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ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 35

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Page 157, col. 2, line 7: After the phrase ‘“‘at a S102/A1.O3 ratio’’ and before the words “‘is

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VoLuME 35

LINGUISTICS.—Phonematic daylight in Lhiinkit, Navajo of the North.

JANUARY 15, 1945

No. 1

JOHN

P. Harrineron, Bureau of American Ethnology.

If one were asked to enumerate the most

outstanding native American languages,

Aztec, Maya, Quechua, and Guarani could

be mentioned, and No. 5 could well be the

Lhiinkit of North America, famous tongue

of what is now southeastern Alaska and

true closely related mother of the Navajo

language spoken by North America’s

largest tribe. Lhinkit is the Indian lan-

guage that prevailed at Sitka, formerly

Russian capital of Alaska, and at Juneau,

present-day capital. Lhiinkit war canoes

roved from Yakutat Bay in the north to

Puget Sound in the south. The writings of

the widely mentioned Veniaminoff and also

standard modern Russian have Koldsh,

Lhiinkit native, Koléshi, plural, and it was

from an aberrant form of this, transmission

through German being apparent in the sch,

that Powell, in part following Gallatin, pub-

lished in 1891 ‘‘Koluschan”’ as his adoption

for the stock consisting of the Lhiinkit lan-

guage, which stock became revealed clearly

by subsequent study as genetically related

to the Skittagetan (Haida language) and to

the Athapascan (including Navajo) linguis-

tic families set up by Powell in the same

pages. The word hinkit is Lhiinkit for per-

son, that is, Indian, and has been spelled in

various ways, especially as Tlingit, the local

pronunciation among the Whites being al-

ways Clingit, and the Russian name for the

language and tribe having stuck in English

not at all.

The Lhiinkit tribe was first discovered by

Chirikof in 1741, whose ship got separated

from that of Bering. A Russian fort was

built in 1749 at Sitka, whose name means on

_— the seaward side of Baranof Island. In 1802

1 Received August 29, 1944.

the Lhiinkit Indians threw off the Russian

authority at Sitka, only to be reconquered

again in 1804, Sitka subsequently becoming

the Russian capital of Alaska. The entire

Lhinkit region was acquired by the United

States through purchase from Russia in

1867.

The Lhiinkit Indians are supposed to

have numbered about 10,000 at the time of

their discovery; their population is at pres-

ent less than half that number. They repre-

sent the typical focus of Northwest Coast

culture. They are bifurcated into raven and

eagle moieties and have matrilineal descent,

as depicted in totem poles and otherwise.

Fresh from the study of the Navajo lan-

guage of the southwestern United States, I

pried into the Lhiinkit language for genetic

relationship with Navajo, and found it,

amounting to practical identity in sounds

and structure and lexical co-inheritance ex-

tending to some 400 vocables. Exactly like

Navajo, Lhiinkit operates with a high and a

low accent, and rarely both of these accen-

tuations are to be found in one and the same

Lhiinkit morphom, for instance Lh. hi, 10-,

nose. Coming to comparison of consonants,

these like the vowels show much discrep-

ancy in their appearings, to such an extent

that at this stage of the study comparative

presentation of shifts can not well be made.

Thus Lh. thé, stone, is patently the same

word as Nav. tshé, stone, reminding one

of such changes as are found in Quechua

dialects, while Lh. khét, dog, Nav. tii’, pet,

reflect some ancient metathesis. In order

correctly to understand correspondences,

one would have to know the ancient devel-

opment of forms, which lack of record for-

ever deprives us of knowing.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Anyone who might look into the Lhiinkit,

Haida, and Athapascan languages at all

would see the thorough resemblance, and

Boas early observed and reported on this

resemblance. Sapir? later united these

stocks, calling them ‘‘Na-dene.”’ This dis-

covery was not followed up by Sapir, at

least not with further publications of com-

parison. Contemporaneous with Sapir’s

_ article, Boas worked with Shotridge, a

Lhiinkit-speaking Indian employed by the

University Museum, Philadelphia, and pub-

lished as the result his “Grammatical Notes

on the Language of the Tlingit Indians.’

In this paper Boas sets forth sweepingly and

definitely for the first time that Lhiinkit has

as its accentuation preeminently high- and

low-pitched syllables, which later proved to

be true also of Navajo and is the case with

many languages. Also he gave much better

presentation than had been given before of

sounds and elements of Lhiinkit.

