

north as a subsurface current at the north-

ern extension of his survey. Fleming (1939,

p. 173) found in the Gulf of Panama during

the winter upwelling that the water has the

character of the surface water off Peru. In

other words, the extreme northern boundary

of the Humboldt Current is yet to be de-

termined.

Gunther (1936, pp. 162, 226—227) located

the southern boundary during his survey on

the 32nd parallel; nevertheless, he admits

the possibility of an extension to the 40th

parallel, in deference to Schott’s chart, and

he concedes a possibility of the 41st parallel

as an extreme southern limit. But since

Gunther actually observed the southern

- winter limit to be 32° south latitude, the

writer prefers to retain that cold season

border until further research, carried out in

the same thorough manner as that of the

William Scoresby, demonstrates the need of

correction. In summer, there has been no de-

termination comparable to the above. A

characteristic feature of the Humboldt Cur-

rent is the normal freedom from storms. For

this reason, over a century ago Humboldt

advised the use of this region for shipping,

especially during such turbulent periods

elsewhere (1829, vol. 6, p. 232). In January,

1939, Goodspeed’s party observed that the

storm-free character of the Humboldt Cur-

rent protected their ship only part of the

way between Valparaiso and Concepcion

(Goodspeed, 1941). Thus, in the summer of

1939, the southern boundary of the Hum-

boldt Current was betweén 32° and 37°

south latitude. Yet it must be noted that

1939 was an unusual year of warm-water

invasions.

There are other observations, but none,

in the knowledge and opinion of the writer,

that provide data with greater probability

MEARS: BOUNDARIES OF THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT

129

of accuracy. It has seemed wise to cite these

specific fragments in order to show the

meagre and inconclusive character of the

information regarding boundaries of the

Humboldt Current. Actually, only the

lower boundary has been precisely fixed,

and that for but one season of an abnormal

year. Until the usual boundaries are de-

fined with greater precision, the exceptional

ones, such as those of 1925 when warm

water reached as far south as central Chile,

can be viewed with scant profit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bartow, BE. W. The 1910-1937 survey of the

currents of the South Pacific Ocean. Mar-

ine Observer 15 (132): 140-149. 19388.

Breese, Wiiuiam. A note on the Humboldt

Current and the Sargasso Sea. Science 63:

91-92. 1926.

Deacon, G. E. R. The hydrogen of the South-

ern Ocean. Discovery Reports 15: 1-24.

1937.

EGUIGUREN, Victor. Las Iuvas en Piura.

Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lima 4: 241-259. 1894.

FLEMING, R. H. A contribution to the oceanog-

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Proce, 6th Pacific Scai- Congr. 3: 16/—175.

1939.

GoopsPEED, T.H. Plant hunters in the Andes.

New York and Toronto, 1941.

GuNTHER, E. R. A report on oceanographical

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Discovery Reports 12: 107-276. 1936.

HuMBOoLDT; ALEXANDER VON. Personal nar-

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the New Continent during the years 1799-

1804, by Alexander de Humboldt and Aimé

Bonpland. 7 vols. Translated by Helen

Maria Williams. London, 1822-29.

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bia and Ecuador. Geogr. Rev. 29: 1-83.

1939.

Roos, 8. E. Some geographical results of the

second Byrd Antarctic Expedition, 1933-

1935. The submarine topography of the Ross

Sea and adjacent waters. Geogr. Rev. 27:

574-583. 1937.

ScuoTT, GERHARD. Geographie des indischen

und stillen Ozeans im Auftrage der deutschen

Seewarte verfasst. Hamburg, 1935.

ScuweicGcer, E. H. Las trregularidades de la

corriente de Humboldt en los anos 1925 a

1941; una tentatiwa de su explicacion.

Bol. Compafiia Admin. Guano 18 (1): 27-

42. 1942.

Stewart, ALBAN. Expedition of the California

Academy of Sciences to the Galapagos [s-

lands, 1905-06. Proc. California Acad.

Sci., ser. 4, 1: 7-288. 1911.

SveRDRuUP, H. U. An analysts of the ocean cur-

130

rents of the American west coast between

40° N. and 40° 8. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr.

Contrib. 130. 1941.

Oceanography for meteorologists.

2 New

York, 1942.

BOTAN Y.—Homonyms among names of trees and fossil plants.

(Communicated by WiLu1AM A. Dayton.)

LitTez, Jr., U.S. Forest Service.

The same names have sometimes been

given independently both to species of living

trees of the United States and to different

species of fossil plants, but the number of

homonyms of this type not previously cor-

rected is relatively small. In the course of

the preparation of a revised Check list of

the native and naturalized trees of the United

States, the accepted names have been

checked against homonyms among fossil

plants. Fortunately, only three changes in

nomenclature have been necessary for the

above publication, but additional names of

tree species distinguished by some authors,

as well as some names of fossils, are affected.

It seems desirable to call attention to these

homonyms among recent and fossil plants

and to suggest that taxonomists working

with living plants, and paleobotanists

studying fossils, carefully compare their

proposed new names before publication

with the indexes of both groups, in order to

avoid preoccupied names.

The International Rules of Botanical

Nomenclature (ed. 3. 1935) apply to recent

and fossil plants alike (art. 9), though a few

special rules have been adopted for fossil

plants. Nomenclature of fossil plants begins

with the year 1820 (art. 20). A Latin diag-

nosis is not required for names of new groups

of fossil plants (art. 38), but after January

1, 1912, names of new groups of fossil plants

must be accompanied by illustrations (which

serve as substitutes for duplicate specimens)

in addition to the descriptions, or by refer-

ences to earlier illustrations (art. 39). The

rule about homonyms was changed in 1930

to reject a later homonym even if the earlier

homonym is a synonym and not in use (arts.

60 (8) and 61). As a result of the change,

some homonyms previously correctly used

1 Received February 4, 1948.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

THOULET, J. Le courant de Humboldt et la mer

de l’fle de Paques. Ann. Inst. Océanogr.,

MEOW SCh..15) ase. 2)is ta OSs

Vatuaux, C. The Peru or Humboldt Current.

Scientia 65-66: 77-82. 1939.

ELBERT L.

suddenly became invalid. Also, since specific

epithets long abandoned as synonyms can

never be used again in the same genus,

there is now a greater possibility of making

unintentional homonyms in large genera of

woody plants having both living and ex-

tinct species.

Names of recent plants are well indexed

in standard references, such as Index

Kewensis and its supplements and the Gray

Herbarium card-index. Fossil plants, how-

ever, are not so thoroughly cataloged. A de-

tailed catalog of names of fossil plants of the

world, Fossilium catalogus II: Plantae, edited

by Jongmans? is in progress. Most of the 24

parts issued since the work was begun in

1913 are about extinct groups. The following

parts, however, cover seven important fami-

lies of recent woody plants and should be

consulted by taxonomists making new

names in these groups: Pars 6, Juglandaceae

(1915); pars 8, Betulaceae (1916); pars 10,

Ulmaceae (1922); pars 14, Sapindaceae

(1928); pars 20, Anacardiaceae (1935) ; pars

23, Cornaceae (1938); and pars 24, Vitaceae

(1939). Additional parts of interest also to

students of recent plants are: Pars 13,

Muscineae (1927); pars 17, Dicotyledones

(ligna), or fossil wood (1931); and pars 19,

Charophyta (1933).

In 1919 Knowlton’ published a catalog of

the Mesozoic and Cenozoic plants of North

America known at that time, which should

be consulted by taxonomists making new

names in genera such as woody plants also

represented as fossils. All affected fossil

names that were known to be later homo-

nyms of recent species were corrected by

2 Jonemans, W., ed., Fossilium Catalogus II:

Plantae, pts. 1-24. ’s-Gravenhage, 1913-1939.

3 KNOWLTON, F. H., A catalogue of the Mesozotc

and Cenozoic plants of North America. U.S. Geol. -

Surv. Bull. 696, 815 pp. 1919.

May 15, 1943

Knowlton and Cockerell in Knowlton’s

catalog (p. 11). This catalog, however, did

not cover fossils outside North America,

names published after 1919, or Paleozoic

fossils, though Paleozoic fossils are in ex-

tinct genera. The United States Geological

Survey, Washington, D. C., has an unpub-

lished card catalog of names of fossil plants

throughout the Plant Kingdom up to the

year 1933, when compilation was discon-

tinued. This valuable and detailed card

catalog is located in the division of paleon-

tology, United States National Museum.

The homonyms mentioned here are among

those detected when the accepted names of

native and naturalized trees of the United

States were checked against names of fossils

in the paleobotanical card catalog. Most

of these homonyms concern European fos-

sils, especially names published before Index

Kewensis, and a few names appearing since

Knowlton’s catalog.

The three changes in nomenclature from

that of Sudworth’s check list required be-

cause the names were used previously for

fossils are summarized below.

Ilex amelanchier MEAS Cunt:

SERVICEBERRY HoLLy

Prinos dubius G. Don, Gen. Syst. Gard. Bot.

2220. 1832.

Ilex amelanchier M. A. Curt. ex Chapm.,

Hi south, WS: 270. 1860.

Llez dubia (G. Don) B.S. P., Prelim. Cat.

Anth. Pter. New York 11. 1888. Not Ilex

dubia Weber, Palaeontographica 2: 203,

pl. 22, fig. 9. 1851 (fossil, Oligocene,

Prussia).

Fernald (Rhodora 41: 424-429, pl. 559.

1939) showed by examining the type that

Ilex dubia (G. Don). B. 8. P. is the same as

Ilex amelanchier M. A. Curt. and so took

up the former name. However, as Ilex dubia

(G. Don) B.S. P. is a later homonym of a

fossil, the name Ilex amelanchier M. A.

Curt. should be restored. This shrubby

species of the Coastal Plain from New

Jersey to Georgia and Louisiana becomes a

small tree according to Small (Man. South-

east. Fl. 1502. 1933) and will be added to

the check list.

LITTLE: HOMONYMS AMONG TREES AND FOSSIL PLANTS

131

xX Quercus burnetensis Little Burner Oak

Quercus macrocarpa Michx. XQuercus virgi-

niana Mill.

X Quercus coloradensis Ashe, Bull. Torrey

Bot. Club 49: 268. 1922. Not Quercus

coloradensis Lesq., Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.

16: 46. 1888 (fossil, Eocene, Colorado).

X Quercus burnetensis Little, Journ. Wash-

ington Acad. Sci. 33: 9. 1943.

xX Quercus filialis Little VARILEAF Oak

Quercus phellos L. Xx Quercus velutina Lam.

x Quercus inaequalis Palmer & Steyermark,

Missouri Bot. Gard. Ann. 22: 521. 1935.

Not Quercus inaequalis Watelet, Descr. PI.

Foss. Bass. Paris 136, pl. 35, fig. 8. 1866

(fossil, Eocene, France).

xX Quercus filialis Little, Journ. Washington

Acad. Sci. 33: 10. 1948.

The two earlier fossil homonyms of Salzx

lancifolia indicated below do not invalidate

the name when transferred to a variety. The

variety stands as a new name, rather than

a new combination (art. 16), and Andersson

is not cited as original author. The same

epithet may be used as a species and variety

(art. 29).

Salix lasiandra Benth. var. lancifolia Bebb

Pactric Gray WILLOW

Salix lancifolia Anderss., Svenska Vet.-Akad.

Handl. 6: 34, pl. 2, fig. 23. 1867. Not Salix

lancifolia A. Braun, Neues Jahrb. Mineral.

Geogn. Geol. Petref. 1845: 170. 1845

(fossil, Miocene, Switzerland); A. Braun

ex Unger, Gen. Sp. Foss. Pl. 419. 1850. Not

Salix lancifolia Ludw., Palaeontographica

5: 157, pl. 35, fig. 9. 1858 (fossil, Miocene,

Hesse).

Saliz lastandra Benth. var. lancifolia Bebb in

S. Wats., Bot. California 2: 84. 1879.

Names for several tree species recognized

by some authors but not accepted in the

check list are invalid as later homonyms of

fossils. These include a recently described

species of Abzes, an older species of Acer, a

new species of Quercus, and three hybrids of

Quercus. Doubtless additional homonyms

occur among the names of exotic and culti-

132

vated trees, which have not been checked.

Juglans sieboldiana will serve as an example.

Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. var. phanerolepis

Fern. BRACTED BAaLsAM FIR

Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. var. phanerolepis

Fern., Rhodora 11: 203. 1909.

Abies intermedia Fulling, Journ. Southern

Appalachian Bot. Club 1: 98, fig. 1. 1936.

Not Abies intermedia Saporta, Compt.

Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 94: 1021. 1882

(fossil, Pliocene, France).

Acer rubrum L. REp MAPLE

Accmimonin Ge opel Wao. toa:

Acer stenocarpum Britton in Britton and

Shafer, North American Trees 647, fig.

598. 1908. Not Acer stenocarpum Etting-

hausen, Denkschr. Bayer. Akad. Wiss.

Minchen 50: 20, pl. 31, figs. 10-12. 1885

(fossil, Miocene, Carniola).

Further study is needed to determine

whether Quercus grandidentata Ewan (Bull.

Torrey Bot. Club. 64: 512. 1937) is distinct.

It was described from a few collections at

Monrovia, Los Angeles County, Calif. ; it is

closely related to Quercus engelmanni

Greene; and it may be a hybrid between

Quercus dumosa Nutt. and Quercus engel-

mannt Greene. Also, the name is a homonym

of Quercus grandidentata Unger (Gen. Spec.

Pl. Foss. 401. 1850; fossil, Miocene, Galicia).

Another new species, Quercus robusta

C. H. Muller (Torreya 34: 119. 1934),

known only from Oak Canyon, Chisos

Mountains, Tex., is not affected because the

earlier homonym, Quercus robusta Schulze

(Zeitschr. fiir Naturw. 60: 457. 1887; fossil,

Upper Cretaceous, Baden), upon examina-

tion was found to be a nomen nudum (arts.

44,45).

The name X Quercus dubia Ashe (Journ.

Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 11: 93. 1894)

should be abandoned as a name of uncertain

identity as to its supposed parents and as a

later homonym. Earlier homonyms are

Quercus dubia Alm. in L. (Pl. Surinam. 15.

1775) and the fossil Quercus dubia Newberry

(Ann. New York Lye. Nat. Hist. 9: 31.

1868; nomen nudum; fossil, Miocene, Mon-

tana); Quercus dubia Newberry [Proc. U.S.

Nat. Mus. 5: 506. 1883 (fossil; Miocene,

Montana)]. The name of the fossil species

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

was changed to Quercus asymmetrica Trel.

(Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. 20: 28, pl. 12, fig. 10.

1924).

X Quercus ludoviciana Sarg. St. LANDRY Oak

xX Quercus ludoviciana Sarg., Trees and

Shrubs 2: 223. 1913.

xX Quercus subfalcata Trel., Proc. Amer. Phil.

Soc. 56: 52. 1917. Not Quercus subfalcata

Goppert, Tert. Fl. Insel Java 114. 1854.

(nomen nudum; fossil, Miocene, Bohemia).

Not Quercus subfalcata Friedrich, Geol.

Specialk. Preuss. Abh. 4 (3): 257, pl. 9, figs.

4, 5. 1883 (fossil, Oligocene, Saxony).

xX Quercus ludoviciana var. subfalcata (Trel.)

Rehd., Journ. Arnold Arb. 7: 240. 1926.

X Quercus ludoviciana Sarg. is the hybrid

between Quercus falcata var. pagodaefolia

Elliott and Quercus phellos L. X Quercus

subfalcata Trel. is the hybrid between

Quercus falcata Michx. and Quercus phellos

L., and is a later homonym of a fossil.

Rehder, under article 34, reduced the latter

hybrid to a variety, and it seems simpler to

group all the hybrids between two species,

including hybrids of their varieties, all

under the same name.

The relationships of X Quercus venulosa

Ashe (Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soe.

41: 268. 1926), described from Okaloosa

County, Fla., are uncertain. Its supposed

parents were Quercus cinerea Michx. and

Quercus caput-rivult Ashe, the latter original-

ly described as a doubtful hybrid and later

reduced by its author to Quercus arkansana

caput-rivuli (Ashe) Ashe. The earlier homo-

nym is Quercus venulosa (Kichwald) Eich-

wald (Lethaea Rossica 2 (1): 63, pl. 3, fig.

11. 1865; fossil, Russia), originally described

as Credneria venulosa EKichwald (1853).

Juglans ailantifolia Carr. SreBsotp WALNUT

Juglans sieboldiana Maxim., Bull. Acad.

Imper. Pétersb., sér. 3, 18: 60. 1873. Not

Juglans sieboldiana Géppert, Tert. Fl. In-

sel Java 154. 1854; nomen nudum. Not Jug-

lans sieboldiana Géppert, Tert. Fl. Schos-

snitz Schles. 36, pl. 25, fig. 2. 1855 (fossil,

Miocene, Silesia).

Jugians ailantifolia Carr., Rev. Hort. [Paris]

50: 414, fig. 85-86. 1878.

It is unfortunate that the name Juglans

steboldiana Maxim., long in use for a species

May 15, 1943

from Japan cultivated in the United States,

must be rejected because the name was

given 18 years earlier to a fossil from Europe.

According to Nagel (Foss. Cat. II: Plantae,

pt. 6: 52.1915), Juglans sieboldiana Géppert

isa synonym of J. acuminata A. Br. A fossil

variety of the Japanese species was named

Juglans sieboldiana Maxim. fossilis Nath.

(Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 20 (2): 37,

pl. I, figs. 13-17, 18(?). 1883).

EXAMPLES OF DUPLICATE NAMES

An interesting example of a genus that

was named among fossils before it was dis-

tinguished among living trees is Sequoza

Endl. (Syn. Conif. 197. 1847). Though a

species of living trees was named earlier

Taxodium sempervirens Lamb. (Descr.

Genus Pinus 2: [24]. 1824), the genus was

based upon three species of fossil cones and

was published with illustrations as Stezn-

hauera Presl in Sternberg (Versuch Geogn.

—Bot. Darst. Fl. Vorwelt. 202 illus. 1838).

The more familiar name Sequoza Endl. has

been retained by making it a nomen con-

servandum, while the older synonym, Stein-

hauera Presl, is a nomen rejiciendum (art.

21).

Various illustrations of homonyms that

have been replaced could be cited. For

example, Juglans californica S. Wats. (Proc.

Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 10: 349. 1875) ap-

peared only three years before the fossil

species, Juglans californica Lesq. (Mem.

Mus. Comp. Zool. 6 (2): 34, pl. 9, fig. 14;

pl. 10, fig. 23. 1878; Miocene, California).

The latter was changed to Juglans leonis

Cock. (Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, 26: 543.

1908). The Miocene fossil from Alaska,

Betula alaskana Lesq. (Proc. U. 8S. Nat.

Mus. 5: 446, pl. 6, fig. 14. 1883) had priority

over Betula alaskana Sarg. (Bot. Gaz. 31:

236. 1901). When the earlier use of the name

was called to his attention, Sargent re-

named the living species Betula neoalaskana

Sarg. (Journ. Arnold Arb. 3: 206. 1922).

However, this species has since been re-

duced to a variety, Betula papyrifera Marsh.

var. neodlaskana (Sarg.) Raup (Contrib.

Arnold Arb. 6: 152. 1934).

Among the more recent cases that have

not been corrected is the shrubby species

Sorbus alaskana G. N. Jones (Journ. Arnold

"LITTLE: HOMONYMS AMONG TREES AND FOSSIL PLANTS

133

Arb. 20: 24, pl. 226. 1939), a later homonym

of the Upper Cretaceous fossil, Sorbus

alaskana Hollick (U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof.

Pap. 159: 97, pl. 74, fig. 1. 1930).

FOSSILS WITH NAMES PREOCCUPIED BY

RECENT TREES

The names of several species of fossils are

later homonyms of names in use for recent

trees of the United States. The fossils are

mostly old European species that may no

longer be recognized. However, if they are

valid and distinct species still in the same

genera and if they have not already been

changed, they should be given new names

by specialists familiar with them. Some of

these preoccupied names of fossils that may

not have been corrected are given below:

Magnolia macrophylla Vukotinoviéa, Jugo-

slav. Akad. Zagreb Rad 13: 202. 1870 (fossil,

Miocene, Croatia). Not Magnolia macrophylla

Michx., Fl. Bor.-Amer. 1: 327. 1803.

Pinus resinosa Ludwig, Palaeontographica

5: 87, pl. 18, figs. 3-4. 1857 (fossil, Miocene,

Hesse). Not Pinus resinosa Ait., Hort. Kew. 3:

B60. 1789:

Pinus rigida (G6ppert and _ Berendt)

Schimper, Traité Paléont. Végét. 2: 291. 1870

(fossil, Miocene, Prussia; originally in genus

Pinites). In making this combination, Schimper

remarked that there already existed a Pinus

rigida Mill. Not Pinus rigida Mill., Gard. Dict.

ed. 8, Pinus No. 10. 1768.

Populus tremuloides Massalongo, Piante

Foss. Terz. Vicentino 146. 1851 (fossil, Miocene,

Italy). Populus tremuloides Wessel in Wessel

and Weber, Palaeontographica 4: pl. 24, fig. 2.

1855 (nomen nudum; fossil, Miocene, Prussia).

Not Populus tremuloides Michx., Fl. Bor.-

Amer. 2: 2438. 18038.

Quercus reticulata (EKichwald) FEichwald,

Lethaea Rossica 2 (1): 62, pl. 3, fig. 16. 1865

(fossil, Cretaceous, Russia; originally Cred-

neria reticulata Kichwald (1853) ). Not Quercus

reticulata Humb. and Bonpl., Pl. Aequin. 2: 20,

pl. 86. 1809.

Rhus microphylla Heer, Svenska Vet.-Akad.

Ofv. Forh. 28: 1184. 1871 (nomen nudum);

Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 12: 117, pl. 32, fig.

18. 1874 (fossil, Cretaceous, Greenland). Not

Rhus microphylla Engelm. ex A. Gray, Smith-

sonian Contr. Knowl. 3 (5) (Pl. Wright. 1): 31.

1852.

134

The following fossil homonym has been

reduced to synonymy:

Quercus obtusa Knowlton, U. S. Geol. Surv.

Prof. Pap. 140: 38, pl. 22, fig. 8. 1926. (fossil,

Miocene, Washington). Made a synonym of

Quercus stmulata Knowlton by Brown (U. S.

Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 186-J: 173. 1937). Not

Quercus obtusa (Willd.) Ashe, Torreya 18: 72.

1918.

Though no check was made of homonyms

among fossils and synonyms of recent trees

of the United States, as these names would

not affect the nomenclature of the check

list or cause any confusion, a few later

homonyms of this type were found among

the fossils. An example is Abzes mucronata

(G6ppert and Menge) Géppert (Schles.

Ges. Vaterl. Kult. Jahresb. 48 (1870): 55.

1871; originally described in the genus

Abietites). Not Abzes mucronata Raf. (Atl.

Journ. 120. 1832), the name upon which

was based Pseudotsuga mucronata (Raf.)

Sudw., a synonym of Pseudotsuga tazifolia

(Poir.) Britton.

SIMILAR BUT NOT IDENTICAL NAMES

Some names of fossils and recent plants

which are similar but fortunately differ

slightly in spelling may be retained without

confusion as distinct names (art. 70),

though possibly a few might be considered

orthographic variants. A partial list of these

similar names follows.

FOSSIL PLANTS

Acer grosse-dentatum

Heer (1859)

RECENT PLANTS

Acer grandidentatum

Nutt. ex. Torr. and

Gray (1838)

Crataegus holmesiana

Ashe (1900)

Crataegus holmesit

Lesq. (1887)

Fraxinus oregonensis Fraxinus oregona

Knowlton and Cock- Nutt. (1849)

erell (1919)

Juglans quadrangula X Juglans quadrangu-

Ludwig (1857) lata (Carr.) Rehd.

(1900)

Pinus quadrifoliata Pinus quadrifolia Parl.

Peola (1900) ex Sudw. (1897)

Quercus neomexicana Quercus novomexicana

Knowlton (1918) CA DC) a Raydib:

(1901)

Quercus treleasit Berry

(1928)

Quercus treleaseana A.

Camus (1932)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

GENERIC HOMONYMS

Apparently no generic names of living

trees of the United States are later homo-

nyms of fossil genera. However, an unim-

portant example of a generic name used in-

dependently in living and fossil plants is

Batodendron Nutt. (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.,

ser. 2, 8: 261. 1843), a segregate of Vac-

convum L., generally not used by conserva-

tive workers. The name Batodendron Lands-

borough (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 13: 290.

1844) was given a year later to a Paleozoic

fossil from Scotland inadequately described

without specific name. An Upper Devonian

fossil from Siberia was named Batodendron

sp. Chachloff (1921).

If a detailed check of extinct genera were

made with indexes of generic names of

living plants, it is likely that a few homo-

nyms would be found. Of course, if the older

name is rejected as a synonym and is no

longer in use, the later homonym can be

retained without confusion merely by mak-

ing it a nomen conservandum (art. 21).

An example of a generic name in use in

both groups is Berrya. Berria Roxb. (PI.

Corom. 3: 60, pl. 264. 1819; usually spelled

Berrya, an orthographic variant by DC.,

Prodr. 1. 517. 1824) is a genus of one or two

species of Tiliaceae. Berrya Knowlton (U.S.

Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 155: 133, pl. 41, fig.

4—5. 1930), a fossil genus of uncertain posi-

tion with one species, is a later homonym.

This has been synonymized with Cerczdi-

phyllum by Brown (Journ. Pal. 13: 492.

1939).

AVOIDANCE OF HOMONYMS

A few suggestions for avoiding the crea-

tion of additional, unnecessary homonyms

among recent and fossil plants may be

drawn from the examples given. Of course,

persons proposing new specific names in

genera having both living and extinct

species, especially large genera of woody

plants such as Quercus, should check their

tentative names in the best available in-

dexes and catalogs of both groups. Ad-

ditional published catalogs or indexes of

fossil plants are urgently needed by taxono-

mists of living plants as well as by paleo-

‘May 15, 1943

botanists. Schopf* has recently called at-

tention to the desirability of continued com-

pilation and publication of additions to the

existing catalogs of American fossil plants.

Certain epithets are much more likely to

be used independently for fossil and recent

plants than others. Names derived from

large geographical areas, such as Alaska and

the States, are often repeated, but many fos-

sils are named from a small locality where

the types were collected or from the geo-

logical formation without risk of duplica-

tion. Epithets of obvious descriptive char-

acters among certain species within a large

genus containing both living and extinct

species have a relatively high probability of

being homonyms. Names suggesting re-

semblance to another species or indicating

intermediate or uncertain characters may

have been used before for fossils also.

As long as the number of homonyms

among recent and fossil plants remains

4 Scuorr, James M., American Committee on

Paleobotanical Nomenclature. Chronica Bot. 7:

226-227. 1942.

BOTAN Y.—New grasses from the Philippines and South India.'

Santos, Botanical Gardens, University of Michigan.

AGNES CHASE.)

During the progress of a study on the

Genera of Philippine grasses, Asiatic speci-

mens of Garnotia, Isachne, and Sacciolepis

were found in the United States National

Herbarium that were either without or with

doubtful determinations. Among them is the

material hitherto generally referred to

Garnotia stricta Brongn.? At the suggestion

of Mrs. Agnes Chase, studies were under-

taken on the distinguishing characters of

the true Garnotia stricta Brongn., and a com-

parison was made with the material formerly

referred to this species. The result of this

investigation led to the examination of the

species of Garnotia and the description of a

1 Received February 238, 1943. Papers from the

Department of Botany of the University of Michi-

gan, no. 820. Read before the 48th meeting of the

Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Letters

held at the Migr a Michigan, Ann Arbor,

Mich., March 26-27,

2Tn DUPERREY, A ie sie Voyage autour du

monde 27: 133-134, pl. 21. 1830.

SANTOS: NEW GRASSES FROM PHILIPPINES AND SOUTH INDIA

135

rather small, the problem is not serious, and

possibilities of confusion at present are

sight. If the number of homonyms among

the two groups should ever be greatly in-

creased’ at some future date when many

more species of fossils are known, possibly

the same epithets could be permitted for

both recent and fossil species. Most special-

ists do not work with both groups anyway.

The greatest sources for error then would be

in recent species found also as fossils in the

geologically youngest deposits, such as

Pleistocene. Identical names for plants and

animals are permitted (art. 6), though the

names repeated are mostly genera. Another

possible solution would be to assign slightly

different generic names to fossils that are

closely related to living genera. Then the

same specific epithets could be repeated in

both. To some extent this practice has been

followed by the use of suffixes, such as -ztes,

and -orylon, and -phyllum in the examples

Pinites from Pinus, Araucarioxylon from

Araucaria, and Sapindophyllum from Sapin-

dus.

JOSE VERA

(Communicated by

new species. The writer is greatly indebted

to Mrs. Chase, for her technical assistance

in the preparation of this paper, and to Dr.

Elzada U. Clover, for going over the manu-

script.

Garnotia mindanaensis Santos, sp. nov.

Perennis, 45-55 cm alta; culmi caespitosi,

erecti, simplices, nodiis pubescentibus; vaginae

glabrae, collari pubescenti et venis prominenti-

bus; ligulae 0.2 mm longae, glabrae; laminae

lineari-lanceolatae, planae, 8-25 cm longae, 4-6

mm latae; paniculae 10-18 cm longae, angustae

interruptae; spiculae 4—4.5 mm longae, 0.5—0.6

mm latae, anguste lanceolatae, e dorso com-

pressae; glumae subaequales, breviter aristatae,

3-nerves, scabrae; lemma maturum glumas

aequans, lanceolatum, glabrum, 3-nerve; arista

lemmate 1-2.5 plo longior; palea anguste

lanceolata, membranacea, marginibus supra

auriculas molliter pubescentibus; lodiculae 2,

minutae, spatulatae, glabrae.

136

Plants perennial, 45-55 cm tall; culms simple,

tufted, erect or slightly geniculate toward the

base, the nodes pubescent; sheaths glabrous,

the collar pubescent, the veins prominent;

ligules about 0.2 mm long, glabrous, the margin

erose; blades linear-lanceolate, flat, 8-25 cm

long, 4-6 mm wide, narrowed at the base,

glabrous on both surfaces except for a few hairs

toward the tip and the pubescence, sometimes

with long hairs intermixed, above the ligule, the

margins antrorsely scabrous; panicles 10-18 em

long, narrow, interrupted, the branches loosely

appressed; spikelets about 4-4.5 mm long,

(.5-0.6 mm wide, narrowly lanceolate, dorsally

compressed, with short hairs at the base, in

pairs, the members of each pair with short un-

equal pedicels; glumes subequal, both 3-nerved,

the nerves scabrous, the middle one exerted into

a short awn, the internerves glabrous; lemma at

maturity equaling the glumes, lanceolate,

glabrous, 3-nerved, the acute tip extending into

an awn about 1—2.5 times as long as the lemma;

palea narrowly lanceolate, membranaceous, en-

closing a perfect flower, keeled on the back

along the two lateral nerves, the margins auri-

cled toward the base, softly pubescent from

above the auricles to the tip; lodicules two,

minute, spatulate, glabrous.

The type is in the herbarium of the Uni-

versity of Michigan, duplicate type in the U. S.

National Herbarium, collected by H. H. Bart-

lett, no. 17235, December 6, 1940, grassland

at Del Monte, Bukidnon, Mindanao Island,

Philippines.

This species shows some resemblance to

Garnotia stricta Brongn., the type species of the

genus, and different collections have been re-

ferred to it. In view of this fact, a thorough

study was made of the characteristics of the

real Garnotia stricta Brongn. as proposed in

1830. Since the type specimen, which came

from ‘Tle de Taiti,”’ is not available, Brongni-

art’s original description and the accompany-

ing illustration showing the awnless lemma (pl.

21) are the only authentic bases for determining

the identity of this species. The species here

proposed differs from Garnotia stricta Brongn.

in the absence of a rhizome, in the glabrous

ligule, short-awned second glume, long-awned

lemma, soft pubescence of the margin of the

palea from above the auricles to the tip, and in

the glabrous lodicules.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

Sacciolepis glabra Santos, sp. nov.

Annua, 40-55 cm alta; culmi graciles, erecti

vel decumbentes, nodiis inferioribus radicantes;

vaginae glabrae; ligulae membranaceae, 0.5

mm longae, marginibus pilosis; laminae lineares

5-12 cm longae, 3-5 mm latae, supra sparse

papilloso-pilosae, marginibus scaberulis; pani-

culae maturae contractae, spiciformes, cylindri-

cae, ca 2-5 cm longae, 7 mm latae; spiculae 3-4

mm longae, glabrae, a latere compressae, ob-

longo-lanceolatae; gluma prima quam spicula

ca 3 plo brevior, subacuta, 3—5-nervis, margini-

bus hyalinis; gluma secunda et lemma vacuum

aequalia, 11-nervia, illa gibbosa hoe basi sac-

catum; palea sterilis reducta; lemma fertile

quam spicula ca 2 plo brevius, lanceolato-

ellipticum; palea lemma aequans, utraque ob-

scure nervosa; granum Oblongo-ellipticum, sub-

fuscum.

Plants annual, 40—55 cm tall; culms glabrous,

slender, branched, erect to decumbent, rooting

at the lower nodes; sheaths glabrous, slightly

compressed; ligules membranous, 0.5 mm long,

the margin pilose; blades linear, the tips acute,

5-12 cm long, 3-5 mm wide, the upper ones

much longer than the lower, the upper surface

sparsely papillose-pilose, the margins scaberu-

lous; mature panicles contracted, spikelike,

cylindric, about 2.5 cm long, 7 mm wide; spike-

lets 3-4 mm long, glabrous, crowded, solitary

to subfascicled, laterally compressed, oblong-

lanceolate in dorsal view; first glume about 4 as

long as the spikelet, subacute, 3- to 5-nerved,

the margin hyaline; second glume and empty

lemma equal, both l1l-nerved, the glume

strongly gibbose below, the lemma more or

less straight for the greater part of its length

except for the saccate base; sterile palea re-

duced; fertile lemma about one-half as long as

the spikelet, lanceolate-elliptic, pale, shining,

the tip acute; palea as long as the lemma, both

obscurely nerved, chartaceous-indurate; grain

light brown, oblong-elliptic.

The type is in the herbarium of the Uni-

versity of Michigan, duplicate type in the U. S.

National Herbarium, collected by L. E. Ebalo,

no. 174, October 26-30, 1939, at Wawan and

Dimaraga Mountains, Mansalay, Island of

Mindoro, Philippines.

This species shows some relation to two

Asiatic grasses, Sacciolepis contracta (Wight &

May 15, 1948 SANTOS: NEW GRASSES FROM PHILIPPINES AND SOUTH INDIA 137

Fig. 1.—Garnotia mindanaensis: Habit sketch of the flowering plant, X 3. a, Side view of the spikelet;

b, first glume; c, second glume; d, fertile lemma; e, palea with the bisexual flower. a—e, X10. (Type.)

VOL. 33, NO. 5

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

138

, X#. a and b, Side and dorsal views

d, X10. (Type.)

of the spikelet, respectively; c, fertile lemma; d, grain. a—

Fig. 2.—Sacciolepis glabra: Habit sketch of the flowering plant

May 15, 1943 SANTOS: NEW GRASSES FROM PHILIPPINES AND SOUTH INDIA 139

Fig. 3.—Isachne lutaria: Habit sketch of the flowering plant, <4. a and b, Side and dorsal views of

the spikelet, respectively; c, side view of the lower and upper lemmas; d, ventral view of the upper

cag é, palea of the upper lemma enclosing the pistil, filaments, and lodicules; f, grain. a—f, X10.

ype.

140

Arn.) Hitche.* and S. indica (L.) Chase. It

differs from both in having much larger, gla-

brous spikelets; from S. contracta in its annual

character, the decumbent culms, rooting at the

lower nodes, the lax, sparsely pubescent blades,

and shorter panicles; and from S. indica in its

much taller habit and in the panicles, which

are more than twice as long.

Isachne lutaria Santos, sp. nov.

Annua, ca. 30 em alta; culmi graciles, adscen-

dentes, ramosi, nodiis pubescentibus vel pilosis,

eis inferioribus radicantibus; vaginae glabrae

vel marginibus ciliatae; ligulae ciliatae pilis

longis albidis; laminae lanceolatae, 2-4 cm

longae, 8-5 mm-latae, venis et marginibus

scaberulis; paniculae ovatae, 3-5 cm longae,

2.5-4 em latae, ramis flexuosis non glandulosis;

spiculae elliptico-oblongae, 1.5-1.7 mm longae,

1-1.2 mm latae; glumae subaequales spiculam

subaequantes, 9-nerves, late obtusae, sparse

hispidae; lemma floris masculi spiculam sub-

aequans, membranaceum, obscure 5-nerve;

lemma fertile quam spicula clare brevius, char-

taceum, breviter stipitatum, obscure 5-nerve,

dorso et marginibus tenuiter pubescens; palea

quam lemma paulo brevior, glabra; granum

orbicularo-oblongum.

Plants annual, about 30 cm tall; culms as-

cending, slender, branched, rooting at the lower

nodes, slightly compressed, the internodes gla-

brous, the nodes pubescent to pilose; sheaths

loose, shorter than the internodes, glabrous or

the margins ciliate, the cilia gradually increas-

ing in length toward the pilose upper portion

and continuous with the fringe of long, white

hairs which form the ligule; blades lanceolate,

2-4 em long, 3-5 mm wide, the veins and mar-

gins scaberulous, the auricles papillose-pilose;

panicles ovate, 3-5 cm long, 2.5—4 em wide, the

branches spreading, flexuous, nonglandular;

3 Mem. B. P. Bishop Mus. 8: 199, fig. 90. 1922.

4 Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 21: 8. 1908.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

spikelets elliptic-oblong, 1.5-1.7 mm long, 1—1.2

mm wide, greenish to purplish; glumes sub-

equal, about as long as the spikelet, both 9-

nerved, broadly obtuse, sparsely hispidulous,

the second more prominently convex than the

first; staminate lemma about as long as the

spikelet, obscurely 5-nerved, membranous, its

palea of the same length and texture, obscurely

2-nerved; fertile lemma distinctly shorter than

the spikelet, chartaceous, short-stipitate, ellip-

tic to elliptic-obovate, plano-convex, 5-nerved,

finely pubescent on the back and margin; palea

slightly shorter than the lemma, ovate to el-

liptic-ovate, glabrous, enclosing a _ perfect

flower; grain brown, orbicular-oblong.

The type is in the herbarium of the Univer-

sity of Michigan, fragment of type in the U. S.

National Herbarium, collected by E. W.

Erlanson, no. 5190, January 8, 1934, at the

edge of a paddy field, Trivandrum, Travancore,

South India. ‘

The specific epithet refers to the muddy

habitat of this grass.

While the characters of this species agree in

many respects with those of Isachne globosa

(Thunb.) O. Kuntze,® it is distinguished from

the latter by the smaller spikelets, sparsely

hispidulous glumes, and the short-pubescent

back of the upper lemma. I[sachne globosa

(Thunb.) O. Kuntze is based on Milium globo-

sum Thunberg.® Laségue’ states that Thun-

berg’s specimens are in Stockholm, Sweden,

which indicates that the type is probably in the

famous herbarium of the Naturhistoriska

Riksmuseet. Since present world conditions ~

make the type inaccessible for examination, the

determination of the Thunberg species is based

on his original description and the topotype

collected by Hisauti (U.S. National Herbarium

no. 1162864), July 1921, at Yokohama, Japan.

5 Revisio genera plantarum 2: 778. 1891.

6 Flora Japonica 49. 1784.

7 Musée botanique de A. Benjamin Delessert 344.

1845.

May 15, 1943

BROWN: UPPER CRETACEOUS CLIMBING FERN

141

PALEOBOTANY.—A climbing fern from the Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming.'

Routanp W. Brown, U. 8. Geological Survey.

The fern described here is, so far as I am

aware, the first authentic Cretaceous and

earliest known species of Lygodium from

North America. I found these specimens in

a small collection made on September 29,

1913, by V. H. Barnett and J. B. Reeside,

Jr., of the United States Geological Survey,

isec. 6, 1.33 N., R. 78 W., on the bank

of the North Platte River, 4 miles east of

Casper, Wyo. On the 1925 Geological Map

of Wyoming this locality is within the area

designated as Pierre shale. Shaw’s (1909,

pl. 9) more detailed map, depicting the

Glenrock coal field, differentiates the upper

part of the Pierre shale as a sandy, shaly,

coal-bearing sequence, in which this locality

occupies a position near coal B, which over-

lies what is now called the Parkman sand-

stone member of the Mesaverde formation,

a part of the Montana group of the Upper

Cretaceous. The matrix containing these

specimens is a gray shale with a tinge of

pink, especially when wet.

The several floras embraced by the Mesa-

verde formation or group and its equiva-

lents are much in need of critical study and

correlation. At most localities in New

Mexico and Colorado where the Mesaverde

is well developed the formation has thus far

proved relatively barren, but in the vicinity

of Rock Springs, Wyo., some strata as-

sociated with coal seams yield particularly ~

beautiful, well-preserved specimens of ferns,

conifers, and dicotyledons.

Besides the new species of fern, the col-

lection from Casper, Wyo., includes several

other unidentified ferns and a few dicotyle-

donous leaf fragments.

SCHIZAEACEAE

Lygodium pumilum Brown, n. sp.

Figs. 1-5

Sterile pinnules of palmate outline, in

pairs, 2 cm or less in width, generally with

four lobes, which are of nearly even width

? Published by permission of the Director, Geo-

logical Survey, U. 8S. Department of the Interior.

Received March 22, 1943.

throughout but may sometimes be slightly

spatulate. Tips of the lobes broadly rounded.

Margins obscurely toothed. Bases cuneate

to rounded, but none cordate as in some

living species. Petiolules short. Primary

venation the result of two dichotomies, and

secondary venation generally once-forked.

No fertile pinnules were found.

Figs. 1-5.—Lygodium pumilum Brown, n. sp.

Natural size.

This species has the smallest pinnules of

any fossil Lygodiwm known, if one rejects

the very doubtful form called Lygodiwm? .

antiquorum Shirley (1898, p. 17, pl. 17, fig.

3) from the early Mesozoic strata of Queens-

land, Australia. This is a 3-lobed specimen

about one-fourth the size of the pinnules of

L. pumilum. It was thought to be a fertile

pinnule, but as illustrated it is only a

tantalizing outline. Consequently, judgment

regarding its true identity must be reserved.

Describing the Paleocene species, Lygo-

dium coloradense, from the Dawson arkose

in the Denver Basin of Colorado, F. H.

Knowlton (1930, p. 30) discussed the living

and fossil species of Lygodium. It appears

that the only American Cretaceous species

so far reported are L. trichomanoides Les-

quereux from the Dakota sandstone of

Kansas and L. compactum Lesquereux from

the Laramie formation of Colorado. It was

Knowlton’s opinion, in which I concur, that

these species, founded upon single fragments

neither of which can be identified with cer-

142

tainty, are of little or no value. They are

examples of the unfortunate practice of at-

taching generic and specific labels to speci-

mens with insufficient character to warrant

such distinction, with the ultimate result of

bringing paleobotany into disrepute. These

two specimens should be and are hereby re-

jected as representing identifiable species of

Lygodium. This leaves L. pumilum as the

only known authentic American Cretaceous

species. Its diminutiveness clearly separates

it from the Tertiary species.

One authentic European species, Lygo-

dium cretaceum Debey and Ettingshausen

(1859, p. 198, pl. 2, figs. 18-21; pl. 8, fig. 28),

said to be from the Senonian of Prussia, is

represented by fertile and sterile foliage.

The sporangia of this species occur on the

margins of leafy pinnules, a habit shown by

a number of living species.

Lygodium pumilum resembles no living

species very closely, but apparently belongs

in the group that includes L. palmatum, the

climbing fern of the eastern United States.

The latter, rather rare now because it was

indiscriminately collected for decorative

purposes before receiving legal protection,

frequents moist thickets and open woods in

lowlands but may sometimes be found at

elevations exceeding 2,000 feet. Most of the

40 living species of Lygodium now listed are

tropical or subtropical. They have a lithe,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

willowy attractiveness, and their dissected

foliage displays great variation, which

makes accurate identification of the species

extremely difficult. The climbing portion

above ground corresponds to the frond in

nonclimbing ferns, and the foliage itself,

both fertile and sterile, constitutes sub-

divisions of the frond, called pinnules by

some and pinnae by. others.

Considering that palms are also found in

the Mesaverde formation, we may conjec-

ture that Lygodium pumilum was a member

of a floral assemblage adapted to a warmer,

moister, less rigorous climate than that

which prevails in Wyoming today.

I am grateful to Dr. William R. Maxon,

of the National Museum, for the privilege of

consultation with him during the prepara-

tion of this paper.

LITERATURE CITED

Suaw, E.W. The Glenrock coal field, Wyoming.

U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 341: 151-164.

1909.

SHIRLEY, JOHN.

Queensland. Queensland Geol.

Bull. 7. 1898.

Knowuron, F. H. The flora of the Denver and

associated formations of Colorado. U.S.

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 155. 1930.

Dressy, M. H., and Errrnesnausen, C. Ur-

weltlichen Acrobryen des Kreidegebirges von

Aachen und Maestricht. Denkschr. Akad.

Wiss. Wien 17: 183-248. 1859.

Additions to the fossil flora of

Survey

ORNITHOLOGY.—Description of a third form of curassow of the genus Pauxi.*

ALEXANDER WETMORE, U.S. National Museum, and W. H. Puetps, Caracas,

Venezuela.

The genus Pauzi has been one of the least

known of the interesting group of curassows

in spite of the fact that the typical form was

named by Linnaeus in 1766. The earliest

Specimens to come to the attention of

students of birds apparently were obtained

from Indians, and were attributed errone-

ously to Mexico, the Island of Curacao,

Cayenne, the upper Orinoco, and various

other localities where the species is not

known to exist. In 1870 Sclater and Salvin

recorded Pauai from near Caracas, and it

was determined in the years that followed

that these birds inhabited the forested

1 Received March 25, 1943.

mountain areas of northern Venezuela from

near Caracas west to the vicinity of Mérida.

Comparatively few specimens have been re-

ceived in museums in the period since the

latter part of the sixteenth century when

Aldrovandus wrote of it under the name of

the Gallina indica alia, until recently when

its haunts have become better known. Un-

expectedly, two were obtained recently by

M. A. Carriker, Jr., for the Academy of

Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, during

work in Bolivia, in the hills above Bolivar,

at 2,500 feet elevation near Palmar, in the

Yungas de Cochabamba. These proved to

have the casque rounded and conical in-

stead of swollen and were described by Bond

May 15, 1943

and de Schauensee as Pawaxi unicornis.?

From February to March, 1940, W. H.

Phelps put an expedition in the field in the

eastern slopes of the Sierra de Perija, west

of Machiques, in northwestern Venezuela.

One of the collectors of the party purchased

from Indians of the Manastara tribe living

WETMORE AND PHELPS: A THIRD FORM OF CURASSOW

143

ported a paujz in the adjacent forests, but

none could be found during the course of

the expedition. In 1942 a second necklace

was received in Caracas as a gift with the

assurance that it came from the Indians of

the Machiques region. This second necklace

was composed of beads, the bills, chest

Fig. 1.—Head of Pauwzi p. unicornis Bond and de Schauensee (above)

and of P. p. pauai (Linnaeus) one-half natural size, reproduced to scale,

through the courtesy of J. S. Bond and R. M. de Schauensee.

at La Sabana a necklace made of beads,

with decorations in the form of three head

scalps of Pauxzt composed of the upper half

of the bill, the casque, and the skin of the

crown down to the eyes. The Indians re-

2 Pauxt unicorns Bond and de Schauensee,

Notulae Naturae Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,

no. 29: 1. Oct. 24, 1939.

feathers, and humeri of two species of

toucans, and six of the Pauzz scalps.

In 1941 M. A. Carriker, Jr., collecting

for the U. 8. National Museum, following

work with A. Wetmore through the Guajira,

continued into the Sierra Negra at the

northern end of the Perij4 range on the

Colombian side of the mountains. In this

144

work he secured five fine skins of Pauzz, a

male at 1,800 feet near El Bosque back of

Carriapia on June 21, a male at 1,200 to

1,500 feet near Tierra Nueva, July 21, and

two adult females and one juvenile between

4,000 and 4,500 feet near Monte Elias in the

same general region on August 9 and 11.

In Caracas, on comparing the scalps from

the necklaces with skins from farther east in

Venezuela, it was evident at once that an

unknown form was concerned. After com-

parison there, through the kindness of Dr.

William Beebe, six of the scalps, showing

the variations in form, were brought to the

American Museum of Natural History,

where E. Thomas Gilliard made further

studies with material available there and in

Philadelphia, assembling much valuable in-

formation. When the series of skins in the

National Museum came to his attention it

seemed desirable to select one of those as

type rather than one of the fragmentary

heads as was first intended. As Gilliard was

under necessity of undertaking other work

that has taken him out of the United States,

we are completing the study with the aid of

additional material.

The investigation has been much assisted

by the kindness of Miss Jocelyn Crane, of

the Department of Tropical Research, New

York Zoological Society, in photographing

in Caracas the nine heads obtained from the

Indian necklaces.

The hitherto unknown form may be

known as—

Pauxi pauxi gilliardi, n. subsp.

Characters.—Similar to Pauzxit pauxi pauxt

(Linnaeus)? but with the frontal casque or

helmet smaller, less swollen (Fig. 2) ; bill smaller.

Description—Type, U.S.N.M. 368540, from

1,200 to 1,500 feet elevation near Tierra Nueva.

at the northern end of the Serranfa de Valledu-

par, or Sierra Negra, slightly south of east of

Fonseca, Departamento de Magdalena, Co-

lombia. Abdomen, extreme lower breast, under

tail-coverts, and tip of tail white; rest of

plumage black; feathers of head and upper

neck, short, thick and soft to the touch, those

surrounding the eye being very small; foreneck,

3 Crax pauzi Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 12,

1: 270. 1766.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

breast, and sides with a greenish sheen, with

each feather bordered distally with clear black,

producing a dull, squamated appearance that

is most prominent on the upper breast and

foreneck; exposed feathers of dorsal surface,

including wings and tail, also with a dull green-

ish cast with the wing coverts, lower hind neck,

upper back, and longer upper tail-coverts

margined narrowly with deep black to produce

somewhat indistinct squamations; lower back

and rump dull black. Bill dull red; casque

blackish brown, with a wash of dull silvery gray

on distal third; tarsi and toes dull reddish

brown; claws blackish brown (from dried skin).

Fig. 2.—Head of Pauzi p. gilliardt,

one-half natural size.

Measurements.—Males, 2 specimens, wing

354, 370, tail 305, 317, culmen from base of

casque 32.1, 33.7, tarsus 110.3-112.1, length of

casque (casque deformed in one bird) 58.3,

width of casque 24.1, depth of casque 24.5,

greatest circumference of casque 76 mm.

Females, 2 specimens, wing 336, 352, tail 290,

292, culmen from base of casque 30.4, 30.7,

May 15, 1943

tarsus 102.9, 103, length of casque 53.5, 57.8,

width of casque 23.9, 27, depth. of casque 24,

27.1, greatest circumference of casque 76, 83

mm.

Type, male, wing 354, tail 305, culmen from

casque 32.1, tarsus 110.3, length of casque 58.3,

width of casque 24.1, depth of casque 24.5,

greatest circumference of casque 76 mm.

Range.—Known from the mountain forests

of the northern part of the Sierra de Perij4 from

1,200 to at least 4,500 feet elevation from the

region east of Fonseca, Magdalena, Colombia,

around to the headwaters of the Rio Negro

above Machiques, Zulia, Venezuela.

Remarks.—It is easily apparent that the

differences in the three forms of the genus

Pauxzi now known are found mainly in the

casque, which varies from the cylindrical,

somewhat tapering form seen in the two

known specimens of P. wnicornis to the con-

siderably swollen, figlike shape of typical

pauxt, with gilliard: coming between (Figs.

1 and 2). The feathers of the center of the

crown, nape, and hind neck in unicornis are

stiffer and are glossy, instead of soft and

velvety; but tendency toward this condition

is found also in pauai and gilliardt.

Comparative measurements (in mm.) of

the casque in all available material follow,

those registered for gilliardi including the

nine heads from Indian necklaces in the

Phelps collection:

11 pauat 13 gilliardi 2 unicornis

Culmen, from base of

GUS op 65 ea Oe 32-39 29-36 32-35

Greatest width of casque. 28-40 19-27 20

Greatest depth of casque. 30.5-38 21-27 .1 23

Greatest circumference

GMCASAUC cis oe cs se ba 93-117 63-85 66-75

The three races will stand therefore as

follows:

PAUXI PAUXI PAUXI (Linnaeus)

Mountain forests of northwestern Vene-

zuela from near Caracas, through the Cum-

bre de Valencia to the Mérida region.

PAUXI PAUXI GILLIARDI Phelps and

Wetmore

Forests of the Sierra de Perij4 from the

western slope in Colombia east of Fonseca,

Magdalena, and the Montes de Oca,

Guajira, Colombia, around to the head-

WETMORE AND PHELPS: A THIRD FORM OF CURASSOW

145

waters of the Rio Negro above Machiques

in Venezuela, probably extending much

farther south.

PAUXI PAUXI UNICORNIS Bond and

de Schauensee

Known from two specimens from near

Palmar, Yungas de Cochabamba, Bolivia.

The form of the casque varies somewhat

with age. Carriker secured a young female

of gilliardi at Monte Elias, Magdalena,

Colombia, on August 11, 1941, that ap-

parently is not quite half grown. It already

has the plumage of the adult, except that a

few bright brown feathers of the young

plumage are still found in the crown, some

of the wing coverts and back feathers are

tipped, or occasionally mottled lightly with

bright brown and buff, the secondaries and

tertials are mottled somewhat with bright

brown and the feathers of the sides, lower

breast, and legs are tipped with whitish to

buffy brown. The casque in this bird is

merely a rounded knob above the base of

the culmen, rising about 7 mm from a base

that is approximately 15 mm long and 8 mm

wide. Gilliard’s notes describe an immature

pauxt in the American Museum of Natural

History (no. 471586) with the casque about

two-thirds developed which has the greatest

circumference about 80 mm. One or two of

the heads of gildzardi in the Phelps collection

may be younger than the others as indicated

by the smaller casque. The most southern

race, unicornis, has the casque more uni-

formly cylindrical throughout. The two

northern forms are marked by a posterior

swelling that reaches its maximum develop-

ment in typical pauwaz.

Linnaeus‘ based the description of his

Crax pauzi on the accounts of Aldrovandus,

Willughby, Hernandez, Edwards, Brisson,

and other early authors, and from these

sources indicated that the bird came from

‘“Mexico.”’ The occurrence of the species has

been in much confusion with various er-

roneous localities included. From present

knowledge it appears probable that the few

examples seen by the early writers came

from Venezuela, since that is the section of

the known range ordinarily accessible to the

4 Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1: 270. 1766.

146

early travelers. We, therefore, designate the

type locality as near Caracas, Venezuela,

since in early days forests suitable for Pauaz

were found near the city.

As regards the altitudinal distribution of

these birds it is erroneous to limit them to

the Tropical Zone. Two specimens of Pauazz

in the Phelps collection were obtained in the

Cumbre de Valencia, Carabobo at 1,440

meters (4,725 feet), and at Cubiro, Lara, at

1,900 meters (about 6,200 feet). These are

in the lower edge of the Subtropical Zone.

We have pleasure in naming the new form

for E. Thomas Gilliard, in recognition of his

work on the material on which it is based.

Specimens examined.—Pauxt p. pauzt.

Venezuela: (American Museum of Natural

History) 30", 7 sex ?, Montafias del Capas,

Mérida region (Bricefio); 1 ©, Limones,

Rio Limones, Mérida region; 1 sex?, zoo

specimen; 1 sex?, ‘“‘northwest Venezuela”’

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

(mounted). (Academy of Natural Sciences

of Philadelphia) 3 sex?, zoo specimens; 1

sex?, “northern South America.’’ (Phelps

collection, Caracas) 1c’, Cumbre de Valen-

cia, Carabobo, at 1,440 meters; 1 @,

Cubiro, Lara, 1,900 meters.

Pauxi p. gilliard:. Colombia: (U. 8. Na-

tional Museum) 10”, El Bosque, 1,800 feet

elevation, in the Sierra Negra, near Car-

riapia, Guajira; 1 o (type) Tierra Nueva,

1,200—1,500 feet in the Sierra Negra, Mag-

dalena; 2 © adult, 1 @ juvenile, Monte

Elias, 4,500 feet in the Sierra Negra, Magda-

lena. Venezuela: (Phelps Collection, Cara-

cas) 9 heads, sex?, on the Rio Negro above

Machiques, in the Sierra de Perija, Zulia.

Pauzi p. unicornis. Bolivia (Academy of

Natural Sciences of Philadelphia) 1 o&

(type), 1 9, hills above Bolivar, 2,500 feet

elevation near Palmar, Yungas de Cocha-

bamba.

MAMMALOGY.—The systematic status of certain pocket gophers, with special ref-

erence to Thomomys monticola.!

In various papers published during recent

years the writer has made efforts to bring

together in specific or near-specific groups

many of the names proposed for pocket

gophers during a pioneer period when sys-

tematic relationships were very imperfectly

known. Our knowledge of these relation-

ships is still far from complete, but, espe-

cially in view of the extraordinary number

of names involved, some semblance of sys-

tematic order is imperative. In dealing with

the names the term “group” may con-

veniently be used rather loosely to designate

either an aggregation of subspecies or an

assemblage of closely allied species.

In ‘Remarks on Pocket Gophers, with

Special Reference to Thomomys talpoides”’

(Journ. Mamm. 20: 233. May 14, 1939), I

traced the local range of the Thomomys

talpoides series south in western Washington

to the Columbia River. The apparent re-

placement of populations of the talpozdes

type by the Thomomys monticola series in

the Pacific coast region south of the Colum-

bia River was also noted, but the subspecies

were not formally segregated, and such

1 Received March 11, 1943.

E. A. GoLpMAN, Fish and Wildlife Service.

confused combinations as Thomomys doug-

lasit oregonus Merriam have remained in

current literature. At the suggestion of

Gerrit S. Miller, Jr. certain names are here

revised in order to make them available for

inclusion in a new list of North American

mammals being prepared by him.

LIST OF SUBSPECIES OF THOMOMYS MONTICOLA,

WITH TYPE LOCALITIES

Thomomys monticola monticola Allen: Mount

Tallac, Eldorado County, Calif.

Synonyms.—Thomomys monticola pine-

torum Merriam: Sisson, west base of

Mount Shasta, Siskiyou County, Calif.;

Thomomys monticola premaxillaris Grin-

nell: 2 miles south of South Yolla Bolly

Mountain (7,500 feet), Tehama County,

Calif. :

Thomomys monticola oregonus Merriam: Ely,

near Oregon City, Willamette Valley,

Clackamas County, Ore.

Thomomys monticola hesperus Merriam: Tilla-

mook, Tillamook County, Ore.

Thomomys monticola niger Merriam: Seaton,

near mouth of Umpqua River, Douglas

County, Ore.

Thomomys monticola mazama Merriam: Anna

May 15, 1943

Creek, near Crater Lake, Klamath County,

Ore.

Thomomys monticola hellert Elliot: Gold Beach,

mouth of Rogue River, Curry County, Ore.

SUBSPECIES OF THE THOMOMYS UM-

BRINUS GROUP NOT PREVIOUSLY

RECOGNIZED AS SUCH

Thomomys umbrinus quercinus Burt and Camp-

bell: Pefia Blanca Spring, altitude 4,500

feet, near Mexican boundary, north of

Monument 128, Pajarito Mountains, Santa

Cruz County, Ariz.

Thomomys umbrinus proximus Burt and Camp-

bell: Old Parker Ranch (Pickett’s Ranch

on U. 8S. Geological Survey topographic

map, Patagonia Quadrangle, edition of

August 1905), altitude 4,800 feet, west

slope of Santa Rita Mountains, Pima

County, Ariz.

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

147

SUBSPECIES OF THOMOMYS BOTTAE HITHERTO

TREATED AS DISTINCT SPECIES

Thomomys bottae magdalenae Nelson and Gold-

man: Magdalena Island, Lower California,

Mexico.

Thomomys bottae martirensis Allen: San Pedro

Martir Mountains (8,200 feet), Lower

California, Mexico.

Additional specimens of Thomomys bot-

tae collinus Goldman, from Fly Park (9,000

feet), Chiricahua Mountains, Ariz., indicate

that the characters ascribed to Thomomys

umbrinus chiricahuae Nelson and Goldman,

from Pinery Canyon (7,500 feet), Chirica-

hua Mountains, Ariz., are within the range

of individual variation in that subspecies.

The name Thomomys umbrinus chiricahuae

should, therefore, be placed in the synonymy

of Thomomys bottae collinus.

ICHTHYOLOGY.—The osteology and relationships of the bathypelagic fishes of the

genus Bathylagus Gunther with notes on the systematic position of Leuroglossus

stilbius Gilbert and Therobromus eallorhinus Lucas.

CHAPMAN, California Academy of Sciences.

i SCHULTZ. )

This report describes the bony structures

and the gross visceral anatomy of the genus

Bathylagus, discusses its relationships, and

defines the family Bathylagidae. A brief ac-

count is given of the anatomy of Leuro-

glossus stilbius, and reasons why it should be

placed in the Bathylagidae rather than the

Argentinidae are listed. Therobromus callo-

rhinus, known only from bones found in the

stomachs of the fur seals of the North

Pacific, is identified as a species of Bathyla-

gus.

The genus Bathylagus comprises at pres-

ent 16 species of fishes, 8 of which have been

described in the past 12 years. Representa-

tives occur on both sides of the North and

South Atlantic Oceans, in the Antarctic, off

the west coast of North America from

southern Mexico to the Bering Sea, and in

the Okhotsk Sea. They typically inhabit

deeper water layers outside the continental

shelf (Norman, 1930; Parr, 1931 and 1937;

Beebe, 1933; Chapman, 1939 and 1940), al-

1 Received February 11, 1943.

WiLBERT McL&rop

(Communicated by LEONARD

though B. argyrogaster has been taken

toward the surface layers (Norman, 1930).

Bathylagus was originally placed by Giin-

ther (1878) in the Salmonidae. Regan (1909

and 1914) considered it to be a member of

the Argentinidae, and Norman (1930), Parr

(1931), Beebe (1933), and others have fol-

lowed him. Jordan and Evermann (1896)

placed it in the Microstomidae, as did

Barnard (1925) and others. In recent years

it has been placed both in the Argentinidae

and Microstomidae by the compilers of the

Pisces section of the Zoological Record. Gill

(1884), with his usual keen insight, erected

for the genus the family Bathylagidae by

name only, but Goode and Bean (1895) gave

a diagnosis of the family. Gill’s classification

has been followed by Jordan (1923), Jordan,

Evermann, and Clark (1930), Fowler (1936)

Parr (1937), and most recently by Berg

(1940).

This study is based upon dissections of

Bathylagus pacificus Gilbert taken by the

International Fisheries Commission in the

Gulf of Alaska and off the coast of British

148

Columbia. The illustrations are based on an

adult female, with well-developed eggs,

taken off the west coast of the Queen Char-

lotte Islands, IFC station 321¢ (Thompson

and Van Cleve, 1936). Diagnoses have been

made on specimens of B. alascanus Chap-

man and Leuroglossus stilbius Gilbert. Un-

less otherwise mentioned, references to the

anatomy of Argentina, Muicrostoma, and

Macropinna are based upon dissections by

the writer.

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the kind-

ness of H. A. Dunlop, director of investiga-

tions, International Fisheries Commission,

in allowing me to work on their specimens

of Bathylagus and Macropinna; Dr. George

S. Myers, Stanford University, in providing

me with a specimen of Leuroglossus; and

Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes,

U. 8. National Museum, for the loan of

specimens of Argentina and Microstoma.

ANTORBITAL PORTION OF CRANIUM

Ethmoid cartilage (Figs. 1-3) restricted in

extent by size of ethmoid and prefrontal os-

sifications; extending anteriorly as broad, flat

plate between dorsal and ventral ethmoid

bones; thickest between prefrontals where it

rises to frontals and shows between them;

pierced on inner edge of prefrontals by foramina

of olfactory nerves; extending unbroken under

frontals to sphenotics, thus separating orbito-

sphenoid and alisphenoids from frontals; ven-

tral surface flat, with palatine synchondrized

along entire edge anterior to prefrontals as in

Macropinna (Chapman, 1942b); running pos-

teriorly for short distance along parasphenoid.

Mesethmoid (Figs. 1, 3) consisting of a nearly

circular, flat plate, which forms greater part of

rostral plate, and a strong buttress, which rises

from dorsal surface of this plate to meet

frontals.

Ventral ethmoid (Fig. 2) a thin circular plate

like mesethmoid above it; shallowly concave on

ventral side; perhaps homologous with similar

bone in certain osmerids (Chapman, 1941b).

Frontals (Figs. 1-3) everywhere separate,

with cartilage exposed between them pos-

teriorly, anteriorly, and between orbits; lying

over only a portion of edges of sphenotics and

supraoccipital posteriorly; sloping evenly and

gently downward from supraoccipital to mes-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

ethmoid. Each bone bearing on its lateral edge

a high and prominent trough in which frontal

extension of lateral line system lies and to

which broad, thin supraocular and postfrontal

of circumorbital series are attached mem-

branously; these structures probably special

ossifications of sensory system, but indistin-

guishably fuse with frontals; higher anteriorly

than width of frontals between them and re-

sponsible for concavity of interocular region;

formed from extremely thin bone and quite

separate from broad supraorbitals.

Prefrontals (Figs. 1-3) thin, broad ossifica-

tions of nearly circular shape in lateral ethmoid

cartilage, with very thin lateral edges.

Parasphenoid (Figs. 2, 3) long, slender, and

straight, extending from ventral ethmoid to

basioccipital; concave on ventral surface under

ethmoid, with broad posterior shaft of vomer

lying in cavity; heaviest and widest where it

reaches prootics; posterior extension of bone

thin and lying flatly in shallow concavity of

basiooccipital. No true myodome. Parasphenoid

flatly attached to prootics and heavy cartilage

between those bones so ocular muscles attach

in shallow concavity formed by short wings of

parasphenoid and bulky ventral edges of pro-

otics.

Vomer (Figs. 1-3) heavy and large, project-

ing anteriorly beyond ethmoid structures; on

anterior edge bearing 30 to 32 conical teeth,

which are set in sockets in bone, project slightly

anteriorly as well as ventrally, and form entire

dentition of upper jaw; a notch in bone at

lateral corner of dentigerous area into which

anterior end of palatine fits; long, broad, me-

dian shaft projects back in concavity of ventral

ethmoid to end on parasphenoid.

POSTORBITAL PORTION OF CRANIUM

Cartilage of postorbital portion of cranium

everywhere restricted in extent (Figs. 1-3); re-

duced to narrow bands, which disappear be-

tween supraoccipital and epiotics; expanded

between supraoccipital and sphenotics, but

these areas covered by parietals; somewhat ex-

panded between epiotics and exoccipitals;

greatest expansion between basioccipital and

prootics, but considerable part of this covered

by parasphenoid; sockets of hyomandibula

lines with cartilage.

Dorsal surface of postorbital portion of

May 15, 1943

cranium with no prominent ridges or depres-

sions, sloping gently and evenly from parietals

to posterior edge of pterotics without definite

temporal fossae, and sloping between conical

tips of epiotics and supraoccipital down to

foramen magnum.

Supraoccipital (Figs. 1, 2) broad and shield-

shaped, forming prominent portion of dorsal

surface of cranium; anterolateral edges of

bones covered by parietals; lateral portion of

anterior edge covered by frontals, but median

portion exposed; bluntly pointed posterior end

sloping downward, but broadly separated from

foramen magnum by epiotics and exoccipitals;

short, sharp vane of bone projecting from mid-

line, on which originate two thin but tough

muscles, which extend back between myomeres

and along distal ends of interneurals to origin

of dorsal fin.

Thin, scalelike parietals (Figs. 1, 3) widely

separated by supraoccipital, partially covering

sphenotics and supraoccipital and completely

covering cartilage between those bones.

Epiotics (Figs. 1, 8) prominent, conical bones

meeting broadly behind supraoccipitals, re-

ceiving ligament from dorsal fork of post-

temporal on blunt tip of bone, and each with

deep concavity on posterior surface. —

Sphenotics (Figs. 1-3) prominent bones with

considerable dorsal, lateral, and anterior sur-

face. Socket of hyomandibular resting not so

much on sphenotic as upon cartilage between

that bone and prootic.

Pterotics (Figs. 1-3) with socket of hyo-

mandibular angling across entire ventral sur-

face of each bone. From dorsal surface a long,

bulky column of cartilage, which joins ventral

and dorsal surfaces internally, can be seen.

Alisphenoids (Figs. 2, 3) large bones provid-

ing anterolateral protection for brain; separated

from prootics, sphenotics, and orbitosphenoid

by slender bands of cartilage, and everywhere

separate ventrally.

Orbitosphenoids (Figs. 2, 3) meeting mesially

but not completely fused; from ventral edge a

very thin strand of ossification extends into

interorbital membrane; olfactory nerves emerg-

ing between bones anteriorly.

Ventral side of cranium marked by triangu-

lar expansion of basioccipital and prootics, in

which the large otoliths lie. Otolith capsules not

projecting ventrally as much as in Macropinna

or the osmerids.

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

149

Prootics (Figs. 2, 3) largest bones of ventral

surface of cranium, marked by otolith expan-

sions and by small posterior foramen of trigem-

inofacial complex; these two foramina sepa-

rated by thin, strongly ossified bridge, which

forms sharp ridge setting off anterior from ven-

tral surface of bone; bones separated ventrally

by broad, thick band of cartilage; anterior end

of this cartilage much thickened and slightly

concave, with shallow concavity between it and

parasphenoid. Posterior eye muscles inserted in

this area.

Each exoccipital (Figs. 1-3) strongly concave

on ventral side with two foramina in posterior

part of concavity, the posterior of which is

much the larger; posterior projection of bone

lying along condyle of basioccipital, sending

process dorsally, separated from similar process

of other exoccipital by narrow band of cartilage;

these two processes form sides and roof of

foramen magnum but do not form part of

condyle and do not articulate with any process

of first vertebra; concavity of posterior surface

of epiotic continued on posterior surface of ex-

occipital.

Constricted posterior end of basioccipital

(Figs. 1-3), which forms occipital condyle,

heavily ossified and bearing ridges of denser os-

sification ventrally and laterally; ventral sur-

face of bone shallowly concave anteriorly.

Opisthotic (not shown in Fig. 3) tiny and ob-

long; in some specimens lying entirely on exoc-

cipital midway between foramen of vagus nerve

and lateral edge of bone, and in others lying

more laterally and partially resting on cartilage

between exoccipital and pterotic; curving

around posterior edge of exoccipital and thus

with a small posterior surface which is not

visible dorsally ; receiving ligament from ventral

fork of posttemporal.

SPECIAL OSSIFICATIONS OF SENSORY SYSTEM

All bones associated with extension of lateral

line system over head thin and weak, most with

no tubes developed for protection of nerves, but

acting merely as supports. Nasal thin, slender,

semitubular, and almost flattened; lying direct-

ly over nasal capsule; by no means so big or

broad in my specimens as in Beebe’s (1933,

fig. 37). Six bones of circumorbital series as

shown by Beebe, except that in my specimens

postorbital considerably larger than supra-

orbital. It is interesting to note the turn evolu-

150

tion has taken in the big-eyed Bathylagus,

whose eyes are placed laterally and strongly

protected dorsally by the expanded supra-

orbital and postorbital; whereas in the big-eyed

Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933) and Macro-

pinna (Chapman, 1942b), which have the eyes

dorsally directed, these bones are absent and

the eyes are protected by enormously expanded

suborbitals, bones that are weakly developed in

Bathylagus.

A semitubular bone, attached to sphenotic

directly behind eye, bridging gap for nerve

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VOL. 338, NO. 5

ankylosed to that bone. Ossified tube for nerve

present on mandible, securely ankylosed to

both dentary and angular.

UPPER JAW

Premaxillary and maxillary thin and delicate,

neither bearing teeth nor having gape edge

thickened for that purpose (Fig. 4); upper jaw

loosely bound to cranium by delicate mem-

branes only, neither bone equipped with an-

terior condyle for attachment to cranium; an-

terior end of premaxillary lying in groove be-

Fig. 1.—Dorsal view of the cranium of Bathylagus pacificus. Fig. 2.—ventral view

of the cranium of the same. 8.2.

between sphenotic and preopercle. Nerve en-

cased in tube on dorsal arm of preopercle, but

on ventral arm this tube opens ventrally to be-

come trough. A short tube protects nerve on

lateral face of opercle, projecting downward

from condyle. Protection for nerve over sphenot-

ic and pterotic irregular, not tubular and ex-

ceedingly flimsy. Lightly ossified tissue lending

some support to nerve between cranium and

supracleithrum. Nerve running ventrally on

supracleithrum in trough of thin bone securely

tween anterior end of mesethmoid and vomer,

not meeting premaxillary of other side; bound

rather loosely to premaxillary but not to pala-

tine. No supramaxillary found in any specimen

(such a bone is shown by Beebe, 1938, in fig.

36, but not in fig. 39, and is not mentioned by

him in the text).

MANDIBLE

Mandible (Fig. 4) consisting of dentary,

articular, angular, sesamoid articular, Meckel’s

May 15, 1943

cartilage, and a superficial ossified tube for

mandibular branch of lateral line system. Den-

tary forming greater part of mandible, so thin

that sesamoid articular can be seen through

it in stained specimens; overlying considerable

portion of articular; bearing 82 teeth in speci-

men drawn, which are conical, small, and

closely pressed together in a single series.

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

151

interior shaft of articular to a similar but

slenderer shaft on inner side of dentary; not

thick, but broad posteriorly. Sesamoid articular

thin and of irregular shape, with longest axis

anterior-posterior, and area about one-third

that shown for articular (Fig. 4); lying princi-

pally on dorsal edge of Meckel’s cartilage, but

extending also onto articular and dentary. Thin

Fig. 3.—Lateral view of the cranium of the Bathylagus pacificus. Fig. 4.—Lateral view

of the suspensorium of the same. 3.2.

Angular small but heavily ossified, receiving

broad ligament from interopercle. Articular

triangular with heavily ossified socket of articu-

lation at apex, with strong, thick shaft of bone

extending forward from socket on mesial side,

presumably ossification of posterior third of

Meckel’s cartilage.

Meckel’s cartilage about one-third length

of mandible, extending from above-mentioned

ossified tube for mandibular branch of lateral

line system on external side of dentary and

articular, obviously a special ossification of

sensory system but indistinguishably fused to

the mandibular bones. Sensory canal com-

municates with exterior by means of four pores

in the bone.

PALATINE ARCH

Palatine (Fig. 4) securely joined along entire

152

dorsal edge to ethmoid cartilage as in Macro-

pinna, thus forming firm support between bones

of oral cavity and cranium; band of cartilage

behind palatine also participating in this junc-

tion. Anterior end of palatine more heavily os-

sified than rest of bone and inserted in cavity

between vomer and ethmoid cartilage; no teeth

on palatine of specimens examined, but since

vomerine dentition extends posteriorly under

anterior tip of palatine, the latter appears to

bear a few teeth until a complete dissection is

made.

Pterygoid (Fig. 4) simple, well-ossified bone

joining palatine and quadrate together strongly,

overlapping both bones laterally as well as

mesially.

Quadrate (Fig. 4) has form of nearly half a

circle, with small but heavily ossified condyle;

slender process projecting posteriorly along pre-

opercle and symplectic, thus binding palatine

and hyoid arches together and binding both to

preopercle.

Broad band of cartilage around quadrate

forms broad patch between quadrate and pala-

tine and extends around end of latter to syn-

chondrize with ethmoid cartilage. This does not

extend posteriorly along symplectic. Simple,

thin membrane between symplectic and meso-

pterygoid.

Mesopterygoid (Fig. 4) broad, thin and very

similar to same structure in Macropinna and

Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933); ventral edge

lies under quadrate and palatine (dotted line

in Fig. 4), and entirely mesial to cartilage of

this region, to which it is tightly bound. Bone

appears to be an ossification of membranes of

roof of mouth and therefore not properly con-

sidered with cartilage bones of palatine arch.

Metapterygoid either absent or represented by

small bit of bone behind mesopterygoid (Fig.

4). Of same structure as mesopterygoid and

separated from that bone by thin membrane

only; doubtfully homologous with metaptery-

goid of other isospondylous fishes.

HYOID ARCH

Hyomandibular (Fig. 4) articulating along

full lateral surface of pterotic and sphenotic as

in Macropinna and Opisthoproctus (Trewevas,

1933). Articulation anteriorly on cartilage be-

tween sphenotic and prootic. Opercular con-

dyle nearly as long as articular head although

much slenderer, leaving considerable open

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VOL. 33, NO. 5

space between opercle and preopercle. High,

thin wing of bone extending from lateral side of

hyomandibular at level of opercular condyle

attached by membranes to preopercle and ad-

jacent bone of circumorbital series. Truncus

hyoido-mandibularis facialis nerve pierces bone

in large foramen which extends nearly straight

ventrally from inner to outer side of bone to

emerge on thin wing of bone on posterior side of

shaft of hyomandibular. Wing of thin bone

present in anterior angle between articular head

and ventral shank of the bone.

Column of cartilage between hyomandibular

and symplectic (Fig. 4) with characteristic an-

terior twist so that symplectic does not con-

tinue in direct line with ventral shaft of hyo-

mandibular. A similar condition is found in

Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933). Interhyal ar-

ticulates with mesial side of this cartilage.

Symplectic (Fig. 4) a semicylindrical shaft

bent forward near its middle to form an ap-

proximately right angle with wing of thin bone

in angle. Symplectic extends to, but not be-

yond, cartilage around posterior edge of quad-

rate.

Hyoid apparatus (Fig. 5) consisting of inter-

hyal, epihyal, ceratohyal, two hypohyals, a

glossohyal (Fig. 6, not Fig. 5), and two broad

and thin branchiostegal rays, except for latter

all bones sturdy and thick, being heaviest bones

of skull. Branchiostegal rays inserted entirely

on cartilage surrounding ventral side of epihyal.

Ceratohyal constricted in its middle and with

numerous irregular ridges of denser ossification

there. Posterior two-thirds of glossohyal (Fig.

6) ossified ; anterior broader third cartilaginous.

Dental cement bone covering most of dorsal

surface of cartilage and extending back onto

ossified portion of element. It bears no teeth,

but since it presents a hardened, fairly sharp,

and slightly upturned anterior edge, it con-

ceivably may be of considerable aid in handling

live food.

OPERCULAR APPARATUS

All four opercular elements present (Fig. 4);

all thin, flexible bones. A few rays of denser os-

sification radiate outward from socket of arti-

culation of opercle. Short tube protecting por-

tion of lateral line system running downward

from articulation along exterior face of that

bone. Subopercle extends into space between

opercle and preopercle but does not fill it. Por-

May 15, 1943

tion of posterior edge of bone covered by oper-

cle. Long, slender interopercle nearly covered

by horizontal arm of preopercle; its anterior

end attached by a broad ligament to angular

and posterior end securely attached by mem-

branes to subopercle. Broad wing of thin bone

present in angle of preopercle. Sensory canal

tubular on vertical arm of preopercle and with

/ numerous small openings to surface dorsally,

but ventral edge of canal separated from main

SEN

SCA

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

153

bone on horizontal arm and tube becomes a

trough. An interspace present between vertical

arm and lower end of hyomandibular, and be-

tween horizontal arm and symplectic, both

closed only by thin membranes.

GILL ARCHES

First three basibranchials (Fig. 6) ossified

but cartilaginous on both ends; ossified por-

tions of all three round in cross section. Last

Fig. 5.—Lateral view of the hyoid apparatus of the Bathylagus pacificus. Fig. 6.—Dorsal'view of the

ventral half of the gill arches of the same. Fig. 7—M

esial view of the shoulder girdle of the same.

Fig. 8.—Dorsal view of the right pelvic bone of the same. All figures are X3.2.

154

two basibranchials entirely cartilaginous, pre-

senting a flat dorsal surface but with a constric-

tion marking off two on ventral surface. Dental

cement bone joining dorsal surfaces of first and

second basibranchials and covering a portion

of cartilage between them, probably homolo-

gous with larger element in same position in

osmerid fishes and Plecoglossus (Chapman,

1941a). It bears no teeth.

Hypobranchials (Fig. 6) present on first three

arches. Those of third arch with anterior proc-

ess, which projects ventrally to a slight degree.

One can visualize the possible origin of the

peculiar third hypobranchial of the Osmeridae

and Plecoglossidae from this structure. If the

posterior process (the main portion of the bone)

diminished to nothing, until the ceratobranchial

touched the fourth basibranchial, and the an-

terior process elongated and turned more

ventrally until it surrounded the ventral aorta

the osmerid third hypobranchial would be

achieved.

Ceratobranchials (Fig. 6) on all five arches.

First three bent dorsally a little at middle.

Small muscle that originates on the hypobran-

chial inserted on slight projection from ventral

side of bone at this bend. Fourth ceratobran-

chial broad, somewhat thickened and con-

stricted anteriorly to an hour-glass shape. Wide

shelf of thin bone present in lateral (or an-

terior) angle on which broad muscle extending

dorsally to expanded fourth suprabranchial

originates. Fifth ceratobranchial a slender,

weak bone, which bears no teeth.

First three epibranchials ossified, and each

bears, near mesial end of dorsal side, a car-

tilage-capped process that articulates with sim-

lar processes from, respectively, the second,

third, and fourth suprabranchials. This process

largest on third epibranchial. Fourth epibran-

chial entirely cartilaginous and reduced to band

of cartilage attached firmly to ventral edge of

expanded fourth suprabranchial.

No suprabranchial found on first arch. Sec-

ond small and flat with dorsoanterior process

reaching to first epibranchial and a smaller

dorsoposterior process articulating with third

suprabranchial. Third suprabranchial more

elongate because of long anterior process.

Fourth suprabranchial broadly expanded and

little resembling others; turned nearly at right

angles to plane of other suprabranchials and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

extending dorsally until band of cartilage

around its dorsal end articulates with cranium.

Broad muscle inserted over entire posterior sur-

face of bone extending directly ventrally to

fourth ceratobranchial. This muscle must be of

considerable importance in the movements of

the gill arches. An identical apparatus is found

in Microstoma and Macropinna and probably

Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933).

SHOULDER GIRDLE

All elements of shoulder girdle weak, thin,

and more or less pliable (Fig. 7). Posttemporal

consists mostly of long, thin dorsal fork, curv-

ing backward somewhat, in manner not possi-

ble to show in Fig. 7, to resemble a sickle, lying

over dorsal corner of epiotic and separated

from posttemporal of opposite side only by ten-

don from supraoccipital. Strongly attached to

eplotic by a ligament, which extends forward

from its attachment to epiotic to lie flatly on

under side of posttemporal so that latter can be

drawn backward some little bit but can not be

pushed forward at all. It would thus aid some-

what in dissipating the thrust of the pectoral

fin to the cranium. Ventral fork of posttem-

poral short, blunt, and attached to opisthotic

by a fairly strong ligament.

Supracleithrum thin, pliable bone bearing

lateral line nerve on outer side in trough.

Whether this trough is an integral part of the

bone or a special ossification of the sensory

canal that has become securely fused to the

supracleithrum could not be determined. Clei-

thrum largest bone of girdle, ending dorsally

in long, sharp spike. Completely ligamentous

first rib attached to this and supracleithrum,

not only to bind girdle securely to axial skele-

ton but also to bind the two bones together.

Lateral-anterior face of bone broadened for in-

sertion of sternohyoideus muscle on outer sur-

face, and muscles of fin on inner surface.

Primary shoulder girdle attached flatly by

cartilage to inner surface of cleithrum and

curving away at angle of not more than 45°.

Both scapula and coracoid fairly large, but

neither very strongly ossified. Scapular fora-

men a mere elongated slit and entirely con-

tained within bone. Coracoid with similar

foramen of about same size and shape and an-

other, much smaller, opening near ventral end

of that. Anterior process of coracoid strong and

May 15, 1943

broad with V-shaped interosseus space be-

tween it and main part of bone. Posterior proc-

ess elongate and slender, projecting poste-

riorly well beyond actinosts. Posterior two-

thirds of this spike cartilaginous and pliable.

In one specimen this elongate projection was

either absent or unwittingly lost in dissection.

Four actinosts tiny, placed closely together and

all based on cartilage between scapula and cor-

acoid. No mesocoracoid or postcleithra.

PELVIC GIRDLE

Support of small pelvic fins slight and weak

(Fig. 8); consisting of a single, elongate tri-

angular bone on either side which tapers to a

point anteriorly. Except for posterior side of

triangle bone thin and pliable in spite of border

of heavier ossification along outer side. Pos-

terior edge thickened and cartilaginous for

support of fin rays. Mesially two prongs, ven-

tral and dorsal, project from thickened pos-

terior end to meet similar prongs of opposite

pelvic bone. Dorsal prong broad, completely

ossified, except for thin band of cartilage around

its edge of junction, and arching dorsomesially.

Two ventral prongs, slenderer and bluntly

pointed, meet mesially just under skin. For

mesial third of their length both are entirely

cartilaginous. Two pelvic bones rather weakly

joined together. ~

AXIAL SKELETON

Forty-two complete vertebrae plus single up-

turned terminal centrum present. First sem-

blance of haemal spine, a short, sharp stub to

which rib of each side attaches, occurs on six-

teenth vertebra. Spine of seventeenth vertebra

slender and about one-half as long as longest

haemal spine. That of eighteenth vertebra

longer yet and that of nineteenth of full length.

Sixteenth vertebra thus first caudal vertebra,

but anus placed back much farther, under

twenty-sixth vertebra. Rib of sixteenth verte-

bra of full length. Ribs also on seventeenth,

eighteenth, and nineteenth vertebrae. Each

somewhat shorter than one preceding until

that of nineteenth only about half length of

that of sixteenth vertebra. These last three ribs

very loosely attached by membranes to their

respective haemal spines. All ribs are exceed-

ingly slender and pliable and seem to give

slight protection to abdominal cavity.

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

155

Both epineurals and epipleurals present; all

scarcely thicker than muscle fibers. Last epi-

pleural noted posteriorly was on rib of six-

teenth vertebra and last epineural posteriorly

was on twentieth neural spine, but because of

their delicacy it cannot be securely stated that

they do not occur farther back on the caudal

vertebrae.

Centra all completely ossified, elongate,

slender, hour-glass shape. Parapophyses of pre-

caudal vertebrae, while broad, quite thin. Two

of each centrum not joined ventrally. A con-

siderable interspace between those of succeed-

ing centra. Ribs flattened and slightly broad-

ened on proximal ends and lying flat on external

side of parapophyses.

Neural spines, especially of first 13 vertebrae,

exceedingly slender and thin except for their

broadened proximal ends where they attach to

centra. Those of each side of a single centrum

do not touch, even at their filamentous distal

ends, on first 13 vertebrae. Those of fourteenth

and all succeeding vertebrae join and become

firmly ankylosed directly above spinal cord

and thus form a single spine. These spines con-

siderably heavier and stronger than those on

anterior vertebrae. About eight to ten times as

much of spinal cord exposed between succeed-

ing neural spines as covered by bases of slender

spines.

Nine interneurals between cranium and first

baseost of dorsal fin. Each of these except ninth

inserted between distal tips of succeeding

neural spines. Ninth lies in same interspace as

eighth, although with normal spacing between

them. It appears to have been crowded out of

its normal place by the enlarged, bifid, first

baseost of the dorsal fin. Each interneural

capped on either end with cartilage, heavier

than neural spine, well ossified, and approxi-

mately round in cross section. Between all in-

terneurals is developed an apparatus that the

writer has not seen so well developed in dis-

section of any other fish. This consists of a

rather strong ligament running from the distal

end of each interneural nearly ventrally to a

little below the middle of the next interneural

posteriorly. This is not a single ligament but is

made up of several fibers, some of which are

inserted on the cartilage cap, some on the bone

proper. This set of ligamentous connections be-

tween the interneurals unites them all into a

156

single apparatus starting with the broad liga-

ment between the supraoccipital and first inter-

neural, and attached lightly to the first baseost

of the dorsal fin. It has the effect of dispersing

any strain coming to the anterior member (the

cranium) throughout the entire apparatus.