Boas studied with Shotridge the Chilcat

dialect of the northern mainland. I studied

the Prince of Wales Island dialect, that of

the southwesternmost large island, and the

illustrative forms given below are all from

this dialect. The dialects of the Lhiinkit

language differ to a comparatively slight de-

gree from one another.

The prime essential to comparative work

is that if possible the languages to be com-

pared should be studied by one and the

same individual. Studying Lhinkit fresh

from Navajo, I enjoyed an advantage in

having both languages in mind. It is to be

regretted that structure follows mastery of

sounds, and that the limits of the present

publication prescribe a dealing only with

the sounds. The main purpose of this paper*

is to present the constituent sounds of

Lhiinkit. As in all other languages, these

sounds fall into vowels and consonants.

VOWELS

The Lhinkit vowels as regards quantity

2 Sapir, Epwarp, The Na-dene languages, a

preliminary report. Amer. Anthrop. 17: 231-266.

1915.

3 Boas, Franz, Univ. Pennsylvania Anthrop.

Publ. 8(1): 1-179. 1917.

4 The use of the term ‘‘daylight”’ in the title of

this paper is in keeping with the widely known

Lhiinkit myth that Raven let loose the daylight

for the people.

VOL. 35, No. 1

are only four in number: a, u, e, 1. These are

exactly the four vowels of Navajo. It is the

Lhiinkit lack of o that makes the native

say, for instance, fium instead of foam

when talking English. The vowels are appo-

sitionalized as shorts and longs, the former

tending to take on the secondary feature of

centralized quality. Nasalized counterparts

of these vowels have arisen in Navajo,

mainly through the eating into the vowel of

a Syllable-closing nasal consonant, but na-

salized counterparts do not occur in Lhin-

kit.

The short vowels of Lhiinkit are, of

course, as short as it is practical to pro-

nounce them and tend toward being cen-

tralized or obscured, while an adjacent

consonant can sometimes be detected as

having an influence; for instance, the se-

quence wa in Lhiinkit has regularly the

a-quality of English water. In fact, an

a in Lhiinkit has in certain instances a

labializing effect on an immediately fol-

lowing consonant. Thus Lh. hfinna-k’w,

(1) a little water, (2) a drink of water, is the

diminutive of the word for water, yet for

instance tu-yyiit-k’, his little son, diminu-

tive of son with possessive pronoun, has its

-k’ unlabialized. The long vowels of Lhiinkit

and of Navajo can well be written by dou-

bling, just as has been practiced by Thalbit-

zer in writing Eskimo and is recommended

by high authority for the writing of African

languages.

QUALITY VOWEL CHANGE

The Lhiinkit language has three quality

ablauts of its vowels: e versus a, € Versus ee,

i versus ii. These are illustrated by the fol-

lowing:

thé, stone; tha-yylis, wedge.

cé, blood; ti-ccée, it is bleeding.

’4-kk’fi, my buttocks; hastu-kk’fi-x’, dpl.

their buttocks.

VOWEL DIPHTHONGS

In Lhiinkit vowel diphthongs are heard

clearly and easily to consist of a short or

long vowel plus ww or yy. The second ele-

ment of the diphthong always tends to be

held, but is often very centralized. The

consonantal character of the second element

is brought out when the preceding is of the

JAN. 15, 1945

same general quality. The following words

exemplify vowel diphthongs:

*dyy, interjection of disgust.

t’daww, feather.

néyy, listen!

Véeww, sand.

Aww, ouch!

*iuww, buy it!

PITCH

There are in Lhiinkit, just as in Navajo,

only two accents, which can also be spoken

of as pitches or tones: high and low. This

feature has already been set forth above,

but deserves remention here as in proper

place, since it concerns primarily vowels

and vowel diphthongs.

Sometimes the accent distinguishes what

would otherwise be homophones. Thus:

X?tiun, fur-seal; X’tun, fallen-tree.

tik, out at the beach; ‘ii&, (1) copper,

(2) soldering-iron.

Xdayy, yellow cedar; Xaayy, sweathouse.