No ribs, epineurals, or epipleurals on first

vertebra, and no interneural between first

neural spine and cranium. In place of a rib a

strong ligament of similar diameter as a normal

rib strongly attached to shoulder girdle (as

noted above). In my specimens ribs of second

vertebra fully developed and as large as any

others.

Eight baseosts for dorsal fin, each supporting

a fin ray. First longest and largest, bifid ven-

trally but reaching only to, and not straddling,

neural spine of tenth vertebra. Eighth very

small and consists of little more than distal

knob for insertion of fin ray. Other baseosts all

similar, differing only in becoming progres-

sively shorter from second to seventh. Each

bone ends distally in heavy knob and tapers

ventrally to slender proximal end. All latter

widely separate. Baseosts several times heavier

than corresponding neural spines. Distally

each baseost connected with next one pos-

teriorly by small hour-glass-shaped bone. Each

of these bones cupped on each end and each cup

lined with cartilage. Dorsal line of baseosts

thus solid and strong for support of fin, but

flexible by reason of 14 small ball and socket

joints.

HKighteen baseosts for anal fin presenting

flexible, but entire, line distally for support of

fin rays by reason of small hour-glass-shaped

ossicles between thickened heads of baseosts,

as in dorsal fin. Baseosts decrease gradually in

length posteriorly until eighteenth is httle more

than one-third length of first. All slenderer than

corresponding supports of dorsal fin. Little if

any support gained from slender haemal spines.

First baseost bears on its anterior edge, near

distal end, a cartilage capped knob to which are

attached by tendon two muscles which extend

along ventral line of abdomen to shoulder girdle

and help to anchor pelvic girdle in place.

Support of caudal fin rather weakly de-

veloped. Small dorsal rays of fin extend an-

teriorly to level of neural spine of thirty-sixth

vertebra. Neural spines of last six vertebrae

extend to proximal ends of fin rays, very

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

slender, and in no way differentiated for sup-

port of rays. Condition essentially the same

ventrally except that haemal spine of forty-

second vertebra somewhat broadened and

thickened distally and covered by cap of carti-

lage over distal edge of hypural plate to actively

support fin. Haemal spine of forty-first and

fortieth vertebrae also slightly thickened but

lend little support to fin.

None of elements of hypural plate fused to-

gether and considerable interosseus spaces left

between some. Terminal centrum cone shaped

and with pointed end turned upward slightly.

Slender, cartilaginous urostyle extends dorso-

posteriorly into fin rays as in Novwmbra (Chap-

man, 1934) and other fishes. Neural spine of

terminal centrum, while thin and weak, widely

broadened to fill most of space between last

neural spines and urostyle, and covers base of

latter. Further dorsally a slender rod of bone

lies along upper side of urostyle until latter

reaches fin rays. This bone tipped with carti-

lage distally. Lower side of urostyle sheathed

with still another thin bone on which upper

three hypurals inserted. Lower four hypurals

based on ventral side of terminal centrum. All

hypurals capped with cartilage distally and, in

addition, with a continuous band of cartilage

from urostyle to haemal spine of forty-second

vertebra over which proximal ends of fin rays

actually ride. Flanges on neural and haemal

spines of last several vertebrae shown by Beebe

(1933, fig. 41) not present in my specimens.

VISCERA

Stomach J-shaped, large, with very thick

walls and covered externally with black pig-

ment. Internally closely packed, deep, thin

folds almost fill lumen of stomach so that little

space left inside in proportion to size of organ.

It is possible, however, that this is capable of

considerable expansion, for the stomach of the

only specimen cut into was completely empty

except for minute flaky particles that could not

be identified.

Five pyloric caeca, three moderately good

sized, one smaller, and one very short and small.

One of larger ones and medium sized one come

off ventral side of pyloric region together,

former curving upward and posteriorly along

left side of pyloric end of stomach, latter curv-

ing to right and running anteriorly along py-

May 15, 1943

loric region. Other three caeca come off right

side of pyloric region and lie between it and in-

testine. Anterior one only a short bud; other

two projecting posteriorly, with largest one

curving across ventral side of pyloric end of

stomach to extend along left side.

Somewhat in advance of pyloric caeca in-

testine flexes to right and continues straight

posteriorly to anus. Anterior two-thirds of in-

testine rather thin-walled and flabby; lined

internally with irregular small folds, which do

not project far into lumen and which block off

wall into shallow crypts of irregular shape.

About two-thirds of remaining third of intes-

tine turgid and nearly cylindrical. It contains a

typical spiral valve almost identical in size and

shape with that shown by Kendall and Craw-

ford (1922) for Argentina. Organ obviously

functional and well developed, not vestigial

remnant occasionally found in salmon. Spirals

made up of spongy, thickened walls with con-

tours as evident in external view as in Squalus.

Remainder of alimentary tract pigmented, al-

though not so heavily as stomach, and may be

termed the rectum, although little different in

circumference from spiral valve section.

Specimen examined a female with well-

developed eggs. Both ovaries full of eggs and

of about same size, with right extending only

little more posteriorly than left. Ovaries lay

along dorsal side of stomach and nearly enclose

intestine clear to rectum. Two sizes of eggs

present: larger size about 0.5 millimeter in

diameter. Number of large eggs not counted

with accuracy but estimated that two ovaries

together contained less than 3,000.

Only right lobe of liver present in three speci-

mens examined, but this well developed and

covering large part of left surface of stomach.

Spherical, translucent gall bladder exactly as

found in Macropinna (Chapman, 1942b). In

one specimen liver notched on ventral edge and

gall bladder fitting snugly in this notch over

bend of intestine. In another specimen liver

covers gall bladder from external view but a

bulge in its surface shows presence of bladder

in same location.

Kidney similar to that of Macropinna; light .

gray in color and shot through with small black

specks. No indication of double structure.

No air bladder (as in Macropinna).

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

157

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF LEUROGLOSSUS

GILBERT

Dr. George 8. Myers has kindly provided

me with one of Gilbert’s specimens of

Leuroglossus stilbius. The specimen is small

and soft, and the bones are so lightly os-

sified that they did not take up the stain

readily. Therefore it was not possible to

give a complete account of its osteology.

Definitely there are no mesocoracoids, no

postcleithra, and no air bladder. There are

only two branchiostegal rays. All osteo-

logical charactersthat can be clearly defined,

such as the ethmoid and suspensorium areas

(with the mouth parts and vomer), are as in

Bathylagus. However, the liver is somewhat

bilobed; there is a distinct kink in the in-

testine behind the greater omentum and the

intestine is longer than in Bathylagus; there

are 12 pyloric caeca all in a straight line and

the whole of the alimentary tract is enfolded

dorsally and ventrally in a double organ

which I believe is the greatly enlarged (in

proportion to the size of the fish) male sex

organs. Because of the above noted char-

acters of the viscera the generic rank should

be retained until more complete study indi-

cates otherwise. Leuroglossus should be re-

moved from the Argentinidae and placed in

the Bathylagidae.

The counts and measurements (in milli-

meters) of my specimen (Albatross station

2904: 1889, southern California) are as fol-

lows: anal, 11; dorsal, 10; pectorals, 9;

ventrals, 9; caudal, 48. Snout to base of

caudal, 48; snout to origin of dorsal, 273;

snout to insertion of ventrals, 29; snout to

anal, 38; snout to adipose, 403; length of

head, 17; diameter of eye, 6; depth at pec-

toral insertion, 83; length of caudal pedun-

cle, 6; and length of snout, 44 mm.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THEROBROMUS

LUCAS

Lucas (1899) described the species Thero-

bromus callorhinus from bones found abun-

dantly in the stomachs of fur seals in Bering

Sea. No intact specimens were available to

him, and the species has never been taken

alive, nor have specimens been recorded

since his original description. He says of it:

158

‘‘an undescribed isospondylous fish related

to the Argentinidae.’’ It has since been re-

ferred to the Osmeridae by Jordan, Ever-

mann, and Clark (1930) and Hubbs (1925),

but a study of the osteology of the osmerid

fishes (Chapman, 1941b) showed that the

species was not closely related to those

fishes and could not be placed in that family.

Lucas says of the fish: ‘‘The species may

be diagnosed as follows: Chondrocranium

well developed; superior maxillary edentu-

lous; pointed teeth on vomer and anterior

portion of palatines; lower jaw very deep;

pointed teeth on dentary; articular well de-

veloped. Vertebral formula 26 precaudals,

22 caudals, plus 1 hypural; last 4 precaudals

with short, wide hypapophyses: other hypa-

pophyses long; neural spines of first 22

vertebrae double, remainder confluent; an

epineural present and confluent with basal

part of neurapophysis on many of the an-

terior vertebrae; short transverse processes,

directed downward from lower part of an-

terior vertebrae. Vertebrae simple; anterior

but very little shorter than the posterior;

centra not sculptured, but bearing many

fine longitudinal ridges.’”” The short de-

scription was accompanied by a plate of 19

drawings of bones.

The description, except for the number of

vertebrae, could have been as correctly

drawn from the specimens of Bathylagus ‘

used as the basis for the present report. The

_ drawings likewise are accurate representa-

tions of Bathylagus. The chief differences

between Lucas’s drawings and those in the

present report are the result of his specimen

being partially digested, and the resem-

blances are so striking that no detailed de-

scription is necessary. The frontals in his

specimen, for instance, are gone; part of the

opercle is digested away; and part of the

hypural plate is gone. The vertebral count

given in the description of Therobromus

by Lueas will aid in identifying his species

when specimens of Bathylagus from the

Bering Sea are available for dissection.

Probably his fish was B. pacificus or B.

alascanus.

The discovery that the fur seal feeds ex-

tensively on fishes of the genus Bathylagus

is interesting because this genus in the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

North Pacific is typically bathypelagic in

habitat, indicating that the fur seal feeds

at greater depths than is generally recog-

nized. It may be noted that the chief feeding

grounds of the fur seal while on the rookeries

both on the Pribilof and Komandorskie

Islands is outside the 100-fathom contour

(Townsend, 1899).

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF BATHYLAGUS

The affinities of the Bathylagidae are not

so close to the salmonoid fishes as is gener-

ally supposed. Together with the Argen-

tinidae, Microstomidae, Macropinnidae,

Opisthoproctidae, Winteriidae, Xenoph-

thalmichthyidae, and, probably, certain

other deep sea fishes, they form a natural

group that may be designated as a suborder

in the Isospondyli, the Opisthoproctoidei,

erected by Berg (1937) for the Opisthoproc-

tidae alone.

Of the fishes with which Bathylagus has

been associated in the past it resembles Ar-

gentina least. Argentina (Chapman, 1942a)

has a well-developed mesocoracoid; a single

row of about 30 teeth on the palatine;

several heavy recurved teeth on the tongue;

small teeth on the fifth ceratobranchial and

fourth suprabranchial; the air bladder is

large and well developed; there are seven

branchiostegal rays; well-developed post-

cleithra (there are four in my specimen, al-

though Kendall and Crawford (1922) say

no ‘‘postclavicular’” processes are found);

the myodome is well developed and opens

posteriorly on the basioccipital; the parie-

tals are broadly joined on the midline,

nearly occluding the supraoccipital from

dorsal view, and form bony bridges across

the temporal fossae laterally ; and the supra-

occipital is broadly separate from the fron-

tals. In view of these differences, and others,

Bathylagus can not be placed in the Ar-

gentinidae.

There are stronger resemblances with

Microstoma, but that genus has an especially

large and prominent air bladder; four

branchiostegal rays; well-developed post-

cleithra; the parietals meet broadly on the

midline of the skull; and there are numerous

differences in the proportions and arrange-

ments of the bones of the skull, in particular

May 15, 1943

the special ossifications of the sensory sys-

tem and the bones of the ethmoid region.

For these and other reasons Bathylagus can

not be considered to be a member of the

Microstomidae.

Bathylagus is the representative of a

separate family, Bathylagidae (Gill, 1884),

to which also belongs Leuroglossus (Gilbert,

1890). Bathymacrops (Gilchrist, 1922),

which Jordan (1923) has placed in the

Bathylagidae, should be placed in the

Microstomidae as a synonym of Nansenia.

SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILY BATHYLAGIDAE

Opisthoproctoid fishes with adipose fin

and enlarged but laterally directed eyes.

Supraorbital bones strongly developed and

suborbital bones weakly developed. Mouth

small. No teeth on tongue, gill arches, pre-

maxillary or maxillary. Teeth on palatine

absent or few. Small conical teeth on the

vomer and dentary. Mesopterygoid much

enlarged but not toothed. Metapterygoid

minute, if present. Frontals paired. Both

mesethmoid and ventral ethmoid present.

Small suprabasal present on basibranchials.

Parietals small and widely separated by

supraoccipital, which reaches frontals. No

definite temporal fossae. No myodome. No

mesocoracoid. No postcleithra. Two (as far

as known) branchiostegal rays. Gill mem-

branes broadly united. Pectoral and ventral

fins small and placed near the ventral out-

line. Pseudobranchiae well developed. Py-

loric caeca few (9 to 12 in Leuroglossus, 5 or

6 in Bathylagus). Peritoneum and stomach

jet black. Air bladder completely absent.

Stomach with prominent leaflike projec-

tions internally. Intestine short, with well-

developed spiral valve.

LITERATURE CITED

BARNARD, KeppEL Harcourt. <A monograph

of the marine fishes of South Africa, pt. 1.

Ann. South African Mus. 21: 1-418, pls.

1-17, figs. 1-18. 1925.

BEEBE, WILLIAM. Deep sea fishes of the Ber-

muda Oceanographic Expeditions. No. 8.

Argentinidae. Zoologica 16 (3): 97-147,

figs. 26-46. 1933.

Bere, Lzro Srmonovircu. A_ classtfication

of fish-like vertebrates. Bull. Acad. Sci.

URSS.: 1277-1280. 1937.

Classification of fishes, both recent and

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

159

fossil. Trav. Inst. Zool. Acad. Sci. URSS.

5 (2): 87-517, figs. 1-90. 1940.

CuapMAN, WILBERT McLeop. The osteology

of the haplomous fish, Novumbra hubbsi

Schultz, with notes on related species.

Journ. Morph. 56: 371-405, figs. 1-8.

1934.

Eleven new species and three new

genera of oceanic fishes collected by the In-

ternational Fisheries Commission from the

northeastern Pacific. Proc. U. 8. Nat.

Mus. 86: 501-542, figs. 58-70. 1939.

Oceanic fishes from the northeast

Pacific Ocean. Occ. Pap. British Colum-

bia Prov. Mus. 2: 1-44. 1940. -

The osteology and relationships of the

isospondylous fish Plecoglossus altivelis

Temminck and Schlegel. Journ. Morph.

68: (3): 425-455, figs. 1-12. 1941a.

The osteology and relationships of the

osmerid fishes. Journ. Morph. 69 (2):

279-301, figs. 1-15. 1941b.

The osteology and relationships of the

Argentinidae, a family of oceanic fishes.

Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 32 (4): 104—

117, 8 figs. 1942a.

The osteology and relationship of the

bathypelagic fish Macropinna microstoma

Chapman, with notes on its visceral anato-

my. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 11, 9: 272

—304, 9 figs. 1942b.

Davin, Lore. Muocene fishes in well cores from

Torrance in southern Calzfornia. Bull.

Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 24 (12): 2182-

2184. 1940.

Fowier, Henry WreED. The marine fishes of

West Africa. Pt. II. Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist. 70 (2): 607-1493, figs. 276-567.

1936.

GILBERT, CHARLES HENRY. A preliminary re-

port on the fishes collected by the steamer

‘‘Albatross” on the Pacific coast of North

America during the year 1889, etc. Proc.

U.S. Nat. Mus. 13: 49-126.

GitcurisT, J. D. F. Deep sea fishes procured

by the S. S. “‘Pickle.”? Rept. Fish. Marine

Biol. Surv. South Africa 2: 41-79, pls. 7-12.

1922.

GiLL, THropore Nicuouas. The ichthyo-

logical peculiarities of the Bassaltan fauna.

Science 3 (68): 620-622. 1884.

GoopE, GEORGE Brown, and Bran, TARLETON

HorrMan. Oceanic ichthyology. U. S.

Nat. Mus. Spec. Bull. 2: 1-553. 1895.

GUNTHER, ALBERT. Preliminary notices of

deep-sea fishes collected during the voyage of

H.M.S. “Challenger.” Ann: Mag. Nat.

Hist., ser. 5, 2: 248-251. 1878.

Huspss, Cart Leavitt. A reviston of the os-

merid fishes of the North Pacvfic. Proce.

Biol. Soc. Washington 38: 49-56. 1925.

JORDAN, Davip Starr. A classification of

fishes including families and genera as far

160

as known. Stanford Univ. Publ. Biol. Sci.

3 (2): 79-2438. 1923.

and EveRMANN, BarToN WARREN.

The fishes of North and Middle America.

U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47: 1-1240. 1896.

, EVERMANN BarToN WARREN, and

Cuark, Howarp Watton. Check list of

the fishes and fishlike vertebrates of North

and Middle America north of the northern

boundary of Venezuela. Rept. U. 5.

Comm. Fish. App. pt. 2: 1-670. 1930.

and GILBERT, JAMES ZACCHEUS. Fos-

stl fishes of southern California. II. Fossil

fishes of the Miocene (Monterey) forma-

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38) (2) 3 O0F OLg:

Fossil fishes of diatom beds of

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KENDALL, WILLIAM C., and CRawForD, Don-

ALD R. Notice of a spiral valve in the teleos-

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of some skeletal and other characters. Journ.

Washington Acad. Sci. 12: 8-19, figs. 1-2.

1922.

Lucas, Freperic A. The fishes of Bering Sea.

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Ocean,” pt. 3: 433-492. 1899.

NorMAN, JOHN RoxBorouGH. - Oceanic fishes

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VOL. 33, NO. 5

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1930.

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the western coast of North and Central

America. Bull. Bingham Ocean. Coll. 2

(1-58) 193m

Concluding report on fishes. Bull.

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“The Fur Seals and Fur-seal Islands of the

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22-35. 1899.

TREWEVAS, ETHELWYNN. On the structure of

two oceanic fishes, Cyema atrum Giinther

and Opisthoproctus soleatus Vaillant.

Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 19338, 2 (81):

ABBREVIATIONS USED ON FIGURES

AC =actinost E =epilotic

AL =alisphenoid EC =ethmoid carti-

AN =angular lage

AR =articular EP =epihyal

B =hbasioccipital EX =exoccipital

BB =basibranchial F =frontal

BR =branchiostegal FM =foramen mag-

ray num

CB =ceratobranchial, G = glossohyal

CE =ceratohyal H =hyomandibular

CL =cleithrum HB =hypobranchial

CO =coracoid I =interhyal

D =dentary IN =uinteropercle

DH =dorsalhypohyal M =maxillary

601-614, figs. 1-8. 19383.

ME =mesethmoid PT =pterotic

MES = mesopterygoid PTT =posttemporal

MET =metapterygoid Q =quadrate

O =opercle S =symplectic

OR =orbitosphenoid SB =suprabasal

P = parietal SC =supracleithrum

PA =palatine SCA =scapula

PAR =parasphenoid SO =supraoccipital

PF =prefrontal SOP =subopercle

PG =pterygoid SP =sphenotic

PM =premaxillary V =vomer

POP =preopercle VE =ventral ethmoid

POT =prootic VH =ventral hypo-

hyal

_ AstRoPHystcs, —The physical chemistry

Notting. 150%)

Mae See

_ Borany. —Homonyms among names: oF trees a d

| BERT L. Lirtie, iva Pe ae |

‘

eae AunxanpEn Wemvorr aa

IcnrHyouocy. —The ee and Bele ci of th

ase A

_ fishes: of the Benue OL out ne

‘This Journal is ae ee er va us

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

ECOLOGY.—Progress in utilization standards for western ranges.

BELL, U.S. Forest Service.

Range utilization is essential to the wel-

fare of the West and of the United States as

a whole. The western range territory pro-

vides one-third of the cattle and calves, two-

. thirds of the sheep, and three-fourths of the

wool and mohair grown in the United States.

These livestock products are important even

in ordinary times. They are indispensable

during war. Because of the huge armed

force, millions of war workers at strenuous

toil, and lend-lease aid to the Allies, the

country each year is using double its domes-

tic wool production, and civilian meat con-

sumption has been cut by more than one-

third in order to balance consumption with

supply.

Within the western range territory the

animals producing these requisite supplies

graze part or ali of the year on range forage

—on the grasses, other herbs, and shrubs

growing in a generally rather thin stand on

land best suited to use by domestic live-

stock. The area devoted to this use is about

728,000,000 acres, nearly two-fifths of the

entire United States. The harvesting of the

edible portions of this plant growth each

year requires careful management to pre-

vent excessive damage to the range re-

source and to permit sustained production

of forage and livestock.

Range management is the regulation,

direction, and control of grazing with the

object of the fullest possible use of the for-

age resource consistent with other range

land uses. Man’s main control is over the

1 Paper delivered upon receipt of award for dis-

tinguished service in the biological sciences at the

318th meeting of the Washington Academy of

Se March 18, 1948. Received March 27,

943.

161

JUNE 15, 1943

No. 6

R. 8. Camp-

(Communicated by W. R. CHAPLINE.)

livestock; hence the four principal features

of range management are: the most ap-

propriate kind of animals, correct seasonal

use, even distribution of grazing, and proper

numbers of livestock. The other three

features of management are most effective

only when numbers of livestock are correct

—thus indicating the importance of proper

utilization of the range forage each year.

Utilization standards is a term employed

to designate a wide variety of information

needed by the range manager in understand-

ing and currently judging the utilization

and the relative condition or productivity

of the range. Utilization is a complex prob-

lem, dealing with hundreds of valuable

forage plants of several life forms growing

on ranges from the high rainfall mountain

lands down to low value semidesert shrub

areas. Involved are several stages of plant

succession, considerable differences between

species as to the relish with which they are

eaten by livestock at different seasons, re-

sistance to grazing and processes of growth,

' maintenance, and reproduction. In fact, the

whole field of range plant and animal ecol-

ogy is involved. The job in range utilization

standards is to work out answers to some

of the more pressing problems of forage

utilization by livestock, to take advantage

of findings from other pertinent studies,

and to formulate the essential results into

simple, readily applicable facts for use by

busy range administrators and managers.

The purpose of this paper is to describe

some of the recent advances in this field.

A considerable body of range manage-

ment information, much of it relating to

utilization, has been accumulated during

Ly,

162

the past few decades. The U. 8S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture has been interested in

range problems since its establishment in

1862, and early-day studies of forage plants,

reseeding, and grazing brought together

helpful facts on the nature and extent of the

resource. National-forest range-manage-

ment studies, begun in 1907 by James T.

Jardine (1910) and A. W. Sampson (1909),

in cooperation with F. V. Coville, of

the Bureau of Plant Industry, gradually

brought together biological facts on the

grazing habits and forage requirements of

range sheep and cattle, and the growth and

use of range forage. These early studies, in-

cluding both the range vegetation and live-

stock grazing, led quickly into practical

management features such as the bedding

out system of handling sheep, water de-

velopment, correct seasonal grazing, de-

ferred and rotation grazing, and forage in-

ventory through range surveys.

Increasing attention was given the prob-

lem of forage utilization until in 1986 a

special project was started, primarily to

develop improved utilization standards for

application on the 87,000,000 acres of na-

tional-forest range (Campbell, 1937). It

was undertaken by the Division of Range

Research and the six western forest and

range experiment stations and administra-

tive regions. The immediate job was to

evaluate all pertinent data and formulate

the best possible standards, mainly in hand-

book form, for immediate use. At the same

time the whole utilization problem was care-

fully analyzed for the most urgent questions.

By 1989, the project turned toward research

primarily ecological. The work aimed at

these important problems was seriously re-

stricted by limited funds. This work was

only in its initial stages when wartime de-

mands for livestock products dictated an

immediate program to furnish the best

available standards to help both public and

private agencies attain maximum sustained

production.

The subject of utilization standards can

best be presented under two broad headings:

(1) range condition, including changes and

trends in condition; and (2) range utiliza-

tion, including methods of measurement

and the determination of proper utilization.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

RANGE CONDITION

Range condition is the relative state of

health or productivity of the range, includ-

ing both the soil and the forage, in relation

to its potential state and the best practicable

management. The inclusion of information

on range condition in utilization standards —

requires answers to such basic questions as

the following:

1. What are the main range types for

which utilization standards are needed?

2. What should be the objective toward

which management of each type should aim

(in terms of plant cover and soil condition)?

3. What annual or seasonal variations

are there in habitat and plant cover that

can be recognized in the field?

The answers to these questions draw on

practically all phases of range ecology, from

vegetation surveys to studies of plant com-

petition and succession. Broad vegetation

types include the tall grass, shortgrass,

Pacific bunchgrass, semidesert grass, sage-

brush, ete., within which are important sub-

types requiring individual consideration.

Thus, within the open forest type are such

important subtypes as the ponderosa pine

bunchgrass, the alpine grassland, aspen-fir,

mountain brush, and others.

The early studies of Sampson (1919) on

plant succession in relation to range man-

agement furnished a working method of

setting up the objective toward which man-

agement should aim on a specific type. He

identified four vegetation types or stages

that feature plant succession from a de-

pleted condition on subalpine grasslands in

central Utah; (1) early-maturing annuals

growing on gravelly loam poor in organic

matter and moisture; (2) perennial herbs,

on soil containing moderate amounts of or-

ganic matter and moisture; (3) aggressive

perennial grasses with herbs and shrubs on

soil with still better organic and moisture

content; and (4) deep-rooted or densely

tufted perennial grasses on fine soil high

in organic matter and available mois-

ture. Sampson determined that overgrazing

caused retrogression by destroying the

ground cover and allowing loss of soil fer-

tility. He also found that grassland in

climax condition furnishes abundant forage,

withstands grazing better, and has more

JUNE 15, 1943 CAMPBELL: UTILIZATION STANDARDS FOR WESTERN RANGES

stable soil than when it is in the lower de-

velopmental stages.

More recently Pickford and Reid (1942),

working on subalpine grasslands in north-

eastern Oregon, identified stages similar to

those of Sampson. They found that the

climax stage is characterized by stable,

fertile soil, ample desirable forage, and uni-

form, silt-free streamflow. Green fescue

(Festuca viridula) is dominant, covering at

least half the ground surface.

' Subalpine ranges in the mixed grass and

weed stage are in only fair condition, since

they produce less than the maximum

amount of forage and their watershed values

are impaired. They have an open stand of

vegetation that rarely covers more than

one-third of the ground surface. Subclimax

grasses are abundant and compete success-

fully with better forage species for available

soil moisture. Weeds are common and ac-

celerated erosion is conspicuous on exposed

soil surfaces and pedestaled fescue tus-

socks.

A still poorer condition is represented by

the second weed stage, in which the stand

of vegetation is very open and green fescue

is represented only by scant remnant plants.

Low value weeds and shrubs are abundant,

and the soil is clearly eroded, with deep

gullies on hillsides and cut channels.

The importance of maintaining ranges

in good condition is shown by the grazing

capacity of the various stages. Grazing

capacity of the near climax green fescue

stage, having good soil condition, was more

than four times that of ranges in the poor

condition represented by lower stages.

Similar stages and corresponding grazing

values have been worked out in greater or

less detail for several other important types

or subtypes throughout the West.

TREND OF RANGE CONDITION

The range manager must know whether

his management is bettering the condition

and increasing the forage production of his

range, or causing it to go on the downgrade.

Range trend is the direction and amount of

change in range condition. Much of the

range land of the West is in some stage of

depletion, varying from slight to very

severe. The problem of first importance on

163

these deteriorated ranges is to stop the

retrogression and start the process of im-

provement. With the widely varying degree

of deterioration of vegetation and soil on

different ranges, the determination of range

trend is not simple. Improvement or de-

terioration can be recognized from such

features as the vigor of the principal forage

species, the species reproducing and becom-

ing established, and character of soil erosion.

But it requires extraordinary alertness and

ingenuity in the field of dynamic ecology

to detect incipient changes and particularly

to interpret the natural changes due to

variable weather, and to evaluate such

changes along with those caused by live-

stock grazing. For example, broom snake-

weed (Gutterrezia sarothrae) is a low-growing

aggressive shrub with little or no forage

value. It has been shown that the occur-

rence of a dense stand of young thrifty

snakeweed plants on range where the pala-

table black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda) has

been weakened by overgrazing, represents

a definite downward trend (Campbell and

Bomberger, 1934). Both the snakeweed and

the black grama may be injured by drought,

but through careful utilization of the valu-

able grass, deterioration can be stopped,

and at this stage recovery need not be

difficult nor require more than a few

years.

On the other hand, the invasion of a

dense stand of snakeweed on a badly de-

pleted, wind-blown, honey-mesquite (Pro-

sopis glandulosa), sand-dune type repre-

sents a definite upward trend through stabi-

lizing and building up the soil and affording

protection for better forage plants ulti-

mately to grow. Ranges that have reached

this low ebb of productivity require many

decades to restore a grass stand of reason-

ably good productivity. However, the oc-

currence of dense stands of such low value

plants as snakeweed is not the final criterion

of range condition—it is only one of many

important features that must be interpreted

in the aggregate.

Advanced deterioration is rather easily

recognized by the thin stand of perennial

grasses and obviously accelerated erosion,

but the early symptoms of deterioration are

more difficult to detect. Some of the more

164

striking signs of a deteriorating range de-

veloped to date include: (1) weakened

vitality of the important forage plants, as

shown by sickly color and reduced height

and volume; (2) thinning of the perennial

grass cover as indicated by accelerated dy-

ing out and disintegrating of tufts; (3) re-

placement of good forage plants with poor

ones, as indicated by abundance of young

inferior plants; and (4) accelerating erosion,

as evidenced by soil washing on slopes, a

distinct increase in number of recent small

pencil or finger gullies, and failure of vegeta-

tion to grow in small gullies.

In general, an upward trend is indicated

by: , :

1. Arresting of accelerated erosion, peren-

nial vegetation established on eroded banks

of drainage channels, no exposed grass roots,

soil pedestals with sloping rather than verti-

cal sides, and root crowns of perennial

grasses not buried with silt, ete.

2. Vigorous appearance of the stand of

forage plants.

3. Noticeable reproduction or spread of

plants of the next higher succession stage.

4. Exposed mineral soil colonized with

young plants of perennial species.

These and other indicators have been

worked out more specifically for several

types in the West, but a great deal more re-

mains to be done, both on other types and

on more accurate and reliable indicators of

range trend.

FACTORS INFLUENCING UTILIZATION

A thorough knowledge of forage utiliza-

tion is essential because livestock grazing

is a major influence in causing the great dif-

ferences in values between ranges in good

and poor condition. Among the important

factors influencing forage utilization are the

kind and number of livestock; their eating

habits; their forage preferences involving

succulence, taste, and other qualities of the

forage plants; the season of use, the plant

composition, and the distribution of live-

stock over the range.

As to kind of livestock, cattle generally

prefer grasses and shrubs, and horses choose

grass, while sheep and goats prefer weeds

and browse plants, although all animals like

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

some variety in their diet. Soil disturbance

through trampling also varies with the ani-

mals and particularly with their handling.

Thus, poor herding of sheep in compact,

fast-moving bands can cause serious over-

utilization and trampling, whereas open

herding and gentle handling can utilize

most ranges without serious damage.

Season of grazing is very important in

securing utilization of plants when they are

palatable. For example, in the Southwest

tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica) is good forage

during summer when it is green and suc-

culent, but after that time it becomes so

dry and woody that livestock do not graze

it willingly. Correct season of grazing is also

very important in allowing the main forage

plants ample opportunity to grow and re-

produce. Craddock and Forsling (1938)

found in southern Idaho that the start of

growth on sagebrush-grass ranges was far

too variable to allow grazing to begin then.

They found a minimum variation in the

time when perennial grasses reached a 2-

inch height growth and recommended be-

ginning grazing at that stage of develop-

ment so as to assure suflicient available for-

age for the livestock and to permit the for-

age growth to keep ahead of the sheep

grazing.

The effect of a number of factors on uti-

lization of black grama by cattle is brought

out in a 7-year study on several thousand

acres of the Jornada Experimental Range

in southern New Mexico. By means of

multiple regressions applied to nearly 750

measurements, it was found that percent

height utilization of black grama varied

significantly with intensity of pasture stock-

ing and distance from livestock water (Fig.

1). The average effect of each additional

mile from a livestock watering place was a

decrease of 10 percent in utilization of

black grama, out to a maximum distance

studied of 3.5 miles. When black grama in

a pasture was fully utilized on the average,

it was overutilized out to 2 miles from water.

Under moderate or conservative pasture

grazing, the grama was grazed too closely

only out to half a mile from water, and

rather lightly beyond 3 miles. With light

pasture use, the black grama was utilized

very lightly at 2 miles from water and was

JUNE 15, 1943 CAMPBELL: UTILIZATION STANDARDS FOR WESTERN RANGES

too closely grazed only in the first one-fourth

mile from water.

The effect of distance from salt grounds

on utilization of black grama was not great

—averaging only 1.3 percent utilization

per mile. But improved salting in a properly

stocked individual pasture increased the

utilization of black grama as much as 10 to

15 percent at 3 miles or more from water.

Other factors were also important. There

was higher utilization of black grama near

the main roads and well-traveled trails.

Also black-grama utilization on the average

increased 4 percent for each 0.1 decrease in

UTILIZATION BLACK GRAMA (PERCENT)

[o)

165

DETERMINING PROPER UTILIZATION

Research has employed a number of

ways to get at proper utilization which is

really the heart of utilization standards. The

maintenance of black grama on meter

quadrats on range grazed to different degrees

was measured by Nelson (1934) on the

Jornada Experimental Range. On ungrazed

plots, there was a considerable change in

tuft area, increasing or decreasing from one

year to the next in response to the rainfall

of the preceding summer. Further, the

average density of black grama over a 13-

year period under conservative or moderate

—-— — Interpolated

DISTANCE FROM WATER (MILES)

Fig. 1—Average utilization of black grama by cattle in percent

height at different distances from water under full, conservative or

moderate, and light pasture utilization, Jornada Experimental

Range, southern New Mexico, 1931 to 1937, inclusive.

black grama density after allowing for other

factors. Thin stands or scattered plants of

black grama were fully utilized out to 3 or 4

miles from water, with only moderate pas-

ture stocking. This brings out the impor-

tance of protecting and managing the

utilization of the important forage species

on depleted types, if they are to be restored

to their potential productivity.

Similar studies of important factors in-

fluencing utilization on pine bunchgrass

range in northern Arizona by Glendening,

and on mountain bunchgrass range in

central Utah by Clark, are as yet unpub-

lished.

grazing was little different from that under

no grazing. Slight overuse of black grama

in dry years prevented maximum develop-

ment of the stand and permitted inferior

associated grasses and weeds to secure a

foothold on the depleted grama areas.

Heavy overgrazing year after year prac-

tically killed out the black grama stand

and caused very unstable soil conditions.

Under moderate grazing, sufficient plant

stubble and stolons remained each year to

assure good growth and reproduction of the

stand the next year.

Persistent clipping of all black grama

herbage on plots to a 2-inch height or less

166

over a 10-year period was found by Canfield

(1939) to result in greatly reduced yield and

eventually destroyed or killed the plants.

In similar studies on clipped tobosa-grass

plots, cropping to 2 inches was too close,

but clipping to 4 inches maintained a high

forage yield and stimulated vegetative re-

production.

Clark, at the Intermountain Forest and

Range Experiment Station, working with

slender wheatgrass (Agropyron trachycau-

lum) and mountain brome (Bromus cari-

natus) on the Wasatch Plateau in central

Utah, has marked individual plants grazed

to different degrees and has followed the

forage production and utilization through

subsequent years. He has noted a tendency

for the sheep to come back and graze closely

the younger smaller plants each year. This

suggests that on some ranges utilization

may need to be measured on the younger

plants rather than the entire stand, in order

to perpetuate the important forage species.

Still another approach to proper utiliza-

tion was followed by McCarty and Price

(1942) who studied the growth and carbo-

hydrate content of important perennial

grasses and broadleaf herbs on central Utah

mountain ranges. Critical periods in the life

cycle were found to be: (1) the active repro-

ductive period from flowerstalk formation

through seed ripening, and (2) during the

early carbohydrate storage period, when the

plant is in a period of recuperation from the

reproductive period. A system of rotation

grazing in which portions of the range are

grazed at a different time each year allows

a periodic slackening in the intensity of

grazing during these periods in the plants’

life processes.

It is not a simple task to express these

findings for practical application on the

range. One common way is to describe the

stubble height that should be left ungrazed

for the important forage species. Studies

both in the Northwest and in the Southwest

show a considerable proportion of ungrazed

plants on properly grazed range. Still an-

other way of defining proper use is in per-

centage of herbage removal.

The difficulty with any statement of

proper utilization, whether expressed in

stubble height or in percentage removal, is

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

that extreme care is needed in applying it

to any area other than where it was de-

veloped. Weakened forage plants on de-

teriorated ranges can not resist the same

degree of utilization as thrifty vigorous

plants on ranges in good condition. Ordi-

narily the better forage plants should be

grazed less on deteriorated range in order to

hasten restoration. Also, they should be

used less on steep slopes, particularly on

more erosive soils. :

UTILIZATION DROPSEEDS (PERCENT)

UTILIZATION-BLACKGRAMA (PERCENT)

Fig. 2.—Average utilization of sand and mesa

dropseeds by cattle at various degrees of utiliza-

tion of black grama in percent height as deter-

mined at the end of the grazing year in June,

Jornada Experimental Range, 1931 to 1937, in-

clusive.

In the final proper use rating, the key

forage plants are assigned values mainly on

their resistance to grazing, including ability

to survive drought and normal competition,

and with due allowance for other factors.

Less important species are rated at the de-

gree to which they are actually grazed when

the key species are properly utilized. This

is illustrated in the curve of utilization

found between black grama and sand and

mesa dropseeds (Sporobolus cryptandrus and

S. flecuosus), less valuable species (Fig. 2).

When the black grama was grazed at about

85 percent or proper on this scale, the

dropseeds were grazed about 65 percent of

their height.

JUNE 15, 1943 CAMPBELL: UTILIZATION STANDARDS FOR WESTERN RANGES

All these results find direct application in

the control of livestock grazing on the range.

But intelligent control of numbers and dis-

tribution of animals on the range requires

careful checks of actual forage utilization.

MEASURING RANGE UTILIZATION

Several methods of measuring range uti-

lization have been developed, suited to vari-

ous purposes and types of vegetation. The

most common method now employed by

range administrators is the so-called recon-

naissance or ocular inspection system, in

which the range is systematically examined

and the utilization estimated directly, either

in descriptive terms or preferably in per-

centage herbage removal. Frequent close

examination of individual plants on small

areas a few square feet in size is necessary

for reasonable accuracy.

A more accurate way is the ocular esti-

mate by plot method described by Pechanec

and Pickford (1937), who tested a number

of methods in southern Idaho. The examiner

estimates percentage weight removal of

herbage from forage species on a series of

circular plots each containing 100 square

feet. In training, ungrazed vegetation on

plots is clipped and weighed, the utilization

estimated, then the balance clipped and

weighed as a check until the examiner can

judge utilization with reasonable accuracy.

This method has been found admirably

suited for research purposes on grasses,

weeds, and browse. Pickford, working in the

Northwest, has recently tested the method

as an administrative tool on national-forest

ranges. Proposed standardized instructions

for its application are being considered in

the several Western Regions of the Forest

Service.

Another method of determining utiliza-

tion that has found widespread application

is the use of grass height-weight or volume

tables. The height of grazed stubble is ex-

pressed in percent and converted to per-

centage weight utilization by means of

charts or scales showing height-weight rela-

tionships of the important forage species.

This method is based on the assumption

that most grasses have a reasonably con-

stant distribution of weight throughout the

plant in relation to height. Three distinct

167

types, all with flower stalks, are indicated in

the curves shown in Fig. 3. Bottlebrush

squirreltail (Sztanion hystrix) has a nearly

straight line relationship, with weight dis-

tributed about equally through the plant

from the top of the tallest flower stalk. Blue

grama (Bouteloua gracilis) has a gentle

curve, with about 80 percent of the weight

in the bottom half of the plant owing to the

abundance of basal leaves. Sandberg blue-

grass (Poa secunda) has a slight ‘‘S’”’ curve

because of heavy seed heads and high con-

centration of weight in the basal leaves.

Curves for plants without seedstalks are

still somewhat different. Application of

these tables in the field requires great care,

because Clark (1948) has found significant

differences within the same species in dif-

ferent years and in different altitudinal

zones in central Utah.

Boutelouo P

gracilis

ie nae ESS I

UTILIZATION (PERCENT WEIGHT REMOVED)

HEIGHT REMOVED (PERCENT)

Fig. 3.—Three types of height-weight curves of

range grasses, all with seedstalks: bottlebrush

squirreltail (Sztanion hystrix) from Utah, plants

processed by Ira Clark, Intermountain Forest and

Range Experiment Station; blue grama (Boute-

lowa gracilis) from Colorado, processed by David

F. Costello, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range

Experiment Station; and Sandberg bluegrass (Poa

secunda) from Utah, processed by Ira Clark.

The process of preparing height-weight

tables consists of collecting ungrazed plants

from the range, then cutting them at one

inch or other convenient intervals from top

to bottom, weighing the segments and con-

verting this information into percentage

height and weight.

Such height-weight tables were prepared

for several species in Montana by Lommas-

son and Jensen (1938); in the Southwest by

Crafts (1938); and in Utah by Clark. The

original height-weight curves have been

used in the field determination of utilization.

However, Lommasson and Jensen, and

168

Crafts independently prepared gauges or

‘‘slide-rules’”’ in which to carry the height-

weight data in compact form and use it

readily. The examiner measures both grazed

and ungrazed plants of a selected key spe-

cies, sets the ungrazed height in the gauge,

and opposite the grazed stubble height

reads the percentage utilization. In field

practice, of course, this procedure requires

measuring a representative sample. Reid

and Pickford (1941) found that the height-

weight and the ocular estimate by plot

methods gave substantially the same esti-

mates of utilization on grasses if the stubble

height was rather uniform. However, they

found the ocular estimate to be simpler in

field use.

Still another method of determining range

utilization is the measurement of stubble

height along a line transect, used in re-

search at the Southwestern Forest and

Range Experiment Station (Canfield, 1941).

One final utilization method requiring

mention is the visual evaluation of plant

residue, developed for application on Cali-

fornia annual type ranges (Hormay and

Fausett, 1942). Since maintenance of soil

fertility and forage productivity on this

type depends upon a fairly complete plant

cover, the relative amount of debris remain-

ing after grazing is finished each year is

judged ocularly. A particularly helpful eri--

terion is the extent to which surface objects

such as rodent mounds, pine cones, and

sticks are obscured by the remaining vege-

tation. Systematic observation is, of course,

necessary to secure average utilization over

large pastures.

Regardless of method of determining

utilization, the figure obtained on a range

must be compared with a predetermined

proper utilization percentage for the impor-

tant forage species. Also very careful ob-

servation of soil erosion, disturbance, and

range condition are necessary for an ade-

quate picture of utilization and its effects on

the range.

APPLICATION OF RESULTS

Out of all this complexity of factors,

plant types, forage species, climatic varia-

tion, proper use, and methods of measuring

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 6

utilization, must come a fairly simplified

procedure for application in range manage-

ment by the stockman and range adminis-

trator. One of the first tasks in the Forest

Service range utilization study started in

1936 was the assembly of available utiliza-

tion guides into practical regional hand-

books, primarily applicable to national.

forest ranges. An example is the handbook

prepared by Swift and Fausett (1939) for

California ranges. After a brief background

on range condition, this handbook presents

writeups for each of several major types

with photographic and text descriptions

of the type itself, in good and in poor condi-

tion, overutilized and satisfactorily utilized.

Research has since brought out several pub-

lications embodying useful standards. In

addition to several already mentioned,

important contributions include Costello

(1942) on short-grass ranges of eastern Colo-

rado; Campbell and Crafts (1939) on black-

grama ranges; and Crafts and Glendening

(1942) on blue-grama ranges of the South-

west. It has also been necessary to stand-

ardize and simplify certain concepts such as

key areas, key species, and utilization in

terms of percentage weight.

As a part of the Department of Agricul-

ture program for sustained livestock pro-

duction from western ranges, useful range

“research results have been furnished to

range managers generally. Direct assistance

has been given the Agricultural Adjustment

Agency by preparing and adapting height-

weight tables for attaining more efficient

use of forage and better management gen-

erally on private ranges. Improved pro-

cedures have been furnished to range

technicians of the Forest Service and other

public agencies. Especial emphasis has been

given the formulation of better proper use

ratings for important forage plants under

different sets of conditions. Sound proper

use figures for the important forage plants

are basic for effective range surveys and the

subsequent application of good practices

through carefully prepared management

plans for range units. Finally a systematic

effort has been made to show range man-

agers all through the West that sustained

production is obtained only conservative

grazing on ranges in good condition.

JUNE 15, 1943 CAMPBELL: UTILIZATION STANDARDS FOR WESTERN RANGES

FUTURE RANGE UTILIZATION RESEARCH

The present period of practical applica-

tion of utilization standards for maximum

wartime production of forage and livestock

affords good opportunity to reanalyze the

problem so that future research will be

pointed at the most urgent features. Among

these is a better evaluation of condition and

trend to avoid the deterioration that has

taken place in the past. A start on work of

this sort was made by Ellison and Croft at

the Intermountain Forest and Range Ex-

periment Station in 1942, combining range

ecology and watershed management view-

points. A particular weakness is the lack of

criteria for judging soil condition. In some

instances the vegetation indicated satis-

factory condition and trend at the same

time that excessive trampling by livestock

was causing abnormal erosion. These cri-

teria will include such things as litter, bare

soil surface, and top soil remains.

Utilization studies should be extended to

additional types and species with special

emphasis on deteriorated ranges in order to

restore them to maximum productivity as

quickly as possible. The effect on forage

plants of utilization by big game and

' rodents is an important field in itself, still

largely unexplored. More work along plant

physiological lines is needed so that manage-

ment can be based on a better knowledge of

the internal processes of plants on grazed

ranges. Gaps in present information are the

mechanisms which enable some plants to

better survive grazing and drought than

others. Likewise, the entire utilization ques-

tion needs a much better knowledge of ecol-

ogy, particularly of the important forage

plants in relation to the habitat. Finally,

related work on nutritive values of forage

plants is needed in order to secure the

greatest livestock production from range

lands in coordination with farm crops and

other feed supplies.

LITERATURE CITED

CAMPBELL, R.S. Problems of measuring forage

utilization on western ranges. Ecology 18:

528-532. 1937.

and Bomprrcer, E. H. The occur-

rence of Gutierrezia sarothrae on Bouteloua

erlopoda ranges in southern New Mexico.

Ecology 15: 49-61. 1934.

and Crarrs, E. C. How to keep and

increase black grama on southwestern ranges.

169

U.S. Dept. Agr. Leaflet 180, 8 pp. 1939.

CANFIELD, R. H. The effect of intensity and

frequency of clipping on density and yield

of black grama and tobosa grass. U. §S.

Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 681, 832 pp. 1939.

Application of the line interception

method im sampling range _ vegetation.

Journ. For. 39: 388-394. 1941.

CuaRrK, Ira. Suitability of volume-height tables

for estumating the degree of range forage

utilization. Journ. For. (In press.)

CostELLo, D. F. Maintaining short-grass

ranges. Colorado Ext. Serv. Bull. D. 33,

11 pp. 1942.

Crappock, G. W., and Forsitine, C. L. The

influence of clumate and grazing on spring-

fall sheep range in southern Idaho. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 600, 43 pp. 1988.

Crarts, E. C. Volume-height distribution in

range grasses. Journ. For. 36: 1182-1185.

1938

and GLENDENING, G. E. How to graze

blue grama on southwestern ranges. U.S.

Dept. Agr. Leaflet 215, 8 pp. 1942.

Hormay, A. L., and Fausrrt, A. Standards

for judging the degree of forage utilization on

California annual-type ranges. California

Forest and Range Exp. Stat. Techn. Note

21,13 pp. 1942. (Processed.)

JARDINE, J. T. The pasturage system for

handling range sheep. For. Serv. Cire. 178.

40 pp. 1910.

Lommasson, T., and JENSEN, C. Grass volume

tables for determining range utilization.

Science (n.s.) 87: 444. 1988.

McCarty, E. C., and Pricz, R. Growth and

carbohydrate content of important mountain

forage plants in central Utah as affected by

clipping and grazing. U.S. Dept. Agr.

Tech. Bull. 818, 51 pp. 1942.

Newson, Enoco W. The influence of precipita-

tion and grazing upon black grama grass

range. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 409,

32 pp. 1934.

PrcHanec, J. F:, and Pickrorp, G. D. A

comparison of some methods used in deter-

mining percentage utilization of range

grasses. Journ. Agr. Res. 54: 753-765.

1937.

Ficxrorp, G. ., and Kem, E. Hl. Basis for

judging subalpine grassland ranges of Ore-

gon and Washington. U.S. Dept. Agr.

Circ. 655, 38 pp. 1942.

Rep, E. H., and Pickrorp,G. D. A compari-

son of the ocular-estimate-by-plot and the

stubble-height methods of determining per-

centage uttlization of range grasses. Journ.

For. 39: 935-941. 1941.

Sampson, A. W. Natural revegetation of de-

pleted mountain grazing lands. For. Serv.

Circ. 169, 28 pp. 1909.

Plant succession in relation to range

management. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 791,

76 pp. 1919.

Swirt, L. W., and Fausett, A. Range utiliza-

tion standards. U.S. Forest Service, Cali-

fornia Region, 38 pp. 1939. (Processed.)

170

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

BOTAN Y.—Distribution and character of Sabal louisiana.! Miriam L. BomHarp,

U.S. Forest Service.

Sabal louisiana (Darby) Bomhard was

described under the genus Chamaerops in

1816? by William Darby, but it escaped the

serious attention of botanists until the

spring of 1925, when the late Dr. John K.

Small rediscovered it. He published it as a

new species, S. deeringiana, in 1926,° for he

was not then aware that an earlier name

existed. In this paper Dr. Small pointed

out that native arborescent palmettos were

thought to be lacking along the thousand-

mile stretch of the Gulf coast between St.

Andrews Bay, Fla., the western limit of

S. palmetto (Walt.) Lodd., and the lower

Rio Grande River near Brownsville, Tex.,

where S. texana (Cook) Becce. is indigenous.

The type locality is given as ‘‘Flat alluvial

places, near Pointe aux Herbes, along Lake

Pontchartrain, Louisiana.’’* This is indeed a

very restricted area east of New Orleans

and slightly northwest of the Chef Menteur

(a pass between Lakes Pontchartrain and

Borgne).

In a later paper, 1929, following further

field work in the general region of Lake

Pontchartrain and the Mississippi Delta,

Dr. Small wrote: ‘‘The geographic limits of

Sabal deeringiana are not yet perfectly

known. It grows in swamps and along bay-

ous in the lower Mississippi delta. It has

not been observed east of the Pearl River,

nor west of the Atchafalaya River.’’>® In

his Manual of the southeastern (flora

(1933), the distribution is given as “Flat

alluvial places along the lower Mississippi

River, bayous and lakes, 8. La.’’6

About 1932 I began to make surveys of

1 Received March 22, 1948.

2 DaRBYy, WILLIAM. A geographical description

of the state of Loutsiana ... being an accompani-

ment to the map of Louisiana, ed. 1: 194. 1816.

3 SMALL, JOHN K. A new palm from the Mis-

sissippi Delta. Torreya 26: 33-385. 1926.

4There are no Louisiana palmettos in the

marshes in the immediate vicinity of Pointe aux

Herbes. Those seen by Dr. Small were a distance

south of this place.

5 SmautL, JoHN K. Palmetto-with-a-stem—Sa-

bal deeringiana. Journ. New York Bot. Gard.

30: 283. 1929.

6 SMALL, JoHN K. Manual of the southeastern

flora: 240. 1933.

habitats similar to those in which Louisiana

palmetto was rediscovered, as well as in

areas mentioned by Darby. The results for

Louisiana were published in 1935 and sum-

marized in the following statement: “Al-

though palmettos are widely distributed

over much of eastern and southern Louisi-

ana, they attain their most luxuriant de-

velopment in the southeastern portion of

the State, where trunked forms occur.

Trunked palmettos are much more wide-

spread in Louisiana at the present time

than has been supposed, having been found

by the writer westward nearly to Opelousas

and south almost to the Gulf of Mexico.”

Emphasis was first placed on trunked

palmettos because the climax form with a

well-developed trunk is easily recognized.

For example, the arborescent Sabal loucsi-

ana specimens standing fairly in the open

at Frenier Beach on the west shore of Lake

Pontchartrain are so different from other

tree-Sabals that the distinctive characters

of this species in its prime are unmistakable.®

Then, too, the most logical approach to an

understanding of any arborescent palm

species in its native habitat is through ob-

servation of the developmental series of a

population in the midst of obviously mature

trees. Thus, it later became possible to

ascertain the identity of groups of Sabal

louisiana which had not yet attained their

prime and with which mature trees were

not intermingled.

From observations in Louisiana it seemed

apparent that Louisiana palmetto would be

7 BomuarpD, Miriam L. Sabal louisiana, the

correct name for the polymorphic palmetto of

Louisiana. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 25 (1):

42.1935.

8 The only habit photographs of this species

thus far published by others are of specimens at

eeu Beach. See Figs. 5 and 6 in SMatt, JoHN

ae and Figs. 152 and 167 in BAILEY,

1 Sabal et ceterae. Gentes Herbarum III,

ae VI, art. 6, 1934. Dr. Small’s Fig. 6 was re-

published in his article Palms of the Continental

United States. Sci. Monthly 32: 10. 1931. A photo-

graph of a specimen growing near Bayou Bien-

venue, eastern Louisiana, was published as Fig. 1

in Bomuarp, Miriam L. What palms grow in

Loutstana. Louisiana Cons. Rev., Autumn, 1937.

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

distributed throughout the Gulf Coastal

Plain (including the Mississippi Alluvial

Plain) wherever the physiographic and

micro-climatic conditions are essentially the

same. Exploration in this broader area,

based on this premise, has been carried out

since 1935—along the waterways of recent

alluvial origin where conditions are reason-

ably similar to those of southeastern Louisi-

ana and where it could almost be predicted

that Sabal louiszana would occur.

As a result of these studies the present

known range of Sabal louisiana has now

been considerably extended. From Louisi-

ana this species radiates out into eastern

Texas, southeastern Arkansas, and at least

into western Florida. The most important

extension was the discovery of Sabal

louisiana in Texas, where it had apparently

not been previously observed by botanists. °®

The finding of well-developed arborescent

palmettos in that State is especially signifi-

cant and conclusive.

On a brief trip through eastern Texas in

May and June of 1941, two stands of Sabal

louzsiana were discovered south of Cleve-

land, Tex.—on the western margin of the

“Big Thicket.” The first, in a local depres-

sion just below the town itself, consisted of

a dense stand of palmettos, most of them in

the intermediate growth stage, with a boot-

aggregation of 40 cm or more, leaves 18 dm

in expanse, and very robust, strongly

branched inflorescences more than 45 dm

tall although not yet in bud. This group is

similar to many of those in southeastern

Louisiana growing under the most favorable

environmental conditions.

The second, 4 miles south of Cleveland,

within sight from the bridge (U. 8. Highway

59) that crosses the East Fork of the San

Jacinto River, was a group with arborescent

specimens. Perhaps 20 trees are easily ac-

cessible, scattered in a rather open portion

of the flood bed on the east bank of the

river. Farther back, in an area not readily

accessible, the large crowns of many other

Louisiana palmettos are visible. It was pos-

9See Parks, H. B., Cory, V. L., and others.

Biological survey of the east Texas big thicket area,

ed. 1, 1936, and ed. 2, 1938. There is a photograph

on page 24, captioned “‘Giant palmetto,” but

S. minor is the only species of this genus given

(p. 33) in the list of plants of the big thicket.

171

sible to take specimens, measurements, and

photographs (Pl. 1, lower left) only of the

trees in the open area. The trunk height of

these did not exceed 11 dm, and the diame-

ter, without boots, averaged 33 cm. This

group is, in many respects, a replica of a

stand in the Vermilion River bottomland,

near Intracoastal City, southern Louisiana,

where short-trunked palmettos remain in

clearings nearest the newly made road and

the more robust specimens are inaccessible

in the midst of woody vegetation, subject

to annual inundation.

Another collection of Sabal lowisiana was

found in the bottomlands of the Lavaca

River, west of Lolita, Tex. Those nearest

the road, although of intermediate char-

acter and of uniformly the same age, were

so dense and the flood area appeared to be

so broad that arborescent specimens in

their prime or even old specimens might

have been brought to light had there been

time to give this region more than a cursory

investigation.

Having seen some small groups of poor-

looking palmettos (intermediate stage) near

the Colorado River, in the vicinity of Whar-

ton, and on the San Bernard River, near

Hungerford (U. 8S. Highway 59), I later

made a hasty survey of these same river

areas nearer to the coast, this time following

State Highway 35, that is, near Bay City

and near West Columbia, and also out of

East Columbia on the Brazos River. Al-

though conditions here were favorable for

arborescent palms, I did not find any in the

limited time at my disposal.

However, at least one excellent stand

with trunked palmettos does occur in the

San Bernard River bottomland 8 miles from

Brazoria, Brazoria County. Discovered by

Robert A. Vines, of Houston, Tex., these

palms were brought to my attention in

June, 1942, by C. V. Morton, of the United

States National Herbarium, to whom Mr.

Vines sent photographs and notes, leaves,

and portions of a fruiting stalk of an arbores-

cent Sabal for identification. It proved to be

Sabal louisiana. This discovery of a group

of 20 or more of these palms is a fine contri-

bution to the distribution pattern of Sabal

louisiana, especially since three very old

trees are in the group, one with a trunk

172

height of 54 dm—the greatest height yet

recorded for the bole of Louisiana palmetto.

A portion of Mr. Vines’s notes accompany-

ing the specimens (Vines 425) reads as

follows: ‘‘Hasirat.—Swampy black soil.

Associated with Sabal minor, Quercus

virginiana, Ulmus crassifolia and Fraxinus

pennsylvanica var. lanceolata. REMARKS.—A

palm with a distinct trunk. A handsome

palm. Flowers in June and July. Fruit ma-

tures in November and December. Evi-

dently very limited in distribution. Eighteen

plants found within a half-mile radius. From

the number of young plants seen, it was

evidently reproducing itself satisfactorily.

All the trees grow in thick tangles of vegeta-

tion, and are thus protected from excess

cold during winter. Old settlers say this

small isolated group of palms has been

growing wild in the bottomlands as long as

they can remember.”

Mr. Vines has recently graciously sup-

plied me with his negatives, from which the

illustrations in the upper and lower right

of Plate 1 were made, as well as with the

following additional statement concerning

the circumstances of his discovery and

locality details:

The stand of palms grew on the land of Deputy-

Sheriff Harold Graves, of Brazoria, Tex. The

stand is located on the Brazoria—Cedar Lane

cut-off road approximately 2 miles east of the

Brazoria and Matagorda County line. The Bra-

zoria—Cedar Lane road runs through the center

of the stand. When the road was built some of the

workmen dug up some of the large specimens to

plant in their yards. According to Deputy-Sheriff

Graves and several other of the older settlers,

the palms have been there for many years. They

remember them as having been in that location

for 25 or 30 years. They first remember them

when squirrel hunting in the bottomlands as boys,

and when rounding up cattle, before the road was

ever cut through.

I have also heard rumors of another stand of

aborescent palms in the same region. The rumor

circulated by old Negro settlers who said they

used to see the big palms while fishing on the

San Bernard River. None of them, however,

could give me exact directions as to just where it

might be. I tried several of the leads, but they

always were blind ones. I still have a suspicion

that at one time quite a large stand must have

existed along the San Bernard River. This stand,

of course, might have been destroyed, but the

rumors, and stories of it, still exist. I still have

hopes that I shall be able to rediscover the rem-

nants of the stand eventually.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

I first saw these palms, that is, those on the

Brazoria—Cedar Lane road, during the summer of

1941, but it was not until the summer of 1942

that I collected specimens and took pictures of

them.

Doubtless other arborescent stands will

be found in protected areas, where optimum

conditions exist, in Texas and other portions

of the Coastal Plain. ;

Louisiana appears to be the center of dis-

tribution. Observations thus far made indi-

cate that the greatest concentration of

vigorous and thriving stands, including

many individuals of arborescent character,

occurs in the fertile soils of the lower Mis-

sissippi Alluvial Plain. This is partly due

to the fact that habitat factors are most

favorable for their development and partly

because much of this region—in the wetter

areas—has not yet been too greatly altered

by the destructive forces of man.

The phrase ‘‘flat alluvial places’’ does not,

however, convey the true character of the

habitat of Sabal louisiana even in south-

eastern Louisiana. Although the areas

where it occurs are alluvial, they are not

strictly flat. The topography is varied. Ac-

count must be taken of the paired alluvial

or deltaic ridges, of greater or less width and

elevation, that traverse the swamps,

marshes, and other low-lying areas. The

ridges were formed by alluviation from a

series of successively developed distributary

channels of the Mississippi River, most of

which are no longer active. The land is high-

est nearest the active or abandoned chan-

nels of distributary streams, and slopes to-

ward the wetter areas, characterized by

temporary or permanent marshes, swamps,

lagoons, or lakes. Louisiana palmetto fre-

quently occurs in the so-called “‘back land”

zone or belt between the ridgeland and the

marshes or swamps; it may actually border

the wet areas; or if the ridges are of low

elevation, it may occupy the ridges them-

selves usually forming an understory to the

other arborescent vegetation. It also occurs

in coulees or relict distributionary channels.

It is at its best in the mild climate of the

Gulf coast, where there is a high water table

for much of the year and where partial

shade is provided by the surrounding vege-

tation. It is not a “swamp plant” in the

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

sense that baldcypress and water tupelo are

considered to be swamp trees.

S. louistana also occurs in the valleys of

the Red and Ouachita Rivers, as well as in

the Mississippi flood plain proper, where

artificial levees and spillways hold the

floods in check. In Louzsiana out-of-doors

Perey Viosca, Jr., writes concerning the

large interior river valleys, that include

hardwood valley lands, river basin swamps,

and lakes above Gulf level: “‘As this region is

_ the richest in the state from an agricultural

standpoint, most of it has been cut over,

and in place of the forests, today we find

sugar cane, corn or cotton fields and truck

and dairy farms. Cane is raised more toward

the southern part of the state, and cotton

more in central and north Louisiana.’’!° He

states further that palmetto thickets and

canebrakes occur on alluvial and “‘bluff”’ soils

wherever the water table is near the surface.

There is every indication that S. louisiana

- formerly occupied a much larger area than

it does today and that there were countless

more individuals of tree size. Indeed, Wil-

ham Darby wrote 137 years ago: ‘“‘The land

is commonly of the best quality. Much of

the surface of the country low upon the

Mississippi, now cultivated in cotton, maize,

rice, and sugar, was originally covered with

palmetto.’!! Extensive engineering opera-

tions, including the building of artificial

levees, the closing off of certain natural

waterways, the construction of roads, ac-

companied by clearing of the vegetation and

digging of drainage ditches and canals with >

consequent lowering of the water level, the

reclamation of land for cultivation—all

have contributed to the disappearance of

these palmettos.

This destruction may be witnessed to-

day. The illustration in the upper right of

Plate 2 shows the effect of road-building

near Intracoastal City, Vermilion Parish,

La. The area here occupied by Louisiana

palmetto is still rather extensive but it was

previously in much more flourishing condi-

tion. Dead trunks are lying about on the

ground as the result of burning and clearing,

10 Viosca, Percy, Jr. Louisiana out-of-doors:

A Handbook and guide: 51. 1933.

1 Darsy, op. cit.

173

and many palms that are still living show

charred trunks. The one-time height of the

flood level in this area may be noted from

the root zone on the trunk just below the

‘““‘boots’’ of the small tree illustrated. Fortu-

nately, a distance back of the road, arbores-

cent specimens in their prime with inflores-

cences overtopping the surrounding vegeta-

tion still exist.

The illustration in the upper left of Plate

2 shows a specimen with medium-sized

trunk in what was, until a few years ago, a

lovely grove of Louisiana palmetto, lying

between a natural levee and a cypress-

tupelo swamp, near the eastern limit of New

Orleans. Many palms were destroyed by

clearing and burning, in the process of ex-

tensive road-construction and draining, in

the general area of Bayou Bienvenue. More

recently truck gardening has been initiated

in the rich soil of this area, in the midst of

chopped and burned palmettos. |

In a report of a survey of the Rio Grande

River in Texas, Arthur Schott made the

following reference, in 1859, to a “‘gorgeous”’

growth of palmettos on the Mississippi

River: “‘It is also in the lower portion of this

belt (where the Palm tribe is represented by

the Chamaerops Palmetto) that the Pal-

metto attains a growth as gorgeous even as

that on the Lower Mississippi; it extends on

the Rio Bravo [Rio Grande] up to about 80

miles from the Gulf. In addition to the

Palmetto common to the lower portion of

these two great rivers, ... 7’!

In calling attention to Schott’s statement,

Dr. Small commented: ‘‘Field work in the

lower Mississippi delta by the writer sub-

sequent to the spring of 1925, has convinced

him that the extensive engineering opera-

tions connected with the building of the

levees along both banks of the river utterly

exterminated the palm growth referred to

by Schott. Arthur Schott made his observa-

tions about the middle of the last century,

while extensive levee building occurred

about the beginning of the last quarter of

that century. It is evident that neither the

engineers in charge of the levee work nor

122 ScHotrt, ArTHUR. Substance of the sketch of

the geology of the lower Rio Bravo del Norte, pt. 2,

in Emory, William H. Report on the United

States and Mexican boundary survey 1: 44. 1857.

174

their associates were botanists, else some

record additional to Schott’s original state-

ment would have found its way into

print.”’3 It should be mentioned here that

even near the Mississippi itself a few trunked

trees of S. louisiana occur south of Buras;

they have very small crowns and are not

now growing in a very favorable situation.

Furthermore, the Mississippi Delta oc-

cupies a widespread area, and it can be seen

from the outline map (Fig. 1) that there are

still groups of Louisiana palmetto in many

portions of it.

Forty-three years before Schott published

the statement quoted above, Darby wrote:

‘‘Along both banks of New River, in the

rear of the plantations on the Mississippi,

and on the banks of the Atchafalaya, are

the places where most of the arundo [Arun-

dinaria gigantea] yet exists. Here, as well as

in every other part of Louisiana, where the

land sinks too low for the arundo, is found

the Chamaerops lowisiana."4

At the present time, there is still a good

representation of Louisiana palmettos be-

tween Gonzales, just south of New River,

and Sorento, in Ascension Parish. In the

lower Atchafalaya Delta arborescent speci-

mens of S. louzstana may also be seen today

near Morgan City and east of it along

Bayous Black and Chacahoula.

Darby described Louisiana palmetto as

a new species because he was of the ‘‘opinion

that there is a specific difference between

the Chamaerops palmetto hitherto known to

botanists, and that of Louisiana.’!® The

mistake of Schott, Langlois, Featherman,}”

and others of thinking that Louisiana pal-

metto was the cabbage tree, S. palmetto

(=Chamaerops palmetto Michx.), does not

seem to me to indicate such a serious error in

judgment on the part of these observers, but

it does show the astuteness of Darby. Cer-

13 SMALL, JOHN K. Palmetto-with-a-stem—Sabal

deeringiana. Journ. New York Bot. Gard. 30:

280-281. 1929.

144 DarRsy, op. cit., 193-194.

16 Ibid. 194.

16 Laneuois, A. B. Catalogue provisoire de

plantes phanérogames et cryptogames de la Basse-

Lousiane, Htats-Unis d’ Amérique: 17. 1887.

17 FEATHERMAN, A. Report of botanical survey

of southern and central Louisiana made during the

year 1870: 25. 1871.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

tainly this palm could not be the stemless

S. minor (Jacq.) Pers. To what other arbo-

rescent palmetto could it have been referred,

considering that Darby’s work and publica-

tion was apparently not well known and

that S. texana had not yet been described?

Natural factors also are contributing to

changes in the aspect and extent of Louisi-

ana palmetto stands or to their complete

obliteration. Two examples—the first on

the southwest; the second on the north,

shore of Lake Pontchartrain—are of inter-

est. Many of the taller palmettos in the

striking group of 35 or more at Frenier

Beach (west shore) (2),!® standing in a

coulee back of the lake shore, give the ap-

pearance of having been planted for orna-

mental purposes. There are few transitional

forms in this relatively open area, but all

stages of growth occur in the low ground to

the rear. This beach was built by alluvial

deposits; there is a clay base, which, until

quite recently, was overlaid with sand. The

shore is now being cut back at a rapid rate,

geologically speaking. Continued erosion

will in the future change the natural habi-

tat. The character and relative abundance

of the palms will also be altered as a con-

sequence.

On the north shore, just east of Mande-

ville (5), a later stage in the squence is tak-

ing place. Here the lake, brackish at times,

is encroaching upon the land and has al-

‘ready built up a sand ridge, 83 feet in

height, upon the shore. Similar sand-

encroachments are taking place in certain

other portions of the north shore of Lake

Pontchartrain. The extent of swamp was

formerly much greater, as attested by cy-

press stumps about 400 feet out in the

lake and dead or dying cypress trees stand-

ing at the water’s edge. A direct line from

the outer margin of the cypress swamp into

the lake passes in succession (1) Louisiana

palmettos in flourishing condition but with

an inconsiderable development of trunk;

(2) specimens almost completely buried in

the sand, so that only the upper portion of

their trunks and crowns is free; and (8) ar-

borescent palmettos standing in a foot or

18 The figures in parentheses in the text refer

to localities on the outline map (Fig. 1).

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

more of water out in the lake itself. The

crowns of the palmettos in the last two

groups are much reduced in size, the leaves

are thick and very filiferous, and the flower-

stalks are telescoped. Eventually this whole

stand will be no more, even though new

plants will for a time continue to come up

between the ridge and the ever-shrinking

cypress swamp.

Dr. E. W. Berry states that ‘“‘the silicified

remains of palm wood are exceedingly com-

mon in the late Eocene and Oligocene de-

posits from Texas eastward across Louisi-

ana, Mississippi, and Alabama, and reap-

pear in several of the Greater and Lesser

Antilles, as well as in Mexico and on the

Isthmus of Panama.’’!® Palm leaves are also

preserved in certain of these deposits.

Various genera are represented, but the

correlation of fossils with living genera or

species can only be approximate. In the

palm family, leaf remains naturally provide

more useful identification characters than

trunks.

There are fossil deposits containing leaves

and ‘‘rays’”’ (segments) of Sabal-like species

in the Jackson formation (Upper Eocene),

especially in the Vicksburg limestones and

Catahoula and Fayette sands, from eastern

Texas to Georgia. Beds of Vicksburg age

are notable for the abundance of palm frag-

ments and are of especial interest. The fos-

sil leaf species, Sabalites vicksburgensis

Berry,”? is described as having a maximum

expanse of 120 cm, the rachis continues

upward part way through the blade, and the

40 segments, up to 3.6 cm wide, become free

in the outer one-third to one-half of the

blade. Although the type locality of this

fossil species is Rosefield, La. (Catahoula

sandstone), it is also abundantly repre-

sented in sands of similar age in Fayette,

Polk, Trinity, and Webb Counties, Tex.

Certain other species of Sabalites seem to

indicate close relationship with S. palmetto

or with S. mznor; it is not improbable that

19 Berry, EH. W. The flora of the Catahoula sand-

stone. (M) in Shorter contributions to general

geology, 1916. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 98:

23a. VOLT:

20 Tbid.

4 Burry, KE. W. The Middle and Upper Eocene

floras of southeastern North America. U. S. Geol.

Surv. Prof. Paper 92: 151, pl. 29. 1924.

175

Sabilites vicksburgensis may represent an

ancestor of S. louisiana, which certainly

must have been more widespread in geo-

logic time.

Louisiana palmetto, like other species of

Sabal, evidences a wide range of adaptabil-

ity to various environmental conditions

and, in common with many palms, has dif-

ferent aspects from youth to old age. A

consideration of it in four ontogenetic

stages—juvenile, intermediate, climax or

mature, and senescent—should contribute

to a better understanding of this species.

Apparently there are comparatively few

senescent Louisiana palmettos in existence,

and all that I have seen in Louisiana are, or

appear to be, growing in habitats that are

no longer entirely favorable. Only an ap-

proximation of their age is possible but it is

known that this species grows slowly. An

ancient tree, such as that illustrated in the

upper left of Plate 1, may well be 200 or

more years of age. Four (occasionally eight)

leaves are produced by S. lowisiana in a

season; the leafscars on the trunk are very

close together. It is not determinable what

length of time elapses in the production of

the horizontal underground stem before the

erect habit is assumed.

A reduced leafcrown—smaller blades on

shorter petioles—and shortened, telescoped

inflorescences are indications of senescence

or induced senescence. Thus, the total

height of an old specimen with relatively

tall trunk is often less than that of a speci-

men in its prime with much shorter bole.

The more robust appearance of the younger

palmettos in the photograph is evident as is

also the contrast between the senescent tree

and the young climax form at the left.

This group (Pl. 1, upper left) is part of

the largest single Louisiana palmetto area

of which I am aware, but I have not seen

more than a half-dozen senescent specimens

in it. Thousands of palmettos, the majority

in the intermediate and climax stages, oc-

cupy an almost unbroken stretch of at

least 20 miles from Golden Meadow to a

distance south of Leeville, La., along Bayou

Lafourche (14). This bayou no longer func-

tions as a distributary of the Mississippi

River, having been closed off from it in 1912.

The broader alluvial regions in the upper por-

176

tion of its course are under cultivation. The

palmettos are to be seen in the lower por-

tion. They occupy a relatively narrow,

almost treeless zone between the ridge-road

and swamp or marsh, or they occur as an

understory on the chéniéres. These ridges

near the coast, on which live oak (Quercus

virginiana), water oak (Q. nigra), and hack-

berry (Celtis laevigata) form the dominant

vegetation, take their name from the

French chéne, oak. The palmetto growth

fades out together with the diminishing

chéniéres toward the Gulf of Mexico.

The few senescent specimens in this large

tract closely resemble each other; some have

more boots clinging just under the crown.

A dense mass of roots clothes the lower 4.5

dm or less at the base of all of them. The

trunks are almost white—a modification in

this saline situation, where the insolation

is intense, of the normally grayish-brown

tone of the bark of this species. The longi-

tudinal fissures that cross the closely spaced

leafscars lend a checkered appearance to

the bark.

In Louisiana old palmetto individuals

also occur near Bayou Bienvenue (3) and

near the Mississippi River on Bayou Laird,

south of Buras (15); the trees, partly buried

in the sand ridge on the north shore of Lake

Pontchartrain (5) and with only 75 cm of

visible trunk, are also senescent. Measure-

ments in these scattered localities are very

similar and may be summarized as follows:

Trunk: Height, 15—-26.5 dm (up to 54 dm

in Texas); diameter of trunk devoid of

boots, 22.6-28 cm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse,

10.5—-13 dm; length in middle line, 6.5—9 dm;

rachis length, 15-26 cm; number of seg-

ments, 34-40; widest segments, 3.8-5.7 em;

sparsely to very filiferous in the sinuses, de-

pending upon the habitat. Perioty: Length,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

50-80 cm; width near blade, 2.2-2.9 cm;

width near base, 2.8-3.8 cm. INFLORES-

CENCE: Height, 12-27 dm; width at base of

inflorescence stalk, 3.2-7.6 cm; number of

sterile spathes, 10; number of fertile spathes,

7-18. .

The specimen illustrated in the upper

right of Plate 1 was photographed by Mr.

Vines in the San Bernard River bottoms

(28) of Texas. Three trees in this area are

old, the tallest trunk measuring 54 dm. The

diameter averages 30 cm. This locality ap-

pears to represent a more nearly normal

habitat for S. lowisiana than any of the

areas in Louisiana where old trees have been

observed. The crown shows reduction in

size, but the leaves appear to be larger and

the petioles are longer than those whose

measurements have just been listed. This is

to be expected where palms occur in an un-

disturbed wet area in ‘‘thick tangles of vege-

tation.’’ Sudden lowering of the water table

has apparently not occurred in this region

and it is probable that complete drying out

of the terrain does not take place. This

venerable group should continue to be pro-

tected. It is highly desirable that certain

groups of Louisiana palmetto in Louisiana

should be set aside for conservation, inas-

much as stands of this sort are imminently

threatened with extinction.

Louisiana palmetto evidences the full

vigor of maturity in the climax stage. The

few descriptions of this species thus far

published apply, with some emendations, to

this life-form. Ordinarily the climax stage is

a bulky palm, with heavy, impressive crown,

but its appearance varies somewhat with

habitat just as do other phases of this

species. Plate 1, lower left and lower right,

illustrates typical specimens in Texas (27

and 28). The most typical specimens in

PuatEe 1.—Upper left: Senescent S. louisiana, surrounded by palmettos of intermediate ‘growth

stage with boot-aggregation, and young climax forms with short trunks such as that to the left of the

old tree. In an open situation where the habitat is no longer entirely favorable, along Bayou La-

fourche, near Leeville, La. (15).

Upper right: Senescent S. lowisiana, with trunk height of 51 dm. In an apparently optimum habitat,

San Bernard River bottoms, 8 miles west of Brazoria, Tex. (29). Photograph by Robert A.

Vines.

Lower left: Louisiana palmetto of climax form. Upper portion of trunk and lower part of crown.

Open bottomland, East Fork of the San Jacinto River, south of Cleveland, Tex. (27). ;

Lower right: Vigorous climax specimen that has retained the leaf bases in a favorable, protected

habitat. Mr. Vines, who discovered and photographed this stand, is holding a leaf cut from a younge

climax palmetto growing nearby. San Bernard River bottoms, 8 miles west of Brazoria, Tex. (29).

PuLaTE 1.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

BEE cx ROM

- ood

Roses Hes)

bose

PuLatTE 2.—Upper left: Typical young climax form of S. lowistana. Near Paris Road, vicinity of

Bayou Bienvenue, La. (3).

Upper right: Climax Louisiana palmetto, showing the effects of burning and clearing in connection

with road-construction. Sawed palmetto trunks in the left foreground. Near Intracoastal City, La.

(16).

Lower right: ‘‘Field type”’ of intermediate growth stage, showing the characteristic collapse of the

dying leaves. Along a fence bordering a cottonfield, Rayville, La. (35).

Bottom: A group of palmettos in intermediate growth stage toward the northern limit of the range

of S. louzsiana. The strongly branched inflorescences are not yet in bud (May 28, 1941). West of Mont-

rose, Ark. (23).

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

southern Louisiana, such as that shown in

the upper left of Plate 2, grow in partial

shade on moist fresh-water sites that are

flooded in winter and in early spring. In the

lower-lying areas Louisiana palmetto is as-

sociated with willows (principally Salix

nigra), red maple (Acer rubrum drum-

mondiz), and ashes (Fraxinus caroliniana,

F. tomentosa, or F. pennsylvanica lanceolata),

not far removed from the deeper swamps

dominated by baldcypress (Taxodium dis-

_ tichum) and water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica,

usually known as tupelogum) or swamp

blackgum (JN. biflora). On the ridges, domi-

nated by live oak and hackberry and some-

times also southern magnolia (Magnolia

grandiflora), the other arborescent associ-

ates of Louisiana palmetto include Ameri-

can sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua),

water oak (Quercus nigra), willow oak (Q.

phellos), waterelm (Planera aquatica), and

American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana).

Common honeylocust (Gledztsia triacanthos)

or yaupon (Ilex vomitoria) is also frequently

present.

In the interior river valleys of central and

northern Louisiana tree communities of the

wetter areas are, on the whole, similar to

those farther south. Several additional spe-

cies of oak, such as red oak (Q. shumardz),

Nuttall oak (Q. nuttallz), and overcup oak

(Q. lyrata), pecan (Carya pecan), winged

elm (Ulmus alata), and other hardwoods

augment the list of tree associates that oc-

cur with Louisiana palmetto on the ridge-

lands farther from the coast.

In optimum habitats a characteristic

specimen of Louisiana palmetto with

medium-sized trunk has large, compara-

tively thin, bluish-green leaves up to 20 dm

broad. The length in the middle line is 9

dm or more; but this is somewhat shorter

than the maximum blade length in either

side of the center. The pinnati-palmate

leaves are not in one plane. The blades have

a characteristic ‘‘palmetto-curve,”’ but it is

not so strongly developed as in S. palmetto

and other large-leaved arborescent Sabals.

The rachis (continuation of the petiole as a

midrib into the blade, along which most of

the segments originate) is winged below and

firmly supports the lower one-third of the

blade, but, beyond it, the leaf is deeply split

177

into two halves. From 36-50 segments

divide the outer half or two-thirds of the

blade, the inner solid portion being broadly

heart-shaped in outline with the notch at

the top, at the end of the rachis. The broad,

gradually acuminate segments stand out

rather stiffly; their apices, although bifid

from several to 13 cm (or even more at the

sides), are usually not flaccid. A thread-like

fiber hangs in the clefts of the younger

leaves but only a few persist in older ones.

The flat, platelike hastula, at the juncture

of the petiole and blade on the upper surface

of the leaf, is asymmetrical and averages 4

em in length.

The unarmed petioles, longer than the

blades, are concave on their upper and

rounded on their lower surfaces; the up-

turned margins are very sharp, faintly den-

ticulate toward the base. The peitole bases

split with age but only occasionally form a

crisscross or lattice (so characteristic of the

larger Sabal species). The two boot-halves

remain erect or at least ascending for a con-

siderable period. The sheaths are never

prominent; in fact, they are noticeable only

in the youngest part of the crown, where the

petiole bases of the newest leaves are bor-

dered by narrow, chaffy, light brown

margins.

One of the most interesting characteris-

tics of this species is the peculiar collapse

of the dying leaves at the juncture of the

petiole and blade, giving the effect of a half-

closed umbrella. The blade may fall off at

this point, or the petiole may break midway

before the blade falls.

A trunk averaging 9-18 dm in height

usually exhibits three zones: a region of

roots at the base, a narrow girdle of bark,

and a boot area below the leafcrown. Oc-

easionally an additional root development

occurs fairly high up on the trunk, indicat-

ing some previous high water level. (Com-

pare the illustration in the upper right of

Plate 2 with that in the upper left.) The

actual trunk diameter (bark only) rarely

exceeds 33 cm and is usually somewhat less.

When the boots persist over a period of

years, as often happens in the wetter situa-

tions, the trunk appears to be twice as thick

as it actually is. The rough bark is usually

grayish brown. —

178

Four to six (generally four) inflorescences

(‘‘spadices”’ of literature) are produced in a

season. They stand stiffly erect and, in the

more open situations, may surpass the as-

sociated small trees. Twenty-two or more

tubular, long-pointed spathes overlap each

other and cover the length of the inflores-

cence axis. Those in the lower stalklike por-

tion of the axis are sterile; the upper, fertile.

S. louisiana is characterized by a thrice-

compound inflorescence—the strongly de-

veloped, ascending or appressed, lateral

branches that emerge from the lower fertile

spathes may attain 9 dm in length in the

climax form. The branches become progres-

sively shorter until, toward the apex of the

main inflorescence, the panicles emerge

directly from the uppermost fertile spathes.

The lower branches have five or fewer sterile

spathelets at their base and the ten or fewer

panicles are subtended by the upper fertile

spathelets.

The young inflorescence shoots are visible

in the leafcrown in November. These are

elongated, attenuate-coniform structures,

imbricated with the appressed apices of the

lower spathes. Full development is not at-

tained until the following spring. Flowering

begins in June, or even late in May, and

sometimes continues into July. In some

years full flowering fails to take place, even

on perfectly vigorous specimens, because of

unusual infestation of the panicle buds by

insect larvae. Some of the lower panicles of

the branches may come into flower but the

remainder are aborted. In 1933 only one

palmetto tree in a stand of 40 or more bore

normal inflorescences.

The flowers are white, sessile, 5-6 mm

high, spirally placed about the rachillae at

rather regular intervals, spaced several

millimeters apart. They are subtended by

two unequal bracteoles, the base of the

smaller being partially enclosed by the

larger. Floral characters are: calyx 2-2.5

mm high, cylindric and thick below, 3-

angled, with three short, triangular, un-

equal, slightly carinate, thin, nerved lobes;

corolla more or less united with the stamens

into a short pseudotube at base; petals 3,

broadly ovate, 3.3-3.5 mm high, 2 mm

broad at base, thin, involute, minutely ser-

rulate, thickened and hooded at apex, auri-

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VOL. 33, NO. 6

—cled at based, 5-7 nerved; stamens 6, the

alternate shorter than the opposite that are

adnate to the petals; filaments subulate-

lanceolate, dorsoventrally flattened; op-

posite stamens 4.5—5 mm high, the filaments

4 mm high, 1 mm broad at base; alternate

stamens 4—4.5 mm high, filaments 3.5 mm

high, less than 1 mm broad at base; anthers

bright yellow, introrse, short-sagittate, 1-1.2

mm long, anther sacs somewhat unequal;

pistil comprised of 3 carpels, 3.5—-4 mm high,

1 mm or more broad at the enlarged ovarial

base, stylar portion 3-angled, apex truncate.

The flower buds show 18 chromosomes

(plate stage).”

The fruits are suborbicular, brownish

black drupes, ripening in November. They

average 9-1] mm in diameter and 8-9.5 mm

in height. The reddish brown, sub-lustrous

seeds, enclosed in a thin integument, are 8-9

mm in diameter and 6-7 mm in height. The

micropyle is lateral.

Many of the fine groups of climax speci-

mens along Bayou Sauvage and near the

Chef Menteur (1 and 4), including some of

those on which Dr. Small based his original

description of S. deeringiana, are, unfor-

tunately, no longer extant. However, favor-

able localities in Louisiana where numbers

of characteristically well-developed climax

specimens may still be observed are at

Frenier Beach (2), near Bayou Bienvenue |

(3), in the lower portion of the Vermilion

River bottom (16), along Bayou des Alle-

mands (11), east of Berwick Bay on Bayous

Black and Chacahoula and south of it on

Bayou Shaffer (15), and in some other places

(1, 12, 14). Fairly isolated individuals in

their prime, noted in Louisiana, near the

towns of Bunkie (19), Denham Springs

(17), and Rayville (22), will be discussed in

connection with Louisiana palmettos of

intermediate growth stage. In Alabama a

good stand of representative Louisiana ~

palmettos grows in the bottomland of the

Tensas River at the head of Mobile Bay,

2 Dr. A. E. Longley, U. S. Department of

Agriculture, obligingly examined many samples

of Louisiana palmetto flower buds that had been

collected in various localities. Only those from

the Chef Menteur area along Bayou Sauvage

proved to be in the proper stage for chromosome

counts. They were collected from both climax and

intermediate forms of S. louisiana.

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

in a locality inaccessible except by descent

from the Louisville & Nashville Railroad

trestle (24). The best groups thus far dis-

covered in Texas have already been men-

tioned as occurring in the bottomland of the

East Fork of the San Jacinto River (27) and

in that of the San Bernard River (28).

Measurements of the climax form may

be stated as follows: TRuNxK: Height 9-19.5

dm; diameter of trunk devoid of boots, 28—

34 cm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse, 16.5-20 dm;

length in middle line, 9-12 dm; rachis

length, 25-42.5 cm (usually 30-87.5 cm);

number of segments 36-50 (usually 38-42) ;

widest segments, 4.7—7 cm; usually sparsely

filiferous. Prtiotn: Length, 70-145 cm

(usually 105-135 cm); width nearest blade,

2-3.8 cm; width nearest base, 4.5-5.7 cm.

INFLORESCENCE: Height, 25.5-39 dm (usu-

ally 36 dm); width at base of inflorescence

stalk, 4.5-6.4 cm; number of sterile spathes,

10-14; fertile spathes, 12-18; lower in-

florescence branches up to 9 dm in length.

Deviations from the characteristic climax

form of the shaded, fresh-water sites are

especially apparent in the extensive Bayou

Lafourche palmetto area (14), evidencing

adaptation to a different set of environ-

mental factors. The leafblades are thicker in

texture, glaucous, stiffer, yellow- or gray-

green, and abundantly filiferous; the in-

florescences average 30 dm in height; and

the trunk diameter is not quite 28 cm.

Under favorable conditions there is a

natural transition from the climax form to

those of intermediate stage. It is so gradual

that the line of demarcation has been ar-

bitrarily placed to include in the intermedi-

ate stage those specimens whose trunks

usually retain the leafbases to form ‘‘boot-

ageregations’”’ of 9 dm or less, and that do

not yet show a true bark area. There is also

no visible root development above the

ground level. The leafblades are borne on

longer petioles and are frequently larger

than those in the climax form; they are

ordinarily 3 dm broader in proportion to

their length. The tallest inflorescences with

the most strongly developed lower branches

(up to 15 dm in length) also occur in this

stage.

Palmettos of this robust intermediate

stage occur in most of the optimum areas

179

already given for the climax form. However,

certain additional localities in which the

palmetto population is predominantly or

entirely composed of flourishing specimens

in this and juvenile stages are of interest.

These palmetto areas are indicated on the

outline map by numbers 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18,

20, and 21 for Louisiana, 23 in Arkansas,

and 26 and 29 in Texas. There is the pos-

sibility, of course, that climax forms are

associated with the intermediate forms in

the more inaccessible wetter portions of

some of these areas but have not yet been

discovered. In other populations, it is known

that the larger palmettos were removed in

the clearing of the forests for cultivation of

sugar, cotton, or other crops. Where cultiva-

tion was later abandoned and the areas

permitted to return undisturbed to forest,

second growth timber has come in. In such

places, provided that the water level is still

near the surface, all the palmettos are of

normal intermediate or younger growth

stage.

Louisiana palmettos of the intermediate

growth stage in normal environments have

the following dimensions: TruNK: Height,

3-9 dm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse, 12—21.5 dm;

length in middle line, 8-11 dm; rachis

length, 16.7-42 cm; number of segments,

34-50 (averaging 34-42); widest segments,

2.2-6.7 cm; sparsely to moderately filifer-

ous. PETIOLE: Length, 95-160 cm; width

nearest blade, 2.5-4.5 cm; width near base,

3.2-5.7 cm. INFLORESCENCE: Height, 27-46

dm; width at base of inflorescence stalk,

3.8-6.4 em; number of sterile spathes, 9-11;

number of fertile spathes, 11-17; length of

lowest branch, up to 15 dm.

An unfavorable environment is reflected

in the character of intermediate-stage pal-

metto groups subjected to adverse natural

factors such as saline or brackish water,

excessive direct sunlight, and the piling up

about the plant bases—or removal there-

from—of soil and inundation debris. The

great majority of the Louisiana palmettos of

intermediate stage that grow in deep muck

in exposed brackish habitats along Bayou

Lafourche (14), some of those on the lake

side of the sand ridge at Lake Pontchart-

rain (2), and the few specimens in sand on

the east shore near the mouth of the Escam-

180

bia River, Fla. (25), show the effects of

naturally trying conditions and closely re-

semble each other. ;

The character of Louisiana palmettoes in

or near pastures, cultivated fields, or fields

turned back to pasture is also associated

with unfavorable environmental conditions,

but these have been mainly brought about

by the clearing of forests together with

lowering of the water level, plowing or other

methods of cultivation, and cattle-grazing.

High insolation and long dry periods follow-

ing brief or only occasional high water levels

are contributing adverse factors. In the

more northern latitudes the cooler winter

temperature also exerts a retarding in-

fluence upon growth.

The growth form of all these palmettos in

the intermediate stage is compact—the

crown is less open and smaller than in those

in optimum habitats, and the aggregation

of boots at the base is very dense, probably

because elongation of the upright trunk

proceeds very slowly. The “‘palmetto-curve”’

of the thick, more or less glaucous, yellow-

or gray-green, abundantly filiferous leaves

is more prominent, as is the inclination of

the two halves of the blade away from the

middle line. The segments are relatively

wider in proportion to the size of the blade.

The characteristic umbrella-collapse of the

dying leaves is pronounced (Pl. 2, lower

right). From a distance, pastures and cut-

- over areas of palmettos resemble fields of

shocked wheat. The thick, branched in-

florescences are shortened and compressed,

often being very similar to those of senes-

cent trees. The lower branches are so close

together in many of the field and pasture

palmettos that the inflorescences have a

bushlike appearance. Failure to develop

inflorescences is not infrequent in palmettos

that are exposed to grazing, plowing, etc.,

but those along fence rows and the margins

of fields that border woods succeed in put-

ting forth inflorescénces in occasional years,

if not annually.

Although the palmettos in naturally ad-

verse habitats (2, 14, and 25) have some-

what larger leaves and boot-aggregations

(3-6 dm) in contrast to the smaller leaves

and boot-aggregations (about 3 dm) of the

intermediate stage of fields and pastures

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

(30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39), the/overall

dimensions fall within the same range:

Trunk: Height of boot-aggregation, 3-6

dm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse, 12-15 dm;

length in middle line, 6.7—-9.2 dm; rachis

length, 13-22 cm; number of segments, 32-

40 (usually 32-38); widest segments, 3.8—

5.7 cm; very filiferous. Prrio.te: Length,

45-95 cm; width nearest blade, 2-4.5 cm;

width near base, 2.8-5.7 cm. INFLOREsS-

CENCE: Height, 20—-28.5 dm; width at base

of inflorescence stalk, 3.2-5 cm; number of

sterile spathes, 9-12; number of fertile

spathes, 10-17; length of lowest branches,

up to 4.5 dm.

The palmettos, with boot-aggregations

and branched inflorescences, that grow in

certain cultivated alluvial areas of Louisiana

have not previously been identified as S.

louisiana, but they represent an intermedi-

ate stage just as surely as do the luxuriant

specimens of intermediate form in favorable

localities where the relationship is more

obvious.

The stocky specimens growing in the

open in pastures or abandoned fields, es-

pecially in central and northern Louisiana,

frequently occur in large numbers. A suc-

cession to more vigorous palmettos of inter-

mediate stage but still of the ‘‘field type,”

may sometimes be traced from these open

palmetto areas to the lower-lying, wetter

margins of the pastures or fields, neighbor-

ing woodlands, or up to the edge of small

streams.

The discovery of three arborescent pal-

mettoes in widely separated localities in

Louisiana, where most of the surrounding

countryside has long since been cleared and

put under cultivation, not only suggests

that arborescent Louisiana palmettos were

formerly more common than now, but also,

in my judgment, has a vital bearing upon

the relationship of the intermediate-stage

palmettos that grow in pastures and fields.

The first of these three individuals occurs

in a deep woods just east of Denham

Springs (17). When I last saw it several

years ago, the trunk height was 14 dm, the

leaves were 13 dm broad, and the inflores-

cences attained 36 dm in height—a typical —

climax specimen. It grew near a bayou

branch of the Amite River that is consider-

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

ably lower than the highway along which

intermediate-growth palmettos of the ‘‘field

type”’ occurred. |

The second lone individual of tree size

has a trunk height of 13.5 dm, and a diame-

ter of 29 cm. It grows in the water of a small

181

coulee that courses through a pasture and

is visible from the road (U. 8. Highway 71),

south of Bunkie (19). This specimen was

flanked at the water’s edge by other Louisi-

ana palmettos of intermediate stage in good

condition, but the palmettos ranging into

Fig. 1— Distribution of Sabal louisiana. The dots on the map represent the more significant and

typical stands or individuals of senescent, climax, or intermediate growth-form in the following locali-

ties: Louristana—1, Along Bayou Sauvage, north of the Chef Road. 2, Frenier Beach, west shore of

Lake Pontchartrain and northwards between Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain. 3, Near Paris

Road, New Orleans, and the general vicinity of Bayou Bienvenue. 4, Along Bayou Sauvage, from

Micheaud to the Chef Menteur Pass. 5, East of Mandeville, north shore of Lake Pontchartrain. 6,

Manchac and other stations on the northwest shore of Lake Maurepas. 7, Between Gonzales, along

New River, and Sorrento. 8, West of Shell Beach (on Lake Borgne) along Bayous Yscloskey and La

Loutre. 9, West Pearl River, near Indian Village. 10, South of Buras and not far from the Mississippi

River, vicinity of Bayous Grand Liard and Petit Liard. 11, Bayou des Allemands, near Des Allemands

Station. 12, Bayou Villars, near the upper end of Bayou Barataria. 13, Bayou Dupont. 14, From Golden

Meadow to a distance below Leeville, along Bayou Lafourche. 15, East of Berwick Bay and Morgan

City along Bayous Black and Chacahoula (Chacahoula swamp), and southward along Bayou Shaffer.

16, Near Intracoastal City, Vermilion River. 17, East of the Amite River along a small bayou near

Denham Springs. 18, Between Port Barre and Opelousas, in the vicinity of Bayou Teche. 19, Eight

miles south of Bunkie. 20, Near the Tensas River, 84 miles west of Ferriday. 21, North of U. 8. High-

way 65, northwest of St. Joseph. 22, East of Rayville. ARKANSAS—23, Bayou Bartholomew, west of

Montrose. ALABAMA—24, Tensas River delta north of Mobile Bay, west of Hurricane. 25, Eastern

shore of Escambia River, at head of Pensacola Bay. Texas—26, East of U. S. Highway 59, just south

of Cleveland. 27, East Fork of the San Jacinto River, about 4 miles south of Cleveland. 28, San Bernard

River bottom, 8 miles west of Brazoria. 29, Lavaca River bottom, west of Lolita. The solid triangles

indicate large groups of the ‘‘pasture or field type’”’ (intermediate stage); the cross-hatched triangles,

palmettos of reduced “field type” that require further study: Lourstana—30, West fork of Calcasieu

River, near Westlake. 31, Near Welch, not far from Bayou Lacasine. 32, An area roughly bounded by

Beggs, Palmetto, and Port Barre. 33, Between Comite and Puckett. 34, Between Bayou Boeuf and the

Red River, near Alexandria. 35, Various localities, near Rayville. FLorrpa—36, Near Holley, south

of the Yellow River. 37, Apalachicola River, east of Blountsville. Texas—38, San Bernard River,

north of Hungerford. 39, Hog Bayou, about 8 miles south of Port Lavaca. 40, North of Rockport,

ere shore of Copena Bay. 41, On the Blanco River, south of Blanco. Map prepared by Leta

ughey. :

182

the pasture had only short boot-aggrega-

tions and diminished crowns. Willows, a few

baldeypress trees, American honeylocust,

and giant cane are associated with them in

the pasture. The large baldcypress trees at

the margin of an extensive swamp can be

seen in the distance.

The third arborescent specimen occurs

near Rayville (22), along a small stream in

a mixed woodland, bounded by a cottonfield

on one side and passing gradually into a

cypress-tupelo swamp on the other. It is not

so well developed as the two just mentioned.

The palmettos along the nearby fence row

(Pl. 2, lower right) are of intermediate “‘field

type.” In the cottonfield on the other side

of the fence row, and in countless areas

round about, the palmettos are regarded as

troublesome weeds. Following plowing, cot-

ton is frequently planted in the midst of

palmettos, which are not only low and im-

poverished in appearance but unable to put

forth inflorescences.

The complete range of S. louisiana is,

even with the additional data herein pre-

sented, imperfectly known. The dots on the

accompanying map (Fig. 1) represent lo-

calities in which I have studied arborescent

or near-arborescent specimens (senescent,

climax, or intermediate forms) of S. louzsz-

ana as well as the group discovered in Texas

by Mr. Vines. The solid triangles indicate

localities where the ‘‘field or pasture type’’

of S. lowistana is predominant and where

sufficient study of the individuals in the

field and of the flowers and fruits in the lab-

oratory leaves no question as to their iden-

tity. It is not possible to give, on such a

small-scale map, an accurate picture of the

density of the palmetto populations in the

respective areas. A dot may represent a sin-

gle tree or a group. Several dots indicate ex-

tensive continuous or discontinuous stands.

A solid triangle in all cases represents a

tract of palmettos. The cross-hatched tri-

angles indicate localities (36, 37, 40, and 41)

where palmettos have been observed that

appear to be S. louzszana but require further

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

investigation of their flowers and fruits.

Similar plants also occur in an alluvial area

west of Charleston, 8. C., and in a few other

places not shown on the map.

There are numerous other palmetto areas,

both within and beyond the known range

of Louisiana palmetto, in which it is difficult

to distinguish between the acaulescent S.

minor and juvenile or dwarfed forms of S.

louisiana, especially specimens that do not

come into flower or fruit. Although much

field work has already been done throughout

the purported range of S. minor, further

observation and a somewhat different ap-

proach through morphological studies is

necessary for a better understanding of

these two species.”

23 My interest in native palmettos began in the

New Orleans area while I was a member of the

faculty of Tulane University (until 1932). A

survey of Louisiana and some neighboring re-

gions was made from May to November, 1933.

Thereafter additional surveys and rechecking of

areas previously visited were carried out during

vacation periods from Washington, D. C., either

in June or November (the flowering and fruiting

seasons of S. lowistana). Grateful acknowledg-

ment is made to former students and coworkers

at Tulane University, especially Anna L. Haas,

who accompanied me on many field trips and

rendered assistance in the collection of material,

measurement of specimens, and pH determina-

tions of soil samples; to Mrs. J. R. Fowler, Dr.

Mike Wright, and Dr. John W. Bick for help on

various expeditions; and to Dr. Harley N. Gould

and Dr. W. T. Penfound for extending the facili-

ties of their respective laboratories to me subse-

quent to 1932. I am also indebted to G. D. Cain,

County Agricultural Extension Agent, for in-

formation in connection with the palmettos of

Richland Parish (Louisiana) and neighboring

cotton-growing regions; Eloise R. Bomhard, who

accompanied me on several surveys; E. L. Dem-

mon, director of the Southern Forest Experiment

Station (New Orleans), as well as a number of

present and former Station staff members for

numerous courtesies and assistance; Dr. B. C.

Tharp, University of Texas, for cooperation and

aid on field trips near Austin; and to various

persons, who made prompt and helpful replies to

my inquiries, especially Hula Whitehouse, Texas

Memorial Museum.

The kind cooperation of Mr. Vines and Dr.

Longley has already been mentioned. Thanks are

also due Percy Viosca, Jr., of New Orleans, W. A.

Dayton, U.S. Forest Service, and Dr. Penfound

for reviewing the manuscript.

June 15, 1943

BOTAN Y.—Two new basidiomycetous fungi parasitic on nematodes.'

DRECHSLER: TWO NEW BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI

183

CHARLES

DRECHSLER, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Among several fungi set forth in an earlier

paper (4) as attacking nematodes after the

usual manner of parasites, by intrusion of

hyphal elements arising through germina-

tion of adhering conidia, were included two

species which from their production of

clamp-connections were obviously to be

reckoned among the Basidiomycetes. The

two species, it was clear, were intimately

akin to one another; yet owing to somewhat

incidental differences in the make-up of

their sporulating apparatus they could not

both be assigned satisfactorily to any one

mucedinaceous genus then available. Ac-

cordingly a new genus, Nematoctonus, was

erected in which they were described under

the names JN. tylosporus and N. leiosporus.

Subsequently two other forms, similarly

parasitic on free-living nematodes, and simi-

larly provided with clamp-connections,

have been observed in transparent Petri-

plate cultures. These two forms, which like

those presented earlier have more than ordi-

nary interest, since they represent basidio-

mycetes habitually subsisting on animals

that normally remain in a motile state from

the time of hatching until the approach of

death, are described herein as additional

species of Nematoctonus.

One of the two species came to light on

September 1, 1942, in a maize-meal-agar

plate culture that on August 24, 1942, had

been planted with the softened stem of a

newly damped-off tomato seedling from a

greenhouse at the Bureau of Plant Industry

Station near Beltsville, Md. The fungus,

when first observed, was barely visible to

the naked eye as a very delicate arachnoid

weft festooned over a portion of the decay-

ing tomato material. It failed to spread to

other areas of the original culture, ap-

parently for the reason that in its initial

development all individuals of the suscepti-

ble species of nematode had been extermi-

nated. However, when a small quantity of

the delicate weft was transferred to another

Petri-plate culture, which likewise had been

1 Received March 24, 1943.

started on August 24, from a damped-off

tomato seedling, and which likewise had af-

forded ample development of free-living

eelworms soon after the agar substratum

became permeated with mycelium of Pyth-

zum irregulare Meurs, the arachnoid fungus

resumed its destructive activity on a larger

scale. Everywhere in the second culture it

parasitized a single nematode species that

manifestly was identical with the species it

had exterminated in the original culture.

The eelworm in question was determined by

Dr. G. Steiner to belong to a group of forms

that have been cited in the literature rather

indiscriminately under the binomial Rhab-

ditis monhystera Bitschli.

During the earlier stages of invasion the

assimilative mycelium within an infected

nematode is usually obscured very badly by

the globulose materials resulting directly

from degeneration of the host tissues. Later,

when these globulose materials have in large

part been appropriated by the fungus and

have been utilized for the production ex-

ternally of conidiophorous filaments (Fig. 1,

A, a, b), the assimilative hyphae are better

discernible. In some instances the empty

membrane of the conidium (Fig. 1, A, c)

that initiated the attack may then still be

seen attached to the outside of the host

integument, its prolongation in the empty

germ hypha visibly communicating with the

mycelium inside. Occasionally the empty

envelopes of several conidia operative in ac-

complishing infection may be seen attached

to the dead animal. The quantity of as-

similative mycelium, however, would seem

little influenced by the number of adhering

spore envelopes, for multiple hyphae are

readily produced by branching. Frequently

branches arise directly from, or in close

proximity to, clamp-connections, though

some clamps having no special positional

relationship to branches are usually present.

Occurrence of clamps without relationship

to branches or to any other lateral out-

growths could be noted also in external

hyphae that happened to lie submerged for

considerable distances under the surface of

C. Drechsler det.

Fig. 1—Nematoctonus pachysporus, drawn to a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera

lucida; 1,000 throughout. A, Anterior portion of nematode host permeated with assimilative my-

celium from which one hypha, a, has been extended into the surrounding agar culture medium, while

another hypha, b, has been extended into the air; the two external hyphae, from want of space, being

shown in sections whose proper continuity is indicated by the two sequences of paired letters, t—-v and

w-z, respectively; c, empty envelope of conidium, attached externally, from which the assimilative

mycelium had its origin. B, Portion of conidiophorous hypha, bearing conidia on two longish sterig-

mata, a and b. C, Portion of conidiophorous hypha bearing solitary conidia on three short sterigmata,

a-c. D, Conidia, a-x, showing variations in size and shape previous to germinative development.

EH, Conidia, a-s, showing variations in germinative development. F, Portion of conidiophorous hypha

with two sterigmata, @ and 6, whereon are borne solitary ovoid spores destined for conversion into

resting spores. G, H, Portions of conidiophorous hypha, each with an ovoid spore soon to be converted

into a resting spore. J, Three ovoid spores before conversion into resting spores. J, Portion of conidio-

phorous hypha showing an echinulate resting spore borne on asterigma. K, Resting spores, a-g, showing

variations in size, shape, and echinulation.

June 15, 1943

the agar culture medium (Fig. 1, A, a).

A submerged position, of course, is not a

usual one for the external, conidiophorous

filaments. Most often they grow out some-

what ascendingly into the air to attain

lengths ranging from 1 to 1.5 mm. As their

development continues they sooner or later

decline to the substratum, so that eventu-

ally they come to lie prostrate in areas where

the surface is smooth, or are draped loosely

over prominences in more rugged areas. Oc-

casionally a conidiophorous filament may

grow out in a procumbent posture.

Whatever their posture may be, the aerial

filaments become studded at intervals with

clamp-connections, which often give rise, on

short narrow sterigmata, to erect strobili-

form conidia (Fig. 1, A, b; B, a, 6). Conidia

may, however, arise without any close posi-

tional relationship to clamp-connections

(Fig. 1, C, a). Sometimes a conidium is

borne almost sessile on the parent filament

in close proximity to a clamp-connection

(Fig. 1, C, b); or, again, it is attached, with-

out any noticeable sterigma, directly to the

dorsal side of a clamp (Fig. 1, C, c). Ordi-

narily its original strobiliform shape (Fig. 1,

D, a-x) is soon modified as the result of

germinative development. A short broad

process is extended usually from the distal

end (Fig. 1, #, a) or, in rare instances, from

the basal end (Fig. 1, E, b). This process

gives rise at its tip to a globose adhesive

body, measuring usually 3 or 4u in diameter,

and consisting apparently of a narrowed

hyphal termination together with a layer of

glutinous secretion (Fig. 1, EH, c—l). There-

upon the outgrowth may resume elongation

(Fig. 1, #, m-o) to produce terminally a

second adhesive body (Fig. 1, EH, p, q).

Elongation may then be resumed again,

with eventual development of a third ad-

hesive body (Fig. 1, EH, 7). In some instances

where a germ outgrowth is put forth from

the basal end as well as from the distal

end, one of the outgrowths may form a

single adhesive body while the other may

produce two such bodies (Fig. 1, FE, s). The

transfer of protoplasmic materials required |

for such incipient germinative development

is accompanied by vacuolization and evacu-

ation usually of the basal portion of the

conidium, and by collapse of the emptied

DRECHSLER: TWO NEW BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI

185

portion of conidial envelope. Occasionally

the entire protosplasmic contents may mi-

grate into the stout germ outgrowth (Fig.

en):

In addition to the colorless thin-walled

conidia discussed so far, the fungus pro-

duces resting spores. These likewise are

mostly borne on short sterigmata arising

from clamp-connections or in close proxim-

ity to clamp-connections (Fig. 1, F, a, b;

G; H). During their earlier stages of de-

velopment they resemble conidia, though

usually they may be distinguished even

then by their broader ovoid shape (Fig. 1,

I, a—d). In their ripe condition (Fig. 1, J)

they have a perceptibly yellowish colora-

tion, and individually are surrounded by a

thicker wall, which sometimes is modified

externally with bullate sculpturing (Fig. 1,

K, a, 6), but oftener is closely beset with

slender spiny protuberances (Fig. 1, K, c-g).

As these resting spores have never been

seen to germinate, it may be presumed that

like the resting spores of Nematoctonus

tylosporus they are adapted for tiding over

unfavorable periods.

The greater thickness of its conidia rela-

tive to the conidia of the three known con-

generic species suggests the epithet pro-

posed for the fungus.

Nematoctonus pachysporus, sp. nov.

Hyphae assumentes incoloratae, irregulariter

ramosae, plerumque 2-3.5u crassae, in modum

Hymenomycetum septato-nodosae, intra ver-

miculum nematoideum viventem crescentes,

post mortem animalis aliquot hyphas fertiles

extra emittentes; hyphis fertilibus incoloratis,

simplicibus vel parce ramosis, primo plerumque

ascendentibus postea procumbentibus, medio-

criter septato-nodosis, vulgo 0.5-1.5 mm longis,

2.2-3.2u crassis, conidia vel sporas perdurantes

quandoque protinus ex nodis quandoque ex

sterigmatis singulatim gerentibus; sterigmatis

erectis, 0.5—5u longis, basi 1-2.5u crassis, apice

0.6—lu crassis; conidiis incoloratis, primo con-

tinuis et erectis, levibus, elongato-ellipsoideis

vel strobiliformibus, plerumque 12-19, longis,

4—5.5u crassis, ex apice vel rarius ex basi

hypham germinationis brevem erectam emit-

tentibus; hac hypha 1-3 corpora glutinosa 2.5—

5.5u crassa deinceps proferente. Sporae perdu-

rantes continuae, ovoideae, flavidae, verrucosae

Fig. 2.—Nematoctonus leptosporus, drawn to a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera lucida;

1,000 throughout. A, Young specimen of Bunonema sp. to which are attached four germinating

conidia whose vacuolate condition indicates that each may be extending an infective hypha into the

animal. B, Nematode host permeated with a mycelium from which five hyphae, a-e, have begun to

grow externally. C, Portion of conidiophorous hypha with two sterigmata, a and b, each bearing a

single conidium that shows no apical adhesive modification. D, Portion of conidiophorous hypha with

two denuded sterigmata, a and b. H, Detached conidia, a-e, showing variations in size and shape before

undergoing apical modification. F, G, Portions of conidiophorous hypha, each with two branching

sterigmata, one of them, a, bearing two spores, v and w, while the other, b, supports three spores, y-z.

H, Portion of conidiophorous hypha with a branched sterigma bearing four conidia, a-d, all modified

at the apex. I, Conidia, a-f, each of which formed an adhesive knob at its apex before becoming de-

tached from its sterigma. J, Conidia, a-o, that after falling on moist agar culture medium have each

sent up a delicate apical process terminating in a small adhesive knob.

June 15, 1943

vel crebre echinulatae, 10—13u longae, 5.5-7.5u

crassae.

Vermiculum nematoideum Rhabditis mon-

hysterae adfinem enecans habitat in radicibus

Lycopersici esculenti putrescentibus prope

Beltsville, Maryland.

Assimilative hyphae colorless, irregularly

branched, mostly 2 to 3.5u wide, provided with

clamp-connections, developing within living

nematodes, after death of host animal giving

rise externally to several conidiophorous hy-

phae. Conidiophorous hyphae colorless, simple

or somewhat branched, at first usually ascend-

ing, later prostrate or festooned on the sub-

stratum, commonly 0.5 to 1.5 mm. long, 2.2 to

3.2u wide, at moderate intervals (mostly 10 to

75u) forming clamp-connections, producing

solitary conidia or solitary resting spores some-

times directly on clamp-connections and at

other times on sterigmata 0.5 to 5u long, 1 to

2.5u wide at the base, 0.6 to lu wide at the apex.

Conidia erect, colorless, smooth, at first con-

tinuous, elongate-ellipsoid or strobiliform,

mostly 12 to 19u long, 4 to 5.5u wide, before or

after disjunction usually becoming partly evac-

uated of contents in giving rise at the apex or

more rarely at the base to a short erect process

whereon are borne successively 1 to 3 globose

adhesive bodies 2.5 to 5.5u in diameter. Resting

spores aseptate, yellowish, ovoid, at maturity

warty or strongly echinulate, measuring mostly

10 to 13 in length and 5.5 to 7.5 uw in width.

Destroying a species of nematode belonging

to the Rhabditis monhystera group, it occurs in

decaying roots of Lycopersicon esculentum near

Beltsville, Md.

The other species of Nematoctonus to be

presented herein was found developing

abundantly in Petri plates of maizemeal

agar, which after being permeated with

Pythium mycelium had been further planted

with pinches of friable leaf mold taken from

deciduous woods near Fairfax, Va., on No-

vember 10, 1942. In these cultures it sub-

sisted exclusively on a species of Bunonema

introduced with the forest refuse. Invasion

of the small eelworm was manifestly ini-

tiated by continued germinative develop-

ment of adhering conidia (Fig. 2, A, a—d),

though owing to optical difficulties arising

from globulose degeneration of the host tis-

sues, not to mention further difficulties at-

DRECHSLER: TWO NEW BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI

187

tributable to pronounced sculpturing of the

host integument, the progress of mycelial

advance could not be followed. However,

after the granular materials had been largely

appropriated the assimilative mycelium was

revealed, though often only rather indis-

tinctly, as a branching system of hyphae

studded here and there with clamp-

connections (Fig. 2, B). Usually before

this somewhat transparent condition came

about, conidiophorous filaments were being

extended over the surface of the adjacent

substratum (Fig. 2, B, a-e).

These filaments, while still elongating,

give rise at moderate intervals to erect

tapering sterigmata (Fig. 2, C, a, b; D, a, b),

each bearing at its tip a slender, slightly

tapering, rod-shaped conidium (Fig. 2, C,

y, 2) whose apex in the beginning shows no

special modification (Fig. 2, H, a—-e). Some-

times a sterigma grows directly from a

clamp-connection but more often it arises

some little distance backward from a clamp,

that is, some little distance nearer the origin

of the filament (Fig. 2, C, a, 6; D, a, b).

After the individual sterigma (Fig. 2, F, a;

G, a) has produced its first conidium (Fig. 2,

F, v; G, v), it ordinarily continues in its re-

productive function by putting forth a short

lateral spur on which a second conidium is

formed (Fig. 2, F, w; G, w). Many sterig-

mata thereupon will put forth a second

lateral spur, and thus will come to support

three conidia (Fig. 2, F, x-z; G, 2-z). In

mature portions of conidiophorous hyphae

' some sterigmata can be found bearing as

many as four conidia, each, of course, borne

on a separate sterigmatic tip (Fig. 2, H,

a-d).

Branched sterigmata bearing two or three

conidia are nearly always to be found in

proximity to a corresponding number of

clamp-connections (Fig. 2, F, G). Apparent-

ly the clamps of later origin are formed in

successively more distal positions.

Soon after they have been cut off by a

basal septum, the conidia undergo notice-

able germinative development. Those that

remain supported on their sterigmata pro-

duce at the tip a globose knob consisting of

a glandular part thinly surrounded with

adhesive secretion (Fig. 2, F—H; I, a-f).

Those that become detached and fall on a

188

moist surface produce a similar adhesive

knob terminally on a delicate, erect or

ascending process extended from the tip

(Fig. 2, J, a-o). The materials required

for this germinative development are sup-

plied through evacuation of protoplasm

from the basal portion of the conidium. To

separate the living portion of the spore from

the emptied portion at least one retaining

wall is laid down. In instances where pre-

sumably the movement of protoplasm takes

place rather slowly, two (Fig. 2, J, a, b, m,

n, 0) or even four (Fig. 2, J, k) retaining

walls may be laid down successively.

Comparable development of adhesive

knobs on delicate processes arising from

fallen conidia has not been noted in Nema-

toctonus tylosporus. The fungus differs fur-

ther from JN. tylosporus in its markedly

stronger tendency toward production of

conidia plurally on branching sterigmata.

Its conidia, moreover, are appreciably nar-

rower and longer than those of N. tylo-

sporus, and, of course, pronouncedly nar-

rower and longer than the conidia of N.

letcosporus and N. pachysporus. A term hav-

ing reference to its slender spores may

therefore serve as an epithet sufficiently de-

scriptive to set the fungus apart from the

three known congeneric forms.

Nematoctonus leptosporus, sp. nov.

Hyphae assumentes incoloratae, plus mi-

nusve ramosae, plerumque 2—3.5u crassae, in

modum Hymenomycetum septato-nodosae, in-

tra vermiculum nematoideum viventem cres-

centes, post mortem animalis aliquot fertiles

hyphas extra emittentes; hyphis fertilibus

incoloratis, saepius procumbentibus, modice

septato-nodosis, vulgo 250—750u longis, 1.6—2u

crassis, conidia ex erectis sterigmatis gerenti-

bus; his sterigmatis inter se saepius 35—65u

distantibus, 5-10y altis, basi 2.5-4u crassis,

sursum attenuatis, apice .5-ly crassis, primo

simplicibus, postea 1-3 ramusculos emittenti-

bus, itaque vulgo 2 vel 3 etiam quandoque 4

conidia proferentibus; conidiis incoloratis,

bacillaribus, sursum leviter attenuatis, utrinque

obtusulis vel rotundatis, 21-28 longis, 1.7—2.2u

crassis, primo continuis et protoplasmatis

omnino repletis, mox in parte infera vacuis et

apice tuberculo glutinoso circa 2u crasso praedi-

tis, postea tuberculum ejusmodiin apice hyphae

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

erectae vel ascendentis 3—10u longae .6u crassae

ferentibus.

Vermiculum nematoideum speciei Bunone-

matis necans habitat in humo silvestri prope

Fairfax, Virginia.

Assimilative hyphae colorless, provided with

clamp-connections, somewhat branched, mostly

2 to 3.5u wide, developing within living nema-

todes, after death of host animal producing

several conidiophorous hyphae externally; coni-

diophorous hyphae colorless, usually prostrate,

commonly 250 to 750u long, 1.6 to 2u wide,

forming clamp-connections at moderate inter-

vals, giving rise to conidia on erect sterigmata;

the sterigmata spaced mostly at intervals of 35

to 65yu, at first simple, commonly 5 to 10 high,

2.5 to 4u wide at the base, tapering upward.

mostly 0.5 to lu wide at the tip, later usually

putting forth 1 to 3 lateral spurs and by pro-

ducing a conidium on each spur eventually

coming to support 2 or 3 or sometimes even 4

conidia; the conidia colorless, staff-shaped,

tapering slightly toward apex, somewhat ob-

tuse or bluntly rounded at both ends, mostly

21 to 28u long and 1.7 to 2.2u wide, at first con-

tinuous, later often empty at the base and pro-

vided at the tip with a globose adhesive knob

about 2u wide, or after falling off producing

such a knob terminally on an erect or ascending

process, 3 to 10u long and 0.6 wide, that is

extended obliquely or perpendicularly from the

tip.

Parasitic on a species of Bunonema in leaf

mold near Fairfax, Va.

With respect to outward shape the knob-

bearing outgrowth commonly produced by

the conidium of Nematoctonus leptosporus

after falling on a moist surface offers curious

similarity to the empty basal appendage on

the conidium of Euryancale sacciospora

Drechsl. (3) as well as to the proximal por-

tion of the conidium of Harposporium oxyco- ©

racum Drechsl. (4). This similarity would

seem in large measure illustrative of con-

vergence, since the three fungi, remote from

one another taxonomically, all subsist as

obligate parasites on nematodes of the genus

Bunonema. The adaptive modifications here

concerned may well have been developed

to facilitate attachment of the conidia to the

strongly sculptured integument so charac-

teristic of the host animals in their adult

condition.

June 15, 1943

In Nematoctonus pachysporus the develop-

ment of adhesive bodies plurally, together

with the frequently pronounced exhaustion

of the spore, makes for an appearance not

wholly unlike that offered in the develop-

ment of basidiospores on basidia. The

homologies thus suggested can not readily

be dismissed until adverse cytological evi-

dence has been brought foreward, or until

structures have been discovered more

closely corresponding to basidia than any I

- have observed hitherto. The plural adhesive

bodies, it is true, are almost certainly of the

same character as the single adhesive knobs

formed in the three congeneric species; but

the possibility remains that these single

knobs, however commonplace their appear-

ance, might yet represent abortive basidio-

spores modified for adhesion. Nevertheless,

the thin-walled aerial spores still seem best

interpretable as conidia, especially since in

their manner of formation they offer strong

parallelism with the binucleate conidia de-

scribed by Nobles (5) as being produced on

clamp-bearing mycelia of Cortictum in-

crustans Hohn. & Litsch. If the four para-

sitic species so far described all produce

typically straight conidia, the Hawaiian.

nematode-capturing fungus to which refer-

ence was made earlier (4, p. 780) and which

almost certainly is intimately related to the

parasitic species, produces conidia that re-

FRIEDMANN: A NEW RACE OF THE SHARP-TAILED GROUSE

189

semble those of C. zncrustans in being of

curved allantoid shape. i

Their constant production of clamps

rather definitely removes all five of the

fungi habitually subsisting on eelworms

from close kinship with Septobasidium Pat.,

a large genus of basidiomycetes whose para-

sitism on scale insects, affirmed by Reinking

(6) in 1919, has more recently been set forth

in detail by Couch (2). On similar grounds

they must be considered taxonomically re-

mote from Uredinella Couch, likewise a

genus of basidiomycetes parasitic on scale

insects, since at least in U. coccidiophaga

Couch (1), just as in all species of Septo-

basidium, clamp-connections are absent.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Coucu, J. N. A new fungus intermediate

between the rusts and Septobasidium.

Mycologia 29: 665-673. 1937.

(2) . The genus Septobasidium. 480

pp. Chapel Hill, N. C., 1938.

(3) Drecuster,C. Five new Zoopagaceae de-

structive to rhizopods and nematodes.

- Mycologia 31: 388-415. 1939.

Some hyphomycetes parasitic on

free-living terricolous nematodes. Phyto-

pathology 31: 773-802. 1941.

(5) Nosues, Mitprep K. Production of coni-

dia by Corticium incrustans. Myco-

logia 29: 557-566. 1937.

(6) Remnxinc, O. A. Diseases of economic

plants in southern China. Philippine

Agr. 8: 109-135. 1919.

(4)

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new race of the sharp-tailed grouse.| HERBERT FRIEDMANN,

U.S. National Museum.

Snyder’s papers on the sharp-tailed

grouse,” in spite of certain faults, may be

said to have furthered our knowledge of this

bird more than any that went before. A

recent study of this species, based on over

200 specimens, indicates, however, that

parts of Snyder’s arrangement of races

needs alteration. These changes, herein pro-

posed, have to do, firstly, with the birds of

‘ Published by permission of the Secretary of

age cP bnonian Institution. Received April 38,

2 SNYDER, L. L., A study of the sharp-tailed

grouse. Univ. Toronto Stud., Biol. Ser., 40 (2).

1935; A revision of the sharp-tailed grouse with a

description of a new race. Occ. Pap. Roy. Ontario

Mus. Zool., no. 2. 1935; Great Plains races of the

sharp-tatled grouse. Auk 56: 184-185. 1939.

the far Northwest, which he calls kennzcottzz,

and secondly with the ranges of jamesz

(which includes the campestris of Snyder’s

first two papers) and of campestris (with

which Snyder’s campisylvicola is synony-

mized).

To take the northwest Canadian and the

Alaskan birds first, we find that a series of

topotypical kennicotti: from Fort Rae and

Fort Simpson, differ markedly from a long

series (40 specimens) from Alaska south-

eastward to Tagish Lake on the Yukon-

British Columbia border and to extreme

Northern Alberta. Inasmuch as there seems

to be no name available for the Alaskan

birds, it is proposed to call them—

190

Pedioecetes phasianellus caurus, n. subsp.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 298189. ad. o&, collected

at Fairbanks, Alaska, October 19, 1921, by

O. J. Murie.

Subspectfic characters.—Differs from kenni-

cottit in having the feathers of the upperparts

much more broadly and abundantly barred

with brown and, on the mantle, with white,

and with the white spots larger, the feathers

of the breast white, edged with dark olive-brown

(instead of dark buffy brown with only a nar-

row white shaft stripe) ; from jamesi (as under-

stood in this paper—the bird of the Great

Plains from central Alberta to northeastern

Colorado) this form differs in being much

darker, more black showing above, the brown

barrings darker, and the edgings of the breast

feathers darker; from columbianus it differs in

being darker and larger.

Description of type.-—Forehead fuscous to

fuscous-black, the feathers tipped with dark

snuff brown; feathers of the crown and occiput

similar but crossed with widely spaced whitish

bars and tipped with cinnamon-buff; the pale

bars more abundant, less widely spaced on the

lateral coronal feathers, and blending into a

fairly definite whitish or buffy whitish super-

ciliary stripe on each side; nape like the sides of

the crown but washed with pale ochraceous-

buff; “‘mantle,”’ i.e., interscapulars, fuscous-

black broadly barred with white, the more

distal bars, especially on the more posterior

feathers, washed with pale ochraceous-buff;

feathers of sides of neck and of breast similar to

anterior interscapulars; back, rump, and upper

tail coverts fuscous-black, broadly but incom-

pletely barred with cinnamon-buff to tawny-

Olive, the latter color often sparsely vermicu-

lated with fuscous-black and broadly tipped

with pale cinnamon-buff to pinkish buff, dark-

est on the back and becoming paler on the rump

and upper tail coverts; scapulars and inner

median and greater upper wing coverts like the

upper back but with the brownish areas more

extensive (at the expense of the blackish parts)

and each feather with a large terminal white

wedge-shaped spot; rest of the upper wing

coverts and the secondaries grayish olive-brown

externally incompletely and sparsely barred -

with white, the coverts with terminal white

spots on their outer webs, the secondaries com-

pletely edged with white on the tips of both

webs; primaries grayish olive-brown with white

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

spots on the outer webs; median rectrices pink-

ish buff longitudinally and transversely marbled

with fuscous-black; the next pair largely

fuscous-black tipped with white and with their

outer webs mixed with white; lateral rectrices

white with dusky smudges along the shafts;

circumocular region fuscous-black; lores, sub-

ocular stripe, cheeks, and auriculars pale

ochraceous-buff dappled with dusky, the dusky

markings concentrating on each side to form a

fairly distinct malar stripe; the auriculars

tipped with fuscous-black; chin and upper

throat whitish suffused with pale ochraceous-

buff and with many small pale clove-brown

spots; lower throat white, the feathers nar-

rowly edged with dark olive-brown; breast

feathers white with heavy margins of dark

olive-brown; feathers of sides and flanks white

barred with dark olive-brown, the more pos-

terior of these feathers with considerable

tawny-olive on their outer webs and with the

dark bars darker—clove-brown to almost fus-

cous; upper abdomen and sides of lower abdo-

men white with a few small dark olive-brown

subterminal V-shaped marks; center of abdo-

men and under tail coverts white, sometimes

tinged with pale ashy buff; thighs pale light

cinnamon-drab, the distal tarsal plumes paler,

more whitish and very long, covering all but

the claw of the middle toe.

Females in comparable (autumn and winter)

plumage are like the male but their median

rectrices are more strictly transversely barred,

less longitudinally marbled with blackish than

are those of the male.

Measurements of type—Wing 207; tail 114;

culmen from anterior end of nostril 11.8; tarsus

43; middle toe without claw 38.2 mm.

Thirteen adult males measure as follows:

wing 196-212 (203.2); tail 113-125 (118.7);

culmen from anterior end of nostril 10.3-11.8

(10.9); tarsus 40.4-44.3 (42.3); middle toe

without claw 36-39.2 (38.1); height of bill at

base 10.3-12.4 (11.5 mm).

Thirty-three adult females measure: wing

190-202 (196.3); tail 107-119 (111.9); culmen

from anterior end of nostril 9.9-11.9 (10.8);

tarsus 39.2-42.8 (41.2); middle toe without

claw 35.7-39.3 (37.5); height of bill at base

10.9-12.5 (11.8 mm).

Range.—This form occurs from north-central

Alaska (Circle, Fairbanks, Tanana, Tanana

Crossing, north Fork Kuskokwim River, Delta

JUNE 15, 1943

and Taklat Rivers) to the southern Yukon

Province (Tagish Lake on the Yukon-British

Columbia border) and to extreme northeastern

Alberta (Fort Chipewyan, Smith Landing,

Fort Smith, Peace Point).

The separation of this new form leaves P. p.

kennicottt with a much restricted range, oc-

cupying merely northern Mackenzie (Fort Rae

to Fort Simpson). This form is very distinct

from caurus; in fact it is nearer to, but easily

told from, typical phastanellus of the Hudson

Bay region.

Turning now to the birds of the Great Plains

and the Prairies, we find, if we take birds in

fresh autumn plumage, that specimens from

the Prairies (Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota,

and southern Manitoba) are more rufescent

(ochraceous-tawny to almost hazel) on the

upper parts, while birds from the Great Plains

(north-central Alberta, central Saskat hewan,

most of Montana, the Dakotas, W;, uining,

western Nebraska, and northeastern Colorado)

have the upperparts buckthorn brown or grayer.

The prairie birds are obviously P. p. campestris

(type locality—Illinois), while for the less

rufescent birds of the Plains the name james?

(type locality—Castle Rock, Colo.) is available.

In the latter race there is a slight paling in the

southern part of the range, but on the whole it

seems ill-advised to attempt to separate Al-

berta birds from specimens from Wyoming and

Colorado. Northern jamesi shows an approach

toward caurus. Good series of both jamesi (86

adults) and of campestris (18 adults) have been

examined in this connection. The characters on

which jamesi was originally proposed do not

seem to mean much, but the name is neverthe-

less applicable to the group as here defined.

It is the most variable of all the races of the

sharp-tailed grouse. .

_ The ranges of typical phastanellus and of

columbianus are essentially correctly given by

Snyder, but the range of the latter should be

extended to the Modoc region, northern Cali-

fornia.

KEY TO THE FORMS OF PEDIOECETES

PHASIANELLUS

a. Darker above, the black or dark fuscous areas

predominating, giving an appearance of a

FRIEDMANN: A NEW RACE OF THE SHARP-TAILED GROUSE

191

dark bird barred with buffy brown and spot-

ted with white.

b. Upperparts very dark, the brownish bar-

rings and edges and tips of the feathers of

the mantle and upper back much reduced,

the marks in the inner portions of the

vanes very narrow or absent; feathers of

the breast dark buffy brown with only

narrow white shaft stripes (central and

northernMiacken7zie))...45 2. sae 6 dew. ote

Pedioecetes phasianellus kennicottii Suck-

ley

bb. Upperparts less dark, the brownish barrings

and edges and tips of the feathers well de-

veloped.

c. White spots on the upper parts much re-

duced; feathers of breast pale buffy

brown with fairly broad white shaft

stripes (Hudson Bay region). . Pedioe-

cetes phasianellus phasianellus (Lin-

naeus)

cc. White spots on the upper parts large and

prominent; feathers of breast white,

merely edged with dark olive-brown

(Alaska, the Yukon District to extreme

northern British Columbia)...........

Pedioecetes phastanellus caurus, n. subsp.

aa. Paler above, the brown areas larger, the

blackish ones more hidden, giving the ap-

pearance of a brownish bird mottled with

blackish.

b. Brown of upperparts more rufescent—

ochraceous-tawny to almost hazel (Illi-

nois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and southern

VAIO lod) eerie ae estonia neees eee mae he ecee es

Pedioecetes phasianellus campestris Ridg-

way

bb. Brown of upperparts less rufescent—buck-

thorn brown to tawny-olive.

ec. Smaller and paler; tail averaging less than

110 mm; height of bill at base averaging

12 mm; brown of upperparts tawny-

olive (from north-central British Co-

lumbia to northern California (Modoc

region), Nevada, Utah, and southwest-

Crm COlORadO) ee an eee ee eee es

Pedioecetes phasianellus columbianus

(Ord)

cc. Larger and darker; brown of upperparts

buckthorn brown; tail averaging over

115 mm; height of bill at base averaging

13 mm (Great Plains and from north-

central Alberta, central Saskatchewan,

to (all but extreme western) Montana,

the Dakotas, Wyoming, western Ne-

braska, and northeastern Colorado)...

Pedioecetes phasianellus jamesi Lincoln

192

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

Obituary

Harry Joun McNicuouas was born in Ply-

mouth, Wis., on October 29, 1892, and died in

Washington, D.C., on July 23, 1942, of heart

failure.

Mr. MeNicholas graduated from the Ply-

mouth High School in 1910, entered Ripon

College in 1911, and ‘‘worked his way” to the

A.B. degree in 1915. During his last two years

in college he defrayed his expenses by acting as

assistant mail carrier. For diversion he played

a trumpet in the Ripon College Band. This is

mentioned because it played a part in shaping

his subsequent career. The writer, having previ-

ously played a trombone in this band, joined

the staff of the Bureau of Standards in 1914,

and for amusement organized a small orches-

tra, but no trumpet player could be found on

the staff. In 1915 we wrote to Professor Barber

at Ripon College suggesting that the pending

Civil Service examination be called to the at-

tention of his best physics student, especially if

he played a trumpet. Mr. McNicholas took

this examination and promptly accepted an ap-

pointment as laboratory assistant in the Col-

orimetry Section, where he worked on color

standardization until 1926. He was then trans-

ferred to the Textile Section to initiate re-

searches on the physical structure of cellulose

and rubber, including Réntgen-ray analysis.

When depression curtailed this work in 1933,

Mr. MeNicholas was detailed for a year to in-

vestigate optical properties of glass and other

materials used in identification lights on air-

planes, then appointed to work on the utiliza-

tion of wasteland products, and finally on pH

standards in the Chemistry Division. In Febru-

ary 1941 he was engaged in defense work on

methods of establishing acidity of lubricating

and transformer oils and gasolines. His ability,

industry, and scientific work were rewarded by

successive promotions from laboratory assist-

ant to full physicist.

Being studious by nature, Mr. MecNicholas

enrolled for many graduate courses in physics

and mathematics given at the Bureau of

Standards from 1915 to 1937. In 1924 he re-

ceived an M.A. degree and in 1926 a Ph.D.,

both from the Johns Hopkins University. Un-

like the men who think their formal education

is completed when the Ph.D. is awarded, Dr.

MeNicholas continued to attend classes for

specialized study of such topics as the inter-

pretation of data, probability and statistics,

and chemical thermodynamics.

His name appears on a score of scientific

papers published since 1919. In a series of im-

portant papers of which he was sole author he

demonstrated that he had exceptional talents

for instrument design, for analysis of scientific

observations, and for lucid literary exposition.

The following, published as research papers in

the Journal of Research of the National Bureau

of Standards, deserve special mention: Absolute

methods in reflectometry (RP3), Equipment

for routine spectral transmission and reflection

measurements (RP30). The visible and ultra-

violet absorption spectra of carotin and

xanthophyll and the changes accompanying

oxidation (RP337), Equipment for measuring

the reflective and transmissive properties of

diffusing media (RP704), Color and spectral

transmittance of vegetable oils (RP815), and

Selection of colors for signal lights (RP956).

Dr. MecNicholas possessed a quiet, modest,

and unassuming but genial disposition, and he

had a large number of friends who always called

him by his nickname, ‘‘Pat.”’ After many years

of sedentary life in crowded apartments he

purchased a home and yard and took great

pleasure in landscaping and gardening activi-

ties, which he liked to begin at daybreak.

In 1916 he married Gertrude M. Weingarten

of Ripon, Wis. He is survived by his mother and

four sisters, his wife and daughter, Mrs. Kath-

lyn Fitzgerald, and four grandchildren.

WILLIAM F. Mreacrrs

)

‘

j 5

CONTENTS

EcoLocy.—Progress in utilization standards for western ranges. |

CAMPBMUL 0p 5 os Pu Oe Na ae ee

ORNITHOLOGY. an! new race of ine sharp-tailed grouse.

FRIEDMANN... Rg he ey fet

Oxsiruary: Harry Jonn McNicuonas................

This Journal is Indexed in the Taierhational iodex to Periodicals . 4

Juuy 15, 1943 No. 7

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

Thomas Jefferson and science.'

VIRGINIA IN JEFFERSON’S TIME

The career of every man is largely a prod-

uct of his time and environment, of his

birth, early surroundings, education, and

associates, especially the associates of the

formative period of his youth. No true ap-

praisal of any man can be made without

some knowledge of his background and of

the influences that surrounded him, es-

pecially in his early years.

In Jefferson’s time, Virginia had already

acquired an enviable scientific tradition as

a result of the work of Harriott, White,

Hamor, Rolfe, the Claytons, Bannister,

Mitchell, Glover, Catesby, Tennent, Carter,

Lee, and others. Unfortunately the printed

records do not give a complete picture of

science in Virginia in the early colonial days,

partly because of the scarcity and cost of

paper, most of which was imported from

Europe, chiefly from the continent. Nearly

all the paper mills in America were situated

in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and their

output was for local consumption.

In Jefferson’s early days Virginia was to

a considerable extent a feudal state, more

or less on the English model, most of its

best land being held by large landed pro-

prietors. With the rapid opening up of the

Piedmont, on which great estates worked

by slave labor were not so practicable as

they were on the flat and rich Coastal Plain,

various social problems were beginning to

arise. At the same time Virginia, now fairly

well settled, was beginning to feel herself

quite competent to manage her own affairs

and was becoming restive under the domi-

nation of the English parliament, for she

* Received April 16, 1943.

JuLy 15, 1943

No. 7

Austin H. CuarK, U. 8. National Museum.

regarded herself as a sister rather than as a

child of England.

Jefferson was a product of the Piedmont

area, then almost a frontier region, and,

though peculiarly fortunate in the circum-

stances of his birth and education, he did

not view social conditions in the same light

as did his aristocratic friends of the great

estates on the rich and long settled Coastal

Plain, with whom, however, he was always

on the best of terms.

His sympathetic appreciation of the at-

titude both of the southern aristocracy and

of those who, living in the wilder portions

of the great new country, were trying to

settle, cultivate, and organize the great

wilderness, and his ability to harmonize

their two viewpoints, can be really under-

stood only in the light of his early environ-

ment and upbringing.

EARLY ENVIRONMENT, EDUCATION, AND

ASSOCIATES

Peter Jefferson lived at Shadwell in

Goochland, now Albemarle, County, Va.,

an unusually beautiful region of mountains,

rolling hills, and river bottoms, its plant

and bird life as diversified as its scenery,

its lowlands with abundant relics of the

former Indian inhabitants. He was-a sur-

veyor, and one of ability, for to him belongs

the credit for preparing the first accurate

map of Virginia, the so-called Jefferson and

Fry map, published in London in 1775

under Jeffreys, the Royal Geographer. His

wife was the former Jane Randolph, eldest

surviving child of Isham Randolph of

Dungeness, Goochland County, a _ well-

known lover of plants, who corresponded

with Peter Collinson in England and with

other famous botanists of that time.

193

194

Their son Thomas had a great respect for

his father’s map, and from him, as suggested

by Dumas Malone, he doubtless acquired

much of his zest for exploration and draw-

ing, and his liking for untrodden paths.

From him, perhaps, he also acquired his

fondness for mathematical subjects. From

his mother’s side he may have inherited

that love of plants that throughout his life

was so very characteristic of him, and his

interest in birds.

On the death of his father in 1757 Thomas

was placed under the guardianship of a

neighbor, Thomas Walker, physician, sol-

dier, and explorer, who had been with

Braddock at Fort Duquesne in 1755 and

who had traveled extensively in that vast

area which at that time was included in

western Virginia. According to Thomas P.

Abernethy, Thomas Walker was typical of

that company of bold spirits who explored

and exploited the early frontiers—a man of

action rather than of words.

In 1760 young Thomas entered the Col-

lege of Wiliam and Mary, unusually well

prepared by long attendence—since the age

of five—at an excellent school, the so-called

‘English School,” of which he personally

had formed a poor opinion. At Williams-

burg he found surroundings that for a keen

young man with the widest possible in-

terests were ideal. At that time the titular

governor of Virginia was John Campbell,

Earl of Loudoun, but the government was

administered by the leutenant governor,

Col. Francis Fauquier, a true friend of

Virginia and the Virginians, a devotee of

the sciences who had been elected a Fellow

of the Royal Society in 1753, and a director

of the South Sea Company in 1751. With

Colonel Fauquier there had come to Vir-

ginia in 1758 Dr. William Small, of Birming-

ham, who first held the chair of mathe-

matics at William and Mary, and later that

of philosophy, ad interim. These two de-

lighted in the society of young men, and at

Colonel Fauquier’s table, where Dr. Small

was a constant attendant, the youths of

Virginia, Thomas Jefferson, John Page,

John Walker, James McClurg, and others,

“learned their lessons in the rights of men.”’

In later years Jefferson referred to Dr.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

Small as the man who had fixed the desti-

nies of his life, and John Page eulogized

him as ‘‘the illustrious professor of mathe-

matics... the darling friend of [Erasmus]

Darwin.” He might have added that he was

also an intimate friend of James Watt.

At William and Mary, Jefferson and Page

became fast friends, sharing their ideas and

confidences. It was to Page that Jefferson

wrote the letters that reveal his youthful

romance with ‘“‘the fair Belinda,’ who later

married Jacquelin Ambler. The correspond-

ence between Jefferson and Page covered

50 years without a trace of discord, and 30

years after their William and Mary days

Jefferson declared to Albert Gallatin that

he loved Page like a brother. In the election

for governor of Virginia in 1779 Jefferson

and Page were pitted against each other.

Jefferson was denounced as a radical and

Page as a tool of the Tories. The two candi-

dates announced their platforms and retired

to their estates, leaving the campaigning

to their partisans. After the election, when

Page sent congratulations to his victorious

opponent, Jefferson replied that he derived

special satisfaction from the fact “‘that the

difference of the numbers which decided

between us, was too insignificant to give

you a pain, or me a pleasure, had our dis-

positions towards each other been such as

to admit those sensations.’’ Page, who was

heutenant governor under Patrick Henry

and later (1802-5) governor, spent much

of his time in scientific investigations. With

his friend David Jameson he was interested

in astronomy and made experiments in the

accurate measurements of the fall of rain

and dew. He also suggested, as early as

1779, the identity of magnetism and elec-

tricity. For a time he was president of the

Virginia Society for the Promotion of Useful

Knowledge, at Williamsburg, a group that

sought to play in Virginia the role of the

Royal Society in London. In later years he

confessed that he did not think he had made

great proficiency in any study, for he was

too sociable to shut himself off in solitude as

did his friend Jefferson.

John Walker was a son of Thomas Jef-

ferson’s guardian, Thomas Walker. He sub-

sequently served on the staff of General

Jury 15, 1943

Washington as an extra aid with the rank

of colonel, and also served in the United

States Senate, by appointment from the

Governor of Virginia, to fill the vacancy

caused by the death of William Grayson.

He was elected a member of the American

Philosophical Society in 1770.

James McClurg was a more serious stu-

dent than either Jefferson, Page, or Walker.

After graduating from William and Mary

he attended the medical school at the Uni-

versity of Edinburgh, from which he gradu-

ated as a Doctor of Medicine in 1770. While

there he was a prominent member of the

Virginia Club, an organization composed of

Virginians studying at the school. After

graduation he devoted some time to post-

graduate medical studies in Paris and Lon-

don, returning to Virginia in 1773. During

the Revolution he was active as a surgeon

in the Virginia militia, being referred to in

the official records as physician-general and

director of hospitals for the State. He was

professor of anatomy and medicine at Wil-

liam and Mary from 1779 to 1783, after

that living in Richmond. He was elected a

member of the American Philosophical

Society in 1774, and was also a member of

the Virginia Society for the Promotion of

Useful Knowledge. He was a member of the

Philadelphia Convention, and later of the

Executive Council for Virginia during the

early years of Washington’s administration.

He was regarded as one of the most eminent

physicians in the State and was president

of the State medical society in 1820 and

1821. The first volume of the Philadelphia

Journal of Medical and Physical Sciences

published in 1820 was dedicated to him.

According to James Madison. Dr. Mc-

Clurg’s talents were of the highest order,

but he was modest and unaccustomed to

exert them. Possibly his interest in his pro-

fession precluded any pronounced ambition

toward a political career. Jefferson main-

tained a close friendship for McClurg, for

whom he seems to have had great respect.

Such were the favored associates of young

Jefferson at William and Mary, mature

men of exceptional ability, sympathetic

with, and fond of, the young, and young

men of unusual promise. He graduated in

CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE

195

1762 at the age of 19 with a reasonably

thorough reading knowledge of Latin,

Greek, and French, and a familiarity with

the higher mathematics and with the

physical sciences rarely possessed by young

men of his age. Fortune favored him still

further, for after graduation he entered the

law offices of George Wythe, then the

leader of the Virginia bar, whom he de-

scribed as ‘“‘the best Latin and Greek

scholar in the State,” and as a ‘‘faithful and

beloved mentor in youth and most affec-

tionate friend through life.”

He was admitted to the bar in 1767 after

five years of study. After his admission to

the bar he practiced law with more than

usual success, and was elected to the House

of Burgesses in May, 1769, and appointed

surveyor of the County of Albemarle in

1773. From this time on he became more

and more intensively interested in politics;

though his interest in science never di-

minished, he was seldom able to devote

much time to it.

PERSONALITY

At the time of his admission to the bar he

was described as 6 feet 2 inches tall, slim,

erect as an arrow, with angular features, a

very ruddy freckled complexion, an ex-

tremely delicate skin, full deep-set hazel

eyes, and sandy hair. Known to his friends

as ‘‘Long Tom,” he was a gay companion,

an expert musician, the violin being his

favorite instrument, a good dancer, a dash-

ing rider, and proficient in all manly exer-

cises. He was then, and continued to be

throughout his life, frank, earnest, cordial,

and sympathetic in his manner, full of con-

fidence in men, and sanguine in his views of

life. He seems to have been a recognized

member of the closely knit social group

made up of the children of the great families

of Virginia.

As a mature man he had by nature a

scientific mind, and he once remarked that

“the tranquil pursuit of science’ was his

‘‘supreme delight.’’ He also wrote that he

was ‘for encouraging the progress of science

in all its branches, and not for raising a hue

and cry against the sacred name of philoso-

phy.” He regarded ‘freedom and science’”’

196

as the prerequisites of progress, and said

that he had ‘‘sworn upon the altar of God

eternal hostility against every form of

tyranny over the mind of man.”

His legal training made him cautious in

drawing conclusions from a series of isolated

facts, and therefore impatient of all theories

not logically deduced from adequate prem-

ises. In a letter to Charles Thompson

written from Paris on September 20, 1787,

he said “‘I wish that the persons who go

thither [to the western country] would make

very exact descriptions of what they see of

that kind [2.e., fossil bones], without forming

any theories. The moment a person forms a

theory, his imagination sees, in every object,

only the traits which favor that theory. But

it is too early to form theories on these

antiquities. We must wait with patience

until more facts are collected.”

He was essentially of a reflective type,

and it was his habit to seclude himself from

time to time, while he diligently studied

some branch of science as a relief from the

grim realities of political and other worries.

This habit of letting his mind li fallow, so

to speak, and thus to clear itself of unimpor-

tant details, probably had much to do with

the brilliant manner in which he viewed

all subjects in the light of their essential

features, without being led astray by super-

ficial emotional aspects.

In everything he did his custom was to

sow the seed carefully, nurse it for a while,

and then, when its successful growth seemed

assured, turn it over to others for its further

development and ultimate fruition, usually

under his stimulation and guidance. In

science, as in everything else, he followed

this line. And so it happens that, judged

from the record, his main scientific interests

were in those lines that were most backward

and in which vigorous and intelligent leader-

ship was most needed, especially those lines

that would ultimately prove of greatest

value to the people.

Perhaps the most remarkable and out-

standing feature of Jefferson’s character

was his complete freedom from personal

jealousy. Freedom of thought was no mere

political phrase with him. Everyone, ac-

cording to him, was entitled to his own

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

ideas. Naturally, he differed with many

people, but these differences he never took

personally. A good illustration of this is

seen in his attitude toward the contest be-

tween himself and John Page for the

governorship of Virginia. He had an im-

mense number of loyal friends, many of

whom disagreed with his political outlook,

though they never distrusted his sincerity.

Dr. George Gaylord Simpson rightly says

that “it is a measure of his greatness that

Jefferson continued his powerful aid to

paleontology and his warm friendship with

its students even when it became evident

that this aid and these students were reveal-

ing the falsity of views that he had vehe-

mently and almost religiously expressed and

maintained during the greater part of a long

life.”’

JEFFERSON’S SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS

As a scientific man Jefferson was inter-

ested in all lines of science, but in all rather

as an enthusiastic, highly appreciative,

and intelligent amateur than as a profes-

sional. He had no time to make himself

thoroughly proficient in any one line. The

working out of the details he left to others,

whom he assisted and encouraged to the

best of his ability. His tremendous enthusi-

asm, which continued unabated, or perhaps

even increased, during his term of office as

President of the United States, was a most

important factor in bringing before the

people the value of science.

Tangible evidence of Jefferson’s many

and varied scientific interests is furnished by

his contributions to the proceedings and

collections of the American Philosophical

Society in Philadelphia, of which he was

elected a member, together with George

Washington, in 1786, after the death of

David Rittenhouse succeeding him as the

third president of the Society on January 6,

1797. His contributions to the Society’s pro-

gram and collections were in the fields of

meteorology, chemistry, economic entomol-

ogy, archeology, vertebrate paleontology,

and applied mechanics in reference to agri-

cultural operations.

On December 17, 1779, there was re-

corded in the Society’s proceedings a letter

JuLy 15, 1943

from Rev’d Wm. Maddison (s7c), president

of William and Mary College, containing

‘fa, series of Meteorological Observations by

His Excellency Governor Jefferson and him-

self separately, for a year and a half; like-

wise a set of Experiments on what are called

‘Sweet Springs’.”” On April 15, 1791, on

motion of Jefferson, a select committee

(consisting of Jefferson and four others)

was appointed to collect materials for form-

ing the natural history of the Hessian fly

and determining the best means for its pre-

vention or destruction ‘“‘and whatever else

relative to the same may be interesting to

agriculture.”’ On August 19, 1791, he pre-

sented to the Society ‘‘a curious piece of

Indian sculpture, supposed to represent an

Indian woman in labor, found near Cumber-

land River, Virginia.” On August 19, 1796,

his letter to Rittenhouse (deceased) de-

scribing bones of extraordinary size found

beyond the Blue Mountains in Virginia [in

a cave in Greenbrier County, W. Va.] ‘‘ap-

pearing to be of the Tyger-lion & Panther

species’ was read by Dr. Barton. Under

date of March 10, 1797, we read: ‘‘Jef-

ferson’s memoire ‘On the Discovery of cer-

tain Bones of a Quadruped of the [space of

four lines left blank].’ A resolution was

passed ordering the memoir to be put in the

hands of the Committee of Selection of

Publications, drawings of the bones to be

_ made by a proper person. Mr. Peale was re-

quested to put the bones ‘in the best order

for the Society’s use’.’”’ These were the

bones of the famous Megalonyz, the first

giant sloth found in North America, and

formed the subject of the only scientific

memoir ever published by Jefferson, which

appeared in 1799. On January 19, 1798, he

presented to the Society bones of a mam-

moth “some time ago found in Virginia.”

On April 20, 1798, he presented a hand

threshing machine invented by T. C. Mar-

tin of Virginia, ‘‘which he had procured to

be made.” On May 4, 1798, a “‘Description

of a Mould Board of the least resistance,

&e.,” by Mr. Jefferson was read and re-

ferred to Mr. Patterson. This is the first

mention of his famous plow. On May 7,

1804, W. Lewis, of Campbell County, Va.,

donated a bone and some rocks through

CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE

197

Jefferson. On April 27, 1805, William Bar-

tram sent some bones to be forwarded

to [Jefferson at] Monticello.

Much more detailed evidence of his ex-

tensive interests 1s furnished by his famous

book on Virginia. In June, 1781, he was in-

jured by a fall from his horse, and he oc-

cupied the leisure forced upon him by this

accident in organizing the abundant and

accurate memoranda that he had accumu-

lated over a series of years. These memor-

anda were arranged in the order of a series

of questions that had been submitted to

him by M. Barbé de Marbois, Secretary of

the French Legation. During the winter of

1782-83 he revised and expanded them and

had them published in Paris in 1784 under

the title of ‘“Notes on the State of Virginia.”’

The date of this work is given as 1782,

which is probably the date of the comple-

tion of the manuscript, as he did not reach

Paris until 1784. Two hundred copies were

privately printed, as the work was not in-

tended for general distribution. According

to Sabin, a copy presented to M. Malherbe

has the following note in Jefferson’s hand

writing: ‘‘Mr. Jefferson having had a few

copies of these notes printed to present to

some of his friends, and to some estimable

characters beyond that line, takes the

liberty of presenting a copy to M. de

Malherbe, as a testimony to his respect to

his character. Unwilling to expose them to

the public eye, he begs the favour of M. de

M. to put them into the hands of no person

on whose care and fidelity he cannot rely, to

guard them against publication.”

This work, however, did not long remain

confidential. A French translation, with a

map, entitled ‘‘Observations sur la Virginie,

par M. J***. Traduit de |l’Anglais,”’ was

published in Paris in 1786, and an English

reprint of the original was published in

London in 1788. The first American edition

was published in Philadelphia in 1788. In

the Virginia Independent Chronicle (Rich-

mond) for Wednesday, December 12, 1787,

we read that “the work will be comprised

in a handsome octavo volume, with an

elegant type and good paper, and delivered

to the subscribers neatly bound and lettered

at the very moderate price of one dollar.

198

The price to non-subscribers will be seven

shillings and six pence Virginia currency

Subscriptions are taken in at Mr.

Davis’s Printing-Office in Richmond, where

a specimen of the work is left for inspec-

tion.”’ A second edition was printed in

Philadelphia in the same year. This was

followed by many other American editions

—Philadelphia, 1792, 1794, 1801, 1812,

1815, 1825; Baltimore, 1800 (two editions) ;

New York, 1801, 1804; Newark, 1801;

Boston, 1801, 1829, 1832; Trenton, 1803,

1812; and Richmond, 1853. There was also

a German translation entitled ‘‘Beschreib-

ung von Virginien,’”’ published at Leipzig in

1789.

This was the first comprehensive treatise

to be published on any section of the

United States. In it were discussed the

boundaries of the State, the rivers, the sea-

ports, the mountains, the cascades, the

mineral, vegetable, and animal productions,

climate, population, military force, marine

force, aborigines, etc. It was the precursor

of that great library of more or less similar

reports that have been issued by the State

and Federal Governments. Measured by its

influence, it was the most important scien-

tific work published in America up to this

time. It laid the foundation for Jefferson’s

high contemporary reputation as a univer-

sal scholar, and for his enduring fame as a

pioneer American scientific man.

Further evidence of his interests is given

by various printed reports, such as his re-

port of July 4, 1790, presented to Congress

on July 13, in which he made suggestions

regarding a plan for establishing uniformity

in the coinage and in the weights and meas-

ures of the United States, the first sug-

gestion of the idea that was subsequently

expanded into the National Bureau of

Standards, and his scholarly report on the

history and economics of the cod and whale

fisheries made to the House of Representa-

tives on February 1, 1791, and published on

January 8, 1872. |

Then there are the manuscript notes left

by him, among which are the extensive

meteorological records kept at Monticello,

his notices of the first appearance of the

birds and flowers in spring, and his compara-

tive notes on Indian languages,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

But by far the greater part of what we

know regarding Jefferson’s scientific in-

terests is gathered from the great number

of letters that he wrote to various friends

and that were published after his death.

Applied science appealed to him quite as

much as pure science. He was much in-

terested in horticulture and in every form

of agriculture. Botany was always a favorite

subject with him, and he had one of the

best botanical libraries in America, though

on this he never published anything further

than the lists of plants in his ‘‘Notes on the

State of Virginia,’ which includes the first

description of the pecan, written in 1781 or

1782.

Jefferson was an inventor of great in-

genuity, as is made evident at once by a visit

to his home at Monticello. He also had a

keen interest in the inventions of others,

especially those of practical application.

When he was in France he wrote dozens of

letters about inventions. When on a visit to

England in 1786 he made careful notes on

English domestic gardening and on mechan-

ical appliances. He went to northern Italy

in 1787 to inspect machines for cleaning

rice, and in 1788 he made other observations

in Germany. At the time of the creation of

the Patent Office, Jefferson was Secretary

of State. As such, he became ex officio the

Keeper of the Records of the Patents, and

according to Dr. Frederick E. Brasch was

the most active examining member of the

board, and therefore its first administrator.

Dr. Brasch says that the scientific foresight

that he exercised at this time must be con-

sidered the cornerstone of our patent system

and patent laws.

SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS

Jefferson’s keen interest in inventions —

more than anything else gives the key to his

interest in science in general, which was the

ultimate practical application of scientific

discoveries for the good of man. No matter

what line of scientific investigation he

undertook, this idea of ultimate practical

application seems always to have been in his

mind. He seems never to have followed any

line through mere pointless curiosity. Even

in his study of fossils he appears to have

had the idea that some time, somehow, a

JuLy 15, 1943

knowledge of them would prove of value.

Of his numerous and varied scientific in-

- terests, three deserve special mention. First

and foremost was his interest in man in

general, evidenced not only by his political

philosophy but also by his detailed study of

the native Indians and his efforts to improve

their relations with the Europeans, and by

his sympathetic study of the Negroes;

second was his interest in the exploration

and description of the country; and third

was his interest in paleontology.

The French historian and philosopher

Guillaume Thomas Frangois Raynal, usual-

ly called the Abbé Raynal, a leader of the

French freethinkers who was exiled from

France in 1781, had maintained, among

other things, that Europeans had de-

generated in America, and that the Ameri-

can Indians were a degenerate race. Jef-

ferson denied this, and he also denied that

the American Indians are inferior to Euro-

peans in the same state of culture. He also

said he has supposed that the black man,

in his present state, might not be equal to

the European, ‘‘but it would be hazardous

to affirm that, equally cultivated for a few

generations, he would not become so.”’ In

his ‘‘Notes on the State of Virginia” he gave

an excellent account of the Indians and

described the ‘“‘barrows of which many are

to be found all over in this country,” listing

the contents of one in the Rivanna River

bottom. He also described the characteris-

tics of the Negroes in dispassionate detail.

He was greatly interested in the multi-

plicity of radically different Indian lan-

guages and contrasted this with the lack

of diversification among the red men of

eastern Asia. He said that ‘‘the resemblance

between the Indians of America and the

eastern inhabitants of Asia, would induce

us to conjecture, that the former are the

descendants of the latter, or the latter of the

former; excepting, indeed, the Eskimaux,

who, from the same circumstances of re-

semblance, must be derived from the Green-

landers, and thus probably from some of the

northern parts of the old continent.”’

In his ““Notes on the State of Virginia”’

he wrote: ‘‘Were vocabularies formed of all

the languages spoken in North and South

America, preserving their appellations of

CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE

199

the most common objects in nature, of

those which must be present to every na-

tion, barbarians or civilized, with the in-

flections of their names and verbs, their

principles of regimen and concord, and these

deposited in all the public libraries, it would

furnish opportunities to those skilled in the

languages of the old world to compare them

with the new, now or at any future time,

and hence to construct the best evidence of

the derivation of this part of the human

race.’”’ He compiled comparative vocabu-

laries of various Indian tribes, which were

unfortunately stolen; but some fragments

of these are deposited in the American

Philosophical Society’s archives.

Dr. Clark Wissler has pointed out that

at about the same time the Empress Catha-

rine the Great of Russia had adopted the

same approach to the study of languages

and had written to President Washington

for lists of Indian vocabularies.

Jefferson’s practical and sympathetic in-

terest in the Indians is perhaps best il-

lustrated by the instructions given by him

to Capt. Meriwether Lewis in 1803 when the

Lewis and Clark Expedition was about to

be organized. These were as follows: ‘‘The

commerce which may be carried on with

the people inhabiting the lines you will

pursue renders a knowledge of these people

important. You will therefore endeavour to

make yourself acquainted, as far as a dili-

gent pursuit of your journey shall admit,

with the names of the natives and their

numbers; the extent and limits of their pos-

sessions; their relations with other tribes or

nations; their language, traditions, monu-

ments; their ordinary occupations in agri-

culture, fishing, hunting, war, arts, and the

implements for these; their food, clothing,

and domestic accommodations; the diseases

prevalent among them, and the remedies

they use; moral and physical circumstances

which distinguish them from the tribes we

know; peculiarities in their laws, customs,

and dispositions; and articles of commerce

they may need or furnish, and to what ex-

tent. And considering the interest which

every nation has in extending and strength-

ening the authority of reason and justice

among the people around them, it will be

useful to acquire what knowledge you can

200

of the state of morality, religion, and in-

formation among them, as it may better

enable those who may endeavour to civilize

and instruct them to adapt their measures

to the existing notions and practices of

those on whom they are to operate...

“In all your intercourse with the natives,

treat them in the most friendly and con-

ciliatory manner which their own conduct

will admit; allay all jealousies as to the

object of your journey; satisfy them of its

innocence; make them acquainted with the

position, extent, character, peaceable and

commercial dispositions of the United

States, of our wish to be neighbourly,

friendly and useful to them, and of our dis-

positions to a commercial intercourse with

them; confer with them on the points most

convenient as mutual emporiums, and the

articles of most desirable interchange for

them and us. If a few of their influential

chiefs, within practicable distance, wish to

visit us, arrange such a visit with them, and

furnish them with authority to call on our

officers on their entering the United States,

to have them conveyed to this place at the

public expense. If any of them should wish

to have some of their young people brought

up with us, and taught such arts as may be

useful to them, we will receive, instruct, and

take care of them. Such a mission, whether

of influential chiefs or of young people,

would give some security to your own party.

Carry with you some matter of the kine-pox,

inform those of them with whom you may

be of its efficiency as a preservation from

the small-pox and instruct and encourage

them in the use of it. This may be especially

done wherever you winter.”

Dr. O. F. Cook wrote that the traditional

sponsors of the repatriation and coloniza-

tion of the Negroes in west Africa were

Thomas Jefferson and George Washington.

Jefferson studied the racial problem from

many sides, including the need of educating

the more capable Negroes so that they

might furnish the necessary skill and

leadership for the new communities in

Africa. Washington instructed his executors

to provide such education for some of his

freedmen.

Almost immediately after his inaugura-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 30, NOe @

tion as the third President of the United

States Jefferson began to make preparations

for developing his long-cherished plans for —

the exploration of the great and unknown

West and the discovery and description of

its vast resources. His secretary, Capt.

Meriwether Lewis, of Albemarle County,

Va., who had long wished to go on an ex-

ploring expedition, was appointed leader of

the first party to be sent out—partly at

Jefferson’s personal expense. Captain Lewis

chose as his chief associate Capt. William

Clark, also of Albemarle County, a younger

brother of Gen. George Rogers Clark. The

choice of these two leaders was a most

fortunate one, and the expedition, which

was in the field from 1803 (the year in

which the territory extending from New

Orleans to British America and westward to

the Rocky Mountains known as Louisiana

was purchased from Napoleon) until 1806

was highly successful. This was the first of

a long series of more or less similar expedi-

tions by which a detailed knowledge of our

great West and of its resources and products

was gradually accumulated. These expedi-

tions, at first individual enterprises, were

later consolidated under the United States

Geological Survey.

Jefferson’s interest in exploration was not

confined to the land areas. Dr. Brasch

writes that in 1806 he made a recommenda-

tion for a Coast Survey to Congress, which

took favorable action on February 10, 1807,

and authorized the President to cause a

survey to be made of the coasts of the

United States, including islands, shoals, and

all other physical features deemed proper

for completing an accurate chart of every

part of the coast. This project was later

organized as the United States Coast (now

Coast and Geodetic) Survey. Dr. Brasch

adds that during Jefferson’s second term the

idea of establishing longitude 0° through

Washington (77°03'58" west of Green-

wich, England) was much discussed. Jef-

ferson’s thorough knowledge of astronomy

and mathematics, together with naviga-

tion, enabled him to give much encourage-

ment to members of Congress who wished

to establish this standard American longi-

tude. This discussion, according to Dr.

Juty 15, 1943

Brasch, eventually led to the establishment

of the Naval Observatory and the Hydro-

graphic Office.

Enthusiasm for vertebrate paleontology

seems to have been awakened in Jefferson

before 1781, after which time he lost no

opportunity for securing and examining

bones. He was always especially interested

in the mastodons, or ‘‘mammoths,’’ and in

the great sloth that he had called Megalonyz.

As in other branches of science, his interest

in paleontology was chiefly that of an en-

thusiastic amateur, and a stimulator of

interest in others. Dr. Henry Fairfield Os-

born has pointed out that in developing his

scientific opinions in regard to paleontology

he at first quoted the current tradition,

later becoming a more serious and inde-

pendent investigator.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition had

brought back a few interesting fossils,

which had whetted Jefferson’s desire for

more. In the summer of 1807 Captain

Clark was sent on another expedition to

Louisiana that took him through the region

of Big Bone Lick, in Boone County, Ky.

_In obedience to President Jefferson’s de-

sires he stopped there and, employing ten

laborers for several weeks, made a large

collection of about 300 bones, which he

shipped to Jefferson at the White House.

Here they were laid out in the then un-

finished East Room, the ‘‘mastodon room,”’

where, at Jefferson’s invitation, and later

at Philadelphia, they were examined by

Dr. Caspar Wistar.

Jefferson’s interest in paleontology while

President, as remarked by Dr. George

Gaylord Simpson, helped to make it a re-

spectable and honored pursuit, and he was

largely responsible for bringing together the

materials necessary for its advancement. He

greatly encouraged the study of vertebrate

paleontology by the American Philosophical

Society while he was president of it. He

also acted for a time as president of the

board of trustees of Peale’s Philadelphia

Museum, which included the first public

exhibition of fossil vertebrates, and the first

mounted fossil skeleton in America. As the

foremost citizen of the young nation, Jeffer-

son’s outspoken and excited interest in fos-

CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE

201

sils conferred on their study the dignity

and prestige inseparable from his personal-

ity and position. But it also brought down

upon him the ridicule and wrath of many of

his countrymen to whom scientific investi-

gation meant wanton and deliberate neglect

of one’s proper duties, if not, indeed, athe-

ism. This attitude is well illustrated by a

poem written by William Cullen Bryant at

the age of 18, which runs in part as follows:

Go, wretch, resign thy presidential chair,

Disclose thy secret measures, foul or fair,

Go, search with curious eyes for hornéd frogs,

*Mid the wild wastes of Louisianian bogs;

Or where the Ohio rolls his turbid stream

Dig for huge bones, thy glory and thy theme

It is only fair to Bryant to say that this

poem, entitled ‘‘The Embargo,” was pub-

lished not by himself but by his father, Dr.

Peter Bryant, and that he did his best to

suppress it.

JEFFERSON AND HIS VIRGINIAN COLLEAGUES

It must not be supposed that during his

brilliant and eventful career Jefferson was

neglectful of his scientific colleagues in his

native State of Virginia. Before the Ameri-

can Philosophical Society had elected more

than a very few members from Virginia

there was organized at Williamsburg on

November 20, 1773, ‘“‘The Virginia Society

for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge.”’

The charter was signed by six prominent

Virginians, including the Hon. John Page,

then lieutenant governor, who was elected

vice-president, the president being John

Clayton. Of the six who signed the constitu-

tion, John Walker was already a member of

the American Philosophical Society, which

James McClurg joined in the following

year, and Mann Page later.

The notices regarding the activities of

this Society were published in the Virginia

Gazette at Williamsburg. There is no refer-

ence to Jefferson in any of them, but he was

presumably a member, for in a letter written

in 1787 in answer to one from John Page,

who had urged him to accept the presidency,

he wrote that “‘he should feel himself out of

his true place to stand before McClurg,”

who was probably president at the time.

In its early years the society seems to

202

have been well received by the people of the

colony; but after 1774 there are few pub-

lished notices of it, although it appears to

have kept up an organization for a con-

siderable time.

JEFFERSON IN FRANCE

Jefferson was in France from August 6,

1784, to October, 1789, succeeding Ben-

jamin Franklin as Minister in 1785. Dumas

Malone writes that, rightly regarded in

France as a savant, he carried on the tradi-

tion of Franklin, but until the end of his

stay he was overshadowed by Franklin’s

immense reputation. His attitude toward

Franklin, whom he regarded_as the greatest

American, was one of becoming modesty,

without a tinge of jealousy.

At that time France was regarded as the

leader in the biological sciences; but Jeffer-

son thought little of French science. He

vigorously combated what he considered

the disparagement of the American fauna

by Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon,

who maintained that the animals common

to both the Old and the New Worlds are

smaller in the latter; that those peculiar to

the New World are on a smaller scale; that

those which have been domesticated in

both have degenerated in America; and

that, on the whole, America exhibits fewer

species. In order to correct these impres-

sions, Jefferson procured from America at

his own expense and presented to the

Comte de Buffon the bones and skin of a

moose, the horns of another individual of

the same species, and horns of the caribou,

the elk, the deer, the spiked horned buck,

and the roebuck of America. Buffon also

maintained, much to the annoyance of

Jefferson, that the American mastodon, or

‘“‘mammoth,” was the same as the elephant

of Africa and Asia.

He does not seem to have had a very high

regard for Buffon. In a letter to President

Madison of William and Mary he wrote:

“Speaking one day with M. de Buffon on

the present ardor of chemical inquiry, he

affected to consider chemistry but as cook-

ery, and to place the toils of the laboratory

on a footing with those of the kitchen. J

think it, on the contrary, among the most

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

useful of sciences and bzg with future dis-

coveries for the utility and safety of the

human race.”

CONCLUSION

Dumas Malone writes that Jefferson be-

came associated with an extraordinary

number of important societies in various

countries of Europe, as he had long been

with the chief learned, and almost all the

agricultural, societies of America. Much,

but by no means all, of this recognition was

due to his political prominence. On Decem-

ber 26, 1801, he was elected an “associé

étranger’’ of the Institute of France; if this

was by virtue of his position at all, it was

because of his presidency of the American

Philosophical Society. Mr. Malone says

that this signal honor, which during his life-

time was shared by no other man of Ameri-

can birth and residence, may be attributed

to his reputation in France as the most con-

spicuous American intellectual. He himself

modestly interpreted it as “an evidence of

the brotherly spirit of science, which unites

into one family all its votaries of whatever

grade, and however widely dispersed

throughout the different quarters of the

globe.”

Modern scholars, according to Mr. Ma-

lone, have recognized Jefferson as an

American pioneer in numerous branches of

science, notably paleontology, ethnology,

geography, and botany. Living long before

the age of specialization, he was a careful

investigator, no more credulous than his

learned contemporaries, and notable among

them for his effort in all fields to attain

scientific exactitude. 3

But Jefferson saw all these branches of

science not as independent units but as in-

tegral parts of an all-embracing whole that

should be developed for the sake of the

future happiness and prosperity of man-

kind, for the ultimate good of his fellow

men was always in his thoughts. It was this

scientific foresight that led him to advocate

so vigorously the idea that science would be

the cornerstone of our Republic. In 1789 he ~

wrote to President Willard of Harvard:

‘““‘What a field we have at our doors to sig-

nalize ourselves in. The botany of America

is far from being exhausted, its mineralogy

JuLY 15, 1943

is untouched, and its natural history or

zoology totally mistaken and misrepre-

sented .. . It is for such institutions as that

over which you preside so worthily, Sir, to

do justice to our country, its productions,

and its genius. It is the work to which the

young men you are forming should lay

their hands. We have spent the prime of our

ETHNOLOGY.—Paczfic Coast Athapascan discovered to be Chilcotin.}

HARRINGTON,” Bureau of American Ethnology.

LIAM N. FENTON.)

The purpose of this paper is to announce

a discovery of great importance to ethnol-

ogy made on my recent field trip to the

Pacific Northwest. This consists of the dis-

closure that the so-called Pacific Coast

Athapascan, about which much has been

written in the past and which has been com-

pared to Sarcee, Navajo, etc., is composed

of a string of Chilcotin languages straggling

down, and near, the west coast of the United

States proper from what is now southern

British Columbia to almost within sight of

San Francisco, Calif.

The interior of Alaska and of most of

northwesternmost Canada is occupied by a

number of languages of the so-called Atha-

pascan stock. In the forties of the past cen-

tury Hale recognized Umpqua, of what is

now Oregon, as belonging to this stock, and

in the fifties Turner added the Apachean-

Lipanan of the southern deserts and south-

westernmost Great Plains of the United

States to this stock. It became gradually

Clear through further study that the main

body of the Athapascan stock is that of the

far northwest of the North American Con-

tinent, and that from there two linguistic

prongs have extended southward: (1) a

Pacific Coast prong like the letter i (the dot

would represent the Chilcotin), and (2) a

1 Received April 12, 1943.

_? For important assistance in the consumma-

tion of this work, I wish to express my thanks to

the following: The late Prof. Franz Boas, Prof.

Melville Jacobs, Bess Langdon Jacobs, Mrs. James

A. Teit, Prof. Edward Sapir, Prof. P. E. Goddard,

Robert W. Young, Dr. Fang-Kuei Li, and the

Missionaires Oblats de Marie Immaculée, as well

as to various Indian informants who spoke the

languages involved and remembered fragments

of disused ones.

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

203

lives in procuring them the precious bless-

ings of liberty. Let them spend theirs in

showing that it is the great parent of science

and virtue, and that a nation will be great in

both always as it is free.”’

Such was the opinion of Thomas Jeffer-

son, the most versatile and the most in-

fluential of our American scientific men.

JOHN P.