Words of most different meanings are as

often exact phonetic homophones. Thus:

’4a, (1) lake, (2) he is sitting.

thaan, (1) sea-lion, (2) navel cord.

Boas states that many postfixes put in

appearance as high and as low, this being

brought about by the postfix taking a pitch

the opposite to that of the base to which it

is attached, but Boas gives his finding of

only two: -yf, -yi, possessional, and -tée,

-tée, to. And I have been able to find only

these same two.

Also /ong

neti 2Adial

HARRINGTON: PHONEMATIC DAYLIGHT IN LHIINKIT 3

STRESS

The making prominent by loudening of

the final low syllable of a coherence-group,

and of certain other low syllables, is not in-

dicated by Boas.

CONSONANTS

The articulative tract for producing con-

sonants is much longer than that employed

for the production of vowels, the vowel pro-

ducing section being only a small central

part of the long consonant tract.

The consonants of Lhiinkit are very nu-

merous and on the whole impress one as be-

ing forceful and audible above the noise of

waves and the murmurings of the forest.

The buccal or mouth consonants are tri-

furcated into plain, clicked, and aspirated

varieties, the first pronounced as in French,

the second clicked like the clicked conso-

nants of Georgian and Ethiopian, the last

pronounced with a distinct h after the con-

sonant, like Mr. Dooley’s “t-hake.’”’ Lhiun-

kit tsh does not occur at all, but tch occurs,

which has also an overaspirated by-form

occurring only in one word: teX4n, grand-

child (instead of *tchan).

Even y interchanges with w in the posses-

sional. Thus -yi, -yi, when following the

vowel u, certain a’s, or the consonant w ap-

pears as -wii, -wu. The earlier forms must

have been *-Gi, *-Gi, -*Gu, -*Gu.

A buccal clusive telescopes with alif to

become a clicked clusive.

Alifized fricatives have the alif pro-

THE LH/INAIT PHONEMS

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

nounced after the fricative. Thus, for in-

stance, Ss’. °

Both unaspirated and aspirated clusives

occur at the beginning of or in the interior

of words, but the unaspirated when etymo-

final or pausal become aspirated. iit, room,

has t which becomes by positionality as-

pirated, whereas ’tith, place, has aspirated

th, so one forms ’4X-~’litt-f, my room, but

’aAX-lith-f, my place.

Consonant diphthongs having the second

member consisting of a voiced fricative, for

instance kw, tz, tl, have this second member

voiceless when pausal: yaakw, canoe, pro-

nounced pausally with voiceless w. The

labialized clusives of this group are of two

origins: those having labialization induced

by preceding sound and those labialization

not having so induced; but of whichever

origin they are handled exactly the same.

This phenomenon is only a phase of that

formulated into statement in the preceding

paragraph as regards the aspirating when

final of otherwise unaspirated clusives, but

since one is cut from knowledge of the his-

tory of the language, it is practical to make

a separate statement about consonant diph-

thongs with voiced last member separately.

In Lhiinkit, as in Navajo, a consonant

sound between vowels within a word is

lengthened or held, reminding one of yy

and ww, sole second members of vowel

diphthongs mentioned above, and it is the

tendency in Lhinkit and in Navajo to

lengthen an intervocalic consonant so posi-

tioned by the coming together of words in

the same way:

"Aan, town; ’Aann-f, his town.

tiinkit, person; ’AX-tiinkitt-f, my native.

yaannadahhéen, it is moving about without

support (as a shadow hovers).

When any one of these words with length-

ened interior consonant is syllabized, the

doubled consonant resolves itself into syl-

lable-closing h plus syllable-opening single

consonant: ’Aann-i, his town, syllabized:

"Aah-ni. —

Many of the Lhiinkit consonant clusters

are single sounds, but some are caused by

the coming together of two distinct sounds.

The more widely available &, X, G, Y,

N, and W have been employed instead of

VOL. 35, NO. 1

less widely available characters for the

radical clusive, the radical fricative, open g,

superior y, dorsal n, and superior w, re-

spectively. For practical orthography w can

be used for W.

We next list the Lhiinkit consonants,

finding them to occur produced in five ar-

ticulatory positions.