(Communicated by WIL-

more easterly prong accomplished via the

“Great North Trail” along the eastern base

of the Rockies south to where these moun-

tains break down and thence west, or else

via the intramontane region south, like the

letter } (the dot would represent the Lipan-

an). In case of intramontane accomplish-

ment, the } would have been executed hook

first. The present study has succeeded in

eliminating from the general Athapascan

problem the Pacific Coast prong by discov-

ering it to be a unit, having as its northern

head part of the Fraser River drainage of

British Columbia, Canada, and as its

southern extent the zigzag watershed which

bounds to the south Eel River’s Southfork,

in Mendocino County, Calif. The expression

in the Chilcotin languages is just the op-

posite of this; in the manner of Chilcotin

languages Indian talk, the peoples in their

migrating layer on layer southward were

working a language-substitution from the

tail of the earth, which is located at what

is now called Alaska and westernmost Can-

ada, toward the earth’s head, which is

located in the far south. Genetic relation-

ship of the Athapascan languages with the

Tlingit (language of Sitka and Juneau,

Alaska) and the Haida (language of the

Queen Charlotte Islands) was shown by

Sapir years ago. Work done by me a few

years ago showed how close this relationship

is, likeness extending to some 300 features.

Five detached bodies of Chilcotin lan-

guages were worked on:

(1) The most northerly of these was the

Chilcotin proper, which takes its name from

Chilco Lake, just east of the Cascade Range

of mountains, in an easterly direction

204

across the Strait of Georgia from the central

part of Vancouver Island, and one of the

sources of the Fraser River.

(2) The fragmentarily remembered lan-

guage, closely resembling Chilcotin proper,

of the Nicola and Similcameen Valleys,

British Columbia, which had been sketch-

ily made known by Dawson toward the

close of the past century from information

furnished to him by J. W. MacKay, for-

merly Indian agent of Indian Affairs Branch,

Department of Mines and Resources, of the

Canadian Government, stationed at Kam-

loops, British Columbia. A generation or

two before this variety of Chilcotin would

inevitably have become replaced by Eng-

lish, it became supplanted, in the latter half

of the nineteenth century, by Indian lan-

guages of the Salishan stock. Working sep-

arately with eight different informants, I

swept their memory clean of the former lan-

guage and obtained a sizable and important

list of vocables, the best results coming

from the aged chief Ernest Billy and from

his sister Matilda.

The information not only showed that

the all-but-vanished language was Chil-

cotin, but details were volunteered that the

speakers were called Stuwix-mux (Stuwix,

Athapascan name of the Nicola Valley;

Thompson -mux, person), that they made

their last linguistic stand at what is now

spoken of as the reserve at the southwest end

of Nicola Lake, that the spring beside the

Nicola Valley Brewery at the western end

of the city of Merritt was magically created

by them as a never-freezing drinking water

supply and bathing place for the neighbor-

ing village of Teszulle, that these people

used to steal children in order to augment

their tribe, and that they formerly at times

had clashes with the Thompson and other

Salishan speaking bands that surrounded

them. Best of all, came the information that

the Chilcotin are called in the Thompson

language Yuunxanil, a tribal name that has

never been obtained or published on. This

Chilcotin body was an enclave amid

Salishan.

(3) The next Chilcotin language to the

south was Kwalhioqua, occupying the Wil-

lapa River drainage and the adjacent drain-

age of the southern heads of the Chehalis

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

River, in what is now southwestern Wash-

ington, centering about Pee-Ell Prairie (so

called from the Indian pronunciation of

Pierre, first name of a one-eyed Frenchman

who used to farm the flat). This body was a

second linguistic island, surrounded by

alien Salishan and Chinookan.

(4) Another inland island of language

consisted of the Tlatskanai (native pronun-

ciation Laats’qhanayu), who held, in upper,

central, and lower divisions, the valley of

the Claskanie River, a southern tributary

of the Columbia, west of the present city

of Portland, in what is now northwestern

Oregon.

(5) The fifth and last Chilcotin division,

as yet without a general name, was a great

bloc of languages extending from Roseburg,

Oreg., to Laytonville at the head of Eel

Southfork, Calif., cut linguistically only by

the Klamath River and unlike the divisions

mentioned above in that it held many

miles of coast, although the central part of

its coastal holding, from Wilson Creek

mouth, Del Norte County, California, to

just north of False Cape, Humboldt Coun-

ty, Calif., was in Algonkin family linguistie

ownership. This great southernmost Chil-

cotin group constituted seven languages: (1)

Umpqua, or more precisely Upper Umpqua,

who call themselves TY uutaneeyuu (prairie

person); (2) Tututunne, from the head of

the Coquille River to include the lower part

of the Rogue River, Coquille and Shasta-

costa being perhaps the leading languages;

(3) Galice, spoken on Galice and Applegate

Creeks, southern tributaries of the Rogue

River, remarkable for its appearance of n,

n, m as g, d, b, respectively; (4) Smith

River, including Chetco; (5) Hupa, in-

cluding Chilula and Whilcut; (6) Mattole,

including Bear River; and (7) Wailaki, in-

cluding Saya, Lassik, Sinkyone, and Kato.

The farthest south extent of Chilcotin lan-

guages on the coast took in Usal Creek

mouth. The Kato, at the head of Eel South-

fork, abutting the Russian River water-

shed, were a little farther south than the

Sinkyone co-speakers on the coast to their

northwest, and again than the Wailaki co-

speakers on Eel River proper to their north-

east.

Even the Chilcotin is in many features

Juuy 15, 1948

very Hupa-like, Kwalhioqua still more so,

and in Umpqua to Kato one has practically

straight Hupa grammar. For this southern

division, therefore, perhaps a term Hupoid

or Hupan would be practical.

According to meaningful consideration,

the Chilcotin languages consist of the in-

herited morphom (meaningful form or ele-

ment) and its inherited sequencing. The

morphom may conveniently be considered

as having two weights: (1) the theme (main

or lexical meaningful form or element), to

be written, with absence or presence of its

crements, without spacing, and for indicat-

ing its crementless form always without hy-

phenization (the verb in these languages

does not occur crementless) ; (2) the crement

(subsidiary meaningful form or element),

consisting of firmly attached affix or loosely

attached clitic, to be written attached to its

theme without spacing or hyphenization,

but sometimes with hyphenization for per-

spicuity or weight indication. The theme

minus or plus its crement or crements is

termed the etymon (word or vocable), and

it is the etymon that is dictionarized. The

term base is a shortcut for standardized or

extended theme.

There are in the Chilcotin languages four

distinct, differently handled classes of

etyma, or “‘parts of speech’’ to retain the

terminology of the Greek grammarians. Re-

taining the Greek grammarian order of

presentation, these are: noun, pronoun,

verb, and particle. These four etymal classes

reduce into two philosophical classes: noun,

denoting entity, and verb, denoting ac-

tion. The pronoun is a mere category car-

rier, appearing where the noun would be a

more definite painter, or in addition to the

noun. The verb is the equivalent of a pro-

noun-plus-verb-European-sentence. There

are also copula and-posture verbs and the

like, which are to the verb as the pronoun

is to the noun. They are handled as verbs,

just as the pronoun is largely handled as

a noun. The particle consists largely of

adverbs of etymon rank of many forma-

tions, which definitize or add to the painting

accomplished by the verb, and some of

which, or their counterparts, can also be

prefixed to the verb. These four etymal

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

205

classes can be listed and characterized as

follows:

(1) The noun is the label of entity. It ad-

mits of only certain adnominal prefixes and

postfixes.

(2) The pronoun is handled mostly like _

the noun, but merely denotes unit of cate-

gory, usually combinatory unit. The pro-

noun is cut into personic and demonstra-

tive-numeroid divisions. Only the personic

can be prefixed to noun and verb, one set of

prefixes being used before the noun, and

another, split into objective and subjective,

before the verb, with the objective coming

first if both are present. When prefixed to

the noun, the personic becomes modifica-

tory, as does the first member of a noun

plus noun compound, and this modification

has settled into possessive meaning. Nu-

meroid pronouns suggest that numerals be-

long to the pronominal etymal class.

(3) The main part of the anatomy of any

one of these languages is the verb, the base

of which constitutes the last syllable, if

there is no postfix syllable or syllables (com-

pare the position of the verb at the end of

the Latin sentence). Some of the verb

bases assume as many as five phonetically

different forms, but the principal ones for

presenting slighter and fuller? form are the

nonintegral and integral, which two forms

of the verb base are the ones given in the

present paper and in the order of nonin-

tegral first and integral second. Some of the

forms, both nonintegral and integral, of the

verb base show a postfix or the remnant or

reflex of one, as was detected by Goddard

years ago. The nonintegral appears in the

present indefinite and the imperative forms

of Goddard and is the weaker or more re-

duced form of the verb base according to

him, the imperfective of Li, in contradis-

tinction to the integral, Goddard’s past def-

inite, Li’s perfective, which is a stronger

form. Some verb bases have according to

closing consonant a slight and a full form,

and this of nonintegral, or integral, or of

both. Immediately before the verb base

may come one or another, or in one instance

even two together, of four classifiers (taking

3 Or light and heavy, as Indo-Germanic ablaut

forms are termed.

206

this terminology from Tlingit and other

grammar), better called causo-agentive pre-

fixes—four in number if we regard zero, or

lack of classifier, as one of the four. The

force of these prefixes is largely obscured in

the Chilcotin languages. The most contrac-

tional part of the verb is the personic belt,

consisting of personic objective prefix fol-

lowed by personic subjective prefix with

mode and aspect prefixes jammed in be-

tween these, a region of contractions com-

parable in complexity to the vowel contrac-

tions of the Greek verb. This order carries

out the general word order of the languages

of modificatory before main. Starting the

verb, when occurrent, and preceding all

pronominal prefixes, are the many adverbial

prefixes of two positions, even including in-

corporated nouns used as adverbial modi-

fiers.

(4) As the fourth and last etymal class,

there can be lumped together adverbs,

conjunctions, interjections, ete., all of

etymal rank, under the blanket term

anonynon, or particle. This class was

Frachtenberg’s catch-all, but the various

groups of which it consists do have common

characters.

Etymal classes 1, 2, and 4, in contrast to

the verb, have comparatively few possible

forms, and are therefore simple.

Some of the etymal forms have cremental

counterings. Again, the postposition, which

appears in these languages only as a cate-

gory of postfixed transitive adnominal ad-

verbs, may in other languages or writings

have etymal, dictionary weight.

COMPARISON OF SOUNDS

The Chilcotin languages not only consti-

tute a unit of linguistic development but

also contain in Hupa, Mattole, and Wai-

laki, three of their members, preservation

of sounds not even secondary to that of

Tlingit and Haida in uniqueness for the

reconstruction of the phonetic system of all

Athapascan languages, including Tlingit

and Haida. The Chilcotin languages, as

well as Tlingit and Haida, evidence two

back-of-the-tongue series.

The phonetic structure of the Chilcotin

languages is, like that of language in gen-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

eral, an alternation of opener sounds called

vowels, and closer sounds called consonants,

comparable to slap-yelling—a procedure in

syllables. Syllables are termed open or

closed, open when having zero after the

vowel of the syllable, closed when having a

consonant after the vowel of the syllable,

the consonant of course belonging to the

same syllable. In actuality, most Chilcotin

syllables are closed, either by a postvocalie

consonant different from the one that starts

the next syllable or by the doublish pro-

nunciation of what would be otherwise a

single intervocalic consonant whether with-

in or between words. One can furthermore

in all the Chilcotin languages divide the

syllable closing consonants, into light and

heavy closers, the light being on the whole

slighter and including zero, and the heavy

having fuller closing.

Language suffers changes and splittings.

Changes, especially of sound, can be termed

processes. |

Reconstruction of a sound, morphological

element, or word, won through comparison,

of necessity synchronic in North America

north of Mexico, is a device surely wrong in

actuality, but nevertheless one that serves a

temporary purpose. No amount of compar-

ing of Romance forms would win back Latin

with certainty even to the extent of a single

word, though Italic dialects, Keltic, and

Greek and careful procedure were to guide.

The reconstruction of pre-Chilcotin is

ephemeric but is comparable to a setting

up of linguistic stocks in South America

temporarily advantageous to the ethnolo- —

gist.

The reconstruction of sounds is simpler

than that of vocables in that vocables con-

sist mostly of more than one sound. Taking

a clue from the patent traveling backward

of t to k in Lipanan (a group of Athapascan

languages of the southwesternmost Great

Plains), I spent considerable time in work-

ing out the assumption that Hupa k, x”,

etc., are frontals in antiquity that traveled

toward the rear (like Swedish maskin, en-

gine, becoming macin, and in dialect

max*ina), but two indications made it

plain that this assumption was wrong: (1)

Related bunches of vocables in the lan-

Jury 15, 1943

guages themselves proved _ back-of-the-

tongue origin; (2) the genetically related

Tlingit and Haida proved _ back-of-the-

tongue origin. It became apparent that the

traveling of sounds has been in the same

outward direction which in several centuries

turned popular Latin k into the s-sound of

French.

Of course, all reconstruction takes us

back only one jog, only to the extent of one

chunk of time.

The assuming of a definite reconstruction

form of any kind is by necessity more or less

arbitrary. Even such a matter as to whether

kh, x, or k is more ancient as a starter of

the word for fire, must remain forever un-

settled. It would not even be safe to guess

that the more complex, which is kh in this

instance, has been reduced.

Writing employs to a large extent differ-

ent symbols for voiceless and for voiced

consonants, and this tends to make the

sounds in writing appear more different

than they actually are in the mouth. For

instance, English Siwash, and the French

word sauvage, from which it comes, really

have last sounds the same except for the

matter of voicing, but the spelling makes

these last sounds look very different.

Abbreviations of language names, such as

Chil. for Chilcotin, used in presenting forms,

do not require explanation. But Shastace. is

used for distinguishing Shastacosta from

Shasta.

VOWELS

_ Asin Semitic, differences in vowels in the

Chilcotin languages are not so important

as differences in consonants.

A tendency is that a short vowel of an

open syllable in the north appears largely as

long in the south: Chil. si, I; Wai. cii. Chil.

téhe, stone; Wai. tshee.

There are several ablauts, or vowel mu-

tations, notably that of o alternating with

a, and that of e or i alternating with a.

Vowels occur short or long, as do con-

sonants. Since the length of long consonants

is conditioned by the simple rule that in-

tervocalic consonants are long, all con-

sonants are to be written short. But long

vowels must rigidly be written long.

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

207

A nasalized vowel is, as in French, the re-

sult of an original syllable-closing -n, which

nasalized more or less its preceding vowel,

and was retained, changed to yn, or disap-

peared altogether, even the nasalization it

produced disappearing in certain forms. Or

a nasalized vowel is the result of a preceding

nasal consonant.

Chil. -na, eye. The quality of a is more

open than that of a (a modification of 1),

with which it ablauts for instance in some

verb bases.

o—u

o and u are variations of the same sound.

There is a tendency to pronounce a glide ¥

between a dorsal consonant and this vowel

(as for instance in Russian k’é6mnata,

room). It is a trait of several of the North-

west linguistic stocks and also of the Chil-

cotin languages that o labializes following

dorsal consonant even through h preceding

that consonant: Coq. c-xe’, my foot;

neenuh-xwe’, our feet. In Tlingit, in some

instances, even the a-sound labializes a fol-

lowing dorsal consonant.

In addition to inherited o—u, Chilcotin

also shows a transformed from o after a

labialized dorsal: kwat, knee (for *kW¥ot);

khwan, fire (for *kh¥on).

Chil. ta-ne, person. e and i are kept dis-

tinct. Occasionally in a setting that would

turn i to a, I have heard e almost so turned,

e.g., Navajo Tshé-khooh, Chaco, literally

stone canyon, i.e., box-canyon, almost tsha-

khooh.

I have mentioned under o above one

source of Chilcotin a from ancient o. An-

other and still commoner source of a is from

i, conditioned to this extremely open form

by contiguous consonant or consonants.

Chil. tat, smoke.

VOWEL DIPHTHONGS

Vowel diphthongs are as in Tlingit and

Haida of the class known as false, consisting

of mere juxtaposition of two vowels of dif-

fering quality (Frachtenberg’s au or aww,

as in English hooey in rapid tempo, in con-

208

tradistinction to his a® or aw). Any occur-

rent vowels of qualities different from each

other may come together to make such a

diphthong. Especially when one of the

vowels is long, the false diphthong hovers on

the border of being pronounced as two sylla-

bles. Nasalization of one vowel diphthong

member is infectious to the other. Vowel

triphthongs rarely occur.

SYLLABO-INITIAL CONSONANTS

Originating consonants travel different

roads of development as to whether they

start or close a syllable. It is therefore prac-

tical to prepare two lists of consonants, one

of syllabo-initial consonants, the other of

syllabofinal consonants, both drawing on

the main or lexical elements of the lan-

guages. For restoring the originating con-

sonants, Hupa, and to some extent Mattole

and Wailaki, are important, since they pos-

tulate a palatalized or forward dorsal series

reminding one of the separate forward series

of Tlingit and Haida. For writing Tlingit

and Haida, x, x, etc., are employed for the

rearward series, k, x, etc., for the forward;

however, mere k, x, etc., for the rearward-

related and k, x, etc., for the forward-re-

lated are used in writing Hupa.

LARYNGEALS

In the Chilcotin languages nearly all

vocables that would begin with a vowel

have before this a momentary laying to-

gether of the moist glottal cords identical

with the hamzated alif of Arabic and

written by the apostrophe. Chil. ’a-thi, non-

human trail. A few vocables begin directly

with vowel, for instance, Chil. s-at, my wife.

h- is rare, but occurs as the consonant of

interjections, including the particle yes, and

of song padders.

DORSALS

Chil. -ket, -ket, to spear (fish).

k’-

Chil. k’a, arrow.

kh-

Kwal, khasxee, chief; Coq. xasxee.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

When the original following vowel was e

or 1 after a dorsal, the rearward of two back-

of-the-tongue series is to be postulated, for

all the languages retain kh- or the like.

Chil. khe, foot; Hupa -khe’. Tlingit x’us,

foot, is a rear series cognate, but Tlingit

khé, khén, to track, also occurs.

X-

Though kh- largely appears as x- in the

southern languages through declusivizing,

when an originating x- is assumed there is

no proof that x- was ever anything but a

fricative.

Hupa is the only Chilcotin language, the

only Athapascan language in fact, that still

forms the word and prefix meaning I, my,

on the back of the tongue, as Tlingit does,

even Mattole and Wailaki presenting only

forms leveled to c and the like. Hupa x”e,

I; x“i-, my. Tlingit xa, I; ’ay-, my. Chil. si,

I; Wai. cii. It is only upon referring to other

stocks that we find k-, etc., meaning I, my.

When the original following vowel was o,

glide ¥ developed before it after a dorsal:

Chil. su’, all right; -zu, to be good; Hupa

-x”on, to be good.

When the original following vowel was e

or i after a dorsal, there is no way to tell

whether the consonant belonged to a sep-

arate palatalized series, since the appear-

ance in Hupa both of *x- and of *x- is x¥-.

Chil. can, -yan, song; Hupa x*in.

Chil. -ra, bodyhair. Tlingit yaw, body-

hair.

When the original following vowel was o,

glide ¥ developed before it after a dorsal.

Chil. -r’u, tooth. Tlingit ux, tooth.

When the original following vowel was

perhaps 1, there is no way to tell whether the

consonant belonged to a separate palatal.

ized series. Chil. ya#, snow; -xaé, -xaé to

snow.

DORSALS LABIALIZED

rw-

Chil. -rwit, -rwat, to break intransitive-

w is in these languages lowered from rw.

DORSALS PALATALIZED

ike

Chil. -xat, -xat, to fear; Hupa -kit, -kit.

Juny 15, 1943

Chil. -k’ul, -k’al,

Hupa -k’il, -k’il.

to tear transitive;

kh-

When the original following vowel was 0,

no glide * develops. Chil. -tcho, large, aug-

mentative postfixed particle (but Chil.

-tchoh, to become large, with retention of

of original -x as -h); Hupa -khoh.

When the original following vowel was e

or i after a dorsal, the forward of two back-

of-the-tongue series is to be postulated, be-

cause only Hupa, and to a partial extent its

neighbors to the south, retain kh- or the

like. Chil. -tche, tail; Hupa -khe. Chil.

tehan, stick; Hupa khin. (The word mean-

ing stick is also used meaning tree in all

these languages, with which agrees the use

of English stick meaning both stick and

tree in English local vernacular and in Chi-

nook jargon.)

| kx-

Some ancient affricative such as *kx- may

lie behind such appearance as in Chil.

tshan, excrement; Shastac. sa’, Hupa

tchv¥ayn. Chil. -tsha, -tshe, to cry; Hupa

-tchwa, -tchve. Chil. tshaz, firewood; Hupa

tch*ite.

FRONTALS

Chil. taé, driftwood.

Chil. t’es, charcoal, to becharcoal; Coq.

t’ec, black paint; to mark with black paint;

Hupa t’ex”, charcoal. to becharcoal.

th-

Chil. thuu, water; Ump. thuu.

FRONTAL LATERALS

Chil. h, dog; Kwal. ten; Hupa hin; Tlingit

khét, dog.

Chil. -la, hand.

Chil. tlat, rivergrass; Hupa lah, sea-let-

tuce (with tl- and 1-).

te’

Chil. t?’ul, string; Coq. ditto.

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

209

tth-

Chil. ttho, salve.

FRONTAL SIBILANTS

ts’

Chil. ts’ii, canoe; Kato ditto.

tz-

Chil. tzah, gum; -tzeh, -tze, to stick with

gum; Hupa tjeh, gum. Chil. tzu, heart;

Coq. se’; Wai. tjii. Chil. tzin, day; Wai.

tjin. Haida sin, day. For appearance in

some of the languages as a complete s, com-

pare e.g. Greek méssos, mésos, adj., middle,

for *médhyos.

FRONTAL LISPINGS

Chil. -6e, mouth.

t0’-

Chil. t@’an, bone; Shastac. ditto.

tOh-

Chil. téhe, stone; Shastac. 6ee; Hupa

tshe. Tlingit thé, stone. Chil. -téi, head;

Kato si’. Tlingit ca, head.

N-

Chil. -nai, -nai’, to drink; Hupa -naan,

-naa’n.

LABIALS

Chil. pan, roof; Coq. ma’n, house.

Mm-

The Chilcotins think of the Sekany tribe,

which lives northeast of them, as substitut-

ing m- for p-, and do not know that their

far southern linguistic cogeners do the same.

The alternation p with m is widespread in

American languages.

SYLLABOFINAL CONSONANTS

The Chilcotin languages have in general

about a dozen consonants that can be

syllabofinal. Only Hupa and Wailaki in-

dulge in clicked affricatives of this position,

e.g., Hupa and Wai. -t’ats’, to cut, inte-

gral. Hupa also shows an affricative at

the end of several forms where other lan-

guages would suggest a fricative, e.g. Hupa

teh*ite, firewood (the common dimunitive

in Hupa is in -tc, compare man-tc, hut,

literally houselet).

210

Syllable-closing -’ is in part original. It is

sometimes the mark of the possessional

form of the noun, of the perfective form of

the verb base. It is also sometimes a reduc-

tion of older -k or -t; for instance, Navajo

ka’nijii, white spruce, is for *kat-nijii.

-h

Syllable-closing -h is in part original. It is

also largely a reduction of syllable-closing

-x, as can be proved where it alternates with

-r. Sometimes -h is entirely leveled out, as

in Chil. -tcho, large. Sometimes -h stands

for a former -k, -t, or the like.

-hé .

Not having listed the several syllable

closures in -’ plus a buccal consonant, -hé

should not be separately listed, but its ap-

pearance is curious. Chilcotin has merely

yad, snow; xa@, xad, to snow; yet Kwal.

yahé, snow, Coq. yahs, Kato yahs.

-k

Shastac. ’ak, cloud; Hupa ’ah, Wai. ’ah,

show nicely -k having been preserved and

having become -h.

-t

Chil. tat, smoke; Shastac. ditto; Mat.

th. Chil. -khoh, river; Kato khot, creek.

The hardening of the preceding syllable re-

sults in a different history for this -t: Chil.

-pat, belly; Hupa -mit’, Mat. -pa’l.

-S, -2

Chil. pas, bank; Coq. maé. Chil. xaz, pus;

Coq. xa@. Chil. syllable-closing -s has in the

languages down the coast very different

appearances from Chil. syllabo-initial s-.

-n

In syllables originally closing with -n,

four different grades of non-reduction and

reduction can be easily distinguished in the

languages: (1) complete -n; (2) appearance

of -n as -n; (3) appearance of -n as nasaliz-

ing of the vowel which formerly preceded

it; (4) complete disappearance of nasaliza-

tion. Sometimes two of these grades appear

as distinguishing features in the forms of a

verb base.

-m

-m appears as a syllable-closer in a few

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

Chilcotin forms, but has gone over into the

more limber -n and its developments in the

other languages.

DISSYLLABIC ALTERNATION

A curious alternation between two-sylla-

ble and one-syllable forms, accomplished

factually by thrusting -r- into the middle of

the one-syllable form, appears in:

Shastac. daraé, black bear (compare per-

haps with the last syllable Chil. caé, griz-

tly); Chil. sas. =:

Chil. t?aras, snake; Kwal. ti’as-khan’e,

eel, literally river snake. Hupa tux’, snake;

tux¥-xan, eel, show Hupa }- for t!- (com-

pare for instance Hupa I- for tl- in the

Hupa word for sea-lettuce; pre-Hupa for

snake should be *tl’ix”).

Mat. k’arax, alder; Chil. k’as, Hupa

eUoey

DECLUSIVIZING, DEASPIRATING, DEALIFIZ-

ING, DEBUCCALIZING, ALIFIZING

Certain consonants in Athapascan lan-

guages, including Tlingit and Haida, have

been encountered that just about run the

gamut of homopositional type, and even

that straddle articulational position, re-

minding one of Italian basso, low, Spanish

bajo. The five processes mentioned as the

caption of this section, all of them except

the last mentioned accomplishing an easing,

are encountered, and can be listed and ex-

emplified here.

Perhaps the commonest of these proc-

esses is declusivizing, for instance, kh- in its

emphatic or overaspirated form is kx- and

is leveled solely to this appearance in some

of the languages, just as Siouan kh- be-

comes solely kx- in Teton Sioux, and indeed

in conformity for instance with the reduc-

tion of t@h- to 6-. I have even heard Navajo

-ko, when, if, in standard tempo talk re-

duced to -xo. Chil. -khe, foot; Coq. xe’;

Shas. xee.

Deaspirating is, in one way of looking at

it, the opposite of the above process, where-

by for instance an earlier kh- becomes k-.

Mat. ke’-, foot, for pre-Mattole *khe’-.

Dealifizing is well examplified by Chil..

-tluh, -tluk, to do by means of string; Chil.

-tVuh, -t?u’, to fasten with string.

Debuccalizing is again the opposite of the

Juny 15, 1943

just mentioned process. Chil. ’a-, something

or someone objective, verb prefix; Hupa

k’1-.

An example of alifizing is shown between

Chil. -k’aih, -k’an, to burn, and Chil.

khwan, fire.

SPECIAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SOUND

There are many special or irregular de-

velopments of sound in the Chilcotin lan-

guages. Some of these changes are differen-

tiations to avoid ambiguity. But through-

out the languages one notices that special

developments consist largely of easings of

consonants in prefix syllables or in other

much used forms. Thus Chil. ts’i-, someone,

verb prefix (never a noun prefix), appears in

Mattole as tji-, -’tji-, someone, verb prefix,

someone’s, noun prefix—with easing out of

the clicking, just as a Zunyi schoolchild will

say tz for ts’; Kwal. tante’e, 4; Cod:

tante’1; Hupa tink’; but Chil. tanke. These

changes are also suffered by bases and

have been listed as the processes of de-

clusivizing, etc., but prefixes and _ post-

fixes in the Chilcotin languages are espe-

cially prone to what may be termed special

development. One can compare, for in-

stance, the irregular verbs met with in many

languages, special development of sound

and form being caused by commonness of

occurrence in various settings.

LACK OF TONAL ACCENT

Inherent tone of syllables is a morpho-

logic and lexical as well as phonetic feature

and is a characteristic of the northern, east-

ern, and southeastern Athapascan lan-

guages, but it does not occur, except as rare

vestiges or as the cause of reflexes, in any

of the Chilcotin languages. In coming from

the inherent-tone Beaver, Chippewyan and

Sarcee languages, which lie to the east of the

Chilcotin languages, one is struck at once

that the Chilcotin languages are not tonal,

so much so that in these a noun may be dis-

tinguished from a phonetically equal verb

form by signalizing the syllable or sylla-

bles of the noun by raising of tone. This

lack of tonality is another common feature

that makes for the unitizing of the Chilcotin

languages.

In all the Chilcotin languages noun and

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

211

verb form identical with noun can be dis-

tinguished by raising and loudening of voice

for the nominally used form.

GRAMMATICAL AND VOCABULARIAL

COMPARISON

The Chilcotin languages are character-

ized by large preservation of the possessive

form of the noun; certain same nouns

throughout the languages require someone’s

to be prefixed for not personally possessed

form or when in certain meaning (Chil.

-tche, tail; but tche, stream mouth); the

same prioritive is common to a number of

the languages; lack of addressative; the

same postpositions with appositive personic

plus postposition readier than noun plus

postposition; the same personic plurals of

the pronoun (we, ye); k’i- (and from this

’1-, ’a-), someone or something objective,

verb prefix (not *’a-); the same demonstra-

tives (Chil. -ti-, this; Chil. -yu-, that); verb

base vriddhied by ablaut, orinasal umlaut,

vowel lengthening, postfixation of syllable-

closing consonants, as a maximum to five

different forms and with k- to kw-, k’- to

k’w- and kh- to khw- as a maximum of syl-

labo-initial consonant change; verb bases

having the vowel consist of 1 prone to have

one or few forms; nonintegral and integral

action, nearer perfect and remoter perfect,

immediative and future sometimes distin-

guishable by verb base change alone; cer-

tain verb prefixes and postfixes prescribe

verb base forms; a separate class of verb

postfixes outside of and after the verb base

constantly and vitally in use even largely

for tense distinguishment; verb base classi-

fication of entities such as earth, fire and

water as well as according to shape or

plurality; formation of passive from inte-

gral base; noun incorporation not confined to

special forms but pretty largely practicable,

in the adverbial belt; customary a second-

ary formation; nouns, pronouns, and par-

ticles, painters appositive to verb elements

of vagueness; yi- (related to the remoter de-

monstrative) largely as adverb prop and as

partial originator of the relatival; cardinal

direction terms largely interlaced with

stream and slope terms.

In addition to grammatical features suz

generis these languages have the same pe-

212

eculiar vocabulary, unitary inheritance of

morphoms and etyma as well as their treat-

ment; we point, for instance, to the numeral

tanke, 4, which runs down the coast from

British Columbia to Laytonville, to peculiar

plant names, animal names, etc.

WIDER COMPARISON

A sensing of phonetics, morphology, and

lexicality still wider than that gained from

Athapascan, Tlingit, and Haida will be ob-

tained by a comparison with genetically re-

lated stocks. A perspective even wider than

this will be obtained by following out the

suggestions given by the semantics of stocks

whose genetic relation with Athapascan,

Tlingit, and Haida can never perhaps be

proved. For instance, the Algonkin stock,

and again the Yuman stock, have bundles

of vocables including the meanings to be

white and to dawn. In Athapascan there oc-

curs a verb to be white represented in very

original form by Wai. -kai, to be white, and

a verb to be daylight, to dawn, appearing

for instance as Chil. khaih, khai, to be day-

light, to dawn. Unconnectable, we say at

present, yet surely connected.

INTERLINKING TRADITIONS

Hardest to get of all, and at the same time °

most satisfactory, were actually remem-

bered traditions corroborating the linguistic

evidence, which, although in part shading

off into the mythical, are clearly indicative

that there has been a southern spread of

language-bearing ancestors, accomplished

in war, opportunism, and peace, resulting in

linguistic supplanting in large just-inland

and coastal regions, and that the spread has

been piecemeal, consisting of the throwing

off of more southerly linguistic neighbors

by more northerly adjacent ones. These ty-

ing traditions are 10 in number.

(1) Although in the Nicola Valley I ob-

tained volunteered information that the

Stuwix-mux language is Chilcotin, a more

detailed account of this, presenting infor-

mation transmitted to Dawson by MacKay,

formerly Indian agent at Kamloops, British

Columbia, is to be found in Dawson,

“Notes on the Shuswap People of British

Columbia” (Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

Canada 9 (sect. 2): 3-44. 1892). The first

paragraph quoted presents information ob-

tained by Dawson from MacKay, the sec-

ond tells of Dawson’s visit to an Indian in

the Nicola Valley:

A long time before the white man first came

to the country, a company of warriors accom-

panied by their women from the neighborhood

of the Chilcotin River made their appearance in

the Bonaparte valley. ... This happened during

the salmon fishing season... . At that time it was

customary for the Shuswaps who lived on the

banks of the Thompson between Kamloops and

the mouth of the Bonaparte valley to take their

winter stock of salmon from the Fraser River at

the western base of Pavilion Mountain. ... The

strangers from Chilcotin .. . continued their ad-

vance southward down the Bonaparte and

Thompson valleys till they reached a position

opposite the mouth of the Nicola River. At this

place they were discovered by some scouts... .

The intruders... took- advantage of the night

to cross the Thompson and proceeded to ascend

the Nicola valley. ... The strangers were driven

into the Similkameen valley, where they took a

firm stand....

An Indian named Joyaska, who lives in the

Nicola valley, below the lake, and who is probably

sixty years old, informed me [Dawson]... that

he, with seven other men and some women and

children belonging to them, were now the only

remaining true natives of the Nicola region... .

I asked him if the old language was like that of the

Tsilkotin ... to the north, and he said it was the

same.

One may discredit this story, which is

given even in more detail that I have

quoted above, but I got enough information

in the field to convince me that it has some

basis of fact in the remote past.

(2) The Kwalhioqua tradition that they

spoke the language of the land-otter and

migrated far from the east, apparently con-

tains dim handed-down memory blended

with a standardized linguistic metaphor. I

have recorded elsewhere Indian language

metaphors that a foreign people talks the

language of ducks, or again of blackbirds.

(3) The Kwalhioquas also have a tradi-

tion concerning the Tlatskanai. They tell

that the Tlatskanai are an offshoot of their

own people. Some Kwalhioqua youths, bor-

rowing and misuing a firedrill, started a

great forest fire and, when this subsided,

followed the tracks of an elk easily discerni-

ble in the ashes south through alien terri-

Juny 15, 1943

tory to the nearby Columbia River. On

crossing this river they found good elk

hunting in the region of the Claskanie River

on the south side and sent a messenger back

with a lot of dried elk meat. The messenger

succeeded in persuading many of the Kwal-

hioqua to migrate to the Claskanie Valley,

which they did, thus initiating the Tlats-

kanai tribe.

(4) A third Kwalhioqua tradition is that

the Umpquas are, like the Tlatskanais, a

body of Kwalhioqua who migrated south.

This tradition is of the utmost importance

since the Umpquas belong to the southern-

most group of Chilcotins.

(5) The Tututunne, whose great village

was on the north bank of lowest Rogue

River at what was later called Bagnell’s

Ferry, have a tradition that they migrated

to that site.

(6) The Mikonotunne, whose village was

on the north bank of Rogue River about

seven miles above that of the Tututunne,

have a tradition that they migrated upriver.

(7) There was a place somewhere up the

Rogue River above Shastacosta village

called Maanesta. At Shastacosta village

two chiefs quarreled. One of these chiefs

wandered upriver and established Maanesta

in a narrow place of the river full of hazel-

brush. People climbing the mountain sides

at Maanesta would see the smoke of Shas-

tacosta village far downriver toward the

coast and would say to their accompanying

youngsters, ‘Those are our people, we came

from there.”

(8) There is a tradition among the Smith

River Indians telling that the Hupas are

Smith Rivers in origin, though the Hupas

are now separated from the latter by the

alien-speaking tribe of the lower Klamath

River, and the differences between Smith

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

213

River and Hupa must have required long

separation to attain. It is said that ten boys

and ten girls left Burnt Ranch village on

Smith River, that the trail magically opened

up before them so that they walked with-

out crossing water to Hoopa Valley and

became the Hupa Indians. The Hupa

Indians in their language today sometimes

refer to the Smith River Indians as little

Hupas, which implies recognition of rela-

tionship.

(9) A somewhat similar Smith River In-

dian tradition states that the Whilkuts of

Blue Lake, speaking a language closely re-

lated to Hupa, originally lived at South

Bend on the Smith River, and that ages ago

they migrated south, fighting off enemies as

they went, until they finally reached Blue

Lake.

(10) The Hupas have the tradition that

the Saya, also called Nongatl (saya in the

Chinook jargon means far off), who used to

adjoin the Whilkut in the hills east of Hum-

boldt Bay, are Hupas who moved south

long ago. As proof of this, the information

was volunteered that a Hupa can under-

stant the Saya language after hearing it for

a while.

CONVERSION OF LINGUISTIC CHANGE

INTO CHRONOLOGY

One may ask, after all the above, the

practical question: How long have the Chil-

cotin languages been developing asunder?

To this question no answer can probably

ever be given. Linguistic change has had

for various features various and varying

rates, and no amount of study will convert

as a whole the duration of the linguistic

change sundering these languages to time

reckoning, even to the extent of a good

guess.

214

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

ENTOMOLOGY.—New species of flies of the genera Baccha and Rhinoprosopa

(Syrphidae).?

ALAN STONE.)

In recent studies of syrphid flies, some

new species of Baccha and Rhinoprosopa

from the neotropical regions were dis-

covered and are described in this paper. The

types, except where designated, are in the

collection of Dr. C. L. Fluke, of the Uni-

versity of Wisconsin, whom I wish to thank

for the loan of this material. Paratypes,

where available, are in the author’s col-

lection.

Baccha minima, n. sp.

Abdomen with a pair of widely separated

yellow rectangles in the basal corners of the

fourth segment. Third segment with a pair of

basal vittae on each side. Related to sativa

Curran.

Male.—Length 8 mm. Head: face and front

yellow, the latter with a black dot on lunula.

Pile sparse, black. Antennae orange, third joint

missing. Thorax: mesonotum brassy black with

a pair of wide, yellowish-gray vittae running

nearly to the scutellum. Humeri and lateral

margins widely yellow; a medial spot adjacent

to the humeri, yellow. Pleura yellow, brownish

on the metapleura and hypopleura. Scutellum

yellow with a few black hairs and one or two

black fringe hairs. Abdomen: slender, shining

black; the sides of first segment are yellow, the

remainder brown. Third segment with a pair

of narrowly separated yellow vittae in the

middle of each side. Fourth segment with a

large, rectangular yellow spot on the lateral

margins and base of the segment, the two spots

not widely separated. Fifth segment shining

black. Legs: yellow, the hind femora with a

brown subapical annulus, their tibiae with the

middle yellow and proximal to it a dark brown

annulus and the distal third brown. Hind basi-

tarsi yellowish brown, the apical joints dark

brown. Wings: pale brown, the stigmal cell

quite dark; costal cell clear; alulae absent.

Holotype, male, Nova Teutonia, Brazil, Fritz

Plaumann. (Fluke collection.)

Baccha delicatissima, n. sp.

Characterized by the dark aeneous-brown

1 Received March 18, 1943.

F. M. Hutt, University of Mississippi. (Communicated by

mesonotum and scutellum. Hind femora and

tibiae brown, yellow centrally. Related to

macer Curran.

Male.—Length 7.5 mm. Head: face and front

yellow, the former with a black spot on lunula

and black pile, facial pile yellow. Antennae

orange, blackish above. Thorax: mesonotum

brassy brown, the margins obscurely yellow

without apparent vittae. Scutellum concolorous

with four or five long black hairs, no fringe or

collar. Halteres black, squamae pale. Pleura

wholly yellowish. Abdomen slender, brownish

black; second segment light brown on the basal

corners, with small, oblique, widely separated,

light-brown spots just past the middle. Third

segment with a similar oblique middle spot on

each side. Fourth segment with a wide, sepa-

rated vittate spot beginning some distance

from base and near the middle of the segment

proceeding diagonally to the margin. Fifth

segment with a pair of oval vittate spots. Legs:

yellowish, the middle femora except at base, all

of hind femora and tibiae pale brown. Femora

with subapical bands and tibiae dark brown

basally and apically. Wings: pale brown; stig-

mal cell dark, costa lighter; alulae absent.

Female.—Similar to the male, front with a

slender brown stripe; spots of fourth segment

form well-marked, short, inverted V’s.

Holotype male and allotype female, Nova

Teutonia, Brazil, Fritz Plaumann. (Fluke col-

lection.)

Baccha zilla, n. sp.

Related to virgilio Hull. The front is wholly

pale, the third and fourth segments of the abdo-

men with two vittae on each side, each pair

basally confluent. Scutellum and pleura, except

the metapleura, pale yellow.

Female.—Length 8 mm. Head: face and front

pale yellow, the latter with sparse black hairs,

the vertex as far as the first ocellus blackish;

lunula with a black dot, antennae orange, the

third joint missing. Thorax: greenish shining

black, with a pair of pale gray-brown, anteriorly

wide vittae reaching over the anterior half.

Pleura except the metapleura, the humeri, the

wide lateral margins and scutellum, ali pale

yellow. The scutellum has five or six pale hairs

JuLy 15, 1948

on the ventral fringe and a very few hairs on

disc. Abdomen: elongate; slender; about the

same length as wings; the first segment is yel-

low on the sides, with yellow pile; second seg-

ment with a long, narrow, medial black vitta,

the apical fifth black, the sides yellowish; third

segment with a long, slender pair of yellow vit-

tae reaching to the base and basally fused on

each side of the segment. They cover nearly

three-fourths the length of the segment. Fourth

segment similar, the vittate spots shorter. Fifth

segment with a pair of short, reddish vittae.

Legs: yellow, the hind femora brownish sub-

apically, their tibiae pale brown, yellow in the

middle, their tarsi dark brown. Wings: pale

brown; stigma dark; alulae absent.

Holotype—Female, Nova Teutonia, Brazil,

Fritz Plaumann, and a paratype from Nova

Teutonia and one also Puyo, Ecuador, Decem-

ber 1938, F. M. and H. H. Brown. (Fluke col-

lection.)

Baccha nerissa, n. sp.

Related to columbiana Curran. The pleura

are steel-blue. Hind femora and tibiae black.

Third to fifth abdominal segments trivittate.

Female.—Length 11 mm. Head: face yellow

laterally, its middle and the cheeks blue-black

and white-pollinose; the front is black, black-

pilose, narrowly yellow on the sides and linearly

white-pubescent. Antennae dark brown, the

third joint orange below, blackish brown above,

and rather elongate. Thorax: mesonotum dull

black, with a faint bronze cast and a pair of

wide, narrow, gray vittae reaching almost to

scutellum. Pleura steel-blackish; scutellum

dark brown, with sparse black pile and long,

mixed, ventral fringe. Abdomen: petiolate, the

first segment metallic black and extending onto

base of second. Second segment orange laterally

and brown apically with opaque central tri-

angles; third and fourth segments reddish

brown, with a medial black vittae and a lateral

black triangle, all apically confluent, the post-

margins brown. Fifth segment trivittate; sixth

trapezoidal, basally flattened and black, later-

ally compressed apically. Legs: first four

brown, dark at base of femora, pale yellow at

base of tibiae; hind femora and tibiae black,

tibial base narrowly yellow. Hind basi tarsi

basally black; remainder of tarsi pale. Wings:

pale brown, dark brown on anterior border,

almost as far as end of stigmal cell. Alulae wide.

HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES

215

Holotype female, Pinas, Ecuador, 1,200

meters, July 21, 1941, D. B. Laddey. (Fluke

collection.)

Baccha nigrocilia, n. sp.

All the legs jet black, with similar pile, longer

on the hind pair, the hind tarsi in part yellow.

Wings brown on basal half, anterior tarsi di-

lated. Related to hirta Shannon.

Female.—Length 9 mm. Head: face and front

steel-blue, the former narrow yellow on the

sides, the latter protuberant anteriorly, widely

shining black in the middle, with black pile;

lunula and antennae black. Thorax: mesono-

tum and scutellum shining black, with black

pile and ventral fringe, the notapleura bluish,

the humeri sepia, the pleura steel-blue with

vertical silver pubescence and silver pile and

black-pilose on posterior half. Squamae and

fringe black. Abdomen: strongly petiolate;

first segment shining black and steel-blue pos:

teriorly; second segment steel-blue on the basal

third and side margins, with in the middle a

pair of oblique black spots meeting above.

Third segment reddish in the anterior corners,

with large, central, opaque black triangle,

which is postmedially indented; the posterior

and anterior margins are shining. Fourth seg-

ment steel-blue, with, on each side, a large,

opaque triangle posteromedially connected to a

median black vittae that does not reach the

base. Fifth segment with three black vittae on

steel-blue ground. Sixth segment flattened,

trapezoidal. Legs: jet black and pilose, the pile

quite long on the hind pair; apex of hind basi

tarsi and next two segments whitish. Anterior

tarsi dilated, wings brown on basal half. Alulae

very large, stigmal cell pale.

Holotype female, Sao Paulo, Brazil, February

18-26, 1940, Ilha Seca; one paratype female.

(Fluke collection.)

Baccha nigrocilia inclusa, n. var.

In this variety, from Colombia, the vittae

are slender and isolated and contained within

the triangles of opaque black upon the abdomi-

nal segments.

Baccha nigrocilia hirtipes, n. var.

In this variety, from Colombia, there are

large yellow-brown triangles in the lateral

corners of the second to fifth segments; the vit-

tate spots are also yellow.

216

Rhinoprosopa lucifer, n. sp.

Related to aenea Hull but the pleura are

chiefly black, the facial stripe is wider. Hind

tibiae black. 7

Male.—Length 11 mm. Head: the cheeks

and sides of face are widely pale yellow;

middle of face widely jet black. The sides of

the front are orange, broadly opaque black

down the middle, expanding to reach the

sides of the shining black lunula. Face pro-

duced considerably beyond the antennal

apex, with a low tubercle below the anten-

nae. Antennae reddish brown, the third

joint blackish except at the ventral base;

arista black. Pile of front black and long

and confined to the top and sides. Vertex

black with black pile. Thorax: mesonotum

brassy brownish or black, the anterior half

brownish-gray pollinose, without definite

vittae and with long yellow pile. Humeri,

the whole of notapleura, postcalli, and a

sharp wide basal margin on the scutellum

yellow. Remainder of scutellum dark brown,

lighter on the margin, its pile long, sparse,

and black, with longer marginal bristles and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

no fringe. Only the posterior half of the

mesopleura is yellow. Abdomen rather

slender, especially at the end of second seg-

ment, black with yellow markings as fol-

lows: all but the posterior margin of the

second segment in the middle yellow. Second

segment with a pair of long, oblique, an-

teriorly approximated, bright, central, yel-

low stripes upon the sides of the segment,

each stripe margined anteriorly with opaque

black and posteriorly with an opaque tri-

angle. Third segment with similar pattern,

the stripes almost confluent anteriorly.

Fourth segment with larger, similar stripes

which are fused throughout most of their

length in the middle. Fifth segment with

oblique, transverse, short fascia fused me-

dially. Legs: yellow, the hind femora dark

brown on more than the apical half, their

tibiae and tarsi very dark brown. Wings:

wholly deep brown with slender alulae,

equally developed throughout.

Hobotype male, Pinas Ecuador, 1,600

meters, July 25, 1941, D. B. Laddey. Two

paratype males, same data. (Fluke collec-

tion.)

ZOOLOGY .—A folliculinid associated with a hermit crab. | E. A. ANDREWS, Johns

Hopkins University, and E. G. REINHARD, Catholic University of America.

The folliculinids are a small group of

ciliated Protozoa living in colored, chitinoid

tests, scarcely visible to the naked eye and

firmly attached to various objects in all the

oceans of the world. When the animals leave

these tests to make others, the old ones

persist and are recognizable as representing

species and genera.

Hermit crabs drag about deserted snail

shells, within which their soft spirally grown

hind bodies are protected. That certain

folliculinids live attached to the soft bodies

of hermit crabs, within the shells of snails,

was observed in 1888 by Giard, in France.

He saw them as little black spots on the

hind body, near the limbs or near the end of

the hermit crab Pagurus bernhardus, then

called Hupagurus bernhardus. These specks

proved to be groups of folliculinids, which

he thought to be well placed to receive

currents of water along the hind body. The

1 Received March 26, 1943.

shape of each test was so peculiar, being

pinched in with an upper and lower part,

something like a double gourd or gourd-

shaped piece of pottery, that he made them

representatives of a new genus, Pebrilla.

No other mention of this association was

made for nearly 50 years, and then, in 1936,

Fauré-Fremiet on the coast of France found

these same folliculinids associated with the

same hermit crab, but also with another,

Clibanarius misanthropus. He found them

standing solitary or in groups of four to

seven on the hind body of the crab only, and

never upon the inside surface of the snail

shell.

Though the pinched-in shape of Pebrilla

suggests some outside force, Fremiet ob-

served the animal secreting its test in two

efforts, first the posterior part and then,

with change of shape and of secretion zone,

the anterior part, entirely from within and

with no external compulsion. This folliculi-

nid, Pebrilla paguri Giard, is known only as

Juuty 15, 1948

occurring upon the above two sorts of her-

mit crabs and as observed by the above two

naturalists.

In studying the hermit crab Pagurus

pubescens Kroyer, living in the shells of the

snails Lattorina litorea, Thais lapillus, Buc-

cinum undatum, and some others and col-

lected from shallow water in Frenchman’s

Bay, coast of Maine, between Mount

Desert Island and the mainland, one of the

authors in 1939, 1940, and 1941 observed

blackish spots, which proved to be tests of

some folliculinid, scattered over the hind

bodies of these crabs. After preliminary

study of these objects, involving the prepa-

ration of whole mounts and some serial

sections of crab abdomens, he turned over

this material together with preserved crabs

fixed in Gilson’s fluid to the senior author

for detailed investigation.

This association of folliculinid and hermit

crab proves not to be the same as observed

in France. The folliculinid is a different

species and genus, and the hermit is also a

different species from either of those men-

tioned in France. There are no records of

folliculinids on other sorts of hermit crabs,

but on one out of a dozen specimens of

Pagurus longicarpus from Woods Hole,

Mass., three or four tests of a folliculinid

were found near together on the right side

of the antepenultimate segment. These

seemed to be Lagotia viridis, which is one

of several folliculinids that. occur in that

region. It is common on algae and hydroids,

and the few found on the hermit crab may

have been stray experimenters.

Examination of a dozen Pagurus polli-

carts, also from Woods Hole, failed to reveal

any folliculinids, and P. acadianus from

Maine seems likewise free of these Protozoa.

However, on five out of six Pagurus hem-

phillt received for examination from the

U. 8S. National Museum and dredged in

Cuylers Harbor, San Miguel Island, Calif.,

in July 1939, there were folliculinids much

resembling those on Pagurus pubescens from

Maine, both in general appearance and in

distribution on the abdomen, but they

prove to be Lagotia simplex Dons as under-

stood by Fauré-Fremiet in 1936. It is not

every specimen of Pagurus pubescens from

ANDREWS AND REINHARD: A NEW FOLLICULINID

217

Maine that bears folliculinids. Fifty-five

adult females, not hosts of Peltogaster,

showed folliculinids on 39 and none on the

rest. Some of the latter were no doubt re-

cently molted crabs and accordingly could

not be expected to have attached com-

mensals. The little tests (Fig. 1) stand

fixed only to the dorsum and the sides of the

hind body and are strikingly more numerous

toward the posterior end.

Thus, dividing the abdomen into. swollen

anterior segments and the terminal part

(the latter consisting of the last segment with

uropods and telson), we found that in the

above 39 there were 89 folliculinids on the

swollen region and 237 on the terminal re-

gion.

This crowding toward the hind end, which

lies far within the spiral of the snail shell, is

just the reverse of the distribution of the

little bivalves, juvenile Mytilus edulis, that

were found abundantly attached by byssus

threads to the rough anterior free parts of

the crab, but very seldom on the hind body.

Why the folliculinids find the terminal

region of the crab’s body more suitable for

attachment than any other arouses specula-

tion. The answer, we believe, may be found

in the fact that the apices of the shells in-

habited by hermit crabs are generally

choked with organic refuse, including fecal

material, which must be a rich culture

medium for various microorganisms. Since

this is pocketed in a relatively stagnant

environment, the folliculinids on the termi-

nal portion of the crab’s abdomen seem

particularly well located to have an abun-

dance of food always at hand.

These folliculinid tests are scattered here

and there, often as solitary and quite often

as grouped individuals (Fig. 1). The groups

are made up of 2, 3, and up to 17 individuals

(Fig. 2) and suggest that the swimmers that

settle and build have some methods of re-

action to one another and are to some ex-

tent social. Like many species of folliculi-

nids, these may group themselves in de-

pressed areas of the surface, and often we

find them in aggregates along the grooves

bounding the last segment, where the

largest groups were seen (Fig. 2). Here the

swimmers must have settled about the same

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7

Fig. 1.—Dorsal view of end of abdomen of Pagurus pubescens showing distribution of about 30

folliculinid tests. Fig. 2.—Largest group of 17 folliculinids extending in groove outlining telson, all

tests connected by basal colletoderm, some built on top of others with outlines distorted from crowding.

Fig. 3.—Folliculinid with nine Pottsia infusorium parasites projecting from rear portion, and few dia-

toms in front part. Fig. 4.—Top view of folliculinid test surrounded with halo of cement. Fig. 5.—

Profile view of same specimen as Fig. 4.

Kach side line represents 100u except in Fig. 1, where it represents 1 mm. :

JuLy 15, 1943 ANDREWS AND REINHARD: A NEW FOLLICULINID 219

Fig. 6.—Dorsal view of folliculinid test distorted by pressure against setae of surface of last pleopod

of Pagurus pubescens. Contents of test reduced to scattered nuclei, chiefly. Outline suggests that of

Lagotia. Fig. 7.—Partly preserved folliculinid with wide base of attachment to test. The wide stalk

abnormally cleared of granules except at the attaching surface. Eight nucleiin view. Fig. 8.—Ventral

view of folliculinid fixed in Gilson’s liquid, showing unequal peristomial lobes, pharynx, and part of

gullet; with 11 unequal nuclear lobes and large fecal vacuole approaching small remnant already dis-

charged. Fig. 9.—Two folliculinids fixed in Gilson’s liquid in partly destroyed test, each with one

macronucleus and several micronuclei. They are the separated anterior and posterior halves of one that

divided crosswise; the one on the right retains its contact with the test and is developing unequal

lobes; the one on the left was the anterior half and is free from the test; its terminal membranella crown

is that of a free-swimmer, but there is a small protoplasmic protrusion near it. Fig. 10.—Ventral

view of folliculinid test containing two results of recent fission; the anterior part to the left has ter-

minal crown of a swimmer and 10-lobed nucleus; the posterior part, to the right, retains basal attach-

ment, has a 9-lobed nucleus and two unequal peristomial lobes, with the nascent pharynx still at the

posterior third of the body.

Each side line represents 100u. All figures (1-10) are of Platyfolliculina paguri, n. sp.

220

time and crowded as close as possible to

others, and some even settled on top of

- those already in place. Such overlying in-

dividuals show irregular outlines, since the

sides of their tests were hampered by con-

tact with the necks of the tests they sat

upon. It will be noted that the colony has a

dense center where they parked so closely

as to leave no vacant spaces, just as is the

habit of Metafolliculina andrews.

These tests show no common orientation;

even in closely crowded groups the mem-

bers that stand side by side have axes in

various directions. Each test is a very flat

simple flask with short neck, and it is sur-

rounded by a halo of cement that fastens

it to the surface of the crab (Figs. 4, 5).

When two or more settle near together the

cement of all binds them together by a flat

membrane called colletoderm by Wright in

1859. Peeling this from the crab removes a

group as one mass.

It is notable that many of these tests are

empty, so that good specimens of the ani-

mal are not readily found. One group of ten

had eight empty. To be sure, it is known

that folliculinids may swim away and leave

empty tests, but here we find evidences of

death of the animal, such as remnants of

protoplasm with groups of nuclei (Fig. 6).

That some of the many empty tests may be

the results of attacks by parasites is sug-

gested by facts to be presented later on in

this paper.

Proceeding now to a detailed description

of these folliculinids associated with Pagurus

pubescens, we consider first the test and then

the animal, not observed in life.

By reflected light the tests are soot-black,

but by transmitted light pale green. Each

is a flat, wide sac with insignificant neck

that lacks a special collar at its mouth. The

floor of the sac is quite flat and the roof but

slightly arched. The sac adheres by a thin

layer of cement under its floor and extend-

ing 20—50y as a halo around the floor of the

sac. The underlying cement may rise up

posteriorly to the top of the sac roof. The

short simple neck has a thin wall, while the

sac seems to have a thick wall, but this is

the optical effect of the curvature of the

sides, which in a horizontal distance of 5-6u

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

descend 25-30y, the top and bottom views

suggesting outer and inner boundaries of —

the wall. That is, where the greatest diame-

ter of the sac is 125u the diameter of the

floor is 115u—the overhanging sides simu-

lating a thick wall.

As the sac is so flat, top and bottom views

are readily seen but profiles scarcely ever. -

In bottom views the sharp line of junction

of side and floor is strixing. Actual longi-

tudinal sections of the test give the appear-

ance of a test tube with blunt bottom and

upturned mouth end. The material of the

test looks homogeneous except that in the

cement and sometimes in the walls of the

neck there are minute particles, some of

which are the original subpellicular granules

(protrichocysts of Klein) discharged and

more or less swollen and fused to make all

the test and cement.

The flimsy necks show various lengths

and angles of rise from the floor of the sac,

but as side views are rarely seen the meas-

urements of neck length are not exact.

Views down the neck sometimes suggest

valves, but none was demonstrated. Rarely

is the thin mouth edge thickened slightly

as a Ou rim.

The range in size in 25 measured tests is

as follows:

Potellencth es. ee 188-238

Saclengthss. 46 47 eee 138-188

Neck length.c scien seer 35-75

Dac. widths ss ohne See negra 90-150

Neck wwidith oie 5 ar es 38-60

Mouthiwidthia see eee 30-63

As estimated by focusing, the depth of the

sac is often but 25yu and rarely 50u, while in

paraffin sections it was measured as 25, 28,

35, and 38n.

The tests are not so strictly symmetrical

as in many other folliculinids, and there are

some monstrosities. One had a neck from

a sac of 125u length extended to a total

length of 113u. This resulted from the fact

that its first portion of 50u length was fol-

lowed by a secondary extension of 63. off

at a large angle.

Straight. extensions of necks are common

in some folliculinids. The sides of the sac are

not infrequently indented, and usually this

has arisen from resistance of.setae on the

Juny 15, 1943

shell of the hermit crab, or from necks of

other tests, as in Fig. 2. When, as in Fig.

6, the swimmer settled between setae too

near together its test was distorted on op-

posite sides so as to somewhat suggest the

pinched-in form of Pebrilla paguri found on

hermit crabs in France.

Knowledge of the animal within the test

is hampered by effects of parasitism and

methods of fixation of the crabs. Though

one remnant had a length of 250u, most

were strongly contracted down into the

sac with the peristomial lobes but poorly

preserved. The left lobe was considerably

bulkier than the right. What was seen of the

pharynx was not deep and possessed few

spirals.

Nuclei appear clear in dead remnants and

as dark-stained spherules after borax-

carmine or haematoxylin. Generally 9, but

up to 13 in number, are present. Rarely

seen connected, they are of unequal mass,

5-15u in diameter. Each nuclear lobe is

closely surrounded by a layer of granules.

Accompanying these macronuclei were

sometimes darkly staining unequal spher-

ules about 1—2y in diameter and deemed to

be micronuclei. Longitudinal pigment bands

were counted as 30-35 in dorsal view. Food

vacuoles were seen and some diatoms within

the protoplasm, anteriorly; also fecal vacu-

oles. What is of import is that where the

animal had not been separated from the

sac it was attached posteriorly by a broad

base, 25—45u wide (Fig. 7).

Seeking a name for this folliculinid as-

sociating with Pagurus pubescens, we find

that its multiple nucleus places it in the

Eufolliculininae where its wide flat sac,

short neck, and broad base of attachment of

the animal bring it near to what Hadzi, in

1938, called Platyfolliculina sahrhageana.

Hadzi found in the Adriatic two unde-

scribed forms in the subfamily Semifollicu-

lininae with broad bases of attachment;

thinking this important he worked over the

illustrations given in 1917 by Sahrhage

when describing division in what he thought

Folliculina ampulla (a name applied to

many different species). Hadzi concluded

that Sahrhage’s illustrations should be

taken as representative of a new genus,

ANDREWS AND REINHARD: A NEW FOLLICULINID

221

Platyfolliculina, to be called P. sahrhageana.

He estimates the dimensions to be:

Total length of test......... 1387-237

Breadtheol Sac: 22 ee 91-109

Breadthvof neckties. os542 2 34-50

The extended animal was 243-250 by about

30 but when retracted 85-132 by 59-33un.

The macronuclei were generally six in

number and up to 17y in diameter; and the

micronuclei up to five in number.

Sahrhage’s species came from algae and

piles in Kiel Harbor, but ours on Pagurus

pubescens has much resemblance to it.

Moreover, in one of these crabs fixed in

Gilson’s liquid, two tests were found con-

taining stages soon after division, as de-

scribed by Sahrhage.

In the first (Fig. 9) two animals occur

side by side, each with one macro- and

several micronuclei. This is evidently a

stage immediately after the moniliform

nucleus condensed into a rod that divided

into anterior and posterior halves, as the

protoplasm pinched in ventrally to separate

an anterior from a posterior half. Of these

the posterior stands attached, while the

anterior has slipped down along the side of

the posterior half and stands beside it and

free.

In the later stage (Fig. 10) the macro-

nuclei have increased to the normal number

while the original anterior half still remains

alongside the posterior half preparatory to

swimming free; the posterior half, on the

right of the illustration, is perfecting its

unequal membranella-bearing lobes, though

as yet the opening of the infundibulum is

far back in the posterior third of the animal

and will need to be brought forward to

function. In general, as here, the ontogeny

of any folliculinid starts as a rodlike form,

I, then this splits deep to form almost a J,

and later elongates the stalk to fashion a —

Y-form the arms of which are of different

lengths in different species and in different

phases.

Provisionally, we assign this folliculinid

on Pagurus pubescens to the genus Platy-

folliculina, but as the nuclei are more nu-

merous, the necks longer, and the sacs wider

than in P. sahrhageana it seems to belong

222

to a new species here named Platyfolliculina

paguri.

These platyfolliculinids associated with

Pagurus pubescens live well protected in the

restricted, dark spaces of the snail shell, yet

as they multiply there it is evident that ade-

quate food is present for them and for other

ciliates also residing there, such as the large

branched colonies of vorticellids and up-

standing tube dwellers seen in 7y sections as

45u long Cothurnza.

When the animals are present in their

tests they frequently bear at the posterior

part (Fig. 3) several spheroidal protrusions,

4—30yu in diameter, each with a large nucleus

4—-10u wide and often also with a smaller

embryo cavity 2—5y wide, external to the

nucleus.

That these projecting cells are actually

parasites fastened to the folliculinid is cer-

tain when they are compared with the re-

sults of Chatton and Lwoff, who in 1927

described a new and remarkable suctorian

that lives as parasite upon two species of

folliculinids and two species of vorticellids. .

When mature these parasites project just as

in the folliculinids we find upon Pagurus

pubescens.

These authors, in 1924, found that Fol-

liculina ampulla was badly infested with

these parasites in the aquaria at Monaco,

while the rare F. elegans had none. Also

Folliculina ampulla brought from Samoa

and from Woods Hole, Mass., by F. A.

Potts, lecturer at Cambridge, showed these

parasites. These suctoria, named Potisia

infusorium, are peculiar in the group of

acinetans in that the embryo released from

the cavity of the adult in which it was

formed by budding has three bands of loco-

motor cilia as well as terminal sucking tubes

by which it anchors itself to the body of the

folliculinid and grows to maximum size

by drawing out liquid from the host. As

many as 22 were seen on one folliculinid,

and these authors think that greater num-

bers kill the host folliculinid, after which

they gradually perish within the host’s test.

This may account for the many emptied

tests seen on Pagurus pubescens.

Finding Potisia infusorium as parasite on

these folliculinid associates of the hermit,

Pagurus pubescens, thus adds Maine to

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

their previously recorded geographical dis-

tribution, Samoa, Monaco, and Woods

Hole, and also adds to the previously re-

corded hosts they attack, i.e., Folliculina

ampulla, F. elegans, Cothurnia ingenita, and

C. socialis, this folliculinid on Pagurus

pubescens. Moreover, this same parasite was

seen on a few Parafolliculina amphora and

Metafolliculina andrewsi in September, 1941;

on the west shore of the Chesapeake Bay,

north of Baltimore.

In passing, we note that Chatton and

Lwoff previously discovered a flagellated

organism, Sporomonas infusorium, living as

a parasite in Folliculina elegans, as well as

in Vorticella, in the aquaria at Banyuls and

in F’. ampulla from Woods Hole. In the fol-

liculinid this Sporomonas infusorium grows

to be a mass of 70 diameter before it

escapes from the folliculinid to sporulate

inside the test.

The folliculinid these authors call PF.

ampulla is a multinucleate form with long

spirally reinforced neck and may well be

what Hadzi later called Metafolliculina

andrews.

Whether Platyfolliculina paguri occurs

also in other habitats remains to be found

out. It is not the only folliculinid in this

habitat, for on one specimen of Pagurus

pubescens there were found two long,

slender folliculinids of some other kind. One

was fast to the right side of the fourth seg-

ment of the hind body, pointing downward,

and the other was well protected on the

chela closely surrounded by heavy conical

spines. These two seem to represent some

undescribed form.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CuHaTTon, Epwarp, and Lworr, A. Sur un

flagellé hypotrophique et palintomique para-

site des infusoires marins: Sporomonas in-

fusorilum n. gen. n. sp. Compt. Rend.

Soc. Biol. 91: 180-190. 1924.

Pottsia infusorium n. gen. n. sp.:

Acinétien parasite des folliculines et des

cothurnies. Bull. Inst. Océanogr. Monaco

489. 1927.

Dons, Cari. Neue und wenig bekannte Pro-.

tozoa. Norske Vid. Selsk. Skrift. 1927

(CORMIESIEE OVA

FavuRE-FREMIET, E. Division et morphogenése

chez Folliculina ampulla O. F. Miller.

Bull. Biol. France-Belgique 66: 77-110.

1932.

yuny 15; 1943

La famille des Folliculinidae (In-

fusoria Heterotricha). Mém. Mus. Hist.

Nat. Belgique, ser. 2, fasc. 3: 1129-1175.

1936.

Giarp, A. Fragments biologiques. Sur_ les

genres Folliculina et Pebrilla. Bull. Biol.

France-Belgique 19: 310-317. 1888.

Hapzi, J. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der adria-

tischen Folliculiniden (Inf. Heterotricha).

I. Subfamilie: Eufolliculininae. Acta Ad-

riatica Inst. Oceanogr. Split (Jugoslavija)

11: 1-46. 1938.

Kau, A. Urtiere oder Protozoa. Die Tier-

ZOOLOGY.—On a species of pycnogonid from the North Pacific.'

(Communicated by CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. )

HEDGPETH.

The species of pycnogonid here described is

based on specimens named and designated as

types by the late Dr. Louis Giltay, and de-

posited as such in the United States National

Museum. After this paper was submitted for

printing, Dr. William A. Hilton published pre-

liminary diagnoses of some new species in Co-

lossendeis, the genus concerned, including one

under the same name.” Although the diagnosis

is vague, and incorrect in one detail (“‘ocular

tubercle . . . not pointed,” p. 3), the specimens

consulted undoubtedly are the same species

and were evidently labeled by Dr. Giltay. As it

may be many years before descriptions and

figures of these numerous preliminary species

are published, I have deemed it wise to proceed

with this paper in order to clarify the status of

at least one of these species. Inasmuch as all

the material examined appears to have been

labeled by Dr. Giltay, his type designation,

supported by the description and figure herein,

should not be abandoned in favor of that in a

brief diagnosis. Although it is impossible, of

course, to credit Dr. Giltay with the author-

ship of this species, it is unfortunate that his

label name was not acknowledged in the pre-

liminary diagnosis. The type specimens were

taken by the U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries steamer

Albatross.

Genus Colossendeis Jarschinsky

Colossendeis tenera Hilton?

Holotype.—Male; Albatross station 3346,

44°31’ N., 124°52’ W., 786 fathoms, September

22, 1890.

1 Received March 30, 1943.

* Hinton, W. A. Pycnogonids from the Pacific.

Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool. 35 (1): 2-4. 1943.

HEDGPETH: A PYCNOGONID FROM THE NORTH PACIFIC

223

welt Deutschlands, pt. 25. Jena, 1932.

Mosius, K. Das Flaschentierchen, Folliculina

ampulla. Abh. Nat. Wiss. Hamburg 10:

1-15. 1887.

Mtuumr, O. F. Animalcula infusoria fluvia-

tilua et marina. MHavniae, 1786.

SAHRHAGE, H. Uber die Organisation und den

Tetlungsvorgang des Flaschentierchens (Fol-

liculina ampulla). Arch. fiir Protistenk.

37: 39-171. 1917.

Wricut, 8. Description of new Protozoa.

Edinburgh New Philos. Journ., new ser.,

10: 97-101, pl. 7. 1859.

JOEL W.

Paratypes.—Male; Albatross station 3074,

47°22/00"" N., 125°48/30" W., 877 fathoms,

June 29, 1889. Three females; Albatross station

2859, 55°20’ N., 136°20’ W., 1,569 fathoms,

August 29, 1888.

Description.—Trunk slender, unsegmented,

lateral processes separated by spaces somewhat

narrower than their own diameter, except the

posterior pair, which appears to be more widely

separated than the preceding pairs. The eye

tubercle is very high, narrowly conical, and

tapers to a small blunt point. The eyes are

basal, large, but indistinctly pigmented. The

anterior pair is larger than the posterior.

Proboscis slender, straight, slightly dilated

near the distal third and slightly expanded at

the tip. It is markedly longer than the trunk.

Palpus covered with minute setae, especially

the distal joints. Basal joint much broader than

long; second joint straight, sticklike; third

joint not much longer than wide, slightly

curved; fourth joint little more than half as

long as second; fifth joint shorter than sixth;

seventh shorter than wide; eighth about three

times as long as seventh; ninth joint slightly

longer than eighth.

Abdomen papilliform, directed upward at an

angle and longer than the last lateral processes.

Oviger: First and second joints subequal;

third joint about half again as long as first;

fourth and sixth long, nearly straight, subequal,

or sixth slightly longer than fourth in the male;

fifth joint about half as long as fourth. Ter-

minal segments diminishing in length distally,

with 7 to 10 flat, finely denticulated spines in

the largest rows. Terminal claw heavy, curved,

about four times as long as basal width.

Third leg: Coxae subequal. Femur slightly

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7

longer than first tibia, which is slightly longer MEASUREMENTS

than the second tibia. Tarsus longer than pro- sia oie! Paratype, 2

podus, terminal claw longer than propodus but eg ES ee ay namie a ees oe mc

not as lone as tarsus) ‘Whe legs! areystraieht, “Casnalceerment a meeee 1.8 1.9

slender, and without marked swellings or pro- Width,secondlateralprocess 3.0 3.0

eaeranices Abdomen tcdc schon 0.8 1.0

; be : IDK WHOS Oso55cc0c0nsuee x (tip broken) 2.0

Remarks——This species resembles Colos- Third leg:

sendeis angusta in size and general appearance, First coxa............ 1.0 1.0

: : Second coxa........... 1.5 1.25

but it can readily be separated from that spe- oper ap Lod ate ve

cies by its much longer proboscis. The eye emiirey ee Aco 18.0 20.0

tubercle is much higher (although in most First tibia. ........... 15.0 17.0

j HIG dart he Grae Petouneud d Second tibia.......... 11.0 11.5

specimens 18 18 € ats par 0 ge aMage ) MP ATSUS Hele ies eoeienc eet ene 4.75 4.0

and eyes are present. It is also similar to Colos- | Propodus............. 3.5 3.0

sendeis megalonyx but differs from both C. _ Were hig. coszanss a

‘ Oviger:

megalonyx and C. angusta in the character of Besa LE 1.5 vil

the denticulate spines on the oviger. Colos- Hourthyyoue cry eee 8.0 9.0

c : IMIR YOUNEs caoao0nscccn 3.0 4.0

sendeis tenera appears to be a North Pacific Sone eee 56 a0

basin species; all known localities are off the

northwestern United States.

Terminal joints coiled, not measured.

Fig. 1—Colossendeis tenera Hilton, drawn from paratypes in the U. 8. National Museum: a, Dorsal

view of paratype, <7; b, sketch of cephalic region of paratype; c, terminal joints of leg of paratype, 9 ;

d, palpus of paratype, 2; e, terminal joints of oviger of paratype, o, with denticulate spine from sev-

enth segment.

All drawings except b and denticulate spine made with the aid of a camera lucida.

EntomoLogy.—New species of flies of the genera Baccha :

prosopa (Syrphidae). F. M. uit. . PEA INC i

ZOOLOGY. —A falkculnde aekocintad with : a hermit crab.

DREWS AND E. G. REINHARD. 000 cua" bid 4

netes ) } ‘

C u nes VA, :

-ZooLtogy.—On a species of pyenogonid : from the North

W. HepGhere coke he

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

GEOCHEMISTRY.—Clays and soils in relation to geologic processes.)

S. Ross, U. 8. Geological Survey.

The importance of clays and soils can

hardly be overemphasized, for no materials

play a wider and more varied role in geo-

logic processes than do the clays and related

minerals. These have in the past been so

little understood, indeed were long looked

upon as such hopeless materials, that geolo-

gists tended to avoid the problems on which

they had a bearing and missed much of the

information that they were capable of giv-

ing after intensive study. However, ad-

vances in the knowledge of clays and the

development of efficient techniques for

studying clay and soil materials have

already contributed to this branch of geol-

ogy, and the way has been opened for new

advances. This paper presents and illus-

trates by specific studies certain geologic

problems on which clay and soil materials

have a bearing—problems some of which

have been clarified in the course of mineral-

ogic research and others on which tentative

conclusions have been reached.

During the meetings of the First Inter-

national Soil Congress in Washington in

1927, soil mineralogy was an almost totally

neglected subject, but interest began to

grow almost immediately afterward. How-

ever, the writer presented at these meetings

a paper that was based on studies in the

laboratories of the United States Geological

Survey in which it was pointed out that

many soils are characterized by minerals of

the montmorillonite group. These studies

1 Address of the retiring President of the Geo-

logical Society of Washington delivered at the

611th meeting of the Society on December 9,

1942. Published by permission of the Acting Di-

rector of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received

April 8, 1943.

Avueust 15, 1943

No. 8

CLARENCE

have since been carried forward in collabo-

ration with others, including Sterling B.

Hendricks, of the U. S. Department of

Agriculture. Contributions have come from

many sources in this and other countries.

Some of those making noteworthy contribu-

tions are Paul F. Kerr, of Columbia Uni-

versity; John Gruner, of Minnesota; W. P.

Kelley and associates, of California; Grim

and associates, of the Illinois Survey; C. E.

Marshall, of Leeds, England, but more re-

cently of the University of Missouri; Har-

rison and Hardy, of the Imperial College of

Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad; Nagel-

schmidt, of Rothemstead; Hofmann and his

associates, in Germany; Edelman and Noll,

of Germany; and Favejee, in Holland.

Work remains to be done on the mineral-

ogy of clays, but the studies have progressed

until we have a fairly adequate knowledge

of the minerals involved, their compositions,

and their physical properties. The full de-

tails of clay mineralogy are unnecessary

here, but a few of the minerals whose

properties have a bearing on geologic rela-

tionships may be briefly mentioned.

Three main groups of minerals are found

among the clay minerals: the kaolinite

group, the montmorillonite group, and the

group variously called hydrous mica,

bravaisite, or illite. All have a platy or

micaceous structure. Kaolinite and halloy-

site are the only minerals of the kaolinite

group that are known to be present in soils,

but dickite occurs in hydrothermal deposits.

These three minerals differ in the arrange-

ment of the lattice sheets but not in chemi-

cal composition, and have the following

common chemical formula:

225

226

Kaolinite

Halloysite

Dickite

Al.Si20;(O H)4

This formula indicates that kaolinite is

characterized by a high alumina-silica ratio.

The valency is completely balanced within

the crystal structure, and hence no balanc-

ing ions (exchangeable bases) are present.

There is little or no tendency for iron, mag-

nesium, or other ions to proxy aluminum in

the crystal structure. Kaolinite appears to

be the stablest of the clay minerals.

The members of the montmorillonite

group, typically developed in bentonite,

have an extremely wide range in chemical

composition. Clays are commonly assumed

to be essentially hydrous aluminum sili-

cates, and yet within this single group ferric

iron, magnesium, and even chromium may

proxy aluminum in part or even completely,

and a wide variety of ions, including lithium,

ferrous iron, manganese, and nickel, may

be present in minor amounts. Ions with a

valency of 1, 2, or 3 may take the place of

trivalent aluminum, and aluminum may

take the place of at least one silicon ion out

of four, thus playing two distinct roles in

the crystal structure. The substitution of

even small amounts of bivalent magnesium

for trivalent aluminum, and of trivalent

aluminum for tetravalent silicon, results in

a valency deficiency within the crystal lat-

tice. This deficiency is compensated by ions

that are held between the crystal sheets and

are the so-called exchangeable bases; that

is, members of the montmorillonite group

are characterized by the presence of cations

which may be exchanged for other cations

on treatment with water or other solvent

carrying the second cation. The position of

these cations between the crystal sheets

permits base exchange without affecting the

crystal structure of the clay. This stochio-

metric exchange of cation for cation dis-

tinguishes base exchange from adsorption,

although the two are commonly confused.

These bases are associated with the inter-

layer water (the water film present between

each molecular sheet), the association that

gives bentonites and related clays their pe-

culiar physical properties.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

Experimentally, almost any base or

hydrogen may be exchanged for bases oc-

curring naturally. Those occurring most

widely are calcium, which is almost com-

pletely exchangeable, and sodium, which is

usually exchangeable but not always com-

pletely so. Small amounts of potassium,

magnesium, and even aluminum may be re-

placeable, as is hydrogen, which gives the

clay an acid reaction. These ions differ

greatly in their relative ease of replacement,

which is represented by the following series:

Lli<Na<H<K <Mg<Ca

This relation indicates the reason for the

preferential fixation of calcium in most

montmorillonite even in the presence of

sodium.

The dominance of replaceable calcium

provides a readily available source of that

element in soils characterized by montmoril-

lonite minerals. The preferential fixation of

calcium also has a particularly favorable

effect on soil texture in that it promotes

flacculation, whereas sodium tends to bring

about extreme colloidal dispersion.

In the formulas below, the ions occupying

octahedral positions within the crystal

structure (those proxying aluminum) are

grouped together within the first paren-

theses. Silicon, which occupies tetrahedral

positions, follows and is also enclosed in

parentheses if partly proxied by aluminum.

The component ions are expressed as deci-

mal fractions where necessary in order to

keep the total of those in tetrahedral posi-

tions at the constant value of 4, making all

the formulas directly comparable. The re-

placeable ion is placed above the ion that it

balances, the two being connected by an

arrow. A discussion of minerals of the mont-

morillonite group may be preceded by dis-

cussions of pyrophyllite and tale, two

minerals related to the clay minerals, al-

though differing markedly in physical prop-

erties. Their formulas are as follows:

Pyrophyllite (Ale) - (Sis) - O10: (OH) 2

Tale (Megs) - (Sis) - O10" (OH) 2

The chemical formulas quoted below will

serve to illustrate the relations within the -

montmorillonite group, although they are

not intended to represent the ranges in

Ave. 15, 1943

composition fully. Complete representation

would require at least eight formulas to-

gether with rather detailed discussions, but

those included will illustrate geologic rela-

tionships. In pyrophyllite and talc there are

no appreciable substitutions of the other

ions for Al or Mg or of Al for Si; the valency

is completely balanced within the crystal

structure, and these minerals, like kaolinite,

show little or no base exchange.

Two minerals of the montmorillonite

group showing characteristic substitution

of ions are

Nay.33

Montmorillonite (Ali.s¢;Mgo.33) (Sis)O10(OH)»

Nao.33

Hectorite (Mgo.67Lio.33) S Siu y Oro A (OH,F).

The foregoing formula of montmoril-

lonite differs from that of pyrophyllite in

that 1 Al ion out of six is being proxied by

Mg. The valence deficiency that has been

introduced into the crystal lattice by this

substitution of a bivalent for a trivalent

ion is balanced by Na, which is situated

between the sheets. In the formulas this re-

placeable base is given as Na, but it is com-

monly Ca, plus small amounts of other

bases. The montmorillonite represented

here, if containing in addition the normal

content of interlayer water, differs from

pyrophyllite only in containing about 3.23

percent of MgO and 2.55 of Na,O. This

small change in composition has introduced

the property of base exchange, and the

interlayer water that brings about the

markedly different physical properties of

these minerals.

The relations between hectorite and tale

are similar to those between montmoril-

lonite and pyrophyllite. The substitution of

about 1 percent of univalent Li for bivalent

Mg, together with the Na required for

balancing the valency, has again made the

difference between tale and hectorite with

remarkably complete colloidal dispersion.

The clays of the montmorillonite group

in which Al proxies Si in essential amounts

have been called beidellite. The formula

given below represents closely the clay from

the type locality, Beidell, Colo.:

ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS

Par

Cao.1¢

Beidellite (Ali 4sFe.soMg.os) (Alo.s6Sis.64)O10(0H)>2

Here ferric iron and a small amount of Mg

take the place of part of the Al, so this

formula is more repesentative of soil-form-

ing members of the group than other formu-

las presented. The exchangeable base is

represented as Ca rather than Na, and the

ions in octahedral positions exceed 2 by a

small amount.

Formulas representing two other mem-

bers of the group are given below:

Nao.33

Saponite (Mgs) (Alo.ssSis.67)O10(O0H)2

Nao.ss

Nontronite (Fes 0) (Alo.ssSis.¢7)O10(OH)>

In both of these formulas Si is being proxied

by Al and is balanced by Na between the

lattice sheets.

Within the same crystal structure there

may be substitutions of other ions for Al in

the octahedral group, and also of Al for Si

in the tetrahedral group. Where the triva-

lent ions, Alt* and Fet, are dominant in the

octahedral group, the number of ions in

that group is close to 2 but may exceed that

number slightly, and where bivalent ions

such as Mg are dominant, their number is

close to 3 but can not exceed that number.

Three octahedral positions are available but

are not necessarily all occupied. In none of

these formulas has the highly variable water

been included; it would, if necessary, be

represented by (+nH,0).

The members of the bravaisite group re-

quire further study, but they are known to

be widely distributed. They have a rela-

tively small base-exchange capacity, and in

some of their properties are intermediate

between micas and montmorillonite. In the

micas and bravaisite the potassium lies

between the crystal sheets, forming bonds

that tie sheet to sheet, and hence is locked

in a nonexchangeable position, in contrast

with the exchangeable bases of montmoril-

lonite, which are held on only a single sur-

face in a manner that permits their ready

displacement.

The bravaisite type of mica is not well

228

enough known to justify more than a gen-

eral formula to represent its range of com-

position, but its relation to the true micas

can be represented as follows:

Muscovite K(Al2) (AISis)O10(0H).

Bravaisite =. (Al, Fet?, Mg)o(Al, 81)4010(0H)2

Fe and Mg are present in subordinate

amounts in bravaisite but are commonly

present in greater amounts than in true

muscovite. The K has been represented as

‘one-half of that in micas, but it may range

down almost to zero. A typical formula for

_ bravaisite would be

+3 f

Bravaisite = (Alt. 65F'€0.15M go.30) (Alo.50Si3.50) O10(0H)2

An unusual clay mineral, but one forming

extensive deposits of fullers earth in the

Florida-Georgia region, has been called

altapulgite. This is characterized by a fi-

brous rather than a platy structure andseems

to be related to the so-called mountain

leather (paligorskite). The seemingly very

specialized conditions that produced so un-

usual a sedimentary material present a real

problem, but the high content of magnesium

tells something of the genetic environment.

The opallike, noncrystalline clay material

known as allophane may be present in some

soils. :

A few of the physical and chemical fac-

tors that are most important in controlling

clay formation should be mentioned. The

alteration of any parent material to a clay

or soil aggregate takes place in a physical-

chemical system whose varied factors,

taken one at a time, are approximately

known. There are, of course, many varying

sets of conditions that may dominate the

development of a clay material, but in

general it is the combined effect of difficultly

evaluated interrelationships, more than the

unknown effect of any one factor, that in-

troduces the complexity that characterizes

many clay problems.

In reality there is only one fundamental

factor in clay formation—the chemical

character of the reacting system. This may

be divided into two secondary factors: the

chemical character of the parent material

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

and the chemical character of the altering

solutions. These factors will be most con-

veniently illustrated by specific studies to

be mentioned later. The other factors are

complex and varied but serve only to im-

pede or accelerate reactions in the system.

Varying physical conditions such as perme-

ability affect the access of solutions and

hence the rate, but not the final character,

of the reaction. Time is a factor only in that

it permits reactions that proceed with ex-

treme slowness.

Organic materials have a marked effect

on soil texture, water retention, and fertility,

but the chemical effects are in general due

to their reducing action (essentially the re-

duction of ferric to ferrous iron) and to the

solution and removal of bases by organic

acids. In humid and especially in cool humid

climates, and in swamps where peaty and

lignitic materials collect, the effect of or-

ganic materials is a dominant factor; in

desert regions, or where there is rapid oxida-

tion of organic materials, their effect may

be small or absent.

Living organisms play an important role

in soil processes, some of them modifying

physical relations, as when they facilitate

the access of air or water to the system.

Bacteria and other micro-organisms play a

very important role, and their use of such

materials as oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphates

contributes chemical factors to the soil- or

clay-forming system.

The mineralogic, chemical, and physical

processes discussed above provide a basis for

a general outline of the manner in which

they interact to form the three different

groups of clay minerals—montmorillonite,

bravaisite, and kaolinite.

The four distinctive relationships of mem-

bers of the montmorillonite group may be

restated: the essential role of magnesium in

the chemical composition, the entry of iron

in all proportions into the crystal structure,

the replaceable bases, and the interlayer

water between each molecular sheet. Mont-

morillonite and other members of the group

have been synthesized in the presence of

alkalies and alkaline earths, but montmoril-

lonite has been formed under the widest

range of conditions in the presence of mag-

Ave. 15, 1943

nesium. Other work indicates that alkaline

conditions may not be absolutely necessary,

especially if magnesium is present, but

montmorillonite probably does not form

under acid conditions.

Experimental evidence does not cover the

effect of other bases, but chemical composi-

tion and conditions of formation indicate

their effect rather clearly. Ferric iron enters

the crystal structure of members of the

montmorillonite group but forms no part of

the kaolinite structure; hence the presence

of ferric iron in the clay-forming system

favors the formation of montmorillonite.

Ferrous iron plays the same role as mag-

nesium in silicate minerals, so it too would

tend to favor the formation of montmoril-

lonite. Even where little or no ferrous iron

enters the crystal structure, its mere pres-

‘ence, owing to its higher solubility, would

increase the availability of iron in the clay-

forming system. The presence of organic

materials in association with suitable bac-

teria gives reducing conditions, and, there-

fore, reduction or even the absence of active

oxidation, would tend to favor the forma-

tion of montmorillonite. The lithium of

hectorite would exert the same effect as

magnesium. Other bases including calcium

and sodium tend to give alkaline conditions

and in this way promote the formation of

montmorillonite.

Chemical composition, experiments on

synthesis, and the interrelations of ions as

revealed by X-ray studies of crystal struc-

ture, combine to explain the tendency for

solid rock and detrital materials rich in

ferromagnesian minerals and calcic feld-

spars, to alter to montmorillonite.

The soils of the Piedmont region are

under investigation by L. T. Alexander and

associates of the Department of Agriculture,

and some of the interpretations by S. B.