GLOTTAL

’

The apostrophe is here pressed into serv-

ice for indicating the sound produced by

the closure of the glottis or vocal cord

chink, which sound is known in Arabic

grammar as alif, or more precisely as ham-

sated alif. In Lhiinkit, just as in Arabic, no

word begins with a vowel, but an etymo-

initial vowel is begun with an alif, a pro-

cedure that in the language of singing would

be termed a hard attack, and that can be

well compared to the teeing of a clarinet at -

the beginning of each note; it need not be

written, but since it is becomes prominent

as a “hiatus”? when a word ending in a

vowel precedes, it is best written. a’, being

a consonant, is treated like any other conso-

nant and between vowels becomes doubled.

’aan, village.

wa’’é, you.

The colliding of alif with a clusive produces

the clicked variety of clusive, for instance,

t’, the mouth closure smacking against the

glottis closure with the result that the t be-

comes clicked or clucked.

The other glottal consonant of Lhiinkit is

h, pronounced practically as is the h of

English. Lhiinkit has h in addition to X and

x, and not only in interjections but in other

words as well:

haaww, well!

’Uhhaan, dpl. we.

hastt-, dpl. their.

ith-wda&k, your eye.

RADICAL

&a4n, firewood.

&akkaan, sun.

slid, smoke.

Jan. 15, 1945

&’

thia&&’dia, mosquito.

t’ii&’, ice.

&ha, and.

&hda, man-in-prime.

&hi, to go in a canoe.

ta&&haan, dpl. they are quarreling.

Found in the material to occur only in

&wiattlan, Portland, and this is suspected

to be more properly &whaattlan.

& WwW’

&W’an, to dry salmon.

&Wh

_&Whaan, person of a place.

E xX

Xat, I.

Xaat, root.

XX, husband.

X’adan, fire.

CthaX X’iin, Stikine River.

XWaaX Xas’, I mended it with roots.

XW’

No sure example can be found.

an&hdawwut, rich-man (assimilated from

’an&hdawwu).

DORSAL

kuut9, hill.

niik, news.

k’

k’issAanni, group of youths.

’atk’abhiin, believer.

te’aak’, bald eagle.

khdat’, digging stick.

khéetl, dog.

Ciikkhd4, Baranof Island.

k Wat, to hit with the fist.

tthakw, always.

kW’

kW’at’, egg.

’ankW’, cry baby.

HARRINGTON: PHONEMATIC DAYLIGHT IN LHIINKIT 5

kWh

kWhéeyy, mark.

xaas, horse.

Ts’uutxxan, Tsimshian person.

t’éex, fishhook.

This is perhaps the most difficult sound of

the language, for those who are not native

speakers, to make quick and approximately

correct adjustment for. Perhaps to make the

sound more distinct from X’, almost xY’ is

pronounced.

x’dat’, island.

thaaxx’dl’, needle.

théex’, heart.

xWee, (1) interjection of surpressed expect-

ancy, (2) interjection of fatigue.

ya XtixxWaAs’, it is hanging.

s’AaxW, hat.

ew’

xW’aal, (1) featherdown, (2) euphemistic

substitute word for tal, (1) halibut-club, (2)

weight.

*unnannda-xW’, dpl. inland mainland In-

dians.

tiiNkit, person (assimilated from liinkit,

which latter form is the more commonly heard

form).

POSTEROMEDIAL

yaan, hunger.

yiit, son.

The noticing that y if made a little more

fricative is GY makes it more understand-

able how y in Lhiinkit interchanges with w:

tu-t’dayyi, his board, but ’AX-&hdawwu.

my man.

FRONTAL

The most remarkable fact about the

frontal series of Lhiinkit is that, just as in

Navajo, tc, ts, and tt do not occur.

téeX’, 2.

nattdak W, table.

Xaat, root.

7,’

t’4, king salmon.

yatt’aa, it is warm.

Hit’, eel.

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

thé, stone.

caa, mountain.

khéeccic, alder.

jiccdan, pitiable.

wac, cheek.

tc’

te’aak’, bald eagle.

wulte’éX W’, it is dirty.

tch

tchdn, stink.

yaantattchtiun, (1) it is straight, (2) it is

true.

tcX

This overaspirated form of tch has been

found to occur only in one word: tcXan,

grandchild. The commonly used form of

this is always the diminutive, tcXan-k’,

grandchild.

t9in, hand.

th-cu&&hatt94a, let me show you how.