Hendricks of the relations between parent

rock and the resulting clay minerals are

about to be published. This interpretation

shows that the soils derived from Triassic

diabase are in general composed essentially

of montmorillonite, whereas some of the

other ferromagnesian rocks of the region

under similar physical and climatic condi-

tions have weathered to kaolinitic soils. It

ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS

229

seems evident that in the diabase the ferro-

magnesian minerals and feldspar break

down together, releasing iron (part of it

ferrous), magnesium, alumina, and silica,

giving conditions favorable for the forma-

tion of montmorillonite or beidellite. In these

other rocks the ferromagnesian minerals

break down first, the magnesium is re-

moved by solution, and the iron is either

removed or is altered to oxides. The feld-

spars break down later, and in the absence

of magnesium, and with the iron absent or

effectively isolated from reaction by oxida-

tion, kaolinite forms.

The alteration of basaltic rocks to mont-

morillonite under suitable conditions has

been described by Hosking (1940), who has

made a study of the origin of a group of

Australian soils. According to him, ‘‘It is

evident that granite types of parent ma-

terial will weather to kaolinite or halloysite

under a very wide range of climatic condi-

tions ... In the case of basaltic soils, the

internal moisture conditions ... appear to

play an important part in determining the

mineral clay type formed ... The first two

profiles (developed on basalts) are charac-

terized by good drainage conditions, allow-

ing of complete oxidation, whereas the third

is subject to a certain degree of water-

logging. The soils with good internal drain-

age, whether formed on granite or basic

rock, are both characterized by a clay

mineral of the kaolinitic type... In the

clay where waterlogging is apparent and

free oxidation restricted, montmorillonite

is formed to the exclusion of kaolinite. The

absence of crystalline iron (oxide) minerals,

despite the high content of iron in the clay

is undoubtedly due to the restriction in

oxidizing conditions, a fact reflected in the

greenish color of the clay.”

Glacial materials are composed of feld-

spars, other aluminous and ferromagnesian

silicates together with sedimentary ma-

terials derived from calcareous beds, shales,

and sandstones. On weathering aluminum,

silicon, iron, magnesium, calcium, and alka-

lies are released and a chemical system

favorable for the development of mont-

morillonite is formed.

Lamar, Grim, and Grogan (1938) give

230

the following description of the soils formed

from glacial materials: ‘‘Gumbotil is de-

rived from glacial till by weathering...

Gumbotil does not occur on glacial drift as

young as the Wisconsin drift, but is com-

mon on the older drifts—the Illinoian,

Kansan, and Nebraskan. It formed under

conditions of poor drainage usually just

below the soil layer over broad, flat upland

tracts ... The conversion of till to gumbo-

til in nature involves oxidation, leaching of

carbonates, and chemical decomposition of

the silicate materials... The original till

contained large amounts of clay minerals of

the illite group and in general the processes

of weathering have tended to remove alkali,

particularly potassium, and to alter the

illite minerals to those of the montmoril-

lonite group.”

Bentonites, whose essential mineral is

montmorillonite, have a world-wide distri-

bution and show no observable relation to

climatic zones. Their derivation from glassy

voleanic ash has long been established and

needs no discussion. This ash seems to have

fallen on land, in fresh-water lakes, in saline

lakes, and in marine embayments. The fail-

ure to show a clear mineralogical relation-

ship to these various environments is not

easily explained, but perhaps leaching was

in some places a subsequent process brought

about by ground water after burial. Such

a genetic environment has been indicated by

the work of Bramlette on the bentonites in

the Monterey shales of California.

The exact composition of the volcanic

glass from which bentonite was derived is

known for only a few occurrences, but the

associated minerals show that it was most

commonly the latite type of rock—that is,

essentially a feldspathic rock. More rarely

it was rhyolitic. In a few occurrences the re-

sulting bentonite is known to be higher in

magnesium than the glass from which it

was derived, indicating that magnesium

was derived from magnesium-bearing ma-

rine or ground waters. Marine waters are

slightly alkaline and ground waters are

alkaline or neutral.

The need for more detailed information

about the mineralogic relations of the

bravaisite group has been mentioned, and

the same is true of their geologic relations.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCHS

VOL. 33, NO. 8

Minerals of this group are dominant ma-

terials in marine shales, and in soils derived

from such shales. Over wide areas, especially

in the east-central United States, they are

major soil-forming materials.

The Ordovician of the eastern half of the

United States contains bentonitic beds that

are characterized by a clay mineral of the

bravaisite type; it therefore differs from the

more normal montmorillonite type of bento-

nite. So far as known, this type of bentonite

is confined to the Ordovician, a restriction

in occurrence that has not been explained.

The wide distribution—from Georgian Bay,

Canada, on the north to Alabama on the

south, and from Pennsylvania on the east

to Minnesota and Missouri on the west—is

one of its interesting features. Over these

wide areas, the bravaisite bentonites con-

tain over 5 percent of potash, or about one-

half of that of muscovite.

Some, if not all, of the Ordovician bento-

nites represent marine deposits, and it seems

probable that these, like the marine shales,

derived their potash from ocean waters.

However, some of the montmorillonite

bentonites that are essentially potash-free

contain marine fossils and must have formed

in marine embayments, although we do not

know that leaching took place in the pres-

ence of ocean waters.

Geologists have long known that where

potassium in solution in river, ocean, or

saline lake comes in contact with clay ma-

terials there is a preferential fixation of po-

tassium. Potassium salts are commonly

minor constituents of such waters and

sodium salts are dominant, even where the

two were originally supplied in nearly equal

amounts. Spencer and Murata in an unpub-

lished paper have shown that preferential

adsorption of potassium from sea water is

not an adequate explanation of this rela-

tionship.

The gradual inversion of montmorillonite

to bravaisite or micalike minerals seems to

offer an explanation of this preferential fix-

ation of potassium and the dominance of

potassium minerals in marine deposits. The

formulas representing mineral compositions

indicate the chemical similarity between the

mica minerals and montmorillonite, and

X-ray work shows that the crystal struc-

Ave. 15, 1943

tures of the two minerals are very similar.

There is the physical difference that the

potassium of micas is linked between the

sheets in a nonreplaceable condition. In

montmorillonite, sodium and calcium are

readily replaceable, but experiments on

soils show that potassium, even where ini-

tially replaceable, gradually becomes non-

replaceable. It seems probable that under

favorable conditions potassium comes to

occupy positions tying sheet to sheet—

that is, positions characteristic of the micas.

Thus potassium may gradually become

fixed at the expense of replaceable bases.

Kaolinite is the common end product re-

sulting from several geologic processes and

is especially characteristic of areas of deep

and thorough weathering and of areas where

leaching has been unusually effective. Its

occurrence as an end product of such rigor-

ous geologic processes is no doubt related

to its high degree of stability and its com-

mon association with the most stable min-

erals. These are commonly quartz, iron

oxides, and hydroxides, and in some occur-

rences aluminous hydroxides. The red or

red-brown color imparted to kaolinitic soils

by associated free iron oxides is in contrast

to the greenish, blue-gray, or pale-yellow

colors of montmorillonite in which ferric

iron forms a portion of the crystal structure.

The association of kaolinite with iron

oxides in many deposits shows that it

formed under oxidizing conditions. In other

deposits, from which iron had been re-

moved, the kaolinite formed in the presence

of organic materials which gave reducing

conditions. Reduction and solvent action

by organic acids favor the removal of bases,

including magnesium, calcium, and alkalies

as well as ferrous iron. The tendency for

acids derived from organic materials and

oxidizing sulphides to form kaolinite is well

_ known. It seems evident, therefore, that the

removal of bases from the clay-forming sys-

tem is the essential factor in kaolin forma-

tion and that the kaolinizing action of acids

is due to their efficiency in removing bases

rather than to their effect as acids. Long-

continued leaching in essentially neutral

waters may remove all bases, except where

active oxidation inhibits the removal of

iron. Feldspar pegmatites in the southern

ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS

231

Appalachian region have been altered to

kaolinite to a depth of a hundred feet or

more. The pentration of acid solutions to

such depths during the course of weathering

is improbable, and such kaolin bodies have

undoubtedly been due to the leaching ac-

tion of essentially neutral waters.

The common association of iron oxides

and kaolinite should be considered in con-

nection with the earlier statement that iron

may favor the formation of montmorillo-

nite. The effect of ferrous iron in promoting

the formation of montmorillonite, as al-

ready pointed out, would be destroyed by

oxidation. Under extreme oxidizing condi-

tions iron would be leached from silicate

minerals and immediately redeposited as

oxide; in this form it would be removed

from the reacting system almost as effec-

tively as when removed by solution.

Soils formed from limestone are com-

monly characterized by kaolinite, and since

this mineral has a low base exchange ca-

pacity, such soils are commonly deficient

in calcium. On the other hand, volcanic ash

low in calcium will alter to montmorillonite

containing essential calcium.

Harrison, and later Hardy and Follett-

Smith (1931) who cited the work of Harri-

son, studied the soils of British Guiana. The

former author reports: ‘‘Under tropical

conditions, the katamorphism of basic and

intermediate rocks at or close to the water

table, under conditions of more or less per-

fect drainage, is accompanied by the almost

complete removal of silica, and of calcium,

magnesium, potassium, and sodium oxides

leaving an earthy residuum of trihydrate

(in its crystalline form gibbsite). ... This

residuum is termed primary laterite... .

The process of primary lateritisation is suc-

ceeded by one of resilication.... Under

tropical conditions acid rocks do not under-

go primary lateritisation, but gradually

change ...to more or less quartziferous

and impure kaolins... On well drained

mountain plateaux, where rainfall is very

high and more or less continuous through-

out the year, primary laterite appears to be

permanent... On badly drained low-ly-

ing areas on the other hand, primary later-

ite appears not to be permanent but gives

rise to argillaceous earths...

232

‘“‘During the passage upwards by capil-

lary attraction in dry seasons when evapo-

ration exceeds rainfall, the silica-bearing

solutions derived from underlying rock

forms surface films of moisture in the

spongy primary laterite where some of the

silica reacts with some of the finely divided

gibbsite to form a hydrated aluminum sili-

cate principally a crystalline kaolin.”’

Alexander, Hendricks, and Faust (1941)

report that, ‘“Gibbsite has been shown to be

a component of a number of soil colloids

from continental United States. It is a major

component of some of them.

“The primary weathering products of

norites, amphibolites, an epidote green-

stone schist, a diabase, and muscovite-

biotite schists, have been shown to contain

gibbsite ... Where silica is being liberated.

by mineral weathering in close proximity to

the gibbsite, resilication to kaolinite takes

place.”

The bauxite deposits of Arkansas, the

Gulf coastal region, and the valley of Vir-

ginia show an invariable association with

the more abundant and widespread kaolin

beds from which they are believed to have

been derived. The relations in all these areas

indicate that the formation of these de-

posits is not comparable to the usual picture

of laterization, where ferric iron is concen-

trated together with aluminous minerals. In

most of these areas no iron-free parent ma-

terial is available for the formation of white,

commonly very pure kaolinite, as where ka-

olin is derived from feldspar pegmatites.

In widely separated areas there is an asso-

ciation of kaolinitic materials with lignitic

beds, or with horizons characterized by

widespread swampy conditions. The rela-

tions between bauxite and lignite beds in

Arkansas has been discussed by Behre

(1932). Almost without exception ferrous

iron carbonate has been deposited in under-

lying or closely associated beds. Siderite

concretions are not rare within the beds

themselves. Thus iron has been removed, a

removal normally possible only after reduc-

tion; ferrous iron carbonate is a constant

associate; and there is a widespread associ-

ation with swamps or lignitic beds, which

provide a most efficient source of reducing

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

agents and organic acids that dissolve and

remove bases. The control that this group

of interrelations has exercised in the pro-

duction of the kaolin beds in these particu-

lar regions seems obvious. This, however,

leaves many problems that require inten-

sive study, in particular the genetic rela-

tions between the bauxite and the kaolin

beds.

In the presence of mineralizing solutions

or volcanic vapors, the pressure, tempera-

ture, and concentrations commonly favor

the formation of ferromagnesian silicates,

feldspars, and micas more commonly than

clays. In the later stages of activity, how-

ever, as temperatures decrease there is an

increased tendency for clay minerals to

form and clays have been reported from

numerous veins and other mineral deposits,

all three types of clay materials having been

identified. Dickite, the hydrothermal mem-

ber of the kaolinite group, is very wide-

spread and is commonly associated with

vein quartz. Bravaisite is probably reported

as sericite in most lists of minerals as the

two are very difficult to distinguish. If

montmorillonite is observed only in thin

section, it too may be mistaken for sericite;

however, its low mean index of refraction

clearly distinguishes it.

The relative temperatures of formation of

these three clay groups are not definitely

known, but perhaps dickite forms at higher

temperatures than montmorillonite. The

common association of dickite with quartz

and a seeming absence of associated ferro-

magnesian silicates is no doubt significant,

and the absence of iron and magnesium

may be necessary for its formation. On the

other hand, it is evident that montmorillo-

nite forms in the presence of the bases, ferric-

iron and magnesium, and under alkalic if

not alkaline conditions. The alteration of

the feldspar of pegmatites to kaolinite

under leaching conditions has been men-

tioned, but a number of pegmatites have

been described in which hydrothermal al-

teration has produced montmorillonite. In

these, introduction of bases has predomi-

nated over their removal, and montmoril-

lonite has been produced.

The genetic processes revealed in two in-

Ave. 15, 1943

teresting occurrences of clay minerals il-

lustrate the relations between kaolinite and

montmorillonite. Studies of the hot springs

of Yellowstone National Park by Allen and

Day indicate that acid waters are the result

of oxidation of hydrogen sulphide near the

surface, and that the primary waters or va-

pors are all alkaline in depth.

Fenner (1936) in his detailed studies of

the materials encountered in drill holes put

down in selected parts of the hot-spring

areas of the park, gave special attention to

the relation of these materials to depth,

pressure, and the chemical character of the

escaping vapors. He says: “The effect of

acidity is thus apparent in the formation of

kaolinite as far down as 95 feet, ... at

greater depths the alteration produced be-

idellite only.”’ That is, below the zone of

acid solutions a clay of the montmorillonite

group formed. The highest pressure meas-

ured was 27734 pounds at a depth of 2463

feet, where the temperature was 205° C.

Thus a mineral of the montmorillonite

group may form at rather high tempera-

tures and pressures in the presence of alka-

line solutions. Fenner observes that pyrite

commonly accompanies beidellite in the

Yellowstone materials.

The conclusions by Fenner about the ori-

gin of clay minerals at Yellowstone coincide

with relationships at Magnet Cove, Ark.

(Ross, 1941). Steam-shovel operations con-

nected with rutile mining have shown the

existence of a volcanic neck filled by an ag-

glomerate made up of various rock types

and enclosed in a matrix of clay minerals.

Abundant rutile and pyrite are associated

with these materials. A nearly pure feld-

spathic rock shows various degrees of al-

teration to montmorillonite. The matrix

material around rock fragments was orig-

inally glassy voleanic ash, but this has been

altered to montmorillonite, which has been

in part later altered to kaolinite. The rela-

tionships indicate that voleanic waters and

vapors carrying bases and rich in sulphides,

rose through the porous agglomerate alter-

ing both feldspar and glass to montmoril-

lonite. It seems evident that as volcanic ac-

tivity waned, these sulphide-bearing vapors

were in part condensed and oxidized in con-

ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS

233

tact with air. This resulted in sulphuric-

acid-bearing solutions, which percolated

back into the porous agglomerate, partly

altering the montmorillonite to kaolinite.

The foregoing outline presents a much

generalized picture of soil-forming processes

in which many of the factors discussed

have been qualified as trends or tendencies.

Detailed studies of individual occurrences

will no doubt show many apparent excep-

tions, which will be cleared up only by in-

tensive geologic work involving correlation

between mineral composition and the physi-

cal and chemical factors that interacted to

produce the clay material.

The relationships between many different

parent rocks and their products of weather-

ing need to be studied. Information is es-

pecially needed about the clay minerals in

fine-grained sedimentary rocks, and the re-

sulting product, where these are exposed by

erosion and themselves undergo weathering.

The relative effects of leaching in the pres-

ence of solutions of differing chemical char-

acter have not been determined in adequate

detail. Alternate wetting and drying prob-

ably is more destructive than either con-

tinued aridity or humidity, but this question

has never been fully investigated. Inter-

mediate or transitory products may in-

tervene between the parent rock and the

end product, and may influence the charac-

ter of that product. The effect of base ex-

change on the quality of ground water is

being studied, but the effect of salts carried

in solution upon the sedimentary materials

is too little known. Is the clay or soil the

result of reactions in a single physico-

chemical system or have there been changes

that make it the result of several genetic

episodes? Is the clay material in equilibrium

with its environment or not; that is, to

what extent may clay minerals be in a me-

tastable condition? Has there been admix-

ture with materials from several sources

that developed under distinct environ-

ments? What were the conditions of final

disposition, was it in fresh or salt water?

How have all these processes been modified

by associated organic materials? Numerous

soil types from many parts of the world

have been described, and soil specialists

234

have given particular attention to the differ-

ent horizons of the soil profile, and those

geologists particularly interested in soil

problems are under obligation to consider

this work and understand the geologic sig-

nificance of soil types and soil profiles.

Much of this needed information will be at-

tained only by detailed studies of selected

areas where the greatest number of con-

trolling factors are determinable; but also

much more may be determined and re-

corded as incidental results during the

course of general geologic studies of a re-

gion. This is needed because the science of

soil geology is in many ways in the early

stages in which the mere accumulation of

information by workers in many fields is

necessary as a basis for future progress.

Here are problems for the mineralogists,

geologists, soil specialists, chemists, and

physicists—in particular geologists and

physical chemists.

Dr. W. P. Kelley, of the University of

California, one of our most far-seeing soil

scientists, presented as a part of a sym-

posium on clays at the University of Chi-

cago in 1941 a paper entitled ‘‘Modern clay

researches in relation to agriculture” (1942),

which should interest all geologists. In this

he said: “‘A knowledge as to the kind of clay

minerals found in soils bids fair to throw

important light on soil formation processes,

that is, on soil genesis...

‘““Modern researches on the clays are,

therefore, placing the subject of soils on a

new footing. They have served to emphasize

the close relationship between soil science

and geology and mineralogy ... There is

simply no point where you can separate

geological from soil processes . . .

“That clay research is drawing soil

science into closer contact with geology is

one of its important by-products. In my

opinion the closer the cooperation between

soil workers and geologists the better. In

fact I look upon several of the important

phases of soil science as aspects of geology.”

Dr. Kelley has made himself the leading

advocate among soil scientists of the neces-

sity of the geologic and mineralogic ap-

proach to many soil problems and of the

inadequacy of purely chemical methods.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

However, he and other leading soil workers

feel, seemingly not without some reason,

that geologists have not given all the help

for which their training fits them.

Clay studies are not without their bearing

on the broader problems of geology—the

problems of those geologists who are not

primarily interested in soils and related

materials. The promptness with which clay

materials react to changes in environment

is a measure of the information they may

hold. Clays respond to acid or to alkaline

conditions, to swamps or to aridity, to

oxidizing or reducing conditions, to fresh

water or to marine deposition, to the pres-

ence or to the absence of organic materials.

No one can see all the possibilities that may

come of any research, but some of the re-

sults may be suggestive.

The bentonites have told us much. These

clays are the only record of the ash showers

that fell so widely in Ordovician seas. They

are also evidence of the volcanic activity

that ringed the Gulf of Mexico in Creta-

ceous and Tertiary time, with a dozen or

more ash showers recorded in the clays of

Mississippi. They seem to present evidence

that certain embayments were of fresh or

at most brackish water, whereas other em-

bayments of the same general region were

marine. Clays have presented very definite

evidence as to the chemical character of

mineralizing solutions and no doubt will

present much more as they are intensively

studied.

The clays hold a story that will grow as

we know them better. Should we not heed

the earnest plea of men like Dr. Kelley that

geologists accept as their own some of the

problems of soils?

LITERATURE CITED

ALEXANDER, L. T., Henpricks, S. B., and

Faust, G. T. Occurrence of gibbsite un

some soil forming materials. Proc. Soil

Sci. Soc. Amer. 6: 52-62. 1941.

Beure, C. H. Origin of bauxite deposits.

Keon. Geol. 27: 678-680. 1932.

Fenner, C. N. Bore hole investigations in

Yellowstone Park. Journ. Geol. 44 (no. 2,

pt. 2): 225-815. 1936.

Harpy, F., and Fouurtr-Smiru, R. R. I.

Studies in tropical soils. II. Some char-

acteristic igneous rock soil profiles in

British Guiana, South America (includes

Ave. 15, 1943

citations of the studies of J. B. Harrison).

Journ. Agr. Sci. 21 (pt. 4): 750. 1931.

Hoskine, J. 8S. The soil clay mineralogy of

some Australian soils developed on granitic

and basaltic parent material. Journ. Aus-

tralian Counce. Sci. and Industr. Res. 13:

206-216. 1940.

Kewiey, W. P. Modern clay researches in re-

lation to agriculture. Journ. Geol. 50:

307-319. 1942.

PHYSICS.—The scientific significance of ferromagnetism.*

sachusetts Institute of Technology.

Half a century or so ago theoretical and

experimental investigations were under-

taken that revealed the main facts about

ferromagnetism. On the one hand, they

made possible the formulations of ideas that

are basic in an understanding of the subject

and, on the other hand, led to technical de-

velopments that made possible the enor-

mous electrical industry of today. It would

be interesting to follow both of these de-

velopments simultaneously, but I have

chosen to concentrate on the scientific

rather than on the engineering aspects of

the subject. Ewing, Weiss, and Curie

showed us that a ferromagnetic substance

owed its peculiar properties to the interac-

tion of elementary magnets of atomic di-

mensions, that these interactions were not

entirely of magnetic origin, and that the

transition from ferromagnetism at low tem-

peratures to paramagnetism at high tem-

peratures was not a real change of phase,

as melting for instance, but a new sort of

transition associated with a discontinuity

of specific heat rather than a latent heat.

Weiss showed that to a first approximation,

at any rate, ferromagnetism could be under-

stood as a special case of paramagnetism

in which Langevin’s fundamental equation

relating magnetization to the dimensionless

quantity nH /kT had to be modified only by

assuming that the field acting on each ele-

mentary particle was not the externally

applied field alone, but the resultant of this

field and an internal field resulting from

the interaction of the elementary magnets

1 The twelfth Joseph Henry Lecture delivered

before the Philosophical Society of Washington

at its 1210th meeting on December 19, 1942.

Received April 13, 1943.

BITTER: SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE OF FERROMAGNETISM

235

Lamar, J. E., Grim, R. E., and Grogan,

R. M. Gumbotil as a potential source of

rotary drilling mud, bonding clay and

bleaching clay. Illinois Geol. Surv. Inf.

Cire. 39: 1-23. 1938.

Ross, C. 8. Titanium deposits of Nelson and

Amherst Counties, Virginia, compared with

those of Magnet Cove. U.S. Geol. Surv.

Prof. Paper 198: 1-88, 20 pls. 1941.

FRANCIS Bitter, Mas-

(Communicated by R. E. Gipson.)

with each other and on the average propor-

tional to the intensity of magnetization it-

self. Thermodynamically the results a-

chieved were sound and satisfying, except

perhaps that stress and strain tensors were

omitted from the theory, and all phenomena

related to magnetostriction and thermal ex-

pansion were omitted. These are, however,

not fundamentally important and can be

incorporated into the theory at the expense

of simplicity. Statistically, the results were

not satisfactory. Although the Boltzmann

constant appears, this is due only to the in-

corporation of the theory of paramagnet-

ism, and the real problem of interpreting

the atomic interactions is avoided alto-

gether by the simple assumption of an in-

ternal field. From the point of view of

atomic physics, one important result was

achieved: namely, the specification of the

order of magnitude of atomic magnetic

moments. On the other hand, the actually

observed values of Curie temperatures of

the order of 1,000° K. could not be ex-

plained on the basis of known interatomic

fields, and the origin of these fields was a

major mystery for many years.

~ One last item remains to be mentioned to

complete the picture prior to the advent of

the quantum theory and more recent de-

velopments in atomic physics. The Weiss

theory, because of its simplifying assump-

tions regarding atomic interactions and the

internal field, predicted spontaneous mag-

netization of an entire sample to saturation

at all temperatures below the Curie point.

This was completely contrary to fact, and

left unexplained the origin of hysteresis,

and all the phenomena related to mag-

netization—of such great technical impor-

236

tance. Ewing’s work on models consisting

of many small magnets free to rotate near

each other indicated that Weiss’s spontane-

ous magnetization existed only in small re-

gions and that the magnetic interactions of

these regions was probably sufficient to ac-

count for the main features of the process of

magnetization. This was capable of direct

experimental observation, and it is interest-

ing to note that, although all the means for

making such observations were at hand,

more than a quarter of a century elapsed be-

fore these observations were actually made.

This brings us to an entirely new aspect of

the subject, which I should like to discuss

briefly by way of digression from the main

argument of this lecture. The physics of

crystals has been developing most satisfac-

torily wherever theoretical interpretation

was possible, and the advent of X-rays

helped to emphasize the fundamental regu-

larity which so much facilitated theoreti-

cal treatment. There is, however, a stage

between the atomic and the truly macro-

scopic, which has great importance and

which has properties peculiar to itself. Crys-

tallographers have, of course, made many

observations bearing on this point, and fer-

romagnetism contributes but one more of

the many aspects of the problem to be

studied. By using very fine magnetic pow-

dersthestray fieldsonferromagnetic crystals

have been studied, and the existence of a

complex and often highly symmetrical mag-

netic structure has been revealed, varying

in shape and design in a most intriguing

manner. This may be related to a more

fundamental submacroscopic or ‘‘block”’

structure of crystals, and so to the mechani-

cal properties of strength, plasticity, fa-

tigue, etc. Much work, however, remains

to be done before real progress in these fields

is to be expected.

The discovery of the spinning electron, as

well as the recognition that it was the pri-

mary source of the magnetic moment in

most ferromagnetic substances, was a nec-

essary preliminary to the advances in our

understanding of the subject due to Heisen-

berg. Of the two great advances for which

he is responsible, only one is usually empha-

sized, and that is the interpretation of the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

internal field in terms of short-range forces

postulated in quantum theory to explain a

wide variety of phenomena. The mystery of

the high Curie temperatures was satisfac-

torily solved.

The other important contribution, how-

ever, in no way depended on the quantum

theory. It was an attempt to give a satis-

factory statistical background to the inter-

nal field assuming short-range forces and

interaction between only nearest neighbors

in a crystal. The difficulty of this problem,

essentially the definition of the entropy, or

the number of states associated with any

given energy, is largely responsible for our

failure to make real progress in understand-

ing cooperative phenomena. We know far

more about the atoms themselves than

about the manner in which they ‘‘cooper-

ate’ to produce macroscopic matter. Even

for the simplest conceivable elementary par-

ticles the treatment of interacting aggre-

gates breaks down except for special cases

(the linear chain), which do not have the

discontinuous properties of particular inter-

est in actual substances. It seems that the

kind of mathematical functions we use are

inherently unsuitable and that mathemati-

cians must develop for us some new treat-

ment of discontinuities of various sorts

before we can handle phases and their transi-

tions with anything like the satisfying ele-

gance with which we describe simpler

atomic processes. Since it was not possible

to derive the entropy function, Heisenberg

assumed that it could be adequately de-

scribed in terms of a suitably chosen func-

tion containing parameters that could be

calculated for the particular kind of atom

assumed. This led to equations essentially

similar to those first presented by Weiss,

but with two relevant modifications. These

were, first, that the equations were consist-

ent with the idea of short range forces, and,

second, that ferromagnetism could exist

only in certain types of crystals, and prob-

ably not in simple cubic lattices. The equa-

tions broke down at low temperature,

however, because of the limitations of the

approximation used. They also gave some

indication of why ferromagnetism appeared

only in certain ones of the transition ele-

Ava. 15, 1943

ments, but the treatment was inherently

too complicated to allow detailed analyses

of particular substances to be made. It was

a tantalizing prospect to interpret the be-

havior of alloys with various degrees of

order and disorder and in concentrations

ranging from dilute solutions exhibiting

only feebly magnetic properties to pure

ferromagnetic substances. Heisenberg’s

treatment can, in principle, take into ac-

count the particular arrangements of atoms

among each other, and may yet be of great

value in helping to interpret many purely

metallurgical phenomena. Although no

such applications of the theory have as yet

been carried through, a qualitative study

has shown that many unfamiliar magnetic

phenomena are to be expected. Experi-

_mental results, which I shall review briefly

at the close of this lecture, indicate that

these predicted anomalies do in fact exist

and that the investigation of the properties

of certain alloys and compounds at low tem-

perature may be expected to throw con-

siderable new light on the theory of atomic

interactions in solids.

It is now known that ferromagnetism is

due to electrons that are neither so tightly

bound to atomic cores as electrons in the

lower energy levels nor so loosely bound as

the conduction electrons. This intermediate

condition between tight and loose binding

seems particularly difficult to describe ade-

quately. In addition to the approach from

the atomic side discribed above, another at-

tempt was made, primarily by Bloch and

Slater, starting with the electron theory of

metals. This recognizes the fact that the

atomic energy levels are split up into over-

lapping energy bands in solids and that the

main features of metallic phenomena are

due to the extent of the population of the

energy bands by electrons. Thus the main

differences between copper and nickel are

due not to changes in the possible energy

states, but to the fact that copper has more

electrons to fill these states. The ferromag-

netism of nickel is, then, due to the fact

that a certain “‘band”’ of states is not com-

pletely occupied, and some of the proper-

ties, particularly the saturation value of the

magnetization of copper—nickel and of other

BITTER: SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE OF FERROMAGNETISM

237

alloys, can be interpreted simply in terms

of the number of electrons available to fill

the energy bands. The treatment, however,

does not lend itself to the interpretation of

many of the observed phenomena, particu-

larly those depending on the arrangement

of atoms among each other in alloys.

So much for the theoretical aspects of the

subject. Experimentally, the scope of mag-

netic phenomena investigated has been

fairly limited. The common ferromagnetic

elements have been thoroughly studied, and

certain alloys and compounds that are easy

to prepare have been investigated in con-

veniently available ranges of fields and tem-

peratures. During recent years there have

been several attempts to expand our knowl-

edge experimentally. I shall describe briefly

one that I have been associated with at

M.I.T. Drs. A. R. Kaufmann, Chauncey

Starr, and 8. T. Pan and other members of

the student body and of the faculty were to

a large extent responsible for the results ob-

tained. The aim was to explore new fields

rather than continue the investigation of

known phenomena in greater detail. This

has been done by extending the available

range of temperatures, fields, and sub-

stances to be studied as much as possible.

Up to the time that work had to be aban-

doned, temperatures ranging from that of

freezing hydrogen to the melting point of

common metals had been used. Fields up to

100,000 gauss of adequate constancy for

long periods of time had been produced in

sufficiently large volumes for investigations

in the above temperature range. These

fields were not used in the investigations

mentioned above, but can be had when

wanted. The measurements made used

fields up to 30,000—40,000 gauss. The use of

more intense fields at even lower tempera-

tures offers attractive possibilities, not only

because of the new phenomena to be ex-

pected, but also because it should make a

direct measurement of atomic magnetic

moments possible—a quantity of funda-

mental importance which now has to be de-

duced with considerable uncertainty from

other measurements. Finally measurements

were made not only on readily available

pure metals and alloys but also on some of

238

the rare earths, and on anhydrous salts of

the transition elements. In general greatest

interest lies in the substances having incom-

plete inner electron shells and in physical

aggregates in which the separation of atoms

and their geometrical arrangement are sub-

ject to variation.

The investigations carried out can not be

considered more than a preliminary survey,

but they do indicate the direction in which

more work would be profitable. It was

found that, in addition to typical paramag-

netic and typical ferromagnetic substances,

there is an intermediate class that is neither

the one nor the other. In alloys the transi-

tion from the one to the other is not sharp,

and the nature of the transition requires

further investigation. It is also qualita-

tively different in different alloy systems,

as, for instance, Cu-Ni and Cu-—Fe. The

limited solubility of iron in copper limits the

experiments, and other systems, such as

Au-Ni and Au—Fe, may be expected to

clarify the situation further. The rare

earths have interesting anomalous proper-

ties especially at low temperatures. The

main difficulty in investigating these lies in

the preparation of sufficiently pure samples.

This is technically difficult and very impor-

tant, since at low temperatures small quan-

tities of magnetically active impurities can

completely mask the normal behavior of

a substance. The salts of the transition ele-

ments, especially when the atoms are not

separated too much by water molecules,

may be expected to show interesting proper-

ties, in part because of their crystal struc-

ture, which makes possible more compli-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

cated interaction patterns then the cubic

metals. This is borne out not only by the

temperature dependence of the suscepti-

bility, which is quite anomalous in some

cases, but also by the magnetization curve

itself which in some substances has been

found to have an ‘‘S” shape as in ferromag-

netic materials, but without hysteresis.

Fields at least as intense as those used are

necessary for the study of this phenomenon.

The interpretation of the magnetic mo-

ments of atoms in various states of aggrega-

tion is also very incomplete, in large meas-

ure because of the difficulty of defining it

adequately in terms of measurements so far

made, as previously pointed out. The study

of very dilute solutions of magnetic atoms

in magnetically inactive metals at low tem-

peratures and high fields should produce

very valuable results.

Summing up, then, we may say that al-

though theory has made very considerable

progress in the interpretation of ferromag-

netic phenomena, it has so far been confined

to a limited class and a considerable expan-

sion of the ideas involved is needed. Recent

experiments have shown that much more

complicated phenomena exist than had been

suspected. Finally, it seems that the next

move is up to the experimentalist—to sur-

vey the field and define the magnetic

properties of matterin such a way that the

theorist has something definite and reason-

ably complete to work on. All the tools for

doing this are at hand, or at least can be had

when we once again return to our labora-

tories to resume the work that, for the pres-

ent, has had to be abandoned.

ANTHROPOLOGY.—The relocation of persons of Japanese ancestry in the Umited

States: Some causes and effects.

JoHN F. EMBrEE,”? War Relocation Author-

ity. (Communicated by Wiuuti1AM N. FENTON.)

BACKGROUND OF EVACUATION

In ten new communities from California

to Arkansas, there live today 107,000 per-

sons of Japanese ancestry, two-thirds of

whom are American citizens. These people

1 Based on a talk given before the Anthropologi-

cal Society of Washington, March 16, 1943. Re-

ceived May 10, 1943.

2 On leave from the University of Toronto.

were all evacuated from the West Coast as

a result of the war and are now living under

conditions of ‘‘protective custody.” This

situation presents a number of important

problems both political and sociological.

Politically, most of the issues of war and of

the peace to follow are bound up in these

“relocation centers.’ For instance, is the

United States fighting a racial war as Japan

Ava. 15, 1943

claims, or is she fighting an ideological war;

if administrative problems involving a

hundred thousand people can not be intelli-

gently and democratically solved, how are

we to solve the complex postwar problems

of, say, Southeast Asia with its mixed

population of a hundred million? Socio-

logically, some of the important problems

raised by the situation are the social effects

on the people who have been relocated.

How are these people living? What have

evacuation and life in relocation centers

done to the social organization and set of

social sanctions that had grown up in the

Japanese communities on the West Coast?

In order to gain some understanding of

present attitudes and social developments,

it is necessary to look briefly at the history

of the people since December 7, 1941. The

first effect of Pearl Harbor on the Japanese

population in California was one of shock.

The stunning effect was even greater for the

resident Japanese than for the rest of the

West Coast population. This was the be-

ginning of the much-talked-of, much-feared

war between the land of their parents and

the land of their children.

When nothing drastic happened after the

initial internment of a number of Japanese

by the intelligence agencies, people relaxed

somewhat and went about their business.

It looked as if nothing further would occur

as long as the people of Japanese ancestry

remained law-abiding and did their bit in

the war effort by buying war bonds and

volunteering to join the Army.

Then things gradually began to happen.

Civil Service dropped Japanese-Americans

from its rolls, and the Army ceased to ac-

cept Japanese-American volunteers. To the

niset, as Japanese-American citizens are

called, these were bitter pills to swallow.

Then rumors from Hawaii of sabotage and

fifth-column activity began to drift into

California via returning Navy wives and

others. In spite of the fact that these rumors

were specifically branded as untrue by na-

tional intelligence agencies operating in.

Hawaii, they gained wide currency on the

West Coast and added to the fears of the

people both military and civilian—fears

that what was said to have happened in

EMBREE: RELOCATION OF JAPANESE IN UNITED STATES

239

Hawaii could happen all up and down the

West Coast. Newspaper columnists such as

Pegler and McLemore began to beat the

drum for internment of all Japanese regard-

less of citizenship. McLemore, for instance,

wrote, ‘‘Let us have no patience with the

enemy or with anyone whose veins carry his

blood,’’? and Pegler shouted, ‘‘To hell with

habeas corpus!’ Economic interest groups

-and professional anti-Oriental groups real-

ized that in this situation there was a

golden opportunity for carrying out some

of their rather undemocratic policies.

Finally and decisively, the Army became

worried by Japanese victories in the Pacific

and by the rising tension in California. They

asked for the right to move people as they

saw fit from vital West Coast areas. On

February 19, 1942, the President issued an

Executive Order authorizing General De-

Witt, as Commander of the Western De-

fense Command Area, to move any persons

or groups of people as he felt necessary to

protect the military security of the area.

On March 2, a restricted area was de-

lineated from which all persons of Japanese

ancestry, regardless of citizenship or past

behavior, were to be evacuated. By March

29, 8,000 persons had “‘voluntarily”’ moved

eastward. As might have been predicted,

opposition arose in the inter-mountain

States to any mass migration into their ter-

ritory, and finally it became impracticable

for any further movement of this sort. Con-

sequently the voluntary migration was

called to a halt, and it became necessary to

provide some sort of Federal control and

protection.

The War Relocation Authority, which

had been established on March 18, 1942, to

assist évacués financially or otherwise in

their movement eastward, was now faced

with the problem of having to establish

areas where the people could go and live

until the crisis was passed. Thus came into

existence the relocation centers, not as a

part of any original plan to detain all the

people, but rather as a practical expedient

made necessary as a result of the war emer-

gency. It was necessary in locating sites for

3 Column of January 29, 1942.

4 February 16, 1942.

240

and establishing relocation centers to enter

into agreements, not only with the Army in

regard to internal security, but also with the

governors of the States concerned. Since all

this took time it was necessary to establish

in the meantime a number of temporary

‘“‘assembly centers” in various parts of Cali-

fornia, Washington, and Oregon. These as-

sembly centers were run by the Wartime

Civil Control Administration, a branch of

the Army. Being largely made-over parks

or race tracks, they were not intended orig-

inally for housing large numbers of people;

and even in this emergency period it was

not intended that they house people very

long. However, they functioned for several

months, and the living conditions within

them have had serious effects on the people

concerned.

The people, workers, business men, col-

lege students, priests—all were herded to-

gether in what they regarded as degrading

conditions and humiliated by being penned

behind fences and guarded by military

guards. A deep sense of shame was created

by the circumstances of induction to these

centers. The long uncertain waiting period,

during which people had little opportunity

or incentive for reorganizing community

life, had a demoralizing effect.

The relocation centers were long in build-

ing, owing to problems of location and pri-

orities, and most of them were incomplete

when trainloads of 500 évacués at a time

came into them. The trip was by coach,

usually during very hot weather. On ar-

rival the évacués, hot, tired, and worried,

went through “intake’’ where a nurse

looked at each throat and someone else took

down names and assigned housing space

without much attention to the needs and

desires of the people to be housed. The

housing was inadequate at first and meals

were disorganized. The centers were

guarded by military police, and later

barbed-wire fences were built.

EFFECTS OF RELOCATION CENTER LIFE

Halting of the assimilation process.—Each

center houses 6,000 to 17,000 people, all of

Japanese ancestry. In fact, this ancestry is

the only thing in common to the whole

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8 ~

group. Many individuals who had formerly

lived in non-Japanese communities in Cali-

fornia felt-very strange in this all-Japanese

community. There is the now familiar story

of the child who after a few days in a center

said to her mother, “‘Let’s go home now. I

don’t like it in Japan.”’ One of the effects

of this situation was the increase in the use

of Japanese language and also an increase

of the influence of older Japanese. In Cali-

fornia, before the war, young Americans 18

to 20 years old were gradually becoming in-

dependent of their parents and following

American patterns of life. In the relocation

centers the only older people to guide them

were the Japanese, and because of the

breakdown of various social and community

organizations the average person was

thrown back to a greater dependency on his

family as the only stable group left.

Effects of housing conditions.—Housing in

the centers consists of army-type barracks

divided into four or five rooms or “apart-

ments.’’ These structures were made by the

Army and are more suitable for housing

single men than for housing families. Owing

to-overcrowding in many centers, members

of more than one family are frequently

housed in one room. Toilet and bathing fa-

cilities are in a separate structure, in each

block of 12 barracks. In both the wash

rooms and the apartments there was at

first no provision whatever for privacy.

Eating was in mess halls, one for each block

of barracks. There is no special provision

for family eating, so that individuals sit

down more or less as they arrive in the mess

hall. Parents have been worried by the

effect of this type of eating on the manners

of their children: The whole housing situa-

tion has had a demoralizing effect on family

standards of living and on family controls

over children’s behavior.

Anzteties.—As a result of evacuation a

great many anxieties afflict the people living

in relocation centers. They are worried as to

the effect of relocation on their children;

they are worried as to their future and the

future of their children in the United States.

Fears in regard to food, in regard to citizen-

ship rights, in regard to all sorts of things

both large and small are prevalent. This

Ava. 15, 1943

feeling of insecurity is reflected in numerous

alarmist rumors—rumors that they will be

left and forgotten in the desert, contrary

rumors that they will be moved again to

another center, rumors that there is not

enough food in the storehouse for more than

24 hours, rumors that the hospital facilities

are dangerously inadequate.

Breakdown of community controls.—Be-

cause of the fact that people in the centers

come from various social and economic

backgrounds and owing to the disorganizing

effects of evacuation and assembly center

life, most of the usual community controls

on behavior are lacking. There has been a

breakdown, for instance, of the economic

position of fathers as heads of the family.

Some of the results of this loss of commun-

ity solidarity and control over its individ-

uals are to be seen in the growth of truancy

among the children. Delinquency of various

sorts and other antisocial conditions are in

striking contrast to the usual law-abiding

well-regulated manner of living of the Jap-

anese of California before the war. For in-

stance, there was no provision for the mak-

ing of furniture, with the result that it-be-

came necessary for individuals to pick up

scrap lumber wherever they could find it.

People who never would have thought of

such petty thievery before relocation were

forced into it by circumstances of center life.

Another element in this situation is a lack

of motivation for doing things that one does

in a normal community. Why work for $16

a month? Why study in a barracks school

with no future ahead of one?

Family dependency.—Most of the familiar

sources of social security have been lost—

the neighborhood group, the occupational

group, business or farm, and home. One re-

sult of this has been an increased depend-

ency on the family as the only stable unit

left. Many nisez who before the war were

drifting away from their parents and enter-

ing other social groups now put great store

by family unity—so much so that many are

reluctant to leave the center if a job is avail-

able because it would mean separation of

the family.

Magnification of minor issues.—Owing to

the restricted conditions of living behind

EMBREE: RELOCATION OF JAPANESE IN UNITED STATES

241

barbed-wire fences and under the control of

an administration whose acts often appear

arbitrary, many things that in an ordinary

community would cause little comment of-

ten become magnified in importance. As

already mentioned, rumors are very com-

mon, most of them of an alarmist nature.

Numerous small and violently antagonistic

cliques have grown up within the centers.

Lengthy discussion and argument over

what in normal life would be regarded as

inconsequential is typical.®

Developments of caste attitudes.—Practi-

cally all the évacués are of Japanese an-

cestry, while the Government officials are

Caucasian. The administration has better

eating and housing facilities, and members

of the administrative staff have much

greater social security than have the

evacuees. Such a social situation where one

racial group does the administrating and

another is administered leads inevitably to

a caste distinction.

Disillusionment in American democracy.—

Most of the younger évacués have been

brought up in American schools and indoc-

trinated in the ideals of American democra-

cy, which teaches, among other things, that

racial discrimination is undemocratic. To

many of these people the evacuation from

the West Coast was a shocking contradic-

tion on the part of the Government of this

basic teaching. The fact that no distinction

was made even for war veterans or families

with sons in the United States Army led to

the embitterment of many people. One man,

for instance, who was a veteran of the last

war and who was formerly a very patriotic

American citizen gradually got to brooding

over his treatment as a result of the evacua-

tion order and eventually became the leader

of an anti-American group.

Wardship.—People in the centers are

provided with food and shelter, however in-

adequate they may be. They are also re-

lieved of all responsibility for making deci-

sions affecting the community, since these

decisions are made by the Government. As

5 Similar social conditions are typical of the

internment camp for British and Americans in

Hong Kong. See Alsop’s articles in the Saturday

Evening Post for January 9 and 16, 1943.

242

a result there is beginning to grow up an

attitude of dependency on the Government,

a loss of individual initiative on the part of

some individuals. The centers also represent

security in contrast to the insecurity of the

outside world. This is perhaps one of the

most significant developments of life in the

centers, because it means that many of the

people now in the centers may never leave

regardless of what opportunities may be of-

fered to them. It is easier to sit back and let

someone else provide the food and shelter

and make the decisions than to undertake

the burden of life in a competitive society.

PRESENT POLICY OF WAR RELOCATION

AUTHORITY

The War Relocation Authority came into

the picture of evacuation shortly after the

original evacuation order. The original plan

of the Authority was to assist persons ex-

cluded from certain areas in finding work

and to provide food and shelter for those

who could not. The work was not (and is

not) restricted to persons of Japanese an-

cestry. However, as is indicated in the first

BOTANY.—kKillipiella, a new Colombian genus of Vacciniaceae.'

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

part of this paper, the relocation centers for

Japanese came into existence through a

number of unforeseen factors. Since last

summer, however, the Authority has been

concerned with the problem of how to get

people out of the centers and back into

American life. In this connection, a number

of specific things have been done. Last Oc-

tober a special leave policy was developed

whereby individuals could apply for leave

from the center if they had a job or some

other means of support. In February, 1943,

the Army reopened its ranks to a limited

number of Japanese-Americans.

In connection with the general policy of

resettlement now of primary concern to the

Authority, there are a number of special

problems that are rather difficult to over-

come. American public opinion does not

always distinguish between our Japanese

enemies in the Pacific and the Japanese-

American minority group in this country.

The growth of wardship and institutionaliza-

tion in the relocation center residents them-

selves is another factor that tends to

perpetuate the existence of centers.

A. C. SMITH,

Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University. (Communicated by WiiuiAm R.

Maxon.)

Among many plants of unusual interest

from the Chocé region of Colombia, E. P.

Killip obtained in 1939 a specimen of the

family Vacciniaceae that apparently repre-

sents a new genus. At first glance this

plant, with its stiff parallel-veined leaves

and 1-flowered bracteate inflorescences, re-

sembles the family Epacridaceae, which is

scarcely to be expected from the region.

Examination of the flowers proves it to be-

long to the Vacciniaceae, in which it is only

remotely related to described genera. It is a

pleasure to dedicate the new genus to the

collector, my colleague and friend, in appre-

ciation of his invaluable work on the flora

of Colombia. The accompanying illustration

has been prepared by Gordon W. Dillon.

Killipiella A. C. Smith, gen. nov.

Calyx cum pedicello minuto articulatus, tubo

1 Received May 1, 1943.

conico-cupuliformi, limbo erecto quam tubo

longiore fere ad basim 4-diviso, lobis papy-

raceis textura bracteis similibus. Corolla cy-

lindrico-conica, lobis 4 sub anthesi conspicuis

lanceolatis demum valde reflexis. Stamina 8

similia corollam subaequantia sub anthesi ex-

serta, toro basi corollae inserta, filamentis

liberis vel inter se basi leviter cohaerentibus,

antheris basim versus dorsifixis gracilibus rig-

idis erectis, thecis minute granulosis basi con-

spicue appendiculatis, tubulis quam thecis fere

duplo longioribus gracilibus copiose sed minute

tuberculatis per rimas introrsas apicales plus

minusve elongatas dehiscentibus. Ovarium in-

ferius, loculis 4, dissepimentis ut videtur de-

mum evanescentibus, placentis parvis basim

angulorum versus dispositis, ovulis maturis

paucis plerumque 1-3 in quoque loculo (aliis

abortivis) conspicue reticulatis. Discus ovarium

coronatus pulvinatus apice depressus, stylo fili-

formi corollam subaequante sub anthesi ex-

serto, stigmate truncato.

Ave. 15, 1943

Frutex epiphyticus, ramulis gracilibus elon-

gatis, stipulis nullis. Folia alternata parva

breviter petiolata nervis subimmersis copiosis

subparallelis. Inflorescentia axillaris uniflora

abbreviata, rhachi brevi bracteis imbricatis ad-

pressis concavis obtecta, flore solitario termi-

nali apice rhachis subsessili.

Killipiella styphelioides A. C. Smith, sp. nov.

Frutex epiphyticus, ramulis 1-2 mm. dia-

metro saepe nodis inferioribus radicantibus

dense tomentellis (pilis brunneo-stramineis

0.5-0.7 mm.longis) demum glabrescentibus basi

petiolorum incrassatis; petiolis 1-2 mm. longis

sub- vel semiteretibus circiter 1 mm. diametro

primo ut ramulis pilosis; laminis coriaceis

anguste oblongis, 15-32 mm. longis, 4-8 mm.

latis, basi rotundatis vel obtusis, apice acutis et

saepe calloso-mucronulatis, glabris vel basi et

margine basim versus pilosis, costa supra plana

vel leviter impressa subtus prominula, nervis

secundariis numerosis e basi adscendentibus

venulis inconspicuis conjunctis interdum sub-

tus prominulis; rhachi subtereti glabra 3-4 mm.

longa circiter 0.7 mm. diametro bracteas 7—10

gerente; bracteis papyraceis in sicco stramineis

oblongis vel ovatis, apice acutis vel subacutis,

margine pilis crispatis 0.15—0.3 mm. longis dense

ciliato excepto glabris, bracteis inferioribus

minimis, superioribus ad 6.5 mm. longis et 3

mm. latis basim calycis circumdantibus; pedi-

cello circiter 0.15 mm. longo inconspicuo;

calyce 7.5-8.5 mm. longo, tubo 2—2.5 mm. longo

et circiter 1.5 mm. diametro pilos paucos min-

utos brunneo-glandulosos gerente, limbo lobis

inclusis 6-6.5 mm. longo, lobis oblongis basim

versus 1.3-2 mm. latis superne gradatim angus-

tatis, apice subacutis vel obtusis et inconspicue

callosis, ut bracteis ciliato-marginatis, glabris

vel interdum extus obscure brunneo-glandulo-

sis; corolla glabra tenuiter carnosa circiter 10

mm. longa et 2mm. diametro ante anthesin api-

cem versus gradatim. angustata, lobis 5-7 mm.

longis et basim versus circiter 1.5 mm. latis, ad

apicem subacutum angustatis, margine leviter

inflexo tenuioribus et obscure undulatis; fila-

mentis ligulatis tenuiter carnosis 3-3.5 mm.

longis circiter 0.3 mm. latis margine parce pilo-

sis, antheris 7.5-9 mm. longis, thecis 2.5-3 mm.

longis, appendice basali conspicua 0.2-0.5 mm.

longa saepe subspathulata, tubulis 5-6 mm.

longis; disco glabro circiter 0.5 mm. alto et basi

1 mm. diametro.

SMITH: A NEW COLOMBIAN GENUS OF VACCINIACEAE

243

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no.

1771962, collected in dense forest of the

Corcovado region, upper Rio San Juan, ridge

along Yeraciii Valley, Intendencia El Chocé,

Colombia, altitude 200-275 meters, April 24

or 25, 1939, by E. P. Killip (no. 35222).

Although the curious plant here described is

obviously a member of the Vacciniaceae, I am

unable to refer it to any described genus. At

first appearance it does not suggest the known

members of the family, its stiff leaf-blades, stri-

ate with copious ascending veins, and its 1-

flowered profusely bracteate inflorescences giv-

ing it a very distinctive aspect. The superficial

resemblance of Killipiella to the family Epa-

cridaceae is striking; its foliage is remarkably

similar to that of Styphelia spp., while its in-

florescences are precisely matched, in general

aspect, by those of certain species of Epacris

and Styphelia. Examination of the flower, with

its inferior ovary and typical vacciniaceous

stamens, indicates the true place of the Colom-

bian plant. The deeply lobed calyx-limb, which

is similar to the bracts in texture, the corolla

with elongate reflexed lobes, the slender stiff

anthers with appendaged bases and tuberculate

tubules, the conspicuous pulvinate disk, and

the few and reticulate ovules are all highly

noteworthy features.

In the most recent general revision of the

Vacciniaceae, Sleumer (Bot. Jahrb. 71: 375-

510. 1941) does not emphasize the traditional

distinction of two tribes, the Vaccinieae and

the Thibaudieae, although he does base the

major divisions of his key upon this cleavage.

In 1932 (Contr. U. 8S. Nat. Herb. 28: 320), I

briefly discussed the intangible nature of the

two tribes, and since then I have been forced

to the conclusion that such tribes are entirely

artificial. Such a genus as Killipiella, for in-

stance, demonstrates relationships with mem-

bers of both tribes, although it has no close

relatives in either. An ultimate revision of gen-

eric lines in the Vacciniaceae will probably be

based primarily upon staminal characters

rather than upon such indefinite features as

size and texture of corolla.

Killipiella appears to be a very isolated

genus. Possibly Disterigma (Kl.) Niedenzu is

its closest relative, but in that genus the pedicel

is obvious and bears two large clasping bracte-

oles at its summit. The inflorescence bracts of

Kullipiella are somewhat suggestive of these,

244

but they apparently arise from the rachis, the

actual pedicel being reduced to an inconspicu-

ous length. I have interpreted the inflorescence

of Killipiella as consisting of a short rachis,

bearing several imbricate bracts and a terminal

subsessile flower. If this interpretation is cor-

rect, such an inflorescence is probably a reduc-

tion from the racemose several-flowered type

which is common in the family. The deeply cleft

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

calyx-limb and corolla of the new genus are un-

like these organs in Disterigma, while the rro-

portionately short filaments, the basal anther-

appendages, and the conspicuous disk further

differentiate it. The copiously tuberculate

anther-tubules of Killipiella are not matched in

any other vacciniaceous genus known to me,

the tubules elsewhere being smooth, or in some

cases obscurely tuberculate at the very base.

ive

tC CLE CCC EL ee CCC EC twee rin ts

Lt ke t cn ccc’

Ce tebiak SH greet eeu eee es etecs

veel: 12 ray OA oT ASPAS osu NGau eee

Fig. 1.—Killipiella styphelioides: a, Portion of branchlet, with four inflorescences, the lowermost with

corolla in position, <1; b, an inflorescence, with projecting corolla-bud, 2; c, calyx, with one lobe re-

moved, showing disk and style, X38; d, ovule, X12; e, corolla and stamens, X38; f, stamen, introrse

view, X4;g, detail of base of stamen, <6; h, detail of apex of tubule, X50.

BOTAN Y.—Stem and foliage scab of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas).1

ANNA E.

JENKINS, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, and

Aums&s P. Vineas, Instituto Agronémico do Estado de Sao Paulo, Brazil.

New findings in widely separated parts of

the world of a previously little known but

destructive disease of sweet potato (Ipo-

moea batatas Poir.), including the discovery

of a hitherto unknown stage in the life his-

tory of the pathogen Sphaceloma batatas

Saw., are here reported. It seems desirable

also to review the two sole accounts? of

this disease, since these earlier records, in

Japanese, are not readily available to occi-

dental readers.

HISTORICAL

In 1931, Sawada (6) reported the occur-

rence in Formosa of what he termed the

1 Received March 30, 1943.

2 For a translation of these two articles the

writers are indebted to K. Katsura.

‘bud stunting disease’ of sweet potato.

This had been present in Formosa since as

early as 1910, as shown by the 19 specimens

cited in connection with the description of

the pathogen. The first of these, as well as

five others, were gathered by R. Suzuki. It

has been learned, however, from cor-

respondence with Sawada (1938) that Su-

zuki did not realize at the time that a new

disease was concerned. ‘‘When the disease is

severe,’’ Sawada states (6), ‘it is impossible

to correct it.’? He continues:

“The disease is severe in localities where

rain, dew, or mist is abundant. In high

mountainous regions sweet potatoes grown

at high elevations are easily attacked, be-

cause of abundant mist; also those grown in

shaded places because of dews. Among

Ave. 15, 1943

sweet potato varieties ‘Red Skin’ is the

most susceptible.”

In 1937, K. Goto? reported (2) severely

diseased sweet-potato vines from Kago-

shima-Ken, Amami Islands, as affected by

Sawada’s bud stunting disease. He noted:

‘The writer received a specimen of diseased

potato stems and leaves from Mr. Taro

Hoko of Kagoshima-Ken, on September 23

of this year (1937), with a note by him stat-

ing that there is an outbreak of the disease

every year in the Amami Islands, and ask-

ing the author’s opinion regarding the dis-

ease. He was of the opinion that the disease

is caused by a fungus belonging to Sphace-

loma, since it resembles anthracnose of

grapes.” (Fig. 1, C.)

Goto referred to the vine disease of sweet

potatoes as “shoot scab.” It is here called

“stem and foliage scab.”

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE

In September, 1937, R. G. Oakley, of the

United States Bureau of Entomology and

Plant Quarantine, found this same disease

on the island of Guam; he sent specimens to

his Bureau, whence they were referred to

the senior writer, who made the diagnosis.

The symptoms represented (Fig. 1, B) were

entirely in agreement with the description.

A specimen from Guam was then sent to

Sawada, who was of the same opinion and

who contributed part of the type specimen

of Sphaceloma batatas (Fig. 1, A).

In 1938 and 1939 Oakley again sent speci-

mens of the disease from Guam. In trans-

mitting the specimen of 1938 (Guam 726)

he wrote’ that ‘‘the appearance of sweet

potatoes affected by the disorder is very un-

usual as they, in some cases, grow straight

upwards a foot higher than vines growing

normally.’’ He has furnished a summary of

the prevalence of the disease in Guam dur-

ing 1937-1939 as follows:

“The disease was plentiful in 1937 when

patches of infected vines could be discerned

at a distance of 25 yards by the straight

’ Laboratory of Black-rot Control, Agricul-

tural Experiment Station, Tiba, Japan.

4 Letter dated June 5, 1938, addressed to E. R.

Sasscer, Division of Foreign Plant Quarantine.

JENKINS AND VIEGAS: STEM AND FOLIAGE SCAB OF SWEET POTATO

245

and high growing shoots,” these extending

‘above the normal growth. Field infections

in 1938 were less plentiful, and in 1939 dis-

eased vines could rarely be found and then

only after extended search.”’

In Guam, where sweet potatoes have

long been cultivated, only two previous

references to diseases of the crop have been

found. During Weston’s (7) plant-disease

survey of the island in 1918, he reported

white rust (Albugo sp.). Several years ear-

lier, when David T. Fullaway, entomologist

of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment

Station, made an entomological survey of

Guam (1), he found “‘sweet potatoes badly

blighted by a fungus disease.’’ In 1938,

replying to an inquiry, accompanied by a

photograph of a specimen from Guam (Fig.

1, B), he wrote that he believed this disease

was the same as that discovered by Oakley

in 1937, although it was difficult to remem-

ber over so long a period. About this time

replies to similar inquiries were received

as follows: O. H. Swezy, of Hawaii, who

made an insect pest survey in Guam in

1936, wrote: ‘“‘My recollection is that the

leaves [of sweet potatoes] were always in

good condition, except for a small amount

of caterpillar work, which was distinctly

different from the condition shown in your

photos.’”’ G. O. Ocfemia stated that so far

as he knew, stem and foliage scab had not

been found in the Philippines. G. K. Parris,

who catalogued the plant diseases of Hawaii

(4), wrote that the disease had not been

recorded in that Territory.

In Brazil stem and foliage scab of sweet

potatoes was discovered on plants growing

on the experiment farm of the Instituto

Agronomico at Campinas, first in January,

1939, by A. S. Costa, and again in February,

1940, by O. Boock. Diseased specimens

gathered at Campinas are similar to those

from Pacific regions. A specimen of diseased

sweet-potato leaves from Alagoinhas, Bafa,

Brazil, collected in March, 1937, by H. S.

Fawcett and A. A. Bitancourt resembles

closely the specimen from Campinas and

evidently represents the same disease. It

was collected as a possible Sphaceloma dis-

ease, but upon microscopic examination in

Sao Paulo no organism was distinguished,

246

nor was any isolated.’ Such a situation is

not unusual in the case of infection by

species of Sphaceloma. S. batatas was scant

on the material from Guam examined

microscopically; the specimens sent in 1938

were picked fresh and forwarded by clipper

mail but cultures from them yielded nega-

tive results as did those made from speci-

mens sent by Sawada in August, 1988.

Goto, however, succeeded in isolating the

organism.

SYMPTOMS

Symptoms of the disease on leaves as de-

scribed by Sawada are as follows:

“On leaves, veins are mostly attacked;

spots small, round or oblong, slightly con-

cave, cinnamon or vinaceous tawny, 1-2.5

mm in diam., mostly in groups, which later

coalesce; outer surface of more or less corky

appearance, depending on the degree of the

attack ; leaves become curled or their growth

checked, petioles curled, veins shrunken.”

Sawada did not describe stem cankers,

although these are present on specimens

that he sent (Fig. 1, A).

Goto states that the disease appears to

attack young organs, and that the growth

of leaves and stems becomes irregular and

produces many abnormal shapes, as well as

stunting of petioles and blades. The follow-

ing description of stem cankers is from

Goto’s account:

On the extreme tip of the shoot and some-

what below, spots appear as flat or some-

what raised purple brown dots, depressed

at the center, with a gray or light brown

border. The marginal region appears water-

soaked when the weather is damp. Farther

downward the diseased spot becomes

gradually larger, 0.5-3 mm, and is circular,

oblong, or spindle-shaped, or intermediate

between these shapes, somewhat depressed,

gray or brown, and somewhat roughened or

scablike. Where the stem is green, the spot

is surrounded by a narrow purple margin,

which is sometimes depressed. Dark brown

spots also appear on the attacked area.

Where cankers are numerous they coalesce,

° Data furnished by A. A. Bitancourt, Instituto

Biologico, Séo Paulo, Brazil, who contributed the

specimen from Alagoinhas.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

forming a large scab. Spots on petioles are

of similar appearance to those on stems;

however, they seem a little larger, over 5

mm in length. All the spots become whitish

with age.

The stem cankers on the specimens from

Brazil agree with those described by Goto.

On the leaves, however, interveinal spots

are fully as numerous as those on veins.

THE PATHOGEN

Sawada’s illustration of Sphaceloma ba-

tatas is reproduced in Fig. 2, D, and his

description of the fungus is given below:

Sphaceloma batatas Saw.

Mycelium scanty, penetrating the cell walls

of the diseased tissue, colorless, septate, 2-2.5u

in diameter, acervuli colorless, forming under

the epidermis and later become exposed by

rupturing the epidermis, 12—25u in diameter,

with 1 or 2 layers of stroma, cells polyangular,

about 4u in size, upon which many conidio-

phores are produced. Conidiophores short,

single celled, 6—-8u in length, conidia oblong,

colorless, single celled, smooth, 6—7.5u by 2.5—

3.0.

On the material that Goto studied he

found the acervuli to arise subcuticularly.

He gave the following measurements: acer-

vuli, 14-61, in diameter, with some of those

that have united once reaching over 109y;

conidiophores, about 10u long and 3y wide;

conidia 4.2-9.3 by 2.4-3.3u, or about the

same as those of the Formosan type.

Referring to the fact that Sphaceloma

fungi are difficult to isolate because of their

slow growth, Goto reported that he was able

to isolate S. batatas by placing a piece of

diseased stem upon onion agar after it had

been dipped in mercuric chloride (1:1000)

for about one minute and washed. In the

first set of cultures one out of eight tubes

showed growth after seven days; in the

second, two tubes out of eight. This growth

was similar to cultures of S. rosarum from

rose, S. tsugiz from Paulownia, and #.

fawcettit from Citrus. The cultures grew

slowly and gradually became reddish brown

and raised in the form of a crust.

Sphaceloma was not detected on speci-

mens of stem and foliage scab from Campi-

Ava. 15, 1948 JENKINS AND VIEGAS: STEM AND FOLIAGE SCAB OF SWEET POTATO 247

nas, but on stem cankers an ascomycete of

the genus Hlsinoé (3) was present. Means

are not available at this time to show

whether the Elsznoé is the perfect stage of

S. batatas. It is here suggested that it may

well be; for in all species of Sphaceloma

where the life history is known, Elsinoé has

proved to be the ascogenous stage. It thus

seems feasible to treat S. batatas as the

conidial stage of the Elsinoé discovered on

sweet potato stems in Brazil. This is de-

scribed as follows:

Fig. 1.—Stem and foliage scab of sweet potato caused by Sphaceloma batatas Saw.: A, From Taihoku,

Formosa, June 25, 1925, K. Sawada, part of the type specimen, received from Sawada in August, 1938,

<1; B, from Radio Hill, Guam, September, 1937, R. G. Oakley, 1; C, from Amami Islands, Japan,

September, 1937, T. Tamotu, received from Goto, September, 1939, 1.

248

Elsinoé batatas Viégas and Jenkins, sp. nov.

Fig. 2, A-C

Maculae in foliis plerumque circulares, par-

vae, cinnamomeo- brunneae; cancri in caulibus

circulares, elliptici vel elongati, purpureo-

brunnei interdum centro pallidiores; hyphae

intraepidermicales vel subepidermicales de-

mum fere superficiales, atro-cinereae, stromata

20-60 X 16—20u formantes; asci in stratum sin-

gulum dispositi, globosi, 4—(6 ?) sporici, 15-16u

longi, 10-12u lati; ascosporae hyalinae, 7—8u

longae, 3—4u latae, septatae, curvatae.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 30, NO. 8

On leaves, spots on interveinal regions, veins,

and petiole, generally circular, small, on the

dry specimen ‘“‘mikado brown’; on stems,

circular, elliptical or elongate, ‘‘Hays brown,”

often with ‘‘wood brown” center; mycelium at

first intraepidermal, later passing to the sub-

epidermal tissue, i.e., to the cortical paren-

chyma, which becomes hypertrophied, the cells

dividing actively in different planes, lower

cells of this tissue divide longitudinally, collen-

6 The color readings given in quotations are

based on Ridgway’s color standards (5).

Fig. 2.—Elsinoé batatas on stem cankers of sweet potato from Campinas, S40 Paulo, Brazil: A and B,

Sections showing fruiting layer of the Elsinoé, with asci (A, b and B, a) ina single series, 500; A, c,

and B, b, hypertrophied parenchyma in longitudinal sections; C, ascus from B, X1,800; D, acervulus of

Sphaceloma batatas, after Sawada,

Ava. 15, 1948

chyma also hypertrophied, and soon the entire

mass of tissue collapses, and the walls of the

necrosed tissue darken; during this alteration

of the tissue, hyphae of the fungus develop

stromatically, at maturity they are external

or practically so, dark gray, 20-60 by 16—20u

with a single row of asci; asci globose, with

4—-(6 ?) spores, 15-16 by 10—-12yu; ascospores

hyaline 7-8 by 3—4y, septate, curved. Conidial

stage, Sphaceloma batatas Saw.

On leaves and stems of Ipomoea batatas

Poir., Alagoinhas, State of Bafa, and Campinas,

State of Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Type specimen: Campinas, Sao Paulo,

Brazil, January 14, 1939, A. 8. Costa (Herb.

Inst. Agron. de Sao Paulo 2726 and Mye.

Coll. Bureau of Plant Industry 74289).

While it is likely that Elsinoé batatas might

be introduced into new regions on slips of sweet

potatoes, there is no indication as to whether it

might be carried also on dormant tubers,

which seems less plausible.

SUMMARY

Stem and folliage scab of sweet-potato

vines *was first reported from Formosa in

1931 by Sawada, for the period 1910-1928.

In 1937 Goto identified the disease from

the Amami Islands. Their accounts of the

disease are the only ones previously pub-

lished.

Specimens collected in Guam in 1937 by

Oakley are diagnosed as affected by stem

and foliage scab. In the field the disease

could be recognized by the upright growth

of the vines, as compared with their normal

growth. Sweet potatoes in Guam ‘‘badly

blighted by a fungus disease” in 1911 may

have been affected by this malady.

FRIEDMANN: A NEW HONEY-GUIDE FROM CAMEROON

249

Stem and foliage scab was discovered in

Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil, by Costa

in 1939, and by Boock in 1940, and also in

Alagoinhas, Bafa, Brazil in 1937, by Faw-

cett and Bitancourt.

Symptoms of the disease as described on

leaves by Sawada and on stems by Goto are

given, as well as Sawada’s description of

the pathogen which he named Sphaceloma

batatas.

An ascomycete of the genus Elsinoé, dis-

covered on cankers of stem and foliage scab

from Campinas, is regarded as the perfect

stage of S. batatas and is described as E.

batatas.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Fututaway, D. T. Entomological notes.

In Thompson, J. B., Summary of in-

vestigations. Ann. Rep. Guam _ Agr.

Exp. Stat. for 1911: 26-35, illus. 1912.

(2) Goto, K. Outbreak of shoot scab of sweet

potato in Amami Islands. Ann. Phyto-

path. Soc. Japan 7: 143-145, illus.

1937. (In Japanese.)

(3) Jenkins, A. E., and Brrancourt, A. A.

Revised descriptions of the genera Elsinoé

and Sphaceloma. Mycologia 33: 338-

340. 1941.

(4) Parris, G. K. A check list of fungi, bac-

teria, nematodes, and viruses occurring in

Hawaii, and their hosts. U. 8S. Dept.

Agr. Plant Dis. Rep. Suppl. 121, 91 pp.

1940.

(5) Ripeway, R. Color standards and color

nomenclature, 43 pp., illus. Washington,

1912.

(6) Sawapa, K. Descriptive catalog of For-

mosan fungi, pt. 5: 105, illus. 1931.

(In Japanese.)

(7) Weston, W. H. Report of the plant dis-

ease situation in Guam. Ann. Rep.

Guam Agr. Exp. Stat. 1917: 45-62,

illus. 1918.

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new honey-guide from Cameroon.1 HERBERT FRIEDMANN,

U.S. National Museum.

W. E. C, Todd, of the Carnegie Museum,

Pittsburgh, has recently forwarded to me

for study and identification three little

honey-guides from Cameroon. Two of these

are Indicator exilis exilis, but the third one

1 Published by permission ‘of the Secretary of

> Smithsonian Institution. Received May 6,

43.

does not fit any known species. It is appar-

ently an adult bird and seems sufficiently

different from the first two to warrant nam-

ing. Because it occurs in the same general

area as I. e. exilis, it can not be described as

a race of that species and must therefore be

treated as a distinct species. It is proposed

to call it—

250

Indicator propinquus, n. sp.

Type.—Carnegie Mus. no. 118425, ¢, col-

lected at Donenkeng, Bafia, Cameroon, April

25, 1934, by Jacob A. Reis, Jr.

Description.—Similar to Indicator exilis exilis

but with the forehead, crown, occiput, nape,

and interscapulars more greenish and definitely

streaked with dusky; the lores, cheeks, auricu-

lars, and entire underparts paler and more

greenish, less olive-gray, and the bill slightly

more swollen. Forehead, crown, and occiput

olive lake, the crown and occiput streaked with

dusky olive (the streaks formed by dark shaft

stripes); ‘‘mantle,”’ 1.e., interscapulars, similar

but with the dusky streaks wider; back, lower

back, rump, and upper tail coverts very dark

olive-brown, the feathers conspicuously edged

with olive lake tinged with olive-ocher (as in

exilis); upper wing coverts and remiges dark

olive-brown, the coverts completely edged with

olive-ocher, the remiges externally so (as in

extlis); tail as in exilis—the median rectrices

very dark olive-brown to clove brown, the

others whitish merely externally edged and

terminally broadly tipped with dark olive-

brown to clove brown; lores, cheeks, auriculars,

and sides of neck pale citrine-drab; chin and

upper throat whitish streaked with pale citrine-

drab; lower throat, breast, and sides deep

olive-buff streaked with citrine-drab (shaft

streaks) ; upper abdomen slightly paler and buf-

fier and with the streaks ashier; lower abdomen,

thighs, and under tail coverts pale creamy car-

tridge buff; bill chaetura black (when fresh);

feet water green (when fresh).

Measurements of type—Wing 72, tail 42.5;

culmen from the base 8; height of bill at angle

of gape 4.8, tarsus 14; middle toe without claw

JE Tova,

Remarks.—It may seem hazardous to de-

scribe a new honey-guide from a single speci-

men when the differences between it and the

fairly similar Indicator extlis exilis are rather

slight, but we may recall that a parallel situa-

tion is to be found in the larger species I. macu-

latus and I. feae. Thus, in speaking of the for-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

mer species, Bannerman (The Birds of Tropical

West Africa 3: 408. 1933) writes that ‘‘unless

handled, this honey-guide is impossible to dis-

tinguish from Indicator feae, and even then the

greatest care must be exercised.’ The two spe-

cies apparently occur together, as do also the

two small forms J. exilis and I. propinquus.

The possibility of the type of J. propinquus

being a seasonal variant of exzlis is ruled out by

the fact that I have compared it with specimens

of the latter species taken in January, March,

April, July, August, October, and December.

There is no seasonal plumage variation in

exilis.

Unfortunately I have had no opportunity to

examine material of the recently described In-

dicator appelator Vincent (Bull. Brit. Orn. Club

53: 130. 1933), known so far only from the

Mozambique-Nyasaland border, a couple of

thousand miles to the southeast of Cameroon.

However, in the description of appelator it is

stated that it has the ‘‘upper parts uniform and

not heavily striated... ,”’ although “the dark

centres to the feathers are evident in striations

on the forehead and crown, but do not extend

on to the nape....’’ The bill appears. to be

very similar to that of propinquus, ‘‘shorter and

narrower than any minor—in fact, of similar

length to exilis, but more swollen.’”’ Additional

information and material may some day

demonstrate the conspecificity of appelater and

propinquus, but it would be mere guess work

to claim any such degree of relationship now.

Chapin (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 75: 540.

1939) writes that ‘‘appelator ... must be a

very close ally”’ of exilis.

I am indebted to Mr. Todd for permission

to study his material and to describe the new

form included; to J. T. Zimmer, of the Ameri-

can Museum of Natural History, and to Dr.

H. C. Oberholser, of the Cleveland Museum of

Natural History, for generous loans of perti-

nent material. Through the cooperation of

these institutions I have been able to study a

series of 10 specimens of Indicator exilis exilis

as well as a good series of the larger but less

pertinent Indicator conirostris.

Aue. 15, 1943

SCHULTZ AND MILES: CHARACINID FISHES FROM SOUTH AMERICA

251

ICHTHYOLOGY.— Descriptions of anew genus and a new species of Parodontinae,

characinid fishes from South America.

LEONARD P. Scuuutz, U.S. National

Museum, and Crcit Miuss, Escuela Superior de Agricultura Tropical, Cali,

Colombia.

During the latter part of 1942 we were

comparing a specimen of a characinid fish

from Colombia with Apareiodon dariensis

Meek and Hildebrand. The Colombian fish

had a color pattern almost exactly like the

Panamanian species, but upon making fur-

ther studies we found it differed in several

respects and decided to describe it as new.

When Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann described

the genus Apareiodon (Ann. Carnegie Mus.

10: 71. 1916; genotype: Parodon piracicabae

Eigenmann), he referred Apareiodon dari-

ensts Meek and Hildebrand to it. This latter

species, from the Rio Cupe at Cituro,

Darién, Panama, was based on three speci-

mens, 105, 120, and 135 mm in length. The

second specimen, U.S.N.M. 78379, has been

carefully studied by us, and we must con-

clude that it belongs to the genus Saccodon

Kner and Steindachner.

Since we desired to understand more

thoroughly why Eigenmann would refer A.

dariensis to the genus A pareiodon, we stud-

ied all the fishes of this subfamily available

in the United States National Museum,

and, in addition, Dr. W. M. Chapman,

curator of fishes, California Academy of

Sciences, kindly lent most of their speci-

mens of this group for study by the senior

author, who appreciates this courtesy ex-

ceedingly. While working with the material,

it soon became obvious that a new genus

should be recognized and that the generic

relationships needed further examination.

This new genus is described below.

Subfamily PARODONTINAE

Parodontops, n. gen.

Genotype—Parodon ecuadoriensis Eigen-

mann and Henn, in Eigenmann, Henn, and

Wilson, Indiana Univ. Stud., no. 19: 12. 1914

(Vinces, Ecuador; Colimes, Rio Daule, Ecua-

dor).

This new genus is based on paratypes of

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

Bae sonian Institution. Received April 9,

Parodon ecuadoriensis EKigenmann and Henn

from Vinces, Ecuador, U.S.N.M. 76974, and on

another specimen of the same species, U.S.N.M

83535, from Ecuador, measuring 117 mm in

standard length.

After careful study of the 67-mm type (In-

diana Univ. Mus. 13104) of Parodon terminalis

Eigenmann and Henn (in Eigenmann, Henn,

and Wilson, Indiana Univ. Stud., no. 19: 12.

1914) from Vinces, Ecuador, we conclude that

it represents the young of P. ecuadoriensis.

Parodontops may be recognized from the

other genera in the subfamily Parodontinae by

its teeth, the two simple pectoral rays, i, 8

pelvics, along with the wide inner second sub-

orbital and narrow interopercle.

The following key will aid in separating the

various genera related to Parodontops, as well

as indicate some of the generic differences that

we have observed in this study.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF PARODONTINAE

la. Teeth in upper jaw 0+6-+0 and not in a

straight line; edge of thin upper lip free and

crossing middle of teeth on premaxillaries;

no teeth in lower jaw, the edge of which is

5-lobed; pectoral rays ii, 12 to 16; pelvics

MGWalibyaik sy (ites Mice... . Semen ate ome me

Sete epics Saccodon Kner and Steindachner

1b. Teeth in upper jaw normally 2+8-+2 (2 teeth

on each maxillary); upper lip not free but

forming part of flesh between bases of

teeth on premaxillaries.

2a. Pectoral rays ii, 14 to 17; pelvics i, 8; no

teethonlowerjaw....Parodontops,n. gen.

2b. Pectoral fin rays i, 11 toi, 16; pelvics i, 7,

rarely 1, 8.

3a, No teeth omilower jaw. <c.. 5.0 02 2 kee.

AF Rea: Apareiodon Eigenmann?

3b. Teeth at sides of lower jaw normally

3+3, but one or more may be lacking

INAS ViOUNTADS See cl cee eh te dace yr eee cep ck

....Parodon Cuvier and Valenciennes?

2 As near as can be determined from the de-

scriptions, supplemented by specimens in the

U. 8S. National Museum and from the California

Academy of Sciences, we think the following

species should be referred to this genus: Parodon

piracicabae Kigenmann, 1907 (genotype); Paro-

don affinis Steindachner, 1879 (=Parodon para-

guayensis Eigenmann, 1907); Aparezodon davisi

Fowler, 1941; Apareiodon hasemani EKigenmann,

1916; and Apareiodon itapicuruensis Kigenmann

and Henn.

3 As near as can be determined from the de-

252

Saccodon caucae, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2.

Rayapbo; Mazorcot

Holotype —U.S.N.M. 121285, a specimen,

109 mm in standard length, collected in the

upper Rio Cauca north of Cali, Colombia, by

Cecil Miles during October, 1942.

Paratypes.—All the paratypes bear the same

data as the holotype and are deposited in the

following institutions: United States National

Museum, No. 120166, 1380 mm in standard

length; Escuela Superior de Agricultura Tropi-

cal (H.S.A.T.), Cali, Colombia, a specimen 145

mm in standard length, numbered 17 in their

collection, Instituto de Ciencias Naturales,

Bogoté (1.C.N.B.), a specimen 115 mm; Mu-

seum of Comparative Zoology (M.C.Z.), a

specimen 135 mm.

These specimens usually occur in slowly

flowing streams, lazily at rest on the bottom,

frequently lying in groups of three or four and

perfectly visible. When disturbed, they dart

away extremely fast, often hiding among rocks

or seeking protection by brush along the banks.

They are difficult to catch.

Description—The description is based on

the holotype and paratypes listed above. Cer-

tain detailed measurements and counts were

made, and these data are recorded in tables

1 and 2 along with similar data on the paratype

of S. dartensis (Meek and Hildebrand) and for

other species. _

The head is a little depressed, the snout

scriptions, supplemented by numerous _speci-

mens in the U. S. National Museum and from

the California Academy of Sciences, we think

the following species should be referred to this

genus: Parodon suborbitalis Cuvier and Valen-

ciennes (genotype); Parodon apolinari Myers,

1930; Parodon bifasciatus Eigenmann, 1912;

Parodon buckleyt Boulenger, 1887; Parodon

caliensis Boulenger, 1895; Parodon carrikeri

Fowler, 1940; Parodon caudalis Fowler, 1940;

Parodon gestri Boulenger, 1902; Parodon hilariz

Reinhardt, 1866; Parodon nasus Kner, 1859;

Apareiodon pongoense Allen, 1942, which has two

small teeth on each dentary of the type, as found

when examined by the senior author; and Paro-

don tortuosus Kigenmann and Norris, 1900.

The holotype of several species listed here

should be examined to determine with greater

certainty whether each of these species really

belongs in the genus Parodon, except the geno-

type, P. suborbitalis. In the young of Parodon

the teeth on the lower jaw are often undeveloped,

and probably Apareiodon and Parodon should

not be separated generically.

* Corunta and Tusa are the common names of

Parodon suborbitalis in the Magdalena Basin of

Colombia.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

rounded, caudal region a little compressed;

nasal openings separated by a valvular flap and

located just in front of the eye; gill membranes

joined with a wide free fold across isthmus; no

teeth on lower jaw, the lower lip 5-lobed; pre-

maxillaries with six teeth, arranged in a broad

V-shape, the two inner ones located farthest

forward, no teeth on maxillaries; a fold of the

upper lip covers pediculate bases of teeth;

Fig. 1—Underside of head, with enlarge-

ment of teeth and lips.

groove at sides of snout ending opposite pos-

terior ends of dentary bones and not continuing

opposite outer ring of suborbital bones; pos-

terior margin of pupil in center of head; anus

equal distance from rear base of pelvics and

anal origin; insertion of pelvics equal distance

from front of eye and midcaudal fin base; dis-

tance from pelvic insertion to anal origin 3.6

and snout to dorsal 24, depth 4.3, head 4.2, all

in standard length; least depth of caudal

peduncle 1.9 in head; second simply ray of

dorsal not quite so long as first branched ray,

posterior margin of this fin a little concave;

first and second branched anal rays longest,

rear margin of anal fin truncate; margin of pec-

toral fin a little rounded, that of pelvics trun-

cate; caudal fin deeply forked, lobes pointed;

adipose fin small, inserted over middle of base

of anal fin; pelvics inserted under rear edge of

dorsal fin base; five or six scales between anus

and anal origin; the anterior rays of dorsal,

anal, and paired fins have free membranes de-

veloped along the posterior edge of the rays

that extend backward and partially cover the

next ray, thus further increasing the stream-

Ave. 15, 1943

line nature of this species and lessening re-

sistance in rapidly flowing mountain streams;

accessory pelvic scale present; the postclei-

thral process is broad and curves behind base

of pectoral fin, more or less enclosing it dorsally

and posteriorly; breast, belly, and all of body

except head fully scaled.

Color: The general color is darker above,

paler below, with three distinct rows of elon-

gate black blotches on sides, the lower one be-

SCHULTZ AND MILES: CHARACINID FISHES FROM SOUTH AMERICA

253

ginning behind head below lateral line consist-

ing of five elongate black blotches; along

lateral line are six black blotches; above the

lateral line is a row of six or seven blackish

blotches that are connected across the back by

the same number of dark saddles, these more

or less obscure anteriorly; lower surfaces of

pectoral fins white, but upper surfaces with

a wide darkish band distally and similar colora-

tion on pelvics but less distinct; anal with a

TaBLeE 1.—Counts MapDE ON VARIOUS SPECIES OF PARODONTINAE

Number of fin rays

: Dorsal Anal Pelvics Pectorals

Species

rons yee shies habe | Sante 1 ie re ne re i al re |) ey |) aS he | aes ais. jt att,

9 9 | 10); 6 7 a We Sta tassels MGs Ip SI aes) aay PG) |) aye

Apareiodon affinis........... = 3 6 8 | — | 16 1 5 8 8) an pee ff ae] | a |} SS |] Se |] S|

AZ UGPICUTUCNSIS......6..+5. —|— 1 1/— 2);—/]—]— 2);—|— gee Se | ee | cee ee

PAROMOTU NUOQTIUI < . 5 co eters eee ss — 5 | — 5 | 10 1)};—]— i 5 3 (i —

EESTLUON DUCES ais ore cue «ois '<' =" « —_— 1 || = || WS) |) eb | = | = PS 7 9 8 —}— | — | — | — | —

PPEOTIGOCTISC. «co.cc so oss 2 v's 8 — t | — 1 2);—;}—]— 1 ie een [fee rl Se | alt eee ees

[2 GGG TC ers CIOS OO OCC IaEIa —|— 3) || == 3 i] UG | == | = |) = | f 7 A ae ee | = | |] |

WECONLCNSUS coo Fok k sels ke oes 1 2 3 6/—{10;—}|]— 1 a 2|— — | — |} — | — | — |] —

PRTECUSIUS TE 2 oleic tc)iaiaie etd ole) stein S-+ —|{— 1] — 1 2;/—|]—|— 1 fe | a ee ee ee ea

PELOTLUOSUS\e ci oh s ss es 88 2 —|/|— 2|— 2 4;—]—|]—|]— 3 ag | ae || eee Se le

Saccodon dariensis........... —|/|— 2)— 2\|;— 4/—}; — | — |] — | — |] — 2 (aa ees ieee) be ee

REMRUTEC ROS! WWetditaleee a )- ais 2s —/—]} 5}/—] 5/—]}] 2};—}]—]}]—}—}—}| —|— |} — | — |] 6] 24—-

Parodontops ecuadoriensis....| — | — fs) || == S|) —= | UG | = fe = | |S |S | SS |] S|] 1 9 a 1

Number of scales before dorsal fin

Species 11 Teepe 12 123 13 134 14 14}

Apareiodon affinis............. 1 —_ — 2 3 — — —

PAR ALO DICUTUCTISUS «2 oe cae see ees — — 1 = — es = ae)

PATOdON NUGTW. ccc. ee os ee nee — — — 2 ae =e = wis

[2 GOLNC ALIA SoS Cae Oe Oe — 3 8 il — = ee pau

PP PONGOCTISE so coe eck so ees — — — 1 — ee ee. re

EPRELDIOULIUATU Deis eicis.c ec ess es — 2 » 4 == ee fe

MER TEACCD Sie eae) «a=, cco eile wes — — — — = 1 2 2

P 1 — pars

2 peses fas

= — 1

Fig. 2.—Saccodon caucae, n. sp.: Holotype (U.S.N.M. 121285),

109 mm in standard length. Photograph.

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8

TABLE 2.—CountTs AND MEASUREMENTS (IN HUNDREDTHS OF THE STANDARD LENGTH)

MADE ON SPECIMENS OF SACCODON

dariensis caucae

Characters pee PS oes

U.S.N.M. | U.S.N.M. | U.S.N.M. I.C.N.B. BS Aeoeaae es

78379 121285 120166 63 iy

Standard length in millimeters................. 93.5 109 127 115 145 138

Bengthvof Mead ccatvcrcc.c ie eisicicts echt menpeneieteustion ates 22.3 23.9 22.8 22e2, — Pape Uf

Greatestidepinofibodyaneae ae aoe eens 23.7 24.1 24.0 24.4 — 21.0

Diameter iOMmeye sss sia cheer agee doe aa eM tase Oe S 4.82 4.40 3.78 De22 — 3.62

ene thiohisnouts.ceucrs. seis oiio toutes tienes 8.56 9.53 8.66 7.83 — 9.13

Width of interorbital space...................- 9.10 10.1 9.84 9.57 — 9.86

Postorbital length of head..................... 11.3 11.7 ibaa! 9.57 — 10.9

Least depth of caudal peduncle................ 11.8 12.4 11.8 122) — 10.1

Length of caudal peduncle.................... 14.8 14.6 15.4 — — 16.8

Snoutstomdorsalloniginy yee ecineicceeoeirr eens 48.0 47.0 44.9 47.8 — 43.1

Snoutito adiposelorieiniysee ieee 85.4 84.8 84.6 87.9 — 82.0

Snoutstoranalloricinyaene cere encrmiennc 79.4 80.7 80.0 81.0 — 76.0

Snout to pectoral insertion...............+.-+- 19.4 20.0 18.3 19.1 — 18.8

Snoutstospelwachinseruion sree ee cineca ere 53.5 54.1 54.0 54.6 — 50.4

Length of longest dorsal ray... ...............- 18.8 23.7 19.6 22.6 — 19.9

Mengethyoflongestianaliunayeae meena sete cideiee aii 14.7 17.5 14.8 17.0 — 16.0

Length of longest pectoral ray................. 19.6 20.8 18.5 19.1 — 19.6

Length of longest pelvic ray..............0.0.. 17.6 17.8 16.1 17.4 = 18.5

Length of longest upper caudal ray............. — 26.5 — PB) — 22.8

Length of longest lower caudal ray............. — —_— PAL siZ 24.4 — 21.8

SMOUtACOATUS He cian eee mani meters auclerane te faccdona eames 67 .6 69.2 68.2 69.6 == 64.8

Anus toanalvonigim acs ist iacteae Vem core telsasss lcnenere 12.0 10.7 10.6 11.3 oo il 2

Dorsal base to adipose origin. .............-.6- 29.5 29.9 29.0 — — 29.0

Dorsalefin rays) ias.osic ys aise hese tee eae lean ee ii, 10 1i, 10 li, 10 li. 10 1i, 10 li, 10

Arnal mera ysin.catasc hci, Gaerne ate weer acas li, 7 ii, 7 ii, 7 Te 7 i, 7 ii, 7

Pectoralcfin raysiaic ofc G2 es woke tessa selenide Pee li, 12-11, 12 | ii, 15-11, 15 | 1, 15-11, 15 li, 16 ii, 16 ii, 15-11, 15

Relviaerhins Paysite he o miei ces el oheey he eRe eager i, 8-1, 8 i, 8-i, 8 i, 8-1, 8 — — i, 8-i, 9

Branched caudalirayswacs 44) eerie ee 17 17 == — — =

Sealesiimlateraléliniees 24.2 cance mona ec cece 36 40 41 41 39 41

Scales above lateral line ...5..--....--5-0905-- 44 43 43 x 43 43

Seales below lateral line.....................25. 3 tor 4 34 3 34 33

Scales around caudal peduncle................. 13 14 13 = ae 13

Scales in front of dorsal fin.................... 11 134 134 — — 13

Scales between dorsal and adipose fins........... 124 144 14 — — 14

blackish blotch; dorsal with blackish pigment blackish spot..... Saccodon caucae, n. sp.

basally and a blotch distally on anterior rays; 2b. Dorsal rays ii, 9; anal u, 8; pelvics ? ui, 8;

eaudal fin irregularly barred with black

blotches and two black spots basally; peri-

toneum dusky; a black spot in axis of pelvics.

Named caucae in reference to the Rio Cauca

of Colombia, where it was collected.

Remarks.—This new species differs from

other members of the genus Saccodon as in-

dicated in the key below.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF SACCODON

la. Pectoral fin rays ii, 15 to ii, 16; scales in

lateral line 4 or 44+39 to 41+8 or 33.

2a. Dorsal rays ii, 10; anal ii, 7; pelvics i, 8;

color pattern of elongate dark blotches

arranged in three streaks along sides,

each row consisting of 5 to 7 elongate

blackish blotches; caudal fin with elon-

gate black blotches, and a pair of large

spots basally on caudal fin; anal with a

color plain, no spots or blotches on sides

or on fins. 2090.0 .5 02602. eee

Saccodon wagnert Kner and Steindachner®

1b. Pectoral fin rays ii, 12; scales in lateral line

4 or 44+35 to 37+8; dorsal rays ui, 10;

anal ii, 7; pelvics i, 8; branched caudal fin

rays 17; 11 scales before dorsal fin; 123

between bases of dorsal and adipose fins;

color of 3 rows of oblong dark blotches

along sides; black blotches in caudal fin,

and a blackish blotch on dorsal and anal

5 Saccodon wagnert Kner and Steindachner,

Abh. Bay. Akad. Wiss. 10: 31, pl. 4, figs. 2, 2a,

1864 (Ecuador).—Ginther, Cat. Fishes Brit.

Mus. 5: 301. 1864 (Ecuador).—Eigenmann,

Mem. Carnegie Mus. 9: 112, pl. 19, figs. 7, 7a.

1922 (western slope of Ecuador).

Saccodon craniocephalum Thominot, Bull. Soc.

Philom. Paris 6: 248. 1882 (Rio Guayaquil).

This species is referred to wagnert with some

doubt as the description by Thominot is lacking

in detail and appears somewhat contradictory.

Ava. 15, 1948

PETS sg ees a Saccodon dariensis (Meek and

Hildebrand)®

6 Parodon darijensis Meek and Hildebrand,

Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. Zool. 10: 84. 1913

(Rio Cupe, Cituro, Panamd [Tuyra Basin]).

Apareiodon dariensis Meek and Hildebrand,

Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. Zool. 10: 271, pl. 17.

1916.—Eigenmann, Ann. Carnegie Mus. 10: 76.

1916 (western slopes of southern Panam4).—

Eigenmann, Mem. Carnegie Mus. 9 (1): 111.

1922 (Tuyra Basin).—Breder, Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist. 57: 114, fig. 5a. 1927 (Rio Tuguesa,

Panam4).—Hildebrand, Publ. Field Mus. Nat.

Hist., zool. ser., 22 (4): 248. 1988 (Rio Cupe;

Rio Chucunnaque; Rio Chiati).

Apareiodon compressus Breder, Amer. Mus.

Noy., no. 180: 4, figs. 3, 4. 1925 (Rio Tuquesa,

ZELIFF: A NEW CYCLOCOELUM FROM THE CATBIRD

255

Darién, Panamdé).—Breder, Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat, Hist. 57: 115, figs. 5b, 6. 1927 (Rio Tu-

quesa).—Hildebrand, Publ. Field Mus. Nat.

Hist., zool. ser., 22 (4): 248. 1938 (Chucunnaque

Basin).

The senior author has examined the type of

A. compressus, A.M.N.H. 8408. The left pectoral

fin has li, 12 rays, the right one being broken off

near its base; the dorsal is broken, but study

shows 11, 10 rays; both pelvics are in good con-

dition, with i, 8 rays each; anal ii, 7. The mouth

also is injured. The free upper lip character is

clear, but the positions of the teeth are not in a

straight line as in Parodon. The lower lip is

rounded, and the 5-lobed edge found in adults is

not developed. I conclude that A. compressus is a

synonym of Saccodon dariensis (Meek and Hilde-

brand).

ZOOLOGY .—A new species of Cyclocoelum, a trematode from the catbird.t C.

Courson ZEuiFF, Pennsylvania State College. (Communicated by A. Wrrt-

MORE.)

Four specimens of flukes belonging to the

genus Cyclocoelum Brandes were collected

from a dead catbird found in Adams Coun-

ty, Pa., during 1939 by Assistant Professor

Merrill Wood, an ornithologist of the Zool-

ogy Department of Pennsylvania State

College. They were presented to the author

for identification and study. Three of them

were in good condition and were stained

with Delafield’s hemotoxylin, a slight pres-

sure being applied to the specimens be-

tween slides. No previous record has been

found of a member of the genus Cyclocoelum

in catbirds, and a study of the worms indi-

cates sufficient anatomical differences to

justify regarding them as representing a

new species.

Cyclocoelum dumetellae, n. sp.

Specific diagnosis.—Body oblong, sides nearly

parailel in middle, body slightly curved to

right, narrowed slightly anteriorly and slightly

rounded posteriorly, 8.5 mm long by 1.5 mm

wide. Cuticle rough and scaly but not spiny.

Oral sucker 0.27 mm in diameter, subterminal

and rather faintly outlined. Acetabulum lack-

ing. Pharynx 0.22 to 0.27 mm wide by 0.27 to

0.30 mm long. Prepharynx present. Esophagus

0.5 mm wide, short and somewhat sinuous. In-

testinal caeca continuous in the posterior por-

tion, typical for the genus. Excretory vesicle

between the posterior arc and body wall, with

lateral excretory canals. Testes nearly spheri-

1 Received April 29, 1943.

cal, 0.52 mm in diameter, the posterior one oc-

casionally slightly flattened anteroposteriorly.

Anterior portion of vas deferens observed; vasa

efferentia not seen. Cirrus sac 0.07 mm wide by

0.26 mm long, on right side reaching anterior

intestinal are but rarely farther posteriad.

Genital pore at the level of posterior portion

of the pharynx. Ovary 0.26 to 0.30 mm in

diameter, between the testes, but to right of

and out of line with them. Seminal receptacle

unobserved. Mehlis’s gland oblong, approxi-

mately the size of ovary. Vitellaria extending

from slightly posterior of anterior intestinal are

or fork to the posterior border of the posterior

intestinal arc, mostly between the caeca and

the margins with slight overlapping of the

former in some areas; dorsal to caeca. Trans-

verse vitelline ducts between ovary and pos-

terior testis. Ootype and oviduct not observed.

Laurer’s canal apparently absent. Ova 60u by

120u.

Host.—Dumetella carolinensis (Linnaeus).

Location.—Air sac.

Locality — Adams County, Pa.

Type specimen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no.

36837; paratype, no. 36838.

Remarks.—Khan (1935) gives four groupings

of species of the genus based on the relation of

the ovary and testes and the intercaecal loca-

tion of the uterus. One of the three specimens

has the posterior testis somewhat oblong. Only

one has slight overlapping of the caeca by the

uterus. Other slight distortions or deviations

might be mentioned that would exclude a speci-

256

men from a system such as that given by Khan.

He lists 19 species, six being those described by

himself, one of which, C. nebulartum, has now

been allocated to Hoematctrephus by Lal

(1939). Bhalerao (1935) lists 11 species, one of

which is new and seven of which are not listed

by the former. Lal (1939) describes no new spe-

cies, but he suggests that Receptacoelum be cre-

ated for those species with a receptaculum

seminis. He considers Prohyptiasmus Witen-

berg to be asynonym of Cyclocoelum. Yamaguti

(1939) described C. turusig: from Tringa ery-

thropus, which makes at least six species in

sandpipers.

Fig. 1.—Cyclocoelum dumetellae, n. sp.: Ventral

view. (C'S, Cirrus sac; Ce, caecum; Es, esophagus;

Eg, egg; EV, excretory vesicle; M, mouth; MG,

Mehlis’s gland; OS, oral sucker; Ov, ovary; Ph,

pharynx; Te, testis; TVD, transverse vitelline

duct; Ut, uterus; VD, vas deferens; Vit, vitel-

laria. )

Observation of the drawings of the species

described by Khan (1935) indicates that the

curved conditions of his specimens are char-

acteristic of several species. This may be due to

contact with the tissues of the host or to a typi-

cal habit of muscular contraction. After com-

paring the characteristics of the specimens with

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

those of about 30 other species, particularly

North American species, considerable variation

is noted. The closest similarity is with C.

microcotyleum (Noble, 1933) and C. obscurum

(Leidy, 1887). Harrah (1922) gives a more com-

plete description of the latter.

C. dumetellae differs from the latter species in

a less forward extension of the vitellaria, sinu-

ous esophagus of uniform size, equal testes, and

(if constant) in having the anterior testis near

the left caecum; also from the former species

by the uniform size, the lesser width, presence

of an oral sucker, the diagonal relation of the

testes, and the position of the ovary on the

right side. The comparison with C. obscurum

is therefore closer than with C’. microcotyleum.

Harrah (1922) has shown that the position of

some organs in the body may be inverted in

the same species. This condition or a misinter-

pretation of the surfaces may account for diffi-

culties observed in drawings and descriptions.

The species herein described differs from C.

ovopunctatum Stossich, which is closely related

to C. obscurum, by the difference in the testis-

ovary ratio. It is not clear to the author from

the more complete description of Harrah (1922)

whether C. obscurum (Leidy, 1887) actually oc-

curs in the jewfish and also in birds since most

species of the genus have birds as hosts. The

former reports it from the western willet

(Catoptrophorus semipalmata inornata, formerly

Symphemia semipalmata inornata). It seems

likely that some error in labeling may account

for the record for the jewfish. An authority

whom the author consulted agrees with this

view:

LITERATURE CITED

BHALERAO, G. D. On two new monostomes

(Trematoda) from avian hosts in British

India. Indian Journ. Vet. Sci. and Ani-

mal Husb. 5: 49-63. 1935. ;

Harrau, BE. C. North American monostomes.

Illinois Biol. Monogr. 7(8): 1-106. 1922.

Kuan, M.H. On eight new species of the genus

Cyclocoelum Brandes from North Ameri-

can snipes. Proce. Acad. Sci. United

Provinces India 4 (pt. 4): 342-3870. 1935.

Lau, M. B. Studies in helminthology: Trema-

tode parasites of birds. Proc. Indian |

Acad. Sci. 10, sect. B (2): 111-200. 1939.

Leipy, JosepH. Notice of some parasitic

worms. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel-

phia, 1887: 20-24. 1887.

Nose, A. EK. Two new trematodes from the

American coot. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc.

52 (4): 353-360. 1933.

YamacutTl, 8. Studies on the helminth fauna of

Japan, pt. 25. Trematodes of birds, IV.

Jap. Journ. Zool. 8: 132. 1939.

CONTENTS

GEOCHEMISTRY.—Clays and soils in relation to geologic processes.

CEARENCE 8S. ROSS. eo ee Ce eee ane

Puysics.—The scientific significance of ferromagnetism. FRANCIS

Birra 2 x ee we gee ORR pL GUO Se SOND Gn ae eae

ANTHROPOLOGY.—The relocation of persons of Japanese ancestry in the

United States: Some causes and effects. JOHN F. EMBREE.....

Botany.—Kiullipiella, a new Colombian genus of Vacciniaceae. A. C.

SMITE sea ne

~Botany.—Stem and foliage scab of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas).

ANNA E. JENKINS AND AHM#ES P. VIBGAS.................-4-.

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new honey-guide from Cameroon. HERBERT

FRIBDMAND » 055008 ea a i eee

IcHTHYOLOGy.— Descriptions of a new genus and a new species of

Parodontinae, characinid fishes from South America. LEONARD

Po ScHULTZ AND “CHCTL WEBS 650 i Oe a oh

ZooLtocy.—A new species of Cyclocoelum, a trematode from the cat-

bird... C.-COURSON ZELIPRY ooo We ee a een oe ea

This Journal Is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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225

2395

238

242

244

249

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

SEPTEMBER 15, 1943

No. 9

PALEONTOLOGY.—Jefferson’s contribution to paleontology... Rotanp W.

Brown, U. 8. Geological Survey.

Thomas Jefferson’s life spanned the

eventful interval of 83 years from 1743 to

1826. This was a restless time when men

rebelled against political tyranny and

sought freedom of body and mind to inves-

tigate nature, engage in legitimate business,

and pursue happiness. Although he is

known best for his great contribution to the

political and humanitarian part of this

movement, the many-sided Jefferson also

wrote his name imperishably into the early

annals of science in the United States.

If, in 1797, we could have peeped into

the baggage that accompanied Jefferson

from Monticello to Philadelphia, when he

was inaugurated as Vice-President in the

administration of John Adams, we should

probably have been astonished at what we

saw. One box contained some large bones

and a manuscript describing them. This

manuscript was communicated to the

American Philosophical Society at Philadel-

phia on March 10, 1797, and was published

in 1799.” The first paragraphs introduce and

describe these bones and illustrate Jeffer-

son’s style:

In a letter of July 3d, I informed our late most

worthy president that some bones of a very large

animal of the clawed kind had been recently dis-

covered within this state, and promised a com-

munication on the subject as soon as we could re-

cover what were still recoverable of them. It is

well known that the substratum of the country

beyond the Blue Ridge is a limestone, abounding

in large caverns, the earthy floors of which are

1 Substance of an informal communication to

the Geological-Society of Washington, April 14,

1943. Published by permission of the Director,

U.S. Geological Survey. Received May 24, 1943.

2 JEFFERSON, THoMas. A memoir on the dis-

covery of certain bones of a quedruped of the clawed

kind in the western parts of Virginia. Trans. Amer.

Philos. Soc. 4: 246-260. 1799.

highly impregnated with nitre; and that the in-

habitants are in the habit of extracting the nitre

from them. In digging the floor of one of these

caves, belonging to Frederic Cromer in the county

of Greenbriar [now in West Virginia], the laborers

at the depth of two or three feet, came to some

bones, the size and form of which bespoke an

animal unknown to them. The nitrous impregna-

tion of the earth together with a small degree of

petrification had probably been the means of their

preservation. The importance of the discovery

was not known to those who made it, yet it ex-

cited conversation in the neighborhood, andled

persons of vague curiosity to seek and take away

the bones. It was fortunate for science that one

of its zealous and well informed friends, Colonel

John Stewart of that neighborhood, heard of the

discovery, and, sensible from their description,

that they were of an animal not known, took

measures without delay for saving those which

still remained. He was kind enough to inform me

of the incident, and to forward me the bones from

time to time as they were recovered. To these I

was enabled accidentally to add some others by

the kindness of a Mr. Hopkins of New York, who

had visited the cave. These bones are,

1 st. A small fragment of the femur or thigh

bone; being in fact only its lower extremity, sepa-

rated from the main bone at its epiphysis, so as to

give us only the two condyles, but these are nearly

entire.

2d. A radius, perfect.

3d. An ulna, or fore-arm, perfect, except that

it is broken in two.

4 th. Three claws, and half a dozen other bones

of the foot; but whether of a fore or hinder foot,

is not evident.

These bones only enable us to class the animal

with the unguiculated quadrupeds; and of these

the lion being nearest him in size, we will compare

him with that animal... I will venture to refer

to him by the name of the Great-Claw or Mega-

lonyx to which he seems sufficiently entitled by

the distinguished size of that member...

Then follows a comparison of the respec-

tives bones of the lion and Megalonyz. Jef-

ferson concludes:

257

258

Let us only say then, what we may safely say,

that he was more than three times as large as the

lion: that he stood as preeminently at the head of

the column of clawed animals as the mammoth

stood at that of the elephant, rhinoceros, and hip-

popotamus: and that he may have been as formid-

able an antagonist to the mammoth as the lion

to the elephant...

The remainder of the paper is devoted to

speculations as to whether Megalonyx had

become extinct. As Louisiana Territory had

not yet been purchased and explored, Jeffer-

son said: ‘“‘Our entire ignorance of the im-

mense country to the West and North-

West, and its contents, does not authorize

us to say what it does not contain.’”’ In

support of this suggestion that Megalonyx

might still be living in the western part of

the country he submitted reports that carv-

ings on rocks near the confluence of the

Kanawha and Ohio Rivers were said to de-

pict lionlike animals; and he recounted

tales of settlers and adventurers who said

they had heard the roar of strange beasts

at night near their cabins and camps.

Unless it is already clearly understood

where described fossil specimens have been

placed so that future students may examine

them, paleontologists should state expli-

citly how they have disposed of their mate-

rial. Jefferson did not neglect this office but

concluded his paper in somewhat the legal

language of a will:

To return to our Great-Claw: I deposit his

bones with the Philosophical Society, as well in

evidence of their existence and of their dimen-

sions, as for their safe-keeping; and I shall think

it my duty to do the same by such others as I

may be fortunate enough to obtain the recovery of

hereafter.

These bones are now at the Academy of

Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

Jefferson now had an experience that

may come to all paleontologists. It some-

times happens that after a paper has been

published the writer discovers that another

has anticipated his ideas. Thus, after his

paper had been submitted, Jefferson was

obliged to add a postscript in which he re-

ports that in the Monthly Magazine, Sep-

tember, 1796, London, he had seen an ac-

count of animal remains dug up near the

LaPlata River in Paraguay. He says:

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 9

This skeleton is also of the clawed kind, and

having only four teeth on each side above and

below, all grinders, is in this account classed in

the family of unguiculated quadrupeds destitute

of cutting teeth, and receives the new denomina-

tion of Megatherium... The Megatherium is

not of the cat form, as are the lion, tyger, and

panther ... According to analogy then, it prob-

ably was not carnivorous, had not the phosphoric

eye, and the leonine roar. But to solve satisfac-

torily the question of identity, the discovery of

foreteeth, or of a jaw showing it had, or had not,

such teeth, must be waited for, and hoped with

patience. It may be better, in the mean time, to

keep up the difference of name.

As this was the only article Jefferson

published on fossils he may be classed as a

one-paper paleontologist. His interest in

paleontology, however, continued una-

bated, and during his Presidency he had

some 300 specimens of mammoth and other

bones from the celebrated Pleistocene local-

ity at Big Bone Lick, Boone County, Ky.,

spread around on the floors of the White

House. His generic name Megalonyx still

stands. He did not propose a specific name

for this creature, but this omission was ap-

propriately remedied in 1822 by the French

naturalist Desmarest who called it Megal-

onyx jeffersont. The only assembled skeleton

of this species may be seen in the museum

of the Ohio State University, Columbus,

Ohio. The animal was a ground sloth, of

herbivorous habits, and not a lion or lionlike

beast as Jefferson thought. Megatherium is

a genus closely related to Megalonyx. Re-

mains of both have been found in Pleisto-

cene deposits, chiefly in caves, at widely

scattered localities in North and South

America. |

Whether Jefferson should be considered

an inventor rather than a scientist is a

question I shall not attempt to discuss. He

was certainly a generous and enthusiastic

patron of science and was a potent cause

that science was cultivated by other men.

He was apparently a member of every lit-

erary and scientific society in the country

and was in touch with the foremost Amer-

ican scientists of the day—Benjamin Frank-

lin, Joseph Priestly (who had taken up

residence in Pennsylvania), Caspar Wistar,

etc. He also corresponded with foreign

scientists. The first president of the Amer-

Sept. 15, 1943

ican Philosophical Society was Benjamin

Franklin, the second was David Ritten-

house, and the third was Thomas Jefferson.

Jefferson once proposed the establish-

ment of a National Academy of Sciences

with headquarters at Washington and

branches in every State. This plan, how-

ever, did not materialize in his day. It

nevertheless casts a revealing light on his

mental processes. As everyone knows, he

was an individualist who believed in per-

sonal initiative and endeavor. He applied

this idea in the advocacy of States’ rights

and against paternalism in the Federal

PALEONTOLOGY.—A revision of the

U. 8S. Geological Survey.

Nearly 50 years have passed since the

publication of Wachsmuth and Springer’s

monographic treatment of the North Amer-

ican Crinoidea Camerata. Material col-

lected for some years prior to 1897 and since

that time has added considerably to our

knowledge of many of the genera and ren-

dered revisions of some of them imperative.

Springer had intended to do this work and

did so for several genera. Some 30 years ago

I pointed out:to him that a new genus was

represented within the group of species

referred to Steganocrinus. He agreed that

this was so. Doubtless owing to the pressure

of more important affairs and ill health,

Springer passed Steganocrinus by, along

with many other projects he had in mind.

Several species have erroneously been de-

scribed under Steganocrinus, and one genus

has been based on a typical form of the

genus. At this time the more obvious synon-

ymies and incorrect citations will be dealt

with. The type of Steganocrinus concinnus

(Shumard) has been found and proves to be

much like the original figure of Shumard

and quite unlike the forms subsequently re-

ferred to it by authors.

Genus Steganocrinus Meek and Worthen

Genotype.—Actinocrinus pentagonus Hall,

Meek and Worthen, 1866, p. 195.

Synonym.—Shumardocrinus Miller and Gurley.

(Genotype: Actinocrinus concinnus Shum-

ard, Miller and Gurley, 1895, p. 40.)

1 Published by permission of the Director,

U.S. Geological Survey. Received May 20, 1943.

KIRK: REVISION OF STEGANOCRINUS

259

Government. However, he did not find this

attitude inconsistent with the use of Fed-

eral money for the advancement of science

and the diffusion of knowledge which pro-

moted the welfare of the people.

Of all the sciences, stratigraphic geology

seemed least interesting to Jefferson. He

said that he ‘‘could not see any practical

importance in knowing whether the earth

was six thousand or six million years old,

and the different formations were of no

consequence so long as they were not com-

posed of coal, iron, or other useful min-

erals.”’

genus Steganocrinus.t Epwin Kirk,

Meek and Worthen (1866, p. 195) described

the genus Steganocrinus, including in it Ac-

tinocrinus pentagonus Hall, A. sculptus Hall,

and A. araneolus Meek and Worthen. They

twice indicate A. pentagonus as the typical spe-

cies, and this genotype has been recognized

generally. In a letter to Wachsmuth, dated

June 6, 1866, Worthen states: ‘‘We have made

a genus of Act. araneolus which we have named

Steganocrinus.” It has rather generally been

assumed that Meek was the responsible author

of most of the Meek and Worthen descriptions.

In the present instance it appears that Worthen

was unaware of Meek’s choice of pentagonus

as type of the genus, although the volume must

have been in press at the time the letter was

written. Of even more interest for our present

purposes, Worthen elsewhere in the same letter

writes: ‘‘Mr. Meek desires me to ask you if you

have a specimen of Act. sculptus with any por-

tion of the arms attached; if so he would much

like to see it. Perhaps you have only seen it in

some other collections, and if so he would like

to know whether there is more than one arm

to each ray.”’ Further, in a postscript, Worthen

writes: ‘“Mr. Meek also wishes to know if you

have seen the summit of Act. sculptus, and

know if it has a proboscis.”’ It is evident that

Meek was uncertain at the time whether

A. sculptus was properly to be placed in

Steganocrinus.

As restricted, the genus Steganocrinus forms

a compact, characteristic group of crinoids

known at present only in the Burlington lime-

stone and its equivalents of the lower Missis-

260

sippian. Formerly the genus was considered

chiefly to be represented in the lower Burling-

ton, but later collections have shown it to be

well represented in the upper Burlington. The

theca bears a striking resemblance to Actino-

crinus in form and ornamentation and can be

told with certainty only from the structure of

the post-I Ax brachials. Imperfect specimens,

specifically known to be Actonocrinus, are often

to be found in collections labeled as Stegano-

crinus. All the species described by Miller and

Gurley as Steganocrinus are referable to Actino-

crinus. This was inexcusable, as the specimens

are in an excellent state of preservation.

The theca of Steganocrinus runs a very simi-

lar gamut of form to that found in Actino-

crinus. The earlier species are proportionally

low and wide. The later species tend to be more

elongate. The tegmen is low and in most species

is made up of relatively few fairly large and

heavy plates. Typically the dorsal cup is lobate.

The lobation in some of the later species is very

pronounced. In Steganocrinus the RR and I Brry

alone are incorporated in the wall of the cup

proper. The distal portion of the JBr, is lat-

erally constricted. Ventrad, as seen where [Ax

is detached, there is a deep groove, the distal

face of the plate having practically the appear-

ance of a free brachial. The J Az flares outward

sharply and is essentially a part of the free

brachial series. The J Az frequently becomes de-

tached, along with the arms. As noted above, it

was on the assumed nonexistence of [Az that

Miller and Gurley based their genus Shumar-

docrinus. In some of the later species of Stegano-

crinus the R becomes proportionally larger, the

IBr,; smaller, and the J Az greatly reduced.

I Az bears a pair of rami modified into what

may be styled arm-trunks. They are uniserial,

composed of high Brr, and bear relatively

short, stout, biserial ramules. The drawing of

S. araneolus (Fig. 4) is taken from Wachsmuth

and Springer (1897). It shows the discrete [Ax

as regards the dorsal cup and the character of

the arm-trunks. The ventral groove is covered

by series of heavy plates. The structure is well

shown in Figs. 1 and 2. These figures are copied

from Wachsmuth and Springer (1897), where

they are identified as S. sculptus. They’are ac-

tually S. pentagonus. The ramules are borne on

alternate sides of the ramus. Typically each

Br bears a ramule. Exceptionally a nonramu-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

liferous Br is interposed. The ramules bear pin-

nules.

Species referred to the genus.—

Steganocrinus araneolus (Meek and Worthen)

Actinocrinus araneolus Meek and Worthen,

1860, p. 3887. ‘Burlington limestone,

Burlington, Iowa.” (Lower Burlington.)

Steganocrinus araneolus (Meek and Worthen),

1866, p. 198, pl. 15, figs. 1a, b.

Steganocrinus araneolus Wachsmuth and

Springer, 1881, p. 151 (325).

Steganocrinus araneolus Wachsmuth and

Springer, 1897, p. 581, pl. 61, figs. 2a, b.

It is possible that S. araneolus is the young of

S. pentagonus. It is suggestive that both at

Burlington, Iowa, and near Lake Valley, N.

Mex., the specimens of Steganocrinus fall into

two uniform lots. These are mainly separated

by size, for the differences in shape and orna-

mentation could readily be explained as due to

growth. There are no specimens in the collec-

tions identified as young S. pentagonus.

Steganocrinus concinnus (Shumard)

Actinocrinus concinnus Shumard, 1855, p. 189,

pl. A, fig. 5. ‘‘Encrinital limestone, North

River, Marion County, Missouri.”

Steganocrinus concinnus Wachsmuth

Springer (pars), 1881, p. 151 (325).

Shumardocrinus concinnus Miller and Gurley,

1895, p. 41. (The specimen shown in pl. 2,

figs. 7-10, is probably referable to S.

araneolus (pentagonus?).)

and

Aside from having been made the type of the

‘new genus” Shumardocrinus by Miller and

Gurley, this species has been universally mis-

understood. Meek and Worthen (1866, p. 200)

placed their Actinocrinus validus in synonymy

with it. Wachsmuth and Springer (1897, p.

582) followed this precedent and furthermore

figured as a representative of the species a form

widely divergent both from S. concinnus and

S. validus. The form figured by Wachsmuth

and Springer is here made a new species.

Wachsmuth and Springer (1897, p. 583)

stated that the type of S. concinnus was in the

‘“(Worthen) Illinois State collection at Spring-

field.”’ They must have been referring to the

type of S. validus. The type of S. concinnus is

now in the Springer collection in the United

States National Museum, having come to it by

purchase from Hambach.

The type of S. concinnus is a dorsal cup, lack-

ing the JAvz. Miller and Gurley’s (1895, p. 41)

dogmatic assertion that the species ‘‘never had

Serr. 15, 1943

any third radials’’ is, of course, utter nonsense.

It was on this supposed character that the

“senus’ Shumardocrinus was principally based.

The cup is in a good state of preservation. Un-

fortunately, no complete theca referable to the

species is known to me, although one specimen

from the upper Burlington near Burlington,

Iowa, may be conspecific. Such characters as

are shown, however, prove that the species is

distinct from any described form. The speci-

men figured by Miller‘and Gurley (1895, pl. 2,

figs. 7-10) could conceivably be a young indi-

vidual of this species, but this is doubtful. I

have not examined the specimen, but the figures

as given suggest S. araneolus or possibly a

young S. pentagonus from the lower Burlington.

The cup of S. concinnus as preserved has a

maximum breadth of 30 mm and a height of

but 16 mm. Were the JAzz preserved the

height would be increased slightly and the

breadth considerably increased. It is this low,

broad cup that must serve at present as the

chief distinguishing feature of the species. The

angle of divergence of the sides of the cup is ap-

proximately 74°. The surface of the plates is

traversed by sharply defined, radiating ridges,

such as are common to many species both of

Actinocrinus and Steganocrinus. The specimen

mentioned above from Burlington has approxi-

mately the same proportions of cup. In this

specimen the tegmen is nearly flat and made up

of a large number of small plates, none of which

is produced into a spinous process nor, indeed,

is highly tumid. The type will be illustrated

and described at some future time. At present

it is sufficient to show that in S. concinnus we

are dealing with a species with an exceptionally

low, broad cup.

Horizon and locality —Shumard’s original ci-

tation is ‘“‘Encrinital Limestone, on North

River, Marion County (Missouri),”’ collected by

Swallow. There seems little doubt, comparing

the species with a large series of described and

undescribed Steganocrinus, that the horizon is

upper Burlington.

Holotype—The holotype is in the Springer

collection in the United States National Mu-

seum, S. 1181.

Steganocrinus? globosus Wachsmuth

and Springer

Steganocrinus globosus Wachsmuth and

Springer, 1897, p. 585, pl. 61, fig. 6. ““Ooli-

KIRK: REVISION OF STEGANOCRINUS

261

tic bed of the Kinderhook group; Burling-

ton, Iowa.”

There is no way of proving that this species

is referable to Steganocrinus. The general form

of the theca and the incorporation of the radial

series in the dorsal cup argue against such an

assignment. The radial series, so far as the evi-

dence goes, indicates two discrete arms from

each ray. Being unable to give the species a

definite generic placement, I think it is better

to leave it under Steganocrinus with a query.

Steganocrinus pentagonus (Hall)

Actinocrinus pentagonus Hall, 1858, p. 577, pl.

10, figs. 6a, b. ‘Burlington limestone,

Burlington, Iowa.”’ (Lower Burlington.)

Steganocrinus pentagonus Meek and Worthen,

1866, p. 196.

Steganocrinus pentagonus Meek and Worthen,

1868, p. 474, pl. 16, fig. 8.

Steganocrinus pentagonus Wachsmuth and

Springer, 1881, p. 151 (325).

Steganocrinus pentagonus Keyes, 1894, p. 198,

pl. 24, fig. 6.

Steganocrinus pentagonus Wachsmuth and

Springer, 1897, p. 579, pl. 61, figs..3a-—e,

4a, b; also pl. 61, figs. le, f, given as S.

sculptus.

Steganocrinus validus (Meek and Worthen)

Actinocrinus validus Meek and Worthen, 1860,

p. 384.

Steganocrinus validus Miller and Gurley, 1895,

p. 42.

Cited as a synonym of S. concinnus (Shum-

ard). —

Actinocrinus concinnus Meek and Worthen,

1866, p. 200, pl. 15, figs. 9a, b.

Steganocrinus concinnus Wachsmuth

Springer, 1897, p. 582.

Over a period of years I have tried to locate

the type of this species, but without success. It

certainly is not S. concinnus, and almost cer-

tainly it is a good species. It is to be hoped that

the specimen eventually will be found.

and

Steganocrinus elongatus, n. sp.

This species is based on the form erroneously

ascribed to S. concinnus (Shumard) by Wachs-

muth and Springer (1897, p. 582, pl. 61, figs.

5a, b). As holotype, I have chosen the specimen

figured as 5a. The younger specimen, 5b, will

stand as a paratype. The holotype is somewhat

crushed and is abnormal as to the radial series

of the anterior ray. It is, however, the best

specimen known to me, and I have therefore

262

chosen it as type. The species is rare. In addi-

tion to the types there is a specimen larger than

the holotype in the Springer collection. Most of

the tegmen and a part of the dorsal cup of this

specimen are missing. Furthermore, there are a

few fragmentary and poorly preserved speci-

mens. It is probable that a few specimens are to

be found in other collections.

For Steganocrinus the species is a large one,

being considerably larger than any described

form. There is an undescribed species from the

upper Burlington of Hannibal, Mo., that is of

comparable size. The theca of the holotype has

a height of 41.0 mm and an estimated maxi-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

mum diameter at the arm-base, uncrushed, of

about 30 mm. The paratype, as is to be ex-

pected, is relatively less elongate. The height

and diameter are approximately equal.

The general habit of the species varies con-

siderably from any described Steganocrinus.

The cup is relatively high and not strikingly

lobate. The tegmen is low and relatively small.

The plates of the cup as shown by Wachsmuth

and Springer are smooth. The paratype has

moderately strong ridges normal to the faces of

the plates. The ridges in most cases do not ex-

tend to the center of the plates. From the anal

and the r and 1 ant RR two ridges carry to the

Figs. 1, 2.—Steganocrinus pentagonus (Hall): Cross section and lateral view of portion of arm-trunk.

Figs. 3, 5.—Cyrtocrinus sculptus (Hall): 3, Specimen showing proximal portions of arm-trunks and

atrophied rami; 5, a specimen of about maximum size showing incorporation of the bachials in the cup.

Fig. 4.—Steganocrinus araneolus Meek and Worthen: Specimen showing brachial structures.

Sept. 15, 1943

BB. In all other cases there is one short, broad

ridge to each face of the plate. In older speci-

mens, as in the holotype, the ridges are present

but are poorly shown. They have practically

been obliterated by depositions of stereom.

Relationships.—The relatively elongate theca

of S. elongatus sharply differentiates it from any

- described species of the genus. S. concinnus

(Shumard), as described above, is notable for

its unusually low explanate cup.

Horizon and locality—The species is known

only from the upper Burlington. The types are

from Burlington, Iowa. One or two rather

poorly preserved specimens from Hannibal,

Mo., may be referable to the species.

Types.—The types are in the Springer collec-

tion in the United States National Museum,

5. 1182.

Cyrtocrinus, n. gen.

Synonym.—Steganocrinus (in part of authors).

Genotype.—Actinocrinus sculptus Hall.

Cyrtocrinus sculptus (Hall), n. comb.

Actinocrinus sculptus Hall, 1858, p. 582, pl. 10,

figs. lla, b. “Burlington limestone, Bur-

lington, Iowa.’’ (Lower Burlington.)

_ Steganocrinus sculptus Meek and Worthen,

1866, p. 197, text fig. 10 (in part).

Steganocrinus sculptus Wachsmuth

Springer, 1881, p. 151 (825).

Steganocrinus sculptus Keyes, 1894, p. 194, pl.

20, fig. 6 (diagram).

_Steganocrinus sculptus Wachsmuth and

Springer, 1897, p. 583, pl. 61, figs. la—d.

In Cyrtocrinus the dorsal cup shows prac-

tically no lobation as against the moderate to

strongly developed lobation in Steganocrinus.

This difference in lobation is a direct expression

of the very different character of the radial se-

ries in the two genera. The tegmen of Cyrtocri-

nus is high and composed of large numbers of

small plates. The tegmen is incompetent, in

practically all specimens seen being deformed

or missing in whole or part.

In very young specimens of Cyrtocrinus the

brachial series is incorporated in the cup wall

up to and including the J Az. In such specimens

the more distal brachial structures are clearly

shown. One division of the ray is hypertrophied

and

forming a heavy arm-trunk, which bears long,

stout, biserial ramules. The other half of the

division is atrophied, appearing as a biserial

structure similar in appearance and size to the

ramules borne by the arm-trunk. With increas-

KIRK: REVISION OF STEGANOCRINUS

263

ing age, the proximal portions of the arm-trunk

and its homologue progressively become in-

corporated in the cup wall as shown in Fig. 5,

copied from Wachsmuth and Springer (1897).

In such specimens the atrophied ramus can

easily be mistaken for a ramule borne by the

arm-trunk. Such an interpretation has actually

been made in the past.

The arm-trunk itself is uniserial, typically

bearing ramules on alternate sides on each sec-

ond brachial. The Brr are low. Occasionally

there appear to be two Brr between ramulifer-

ous Brr, but this is uncertain. The ramules are

long, stout, and biserial. They bear pinnules.

The base cf the ramule is set into the side of the

arm-trunk in such a way that it is difficult to

tell from which Br it really originates. Unfor-

tunately no specimens show the ventral surface

of the arm-trunk. However, in specimens where

a lateral view is to be had between the ramules,

it appears that there is no covering of heavy

plates comparable to that found in Stegano-

Crinus.

Meek and Worthen (1866, p. 197, fig. 10)

give a crude diagram of a portion of an arm-

trunk identified as S. sculptus Hall. The struc-

ture as shown in this diagram was repeated by

Wachsmuth and Springer (1881, pl. 17, fig. 3).

Later (1897, pl. 61, figs. le, f) a similar struc-

ture was illustrated. These figures are here

reproduced as line drawings (Figs. 1 and 2).

The original of these latter illustrations is in

the Springer collection. As a matter of fact, all

these figures were based on S. pentagonus. The

high, stout Brr, the heavy, spinous tegminal

plates, and the ramules borne on each brachial

clearly indicate this. The fragment illustrated

when placed side by side with an arm-trunk

attached to a specimen of S. pentagonus

matches perfectly.

The splendid specimen of C. sculptus figured

by Wachsmuth and Springer (1897, pl. 61, fig.

la) for the first time showed the true brachial

structures of this species. This specimen is dia-

grammatically copied, in part, as Fig. 3, from

Wachsmuth and Springer (1897). As told to

me by Mrs. Wachsmuth, this specimen was a

late find and was probably prepared and figured

without checking the figures made earlier. The

diagram given by Keyes (1894, pl. 20, fig. 6) of

S. sculptus seems actually to have been based

on this specimen. The Brr are incorrectly

264

shown, however, ramules being borne by each

brachial.

Relationships.—Cyrtocrinus and Stegano-

crinus show a similar modification of the rami

into arm-trunks bearing biserial ramules. This

is one of the numerous cases of parallel develop-

ment constantly to be found among the Crin-

oidea. In the general habit of the theca, which

is of great importance among the Camerata,

one suspects a quite diverse origin for the two

genera. Cyrtocrinus and Cactocrinus may well

have had a common ancestry, while one would

assume a similar relationship between Actino-

crinus and Steganocrinus. The most obvious

character that distinguishes Cyrtocrinus from

Steganocrinus is the brachial structure. How-

ever, in the general habit of the theca Cyrto-

crinus differs from Steganocrinus more widely,

for example, than the successive genera in the

Cactocrinus-Teleiocrinus-Strotocrinus series.

Genus Actinocrinus Miller

Miller and Gurley described the following

species as MSteganocrinus: albersi, benedicti,

blairt, griffitht, sharonensis, and spergenensis.

Bassler and Moodey (1943) have referred all

these species, with the exception of griffith, to

Actinocrinus. In the case of griffith, although

listed as Steganocrinus, they state: ‘? = Actino-

crinites scitulus.”’ All the species are properly

referable to Actinocrinus, but most of them

fall into synonymy as indicated below. Actino-

crinus sharonensis and A. spergenensis may be

valid species. There are a number of species of

Actinocrinus described from these higher hori-

zons, and only by comparing the types of all

the species can the proper standing of the vari-

ous names be established. Miller and Gurley

cite A. spergenensis as from the St. Louis. Ob-

viously, this is incorrect. However, the ‘‘Prob-

ably Burlington age’’ of Bassler and Moodey

goes too far on the other side. The crinoid itself

indicates an age of at least Borden or Harrods-

burg.

The remaining species described by Miller

and Gurley almost certainly fall under two of

the commonest and best-known species of the

upper Burlington, Actinocrinus scitulus Meek

and Worthen and A. multiradiatus Shumard:

Actinocrinus multiradiatus Shumard

Synonymy.—

Steganocrinus albersi Miller and Gurley, 1897,

p. 33, pl. 2, figs. 13-16.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

Actinocrinus alberst (Miller and Gurley),

Bassler and Moodey, 1943, p. 267.

Steganocrinus blairt Miller and Gurley, 1897,

Pp: oo, Dl. 2, fies. 21 22.

Actinocrinus blair (Miller and Gurley), Bassler

and Moodey, 19438, p. 267..

Actinocrinus scitulus Meek and Worthen

Synonymy.—

Steganocrinus griffitht Miller and Gurley, 1897,

p. 34, pl. 2, figs. 17-20.

Actinocrinus griffitht (Miller and Gurley), n.

comb., this paper.

Steganocrinus sharonensits Miller and Gurley,

1897, p. 32, pl. 2, figs. 10-12.

Actinocrinus sharonensis (Miller and Gurley),

Bassler and Moodey, 1948, p. 274.

Actinocrinus eximius, n. name

Actinocrinus griffitht Wachsmuth and Springer,

1897, p. 568, pl. -52, fig. 7,> Miay Nios

Steganocrinus griffithi Miller and Gurley,

1897, p. 34, pl. 2, figs. 17-20, Jan. 25.)

It is unfortunate that Wachsmuth and

Springer’s name must be suppressed as a homo-

nym. Dr. Griffith was one of the group of en-

thusiastic amateurs to whom we owe so much

for our knowledge of the Burlington crinoids.

The species is rare, but it is a very distinet

form. As holotype I have chosen the specimen

figured by Wachsmuth and Springer (1897, pl.

52, fig. 7). There is no need to add to the de-

scription of Wachsmuth and Springer. Their

comment (1897, p. 579) that the “arm struc-

ture approaches the genus Steganocrinus’’ may,

however, be deleted.

This case and the invalid species noted above

are examples of a large number of similar

maleficent acts committed by Miller and

Gurley. The manuscript of the Camerate

Monograph was completed and transmitted for

publication in 1894. The fact was well known

to all. Miller and Gurley in their Bulletins of

the Illinois State Museum described every

specimen they could lay their hands on—good,

bad, and indifferent. As was well known to their

contemporaries, the main purpose was to fore-

stall the work of Wachsmuth and Springer.

Springer in his foreword in the first volume of

the Monograph puts the case very mildly.

Quite apart from ethical considerations, this

wholesale description of species has made for

a vast amount of confusion. A great many of

the new species described are invalid. The

drudgery involved in resolving the problems

Sepr. 15, 1943

resented is enormous and is a thankless task

at best.

LITERATURE CITED

Basser, R. S., and Moopnry, M. W. Bib-

liographic and faunal index of Paleozoic

pelmatozoan echinoderms. Geol. Soc.

Amer. Spec. Paper 45: i—vi, 1-734. 1948.

Hatt, James. Paleontology. Iowa Geol.

Surv. Rep. 1 (pt. 2): 473-724, pls. 1-29.

1858.

Keyes, C. R. Paleontology of Missourt. Part

1. Missouri Geol. Surv. 4: 89-271, pls.

11-33. 1894.

Meek, F. B., and Wortuen, A. H. Descrip-

tions of new species of Crinoidea and

Echinoidea from the Carboniferous rocks of

Illinois and other western States. Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 12: 379-397.

1860.

Descriptions of invertebrates from the

Carboniferous system. Illinois Geol. Surv.

2 (sect. 2): 143-411, pls. 14-20, 23-32.

1866.

BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE

265

. Paleontology. Illinois Geol. Surv. 3

(pt. 2): 289-565, pls. 1-20. 1868.

MiuEr, 8. A., and Gurugy, W. F. E. New

and wnteresting species of Paleozoic fossils.

Illinois State Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 7: 1-

89, pls. 1-5. Dec. 5, 1895.

. New species of crinoids, cephalopods

and other Paleozoic fossils. Illinois State

Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 12: 1-59, index to

Bulls. 3-12, pp. 61-69, pls. 1-5. Jan. 25,

1897.

SHumMaARD, B. F. Paleontology and Appendix

B. 2d Ann. Rep. Missouri Geol. Surv.:

185-208, 213-220, pls. A-C. 1855.

WaACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK.

Revision of the Paleocrinoidea. Pt. 2.

(With 2-page unnumbered index to pts. 1

and 2.) Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel-

phia 33: 177-414, pls. 17-19. Sept.—Nov.

1881.

The North American Crinoidea Cam-

erata. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 20 and

21: 1-837, 83 pls. 1897.

BOTAN Y.—Ten new American Asteraceae. 8. F. Buake, Bureau of Plant In-

dustry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering.

Nine new species, six of which are from

continental Mexico and one each from

Texas, Baja California, and Colombia, as

well as a new variety of Corethrogyne cali-

fornica from California, are described in

this paper. The single species from Colom-

bia, Tuberostylis axillaris, is of special in-

terest, belonging to a hitherto monotypic

genus which seems to be unique among

Asteraceae in its choice of habitat (tree

trunks or roots of mangroves and perhaps

other trees in saline tidal thickets). The oc-

currence of the two species now known,

which are very distinct in characters of

foliage and inflorescence, in the same re-

stricted area at Buenaventura, Colombia,

and apparently nowhere else, is of some

phytogeographic and evolutionary signifi-

cance.

Tuberostylis axillaris Blake, sp. nov.

Herba (?) epiphytica ubique glaberrima; fo-

lia ovata petiolata acuminata apice obtusa basi

acute cuneata integra margine undulata car-

nosa 3-nervia evenia; capitula in axillis ag-

gregata sessilia.

Herbaceous ?, scandent on tree trunks in

1 Received May 24, 1948.

tidal thickets; stem (or branch ?) simple, terete,

light green, pithy, 2 mm thick; leaves opposite;

internodes 2.5—-4.5 cm long; petioles 1 cm long,

sulcate above, connate at base; blades 4.5-6

em long, 2.2-2.6 cm wide ,dull green, sometimes

somewhat pustulate, 3-ribbed from base, the

lateral veins mostly invisible; heads about 14-

flowered, in axillary clusters of about 3-4, ses-

sile, the common peduncle 1-3 mm long, bear-

ing a few small spatulate herbaceous bracts;

-involucre strongly graduated, many-seriate,

7-9 mm high, the phyllaries appressed, firmly

stramineous, 3-vittate, 2- or 4-ribbed, from tri-

angular-ovate (outer) to linear (inner), all nar-

rowed to an obtusish to acutish apex; corollas

apparently whitish, cylindric without distin-

guishable tube, 4.2 mm long (tube 1 mm, throat

2.5 mm, teeth triangular, obtusish, 0.7 mm

long); achenes narrowly oblong, bluntly 3-5-

angled or -ribbed, greenish-white, epappose,

2.5-3 mm long, 0.8 mm wide.

Couomsta: Vine, scandent up tree trunk in

tidal thickets, Buenaventura Bay, Dept. El

Valle, 4 May 1939, E. P. Killip 35515 (type no.

1772228, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Tuberostylis rhizophorae Steetz, the only spe-

cies of the genus hitherto known, is at once dis-

tinguished by its spatulate-obovate, very ob-

266

tuse, few-crenate, l-nerved or weakly tripli-

nerved leaves and terminal panicle. It was de-

scribed from southern Darien (northwestern

Colombia), where it was found by Berthold

Seemann on the voyage of the Herald, growing

on the roots of mangrove (Rhizophora), and is

still a very rare plant in collections. Specimens

are in the U. S. National Herbarium from

Cotompsia: Dept. El Valle: On roots of Rhizo-

phora within tide limit, coast of Buenaventura,

Lehmann; mangrove swamp along Rio Dagua,

Buenaventura, 7-9 May 1922, Killip 5335, 13

April 1939, Killip 34958.

The genus is, so far as I know, unique in the

family in its choice of habitat (on tree trunks

or roots in saline tidal thickets), and the oc-

currence of its two very distinct species in the

same locality is of particular interest. The type

sheet bears two stems or branches about a foot

long and in old fruit, floriferous in practically

all the axils but quite destitute of rootlets.

Brickellia nutanticeps Blake, nom. nov.

Eupatorium nutans H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp.

4: 105. 1820.

Brickellia nutans Robinson, Mem. Gray Herb.

1: 85. 1917. Not B. nutans Robins. &

Greenm. 1895.

The name Brickellia nutans is not available

for this species, having been independently

proposed by Robinson & Greenman in 1895 for

a supposedly new species now considered by

Robinson identical with the slightly earlier

published B. orizabaensis Klatt. The present

provision in the International Rules requiring

the rejection of later homonyms was not in

force when Robinson’s Monograph of Brickellia

was written.

Gutierrezia longipappa Blake, sp. nov.

Suffruticosa ca. 5 dm alta glutinosa hirtella

erecte ramosa foliosa; folia linearia integerrima

3-nervia punctata ca. 5 cm longa 2 mm lata in

axillis saepe prolifera; capitula minima 2-flora

1-radiata numerosissima subsessilia in apicibus

ramorum et ramulorum arcte conferta; involu-

cri cylindrici 4 mm alti gradati phyllaria

straminea apice viridia; flores 2,1 femineus ligu-

latus fertilis, 1 hermaphroditus sterilis ovario

abortivo, rarissime ambo hermaphroditi;

achenium fl. fem. paene glabrum, pappo e

paleis 7-8 liberis achenio longioribus sistente;

pappus fl. hermaph. e paleis 10 liberis paene

3 mm longis sistens.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

Stem shrubby below, with grayish fissured

bark, glabrate, about 6 mm thick; branches

erect, whitish below, then straw-color, green

above, striate-angled, rather sparsely hirtel-

lous, denudate below; leaves alternate, usually

with fascicles or short branches in their axils;

internodes mostly 5-7 mm long; blades of

larger leaves 4.5-6 cm long, 1.8—2.5 mm wide,

acutish, callous-pointed, sessile, flat, sparsely

hispidulous, densely impressed-punctate, 3-

nerved, the midrib prominent beneath, im-

pressed above, the lateral pair much weaker,

impressed beneath, impressed or scarcely evi-

dent above; individual flower clusters 1.5-2.5

cm wide, flattish or rounded, the whole forming

a flattish panicle about 2 dm wide; heads

(moistened) 4.5-5 mm long (excluding style-

branches), about 1.8 mm thick, compressed,

mostly sessile in clusters of 2—5 at tips of short

branchlets, a few sometimes solitary and on

pedicels 1 mm long; phyllaries few (7), ap-

pressed, the outermost linear, obtuse, 1 mm

long, thick-herbaceous, the next ovate or ob-

long, obtuse, thick-herbaceous in middle above

and with scarious margin, the inmost (2) oblong,

obtuse, l-nerved, straw-color, scarious with

short blunt green tip; receptacle prolonged into

a triangular acute or acuminate point about

0.5 mm long; ray yellow, 4.2—4.7 mm long (tube

2-2.5 mm, lamina oval, emarginate or ob-

scurely 3-denticulate, 3-4-nerved, 2.3 mm

long); disk corolla yellow, glabrous, 4.2—4.5 mm

long (tube 0.8-1.1 mm, throat subcylindrie to

funnelform, 2.3-2.5 mm, teeth 5, narrowly tri-

angular, recurved, somewhat thickened at tip,

0.7-0.8 mm long); achene oblong or oblong-

obovoid, very sparsely erect-pilose, 5-nerved,

1.2 mm long, the pappus of 7-8 free linear ob-

long 1-seriate obtuse to acute somewhat une-

qual paleae 1-1.8 mm long; pappus of her-

maphrodite flower sub-2-seriate, of 10 subequal

linear-oblong acuminate paleae 2.8-3 mm long;

style branches of hermaphrodite flower linear,

acuminate, hispidulous on back throughout,

without stigmatic lines.

Texas: 12 miles east of Marfa, Presidio

County, 19 Oct. 1937, V. L. Cory 26335 (type

no. 151924, herb. U. 8S. Nat. Arboretum); San-

derson, Terrell County, 29 Sept. 1911, H. O.

Wooton (U.S. Nat. Herb.).

The type specimen was sent by Mr. Cory

under the name Selloa glutinosa Spreng. (Gym-

Smpr. 15, 1943

nosperma glutinosum Less.), to which it bears a

remarkably close resemblance, although the

leaves of that plant are somewhat broader and

3-ribbed; but in Selloa glutinosa the heads are

about 9-14-flowered, the rays are much

smaller, the disk flowers are fertile, the achenes

are densely puberulent, and the pappus is

wanting. Gutierrezia longipappa is distinguished

from most species of its genus by its 2-flowered

heads, and from all known to me by its sub-

glabrous achenes and very long pappus. Woo-

ton’s specimen, mounted with one of Selloa

glutinosa, agrees closely with the type in essen-

tial characters but has a slightly longer ray

(lamina elliptic, 3 mm long) and a somewhat

shorter pappus (2 mm) in the hermaphrodite

flower; the plant is more conspicuously glutin-

ous and the leaves are narrower (1.5 mm) with

the lateral pair of veins only obscurely indi-

cated.

Corethrogyne californica DC. var. lyonii

Blake, var. nov.

Involucri 5-6-seriati subaequalis vel paullum

gradati 1.2-1.8 em alti phyllaria lineari-ob-

longa v. paullum oblanceolata maxima ex parte

(exteriora omnino) herbacea laxa v. squarrosa.

Stems 12-20 cm long, decumbent or ascend-

ing, numerous, densely white-tomentose like

the leaves; leaves obovate, 3—4.5 cm long in-

- cluding petiole, 0.8—1.5 cm wide, subentire to

crenate-serrate above; peduncles terminal, soli-

tary, l-headed, green and merely stipitate-

glandular, 2—-5.5 cm long, bearing 2 or 3 glabres-

cent bracts; phyllaries 2-2.5 mm wide, often

slightly broadened upwardly, densely stipitate-

glandular and thinly pubescent, the outer

herbaceous throughout, the middle ones with

subscarious margin below, the inmost with

chartaceous base and short green tip.

CALIFORNIA: Open slope, Cathedral Peak,

southwest corner of sec. 22, T. 115S., R. 7 E.,

Merced County, altitude 915 meters (3,000

feet), 4 June 1941, Gregory S. Lyon 1572 (type

no. 154588, U. 8. Nat. Arb.; dupl. herb.

Univ. Calif.); Twin Peak, NW3 sec. 36, T. 11

8., R. 7 E., Merced County, altitude 610 meters

(2,000 feet), 12 May 1939, Lyon 1310 (herb.

U.S. Nat. Arboretum, herb. Univ. California).

Although strikingly different from the com-

mon coastal form in its large and loose herba-

ceous involucre, this plant cannot be consid-

ered more than a variety. The two collections

BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE

267

cited come from the Inner South Coast Ranges.

Another more ample collection from the same

region (Lyon 1428), open rocky slope, Laveaga

Peak, SW} sec. 14, T.12S., R. 7 E., San Benito

County, alt. 915 meters, 2 June 1940) has a

shorter, strongly graduated involucre with the

3-4 outer series of phyllaries herbaceous only

above, and must be considered an intermediate

nearer to the typical form. The variety is

named for the collector, a former student of

Prof. H. L. Mason and Prof. Lincoln Con-

stance, who has made extensive collections in

the little-known Inner South Coast Ranges of

San Benito, Merced, and Fresno Counties,

California.

Archibaccharis peninsularis Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex laxus parum ramosus foliosus; caulis

tenuis striatus purpureo-brunneus subgla-

bratus, rami viridescentes dense hispiduli; folia

ovalia v. obovata obtusa v. acutiuscula apicu-

lata basi cuneata in petiolum folio multiplo

breviorem anguste decurrentia utroquelatere

grosse 1-3-dentata pergamentacea supra laete

viridia subtus paullo pallidiora utrinque sparse

pilis conicis basi subtuberculatis hispidula mar-

gine hispidulo-ciliolata; capitula staminea par-

va 24-flora numerosa apice ramorum paniculata

tenuiter pedicellata folia paullum superantia;

involucri hemispherici 3 mm alti ca. 4-seriati

gradati phyllaria oblonga v. oblongo-ovata

obtusa 1-vittata scarioso-marginata supra cili-

ata; corollae purpureae, dentibus fauce brevis-

sima multiplo longioribus; achenia compressa

2-nervia erecto-hirsuta; pappus 1-seriatus, setis

hispidulis ad apicem incrassatic et barbellatis.

“Tow reclining bush with stems 1-1.5 m

long”; stem 2.5 mm thick, striate and subangu-

late by dequrrent lines from the leaf-bases;

branches few, simple except for a subterminal

branch, about 30 cm long or less, greenish,

densely cinereous-hispidulous with short sev-

eral-celled subconic spreading white hairs;

leaves alternate; internodes mostly 4-15 mm

long; petiole 3-9 mm long, narrowly margined

nearly or quite to base, densely hispidulous;

blade 2.5—4 cm long, 1.3-2.5 cm wide, plane,

coarsely few-toothed mostly above the middle

(teeth 1-2 mm high, acute or obtuse, callous-

apiculate), feather-veined (lateral veins 3-4

pairs, prominulous on both sides, the secondar-

ies inconspicuous), roughish especially beneath,

the hairs denser along costa beneath; panicle

268

about 17—40-headed, 4—6 cm wide, flattish or

somewhat convex, surpassing the leaves by 1-2

em, pubescent like the stem, the bracts small,

lanceolate, the pedicels 2-6 mm long; heads

(moistened) 5 mm high, 3.5 mm thick; phyl-

laries glabrous dorsally, the vitta greenish

above; receptacle naked; corollas glabrous ex-

cept for a few clavellate hairs at base of throat,

3.5 mm long (tube whitish, 1.7 mm, throat

campanulate, 0.3 mm, teeth purple, recurving,

lanceolate, 1.5 mm long); achenes oblong-obo-

vate, 1 mm long, whitish, erect-hirsute with

bidenticulate hairs; pappus bristles about 30,

slender, white 2.8 mm long; style branches 1

mm long, hispidulous on back above, with ob-

tuse appendages and no evident stigmatic lines.

Baga CALIFORNIA: In shade in small canyon,

on rocky talus slopes under oaks, Arroyo

Hondo, Sierra Giganta (between La Paz and

Loreto), 13 Dec. 1938, H. S. Gentry 4120 (type

no. 263147, Dudley Herb.; photograph and

fragments, herb. U. S. Nat. Arboretum).

This interesting plant, sent me for study by

Mrs. Roxanna S. Ferris, is referred to Archi-

baccharis with some doubt, since only the

staminate plant is known. In general habit and

in the comparatively thin leaves it agrees better

with that genus than with Baccharis, the only

other genus to which it could be referred, and

in any case it is quite distinct from any known

species of either group. The genus Archibac-

charts has not previously been reported from

Baja California. The species appears to be

nearest Archibaccharis serratifolia (H.B.K.)

Blake, of Mexico proper, a plant with ovate or

lance-ovate, sharply acute or acuminate, regu-

larly serrate or serrulate, much more densely

pubescent leaves.

Gnaphalium panniforme Blake, nom. nov.

Gnaphalium pannosum Gray, Proc. Amer.

Acad. 19: 3. 1883. Not G. pannosum (DC.)

Sch. Bip. Bot. Zeit. 3: 172. 1845.

This Mexican species is apparently still

known only from the original collections by

Schaffner (no. 227) and Parry & Palmer (no.

420) in the mountains of San Luis Potosi.

Heliopsis parviceps Blake, sp. nov.

Annua tenuissima superne pauciramosa re-

mote foliata, caule bifariam puberulo; folia

minuscula ovata acuminata basi late cuneata v.

subcordata tenuia serrata triplinervia utrinque

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

hirsutula; capitula pro genere minima tenuissi-

me pedunculata omnino purpurea, radiis inter-

dum supra brunneoflavescentibus exceptis; in- -

volucri 2-seriati subaequalis ca. 3.5 mm longi

phyllaria oblonga v. late ovata; radii 4-5 min-

imi; achenia radii obovoidea corticata parum

tuberculata epapposa, disci oblonga epapposa.

Very slender annual, about 4 dm high, with

about 2 elongate branches above, these them-

selves often with 2 or-3 branches at apex; stem

greenish white, about 1.5 mm thick, striatulate;

leaves below middle of stem only 2-3 pairs,

small (blades 2 cm long, 1.2 cm wide), mostly

fallen at flowering time, separated by long in-

ternodes; leaves near middle of stem 2-3 pairs,

with short internodes (mostly 7-28 mm long),

their petioles very slender, 8-15 mm long, flat-

tened above, pilosulous chiefly on margin, their

blades ovate, 3-4 cm long, 1.2-1.7 cm wide,

green and evenly but not densely antrorse-hir-

sutulous on both sides with subtuberculate-

based hairs; branches when well developed with

.a long naked internode up to 18 cm long, then

bearing 1-2 pairs of rather crowded narrower

- leaves and 2-3 long-peduncled heads, the pe-

duncles often with a pair of leaves and an unde-

veloped head above the middle; heads about 11

mm wide (moistened), about 3-10 per stem,

solitary and terminal on long and very slender

bifariously puberulous peduncles 2.5-8.5 em

long; disk at maturity conical, 6-8 mm high,

5 mm thick; involucre 2-seriate, subequal, 3—- —

3.8 mm high, the phyllaries few (ca. 12), ap-

pressed, the outer oblong, obtuse, about 1.5

mm wide, the inner broader, broadly ovate, ob-

tuse, all sparsely puberulous, ciliolate, at first

subindurate and pale below, with 3 green vittae

and shorter subherbaceous tip, at maturity

strongly suffused with purple throughout; rays

4—5, pistillate, fertile, spreading, deep purple on

both sides or sometimes dull brownish yellow

above, finely papillate on both faces, jointed to

the achene and detachable from it, their mar-

gins somewhat inflexed for about 0.5 mm above

base but the proper tube a mere ring only 0.2

mm long, the lamina suborbicular, thickish,

3.2-3.5 mm long and wide, bluntly 3-toothed,

10-12-nerved (2 of the nerves stronger), hispi-

dulous on the ringlike base and on the nerves

dorsally; disk corollas deep purple, glabrous,

3 mm long (tube 0.4 mm, throat 2 mm, not

wider than tube for 0.6 mm, then slender-

Serr. 15, 1943

campanulate, teeth ovate, acute, 0.6 mm long);

pales rather thin, 3.6-4.2 mm long, purple

above, glabrous, keeled for two-thirds their

length or more from base, broadly rounded or

subtruncate and bluntly mucronulate; ray

achenes broadly obovoid, corticate with a thick

papillate and somewhat tuberculate, fleshy,

detergible outer layer, sublenticular, about

3.6 mm long, 2.5 mm wide, rounded on outer

face, with a single broad rib on inner face,

greenish fuscous, sparsely and obscurely pu-

berulous, with narrow thick margin, this irregu-

larly denticulate or tuberculate and with 2

larger teeth toward apex; disk achenes (imma-

ture) oblong, 1 mm long, glabrous, somewhat

thickened, truncate, epappose; style branches

hispidulous toward apex, with subdeltoid short-

cuspidate hispidulous appendages.

Mexico: Along Cuernavaca-Taxco Road,

about 10 miles from Taxco, Guerrero, alt. 1675

meters, 19 Aug. 1935, L. H. MacDaniels 128

(type no. 837092, herb. Field Mus.; photo-

graph and fragments, herb. U. 8. Nat. Arbore-

tum).

This plant is described as a Heliopsis with

some hesitation. The ray corollas, set in a con-

cavity at apex of achene, definitely jointed tc it,

and rather readily detachable, are out of place

in the genus and at odds with the definition of

the subtribe to which Heliopsis belongs. Its

closest relationship, nevertheless, seems to be

with that genus, and it is referred there for the

present. The species is readily distinguished by

its tiny purple heads.

Zexmenia appressipila Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex ramosus; caulis tenuis dense strigil-

losus; folia lanceolata attenuata falcata basi

acute cuneata breviter petiolata triplinervia in-

conspicue serrulata firme herbacea utrinque

viridia et scabriuscula supra ubique sed non

dense strigosa pilis basi lepidotis non tubercula-

tis et strigillosa subtus ubique non dense strigosa

et sessili-glandulosa glandulis albidis; capitula

solitaria terminalia pedunculata radiata aurea

ca. 5 cm lata; involucri 1.2-1.3 cm alti cam-

panulati ca. 4-seriati phyllaria exteriora stri-

gosa basi ovata indurata pallida appendice

longiore herbacea laxa lanceolata, interiora

multo breviora ovalia pallida abrupte breviter-

‘que herbaceo-appendiculata, intima exappen-

diculata; achenia neque alata neque marginata,

BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE

269

ea disci pappo l-aristato et squamellato donata.

Slender shrub, opposite-branched, the stem

grayish brown, about 3 mm thick, subterete;

internodes mostly 3—5.5 cm long; petioles 4-6

mm long, obscurely margined, strigillose and on

margin strigose, not ciliate; blades 9-11 cm

long, 2.3—2.6 cm wide, usually strongly falcate,

obscurely serrulate (teeth about 6-8 pairs,

about 0.3 mm high, 4-8 mm apart, blunt, cal-

lous), prominulous-reticulate beneath and with

a pair of strong lateral veins arising about 1 cm

above base of leaf, slightly shining on both

sides, deep green above, slightly lighter green

beneath; peduncles slender, densely strigillose,

3-4 em long, shorter than the upper leaves; disk

1.5-(fruit)-1.2 em high, 1 em thick; outer phyl-

laries 12-13 mm long, with pale indurated ovate

base 3-4 mm wide, densely strigillose with

lepidote-based hairs, and longer, lanceolate,

acuminate, loosely spreading, sparsely strigil-

lose tip 2.5-3 mm wide, the next series equal

in length, similar but broader with subscarious-

margined oval-oblong base and relatively

shorter, more abrupt herbaceous tip, the next

series much shorter, mostly subscarious with

short narrow abrupt herbaceous tip, strigose

toward tip, the inmost entirely subscarious,

obtuse, obscurely ciliolate; rays 9 or more,

golden yellow, elliptic-oblong, the tube about

2 mm, the lamina about 2—2.5 cm long, 6 mm

wide; disk corollas golden yellow, essentially

glabrous, 6.5 mm long (tube 1.5 mm, throat

4 mm, teeth 1 mm); pales narrow, 1—-toothed

on each side, acuminate, purplish-tipped, mi-

nutely hispidulous-ciliolate; ray achenes nar-

rowly obovate, 5 mm long, 1.3 mm wide, 3-

angled, not winged or margined, finely his-

pidulous, their pappus of 3 fragile awns (the

2 outer 1.5-1.8 mm, the inner 4 mm long) and

about 5 squamellae about 0.5 mm long, these

somewhat united with the awns at base; disk

achenes nearly linear, blackish, 5—5.5 mm long,

1 mm wide, compressed, 1-ribbed on each face,

4-angled, not winged or margined, sparsely

hispidulous, their pappus of a single slender

awn 5 mm long and about 5-6 obtuse hispid-

ciliate squamellae up to 1 mm long and united

at base.

Mexico: In pineland, Mount Ovando, Chi-

apas, 14-18 Noy. 1939, E. Matuda 3954 (type

no. 151925, herb. U. S. Nat. Arboretum).

Distinguished by its comparatively narrow,

270

long-acuminate, short-petioled leaves, lepidote-

strigose and strigillose above and strigose be-

neath (the hairs not spreading even when the

leaves are moistened), its solitary, rather short-

peduncled heads with abruptly herbaceous,

spreading phyllary tips, and its wingless and,

marginless achenes. The species is apparently

nearest Zexmenia aurantiaca Klatt, which has

ovate leaves with non-appressed pubescence.

The descriptions of Z. monocephala (DC.)

Heynh. and Z. strigosa (DC.) Sch. Bip. some-

what suggest this plant, but the types of both

species, which I examined and photographed in

1925, are entirely different from it.

Verbesina phyllolepis Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex ?; caulis strigillosus anguste alatus;

folia lanceolata utroque acuminata sessilia vix

auriculata decurrentia supra partem inferi-

orem integram serrulata supra saturate viridia

tactu laevia sparse strigillosa subtus pallidius

viridia densius strigillosa penninervia; capitula

in apicibus ramorum 1-3 ca. 4 cm lata aurea

radiata breviter pendulata; involucri ca. 4-

seriati gradati ca. 4 mm alti phyllaria oblonga

subindurata pallida, appendice longiore herba-

cea lineari-elliptica v. subspathulata obtusa

apice callosa late patente donata; radii ca. 20

lamina elliptico-oblonga ca. 17 mm longa 4.5

mm lata.

Shrubby ?, sparsely branched above; stems

subterete, brownish, striate, rather densely

strigilJose, winged throughout (only upper part

seen) by the decurrent leaf bases, 3 mm thick,

the wings in pairs from each petiole-base,

herbaceous becoming dry, entire, somewhat

veiny, 1-2 mm wide; internodes mostly 7-15

mm long; leaf blades 8-10.5 cm long, 1.5-

2.5 cm wide, herbaceous, serrulate above the

entire lower third (teeth 4-10 on each side,

obtusely callous-tipped, about 1 mm high, 4-12

mm apart), the costa whitish, prominent be-

neath, rounded, the chief lateral veins 5-7 pairs,

curved, prominulous beneath; heads solitary at

tip and in the uppermost axils, the peduncles

0.5-2 cm long, winged like the stem; involucre

(excluding the appendages) about 4 mm high,

puberulous, the herbaceous appendages about

5-7 mm long, 1-1.5 mm wide, spreading or de-

flexed; rays pistillate; disk corollas numerous,

golden, glabrous except for the sparsely pu-

bescent tube, 4.8 mm long (tube 1.1 mm, throat

2.5 mm, teeth ovate, 0.7 mm long); pales yel-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

lowish green, pubescent on the narrow keel,

acute, 5 mm long, with erect or in youth some-

what inflexed tip; achenes (very immature)

obovate, hispidulous above and on the very

narrow wings, 2.3 mm long; awns 2, hispidu-

lous, 1.5-1.8 mm long.

Mexico: In pineland, Mount Ovando, Chi-

apas, 14-18 Nov. 1939, #. Matuda 3953 (type,

Herb. Univ. Michigan; photograph and frag-

ments, herb. U. 8. Nat. Arboretum).

A member of the section Verbesinaria, re-

lated to V. nerizfolia Hemsl. and less closely to

V. liebmannii Sch. Bip., but distinguished by

the conspicuous spreading or reflexed herba-

ceous appendages of the phyllaries. The leaves

are alternate.

Tridax accedens Blake, sp. nov.

Herba ramosa 45 dm alta, basi invisa; caulis

patenti-glandulari-pilosus; folia opposita ovata

bene petiolata acuta basi subtruncata pauci-

serrata sparse hirsuto-pilosa; capitula nu-

merosa mediocria discoidea cymoso-paniculata,

pedicellis capitulo saepius multiplo longioribus;

involucri i-seriati ca. 3.5 mm alti phyllaria

ovali-oblonga apice rotundata subglabra viri-

descentia margine scariosa; corollae albae;

achenia 5-costata dense pilosula; pappus ca. 20-

squamellatus, squamellis flor. exteriorum la-

cerato-fimbriatis ca. 0.4 mm longis, eis flor.

interiorum fimbriatis ca. 1 mm longis.

Stem ‘5 dm high,” about 3.5 mm thick, with

numerous erectish branches above, green, pur-

plish-tinged, subterete, somewhat sulcate be-

low, rather sparsely spreading-pilose with

several-celled hairs 1-1.56 mm long mostly

tipped with brownish glands, the branches and

pedicels also puberulent with minute several-

celled mostly incurved glandless hairs; leaves

opposite, much shorter than the internodes;

petioles of larger leaves 2.8 cm long, narrowly

margined above, pilose with gland-tipped hairs;

blades of larger leaves 5 cm long, 4 cm wide,

subtruncate at base and then shortly cuneate-

decurrent into the petiole, remotely repand-

serrate with 5-6 pairs of low bluntish teeth,

herbaceous, green on both sides, above sparsely

hirsute-pilose with subtuberculate-based hairs,

beneath more sparsely hirsute-pilose chiefly

along the veins, triplinerved about 4 mm above

the base; panicle about 30 cm long, 19 cm

wide, nearly naked, its lowest branches sub-

tended by reduced leaves, the remaining bracts

Smpr. 15, 1943

linear-lanceolate or narrowly triangular, 3-10

mm long; pedicels mostly 1-3.5 cm long;

heads campanulate, about 22-flowered, about

5 mm high, 7 mm thick (as pressed) ; phyllaries

5, 1-seriate, all subtending flowers, sometimes

with a single small additional sterile outer one,

greenish but not at all herbaceous, with narrow

whitish scarious margin, usually brownish at

apex, 6-8-vittate, obscurely ciliolate above,

glabrous on back; receptacle low-conical, the

pales readily deciduous; corollas white, densely

hirsutulous on tube, sparsely so on some of the

nerves and on teeth, 3.5-3.8 mm long (tube 1

mm, throat cylindric-oblong, about 1.5 mm in

outer corollas, 1.8 mm in central flowers, teeth

5, broadly triangular, 1.2 mm long in outer

corollas, 0.8 mm in central corollas); pales ob-

long, rounded, membranous, with greenish cen-

ter and about equally broad hyaline margin,

3-5-vittate, ciliolate at apex, otherwise gla-

brous, not strongly conduplicate, 2.8 mm long;

achenes of outer flowers obovoid, somewhat

compressed, densely and shortly silky-pilose

(the hairs spreading when wet), 5-ribbed (1-

ribbed on inner face, 2-ribbed on outer, the ribs

on outer face blackish, glabrous, and conspicu-

ous), 2 mm long, their pappus persistent, of

about 20 lanceolate lacerate-fimbriate squamel-

lae, united at base, about 0.4 mm long; central

achenes obpyramidal, with 5 black glabrous

ribs, densely short-pilose (the hairs spreading

when wet), 1.8 mm long, their pappus of about

20 alternately somewhat unequal oblong obtuse

fimbriate squamellae 0.8—1 mm long, united at

base in a thick ring; intermediate fruits with

intermediate characters.

Mexico: In llano, Coalcoman, Dist. of Coal-

coman, Michoac4n, alt. 1,000 meters, 9 Jan.

1939, G. B. Hinton 12884 (type no. 1748961,

U.S. Nat. Herb.); same locality, 31 Dec. 1938,

Hinton 12850 (U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Tridax dubia Rose, the only close relative of

this species, is readily distinguished by its

densely pubescent involucre, essentially gla-

brous or merely puberulent achenes, and short

yellow rays.

Perezia scaposa Blake, sp. nov.

Herba perennis scaposa 60 cm alta, caudice

crasso longe brunnescenti-piloso; folia rosulata

magna oblonga v. oblongo-obovata lyrato-

pinnatifida membranacea infra in costa sparse

et decidue pilosa segmento terminali magno

BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE

271

ovato acuto repando-dentato segmentis later-

alibus 3—4-jugis multo minoribus deorsum de-

crescentibus oblongis acutis repando-dentatis,

petiolo brevi anguste alato; scapi 3 tenues parce

pilosi remote bracteati bracteis herbaceis sub-

ulatis erectis paucidentatis 8-10 mm longis

paniculam laxam oblongam multicapitatam

subaequantes, pedicellis capillaribus minute

bracteatis 1-2 cm longis; capitula parva 5-7-

flora, in fructu (corollis delapsis) 8-10 mm

longa; involucri 6 mm alti valde gradati ca. 5-

seriati phyllaria exteriora parva ovata v. ob-

longo-ovata 1—2.5 mm longa acuta viridescentia

ciliolata dorso glabra, media lanceolato-ob-

longa, intima linearia acuta v. obtusa apicu-

lata; achaenia minute hispidula 4.5 mm longa;

pappus stramineus 5 mm longus.

Rootstock about 4 em long, 1 em thick, hori-

zontal, bearing fibrous roots; scapes 1-1.5 mm

thick at base; leaves all basal, about 7, 15-27

em long (including the short narrowly winged

petiole, this 1.5-5 cm long), 6-12.5 cm wide,

dark green, lightly prominulous-reticulate on

both sides, essentially glabrous above, beneath

with some loose deciduous pilosity along the

midrib and veins and sparse appressed hairs on

the surface; panicles about 30 cm long, 9-12

em wide, thinly pilosulous, the branches di-

verging at an angle of about 30—45°, the bracts

of the pedicels lanceolate or subulate, ap-

pressed, about 1 mm long; outer phyllaries pass-

ing into the bracts at apex of pedicels, 1 mm

wide or less, acute and shortly apiculate, the

middle ones about 1.5 mm wide, the inmost

acute or obtuse, short-apiculate, 1 mm wide,

all slightly ciliolate toward apex, glabrous on

back; receptacle fimbrillate; corolla 2-lipped, 7

mm long, glabrous, the outer lip oval, 3 mm

long, 3-dentate, the inner 2-parted; achene

fusiform, olive-green, 4-4.8 mm long, very

shortly hispidulous with partly subglandular-

tipped hairs; pappus soft.

Mexico: On cliff, Aquila, Dist. Coalcoman,

Michoacan, alt. 250 meters, 24 March 1941,

G. B. Hinton 15838 (type no. 1820864, U. 8.

Nat. Herb.).

This species is clearly distinct from any of

the 5 scapose species described from Mexico

and Central America in Bacigalupi’s revision”

of the North American species of the genus. Its

closest ally is apparently P. nudiuscula Robin-

2 Contr. Gray Herb., no. 97. 1931.

272

son, still known only from the original collec-

tion from Nayarit (Tepic), which lacks the

basal leaves. In Perezia nudiuscula the bracts

of the scape are much larger (2—4 cm long), the

heads 12-20-flowered and decidedly larger (in-

volucre 8-11 mm high), and the pappus bright

white.

Perezia simulata Blake, sp. nov.

Herba 1 m alta; caulis tenuis puberulus gla-

bratus subflexuosus; folia oblongo-ovata ma-

juscula chartacea acuminata sessilia amplexi-

caulia repando-denticulata dentibus spinulosis

utrinque reticulato-venulosa supra in venis pu-

berula subtus in venis et venulis puberula;

capitula mediocria 5-flora in axillis foliorum

capitato-congesta; pedicelli breves dense squa-

mosi squamis triangulari-subulatis subpungen-

tibus in phyllaria involucri transeuntibus; in-

volucri anguste obconici valde gradati ca. 11

mm alti phyllaria lineari-lanceolata longe

acuminata subpungentia erecta straminea gla-

bra; corollae bilabiatae; achenia subrostrata

dense glandulosa et minute hispidula.

Stem very slender, subterete, multistriate,

whitish tinged with purple-brown, puberulous

with crisped spreading essentially eglandular

hairs, becoming for the most part completely

glabrate, with some branches above, these

shorter than the leaves; leaves 13-15 cm long,

about 6.5 em wide, plane, spinulose-denticulate

throughout, feather-veined (lateral veins about

6-8 pairs), strongly amplexicaul with rounded

auricles or the smaller upper ones merely

sessile, above puberulous with eglandular

hairs on the costa and chief veins, otherwise

nearly glabrous, beneath densely puberulous or

pilosulous with spreading several-celled eglan-

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new wood quail

FRIEDMANN, U. 8. National Museum.

Recent study of a large series of wood

quail has revealed that the form hitherto

known as Dendrortyx macroura griserpectus

Nelson is in reality a composite of two sep-

arable subspecific entities. Hellmayr and

Conover (Cat. Birds Amer., pt. 1, no. 1:

225-226. 1942) give the range of griseipectus

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution. Received July 1,

~ 1943,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

dular hairs on all the veins and veinlets and

sparsely on surface, subsessile-glandular on sur-

face; heads in capitate clusters of about 8-11

in axils of stem and branch leaves, the clusters

about 2 cm high, 3-4 cm wide (as pressed), the

short pedicels (about 5 mm long) completely

concealed by the numerous triangular-subulate

long-acuminate subpungent stramineous bracts,

these minutely ciliolate, otherwise glabrous,

about 3-5 mm long, passing into the phyllaries;

proper involucre slenderly obconic, about 11

mm high, 3 mm thick (moistened), its phyl-

laries rather few (about 7), linear-lanceolate,

long-acuminate into subpungent straight tips,

greenish, narrowly pale-margined, stramineous,

minutely ciliolate, otherwise glabrous, 1.2-1.5

mm wide; corollas ‘“‘purple,’’ minutely puberu-

lous outside with subcapitate hairs, 11 mm

long, the outer lip 4.8 mm long, 3-dentate, 4-

nerved, the inner lip divided to base into 2

linear acute lobes 4.8 mm long; achenes slender,

subrostrate, densely glandular and minutely

hispidulous, 6 mm long; pappus white, 9 mm

long.

Mexico: In woods, Coalcoman, Dist. of

Coalcoman, Michoacan, alt. 1000 meters, 15

March 1939, G. B. Hinton 13654 (type no.

1748962, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Closely similar in habit and most characters

to Perezia dugesit Gray but with much narrower

and more gradually acuminate phyllaries. In

none of the specimens of P. dugesii examined

are the squamose bracts of the pedicels so

numerous or so narrow.

Stephanomeria cinerea Blake, comb. nov.

Ptiloria cinerea Blake, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash-

ington 35: 177. 1922.

of the genus Dendrortyx.! HERBERT

-as comprising only ‘“‘two widely separated

localities, Huitzilac, Morelos, and San Se-

basti4n (northwest of Mascota), Jalisco,

Mexico,” and further state that “although

San Sebastian, Jalisco, is widely separated

from Huitzilac, Morelos, and the range of

D. m. striatus in Michoacan would seem to

intervene somewhat, the Jalisco specimens

are so nearly like grisezpectus from Morelos

and so different from striatus that no other

SHprT. 15, 1943

way is left than to place them in the same

-race.’’ I find, on the contrary, that the birds

of the two localities are as separable from

each other as are the other recognized (and

valid) races of the species. The Huitzilac,

Morelos, birds, being topotypical grisezpec-

tus, retain that name, while for the San

Sebastian, Jalisco, specimens I propose the

name—

Dendrortyx macroura diversus, n. subsp.

Type—vU. S. N..M. (Biol. Surv. Coll.)

155936, o&, San Sebastian, Jalisco, Mexico,

collected March 28, 1897, by E. W. Nelson and

E. A. Goldman.

Subspecific characters—Similar to D. m.

grisetpectus Nelson but differing in having the

SCHULTZ: CHARACINID FISHES FROM SOUTH AMERICA

273

lower back, rump, and upper tail coverts more

olive-brown and with no or little black barring;

in having the flanks and thighs more olive-

brown, less barred; and in having the under

tail coverts more brownish, less blackish, with

less contrast between the dark areas and the

whitish tips.

Range—Known only from northwestern

Jalisco (Mascota and San Sebastian).

Measurements.—4 of, including the type—

wing 153-161 (156); tail 138-149 (144.5);

culmen from the base 20.6—20.8 (20.65) ; tarsus

50-53 (51.1); middle toe without claw 39.7—

AN~* (40.2 mm), 3 9—wing 141-151 (146);

vail 19-141 (128.7); culmen from base 19.5—

20.8 (20.3); tarsus 47—47.5 (47.2); middle toe

without claw 38-38.9 (38.3 mm).

ICHTHYOLOGY.—Two new characind fishes from South America of the genus

- Gilbertolus Exgenmann.'

In recent studies of some characinid fishes

that I collected in the Maracaibo Basin of

Venezuela, it was observed that the forms

of Gilbertolus inhabiting the Rio Atrato and

the Rio Magdalena of Colombia and the

Maracaibo Basin differed from each other

so much that it was decided to describe two

of them as new subspecies. The form from

the Magdalena River was described by

Steindachner in 1878.

The members of this genus seem to occur

most frequently in the quiet waters of

swampy areas and less frequently in the

quieter pools of the rivers. They are no-

where abundant, however, and few speci-

mens are preserved in museums.

Genus Gilbertolus Eigenmann

Gilbertella Eigenmann, Smithsonian Mise. Coll.

45: 147. 1903 (Genotype: Anacyrtus

(Raestes) alatus Steindachner.)

Gulbertolus Eigenmann, in Kigenmann and Ogle,

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 33: 3. 1907. (New

name to replace Gilbertella Eigenmann,

preoccupied.)

KEY TO THE SUBSPECIES OF GILBERTOLUS ALATUS

la. Pores in lateral line 58 or 59; pectoral rays

usually 1,17; black caudal spot barely ex-

_ tending on base of middle rays of caudal fin

u Published. by permission of the Secretary of

Bee uthsonian Institution. Received April 22,

LEoNnARD P. Scuuutrz, U. 8. National Museum.

(see table for counts) (Magdalena Basin). .

et ele ern G. a. alatus (Steindachner)?

1b. Pores in lateral line to base of caudal fin rays

63 to 68; pectoral rays usually 1,16; black

caudal spot extending on base of caudal fin

rays as far as on caudal peduncle (Mara-

CAD ORBASIY ject scans eae ee

Be eae pag G. a. maracaiboensis, n. subsp.

lc. Pores in lateral line 69 to 74; pectoral rays

usually 1,17; black caudal spot not extend-

ing on base of caudal fin rays, becoming less

distinct in larger specimens (Atrato Basin)

Se ey eae Sie ea G. a. atratoensis, n. subsp.

Gilbertolus alatus maracaiboensis, n. subsp.

Holotype.—U.S.N.M. no. 121386, a female

specimen, 120 mm in standard length, collected

by Leonard P. Schultz, March 11, 1942, in a

cano half a mile west of Sinamaica, Estado de

Zulia, Venezuela.

Paratypes (all collected by author).—U.S.