*fit9, half-submerged rock.

sfik, belt.

khis, bracelet.

s’AaxW, hat.

ktus’, cloud.

&hukkdas’, fog.

ts’

’Atts’uuts’, it is jerking (on the fishline).

tsh

tshaa, hair seal.

tzaias, thong.

littzfi, it is difficult.

ts’utzkW, bird.

tée’, red-ocher.

khahittzfi, it is somewhat difficult.

thiil, scar.

VOL. 35, NO. 1

Puiut’, tongue.

’éel, (1) ocean, (2) salt.

tt’

tVu, rotten.

tVii, (1) finger, (2) toe.

tth

tthaa, mother.

-tthén, augmentative

tléet, (1) snow, (2) whiteness.

xdatl, iceberg.

naa, tribe. This word is the prebase of Sapir’s

Na-dene, proposed as a stock name (see above);

the postbase is a reflex of Nav. tinné, also tinné,

person, Indian, and related forms following

Morice’s attempt to replace the term Atha-

pascan by ‘‘Déné.”’

’Anntiucci, Russian person, said to be from

Russian Russkiy, a Russian.

"aan, town.

LABIAL

The absence of lip sounds except w in

Lhiinkit has been noticed by various ob-

servers and is regarded as a trait of superi-

ority by the natives themselves, who feel

that throat and tongue adjustments are

more easily negotiable than lip adjustments.

Russian and English with their full measure

of lip sounds get loan-words from these

languages into Lhiinkit reflexed by the near-

est thing to them, which is such sounds as

&W, kW. Foreign m is twisted to w. Ap-

pearance of y as w has been given above.

wat, river-mouth.

wuun, maggot. -

wan, edge.

Hint9itchwaan, Englishman (from this).

téek Wa, bread (from Russian xléb, bread).

& WaAattlan, Portland (from this).

Jan. 15, 1945

OAKLEY: LIFE HISTORY OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA 7

ENTOMOLOGY .—Preliminary life-history studies in Guam of the scarab beetle

Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske).!

Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

Severe attacks by larvae of the scarab

Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske) on the

Island of Guam in 1937-38 destroyed many

young corn plantings. The insect, probably

introduced from the Philippine Islands at

some undetermined time, first occurred in

damaging numbers on corn in 1935, accord-

ing to reports, but became of increasing

importance in 1937. These destructive ap-

pearances of the beetle may have been

sporadic in nature, or they may have been

due to a population build-up during the

years subsequent to its supposed introduc-

tion. Its future importance to Guam’s ma-

jor food crop is a matter of conjecture.

To determine the habits of the insect as a

basis on which to attempt control measures,

studies of the pest were conducted by the

writer during the period from June, 1937, to

July, 1939, at odd times when other duties,

including the enforcement of plant quaran-

tines, permitted. Owing to the discontinuity

of these studies and lack of equipment, the

results obtained can not be considered

either conclusive or complete. The data ac-

quired may be of some value to Island

agriculture, however, and are therefore

summarized below.

HISTORY

Ancylonycha mindanaona was described

by Brenske in 1893 under the generic name

Holotrichta from specimens collected on the

Island of Mindanao, Philippine Islands. It

is probably indigenous to the Philippines,

where its importance is unknown to the

writer, literature on the subject not being

available. Dammerman (1929) reported a

related species, (Holotrichia) A. vidua

(Sharp), as a commonly mentioned root

pest there in 1929, and Lopez (1931) stated

1 The writer gratefully acknowledges the coop-

eration of the Naval Government Guam in

supplying the excellent services of José I. Cruz to

assist in investigative studies, and the kind assist-

ance received from Dr. E. A. Chapin, curator of

insects in the United States National Museum,

who prepared the description of the adult in this

paper, and from A. D. Cushman, who prepared

the drawings. Received October 4, 1944.

R. G. Oaxkuey, U. 8. Bureau of

(Communicated by ALAN STONE.)

in 1929 that a little-studied species of An-

cylonycha, probably vidwa, was responsible

for extensive damage to sugarcane.