N.M. no. 121387, 4 specimens, 107 to 126.5

mm, taken along with the holotype and bearing

the same data; U.S.N.M. no. 121388, 1 exam-

ple, 61 mm, February 24, 1942, from the Rio

Socuy, 3 km above its mouth, Maracaibo

Basin; U.S.N.M. no. 121389, 1 specimen, 75

mm, March 2, 1942, from the Rio Negro below

mouth of Rio Yasa, Maracaibo Basin.

Description.—This description is based on

the holotype and six paratypes. Detailed meas-

2 Anacyrtus (Raestes) alatus Steindachner,

Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 39: 65. 1878 (Rio

Magdalena)..

274

urements were made on the holotype and a

paratype, and these data, expressed in hun-

dredths of the standard length, are recorded be-

low, respectively.

Standard length, in mm, 120 and 107. Length

of head 24.3 and 25.0; greatest depth of body

37.5 and 35.5; length of snout 5.42 and 6.08;

diameter of orbit 7.66 and 7.94; least width of

fleshy interorbital 6.50 and 6.52; postorbital

length of head (to most posterior tip of oper-

culum) 11.9 and 12.1; tip of snout to rear edge

of maxillary 12.8 and 13.8; distance from base

of last anal ray to midbase of caudal fin 10.1

and 9.82; least depth of caudal peduncle 10.1

and 9.82; length of anal fin base 40.6 and 44.0;

length of longest anal fin ray 14.6 and 13.6;

longest dorsal ray 17.1 and 18.0; longest pec-

toral (first) 35.4 and-37.6; longest pelvic ray

15.0 and 15.1; length of upper caudal lobe 24.2

and —; and of lower lobe 26.3 and —; tip of

snout to dorsal origin 57.9 and 58.2; snout to

anal origin 57.5 and 56.6; snout to adipose 87.5

and 86.0; snout to pelvic insertion 44.6 and

44.5; snout to pectoral insertion 26.9 and 28.5;

distance between tip of supraoccipital process

and dorsal origin 39.7 and 39.3; snout to tip of

supraoccipital process 19.0 and 19.6.

The following counts were made, respec-

tively: Dorsal rays 1,9 and 11,9; anal rays iv,40

and iv,45; pectorals i,16-1,16 and i,16-1,16;

pelvics i1,7-1,7 and i,7-1,6; pores in lateral line

to base of caudal fin rays 68 and 65; scales

above lateral line to origin of dorsal 14 and 13

and below lateral line to pelvic fin base 13 and

11; scales in a zigzag row around caudal ped-

uncle 21 and 22; scale rows in front of dorsal

to tip of supraoccipital process 42 and 41;

branched caudal fin rays 17 and 17; gill rakers

on first gill arch — and 8+1-+15.

Body compressed, the greatest depth usually

through region of anus and contained a little

less than 3 times in standard length, head about

4, base of anal fin about 23, both in standard

length; eye large, much longer than snout,

about 3, interorbital about 43, mouth (snout

to rear of maxillary) 2, all in length of head;

mouth equal to snout and eye; origin of dorsal

an equal distance between midbase of caudal

fin rays and front margin of the opercular bone;

origin of anal a little in advance of dorsal

origin, the latter over the base of the fourth

branched anal ray; pelvic insertions a little

closer to rear of pectoral bases than to anal

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

origin; ventral margin sharply keeled from in

front of anal fin to between rear bases of pec-

torals, thence a hard low ridge ending at

isthmus; lateral line a little decurved behind

head, thence following a straight course to one

scale row below midbase of caudal fin; length

of caudal peduncle equal to its least depth;

palatine bones forming an elevated ridge but

edentulous; premaxillaries with a pair of ca-

nines at their symphysis, then seven pairs of

short sharp-pointed conical teeth laterally;

maxillaries with a series of sharp-pointed coni-

cal teeth; teeth in both jaws in a single series;

dentaries with two pairs of long canines, the

outer pair fanglike; two pairs of short conical

teeth between the inner pair of canines; den-

taries behind outer pair of canines with a series

of widely spaced conical teeth; canines on lower

jaw fitting into pits in upper jaw; lower lobe of

caudal fin longer than upper lobe; caudal fin

deeply concave or forked; first rays of all fins

longest; the first pectoral rays are exceedingly

elongate, reaching past anal origin to a vertical

line through dorsal origin; pelvics reaching not

quite so far; anal origin a little closer to tip of

snout than midcaudal base; pectoral fin lanceo-

late in shape; dorsal fin rather short, about

equal to eye and postorbital length of head;

breast is thick and heavy, the width across

prepectoral shields about equal to two eye

diameters, and it is the widest part of the body;

prepectoral shield with a notch; lower angle of

preopercular bone with a short flat, spinelike

projection posteriorly; the second suborbital

does not quite cover two-thirds of the cheek,

and the remainder is fleshy; the gill rakers are

rather long and slender, numbering 7 or 8+1

+14 or 15.

Color.—Silvery on sides, back darker; the

black caudal spot extends as much on the

basal portion of the caudal fin rays as on caudal

peduncle, and is a little larger than pupil;

margin of thick lower lip blackish; membranes

of fins pigmented, the rays less so; in the two

smaller specimens a lateral dark band occurs

above lateral line, ending in the black caudal

spot; peritoneum silvery.

Remarks.—Among other characters this new

subspecies differs from the other two forms re-

ferred to the genus Gilbertolus as indicated in

the key. Named maracaiboensts in reference to

the Maracaibo Basin in which specimens have

been collected.

Sept. 15, 1943

Gilbertolus alatus atratoensis, n. subsp.

Gilbertolus alatus Eigenmann (not of Steindach-

ner), Mem. Carnegie Mus. 9(1): 164, pl.

26, fig. 1. 1922.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 76976, a specimen

91 mm in standard length, collected by Wilson

at Quibdo, Rio Atrato, Colombia.

Paratypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 120170, 14 speci-

mens, collected along with the holotype and

bearing same data.

Description—Detailed measurements were

made on the holotype and one of the paratypes.

These data, expressed in hundredths of the

standard length, are recorded below, respec-

tively.

Standard length, in mm, 91 and 87.4. Length

of head 25.9 and 24.7; greatest depth 35.2 and

35.3; length of snout 6.04 and 5.95; diameter of

orbit 9.67 and 9.16; least width of fleshy inter-

orbital space 6.15 and 6.30, postorbital length

of head 12.1 and 11.2; tip of snout to rear of

maxillary 13.0 and 13.5; length of caudal ped-

uncle 9.78 and 9.72; least depth of caudal

peduncle 9.34 and 9.84; length of base of anal

fin 42.4 and 42.6; length of longest ray of anal

— and 17.2; longest dorsal ray 18.7 and 18.1;

longest pectoral ray 35.3 and 36.4; longest

pelvic ray 11.9 and 12.2; length of upper caudal

lobe 24.2 and —; lower caudal lobe 28.6 and —;

tip of snout to dorsal origin 57.9 and 57.0; snout

to anal origin 57.2 and 55.2; snout to adipose

origin 87.5 and 87.0; snout to pelvic insertion

47.8 and 45.4; snout to pectoral insertion 29.7

and 28.6; distance from tip of supraoccipital

process to dorsal origin 37.4 and 36.7; snout

SCHULTZ: CHARACINID FISHES FROM SOUTH AMERICA

275

tip to posterior point of supraoccipital process

20.8 and 20.3.

The following counts were made, respec-

tively: Dorsal rays 1,9 and 1,9; anal rays iv,43

and iv,46; pectoral 1,17-1,17 and i,17-,17;

pelvies i,7—-1,7 and i,7-1,7; pores in lateral line

72 and 71; scales from dorsal origin to lateral

line 13 and 138, and from lateral line to pelvic

base 12 and 138; zigzag row of scales around

caudal peduncle 21 and 22; number of gill

rakers on first gill arch 8+1+15and7+1+14;

number of scale rows from tip of supraoccipital

process to dorsal origin— and 41; branched

caudal fin rays 17 and 17.

It is unnecessary to describe this subspecies

as fully as maracazboensis, as it is very similar

in all except the following respects: Dorsal

origin equidistant between midcaudal base and

rear or orbit; the notch in prepectoral shield is

much shallower, so that there is hardly any

platelike projection at the lower angle; the

spiny platelike projection at lower preopercular

angle is shorter, so that there is only an indica-

tion ef a shallow notch above it; the pectorals

reach a little past a vertical through dorsal

origin.

Color.—Caudal spot does not extend out on

basis of middle caudal fin rays; otherwise color

is the same as in maracazboensis.

Remarks.—This new subspecies may be dis-

tinguished from other subspecies referred to the

genus Gilbertolus by means of the key.

Named atratoensts in reference to the river

system in which it occurs.

TaBLE 1.—Counts RECORDED ON THE SUBSPECIES OF GIBERTOLUS ALATUS (STEINDACHNER)

Number of fin rays

Subspecies Anal Pectoral Pelvies Dorsal

iv,40 | iv,41 | iv,42 | iv,43 | iv,44 | iv,45 | iv,46 | iv,47 |iv,48]iv,49| 1,15 | 1,16 | 1,17 TIS} yf (9) 37 ii,8 | 1,9

atratoensis....) — — — — 1 — — 18 = 10 — 11

maracaiboensis| 1 — — — 4 2 — — — — 2 11 1 — 1 8 iL 6

alatus........ —}—;} — +} — |} — | — | — | — |] 1 a || A 1 a 1 1 au

IP Ee IRR a OE SIE) tel SO er ae a ee ee ee ee

Number of scales

eT Oren ig ve es en te ie ee

! : Below lateral line

Number of pores in lateral line Above lateral line feipelnicibase

581591601 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 |69| 70| 71 | 72|73|74| 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 10 Wil ]) 1) 13

atratoensis....) —|— | —}]— | — | — | — |—!|—|—|— Tele pale Sal Sele 2) alt —— 1 6 3 1}— iL 4] 6

maracaiboensis| — | — | — | — | — Syl Ie |) Bie eT | 2 1 DO a 3 1 it

PUNE «if 00 0s LD) | a el SS 1 te a

i ee ee le

276

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

ZOOLOGY .—Two new ostracods of the genus Entocythere and records of previously

described species.!

At the time of publication of the writer’s

previous paper (1942) establishing the sub-

family Entocytherinae of cytherid ostracods ©

and describing two new species of the genus

Entocythere epizoic on crayfishes, it seemed

apparent that further examination of cray-

fishes would reveal other undescribed species

of the group. At that time the writer had in

his possession a few poorly prepared speci-

mens of an undescribed species of the genus

Entocythere. Upon examination of large

numbers of specimens taken in recent col-

lections, this undescribed form has been

found in sufficient numbers to merit de-

scription. The present paper describes this

as a new species, as well as a second new

species. The opportunity is taken here to

list records of previously described species of

Entocythere from crayfishes collected in sev-

eral States of the lower Mississippi Valley.

The bulk of material upon which this

study is based was obtained from crayfishes

collected by the writer during the spring of

1942 from areas in Illinois, Tennessee,

Louisiana, and Arkansas. The crayfishes ob-

tained from Tennessee were collected with

the assistance of Prof. C. L. Baker while the

writer was working at the Reelfoot Lake

Biological Station under a research grant

from the Tennessee Academy of Science.

The crayfishes from Illinois were identified

by the writer, and all the others were identi-

fied by Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Univer-

sity of Florida. This study was aided by

a grant from the American Association for

the Advancement of Science through the

Illinois State Academy of Science.

For a discussion of the ostracods epizoic

on crayfishes and diagnoses of the subfamily

Entocytherinae, the genus Entocythere, and

the subgenera of the latter, the reader is re-

ferred to the paper by Hoff (1942).

Entocythere (Cytherites) riojai, n. sp.

nicer |

The type material was taken from several

crayfishes of the species Orconectes virilis

1 Received April 20, 1943.

C. Cuayton Horr, Quincy College, Quincy, Ill.

municated by CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. )

(Com-

(Hagen) collected from a stream in South Park,

Quincey, Adams County, IIl., on April 18, 1942.

Holotype (female), allotype, and a number of

paratypes, U.S.N.M. 81292. Additional para-

types have been retained provisionally in the

writer’s collection. The female selected as holo-

type was taken while in copulation, the male

of the pair being the allotype. The paratypes

include both gravid and copulating females,

since the two kinds differ in several ways. It

might appear inadvisable to select as the holo-

type a copulating, nongravid female rather

than a gravid one, but, when the male and fe-

male of a copulating pair are selected as the

first types, there is little possibility of desig-

nating as holotype and allotype individuals of

different species.

This new species is named in honor of Dr.

Enrique Rioja, an outstanding Mexican taxon- —

omist, who has recently described two new spe-

cies of the genus Hntocythere (Rioja, 1940,

1942). Dr. Rioja was the first to discover the

presence of two kinds of females in species of

the genus Hntocythere.

Female. The shell (Fig. 1, A) of the copulat-

ing female is ovate-oblong in general shape,

with little irregularity in outline as seen from

the side. The anterior end is more narrowly

rounded than the posterior, since the greatest

height is near the center of the posterior one-

half of the shell. The dorsal margin is weakly

convex, while the ventral margin presents a

shallow concavity at about the anterior one-

third. In some individuals this concavity is so

poorly developed that the ventral margin is

practically straight. Posterior to the concavity

the ventral margin is slightly convex. The very

fine marginal hairs of the shell are few in num-

ber and are evenly spaced along the ventral and

end margins of the shell. The anterior one-

third of the shell is unmarked and transparent.

The posterior two-thirds, the part beginning a

short distance posterior to the eye, is usually

marked by very fine pits and colored by ag-

gregations of pigment flecks. These flecks are

often concentrated in two areas: one near the

center of the dorsal margin extending ventrally

toward the center of the shell and the other

Sept. 15, 1943 HOFF: NEW OSTRACODS OF GENUS ENTOCYTHERE 277

close to the posterior margin of the shell. In a Below are given measurements of several

few individuals the flecks have been observed _ shells of copulating females cleared in xylol and

to cover most of the posterior two-thirds of the mounted in clarite. These measurements are

shell, but, even in this case, there are always of females found in copulation at the time of

concentrations of pigment in the two areas al- capture.

ready described. The eye is large in all in- Length Height

dividuals and is located about one-fifth of the ie a Bae es ace a

distance from the anterior end of the shell. 0.35 0.19 apnea)

Fig. 1—Entocythere riojai, n. sp.: A, Shell of female holotype as viewed from the right; B, distal

part of antenna of copulating female paratype; C, distal part of antenna of gravid female paratype;

D, ventral claw of the antenna of a male paratype seen from the flexor side; £, lateral view of the

mandibular palp of a gravid female paratype; Ff, mesial view of the maxillary palp and protopodite

of a gravid female paratype; G, lateral view of first leg of gravid female paratype; H, shell of male

allotype viewed from the left; J, mesial view of the distal portion of the antenna of a male paratype; J,

mesial view of the copulatory organ of the left side of a male paratype; K, the distal end of the ‘‘clasp-

ing appendage” of the male allotype; L, the distal end of the ‘‘clasping appendage”’ of a male para-

ype.

All figures were drawn from specimens mounted in clarite. A camera lucida was used. The scale in

A equals 0.2 mm and applies also to H. The scale in B equals 0.02 mm and applies as well to C. The

scale in D equals 0.01 mm and applies also to J. The scale in E equals 0.025 mm; that of F, 0.01 mm;

oe of G, 0.025 mm; and that of J, 0.025 mm. The scale in K is equal to 0.01 mm and also applies

o L.

278

Measurements of females from other localities

show considerable variation in shell size, with

a tendency in many cases for the shells to be

somewhat smaller than those of the type col-

lection.

The shell of the gravid female is very similar

to that of the copulating type already men-

tioned, except that the concavity of the ventral

margin is much more pronounced and the size

of the shell is about 10 percent greater, the

length ranging from 0.35 to 0.40 mm or slightly

more with the height proportional. Eggs can

usually be observed in the gravid type of fe-

male but were not seen in copulating females.

The eggs range in number from one to four,

with two or three the usual number.

With the exception of the antennae, the ap-

pendages of the copulating and gravid females

are identical in nature. Each antennule is com-

posed of six podomeres. The width of the

podomeres decreases in order from proximal to

distal. The third podomere is almost square in

lateral view, the more distal ones becoming

cylindrical. The terminal podomere is the

slenderest, having a length between four and

five times the central width. The two basal

podomeres each appear to bear a single seta;

the third two setae; the fourth five somewhat

shortened setae, few of which in any individual

extend much beyond the level of the tip of the

ultimate podomere of the appendage; the

penultimate or fifth podomere has no seta;

while on the ultimate podomere there are five

setae, none of which has a length greater than

three times the length of the supporting podo-

mere.

The chief differences between the two kinds

of females are to be found in the antennae.

Each antenna in the female is composed of four

podomeres exclusive of the exopodite or flagel-

lum, which extends to a level with the end of

the terminal claws of the appendage. The ante-

penultimate podomere of the antenna or the

first podomere of the endopodite bears on the

flexor-distal corner a long, heavy seta, which

extends nearly to the level of the origin of the

most distal seta of the penultimate podomere.

The penultimate podomere of the copulating

female (Fig. 1, B) is undivided, but in the

gravid female (Fig. 1, C) a division occurs, so

that the antenna appears to be formed of five

podomeres, exclusive of the exopodite. In the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

copulating female the penultimate podomere

has three setae, two forming a pair near the

center on the ventral or flexor surface of the ap-

pendage and the third a short distance from the

distal margin on the flexor surface. The most

distal seta of the penultimate podomere has a

length somewhat greater than the central width

of the podomere, while each seta of the more

proximally situated pair has a length about

equal to the width of the podomere. In the

gravid female the divided penultimate podo-

mere bears a pair of setae on the distal-flexor

corner of the basal portion. Another seta is lo-

cated on the flexor margin of the distal portion

about one-third of the distance from the distal

end. Each of these three setae is as long as or

longer than the basal portion of the podomere.

In general, the setae of the antenna are some-

what longer in the gravid than in the copulating

female. The ultimate podomere in both kinds of

females is small, serving merely as articulation

area for the terminal claws. The copulating

female has two claws, a large ventral or pos-

terior claw with a row of spinelike teeth pass-

ing along both sides and around the distal end

as in the male (Fig. 1, D), having the appear-

ance from the side, however, of a single row of

teeth. These teeth or spines are stout on the

distal portion of the claw but become some-

what shortened and weakened near the base.

The anterior or dorsal claw is very slender,

shorter than the other, and has a few poorly

developed spines on the concave surface. The

antenna of the gravid female bears three ter-

minal claws, since in addition to the two de-

scribed for the copulating female there is a

third located mesially between the bases of the

larger claws. This third claw is small and a

little less than one-half the length of the dorsal

claw of the antenna. It bears a few weak, short

teeth.

The mouth parts are similar in both kinds of

females. The mandibles have five to seven,

usually six, flattened, spatulalike, multiple-

cusped teeth. Two or three small additional

teeth may be found in some individuals. The

most distal tooth is much wider than the others

and has six or seven cusps; the more proximal —

teeth being progressively smaller and exhibiting

fewer cusps. The respiratory plate is reduced

to three setae. The palp (Fig. 1, EZ) is composed

of four podomeres. The joint between the basal

Supt. 15, 1943

and the next or antepenultimate podomere of

the palp is, however, weakly expressed, while

the suture between the antepenultimate and

the penultimate podomeres can not be dis-

cerned except under optimum conditions. The

distal-flexor margin of the basal podomere sup-

ports a long, curved seta reaching to the distal

end of the ultimate podomere; the antepenulti-

mate podomere has no setae; the penultimate

has two setae, a short one near the distal-

extensor corner and a somewhat laterally

placed longer seta originating from the an-

terior one-third of the podomere; the ultimate

podomere bears terminally a heavy, slightly

curved spine at the base of which is inserted a

heavy seta nearly equal in length to the length

of the spine. The maxilla (Fig. 1, F) has an

unjointed palp extending far beyond the distal

end of the protopodite and ending in two claw-

like spines, each falciform, but the ventral one

slightly longer and heavier than the other.

The two are nearly parallel throughout their

length. The base or protopodite ends in two

long, stiffened setae, each somewhat longer

than the terminal spine of the palp. The re-

spiratory plate usually has 17 setae or rays,

although it is very difficult to make an ac-

curate count since the long and slender setae

are extremely transparent and can be seen only

in preparations made and examined with more

than ordinary care. In the case of dissections

the respiratory plate is often pulled loose from

the protopodite, since the attachment is by a

very slender basal stalk. For these reasons the

respiratory plate easily may be overlooked.

Each of the three thoracic legs is composed of

four podomeres. The first thoracic leg (Fig. 1,

G) has two plumose setae at the anterior-distal

corner of the first podomere. These setae are

nearly equal in length, each being almost as

long as the next more distal podomere. A single

slightly plumose seta is found at the anterior-

distal corner of the basal podomere of each leg

of the second and third pairs. Each seta has a

length not much more than one-half of the

length of the antepenultimate podomere. The

second podomere of each leg bears a single seta

on the anterior margin of each leg a short dis-

tance removed from the distal margin. The

length of this seta shows considerable variation

but in general is not less than one-half of the

width of the podomere at the base of the seta

HOFF: NEW OSTRACODS OF GENUS ENTOCYTHERE

279

or more than the width of the podomere. The

penultimate podomere is distally somewhat

widened and meets the ultimate podomere in a

poorly marked, probably little movable, joint.

The penultimate podomere of each leg bears

on the anterior distal corner a seta that has a

length approximate to the length of the ulti-

mate podomere. This seta is often so closely

appressed to the anterior margin of the distal

podomere that it is seen with difficulty. The

ultimate podomere of each leg is wider than

long. When the terminal claw is flexed the seta

of the penultimate podomere contacts the teeth

or spines of the terminal claw. Each of the

terminal claws bears, on the average, five long

teeth.

Male.—Shell of the male (Fig. 1, H) differing

from that of the copulating female only by a

ventral margin slightly convex throughout its

length and a posterior margin flattened along

the dorsal one-half. The measurements of

several males mounted in clarite are as follows:

Length Height

0.33 mm 0.18 mm (allotype)

0.34 0.18 (paratype)

0.32 0.18 (paratype)

0.37 0.19 (paratype)

The appendages differ in a few respects from

those of the female. The chief difference be-

tween individuals of the two sexes is in the

antenna, which in the male is modified for

clasping the female during copulation. As in

the gravid female, the penultimate podomere

of the antenna is divided so that the appendage

has five apparent podomeres. The setae of the

antenna are placed in the same position but are

relatively shorter than those of the gravid

female. Like the gravid female, there are three

end claws (Fig. 1, J). These elaws are slightly

longer than in the gravid female, the ventral

claw especially being slenderer and lacking the

bulbose basal portion observed in the corre-

sponding claw of the gravid female. The an-

terior dorsal claw has a length equal to about

three-fourths of the length of the longer but

slenderer ventral claw. This dorsal claw is heavy

throughout its length, is gently curved, and

ends distally in a flattened, widened area,

which bears a circular row of long teeth or

spines that pass around the sides and end, the

teeth appearing in side view like the teeth of a

comb. The small mesial claw has a length equal

280

to about one-half of the anterior or dorsal

claw. The mouth parts of the male are similar

to those of the female. The thoracic legs differ

only in the relative lengths of some of the setae,

of which those of the antepenultimate podo-

meres seem usually to be longer in the male

than in the female, each having a length greater

than the width of the leg at the base of the

seta.

The copulatory organ (Fig. 1, J) in the male

consists of a base and three accessory pieces.

The base is proximally widened but abruptly

narrowed near the center of the anterior mar-

gin at the point of attachment of the accessory

pieces. The most dorsal of the three accessory

pieces has a short base and~-a single straight

distal seta almost equal in length to the base.

The next or center accessory piece is long and

slender, being curved at each end but more or

less straightened centrally. This accessory

piece ends in a seta equal in length to the seta

of the first accessory piece. The third or most

distal accessory piece (Fig. 1, K and L) is

heavy and falciform. This structure is often

called the ‘‘clasping appendage.’’ The end of

this accessory piece is blunt and distally

marked by three or four rounded teeth. The

concave margin is toothed with usually two,

rarely three, widely separated, almost papilla-

form teeth. The ‘‘clasping appendage’”’ extends

for some distance beyond the base of the copu-

latory organ.

Remarks.—At the present time, it would be

difficult to attempt a discussion of the natural

relationships of the species in the subgenus

Cytherites Sars, 1926, especially since the male

of Entocythere (Cytherites) insignipes (Sars,

1926), the type of the subgenus C'ytherites, is

unknown. The subgenera of the genus Ento-

cythere seem poorly defined, and the entire

classification of forms within the genus needs

to be reviewed. It is even difficult now to indi-

cate in some of the species a convenient com-

bination of characteristics that might serve as

a basis for rapid recognition. Except on the

basis of the characteristics of the ‘‘clasping ap-

pendage,”’ of the male copulatory organ, many

of the species of the subgenus may be accu-

rately separated from one another only by

careful and detailed study. In the various spe-

cies of the genus Entocythere, there are a few

characteristics which, when carefully applied,

serve to separate other species from LE. riojat.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

As an aid to future work, a list of the known

species of the genus is given here along with

an indication of the way in which each may be

separated from EF. riojat.

Entocythere cambaria Marshall, 1903, E. il-

linovsensts Hoff, 1942, and LE. claytonhoffi

Rioja, 1942, differ from E. riojai by being much

greater in shell length, about 0.60 mm, and by

having fewer setae in the respiratory plate of

the maxilla. These forms have been assigned

to the subgenus E’ntocythere Marshall, 19038, as

diagnosed by Hoff (1942).

EH. wnsignipes (Sars, 1926) differs from E.

rrojat by having seven podomeres and three

terminal setae in the antennule, while the latter

has six podomeres and five terminal setae. The

male copulatory organ of E. insignipes is un-

described, the original description of the species

being based entirely upon female specimens.

Both E. heterodonta Rioja, 1940, and E.

donnaldsonensts Klie, 1931, differ from E. riojat

by the absence of a seta on the penultimate

podomere of each thoracic leg. Neither species

has a long, falciform “clasping appendage” with

a regular, entire convex surface that could be

confused with that structure in HL. riojat.

E. columbia Dobbin, 1941, is easily sepa-

rated from E. riojai by the size, about 0.60 mm

in length, and the peculiar shape of the shell.

There are also fewer setae in the respiratory

plate of the maxilla according to a personal

communication from Dr. Dobbin (Evenson).

The “clasping appendage”’ is less curved than

in E. riojat.

E. copiosa Hoff, 1942, may be separated

with difficulty from E. riojai except by the

“clasping appendage,” which in the former has

the convex margin subdistally divided in con-

trast to the entire convex surface of that struc-

ture in EF. riojai. Also E. copiosa is slightly

larger; the setae of the respiratory plate of the

maxilla are stronger and more easily seen; and

the teeth of the ventral claw of the antenna are

usually weaker. These last characteristics are

not, however, in every instance entirely de-

pendable for separation of the two species.

E. humesi, the second species described as

new in this paper, is much larger than E. riojat

and has four terminal setae on the antennule

and only two setae representing the respiratory

plate of the mandible. The clasping appendage

is not so long or curved as in E. riojat.

The problems of intrageneric .and inter-

Sepr. 15, 19438

generic relationships in the Entocytherinae and

the identification of species are further com-

plicated by the occurrence in some species, as

in E. riojat, of two kinds of females: the copu-

lating and the gravid. Dr. Rioja in a personal

communication to the writer has mentioned the

presence of two kinds of females in a species of

Entocythere from Mexico. Paris (1920) men-

tions two types of females, ‘nubile’ and

“ovigére,”’ in the European species Sphaero-

micola topsentt Paris, 1916, but does not dis-

cuss the two kinds in detail or account for their

occurrence. Paris points out the shell differ-

ences, especially the increased size and angu-

larity of the shell of the ‘“‘ovigére”’ type of fe-

male, but mentions no differences in the an-

tennae of the two kinds of females. In E. riojar

the copulating females have the penultimate

podomere of the antenna undivided and the

antenna ending in two claws, while the gravid

females have a divided penultimate podomere

and three antennary claws.

An exact explanation of the occurrence of the

two types of females can not be given at this

time. In observations made on about 75 adult

individuals, the majority of them females, it

was noticed that all the females found in copu-

lation were characterized by an undivided

penultimate podomere in the antenna and two

end claws. These have been designated as

copulating females. None were observed in a

gravid condition. On the other hand, practi-

cally all the larger females with the divided

penultimate podomere and three end claws on

the antenna were found to be carrying large,

well-formed eggs. The females of this type

never were observed in copulation.

On first noticing the two kinds of females,

the writer supposed that he had discovered a

case of parthenogenesis, since this phenomenon

would explain the occurrence of copulation in

the one kind of female and not in the other.

Parthenogenetic development is known in

many fresh-water ostracods, being common in

species of the family Cypridae, but a morpho-

logical difference as exhibited here between fe-

males of the two kinds apparently is unre-

ported. Observation does not substantiate the

hypothesis that there is one type of female

producing eggs requiring fertilization before

development and another kind producing eggs

developing without fertilization, since, if the

hypothesis held, eggs should be observed in at

HOFF: NEW OSTRACODS OF GENUS ENTOCYTHERE

281

least a few of the smaller females. Such eggs

have not been found. The only adequate ex-

planation for the two kinds of females seems to

be that a molt occurs between the time of copu-

lation and the time of development of the eggs

within the ovary. At the time of this molt

there appear the three claws and the divided

penultimate podomere of the antenna as char-

acteristic of the larger, gravid female. Whether

this explanation is the correct one can be deter-

mined only by observation of the development

of females in culture. Unfortunately, methods

of culturing the epizoic ostracods are as yet

undeveloped.

Ecology.—The lack of host specificity in the

relationship between EF. riojai and different

species of crayfishes supports the writer’s

(1942) former observations. Three different

species of crayfish are reported as being hosts

to E. riojat in the six collections. These cray-

fish species are given in the paragraph on dis-

tribution.

In the six collections made of E. riojai, the

species was found associated twice with E.

copiosa and four times with LE. illinoisensis. By

this association is meant the finding of ostra-

cods from the crayfishes of one collection and

not from the same crayfish, since all the cray-

fishes of a collection are examined together as a

single lot. E. rzojat was found alone in two col-

lections, but the absence of other forms from

these two collections may be the result of small

samples.

A review of the habitats, from which the ma-

terial was secured, reveals the interesting fact

that E. riojai has been found only on crayfishes

from small streams where there is considerable

current and never from the quiet waters of

lakes or the larger, more slowly flowing streams.

Large numbers of collections from different

areas may make possible some interesting

ecological deductions with reference to this and

other species of Entocythere.

Distribution.—In addition to the type lo-

cality, where the species is very abundant,

E. riojat has been found in collections as fol-

lows: a few individuals from Orconectes virilis

(Hagen), Salt Fork at Homer Park, near

Homer, Champaign County, Ill., on May 23,

1940; a few individuals from Orconectes pro-

pinquus (Girard) from Stony Creek, Oakwood,

Vermilion County, Ill., September 19, 1940; a

few individuals from Orconectes propinquus

282

(Girard) taken from the stream in Crystal Lake

Park, Urbana, Champaign County, IIl., Octo-

ber 2, 1940; a number of individuals taken

from Orconectes longimanus (Faxon) in a

stream near Casa, Perry County, Ark., June

17, 1942; several individuals from Orconectes

meeki (Faxon) from a stream near Crossroads,

Pulaski County, Ark., on June 17, 1942.

Entocythere (Cytherites)

humesi, n. sp.

Fig. 2

The type material was secured from a single

slightly atypical male crayfish of the species

Cambarus bartoni robustus Girard collected by

Dr. Arthur G. Humes from a stream near

Boston, Erie County, N. Y., on May 17, 1942.

Holotype (female), allotype, and one paratype

(female), U.S.N.M. 81293. Four paratypes, one

male, one female, and two immature indi-

viduals, have been retained in the collection of

the writer. This species is named in honor of the

collector, Dr. Arthur G. Humes.

Female.—Shell from the side (Fig. 2, A)

subreniform, with the posterior end higher and

more broadly rounded than the anterior. The

ventral margin of the shell has a shallow con-

cavity deepest just behind the anterior one-

third of the shell, while the posterior one-half

of the ventral margin is weakly convex. The

anterior end of the shell is narrowly rounded.

The anterior margin meets the dorsal margin

without interruption except for a slight inden-

tation just ventral to the junction of the two

margins. The dorsal margin is strongly arched

with the highest point or apex located between

the center and the posterior one-third of the

margin. From the apex the dorsal margin

slopes in an even arc both anteriorly and pos-

teriorly. The posterior margin is dorsally some-

what flattened: but ventrally rounded, meeting

the ventral margin without angulation. In

juvenile individuals a distinct protuberance or

angulation is located at the posterior-ventral

corner of the shell. The eye is well developed,

is easily observed through the transparent

valves, and is located near the anterior one-

fifth of the shell. The valves appear asetaceous

and show no important shell sculpturing. Poor-

ly developed, scattered areas of pigment occur,

however, on the dorsal one-half of each valve

posterior to the eye. A more complete descrip-

tion of the shell is at present impossible be-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

cause the material available for study is limited.

Some indication of the shell size is shown by

the following measurements of a gravid female

paratype: length of shell, 0.50 mm; height at

level of ventral concavity, 0.24 mm; greatest

height, 0.29 mm.

With respect to the cephalic appendages,

each antennule is composed of six podomeres.

The first or basal podomere is heavy; the

second has a length little less than twice the

width; the third has a length about one and

one-half times the width; the fourth or ante-

penultimate podomere is about twice as long as -

wide; the penultimate about as long as the

antepenultimate but much slenderer; the ul-

timate is six to seven times as long as wide,

with a length approximate to that of the next

more proximal podomere. The basal podomere

appears to bear a single seta on the ventral-

distal corner, while the distal seta of the second

podomere is somewhat mesial in position. The

third podomere supports two setae. The ante-

penultimate podomere has four distal setae,

one on the flexor margin and one on the ex-

tensor margin, with the other two mesial in

position. These setae are long, some of them

reaching slightly beyond the base of the ter-

minal setae of the appendage. The fifth or

penultimate podomere does not bear setae, but

four terminal setae are located on the ultimate

podomere of the antennule. The antennae

closely resemble the antennae of several other

species of the subgenus Cytherites Sars, 1926,

each being composed of four podomeres, ex-

clusive of the exopodite, and ending in two

claws (Fig. 2, B). The penultimate podomere is

undivided. The anterior or dorsal terminal

claw is weak, with the teeth so poorly de-

veloped that they are seen only with great

difficulty. The ventral claw is the larger, is

proximally bulbose, and has a comblike row

of long teeth along the distal two-thirds of the

claw. The penultimate podomere of the an-

tenna has a length nearly equal to three times

the average width of the podomere and bears

three setae on the flexor or ventral margin.

One of these is removed a short distance from

the distal end of the podomere, and the other

two form a pair slightly anterior to the center.

Each has a length almost equal to the width

of the podomere at the base of the seta. The

seta of the flexor-distal corner of the ante-

penultimate podomere has a heavy basal por-

Sept. 15, 1943

tion and does not reach the level of the origin

of the most distal seta of the penultimate

podomere. The antepenultimate or second

podomere of the antenna (the basal podomere

of the endopodite) has a distal width approxi-

mate to the length of the ventral margin. The

flagellum or exopodite reaches to the level of

the terminal claws of the endopodite. The

protopodite of the mandible bears six spade-

like or spatulaform teeth, the mesial two usu-

ally being longer than the others and having a

single cusp, while the more laterally placed

teeth are multicusped, the outside one having

six well-developed denticles or cusps. In some

instances a small but rudimentary additional

tooth may be found mesial to the others, thus

making seven teeth in all. A short distance

proximal to the teeth the protopodite bears a

short, heavy seta on the convex or anterior

surface. This seta is directed toward the distal

end of the protopodite. The respiratory plate

is represented by two setae: one more than

one-third as long as the mandibular palp, the

other about one-fourth the length of the palp.

——_—___,

. |

HOFF: NEW OSTRACODS OF GENUS ENTOCYTHERE

283

In some individuals one of these setae appears

to be directed mesially, usually closely ap-

pressed to the protopodite, while the shorter

of the two setae often stands erect. These setae

are fleshy in appearance, the bases being

widened, and they appear to originate from a

small papilla. The mandibular palp (Fig. 2,

C) of four podomeres extends distally beyond

the protopodite. In this palp the juncture of the

basal and second podomere is not well marked

but can be located by noticing the origin of the

seta at the distal-flexor corner of the basal

podomere. This seta reaches the level of the

ultimate podomere of the palp. The straight

basal two-thirds of the seta is often directed

parallel to the flexor margin of the palp, while

the distal one-third is evenly curved. The

probably inarticulate juncture of the ante-

penultimate or second and the penultimate or

third podomere is too weak to be easily ob-

served. On the anterior face, slightly removed

from the distal end of the penultimate podo-

mere, is a gently curved seta extending almost

to the tip of the terminal spine of the ultimate

oe ee C

Fig. 2.—Entocythere humesi, n. sp.: A, Shell of a female paratype as seen from the right side; B,

mesial view of the distal end of the endopodite of the antenna of a female paratype; C, anterior view

of the mandibular palp of the holotype; D, mesial view of the masticatory process and the maxillary °

palp of a female paratype; #, shell of male allotype viewed from the left side; F, mesial view of the

endopodite of the antenna of male allotype; G, lateral view of the distal end of the copulatory organ

of male allotype; H, end of ‘‘clasping appendage”’ of male allotype.

All figures were drawn with the aid of a camera lucida from specimens mounted in clarite. The scale

for A equals 0.2 mm and applies also to HE. The scale for B equals 0.025 mm and applies as well to F

and G. The scale for C equals 0.02 mm and may be applied to D. The scale for H is equal to 0.01 mm.

284

podomere, while at the extensor-distal corner

of the same podomere is a sharply pointed,

spinelike seta whose tip extends slightly be-

yond the distal end of the ultimate podomere.

The terminal podomere is distally narrowed

and has a flexor margin whose length is slightly

greater than the basal width of the podomore.

In addition to the heavy terminal spine, which

is curved near the tip, the ultimate podomere

bears two fine setae originating beneath the

base of the spine. The spine has a length some-

what greater than the length of the extensor

margin of the ultimate podomere, while each

seta is somewhat shorter. In Fig. 2, C, the ter-

minal podomere of the mandibular palp is

shown slightly rotated to expose the two ter-

minal setae, which are difficult to distinguish

as separate setae when observed in lateral or

mesial view. The maxilla (Fig. 2, D) includes a

single masticatory process, an unsegmented

palp, and a respiratory plate bearing 16 rays

or setae. The unsegmented palp ends in a heavy

but gently curved spine along the convex side

of which runs a second similarly curved but

slenderer spine, slightly shorter than the first.

The single masticatory process terminates dis-

tally in two long setae, each curved gently near

the tip and reaching some distance beyond the

base of the terminal spine of the palp.

The three pairs of thoracic legs are similar,

as each consists of four podomeres and ter-

minates in a sickle-shaped claw displaying on

the concave surface five teeth in addition to the

one that is a continuation of the basal portion

of the claw. The center teeth are considerably

longer than the others. The legs differ chiefly

in the presence of two setae at the anterior-

distal corner of the basal podomere of the legs

of the first pair but only a single seta in this

position in the legs of the second and third

pairs. The penultimate podomere of each leg

has a single heavy, short seta on the distal an-

terior corner. The antepenultimate podomere

supports a single seta on the anterior margin

somewhat removed from the distal end of the

podomere.

Male.—The shell of the male (Fig. 2, £) is

similar in general shape to that of the female

except that the concavity of the anterior por-

tion of the ventral margin seems to be more

weakly developed and may be so nearly want-

ing that the ventral margin appears practically

straight. Redescription with an indication of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

the limits of variability of shell size and shape

will be advisable when additional material can

be secured for study. Two males mounted in

clarite have shell measurements as follows:

length, 0.45 mm; height behind eye at level of

weak sinuation of ventral margin, 0.19 mm;

and maximum height at the level of the apex

of the dorsal margin, 0.24 mm.

The appendages of the male resemble those

of the female. The podomeres of the anten-

nules are not so wide, however, making them

appear slightly slenderer in general aspect.

The number and position of the setae are

identical in the antennules of the two sexes.

The antennae of the male (Fig. 2, F) present

the characteristics associated with that sex. As

is common among males of species of Ento-

cythere, the penultimate podomere of the pres-

ent species is so divided that each antenna ap-

pears to be composed of five podomeres. Two

setae stand at the flexor-distal corner of the

basal portion of the penultimate podomere,

while a third seta is located on the ventral mar-

gin slightly anterior to the center of the distal

portion. The antenna of the male terminates

in three claws. The ventral claw is long and has

very poorly developed teeth along only the

terminal one-third of the concave surface.

These teeth are much weaker than usual in

males of species of this genus. The extreme tip

of the ventral claw is bent ventrad. The dorsal

or anterior claw is shorter and heavier than the

first claw described and bears long teeth ar-

ranged comblike along the distally flattened

margin. The third claw is mesial in position,

being interposed in position between the bases

of the other two claws. This third claw has a

length equal to about two-fifths of the length

of the ventral claw and just reaches the proxi-

mal limit of the flattened area of the dorsal

claw. The teeth of the mesial claw are much

better developed than the teeth of the ventral

claw. Perhaps as a sexual difference, the seta

of the basal podomere of the endopodite of the

antenna reaches to the center of the ultimate

podomere of the endopodite, being much longer

than the corresponding seta in the female.

With respect to the mouth parts, the limited

material available makes impossible accurate

checking of all details pertaining to the man-

dible of the male. There seems, however, to be

close agreement in structure of the mandible

in the two sexes. It was clearly seen that the

Sept. 15, 1943

distal end of the ultimate podomere of the

mandibular palp of the male bears a long,

heavy, gently curved spine close to the base of

which originate two slender, short setae. The

maxilla of the male allotype appears to have a

respiratory plate bearing 17 rays or setae. The

setae of the respiratory plate could not be

counted accurately on the male paratype avail-

able. The slight variation of the allotype from

the 16-rayed condition observed in the female

holotype is no more than can be expected as

an individual difference. No essential differ-

ences were noticed between the thoracic legs

of the female and the male.

The copulatory organ (Fig. 2, G) differs dis-

tinctly from that of other known Entocythere

species. The base of this structure terminates

in a well-chitinized, truncate lobe. The base

supports three accessory pieces, of which the

dorsal is fleshy in appearance and consists of

a short base and a long, slender terminal spine.

The second or middle accessory piece has a

much longer base directed distally and an-

teriorly, extending just beyond the end of the

base of the copulatory organ. The second ac-

cessory piece is terminated by a slender, curved

spine approximate in length to the spine of the

first accessory piece. The third accessory piece

or “clasping appendage”’ (Fig. 2, H) is sickle-

HOFF: NEW OSTRACODS OF GENUS ENTOCYTHERE

2895

shaped or falciform, curved more distally than

proximally, and formed of a highly chitinized

bar, distally widened and fan-shaped, marked

terminally by longitudinal corrugations or

grooves. This “‘clasping appendage’’ reaches

almost to a level with the end of the spine of

the second accessory piece. .

Remarks.—Entocythere humesi may be sepa-

rated from other species of the genus Ento-

cythere by no single characteristic except the

shape of the “‘clasping appendage”’ of the male

copulatory organ. A combination of charac-

teristics will serve, however, in the case of the

female, for separation of HE. humesi from other

described species. This is the only species that

has a combination in the female of four ter-

minal setae on the antennule, an undivided

penultimate podomere in the antenna, and two

respiratory setae representing the respiratory

plate of the mandible.

Distribution—Known only from the type

locality.

Entocythere copiosa Hoff, 1942

In 1942, the present writer reported HL.

copiosa as abundant from a number of different

species of crayfishes collected from several

localities in [llinois. The present study reveals

the occurrence of this species in many collec-

TABLE 1.—COLLECTIONS OF THE Epi1zo1c OsTRACOD ENTOCYTHERE COPIOSA

Date Crayfish host Habitat Location

14-VI-1942....... Procambarus clarkii (Girard)........ Roadside diteh........ Near Port Allen, West Baton Rouge

P. blandingivi acutus (Girard) Parish, La.

14—-VI-1942....... a chanicia Girard) ascot ee eee Roadside ditch........ Near White Castle, Iberville Parish, La.

15-VI-1942....... P. blandingii acutus (Girard)........ Roadside ditch........ Near Alexandria, Rapides Parish, La.

15-VI-1942....... Eenahinecia (Ortmvanm) yee) oh ei eee ere Roadside ditoh........ Near Livonia, Pointe Coupee Parish, La.

P. clarkii (Girard)

15-VI-1942....... P. blandingii acutus (Girard)........ Roadside ditch........ Near Westover, West Baton Rouge Parish,

P. clarkii (Girard) La.

16-VI-1942....... P. blandingii acutus (Girard)........ Roadside ditch........ Near Dry Prong, Grant Parish, La.

Orconectes clypeata (Hay)

iV VOAD: hss Orconectes meeki (Faxon)!........... Stream caentas sere. Ivesville, Pulaski County, Ark.

P. blandingii acutus (Girard)

25-VI-1942....... ES clare (Girard) sane seen ele BAYOU Ly cymes aed Walnut Log, Obion County, Tenn.

26-VI-1942....... PNclonkii (Girard) aes ciee och ace oe 2 IBayOUrtS ses oor ?...| Walnut Log, Obion County, Tenn.

13-VII-1942...... aclamicvy (Girard) pace ssn Bayou). visto oes Walnut Log, Obion County, Tenn.

20-VII-1942...... Pe clarisin (Girarg) hrc ae kaen eet ake es = seueiee 2 See Lake Center, Obion County, Tenn.

25-VII-1942...... Cambarus d.dvogenes (Girard).......|*Streami.-.....:..%.... South of Walnut Log, Obion County,

Orconectes 1. immunis (Hagen) Tenn.

25-VII-1942...... O. %. vmmunis (Hagen)........-..... Small stream..... South of Walnut Log, Obion County,

Tenn.

25-VIT-1942....... Of 4%. ammunis (Hazen). ...-2..-5..- Pool in stream bed....| Near east side of Reelfoot Lake, Ob‘on

Procambarus clarkii (Girard)........

County, Tenn.

Near east side of Reelfoot Lake, Obion

County, Tenn.

1 Males of O. mceki in this collection reported as slightly atypical.

286

tions from widely separated areas in Louisiana,

Arkansas, and Tennessee. Data relative to

these collections are given here in tabular

form.

The data in the table show an apparent lack

of habitat selection in the instance of this spe-

cies, since the form is found in roadside ditches,

pools, lakes, and various types of streams. This

lack of habitat preference is in direct contrast

to the condition mentioned with reference to

E. riojat.

Entocythere illinoisensis Hoff, 1942

Besides the Illinois localities for E. tllinoisen-

sis given in the writer’s paper of 1942, this

rather infrequent species is now known from

two localities in Arkansas. Near Casa, Perry

County, Ark., a collection of 11 individuals of

Orconectes longimanus (Faxon) produced sev-

eral ostracods of the species HE. tllinoisensis in

association with several specimens of E. riojav.

The collection was made from a swiftly flowing

stream on June 17, 1942. A second collection of

E. illinoisensts was made on the same date

from a small stream near Ivesville, Pulaski

County, Ark. Two individuals, one male and

one female, of this species were obtained from a

collection of the crayfishes Orconectes meeki

(Faxon) (males slightly atypical) and Cam-

barus blandingii acutus (Girard). Also in this

collection were large numbers of Entocythere

copiosa.

Like E. riojai, the present species favors

stream habitats and in most cases has been

collected from streams where there is consider-

able current. This is shown not only by the

present records but also by the several previous

records (Hoff, 1942).

In the collection from near Ivesville, Ark.,

the female agrees in detail with type speci-

mens, but the male is somewhat atypical,

since the pronounced knob or projection on the

convex side of the ‘“‘clasping appendage”’ of the

male copulatory organ is greatly reduced. The

‘“‘clasping appendage’ is otherwise not ab-

normal, resembling in detail typical indi-

viduals of EF. alinotsensis. The modified ‘‘clasp-

ing appendage” of this atypical male to some

small degree resembles that of EH. cambaria

Marshall 1903, but other body structures are

certainly not those of EH. cambaria. For the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

present, until more material can be procured,

this specimen will be assigned to EH. illinotsen-

sts. Upon the acquisition of additional material,

it will be possible to show either that this one

individual is abnormal or that a new species or

subspecies is represented.

SUMMARY

1. Two species of the genus Entocythere,

E. riojai from Illinois and Arkansas and

E. humesi from New York, are described as

new.

2. Locality records extending the geo-

graphical ranges of #. copiosa and FE. illi-

noisensis are given.

3. E. riojai and E. illinorsensis have been

found to occur only on crayfishes from smail

streams where there is considerable current.

E. copiosa apparently does not show any

habitat preference.

LITERATURE CITED

DospBIN, CATHERINE N. Fresh-water Ostra-

coda from Washington and other western

localities. Univ. Washington Publ. Biol.

4:174-246. 1941.

Horr, C. Cuayton. The subfamily Ento-

cytherinae, a new subfamily of fresh-water

cytherid Ostracoda, with descriptions of two

new species of the genus Entocythere.

Amer. Midl. Nat. 27: 63-73. 1942.

Kurz, W. Campagne spéologique de C. Bolwar

et R. Jeannel dans l Amérique du Nord

(1928). 3, Crustacés ostracodes. Arch.

Zool. Exp. Gén. 71: 333-344. 1931.

MarsHALL, WILLIAM 8. Entocythere cam-

baria (nov. gen. et nov. spec.), a parasitic

ostracod. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 14:

117-144. 1903.

Paris, P. Ostracods (premiére série). Arch.

Zool. Exp. Gén. 58: 475-487. 1920.

Riosa, Enrique. Morfologia de un ostrdcodo

epizoario observado sobre Cambarus (Cam-

barellus) montezumae Sauss. de Mézxico,

Entocythere heterodonta n. sp. y descrip-

cién de algunos de sus estados larvarios.

Anal. Inst. Biol. México 11: 593-609.

1940.

Descripcién de una especie y una sub-

especie nuevas del genero Entocythere

Marshall, procedentes de la Cueva Chica

(San Luis Potosi, México). Ciencia 3

201-204. 1942.

Sars, G.O. Freshwater Ostracoda from Canada

and Alaska. Report Canadian Arctic

Expedition, 1913-1918, 7: 1-22. 1926.

Sept. 15, 19438

OBITUARIES

287

@bituaries

WILL1AM ALBERT HorrMan, head of the de-

partment of parasitology in the School of

Tropical Medicine, San Juan, Puerto Rico,

died on April 4, 1943. Born in Jersey City,

N. J., April 18, 1894, he obtained his B.S. de-

gree at Cornell University (1917) and his Sc.D.

at Johns Hopkins University in 1924. After

teaching entomology and zoology at Iowa State

College from 1917 to 1918, he was associated

with the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture until

1920, and then served a year as assistant en-

tomologist to the State of New York. While at

Johns Hopkins (1921-24) he was assistant in

medical entomology and, upon graduation, was

sent by the Rockefeller Foundation to Haiti as

medical entomologist in a survey of that re-

public. In 1926 he joined the newly founded

School of Tropical Medicine and was delegated

to organize its department of parasitology, with

which he was closely identified until his death.

While in Haiti, Professor Hoffman was par-

ticularly interested in the anophelines of the

region. In Puerto Rico he clarified and defined

the epidemiology, distribution, and biology of

schistosomiasis as found there. Some of his in-

vestigations on the biology of schistosomes

were carried out in close collaboration with

Dr. Ernest C. Faust. Among the important

findings relating to this parasite were the ex-

perimental proof of the snail species that serves

locally as the intermediate host, improvement

of concentration methods in searching for ova

in the feces, refinement of experimental means

of inoculation of animals with cercariae, and, in

collaboration with Dr. W. H. Taliaferro, de-

velopment of a highly promising skin test. He

also contributed to our knowledge of filariasis

and Fasciola hepatica and to the biology of sev-

eral parasites of domestic animals.

Hoffman’s main interest, however, was in the

field of taxonomic entomology. As an outstand-

ing authority on the Ceratopogonidae he was

widely consulted on problems of identification;

he described several new species of Culicoides

and, with the late Dr. Francis M. Root, pub-

lished a review of the North American species

of that genus. His listed publications number

about 60, including important sections in Wol-

cott’s Entomologie d’ Haiti and Gay’s Aspects of

disease and host resistance. He belonged to sev-

eral scientific societies.

Professor Hoffman will be remembered by a

wide circle of admirers and friends not only for

his scientific accomplishments but also for his

rare ability to inspire enthusiasm in all who

worked near him; for his unstinted generosity

toward those who needed a helping hand; for

his devotion to the art of music; and for the

humble simplicity and almost ascetic austerity

of his life.

RIcHARD Fay JACKSON, senior chemist, Na-

tional Bureau of Standards, died at his home

in Chevy Chase, Md., on June 1, 1943. He was

born in Dorchester, Mass. on January 2, 1881.

He attended the Boston Latin School and

Harvard University, receiving the degree of

A.B. (magna cum laude) from the latter in

1903 and the Ph.D. degree in 1917 from the

same institution. Upon the completion of his

undergraduate work at Harvard, Dr. Jackson

served as research assistant at Massachusetts

Institute of Technology from 1905 to 1907. He

entered the Government service on October 1,

1907, as laboratory assistant in the Polarimetry

Section, National Bureau of Standards.

An enthusiastic and painstaking worker in

the field of sugar chemistry, Dr. Jackson di-

rected his researches into the investigations of

problems dealing with the physical properties

of the sugars and to the development of new

and improved methods of their preparation,

purification, and estimation. He made exten-

sive studies of the sugars, sucrose, dextrose,

and levulose, and his many articles on their

physical and chemical properties received in-

ternational recognition. In recognition of his

contributions on levulose, the Washington Sec-

tion of the American Chemical Society awarded

him the Hillebrand prize in 1925, Dr. Jackson

being the first recipient of this honor. His

phase-rule studies of the system lead acetate,

lead oxide, and water and the system dextrose,

levulose, and water have been accepted as au-

thoritative. His studies on the preparation and

hydrolysis of inulin led to his discovery of three

new crystalline difructose anhydrides among

the products of hydrolysis.

Dr. Jackson was an untiring worker in the

affairs of the Association of Official Agricultural

Chemists, serving for many years as associate

referee on reducing-sugar methods and for the

past several years as general referee on sugar

288

and sugar products. He was a member of the

International Commission for Uniform Meth-

ods of Sugar Analysis and contributed gen-

erously of its efforts.

Dr. Jackson was a member of the American

Chemical Society, the Washington Academy of

Sciences, the American Institute of Chemists

(fellow), and the Chemists Club of New York.

CarL F. SNYDER

WILLIAM ALBERT SETCHELL, algologist, plant

geographer, and chairman of the Department

of Botany of the University of California for

nearly 40 years, died in Berkeley, Calif., on

April 5, 1948. He was born in Norwich, Conn.,

on April 15, 1864. As an undergraduate at Yale

University, his boyhood interest in biology

and especially cryptogamic botany was stimu-

lated primarily by D. C. Eaton. After matricu-

lation young Setchell was enabled to continue

his work in botany, under W. G. Farlow, at

Harvard, where he was awarded the doctorate

in 1890. He returned to Yale as an assistant but

was soon attracted to Berkeley.

The series of papers on the marine algae of

the Pacific coast of North America by Setchell

and N. L. Gardner contain probably his best

known writings. Although a fully competent

taxonomist, he never regarded classification as

a final goal but was always more deeply inter-

ested in the “dynamic aspects” of biology—a

point of view that he vigorously encouraged in

his students. From this study of the algae of

North America, he was led to investigate the

marine flora of other Pacific areas. An associa-

tion with the Carnegie Institution of Washing-

ton permitted Professor and Mrs. Setchell to

make a series of trips to the Pacific islands,

Australia, New Zealand, eastern Asia, and

South Africa. These travels were designed pri-

marily to facilitate investigation of the nature

of reef-formation but they also aroused or aug-

mented his interest in ethnobotany, insular

endemism, trans-oceanic migration, and the

classical problems of plant distribution from a

possible ‘‘antarctic”’ center.

Geobotany—which he defined as a synthesis

of the distributional, ecological, and genetic or

historical phases of the study of taxonomic

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

entities and associational groupings— attracted

nearly as much of his attention as did taxo-

nomic study of cryptogamic plants. He liked to

emphasize the importance of occasional chance

dissemination of germules by normal agencies

and was loathe to accept the promiscuous

shifting of poles and continents or the rise and

fall of land bridges to explain distributional

patterns. .

From a study of temperature effects on the

development of algae and marine flowering

plants, he became interested in the tempera-

ture thresholds in the life cycle of flowering land

plants. He devoted particular attention to cer-

tain of the hypogeous fungi and to the morphol-

ogy of the Balanophoraceae. He was the

instigator of the important genetic investi-

gations on Nicottana extended by R. HE. Clau-

sen and T. H. Goodspeed and their students.

His published scientific contributions, dating

from 1883 to 1943, embrace about 150 titles.

Professor Setchell was a member of the Na-

tional Academy of Sciences, the Washington

Academy of Sciences, and of the American

Philosophical Society; a fellow of the American

Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American

Geographical Society, the Torrey Botanical

Club, and the California Academy of Sciences;

a sustaining member of the California Botani-

cal Society; and a member of the Linnaean So-

ciety of London, as well as of many other

scientific organizations, both in this country

and abroad.

His students remember him as a stimulating

if unorthodox teacher. His wealth of experience

and observation and the diversity of his inter-

ests, combined with a keen critical judgment,

enabled him to digress interestingly in any di-

rection. He took a particularly warm interest

in the education and personal life of many

young students, the informal and populous

“Order of Nieces and Nephews,”’ whose mem-

bers are to be found all over the world. Despite

the number and excellence of his written con-

tributions to science, it may well be that his

influence on their careers and lives will out-

weigh all his other accomplishments.

LINCOLN CONSTANCE

CONTENTS

; ea

PALEONTOLOGY. —Je efferson’ s contribution to paleontology.

ON Brown. eee

PALEONTOLOGY. —A revision a the genus Steganoerinus,

Borany.—Ten new American Asteraceae 8. BE Biaxe.. nF

OBITUARIES: WILLIAM ALBERT HorrMan;,

WituiAM ALBERT SETCHELL.

2 jena er jualin A ies Coreen Ayia

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JOURNAL

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DORFF, Warren, Pa.

Among the few descendants of the famous

“old chief still living on the Cornplanter

Grant in Warren County, Pa. (Deardorff,

1941), Willie Gordon, inveterate trapper

and renowned bear hunter, and Lydia

Bucktooth, his neighbor, remember going

- after squabs to the beechwood groves south

of Sheffield where the passenger pigeons

(Hctopistes migratorius) were last reported

to be nesting. Others—Windsor Pierce and

Ezra Jacobs—remember hearing the old-

sters tell about these expeditions, but they

were too young to go along. At Coldspring,

above the State Line, is the conservative

community of the Allegheny Band of Sen-

~ eca: Alice White remembers that when she

was a little girl her parents joined a party

of families that made an expedition to the

‘pigeon roosts at some place below Warren;

and Chauncey Johnny John, although born

at Cattaraugus Reservation, N. Y., and not

so old as some others, had been on several

such hunts when quite young. Evidently,

among the Seneca such trips to the pigeon

_ roosts were a regular event in the annual

round of getting a living.

That this custom comes down from ear-

lier days with every likelihood that it is pre-

- Columbian is indicated by the narratives of

early travelers. Since the passenger pigeon

- was one of the most abundant birds, if not

the most abundant in North America, it is

not unreasonable to assume that the In-

_ dians had long depended upon its annual

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

pte Smithsonian Institution. Received June 8,

— 1948.

OcTOBER 15, 1943

No. 10

_ETHNOLOGY.—The last passenger pigeon hunts of the Cornplanter Senecas.*

WiuuiaM N. Fenton, Bureau of American Ethnology, and Mertz H. DEaAR-

““Perhaps again one will say, ‘Now once again they are nesting’.”’

return to the nesting grounds, where they

procured the squabs in great numbers to

supplement their diet; in fact, at this season

of the year it seems to have constituted the

principal part of the food supply.

EARLY REFERENCES

Netting

The Relations of 1656-57 of the first Jes-

uit mission to the Onondaga remark how

the pigeons gather in the spring at the salt

springs adjacent to Onondaga Lake in such

numbers that they are taken in nets..

“that sometimes as many as seven hundred

are caught in the course of one morning.”

(Jesuit Relations, vol. 48, p. 153; see also

Le Mercier’s Relation of the previous year.)

In the Cayuga country, where the game was

so plentiful that 1,000 deer were killed in a

single season, Father Raffeix (1671), re-

porting on the Mission of St. Joseph at

Gotoguen [Cayuga], says: ‘‘Fish—salmon, as

well as eels and other kinds—are as plenty

here as at Onnontagué [Onondaga]. Four

leagues [12 miles] from here I saw by the

side of a river, within a very limited space,

eight or ten extremely fine salt springs.

Many snares are set there for catching

pigeons, from seven to eight hundred being

often taken at once.” (J. R., vol. 56, p. 49.)

Further evidence that the Onondaga net-

ted passenger pigeons at the famous salt

springs is found in Pehr Kalm’s monograph

(1759), which contains the following de-

scription of the activity:

I have also observed that the pigeons have a

special fondness for the kind of soil which is

289

OCT G 43

290

much mixed with common salt; this soil serves

them as food, as a spice to blend with the food,

or for its medical properties, I do not know

which. At the salt springs of Onondago [szc],.. .

where the soil is so strongly mixed with salt that

the ground during a severe drought becomes en-

tirely covered with it and as white as frost, mak-

ing it impossible for plants to grow, I noticed

with astonishment, in the month of August,

1750, how covetous the pigeons were of this kind

of soil. The savages in Onondago had built their

huts on the sides of this salt field, and here they

had erected sloping nets with a cord attachment

leading to the huts where they were sitting; when

the pigeons arrived in swarms to eat of this salty

soil, the savages pulled the cords, inclosing them

in the net, and thus at once secured the entire

flock. At certain times, when they come in such

numbers that the ground could hardly be seen

for them, the savages found it more advisable to

use a gun, as by a single discharge-of bird-shot

they could sometimes kill as many as 50 or more;

and this proved a splendid source of food supply.

(Kalm, 1912, p. 415. See also ‘“‘A Bibliography of

Peter Kalm’s Writings on America,” in Kalm,

1937, p. 774.)

Although it would appear from these ac-

counts, and one other by Pierre Boucher

which follows, that the Iroquois from early

times had used nets for taking pigeons,

whether their use was learned from the white

men remains an open question. Pierre

Boucher, in his ‘‘true and genuine descrip-

tion of New France’’ in the seventeenth cen-

tury, says: ‘There are birds of another kind

called wild pigeons.... There are pro-

digious numbers of them . . . they are to be

found everywhere in this country. The Iro-

quois take them in nets as they fly, some-

times by 300 or 400 at a time.’”?

The two accounts by Boucher and Kalm

sound rather as if the Indians originated the

idea of netting pigeons, but Mitchell points

out that the English colonists of Massachu-

setts took them in nets about 1660 and had

done so for some time previously, according

to John Josselyn.

Eye-witness accounts of the Seneca net-

ting and snaring pigeons are scarce, if not

lacking, in the literature. Morgan, who

worked mainly with Seneca informants at

Tonawanda circa 1850, says: “‘Nets of bark

2 MONTIZAMBERT, Epwarp Louis, Canada in

the seventeenth century. Being a translation of a

true and genuine description of New France, by

Pierre Boucher. Paris, 1664, p. 43. Montreal, 1883,

ain Mitchell, 1935, p. 119.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

and twine were... spread for pigeons and

quails.””’ And he describes a simple bird

snare, formerly much used against blue jays

that came for corn, which might have been

used on single pigeons with great effect.

(Morgan, 1901, vol. 2, p. 24.)

The Cayuga evidently set nets for pi-

geons on high places. The nets are said to

have been made of twine from swamp milk-

weed fiber, basswood, or slippery-elm bast.

The net (gada’qy’dakwa’) was spread be-

tween two upright sticks, and the netter sat

back at some distance holding one end,

waiting for a high wind to blow the pigeons

into it, when he would pull the net. The

folk-tale of “the foolish nephew,” in which

this information occurs, does not disclose

how the netted pigeons were killed, but they

were tied in bunches to take home. When

the hero and his uncle reached home they

plucked the feathers, spitted the birds on

sticks, roasted them beside the fire, and

dried them for later use.*

In later times professional pigeoners set

out similar nets without any tripping de-

vice on high bluffs along Lake Ontario.

That this practice was probably in use

among the Cayugas of the region is indi-

cated by their folk-lore and by the authori-

ties already cited.

Raiding Nests for Squabs

Historical accounts of Seneca pigeon

hunts sustain the statements of informants

that when the squabs were ready to leave

the nest the nesting-trees were felled and

the fattened squabs were taken by hand and

killed and gutted for smoking and drying

before packing them home.

The Gilbert Narrative of the sufferings of

a Pennsylvania family during their captiv- -

ity among the Senecas, 1780-83, tells how

Benjamin Gilbert, Jr., was adopted into the

family of a Seneca chief who settled on Buf-

falo Creek; and, being considered the

‘“‘King’s’”’ successor, Benjamin was entirely

freed from restraint and permitted to go

fishing and hunting with his Indian con-

temporaries. In the spring of 1781— _

3 Coox, Exvias (Cayuga), ‘““Grand River Re-

serve (Canada) (1918),” in F. W. Waugh,

Iroquois folk-lore (MS.), Notebook 5, p. 40 ff.

National Museum of Canada.

Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

the whole Family moved about six Miles up

Lake Erie [near Big Tree] where they staid about

two Months to gather their annual Store of

Maple Sugar, of which they made a considerable

Quantity.

As soon as the Season of this Business was over,

they returned to their old Settlement [on Buffalo

Creek], where they had not continued long, be-

fore an Indian came with an Account that an

astonishing Number of young Pigeons might be

procured at a certain Place, by falling Trees that

were filled with Nests of young, and the Distance

was computed to be about fifty Miles: This In-

formation delighted the several Tribes; they

speedily joined together, young and old, from dif-

ferent Parts, and with great Assiduity pursued

their Expedition, and took Abundance of the

young ones, which they dried in the Sun and with

Smoke, and filled several Bags which they had

taken with them for this Purpose. Benjamin Gil-

bert was permitted to accompany them on this

Excursion, which must have been a curious one

for whole Tribes to be engaged in. On this Rarety

they lived with extravagance for some Time, far-

ing sumptuously every Day. (Severance, 1904,

pp. 15—116.)

It was probably the same hunt that Ho-

ratio Jones and his Indian foster parents

attended. They had gone down from Niag-

ara and Buffalo Creek to the Allegheny

River to visit Cornplanter, his mother’s

brother, when a runner came in shouting,

“YVu-ak-oo-was, yu-ak-oo-was!” [jah’gowa’-

son’on] (‘‘Pigeons, pigeons!’’) [‘‘Big breads,”

or passenger pigeons.]| He said the birds had

roosted in a wood on the Genesee River,

about two days’ journey above Caneadea

village.

All was now bustle and confusion, and every

person in the village who could bear the fatigue

of travel at once set out for the Genesee. On their

arrival at the place designated by the runner,

Jones beheld a sight that he never forgot. The

pigeons, in numbers too great to estimate, had

made their temporary homes in a thick forest.

Each tree and branch bore nests on every avail-

able spot. The birds had exhausted every species

of nesting material in the vicinity, including the

small twigs of the trees, and the ground was as

bare as though swept with a broom. The eggs were

hatching and thousands of squabs filled the nests.

Every morning the parent birds rose from the

roosts, the noise of their wings sounding like con-

tinuous rolls of distant thunder, as flock after

flock soared away to obtain food. A little before

noon they began to return to feed their young;

then arose a deafening chorus of shrill cries as the

awkward younglings stood up in the nests with

wide open mouths. ... Soon after noon the old

birds departed again to return about sunset,

291

when they came in such dense flocks as to darken

the woods. All night long the sound of breaking

branches caused by overloading the roosts, and

the whirring and fluttering of falling birds trying

to regain their foothold, disturbed the usual

silence of the forest.

As the annual nesting of the pigeons was a

matter of great importance to the Indians, who

depended largely [?] on the supply of food thus

obtained, runners carried the news to every part

of the Seneca country, and the inhabitants singly

and in bands, came from as far east as Seneca

Lake and as far north as Lake Ontario. Within a

few days several hundred men, women, and chil-

dren gathered in the locality of the pigeon

woods....

For their temporary accommodation the people

erected ... huts constructed by setting up two

crotched stakes on top of which a pole was laid.

Other poles were placed against the ridge, three

or four on each side, with the lower ends resting

on the ground. One or two poles were then tied

across the others parallel with the ridge-pole and

to these were fastened long over-lapping sheets of

bark forming tent-shaped huts with one open end

that was closed at night by curtains of skins and

blankets. This form of cabin was easily erected in

a short time, and afforded a fair shelter to the

occupants during the brief period of their stay.

The Indians cut down the roosting-trees to

secure the birds, and each day thousands of

squabs were killed. Fires were made in front of the

cabins and bunches of the dressed birds were

suspended on poles sustained by crotched sticks,

to dry in the heat and the smoke. When properly

cured they were packed in bags or baskets for

transportation to the home towns. It was a festi-

val season .. . and even the meanest dog in camp

had his fill of pigeon meat. (Harris, 1903, pp.

449-450.)

No one missed the annual fun at the pi-

geon roosts if he could possibly get there.

That year “forty warriors on their way

from Niagara southward, halted... for a

few days to enjoy the sport and obtain a

supply of cured birds for food on their jour-

ney”’ (zbid., p. 450); and there were a dozen

or more white captives in the encampment.

Marriages were evidently sometimes con-

tracted at the pigeon roosts, for it was at

one of these rendezvous near the shores of

Seneca Lake, where the Indians assembled

annually for days and weeks together, that

Sarah Whitmore in 1782, at the time of her

proposed marriage to a Mohawk chief, met

Horatio Jones, who succeeded his Indian

rival. “The young birds were fat and juicy

and were devoured in large numbers; while

the squaws smoked great quantities of them

292

for future use. Consequently, with the In-

dians, the ‘Pigeon Roost’ was synonymous

of a feast and dance, and especially of a

council.’”’ (Gunn, 1903, p. 517.)

Moreover, on occasion the serious busi-

ness of a council was set. aside so that the

people could go after squabs. In May of

1791, while Col. Thomas Proctor was at

Buffalo Creek holding councils with the Iro-

quois, seeking to get some of them to ac-

company him to the tribes on the Wabash

River, the Senecas invited him to watch

them gather pigeons:

May 6. Red Jacket and Captain O’Beel came

to see me, when the former acquainted me with

the reason why no council would be held this

day, to wit: That it was their pigeon time, in

which the Great Spirit had blessed them with an

abundance; and that such was his goodness to

the Indians that he never failed sending them

season after season, and although it might seem

a small matter to me, the Indians wiil never lose

sight of those blessings. This is, therefore, the

reason why our men, women, and children, are

gone from their towns, but on tomorrow our

headmen will return and your business again

shall be taken up. ’Tis a matter worthy of ob-

servation, that at some convenient distance from

every one of the Indian settlements, the pigeons

hatch their young in this season of the year, and

the trees, which they commonly light on, are low

and of the bushy kind, and they are found in such

great abundance, that exceeding a hundred nests,

a pair of pigeons in each are common to be found

in a single tree, so that I have seen in one house,

belonging to one family, several large baskets full

of dead squabs; these they commonly take when

they are just prepared to leave the nests, and as

fat as possible for them to be made; when after

they are plucked and cleansed a little, they are

preserved by smoke and laid by for use. (Proctor,

1896, p. 497.)

Feasts and Festivals

Pigeon time evidently coincided with one

of the periodic festivals when the Iroquois

invariably returned thanks for an abundant

flight of pigeons. Pigeon time came soon

after the maple harvest; and it is notewor-

thy in the modern Seneca Maple Festival,

as it 1s still celebrated toward the end of

March at Tonawanda, that Pigeon Dance

regularly leads off the social dances (Fen-

ton, 1941).

Likewise, Proctor himself found the

Senecas in a festival mood. On the third of

May, several days before he witnessed the

pigeon hunt, Proctor went out to the Onon-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 10

daga settlement, three miles east of Buf-

falo, to honor an invitation to dine with the

principal chief of the Onondaga. He re-

marks how well the women were dressed in

silken stroud and ornamented with many —

silver trappings, and says that the feast

‘principally consisted of young pigeons,

some boiled, some stewed, and the mode of

dishing them was, that a hank of six were

tied with a deer’s sinew around their necks,

their bills pointing outwards; they were

plucked but of pen feathers [sze] [pin- |

feathers (Ketchum)] there plenty remained;

the inside was taken out, but it appeared

from the soup made of them, that water

had not touched them before. The repast

being the best I had seen for a long time, I

ate of it very heartily, and the entertain-

ment was given with the appearance of

much hospitality.”’ (Proctor, 1896, p. 497.)

The Iroquois apparently considered their

own feasts and religious exercises of equal

importance with Proctor’s business, and be-

tween such delays and those caused by the—

British commandants, Proctor lost an equal

amount of time. Cornplanter assembled the

chiefs on May 7 to allot planting grounds to

tribes and families who had put themselves

under the protection of the Six Nations; and

the great dance which was performed the

next afternoon was presumably the Plant-

ing Festival or Seed Dance, which, it ap-

pears from Proctor’s journal, was then of

four days’ duration, ending in a general

community drunk.

Moreover, the Seneca religiously remem-

ber their obligation to the Creator for the

things which he annually sends them in

abundance by returning thanks in season,

and they also pray that this condition shall

continue always. In the old days they did

not trust to chance to conserve the supply —

of plants and animals on which they sub-

sisted, but they took some regular precau-

tions to insure their perpetuation. To this

day, when they take medicinal plants,

tobacco is offered at the first plant of

the desired species, which is then left to

grow to seed for ensuing years. Deer were

not taken at certain seasons; and the

Seneca say that they did not molest pigeon

hatcheries until the squabs were ready

to leave the nests, while the older birds

Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

were allowed-to go free. What is more,

the Senecas ascribed human qualities to

the pigeons, which alone of all the birds

nested in communities. It was customary

when they took their young to levy among

the hunters a collection of gifts such as

silver brooches, wampum, and articles of

apparel as an offering to propitiate the pi-

geons. These gifts were borne by a priest to

the wood’s edge beside the pigeon colony,

where he set them down and kindled a small

fire. On the embers of this fire he sprinkled

sacred tobacco (Nicotzana rustica L.), and it

is believed that the words of his invocation

were carried aloft on the smoke to the Crea-

tor and to the spirit-forces of the pigeons,

who were ordained to sustain the people

living on the earth. His voice alone carried

the entreaties of all the people, returning

thanks that the pigeons had once more

nested near their settlement and making

this offering in exchange for the squabs they

were about to take; and they prayed that

this privilege should continue always. As

late as 1896 aged Senecas living at Cattarau-

gus remembered this custom, which was

unknown to our informants, but which is

fully illustrated by a series of myths col-

lected by Hewitt that we shall return to

later.*

Conservation

Religious-minded individuals among the

Seneca could feel satisfied that the pigeons,

having smelled the tobacco and thinking

they had been thanked, would remain well

disposed; but there were undoubtedly more

practical individuals, like the savages

(Onondagas, Oneidas, and Mohawks) who

came under Peter Kalm’s observation, who

4 In 1870 Esquire Johnson, then in his nineties,

in an interview with Mrs. Ashur Wright, which

Parker, 1923, p. 424, has published, mentioned a

tobacco-smoke offering ‘‘to propitiate the pigeons

when they took their young, the offering of pay-

ment to the old ones,—a brass kettle or other

littte dish full of ot-go-ah [wampum], brooches,

and various other things which the man who raised

the smoke would deposit on the ground before he

put the tobacco on the fire, and he says that he

left the kettle there when they left home [?], con-

sidering it a real payment to the pigeons... . ”’

The prayer is said to have been the same as one

related elsewhere by Oliver Silverheels, which is

lost. (A. C. Parker, p. c.)

293

made sure the annual pigeon-flock increase

was not endangered by pre-season hunting.

Kalm says:

While these birds are hatching their young or

while the latter are not yet able to fly, the sav-

ages or Indians in North America are in the habit

of never shooting or killing them, nor of allowing

others to do so, pretending that it would be a

great pity on their young, which would in that

case have to starve to death. Some of the French-

men [presumably those Kalm met in 1749 enroute

from the Hudson River to Montreal, when im-

mense flocks of pigeons were encountered] told me

that they had set out with the intention of shoot-

ing some of them at that season of the year, but

that the savages had at first with kindness en-

deavored to dissuade them from such purpose,

and later added threats to their entreaties when

the latter were of no avail. (Kalm, 1912, p. 412.)

Archery

Of the ancient Iroquoians, at least the

Huron (J.R., vol. 10, p. 143), Seneca, and

Cayuga pursued the adult pigeons in the

woods and shot them with bow and arrows.

In a Cayuga folk-tale, ‘““The Mischievous

Uncle and the Boy Wizard,” the hero twice

shoots a single arrow through a row of pi-

geons sitting on the same limb, getting a

great string of birds both times (Waugh,

MS.). The Senecas formerly used bows and

arrows to shoot pigeons on the wing, and

the great nestings were sometimes the oc-

easion of intertribal archery contests, ac-

cording to “‘Antler,’”’ an anonymous author

who witnessed these trials during the first

third of the last century when the Six Na-

tions, as in Proctor’s day, were still in

possession of Buffalo Creek. Detailed infor-

mation on how the Iroquois tempered hick-

ory and ashen bows with hot oil, on how

bow strings were made, and on the use of

blunt-headed arrows in taking birds and

small game lends credence to this record. Al-

though in retrospect the immensity of the

nesting may be exaggerated, nevertheless

the pigeon grounds must have been exten-

sive to cover the townships mentioned and

to provide hunting for the several bands of

Senecas concentrated there. ‘“‘Antler’’ writes:

During my boyhood days I lived in close

proximity to a tribe of Indians of whom I took

my first lessons in the use of the bow, and subse- -

quently became much attached to that kind of

sport. Partridges, wild pigeons, squirrels and

numerous small fry fell victims to my aim....

294

The bows which the Indians used in early

days (say fifty or sixty years ago) were made of

white ash or hickory, worked out of seasoned

timber and washed over at different times with

hot oil. They became impervious to water and

and retained the natural strength and supple-

ness. However plenty hickory and ash trees may

be, there are comparatively few which are of the

quality which is required to make a good bow.

The strings were made of a single strand of raw

hide evenly cut and slightly twisted and made

perfectly round by rolling, being about the size

of common fence wire and apparently about as

hard. Blunt-headed arrows were used for killing

birds and small game, and were invariably used

among the wild pigeon roosts and nesting

grounds.

Among the happiest recollections of these latter

days are those that carry me back to boyhood

sport among the wild pigeons. Reader, have you

ever visited the nesting grounds of wild pigeons?

.. one of the wonders in natural history. The

first and most extensive nesting grounds that I

visited was in the western part of the State of

New York as early as 1823. The nesting began in

Cattaraugus County, near the Allegheny River,

reaching north to the town of Collins, Erie

County, covering a section of country about 30

miles in length and supposed to average 6 miles in

width, including a part of all the following towns:

South Valley, Coldspring, Napoli, New Albion,

Dayton and Towanda [?], most of which have

been organized and settled long since the date

mentioned. Here was an area estimated at 180

square miles, covered with a thick growth of

timber, every tree bearing from one to 50 nests,

according to size of top. ... I enjoyed the satis-

faction of rambling through this enormous hatch-

ery. ...I was a youngster at the time... [this

was the biggest nesting he recollected]. ... None

but large and extensive forests, with an over-

abundance of beech mast, could support such a

vast body of pigeons during the time of building,

hatching and feeding which lasts 6 or 7 weeks,

more or less. The building begins about the first

of April, or before. ...The nest consists of a

bunch of dry twigs and sticks which seem to be

slightly thrown together, yet ...so strongly and

ingeniously connected with the branches that

winds and storms cannot dislodge them.

... It was seldom that more than one young

pigeon was raised on a single nest, but occasion-

ally two were found. During the time of building

and hatching, the mast on the hatching grounds

would be mostly consumed, consequently the

old birds were compelled to forage for long dis-

tances to collect food while feeding their young;

and... [each pair is able to return to its own

nest], which is the counterpart of thousands... .

Perhaps there is nothing that will draw out a

whole tribe of Indians, old and young, like a

pigeon hatchery. The flesh of the young wild

pigeons is fat and juicy and fine flavored, and

doubtless a young pigeon is the sweetest and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

daintiest morsei that ever tickled an Indian’s

palate. Here were gathered at different points

most of the natives, old and young, from three or

four tribes of Indians. Here the best archers from

the Buffalo, Cattaraugus, and Alleghany reserva-

tions had met for a trial of skill. I am not well

posted in the scores of modern times, but it was

then and there that I saw greater feats of archery

than I ever witnessed before or since.

It seems that the Seneca nation of Indians have

wholly or nearly abandoned the use of the bow,

save among the small boys.—ANTLER. Piney

Falls, Jan. 13th. (‘‘Antler,’”’ 1880, p. 14.)

CORNPLANTER PIGEON HUNTS

Taken together with the previous histori-

cal records, the following narrative accounts

of pigeon hunts that live in the memory of

old Cornplanter residents assume some im-

portance for local history in western New

York and Pennsylvania. It is, however, the

wider implication of the facts contained in

these narratives that will interest students

of Iroquois ethnology, since they demon-

strate a continuity of custom coming down

from early times to the recent past that

broadens our understanding of the economy

of these woodland tribes. These accounts,

too, illustrate some Indian attitudes toward

conservation, revealing a set of values at

odds with the ‘‘pioneer spirit” of our fore-

bears.

Scouting the Pigeon Nestings

“Early in March or April,” said Willie

Gordon whose Indian name is gak’j7’,

“‘dishful,”’ “‘we would see the jah’gowa, ‘big

bread’ (passenger pigeon) flying north in

flocks so large that their numbers darkened

the sky and their wings sounded as thunder.

They came as a plague of locusts and de-

voured every sprouting plant. They would

nest in patches of beechwood timber where

they flocked to eat the beechnuts.”’

Informants agree with authorities that —

the passenger pigeons could be seen going

over in March at the end of the sugar sea-

son, before the snow was off the ground

(Todd, 1940, p. 267). |

Under date of April 15, 1822, Joseph El-

kinton, first teacher at the Friends’ Indian

School at Tunesassa (Quaker Bridge, N.Y.),

noted in his diary that no pupils showed up

for school that day. He supposed they had

gone with their parents to hunt pigeons.

Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

School reopened on May 7. It appears that

thereafter school was regularly closed for

the sugar-making and pigeon season.

People knew that in about two weeks

from the time they nested the eggs would

hatch, and so the word went about. Lydia

Bucktooth, whom Marsh Pierce—‘‘a very

bossy man’’—used to call niga’negagz'sa’a,

“little soup,’ said that there was no partic-

ular organization to the hunt at Corn-

planter—‘“‘one man said to another, ‘Let’s

go,’ and he said the same to somebody else;

and so everyone went who could possibly go

because the pigeon hunt was a good time—

just like a fair or picnic.”’

In the old days decisions regarding move-

ments of the band rested with the chiefs,

and group economic activities that involved

abandoning the village in large numbers

usually followed a decision of the council.

And so when the pigeons flew over in March

scouts were sent out to follow them to the

nesting grounds. These scouts stayed per-

haps a month, as it took the pigeons a while

to build sketchy nests; two weeks to hatch

the young; and then a period for the young

to grow. At this point the scouts returned to

the chiefs with sample squabs. Estimates

were made as to the time when the squabs

would be ripe; and then the whole com-

munity started. The object was to take the

squabs when they were at their best: at the

point just before they were ready to leave

the nest.°

On matters of formality Cornplanter

Senecas bow to their neighbors upriver in

York State, where the conservative long-

house people of Coldspring keep up the old

ways. And in the matter of scouting the pi-

geon roosts Chauncey Johnny John did not

fail us with details. He said: “In spring

when the pigeons flew over on their way to

hadinonhgwa’ee’, their roosts (pigeon nest-

ing grounds) [literally, their habitat], the

chiefs would send out scouts to follow them

and find out where they alighted. Pigeons

_ According to Todd (p. 269), the incubation

period was two weeks, and the young were ready

to leave the nest in another two weeks. ‘‘They

became very fat and weighed almost as much as

the old birds.”’ Cf. Forbush, 1936, pp. 39-46. It

is remarkable how well the testimony of these

old Senecas stands up in comparison with the

facts as established by ornithologists.

295

made nests in all kinds of trees: ti.e nests

were just a few sticks laid together—worse

than a crow’s nest; they laid one or two

eggs. When the nest had been made and

the eggs laid and hatched, the scouts would

bring back a few samples of the newly

hatched squabs to the chiefs, telling them

where the pigeons nested. The chiefs would

examine the squabs and say, ‘two weeks’ or

‘three weeks’—meaning it would be that

long until the squabs were ready to take.

During this time the old pigeons would fly

away every day to get food. There were so

many of them that they soon used up the

food about the nesting place; so they would

fly off to the fields and particularly to the

beechwoods in all directions. Later, when

the buckwheat and other seeds sprouted,

they would raid the fields.”’

Windsor Pierce remembers being sta-

tioned at the buckwheat fields with a shot-

gun to shoo away the pigeons, and Willie

Gordon said, ‘“‘As soon as it was discovered

where they were nesting, the scouts would

pass this way (through Cornplanter) say-

ing, ‘Onenh gyon’ a’ jah’gowa dyodinonh-

gwa’ee’’ (Now they say once again the big-

bread [passenger pigeon] is nesting there).

People would know immediately when and

where to go, because dyodinonhgwa’ee’,

‘where they are nesting,’ or ganonh’gwaee’,

‘the pigeon nestings,’ was back of Sheffield

[in Forest County].”’

Migration to the Pigeon Grounds

The ancient ‘‘pigeon country” for these

Seneca was for the most part comprised of

the following northern counties of western

Pennsylvania: Warren, McKean and Pot-

ter, Elk, Cameron, Forest, and northern

Jefferson. These were also the old hunting

grounds of the Seneca. The watersheds of

Tionesta Creek and the Clarion River were

familiar to these Indians as favorite deer

and bear hunting grounds, and the pigeon

nesting mentioned in these accounts were

on the high plateaus toward their many

6 This is correct, according to some authorities,

although competent ornithologists are inclined to

regard one egg per female pigeon as the normal

yield per nesting, and the second egg may repre-

sent use of the same nest by a second female.

(A. Wetmore, p.c.)

296

heads. The hunt which Willie Gordon de-

scribes took place on the site of what is now

called Ox-Bow Hunting Camp, south of

Byromtown in Forest County, near the

heads of Blue Jay and Spring Creek. Now

much of the land where pigeons used to nest

is cleared for farms or is growing up again

in the huge half-million acre timber-farm

called Allegheny National Forest. In this

region the beech once flourished, and there

was a plentiful supply of food for the birds.

Willie Gordon says: ‘‘People would come

here from Cattaraugus and Coldspring by

wagon, and we would go off beyond Shef-

field to get the squabs. Families traveled in

box-wagons driving teams of oxen or horses,

if they had them; and the wagons were

heaped high with axes, guns, cooking uten-

sils, and children and with barrels or bark

casks for packing the squabs. Some of the

families from Cattaraugus [Reservation]

would stop overnight ‘where the bridge

[bank?] is steep’ (dwas’gwanezot) south of

Leon, N. Y. They reached dyo’neganoo,

‘Coldspring,’ the second night, and the

combined parties came down the river road

to Cornplanter. If they continued from here

by wagon, the shortest way leads up the

south fork of Hodge Run, ‘where the trail

comes down’ (djai’nhdon’), and one climbs

up on Quaker Hill and goes down again to

Glade, where they crossed over.”’

Alice White of Coldspring recalls that her

family passed “between the rocks”’ (degas’-

deogen’) on Quaker Hill, where—according

to the Gordons—travelers used to seek

shelter returning from Warren.

“When it was time to leave Coldspring,”

says Chauncey Johnny John, “everybody

packed up and went as he could. Some had

wagons; most hadn’t; so they went down

the river in boats or rafts to what they then

called Glade (just north of Warren Boro

limits). Here they left their boats with peo-

ple to watch them, and took off for the pi-

geon country.”

Routes to the Pigeon Country

Two main routes led from Cornplanter to

this “pigeon country.” One went via

Kinzua Creek to Dunkle’s Corner and Lud-

low, where one could take the train to Shef-

field. This was the route most commonly

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

used by the walkers. Those who came down

from Cornplanter on rafts, or over the hill

by wagon, went up Dutchman Run through

Clarendon to Sheffield, where the two routes

merged at least as far as Barnes. |

Willie Gordon outlined two different

pigeon country:

(A) From his home at Cornplanter he

crossed the Allegheny and walked to Kin-

zua, “‘fish on spear’’ (genzo’aa’), and fol-

lowed up Kinzua Creek to Dunkle’s

Corner, thence to Ludlow; from Ludlow he

took the Pennsylvania train to Sheffield; on

foot from Shefheld to Barnes; then to

Brookston, where the big tannery was, and

they turned off south west for Watson Farm

and on through to Pigeon (which is the

name of the post office, but the railroad sta-

tion is Frosts), and Byromtown. Here they

went a mile and a half south into the woods

to the site of the present Ox-bow Hunting

Camp. Formerly an old Scot named Cun-

ningham lived there. He was a miser, Willie

says, and he lived there in a log house and

raised some potatoes which he sold to the

Indians.

(B) From his home at Cornplanter, like

the majority of people from higher up the

river at Coldspring, he boated down to

Glade and walked in. Ascending Dutchman

Run, he went to Stoneham where he

camped the first night out. From Stoneham —

he went to Sheffield; and so on by the same

route as A. ate

Willie was able-accurately to retrace his

footsteps, remembering such landmarks as

the Brookston tannery and old man Cun-

ningham, the miser, who is also recalled by

Mrs. Maggie Frost (74), a native at Pigeon

nestings checked at every point with Wil-

lie’s. Lydia Bucktooth had no recollection

of the route, but she remembered very well

what took place when they reached the

camp. Informants agree that they always

went to the same place to camp.

Many Coldspring people hunted the

same grounds with the Cornplanters; but it

appears that others customarily camped —

several miles away on Blue Jay (di’’di’geh). —

Chauncey Johnny John says his party —

came down the river to Glade (dedye’hdtha’)

Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

297

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Fie. 1.—Routes to the Cornplanters’ pigeon country in northwestern Pennsylvania.

298

‘“‘where they turned off,’’ where the roads to

Kinzua and Kane fork. In retracing his

steps Chauncey directed us from Claren-

don, to Sheffield, to Barnes. There were no

Indian names for places enroute because the

Indians had never settled there. At Barnes

an improved road now turns off to the

right, following Tionesta Creek down to

Blue Jay and Lynch. It helps Chauncey’s

story to know that he declined to take this

road; and it has since been developed that it

was not in existence at the time he passed

that way to hunt pigeons. In the old days

they turned off farther along, on what is still

a dirt road. Chauncey remembered that two

or three families of deaf and dumb people

lived on the corner of this old road to

Henrys Mills, and later we found that the

descendants of these people (also deaf and

dumb) still hve there. From Henrys Mills

Chauncey’s party had gone down to Lynch,

where Blue Jay enters the Tionesta Creek.

Near the head of Blue Jay is Pigeon. Ac-

cording to Chauncey, the whole region from

Watsontown and Pigeon downhill to Lynch

was occupied by pigeon nestings. The In-

dians camped on Blue Jay flats because, as

Chauncey said, ‘‘the water was good.”’ He

thinks there were not so many nests on top

of the hills as there were on the slopes. His

locations check with all the stories as to

where pigeons nested in these parts.

There were doubtless other routes that

were followed to the pigeon nestings, de-

pending on where they had been reported

for that year. The trail down the Tionesta

from Barnes to Blue Jay followed lower

ground than did the route via Watson Farm

and Brookston. The road from Lynch to Pi-

geon was usually muddy. These considera-

tions no doubt also influenced the hunters,

the drier trails being preferred in wet sea-

sons.

Another big pigeon nesting ground, ac-

cording to the whites, was at Pine Camp 1 in

Elk County, which boul be reached by fol-

lowing the road from Barnes through

Brookston to Chaffee and on into the woods

about Pig’s Ear.

Organization of the Hunt

To say that the Seneca pigeon-hunting

expeditions were formally organized affairs

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

would be an overstatement, for they do not

assume the formal aspects of the Buffalo

hunts of the Plains Indians. Yet, individual-

istic as the Senecas are, one can observe in

their behavior together a tendency to repeat

year after year certain traditional ways of

behaving, which become set forms observa-

ble as definite cultural patterns. People got

to the pigeon nestings any way they could,

as we have seen: Some boated down the

river and walked in, others went in wagons,

and still others went via Kinzua and Lud-

low and took the train to Sheffield, walking

the rest of the way. Most just went. Never-

theless, once they got together at the camp-

ing grounds, an organization came into be-

ing.

The hunting party from each locality was

sometimes in charge of a leader or headman

whom the families had appointed for the

duration of the hunt. He was selected for

qualities of character and leadership: he

must be a speaker (hazwano’ta’), one who

knows how to address an assembly, and he

must be a sober man to whom the people

look up. His duties were to order the line of

march, arranging the camp each night on

the road by assigning camping sites to the

families of his band. Every morning, ac-

cording to Alice White, before they broke

camp the leader would preach to the peo-

ple: First he returned thanks to our Maker

for all living things on earth and upward to-

ward the sky-world, and then he asked for

good luck on the day’s journey. Then he

urged the people to keep order. Again at

night when they had retired he would

preach to the camp, exhorting the adults to

avoid recrimination and sin and urging the

children to behave. Thus the Indians

camped along the way; they were in no

hurry to get there. ;

This tendency of the Iroquois peoples

whenever they are gathered in a group in-

evitably to select a speaker, who always be-

haves in this traditional way that is ex-

pected of him, is what is meant by “ob-

servable cultural patterns.’’ In this sense

the hunts were organized affairs.

The following incident related by Lydia

Bucktooth of Cornplanter as to what

prompted her family to join the hunters at

the nesting grounds on one occasion illus-

Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

trates their spontaneity. Lydia first went

with her parents when she was 6 or 7. Her

mother had been sick (she died when she

was 52), and her father said when word

came that the pigeons were nesting,

“Come on, you might as well go along and

see this once before you die.’”’ Although she

was sick, she went anyway. They canoed

down to Glade; then they traveled over the

hills—there was no road—taking a short-

cut to a place back of Sheffield, to the

‘place where the pigeons were nesting”’

(djoditnonhgwa'iee). (Lydia said that this

term, which literally means ‘‘the place of

their habitation or residence,’ hence

“roost,’”? means the whole pigeon-roost or

nesting grounds.)

The Carp: Lean-tos

When they arrived at the nesting grounds

lots of people were there, both white and

red. Lydia’s family made a camp for them-

selves which she described in some detail. It

was a lean-to, closed on three sides and

open only in front. It rested on posts, with

hemlock boughs laid on for a roof. She did

not say whether the posts were crotched to

support a ridge pole on which the rafters

were presumably laid. The fire was built out

in front. As far back under the side as possi-

ble a pile of hemlock boughs several feet

thick was laid as a bed, on which they slept.

(Lydia does not say whether they slept with

heads, sides, or feet toward the fire, but the

last seems to have been the usual orienta-

tion.) They stayed several weeks; and sleep-

ing under the lean-to on a hemlock bed did

her mother so much good that “‘it cured her

of consumption.”

Indians who came every year to the vicin-

ity of Bells Run near Ceres, N. Y., to hunt

in the spring and to make splint baskets,

“would build wigwams of hemlock bark,

which were too low for them to stand up in,

but which afforded them a comparatively

comfortable place to sleep, into which they

could crawl in time of storm. They built

their fires close to the opening, and slept

with their feet to it... [on]... hemlock

boughs,... rolled up in blankets...”

(Mann and King, 1896, p. 144). As early as

1805 John Lyman had encountered, in

May, a party of 30 Senecas from Allegany

299

Reservation encamped upon the abandoned

site of a town near the mouth of Trout Run,

7 miles below Coudersport, Pa. This was

during the pigeon nesting season (French,

1919" %. 23):

People returned year after year to the

same camping sites. If there was any pre-

emption of hunting grounds, in the sense

that the Senecas of Tonawanda used to

blaze witness trees to mark off a sector of

the sugar grove which a given family had

preempted for that year, it was rather of

camp sites than of pigeon trees. This is, of

course, only natural, as the trees were cut

down to get the pigeons. Since, however,

families returned year after year to the

same sites, the younger men had to go

farther down to new sites as they came

along. On arriving they built themselves

lean-tos in the manner already described

(C. J. John). As the season advanced, the pi-

geons moved gradually farther north. It ap-

pears that only the young men and those

older men who were themselves professional

pigeon-catchers or who were employed by

white professionals followed them as they

moved out of range of the original band

camp site.

When a large party under the guidance of

a headman or leader arrived where the pi-

geons had been reported nesting, the leader

instructed his party how to conduct them-

selves at the nesting ground. The hunting

camp, as Willie Gordon remembers it, was a

clearing enclosed by open-face shanties or

lean-tos that were covered with a deep

thatch of hemlock boughs. He said that a

steep roof with lots of boughs would turn a

heavy rain. In these shelters individuals

bedded down for the night on hemlock

boughs or bracken ferns, which gave off a

stimulating aroma.

Informants agree that there were two

camps. All the Cornplanter people lived to-

gether in one—‘‘on one side of the fire,” as

the Iroquois say; and some of the Cold-

spring and Cattaraugus people occupied the

opposite side. Thus the camp was divided in

two by locality as well as by religion, for the

Cornplanter people were then Christians;

but the Coldspring and Cattaraugus camp-

ers were followers of Handsome Lake, the

prophet, and were therefore so-called

300

‘“‘pagans.’’ Between the two camps a plat-

form of stones was built for the use of the

‘“‘speaker’’? who roused the camp at day-

break.

Someone was appointed to go to each

shelter early every morning to inquire

whether everyone was well. The runner for

the chief or “‘speaker,’’ as is customary in

Iroquois society, then came back and re-

ported to the ‘‘speaker,’’ who stood up on

the stone platform and returned thanks to

the Creator for keeping all well during the

night and asked for good luck during the

day’s hunt. “‘He returned thanks for every

thing all the way from the ground up to the

sky.”’ The same people officiated for both

camps.

‘“‘T can remember,’’ Willie Gordon related

‘chow the ‘speaker’ used to arise before day-

light and preach every morning while we

were at the pigeon camp. He returned

- thanks that everyone was well and asked for

protection and good luck during the day of

hunting, and then he chanted our thanks

to our Maker with the prayer they call

ganon'yonk.”’ This is the regular Seneca

prayer of thanksgiving for all things from

the earth upward to heaven that the

Creator ordained for man’s sustenance and

improvement. ‘‘This chant always re-

minded me of the baying of a hound, be-

cause the speaker would begin each article

with—Da’onen di’ oya’’ko (‘And so now then

another thing’)—and continue on a high

note to the end of that subject, when his

voice would fall. Then, having finished the

whole prayer, he would charge the people to

be honest: he would say the worst thing for

a man to do is to drink. ‘Be careful not to

use liquor or to sin while on this hunt!’

Then he would tell the old people to stay in

camp and watch the little children so that

they did not stray into the woods and get

lost.”’

Hunting Techniques

As soon as they had eaten, they all went

out, both camps working together during

the day. There was no particular organiza-

tion to the hunt; everybody was for himself.

Individual families worked for themselves,

and there was no such thing as sharing the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 10

kill. The Indians were interested only in the

squabs, and to get them the men cut down

the beech and hickory trees about 6 inches

in diameter, according to Willie Gordon, so

that the women and children could raid the

nests. When a tree fell, the men, women,

and children scuttled about picking up the

squabs out of the bushes. They were killed

by knocking them on the head with a stick,

by pinching the heads at the temples be-

tween thumb and forefinger, or by wringing

their necks.”

The squabs were at once cropped and

gutted, and a little salt was put on them.

Willie Gordon emphasized the need of

cleaning the squabs immediately: ‘We

would open them and take out the ‘innards’

and crop, for the meat smells badly if the

crop is left.’’ However, the squabs were not

plucked of feathers then or later. They were

carried back home with the feathers on. The

weather was usually cold enough so they

would keep; but, to repeat, the crops had to

be taken out at once or the meat would

spoil.

Many of the squabs were eaten at the

camp; but large quantities were packed for

transportation to the homes. In later years

there were increasing numbers of white buy-

ers who took, sometimes, the whole catch.

The hunters lived principally on squabs

that they had caught. These were bailed,

after the women had picked them clean of

feathers; but those to be taken home were

salted and roasted until dry before the fire,

or boiled and smoked in strips as fish. Here

our informant illustrated with his hands

how the meat was cut into strips. Others do

not recall that pigeons were smoked. Per-—

haps this reflects only a failing interest in

7 Biting the head just back of the eyes was the

approved method of killing the catch among pro-

fessional netters both in Ontario and Pennsyl-

vania. (Mitchell, 1935, p. 124; French, 1919, pp.

82, 102.) However, it is possible that this trait

was adapted from Indians. The western Eskimos

bite the necks of auklets when netting them

(Dr. Henry B. Collins, Jr., conversation), and this

seems to be a widespread trait among the Eskimo

as far east as Greenland. How much farther it

extends is uncertain. French (opp. p. 152) illus-

trates pincers that were invented and patented

by James V. Bennett to reduce such ‘‘cruelty at

the wholesale butcheries to a minimum.’—

W.N.F.

Oct. 15, 1944 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

_ preserving them in quantity. The hunters

~ grew fat on squabs and squab grease spread

on potatoes, which they bought from Cun-

ningham, the white man.

Each family strove to fill as many as pos-

sible of the barrels they had brought, and

when they returned to settlements such as

Coldspring and Cattaraugus the families

who had not gone on the hunt begged to

buy squabs of those who had made the trip

to the pigeon roosts. Willie Gordon said:

‘‘A long time ago the Senecas salted the

squabs like pork in casks of elm bark which

they made, or in big stone crocks which

they had obtained in trade.’ Each family

worked for itself. Leaders of the hunt got

nothing extra for their efforts.”’

An extract from the personal correspond-

ence of Jesse Cornplanter of Tonawanda

Reservation, N. Y., summarizes and con-

firms the statements of other informants.

Although Jesse is too young to have gone

out from Cattaraugus to hunt squabs, his

statement is an interesting example of how

such knowledge persists among the Iroquois

long after a custom is dead.

I will tell you this much about this matter.

My mother [deceased] had the good fortune to be

born early enough to have gone with this hunt for

squabs in her childhood, but she recalled clearly

what they did. She said that they had some

scouts that they sent out before the pigeons starts

to nest or hatch their young; these scouts had to

report back to the village, and then when the

time came, they all would start out in wagons

with empty barrels. They would travel all day

and then would camp for the night. They used to

go to some place around Kinzua, Pa., in the big

hardwood forest. They had one Head Man who

had full charge when en-route, [and] they would

all gather every morning for a speech of thanks

and ask for blessing and luck in their venture.

When they arrived at the spot, which seems to

have been in the hills or young mountains of the

Alleghenies, it would be all of beeches. The limbs

would be just covered with the nests of these

pigeons, (she said it looks like a crows nest—

just a few sticks), and there would be three or

four squabs [others say two] in each nest. Then

they would cut the trees down and as the tree

falls, then the children and women did gather the

squabs, and they would gut it and then salt it and

put it in layers in the barrels. She never saw them

smoked as your version says...

8 Salting for winter use is a trait that was ac-

quired early from the white settlers (Mitchell,

1935, p. 107).

301

In the evenings each camp had its own

doings. The Cornplanters were at this time

pretty much Christian; so they sang

hymns, prayed, and listened to preaching.

The preacher at that time was John Jacobs

Esquire, and he was always called Esquire

to distinguish him: it was as much part of

his name as the rest. Over in the Coldspring

camp, where the Handsome Lake followers

were quartered, they would sing and dance

and have preaching according to their own

custom. Willie Gordon never went to see it,

as—he says—he was at that time ‘‘full of

religion” (Christianity); and he stayed

away. Lydia Bucktooth was too small, and

Chauncey Johnny John, who would know,

remembers no ceremonies attached to the

hunt, and said there was no connection

between hunting pigeons and the Pigeon

Dance, that he had ever heard of. ‘‘It

is just another animal dance with non-

sense words.’’ Willie said even John Jacobs

Esquire could not see any harm in what

was done in the morning—the thanksgiving

to all the spirit-forces; but in the evening

the two camps did not mix.

This activity continued for two or three

weeks, often longer. ‘‘After the squabs got

so big that they would fly when the trees

were felled, we would leave that place and

go somewhere else,’’ said Willie Gordon. As

the pigeon nests were destroyed they would

move ahead and build others. The younger

people would follow the pigeons for a long

time, runners going on ahead and reporting

back to the chiefs, as we shall see below.

The pigeons roosted all over that country.

The forest was mostly beech, but Willie

pointed out stands of ‘‘pigeon cherry” (Pru-

nus pennsylvanica L.f.) (ganondjo’’gwane’)

from which the Senecas took pitch for burns.

It is notable that some of the finest stands

of cherry anywhere are yet in this forest.

Unlike Chauncey Johnny John, Willie and

Lydia say the pigeons nested mostly on the

plateau and they had no recollection of find-

ing them in the Blue Jay and Spring Creek

Valleys at all.

THE PIGEON IN SENECA FOLKLORE

Several legends involving the passenger

pigeon were formerly current among the

Senecas. Our informants neither knew how

302

their ancestors acquired the technique of

hunting pigeons nor did they connect this

activity with the beginnings of the Pigeon

Dance, of whose origin they are ignorant.

Moreover, the few published myths have

been overlooked by historians among orni-

thologists, who are more or less unfamiliar

with the literature of American Indian

folklore. Mitchell (p. 17), after considerable

search, found only three stories—two Hu-

ron and one Neutral; and thought it strange

that such legends should be so scarce, and

somewhat unnatural that this amazingly

spectacular creature was not more closely

linked with the folklore of the Indians, who

were ordinarily acute naturalists. But, as we

shall see, these birds were more than a

source of provender. Among the Seneca, at

least, folk-tales furnish answers to our ques-

tions concerning the introduction of hunt-

ing, the origin of the pigeon songs and dance,

the nature of the invocation at the cere-

mony for propitiating the pigeons, and the

sacred character of albino or white pigeons.

Taboo on Taking Albino Pigeons

The white or albino pigeon, like the

‘white crow,’ was considered sacred. be-

cause ‘“‘he was the headman”’ or “‘chief of the

pigeons.”’ ““Never disturb him, and never

cut down a tree in which a white pigeon has

nested,’ said Chauncey Johnny John.

Ascription of supernatural power to white

animals pervades Seneca mythology: wit-

ness the magic white beaver, the white

otter, the white dog sacrifice, etc. It is well

known that albino bison were considered

sacred among the Plains Indians. None of

our informants recalls seeing such a white

passenger pigeon. For further information

we turn back a generation to the Cattarau-

gus informants of Curtin and Hewitt.

Pigeon Hunting in Mythology

A tendency for afolk to project their daily

activities into ancient times is a constant

characteristic of mythology. As the myths

themselves sometimes survive the _ pro-

jected activity, they become a source of in-

formation on the former culture of the folk.

This is precisely the case with pigeon hunt-

ing. A Seneca myth purporting to be the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 33, No. 10

origin of the porcupine people, a clan not

present among the Seneca, refers to an an-

cient time when the Iroquoians were appar-

ently a single nation of hunters and gather-

ers. As they became numerous, the game be-

came so scarce that it was necessary for the

tribe to divide. This decision was made in

public assembly, which guaranteed to each

band of maternal kindred (ohwachira) its

own hunting territory. Subsequently, inter-

necine warfare arose out of attempts to

punish trespassers. Now, the porcupine peo-

ple of this myth are said to be the descend-

ants of one Wendat (Huron) woman, the

matron of one of these separated bands. In

this account of the yearly cycle of their

economy, one sees projected the funda-

mental patterns around which later Seneca

economy was organized as recently as the

pigeon hunts we have described.

The porcupine people knew where to

gather nuts, berries, and small fruits, and

they also knew just where the wild pigeons

had their roosts.

They noted the whereabouts of these places,

and when the season was fully come their leaders

and chiefs would call to their people in a loud

voice: “Come! Let us go to feed ourselves abun-

dantly where the wild pigeons have now prepared

their roosts for the purpose of breeding.’’ At this

time the wild pigeons were so numerous that many

flocks stretched over large tracts of territory

darkening the light of the sun and making with

their wings a loud rushing sound resembling that

of an approaching tornado. Giving heed to the

call of their leaders, the people would make the

necessary preparations to go to the roosts of

the wild pigeon. Having reached the desig-

nated place, the people quickly put up temporary

camps and.then went out at once to kill the

squabs, which they brought to their lodges to

broil and eat with boiled corn bread and corn

soup. All were delighted with the bounty of

nature—the gift of the Master of Life.

Having thus spent part of the summer killing

wild pigeons, after the birds had departed, a

leader among the people would say: “Oh! friends,

cousins and kindred, the deer people have now

gone in this direction and are now fat and in good

condition to be killed for food and for their skins.

Let us decamp now and go the place where they

may be found. Up and let us be going. Let us lose

no time in delay.’ So, leaving the grounds of the

pigeon roosts early in autumn, they would journey

to the land where the deer were accustomed to

feed and raise their young. (Curtin and Hewitt,

1918, pp. 654-656.)

Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

White Pigeon, Chief of the Pigeons

Seneca story-tellers depicted the white pi-

geon as chief of the pigeons who live as peo-

ple in colonies and hold councils. The deci-

sion of the council of birds is revealed to an

old man in a vision while on a solitary hunt.

The pigeons offer their young for the sup-

port of man and decree rules for conducting

the hunt. This supports the contention of

Coldspring informants that a master of the

hunt governed the conduct enroute to the

pigeon grounds. The pigeons entered into a

contract with mankind: in return for their

young they expected an offering and invo-

cation with tobacco smoke. Violations led to

misfortunes among the hunters.

This is the story of the White Pigeon, the

chief of the pigeons (after Curtin and Hew-

itt, 1918, pp. 694-696):

[White pigeon chief of colonies]

It. is said that among the wild pigeons the

white ones are the chiefs of their communities.

According to tradition, a white pigeon once flew

into the forest lodge of a noted man, the Wild

Cat. The visitor did not appear ill at ease but

stood in the lodge wherever it seemed good to

him, and then without remark he flew away.

The old man, Wild Cat, somewhat amazed by

this quiet conduct of his visitor, related the inci-

dent to his neighbors, saying that this visit por-

tended ...something out of the ordinary....

But an entire year passed and nothing unusual

happened to old Wild Cat...

[Council of birds: Pigeons ordained for man]

But at about the same season the next year the

same White Pigeon again visited the old man’s

lodge. At this visit the old man believed that the

White Pigeon was a man..., so he conversed

with him.... White Pigeon informed the old

man... that all the various tribes of birds had

held council... [and]’... had decided that the

wild pigeons should furnish a tribute to mankind,

because their Maker had selected the wild pigeons

for this important duty .. . other birds had only

very little to give... because... [they lived]

dispersed here and there, and... could be ob-

tained only with difficulty, while the others had

nothing to offer toward the support of mankind.

[Taking squabs]

So, being the only tribe of birds which built

their nests and reared their young in a single

community, it was resolved by the various tribes

of birds that the pigeons should spare some of

their young men for food. White Pigeon con-

tinued by saying that he had come purposely to

notify old man Wild Cat of this .. . decision, and

303

tell him the young pigeons were to be taken in

proper season, and the manner in which this must

be done.

[Master of hunt: Places “‘pole

across path,’ |

He said: “‘In the season of the roost, when the

young pigeons have attained a suitable size for

eating, the people should select a suitable person

as superintendent or master of the hunt, and he

should give the essential directions to the people

for... [preparing]... for the hunt before start-

ing for the hunting grounds where the pigeons

have their roosts in the forest.”

On such a hunting expedition the entire com-

munity was engaged, and so it was not unusual

to have a very large crowd of people moving along

a common path at this time. However, to secure

order and obedience certain rules for the march

must be observed by all.... When the party

halted to rest, to eat, or to camp, for the night,

the leader would place a rod, suitably painted,

across the path, and no one was permitted to pass

over it or to go around it for the purpose of con-

tinuing the journey regardless of the rest of the

party. It was held that should one break this in-

junction some misfortune would inevitably befall

the party. When the party was ready to proceed

the leader would take up the rod and then the

journey would be resumed.

[Offering to pigeons]

Upon nearing the roosting place of the pigeons

it was customary to make a collection of gifts from

the people, consisting of various articles of orna-

ment and trinkets of all kinds, for an offering to

the pigeons. These . . . gifts were placed in a bark

bowl and this was borne... into the forest to

some swampy place where the tall weeds were

plentiful, and these gifts were spread out on a

piece of elm bark while native tobacco was burned

and an invocation... was made to the pigeons

and their Maker.

Tradition reports that for the first hunting ex-

pedition the people . . . did not observe the rules

of the master of the hunt, . . . some went around

the painted rod ... others withheld presents...

and many accidents happened to them: some

broke their legs, others their arms, some fell sick,

and some died... .

Killing both young and old pigeons at any

season is by implication proscribed.

The Song of the Pigeons

The white pigeon as chief and elder of the

Pigeon Tribe discloses their songs and dance

to a pure man who has a vision at the nest-

ing grounds in another tale which Hewitt

obtained in 1896 from Joshua Buck (Onon-

daga) (BAE MS. No. 2883) of Grand River,

Canada; and published with the Curtin col-

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lection (pp. 663-666). The original text is in

Onondaga, Buck’s native tongue. He called

the story Djo'hd Hodiénna’, ‘The Song of

the Pigeons.”’

[Families had separate camps]

These birds had formed a nesting place....

Having received knowledge...a great number

of men, women, and children, starting from their

villages, went to the place where the pigeons

formed their roosts... arrived... they at once

began to build their temporary camps according

to their ohwachiras [maternal families] and clans

and kindred.

[Puberty vision quest]

... A man who had just reached .. . puberty

and had no evil habits went with this crowd of

people. ... He was a very good person... they

began to travel from place to place through the

roost to kill such pigeons as they needed. At this

time the upright young man heard the tumult

arising from the cries of pigeons (conversing) to-

gether and he also saw the pigeons in vast num-

bers wheeling in circles.

Suddenly ... greatly surprised to see flying

among the pigeons one white in color... As he

watched .. . the white pigeon left the others and

alighted ... nearby. At once the pigeon began

to speak, saying: ‘‘Understand that we have se-

lected you to tell your people what ... we desire

. most... You must tell your chief that we

do not like to have so many among you in this

place who do not remember Him who has created

us. [Our Maker.] There are many who think only

evil things to please themselves. We wish that

they who have evil thoughts should put away

evil desires, and we believe that whoever does not

do so will suffer some grave misfortune.

[Thanksgiving morning and night]

‘We further wish you and your people to join

us in daily returning thanksgiving when each

morning and evening shall return to us. We think

this profitable. ... You see us when the morning

comes making a great tumult, and you hear us all

talking while we circle around the place in which

we have our roost. The reason for this behavior is

. we are offering thanksgivings to Him who has

created our bodies. In the evening this takes place

again ...and you see us then circling around

our roosting place, and you hear the accompany-

ing sound and confusion of voices. Now, under-

stand, we are going through the ceremony of the

dance, and we are singing. This signifies that we

are happy; we are full of joy.

‘“‘We have no protest to make against your

coming to this place to obtain the young whose

bodies resemble ours. Indeed, you wish that these

[offspring] shall become a source of satisfaction

[subsistence]... we have only the kindest of

feelings toward you in this pursuit of your de-

sires. You must know, too, that Our Maker has

VOL. 33, NO. 10

ordained that this our flesh shall be for the wel-

fare and contentment of human beings dwelling

on the earth.

[Pigeon dance and tobacco offering]

“You must understand further that I, at whom

you are looking—I who am speaking to you, am

indeed the oldest person among my people, and

it is on account of my great age that they have

chosen me to come to you and tell you our wishes

and to teach you our songs. You, too, are able to

sing them. It is essential that you should enjoy

‘yourselves; that you shall dance in order to do

this; and that all your people who are here shall

take part. In dancing you shall make circuits

around the places where you have kindled your

fires. When you have finished the singing and

dancing you shall go with your chief to make an

offering of tobacco at the very border of our en-

campment [roost], where you two shall stand to

perform this ceremony. When you have kindled a

fire you shall cast native tobacco on it, and while

thus occupied you must pray our Creator to per-

mit you and your people to pass the period of

your stay here in health and prosperity. At that

time, your chief, too, shall cast something on the

fire—things of which you make daily use, and

these objects shall become the token or message

of the people. Furthermore, we together, you and

my people, must unite in performing this cere-

mony, and we must also be of one accord when we

make this prayer and request of the Creator of

our bodies. Now it is for you to return to your

people and tell them fully what I have said to

you. This is what I have to say.’

Then the upright young man replied to his

pigeon friend: ‘“‘Your proposition is agreeable to

me, and I will fulfill my duty... by telling my

people all that you have said to me.”’

[Youth learns songs]

Without speaking further the white pigeon

. flew away. The young man, while watching it

fly off, saw a large number of pigeons moving in a

circle as they flew along; and he heard the birds

sing, making a very loud song, a tumult of voices.

He listened very attentively and for a long time

and finally learned the songs which the pigeons

were singing so loudly. Then he returned to his

lodge and his own fireside.

[Youth relates vision to clan chief who

carries out contract with the

supernaturals |

At once he related in every detail all the white

pigeon had said to him. A messenger was sent for

the chief of his clan, and when he arrived the up-

right young man again repeated all that the white

pigeon had said to him concerning the duties of

the people who were there to hunt squabs. When

the chief had heard ... he at once said: ‘‘Let us

at once do as the white pigeon has proposed. Let

someone be detailed to make a collection of

offerings, and then we shall proceed with the re-

— a - S e

Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

mainder of the ceremony.”’ Certain headmen were

detailed to make the collection of offerings. Going

from lodge to lodge, they collected various articles

presented to them as offerings in the ceremony.

Some gave wristlets, some bracelets, some neck-

laces, while others contributed articles of dress,

moccasins, and tobacco of the native variety.

When they had visited all the lodges they re-

turned to the lodge of the upright young man,

where he and their chief awaited them.

[Offering to pigeons]

After they had properly arranged the offerings

the chief said: ‘‘Let us start now; we will go to-

ward the place which borders on the pigeon roost

or nesting place.’”’ Then they two started, the

chief and the upright young man. When they

reached the border of the pigeon roost they

kindled there a very small fire, and the young man

made an offering of native tobacco by casting it

into the fire, at the same time asking the Creator

for health and welfare and contentment for all

the people while they were at that place. His

prayer was long and earnest, and when he ceased

his invocation the chief stepped forward to begin

his prayer. Bringing all the articles which had

been offered and standing before the fire, he said

in prayer: ‘‘Thou who hast created our bodies,

here lie all those things by which we support our

message (by which we support its head), all the

words of our prayer. We offer these to Thee.

Accept them as a testimony of our faith.’”’ Then

he laid all the objects which he had brought near

the fire. Thereupon the two men returned to the.

lodge of the upright young man.

[People called to repent, and to learn new dance]

When there they went at once from lodge to

lodge to call a council of the people. As soon as the

people had come together and had seated them-

selves according to their families-and clans the

chief arose and addressed them. He urged them to

repent of their evil deeds... and to offer...

thanksgivings to their Creator in the morning and

also in the evening. .. . When he had finished his

address on the need of observing faithfully the

things which had been taught them by the Pigeon

people, he said: ‘‘ Now let us severally give thanks-

givings to the Creator of our bodies, and moreover

we will dance to the songs of the Pigeon people.

Every person should take part in this ceremony.”

[Two leaders lead. whirling column of

pigeon dancers |

Thereupon the upright young man and the

chief took their stations at the head of the line of

dancers. When all were in line and ready the

young man began to sing the songs of the pigeons,

and all danced following their leaders. In dancing

they made a circuit of the lodges, moving slowly

to the rhythm of the songs as they turned from

the right toward the left. When the young man

had sung all the songs the young man had reached

the point of departure.

305

[Explanatory elements: Counter-clockwise

movement of social dances]

Then the chief, addressing the people, said:

‘‘We have now, indeed, performed this ceremony

as it has been taught to us by the people of the

pigeons; and when we shall depart from this place

we must take back with us this ceremony, which

will be of great benefit to us. We have learned

these songs here from a superior people, and so we

must cherish this ceremony. We have learned, too,

that in dancing we must always make the circuit

of the fires in one direction: namely, from the

right to the left. The reason for this is that you

use your right hands either to seize or to release

whatever you wish, so it is necessary that the

right side at all times be on the outside of the

circle of dancers, and that the part of the body

in which lies our life shall at all times be on the

inside of the line of dancers. Let us now make

ready to start for our homes.” With loud shouts

of approval and of exuberance or joy the dancers

returned to their lodges to make preparations to

depart for their homes.

RELATIONS WITH WHITE PIGEONERS:

NETTING

Our informants emphatically stated that

Seneca Indians never took the old pigeons,

which they deemed inferior as food, for

their own account; and that they never

knew Indians to shoot into the trees with

shotguns to slaughter the roosting old pi-

geons wholesale as did the whites; but many

Indians did work for the numerous white

pigeoners who used these practices as well

as nets. Chauncey Johnny John remembers

big nets that covered the whole tree and re-

calls that some Indians did as the white

people and set up nets on posts, into which

the pigeons flew and fell down. That, how-

ever, was when Indians were selling to the

white people. This is interesting in view of

Morgan’s statement already cited and the

evidence of Cayuga folklore. The Rochester

Museum has two pigeon nets and a stool-

pigeon stool which came from the neighbor-

hood of Irving, adjacent to Cattaraugus

Indian Reservation (Seneca). They are

indubitably quite old (A. C. Parker, p.c.),

but there is no assurance that they were

made and used by Indians.

The U. 8. National Museum has a pas-

senger pigeon trapping outfit consisting of

net, releaser pole, and pigeon baskets for

transporting live pigeons that was used by

white commercial trappers. It was con-

- tributed by Courtenay Brandreth, of Ossin-

306

ing, N. Y., through Dr. A. K. Fisher (Divi-

sion of Ethnology, Acc. No. 1009389:

_A. Wetmore, Assistant Secretary, p.c.).

According to Mr. Brandreth, the equip-

ment belonged to Tot Acker, of Sing Sing,

NOY:

The net was used in southeastern New York

by white people, and I think the technique they

used came from Europe. ... The nets were laid

flat on the ground a few feet apart. The spaces

between them were baited [with salt or corn],

and the nets were sprung inward. A live pigeon

was tied to the hover and it was raised up and

down to simulate a bird lighting. Also, live birds

had their eyelids sewn together and were thrown

into the air and pulled down with a string for the

same effect. I think you will find needles and

thread still in the decoy basket. (Courtenay

Brandreth, p.c. 11/24/1942.)

Such devices were widely employed by

professional trappers, or catchers, as they

were usually called. Willie Gordon described

how, when working with professionals, the

Indians would clear all leaves from a piece

of ground; bait it with salted corn; and put

up a very large net, either suspended from

trees or tied down to saplings. The hired

Indians hid in the bushes until the ground

was covered with feeding old birds to pull

the ‘‘trigger’’ and release the net, which

would envelop the pigeons: This descrip-

tion is not unlike that of Peter Kalm’s ob-

servations of hunting practice among the

Onondaga, and it seems unlikely that the

Seneca had not tried netting birds at an ear-

lier time.

White men were usually present among

the Indians to buy all the squabs that were

for sale. Lydia Bucktooth’s family went just

for a good time, with the idea of selling all

the squabs they caught to white buyers.

Lydia said that if there was any way to

bring the squabs home people would do it,

of course; but many had all they could do to

get home themselves with their axes, ket-

tles, and camping paraphernalia. She thinks

not many squabs were brought back from

the hunt. Alice White, whose people went in

an ox-cart, says that her father brought

back barrels filled with squabs, most of

which were at once given away to the old

people who had not been able to go on the

hunt. Many Indians, no doubt, did as Willie

Gordon who says he carried home as many

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 33, No. 10

dressed squabs as he could pack into ash-

splint carrying baskets suspended from a

burden strap or tump line, passing across

the chest and shoulders, or forehead, to the

back. A carrying basket filled with dressed

squabs was a pretty heavy load.

Indians hunted side by side with profes-

sional pigeon hunters for many years. Com-

petition gradually sharpened. The pigeons

were disappearing, and large timber acreage

was destroyed. As the railroads entered the

pigeon country—which was also the timber

country—public opinion was stirred against

the waste of both. The year 1868 is said to

have seen the last great nesting on New

York soil, at Bells Run, near Ceres in Alle-

gany County. According to Fred R. Eaton,

of Olean, the whole Cattaraugus band of

Senecas moved to the nesting grounds and

remained for two weeks to take pigeons.

White professionals attended, of course, and

their method of stretching and baiting nets

is well described; but it does not appear that

the Indians used this technique.

“They also invaded the roosts and

knocked the squabs from the nests, felling

trees so as to shake down hundreds to-

gether. In preparing them for shipment

their crops were torn out to prevent the

breast meat from souring, they were packed

in barrels and hurried to the city. Pigeons

continued to nest. in this locality until

1872.” (Eaton, 1910, p. 383; Mann and

King, 1896, p. 99.) This business of shipping

pigeons was apparently engaged in by both

Indians and whites; and thus the Indian

techniques were commercialized when

squabs were taken for the market.

There were large nestings after this in

some years, at least in northwestern Penn-

sylvania. The flight of 1878 was unusually

heavy, accounted for by the professionals—

who followed the pigeons wherever they

were, east or west—by guessing that the

Wisconsin—Michigan flights were following

the eastern route that year. Some idea of

the extent of the traffic, the movements of

the pigeons and the shift of attention from

dead to live birds as the weather grew warm —

may be had from the extracts from The

Warren Mail for 1878, presented in the Ap-

pendix hereto. :

The advent of railroads in the pigeon

Ocr. 15, 1948 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

country—which was also the timber coun-

try of northwestern Pennsylvania—brought

the eastern markets for both birds and lum-

ber closer and made both more valuable.

Public opinion, impressed by the failure of

the pigeon flights to materialize annually in

such large numbers as formerly, forced

legislative protection for the birds on their

nesting grounds, in Pennsylvania; and local

land owners no longer looked with indiffer-

ence on the destruction of their trees. It

does not appear that much attention was

paid to the provisions of the laws made to

protect the pigeons themselves. So long as

the hunters let the trees alone, there was lit-

tle interference with them.

Willie Gordon tells how on one occasion

officers from the sheriff’s office came on

horseback to stop the Indians from felling

trees. ‘‘They said, ‘If you Indians cut down

any more trees we will arrest you.’ Now, old

Jesse Logan, Frank Logan’s grandfather,

who was among us objected. He reminded

them of the white people’s treaty with Corn-

planter which reserved for the Indians of his

band the right to hunt, fish, take pigeons,

and fell timber wherever they may be in 22

counties of New York and Pennsylvania.

One of the party, Jonathan Pierce, returned

here to Cornplanter for the treaty papers,

but he did not arrive back at the pigeon

camp until late the following day, since it

was a day’s walk each way to the camp in

Forest County some way south of Sheffield

[see above]. When the officers were shown

the papers, they said that if the Indians

would leave the big trees so that the timber

would be spared and just cut down the

smaller ones, this would satisfy them. And

so we did this.”’

- Willie says further: ‘‘At that time there

was a great crowd of Indians, and whites

who had come on horseback and in wagons

to buy the squabs which we had caught.

They were always right there to fill them

with squabs. There were traders and mer-

chants, for then the only white settler in

that region was a man named Cunningham

of whom we bought potatoes that he raised

in a small clearing beside his log cabin in

which he was continually troubled by ma-

rauding bears who came in the night and

clawed on the door.”

307

Willie Gordon’s Narrative of His

First Pigeon Scout

Now, as I have said, when the squabs got so

big that they would fly every time the men felled

the trees in which they perched, we would have to

quit that place and move our camp to enother

nesting grove. On the occasion of this story, white

horsemen had reported a place where the pigeons

had gone in great flocks. So then our leaders called

a council there to decide among ourselves whether

to return home next morning or to continue hunt-

ing. The council appointed two scouts: my uncle,

the late Charlie Gordon, and Alfred Halftown, to

go see if they could locate the reported pigeon

roost and to report back to the council. Now I

was just a small boy at that time and I wanted to

tag along with Uncle Charlie, but he did not want

the bother of having me with him for fear that I

might get lost in the big woods. But I went any-

way. Moreover, I had a double-barrel muzzle-

loader shotgun that I carried and a powder horn

and various sizes of shot. And so I followed.

We had gone some distance when we com-

menced to hear a rumbling noise—mmmmmmm!:

like that. We went on, trying to determine which

way the noise came. We were in the big timber—

no path, no trail—way back of Sheffield. Then

we saw fresh tracks which we thought were the

tracks of a panther, he”’7is. In front of us we could

see the passenger pigeons at work on the beech-

nuts on the ground. When they would fly they

would all fly at once, making this great humming

noise—mmmmmmm! We crossed a little brook

where the shores were completely white with

feathers of the birds that had bathed there. Here

a tree was uprooted and in the upturned earth we

could see for certain the tracks of a big panther.

We were afraid of that. Now the older ones wanted

my gun. Up to that time they had considered me

and my double-barrel gun a nuisance—something

to stop and wait for. Now at that time I had two

shots in there; I had loaded it that morning with

fine birdshot.

One of the men took my gun and shot it off and

then reloaded it with buckshot, and I had nothing.

But we walked on and at last we came to the

place where the pigeons had nested. Here we cut

down a little tree intending to take some squabs

back to camp, as we had been instructed to find

the nests and bring some squabs to let the people

see their condition. Then the council would de-

cide whether to remove to that place or to return

home.

When we were ready to start back each of us

had a different idea as to which direction our camp

lay. Finally, after much discussion, we decided

to take one way, and we walked on and on

through the woods, becoming very hungry and

thirsty. It was growing late when we saw smoke

far off and we decided to go see what it might be,

for we thought it might possibly be our own camp.

When we at last reached the place where the

smoke arose, we discovered that some white

people had.been camping there. There were

308

hemlock-bough shanties, and outside a fire was

still smouldering. We went inside one shanty and

found provisions: there was canned milk—this

was the first time I ever saw milk in cans; there

was coffee and sugar. So now then we sat down

and prepared a meal and so then we ate. After we

had had enough, we returned thanks and packed

up everything there was left over and carried it

with us; and we followed the white men’s trail,

which at its end came down to the muddy road

where it was rutted by the wagons of many pigeon

traders driving toward our camp. So at the end

of this road that so many people had traveled we

found the Indian camp. When we reached camp

it was getting dark and the people had gathered

to discuss what had become of us. They were

afraid that we were lost.

If I ever again hear that there is to be a pigeon

hunt I will try and go there. It is the best fun you

ever saw. When we get back people will not know

us—we will be fat from eating squabs and drink-

ing pigeon-oil. You ought to see how fat those

squabs are!

DISAPPEARANCE

Nevertheless none of the old Senecas ever

again expect to see the jdh’gowa fly north in

the spring. Several Cornplanter people told

us that they had heard the old folks say

those birds tried to cross the ocean and that

they had all perished in a storm by drown-

ing, starvation, or exhaustion. However,

this is “old hat,” as every ornithologist

knows. So the “big breads” live now only in

the memories of a few old people like Willie

Gordon and Lydia Bucktooth. But the

young people of Coldspring Longhouse con-

tinue to dance the Pigeon Dance, still a

favorite social dance among all the Iro-

quois; and at Tonawanda it is an integral

part of the spring Maple Thanksgiving Fes-

tival.

Of the numerous reasons advanced by

ornithologists to explain the disappearance

of the passenger pigeon, adequately treated

by Mitchell in her monograph of this spe-

cies, only those theories entertained by In-

dians concern us here. The Indians believed

that their practice of taking squabs when

they were ready to leave the nests was a

measure of conservation. By long observa-

tion they knew that there were plenty of

birds until white competition and attention

to the adult birds, shot and persecuted re-

lentlessly with nets and traps, gradually re-

duced the number and size of the annual

nestings, until they disappeared entirely.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 10

The notion that the passenger pigeon was

present in great numbers one year and com-

pletely gone the next has been proved a

popular fallacy. As early as 1660 they had

already begun to disappear from the New

England coast; and in the Iroquois country

of New York and western Pennsylvania,

and in Ontario, their disappearance was no-

ticeable by 1850. In 1848 there is record of

shipment from Cattaraugus County, in

western New York, alone of over 80 tons of

the birds. Four years later occurred the last

great nesting at Ashford, between the Alle-

gheny and Cattaraugus Senecas. Practically

all the squabs, together with a greater por-

tion of the old birds, were captured (Mer-

shon, 1907, p. 122). After the great nestings

at Ceres in 1868-72, there is still record of

occasionally very heavy flights in north-

western Pennsylvania for the next decade

or so. According to Todd, the last at-

tempted nesting of any size in northwestern

Pennsylvania was observed in Potter

County in 1886. After that only a few birds

appeared at Sheffield, the locus of the

Cornplanter Seneca hunts, which pretty

well dates them. The last passenger pigeon

seen in Warren County by one who was

competent to identify it was reported by

Ralph B. Simpson on the Allegheny near

Warren, in company with a flock of mourn-

ing doves, May 20, 1893.

No single cause serves to explain the dis-

- appearance of the passenger pigeon. Mitch-

ell thinks the immediate cause was the up-

set of its equilibrium of life in terms of its

optimum population density—which was

certainly high—to which the increasing dis-

turbance of its nesting contributed. All

authorities seem agreed that the culprits in

this process were the market hunters who

destroyed the annual crop of squabs by

raiding the nests and substantially reduced

the size of the adult flocks by netting and

shooting. Clearing the land was detrimental

of course; but as the forests have survived

the pigeons, this alone will not account for

their extinction. Diseases introduced along

with domestic poultry may have taken some

toll; but their effect could be only inconsid-

erable as compared with that of man’s de-

struction of the species. The market hunters

Ocr. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS 309

found a ready explanation for what hap-

pened in a legend that persists, as we have

seen, as a tradition among the Senecas: The

theory that a cyclonic disturbance on the

sea drowned the birds in great numbers.

Kalm advanced it in 1740 (1759), and the

story has been cropping up in one form or

another ever since.

It is certain, therefore, that the passenger

pigeon’s disappearance can not be attribut-

ed to natural enemies, or to the Indian.

Forbush, who gave this problem some

thought, pointed out that for the years that

pigeons were most abundant its natural en-

emies were most numerous; and that its ex-

tinction is coincident with the disappear-

ance of bears, panthers, wolves, lynxes, and

birds of prey. Forbush says:

The aborigines never could have reduced ap-

preciably the number of the species. Wherever

the great roosts were established, Indians always

gathered in large numbers. This, according to

their traditions, had been the custom among them

from time immemorial. They always had

slaughtered these birds, young and old, in great

quantities; but there was no market among the

Indians, and the only way in which they could

preserve the meat for future use was by drying or

smoking the breasts. They cured large quantities

in this way. Also, they were accustomed to kill

great quantities of the squabs in order to try out

the fat, which was used as butter is used by the

whites. (Forbush, 1936, p. 41; cf. 1927, vol. 2,

p. 59. Italics added.)

At least two authorities have argued that

all that is required to bring about the ex-

tinction of a species is to kill off a large pro-

portion of its offspring each year before they

reach maturity. Nature cuts off the rest.

(Forbush, 1936, p. 44; Townsend, 1932, p.

382.) The Indian practice of taking only the

young birds and leaving the breeding stock

which they considered a measure of con-

servation became a means of extinction

when employed by professional pigeoners.

Dr. Alexander Wetmore, who has read

this manuscript, offers another explanation:

‘“As one matter of biological import there is

little question in my mind that but one egg

was the normal complement in the set of

this species. Occasionally two eggs were

found, but where this occurred it is my

opinion that the second egg came from a

female other than the rightful owner of the

nest. It is not unusual for birds of this type

to lay an occasional random egg in this way.

The fact that the birds normally reared only

one young per season is enough to account

for their disappearance under the heavy

persecution to which they were subjected

by commercial trappers and hunters, since

no species can stand such a toll with a rate

of reproduction that requires at least two

years to reproduce the original pair (A. Wet-

more, p.c., 11/9/1942).”’ |

In any event, the commercial hunter was

the principal factor in the extinction of this

species.

HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Value as Food to the Seneca Indians

The question naturally arises as to how

important was the passenger pigeon as food

in the diet of the Seneca Indians. We have

already seen that the neighboring Cayuga

and Onondaga netted pigeons at salt licks

and on bluffs, and we have presented a

number of early and modern records of huge

nestings that were attended by whole bands

of Senecas and segments of the aforemen-

tioned tribes. Presumably for several weeks

between maple harvest and planting season,

when the pigeons nested, the Seneca settle-

ments were more or less evacuated while the

population concentrated at the nesting

grounds to take squabs and smoke them for

transportation home. Great quantities were

consumed on the grounds; all informants

testify how fat they became. During this

period, and for some weeks thereafter,

squabs constituted the bulk of their diet. In

fact, one wonders whether the Indians must

not have become as fed up with eating pi-

geon and drinking pigeon broth as did the

pioneers of Canada (Mitchell, pp. 106-107).

However, with the Indians, their ceremo-

nies at hunting suggest that the pigeons very

often came in time to relieve starvation. At

this season the Iroquois were often reduced

to eating their seed corn. In good years

there were squabs aplenty to keep the Sene-

cas, and all the Iroquois for that matter,

through the planting season—particularly

if one can accept as typical such nestings as

the one observed by John Lyman, an early

settler. He says it extended 100 miles along

310

the Upper Allegheny in late May and early

June of 1805, and again in 1810 (French,

1919, pp. 23-25).

Prehistoric Evidence

Before the white man settled in America,

ancestors of the Iroquoian peoples took pas-

senger pigeons and presumably ate them.

Bones of adult birds are common among the

bird remains from refuse heaps of precon-

tact village sites in the Iroquoian area. It

seems reasonable to assume that these early

peoples preferred the squabs to adult birds,

as did their descendants. Moreover, since

the bones in young birds are not completely

ossified until the fledglings leave the nest,

and remembering that it was the practice to

take the squabs just before they left the

nests, it follows that if, as we suspect, pre-

historic Iroquoians took great quantities of

squabs and ate them on the grounds, squab

bones—if they survived at all—would not

be represented in the village site remains.

This fact may account for the dearth of re-

ports on this species for New York State

Iroquois sites. (However, absence of data

may also reflect careless archeological tech-

nique. Pigeon bones are small.)

In the refuse heaps of two prehistoric sites

within the historic area of the Neutral tribe

(Niagara Peninsula), reported by Wintem-

berg on identifications by A. Wetmore

(U.S. National Museum), passenger pigeon

bones are dominant among the bird remains

at Uren, while at Lawson village site the

passenger pigeon is the third ranking bird

(in their diet) after turkey and ruffed

grouse. But the numbers of mammal bones

were by far in the majority.?®

At Roebuck, a prehistoric Mohawk-On-

ondaga site in the St. Lawrence Valley,

again mammal bones were most abundant,

and bird bones were not numerous. Of 13

species of birds reported, the passenger pi-

geon was sixth in order of frequency (Win-

9 Wintemberg, 1928, p. 5; 1939, p. 9. In the

Lawson prehistoric village site in Middlesex

County, Ontario, of 11,000 animal bones, the

majority (10,000) were of mammals; second in

rank were 186 bird bones, ‘‘in order of their abun-

dance: wild turkey, ruffed grouse, Passenger

Pigeon, Canada goose...”

Acknowledgement is made to Dr. Alexander

Wetmore, who made the identifications, for the

opportunity to discuss these matters with him.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

temberg, 1936, p. 14). While these figures

are suggestive, they remain inconclusive

without comparable statistics from prehis-

toric Seneca sites in western New York.

Comparative Notes

From the fragmentary archeological evi-

dence we turn to some comparisons of pas-

senger pigeon hunting among other historic

eastern woodland tribes whose territories

were traversed by these migratory creatures.

To know that neighboring tribes followed

the annual pigeon nestings, observed simi-

lar customs and utilized hunting techniques

identical with those of the Senecas would

strengthen the case for the aboriginality of

the Seneca activity. The Seneca material

assumes proper perspective in such a com-

parison; and, other things being equal, what

we have been able to establish for Seneca

passenger pigeon hunting illuminates refer-

ences to other tribes, broadening our view of

the relation of man to his natural environ-

ment in eastern America. |

Passenger pigeons nested in eastern Mas-

sachusetts and were relatively abundant

throughout New England until nesting be-

gan within fifty years of white settlement.

The early nestings at Essex, near the coast,

were only 30 miles from the white settle-

ments; Wood (1629-34) describes a nesting

colony that filled a great pinery, ‘from

whence the Indians fetch whole loades of

them’”’ (Wood, 1865, zn Forbush, 1927, vol.

2, p. 59). Wood does not say that Indians

trapped adult birds. The inference is that

they took the squabs from the nests.

Wuskéwhan is given by Roger Williams

(1643) as the Algonquian word for “‘pi-

geon”’; of which Cotton Mather writes,

“Or Indians call these Pigeons, by a name

that signifies Wanderers’ (Schorger, 1938,

p. 474). Mather’s statements are probably

of Natick origin. They are a tribute to the

keenness of Indian observation on the hab-

its of birds, but they contain no information

regarding the Indians in relation to the pi-

geons other than the apparent fact that

Mather met them, too, at a salt marsh. |

Williams, however, observes: ‘‘In the ‘Pi-

geon Countrie’ [which Trumbull assigns to

the northern part of Nipmuck territory,

now Worcester, Mass.; then occupied by a

Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

little band called ‘furthermost Neepnet

men,’ next neighbors to the Showatucks]

... these Fowls breed abundantly, and by

reason of their delicate Food (especially in

Strawberrie time when they pick up whole

fields of the old grounds of the Natives, they

are a delicate fowle, and because of their

abundance, and the facility of killing them,

they are and may be plentifully fed on.”

(Williams, 1866, p. 116.)

Asin New England, the passenger pigeon

receded from the coast of New York and

New Jersey with the Indians. It may be in-

ferred from the following accounts that the

coastal Algonquians, the aborigines of New

Netherland, once took these birds in much

the same manner as the Iroquois. In ‘“‘De-

scription of New Netherlands, 1671,’ it is

said by Montanus that fowls, turkeys,

geese, ducks, pigeons and other feather

game are also easily obtained. “‘The pi-

geons fly in such flocks that the Indians de-

signedly remove to their breeding places,

where the young birds pushed by hundreds

from their nests, serve for food during a long

month for the whole family’? (Montanus,

p, 123), 7

We do not find accounts of the early Del-

aware hunting them, but it is reported that

their annual custom of burning the woods in

hunting deer ‘‘kept the woods clean, so that

pigeons readily got acorns, which then not

being devour’d by hogs, were plenty almost

everywhere.”’ (Samuel Smith, 1890, p. 511.)

However, for the eighteenth century David

Zeisberger, writing of the Delaware of

whom many had accompanied him from

eastern Pennsylvania to the present site of

New Philadelphia, Ohio, in the years 1779

and 1780, says:

~The wild pigeon is of an ash-gray color, the

male being distinguished by a red breast. In some

years in fall, or even in spring, they flock together

in such numbers that the air is darkened by their

flight. Three years ago (i.e. 1776 or 1777) they

appeared in such great numbers that the ground

under their roosting place was covered with their

dung above a foot high, during one night. The

Indians went out, killed them with sticks and

came home loaded. At such a time the noise the

pigeons make is such that it is difficult for people

near them to hear or understand each other. They

do not always gather in such numbers in one place,

often scattering over the great forests. (Zeisberger,

1910, p. 66.)

oll

He is speaking here of pigeon hunting on

the fall return-flight, when the pigeons

nested for only one night; and these must

have been old birds that his tame Indians

knocked out of their nests. These Indians

had guns. It is curious that Zeisberger, who

lived for three years in the pigeon-nesting

country near Tionesta, Pa., says very little

about pigeons during this period.

The process of taking squabs and melting

down the fat for domestic purposes as a sub-

stitute for butter and lard is reported as a

general practice among Indians and many

whites: tribes are not specified (Wilson,

1812, vol. 5, p. 107). In Virginia the early

settlers took pigeons in winter. John Law-

son (1709) speaks of prodigious flocks of pi-

geons during 1701-1702; and of the Indians

of Carolina he writes: ‘““You may find sev-

eral Indian towns of not above seventeen

houses, that have more than one hundred

gallons of pigeon’s oil or fat; they using it

with pulse or bread as we do butter, . . . the

Indians take a light and go among them in

the night and bring away some thousands,

killing them with long poles, as they roost in

the trees’”’ (Lawson, 1860, pp. 78-79).

This seems to be the only specific refer-

ence for the Southeast, and one can not es-

timate to how many tribes it applies. West-

ward in Tennessee we lack eye-witness

accounts of the Chickasaws taking pigeons;

but within 50 miles of Memphis, Lusher’s

map of 1835 specifies ‘“‘Pigeon Roost Creek’’

which Myer says was also the name of the

short-cut trail or ‘‘Pigeon Roost Road,”’

leading between the home of the Chicka-

saws in northern Mississippi and the Chick-

asaw Bluffs. Here there were vast roosts in

heavily timbered bottoms, which must have

been famous far and wide, as they are re-

membered in place names. Myer thinks

they were known to the Chickasaw and

were the probable reason for the trail

(Myer, 1928, pp. 817-819).

To the north in the Great Lakes area, the

Siouan-speaking Winnebago of Wisconsin

poked pigeons out of their nests with long

poles after the manner of Lawson’s Indians

of Carolina. They considered pigeons their

‘“ohief”’ birds, and hunts were undertaken in

season when the chief decided to give a

312

feast. They were prepared by broiling or

steeping and had a delicious taste. Large

quantities were taken after storms when

many died of exposure (Radin, 1923, pp.

112-1138).

It is among the Potawatomi of Michigan,

however, that we find the closest approxi-

mation to Seneca pigeon hunting. In Chief

Simon Pokagon’s classic portrayal of the

Michigan nestings, which Forbush has

called the best description of the nesting of

these birds, the Potawatomi techniques are

those of the Seneca. He says: “‘A pigeon

nesting was always a source of revenue to

our people. Whole tribes would wigwam in

the brooding place. They seldom killed the

old birds, but made great preparation to se-

cure their, young, out of which the squaws

made squab butter and smoked and dried

them by thousands for future use. Yet, un-

der our manner of securing them, they con-

tinued to increase.’’!°

The Ottawa ate pigeons (Kinietz, 1940,

p. 240), but we find no details as to their

methods of hunting them.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Once more we have seen the reminis-

cences of a few old Senecas, bolstered by

historical fact, grow into a study of mono-

graphic proportion. As usual, Seneca tradi-

tion clarifies some points on which history is

silent, while recorded history serves to date

the disappearance of one more activity that

old Senecas recall as being formerly part of

their yearly economic cycle. In the case of

pigeon hunting most of our materials come

from members of the Cornplanter Band of

Senecas in northwestern Pennsylvania.

These people have been generally disre-

garded by ethnologists because they have

been so long acculturated to white ways,

but the authors of this paper have long sus-

pected that the Cornplanter people could

still yield information on material culture of

hunting, with which they are still preoccu-

pied. In the present study of the last pas-

senger pigeon hunts of the Cornplanters,

Willie Gordon and others have contributed

to the increase of the literature on this ex-

10 Chief Simon Pokagon, from The Chautau-

quan 22 (20). Nov. 1895; in Mershon, 1907,

p. 54.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

tinct species. During the last years of their

annual migration to the pigeon roosts

around Sheffield and Byromtown, in War-

ren and Forest Counties, Pa., the Corn-

planter people came into contact with the

professional white pigeoners at the climax

of their activities in the late 1870’s. After

this, the birds for the most part disappeared

under the relentless persecution of the pro-

fessional netter.

While it is apparent that from early times

the Iroquois—notably the Onondaga and

Cayuga—set nets for pigeons, both station-

ary nets on high places and trip nets at salt

licks, nest-raiding seems to have been the

predominant hunting technique among the

Iroquois. This was certainly true of the

Seneca, who seem to have used no nets ex-

cept when they hired out to white pigeon-

ers, aS was true of the Indians of Massachu-

setts, New Netherland, Carolina, Wisconsin

and Michigan. In aboriginal times squabs

were generally considered more palatable

than adult birds, and the pigeon roostings

offered such abundant store of provender—

both meat and oil—for the taking, that net-

ting and archery, mainly effective with adult

birds, were of secondary importance. There

was no market for the adult birds, then, as

trade was undeveloped. Nor does there seem

to have been any sport in Indian life akin to

trap-shooting.

The Iroquois regarded the annual return

of the passenger pigeon as one of the bless-

ings ordained by the Master of Life. The

sudden arrival of great flocks of birds to

nest in the neighboring forests not only re-

lieved the economic strain at a period when

they were sometimes reduced to eating their

seed corn, but also justified their faith in the

bounties of nature. For this great blessing

they were duly thankful, and they prayed

that this condition might continue always.

They allowed the birds to nest and to hatch

their young; and the nests were not dis-

turbed until the young were ready to leave.

They believed that the practice of taking

squabs at their prime and of allowing the -

adult birds to go free to reproduce the spe-

cies was a measure of conservation, which

was probably true under the circumstances.

Our Seneca. informants were shocked at the

way professional pigeoners violated nature

Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

by indiscriminate slaughter of old and

young birds alike and by the relentless pur-

suit of the flocks from place to place.

The Iroquois ascribed human traits to the

animal and plant world. It is small wonder

that the folklore of these people observes

that the passenger pigeons were the one bird

that congregated in communal settlements

like Indian villages, and that folk-tales

ascribe to the pigeon colonies a humanlike

society. An albino pigeon as chief fulfills the

role of the sacred white animal, a common

belief among woodland Indians. In a myth-

ological encounter, the culture hero, a pure

youth, meets the sacred white pigeon during

a@ vision and enters into a compact with

him. Rules are established governing the

conduct of the hunt and the taking of

squabs. These data cover such details as the

master of the hunt who as in later times or-

ders the migration, keeps the crowd to-

gether, places a “‘pole across the path at

night”’; keeps separate the camps for mater-

nal kindred. Even the construction of lean-

tos is covered. Continuing the pattern for

Iroquois origin legends, the myth provides

the rationale for ceremonies attending the

hunts of later years: the camp caller, morn-

ing and evening thanksgiving, a ceremony

for propitiating the pigeons with an offering

of trinkets and sacred tobacco which—as al-

ways in Iroquois ceremonialism—is the in-

termediary between man and the spirit-

world. Moreover, we, find here an origin

legend for the Pigeon Dance of later Iro-

quois ceremony; and its tenuous connection

with the Maple Thanksgiving Festival is

strengthened by the fact that pigeon hunt-

ing followed soon after the sugaring and

lasted well into planting time. The youth re-

lates his vision to the clan chiefs who carry

out his contract; they call a council of the

people to learn the new dance. Two dance

leaders precede the whirling column, and an

explanatory element about the counter-

clockwise movement of social dancers repre-

sents the projection of a modern usage into

ancient times.

Whether Indians or whites originated the

pigeon-netting techniques is a question that

can not be resolved entirely. The “‘nettings’”’

at the Syracuse salt licks and westward into

the Cayuga country may not have been the

313

same as the techniques of the professional

netters. On the contrary, the complicated

set-nets of the white pigeoner, with their

weights, releasing poles, stool pigeons, decoy

baskets, etc., seem to have emanated from

southern Europe. They were used in New

England as early as 1660.

We have shown that the Indian method

involved knocking the young out of the

nests with long poles or cutting down the

trees to get at them. We must accept the

Seneca testimony that they used European

devices when assisting white pigeoners, for

the Iroquois knew other types of traps, and

it was not beyond their abilities to devise

adequate bird-trapping devices had they so

desired, or had they any interest in taking

the adult birds. There is a possibility that

there was some trade latterly in splint decoy

baskets of the type Indians sometimes

make, but the specimens examined do not

appear to have been made by any of the In-

dian tribes of the northeast.

Willie Gordon’s narrative of his first pi-

geon hunt, from which this study sprang, is

a tale of the late period of acculturation, of

course. It represents the best of the last

shreds of Cornplanter Seneca ethnology,

which can be made to serve a useful purpose

in reconstruction.

We have said something of the disappear-

ance of the passenger pigeon, principally be-

cause the last nestings in Pennsylvania were

in the area under study and to show that

the stock explanation given by the Indians,

and by many whites, is only a bit of recur-

rent folklore. The Seneca by themselves

could not and would not have depleted this

species.

Finally, it may be said that the passenger

pigeon had a definite place in the hunting

economy of the Iroquoian tribes from very

early times. This is indicated by the evi-

dence of archeology in the area. Although

the accounts of pigeon hunting among the

other northeastern tribes from New Eng-

land south to the Carolinas are fragmentary,

we believe that the material we have col-

lected for the Senecas is probably fairly

typical of other tribes throughout the range

of the passenger pigeon. At least, the evi-

dence in the way of comparative distribu-

tion, fragmentary as it is, does not reveal

314

much cultural diversity in hunting this spe-

cies, from tribe to tribe. Perhaps this is

obvious: there were limitations to ways of

killing squabs.

APPENDIX

The discovery of oil in territory near and

in the pigeon country in the 1860’s was na-

turally attended by very rapid extension of

railroads all through this area. The increased

slaughter of wild pigeons, especially by pro-

fessionals who came from all over the coun-

try attracted by the market facilities

provided by the better transportation, was

attended by a decline in the size and num-

ber of pigeon flights. By the Acts of May 1

1873, and of May 1, 1876, Pennsylvania at-

tempted to protect the birds, using the

theory that disturbance of adults on their

“roostings’”’ was the cause of the trouble.

This was not effective; so the Act of June

10, 1881, extended protection specifically to

the squabs, banning the taking of any birds,

young or old, with gun, net, or trap within

a mile of the nesting grounds. A heavy li-

cense fee of $50 was to be collected by each

county in which the trapper worked.

During this period The Warren Mail, a

weekly paper in the largest town near the

pigeon grounds, was edited by an honest,

high-minded gentleman greatly interested

in law enforcement. His paper makes only

casual mention of pigeons before 1878. The

flight of that year was heavy, attended by

large numbers of professionals from every-

where who paid no attention to the laws—

and by a rising of the editor’s dander on ac-

count of this. For us the result is an unusu-

ally good account of what went on in the pi-

geon woods. We extract from the Mail’s

weekly reports enough to give some idea of

the extent and character of these activities.

Mar. 18, 1878: ‘‘Pigeons were seen flying over

town last Thursday morning [i.e., Mar. 7]. Too

high for shooting.”’

Mar. 19, 1878: ‘Pigeons are feeding and flying

around Warren and the shot-gun squad are wide

awake.”

Mar. 25, 1878: “The pigeons have been flying

in large flocks in this section for several days.

They are reported as nesting in the wild woods of

Forest County, beyond Sheffield. Numerous

pigeon catchers are at Sheffield, Kane, Tidioute,

Tionesta and all along the line. Last week nearly

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

100 barrels of dead birds were shipped from Shef-_

field. At this rate the pigeons will soon be ex-

terminated.”

Same issue: Quotes from the Tionesta [Forest

County] Republican to the effect that ‘“‘Sheffield is

the shipping point for large quantities of pigeons.

A small army of men are trapping them at their

roosting and feeding places in Forest Co. It is

alleged that large numbers have been shot near

their roosting places, which act is contrary to law.

In 3 days last w eek about 50,000 pigeons were

shipped.”’

Same issue: Again quoting the Tionesta Repub-

lican: “The pigeon trappers are not doing very

big business here, we believe, owing to the dif-

ficulty they experience in keeping spectators and

hunters at a sufficient distance from their base of

operations as not to scare the birds. The gang

up about Balltown [up the Tionesta Creek, below

Blue Jay mouth], however, are scooping them in

at a great rate. They took 80 dozen in 2 days.

They ship them to Sheffield for New York where,

we hear, they sell for $3 per dozen.”

April 4, 1878: “The pigeons shipped to N. Y.

from Warren and Forest Counties are sold at

$2.00 a dozen.” .

April 23, 1878: “Up to last Saturday [the 20th]

291,741 pigeons had been shipped from Sheffield.

Probably nearly as many have gone from Tionesta

while some 40,000 have been shipped from

Tidioute. Over half a million birds have been

caught, for which probably $75,000 were received.

Who says this ‘neck of the woods’ is not produc-

tive?”’

April 30, 1878: “Mr. Gemmill [the freight agent

at Sheffield] informs us that the total number of

birds shipped from Sheffield up to April 27 is

353,846. Lately, the price of dead birds is low and

14,600 live ones were shipped during the last

week. Counting 50,000 from Tionesta and 40,000

from Tidioute, which is no doubt below the actual

figure, we have 443,846. Some have been shipped

from Kane and other points while many have

been carried away by shootists. It is probably safe

to say that 500,000 bir ds, dead or alive, have been

taken in this section.’

May 14, 1878: “The ese of pigeons, dead

and alive, shipped from Sheffield up to and in-

cluding Miondar 7 May 18, is 505,516! So says

Mr. Gemmill, the freight agent, who has the

exact number. They are still nesting in the woods

of Forest County. The pigeon men say the Michi-

gan birds have come to this ‘neck of the woods’.”

May 28, 1878: Quoting the Tionesta Republican:

“Davy Hilands shipped 500 pigeons to N. Y. this

morning—the first that have been shipped from

this station for some time. The trappers are now

operating near Brookston and also about Kane

and altogether the pigeons get no rest at all.”

June 11, 1878: ‘‘Pigeons are still being shipped

from Sheffield. Up to last Monday over 700,000

pigeons have been shipped and 200,000 from Kane

Mr. Gemmill tells us that there are over 2,000

Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

dozen pigeons in coops awaiting shipment. They

are now nesting up Kinzua Creek on Chapel

Fork.”

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1918.

DearporFrFr, Merrie H. The Cornplanter

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316

BOTAN Y.—New grasses from South America.!

tional Herbarium.

Among recent collections of South Ameri-

can grasses received by the U. 8S. National

Herbarium are three undescribed species,

one each from Colombia, Uruguay, and

Curacao, one of the Dutch West Indies. Al-

though this island is popularly regarded as

one of the Antilles, biologically it belongs

with Venezuela.

Stipa rosengurttii Chase, sp. nov.

Perennis, caespitosa; culmi erecti, subfili-

formes, 25-85 cm alti; folia basi crebra, vaginis

inferioribus dense imbricatis; ligula circa 1 mm

longa; laminae involutae, filiformes, 6-12 cm

longae, interdum longiores, erectae, hispidulo-

scabrae vel scaberulae; panicula 4-6 cm longa,

ramis erectis, paucifloris; spiculae brevipedicel-

latae; glumae 3-nerves, acuminatae, margini-

bus hyalinis; gluma prima 6-7 mm longa,

gluma secunda 5-5.5 mm longa; lemma con-

volutum, 3.3-3.4 mm longum, 1—1.2 mm latum,

anguste obovatum, fuscum, tuberculatum, co-

ronatum, infra coronam constrictum, dorso

pubescens, callo brevi, longe barbato, pilis

lemmate 2-3-plo brevioribus; arista 1.8-2 cm

longa, bigeniculata.

A cespitose perennial; culms erect, subfili-

form, 25 to 85 cm tall with 2 or 3 nodes above

the base, the nodes ascending-pilose or in age

glabrescent; leaves crowded at the base, the

lower sheaths overlapping and forming a swol-

len base, the lowermost relatively broad and

loose, appressed pilose at the very base between

the strong nerves, the middle and upper sheaths

glabrous or scaberulous; ligule firm, about

1 mm long; blades involute, filiform, 6 to 12 em

long in the type specimen (to 25 em in Rosen-

gurtt B 216), erect or nearly so, hispidulous-

scabrous to scaberulous; panicle long-exserted,

4 to 6 cm long in the type specimen (to 12 em

in Rosengurtt B 216), the few short branches

erect, few-flowered, the axis and branches

angled, scabrous; spikelets on erect sparsely

hispidulous pedicels 1.5 to 3 mm long; glumes

firm-membranaceous with hyaline margins,

acuminate, 3-nerved, the first 6 to 7 mm long,

the second 5 to 5.5 mm long, the delicate apex

1 Received June 26, 1943.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

AGNES CHASE, United States Na-

of both readily breaking off; lemma convolute,

3.3 to 3.4 mm long, 1 to 1.2 mm wide, the

callus very short with a dense ring of stiff,

white hairs from one third to half as long as

the lemma, the body of the lemma narrowly

obovate, brown, finely tuberculate throughout,

with a line of pubescence on the back extending

nearly to the summit, the summit of the lemma

smooth, cylindric forming a whitish crown

stiffly ciliate to erose, the lemma constricted

below the crown; awn 1.8 to 2 cm long, twice

geniculate.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

1819591, collected in a moist meadow, Monzén-

Heber, Estacién Juan Jackson, Province of

Soriano, Uruguay, December 3, 1942, by Gal-

linal, Aragone, Bergalli, Campal, and Rosen-

-—gurtt, PE-5120.

This species, with its dense tufts of filiform

blades, narrow panicle, and plump tuberculate

lemmas resembles Piptochaetium. It belongs in

the section Stephanostipa Speg. of Stipa.

It is a pleasure to name this species for Dr.

Bernardo Rosengurtt, a keen student of the

grasses of his country, whose collections in the

past few years have more than doubled the

number of specimens of Uruguay grasses in the

U.S. National Herbarium.

The only other collection known is a taller,

overmature specimen, Rosengurtt B 216, from

Rio Negro and Arroyo [?] Palleros, Province of

Cerro Largo, Uruguay, January, 1936.

Paspalum curassavicum Chase, sp. nov.

Perenne, dense caespitosum, glabrum, sto- -

loniferum, stolonibus elongatis arcuatis, circa

50 cm longis; culmi erecti, foliosi, 30-40 cm

alti, ramosi; vaginae arctae, imbricatae; ligula

ciliata, 0.5 mm longa; laminae planae, 4-12 cm

longae, 2.5-4 mm latae; racemi 2, conjugati,

erecti, 3-3.5 em longi; rhachis 0.7 mm lata;

spiculae solitariae, 2.2-2.4 mm longae, 1.1 mm

latae, ovato-ellipticae; gluma secunda et lemma

sterile aequalia, 3-nervia; fructus 2 mm longus.

An erect densely cespitose glabrous peren-

nial, with a hard knotted base and brittle

arching stolons 50 em or more long, with erect

leafy branches from knotted bases, the stolons

compressed or sulcate; culms rather rigid, leafy,

-Ocr. 15, 1943

30 to 40 em tall, only one flowering to 8 to 15

sterile culms, all branching at the middle nodes,

the branches erect or nearly so, sometimes in

small fascicles; sheaths close, overlapping, the

lower two or three with reduced blades from

rudimentary to 5 mm long; ligule a ring of hairs

0.5 mm long; blades rather firm, flat, 4 to 12 cm

long, 2.5 to 4 mm wide, rather sharp-pointed,

sometimes with a few hairs at base; racemes 2,

included at base, erect, 3 to 3.5 cm long; rachis

0.7 mm wide; spikelets not imbricate, 2.2 to

2.4 mm. long, 1.1 mm wide, ovate-elliptic, pale;

second glume and sterile lemma equal, mi-

nutely pointed beyond the fruit, 3-nerved (the

midnerve occasionally suppressed) ; fruit 2 mm

long, the tip of the palea enclosed.

Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no.

1762213, collected under tall opuntias, west of

Hato, near north coast of Curacao, February

27, 1940, by Agnes Chase (no. 12282). Du-

plicate type in the Herbario Nacional de

Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria,

Caracas.

Known only from the type collection, from

soil of disintegrated coral and shells. Only a

small colony of overmature plants found. It is

possible that in a favorable season inflores-

cences may be more plentiful. The species be-

longs in the Disticha group, related to Paspalum

vaginatum Swartz and P. distichum L. It differs

from both in its cespitose erect habit and arching

stolons, in the ciliate ligule, and in the smaller

spikelets.

Paspalum reclinatum Chase, sp. nov.

Annum, glabrum; culmi decumbentes, ra-

mosi, 50-65 em longi, compressi ‘vel sulcati;

vaginae laxae, subcompressae, glabrae vel mar-

ginibus obscure pubescentibus; ligula circa 0.2

mm longa; laminae planae, flaccidae, patentes,

3-9 cm longae, 4-8 mm latae; racemi 8-13,

maturitate patens vel reflexi, 1-2.5 cm longi;

CHASE: NEW GRASSES FROM SOUTH AMERICA

317

rhachis 0.7-1 mm lata, apice spiculam gerens;

spiculae solitariae, vix imbricatae, 2.5-2.7 mm

longae, 1—-1.1 mm latae, lanceolato-ellipticae,

glabrae; gluma secunda et lemma sterile

aequalia, tenuia, 3-nervia, fructum superantia;

fructus pallidus, laevis.

A decumbent, straggling, annual, glabrous as

a whole; culms rooting at the lower nodes, 50

to 65 cm long, bearing a few flowering branches

nearly as long as the primary culm; culm

compressed or grooved; sheaths rather loose,

subcompressed, glabrous or very obscurely

pubescent along the margin; ligule about 0.2

mm long; blades flat, thin, spreading, 3 to

9 cm long, 4 to 8 mm wide, rounded at base,

abruptly acuminate, glabrous or very ob-

scurely puberulent back of the ligule, the

margin scaberulous; racemes 8 to 13, at ma-

turity spreading or reflexed on a flattened axis,

6 to 7 cm long, the racemes 1 to 2.5 cm long;

rachis 0.7 to 1 mm wide, minutely pubescent

at the base and with a spikelet at the apex;

spikelets solitary, approximate but not imbri-

cate, pale to faintly yellowish, 2.5 to 2.7 mm

long, 1 to 1.1 mm wide, lanceolate-elliptic,

glabrous; glume and sterile lemma loose, very

thin, 3-nerved, slightly exceeding the fruit;

fruit about 2.2 mm long, pale, smooth and shin-

ing.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no.

1795921, collected in Colombia, Dept. Cauca;

Cordillera Occidental: Cerro de Munchique,

Hoya del Rio Tambite, 2,000—2,500 meters al-

titude, July 16, 1939, by E. Pérez Arbeldez and

J. Cuatrecasas (no. 6211).

This species belongs in the Dissecta group,

and resembles Paspalum prostratum Scribn. &

Merr. It differs from that in being glabrous as

a whole, in the narrower rachis with a spikelet

at the apex, and in the slightly larger spikelets,

with the loose glume and lemma exceeding the

fruit.

318

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 10

ZOOLOGY.—A new genus of Virginia millipeds related to Scytonotus and a new

species from Florida.}

In the summer of 1937, while enroute to

Florida, I collected a number of immature

specimens of a milliped in leaf litter near

Panorama, on the Sky Line Drive, Va. The

specimens were recognized as an unde-

scribed species of the order Merocheta, but

continued search in the time available

yielded no mature animals and only a few

more young ones. The locality was revisited

in 1938 with similar results, and farther

south, in Tennessee near the Virginia line,

additional young were collected. Since then

several entomologist friends of mine have

unsuccessfully attempted to find specimens

in the region.

The oldest individuals thus far collected

have 18 segments, with the gonopods of the

males represented by low, rounded mounds,

although in other respects the animals

might pass as fully grown. In dorsal sculp-

ture and form of the pore-bearing callus of

the lateral keels they appear more closely

related to Scytonotus than to any other

American genus, although the keels project

farther from the body. However, this does

not preclude inclusion in the Sphaerotricho-

pidae, to which Scytonotus belongs, and it is

expected that mature animals may have 19

segments, as does that genus.

Since there is no other American milliped

bearing close resemblance to the new Vir-

ginia form, illustrated in Fig. 1, its presenta-

tion as a new genus is hazarded although

based on juvenal material. With the exten-

sive collecting that has been done in the

region about Washington it is somewhat

unusual that this milliped remained hidden

so long. Its name has been chosen in recog-

nition of this and because of its somewhat

shaggy appearance. In order that descrip-

tion and illustration of important features

of mature specimens may be made, it is

hoped that naturalists visiting the Blue

Ridge region will be stimulated to collect

full-grown individuals of this interesting

addition to the fauna adjacent to Wash-

ington.

1 Received June 10, 1943.

H. F. Loomis, Coconut Grove, Fla.

The second milliped treated here belongs

to the established xystodesmid genus Eury-

merodesmus Broelemann, most males of

which have two elevated lobes of varying

length and shape, according to the species,

projecting from the margin of the orifice

through which the gonopods are thrust.

The new member of this genus, discovered

in north Florida, is by far the smallest

species in it and shows less coloration.

Types deposited in the Museum of Com-

parative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; para-

types are in the U. S. National Museum,

Washington, D. C.

Lasiolathus, n. gen.

Type.—Lasiolathus virgunicus, n. sp.

Diagnosis.—Differing from Scytonotus in the

smaller size, broader body, more convex and

tuberculate dorsum with longer setae, serrate

margins of the segments, and the greater pro-

duction outward of the lateral carinae.

Description—Body small, relatively broad

and probably composed of 19 segments at

maturity; dorsum evenly convex and densely

beset with tiny, sharply conic, setiferous tuber-

cles arranged in a semblance of transverse rows.

Head large, exceeding the first segment in

width but not so wide as segment 2; vertex

densely pubescent and with a pronounced

median furrow; antennae moderately long, sub-

clavate, increasing in thickness to joint 6.

First segment subelliptic in shape; front

margin bordered by numerous setiferous teeth

or tubercles projecting upward and forward;

seta-bearing tubercles of the surface scattered

instead of seriate as are those of the other seg-

ments.

Second, third, and fourth segments with

lateral carinae produced forward, those of the

ensuing segments projecting outward, and only

on the two segments preceding the last are the

carinae posteriorly produced; dorsal tubercles

in five or six transverse rows, in addition to

which both the dorsal and ventral surfaces are

finely granular; outer and posterior margins of

the segments with projecting tubercles similar

to those of the dorsal surface; pores each open-

Oct. 15, 19438

ing from a quite large and almost smooth

swelling near the posterior corner of segments

mao 10; 12, 138, 15, 16, and, at. maturity,

possibly from segment 17 also; metazonites

sharply raised high above the prozonites, which

have the surface finely reticulated; metazonites

with finely fimbriate supplementary posterior

margin.

Last segment with surface minutely granular

and setiferous but lacking tubercles as found on

the other segments; apex with four long setae.

Anterior and posterior sternum of each seg-

ment broad, separated by a transverse depres-

sion; each with a longitudinal median furrow

deepest at its anterior end.

Lasiolathus virginicus, n. sp.

Fig. 1

Numerous specimens with 17 and 18 seg-

ments, an 18-segmented male being the type,

collected at Panorama, Sky Line Drive, Va.,

July 13, 1937, and June 21, 1938; three speci-

mens with 16 or 17 segments collected at

Jonesboro, Tenn., June 25, 1938, by E. M. and

H. F. Loomis.

Description.—Living color very light pink,

probably darker at maturity.

Body stout, about five times longer than

wide; actual length 9 to 10 mm, width 1.8 to

2 mm; dorsum strongly convex.

Head with vertex very convex and with a

deep median sulcus, the surface minutely gran-

ular and densely beset with short, erect hairs;

frontal area less granular and with fewer hairs;

clypeal area smooth, shining and with a still

smaller number of hairs; in front of the an-

tennal socket and extending obliquely outward

from it there is a pronounced swelling of the

surface; lateral margin in front of the socket

emarginate; antennae rather short and thick,

joints 3 and 6 subequal, exceeding the others in

length but joint 6 thickest of all.

First segment much narrower than the head;

broadly and evenly rounded in front and with

about 22 to 24 small, conical tubercles project-

ing upward and forward from the margin, each

with a seta at the apex; perhaps 80 more similar

tubercles are crowded together on the surface

but these are inclined toward the rear.

Second segment considerably wider than the

head; lateral carinae produced forward, those of

segments 3 and 4 decreasingly so and all others

LOOMIS: NEW MILLIPEDS

319

with the carinae projecting directly outward;

outer margin of the carinae with five or six

projecting tubercles, the first of which is formed

by a continuation of the slightly thickened an-

terior margin of the carina and lacks an apical

Fig. 1.—Lasiolathus virginicus, n. sp.:

18-segmented male. X 12.

seta; on pore-bearing carinae several of the

marginal tubercles are replaced by the large

pore callus at the posterior corner; posterior

margin of segments with 20 to 24 projecting

setiferous tubercles; dorsum of segments 2 to 4

with setiferous tubercles in five irregular rows,

those of the ensuing segments in six rows except

320

that on the last segment no tubercles are pres-

ent and the setae are scattered and reduced in

number; surface of the tubercles, the intervals

between them, and the ventral surfaces, includ-

ing the sterna, finely granular; anterior corners

of the lateral carinae rounded in outline, the

posterior corners also rounded and not pro-

duced backward except on the penultimate and

antepenultimate segments where small angles

are developed.

Last segment with a short, slightly deflexed

apex.

_ Eurymerodesmus minimus, n. sp.

Fig. 2

One mature male (type) and three immature

specimens collected at Marianna, Fla., October

27, 1941, by E. M. Loomis.

Diagnosis. —This is by far the smallest mem-

ber of the genus as it is known today; the dilute

color may. be diagnostic, although in older

specimens it may become more intensified; the

gonopods differ from those of other members

of the genus. :

Description —Length 15 mm, width 2 mm.

Color of living animal translucent white with

a light pinkish tinge, which was lost soon after

preservation in alcohol.

Head with a shallow but definite groove on

the vertex; labrum with a forwardly projecting

fringe of 24 to 30 setae; behind the labral

fringe is a clypeal series of about 20 stout setae,

and still farther back, near the junction of the

clypeus with the front, 2 to 4 erect setae cross

the median surface, and a group of about 5

setae occurs on each side near the labral

margin; the clypeal-frontal setae longer than

those of the two anterior series; antennae with

joints 2 to 5 subequal in length, somewhat

exceeded by joint 6; longitudinal ridge under

the mandibulary stipe of uniform height, end-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 33, NO. 10

ing simply instead of in an incurved process

as in males identified as Z. mundus Chamberlin

from between Duncanville and Cedar Hill,

Dallas County, Tex.

Segments of the usual form but with the lat-

eral margins somewhat more thickened than in

mundus.

Male with the ventral surface of the legs, and

the sterna, somewhat hairy, but not to the

great extent found in mundus; sterna of pre-

genital legs 3 to 7 lacking special processes;

claws of male legs lacking a bulbous process at

the base as in mundus, a character not previ-

ously mentioned for that species.

Fig. 2.—Eurymerodesmus

minimus, nN.

Gonopod, lo:e of sternum, and base of eighth leg;

lateral view.

Sp.:

Margin of the opening around the gonopods

raised on each side at its outer posterior limits

into a broad triangular lobe, the base of which

is on a line extending obliquely outward and

backward, the process raised only about to the

height of the base of the first joint of the eighth

legs; posterior or inner face of the process with

a few erect setae; process on one side of the

body widely separated from the opposite one,

the surface between the processes descending

from the sternum of the eighth legs toward the

inside of the body with its edge very much

lower than the margin elsewhere. |

Gonopod as shown in lateral view in Fig. 2.

Eranotocy.—The last passenger pigeon hunts of the -Corpla

. Senecas. Witii1am N. FENTON AND MERLE lee DzEAR

eg Botany,—New grasses from South America.

ZOOLOGY. ae new genus of Virginia millipeds related to Seyton :

a new species from Florida. H. F, ‘Loomis. . ae Daa pate

NOVEMBER 15, 1943 No. 11

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