The presence of Ancylonycha mindanaona

in Guam was first definitely established in

1936 when Swezey submitted specimens col-

lected on banana leaves to the Bureau of

Science, Manila, P. I., for specific deter-

mination. Vandenberg (1931) recorded

“‘Lachnosterna sp.” as attacking pineapple

roots on Guam. It is considered possible

that he had reference to the form identified

as mindanaona by the Bureau of Science,

and by Boving at the United States Na-

tional Museum in 1937 from specimens col-

lected in Guam.

DISTRIBUTION IN GUAM

Nine of the Island’s 17 districts were

known to be infested by Ancylonycha min-

danaona in July, 1939, although damaging

infestations of outstanding importance had

been found only in the districts of Asan,

Tumon, and Dededo. The thickly dotted

areas in Fig. 1 represent those districts

bearing the heavier infestations, whereas

the thinly dotted areas in the districts of

Sumay, Piti, Agana, Sinajana, Barrigada,

and Yona represent localities where infesta-

tions were more sparsely distributed. Sig-

nificant damage to economic crops was only

rarely found in the lightly infested districts.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The economic value of crops destroyed in

Guam by Ancylonycha mindanaona was

insignificant when compared with damage

inflicted by a major pest in the United

States. To the Guam farmer, however, who

can cultivate only a small acreage with his

primitive hand tools, losses sustained from

attacks of the pest on corn represented part

of a season’s labor and a subsequent lack of

his principal food supply until a second crop

could be produced 9 months later, when

rainfall again became favorable. Some

farmers, rather than attempt to continue

cultivations and suffer crop losses, actually

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

transferred their farming operations to non-

infested areas.

Both larvae and adults are very voracious

feeders, the former attacking lateral and

tap roots, the latter feeding on the leaves.

In October, 1937, 10 fields of young corn

located at Dededo exhibited plant losses

Machanao

North e Yigo

CuSO.

Base

ase Dededo

@® Heavily Infested Area

Lightly Infested Area

Scale of Miles

Fie. 1—Map of Guam showing relative infes-

tations of Ancylonycha mindanaona and infested

localities.

ranging from 35 to 95 percent on sites where

infestations ranged from 0.4 to 1.2 larvae

per square foot of surface-soil area. A larval

infestation slightly exceeding an average of

1 specimen per square foot was sufficient to

destroy most of the young corn plants. In

June, 1938, adults demonstrated their de-

structiveness to tasseling corn by causing an

estimated defoliation of 50 percent in sev-

eral fields observed. From March to May of

the same year many banana leaves in the

Dededo district were denuded and large

portions of the leafy area on coconut palms

were stripped by the beetles.

FOOD PLANTS

Surveys of adult and larval infestations

from 1937 to 1939 revealed hosts to be at-

tacked as indicated below.

Cultivated Hosts Stage of Pest

Avocados (Persea spp.) Adults

Bananas (Musa spp.) Adults

Beans (Phaseolus spp.) Larvae

Breadfruit (Artocarpus spp.) Adults

Cassava (Manthot utilissima) Adults

Citrus (Citrus spp.) Larvae

Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) Adults and

larvae

Coffee (Coffea spp.) Larvae

Corn (Zea mays) Adults and

; larvae

Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) Adults

Wild Hosts

(Baryxylum) Peltophorum inerme Adults

Bauhinia malabarica Adults

Carissa arduina Adults

Cestrum pallidum Adults

Euphorbia didyma Adults

Grasses (several varieties) Larvae

Guamia marannae Larvae

Hibiscus tiliaceus Adults

Leucaena glauca Adults

Malpighia glabra Adults

Phyllanthus sp. Larvae

Pithecellobium dulce Adults

Sida rhombifolia Larvae »

Urena lobata Larvae

VOL. 35, No. 1_

There are probably other hosts in addi-

tion to those in the foregoing list. Roots of

grasses, weeds, corn, and coconut palms are

preferred hosts of the larvae, while leaves

of bananas, coconut palms, tasseling corn,

and Manila tamarind (Pithecellobium dulce)

are preferred by adults.

DESCRIPTION

EGG

The freshly deposited egg is pearly white,

elliptical, approximately 2 mm in length,

and slightly more than 1 mm in diameter.

It begins enlarging on the second day of in-

cubation, becomes oval by the fifth day,

and attains a size from 2 to 3 times the

original before it hatches.

LARVA AND PUPA

Descriptions by Dr. Adam G. Boving

may be found in the following paper herein.

ADULT

The original description of Ancylonycha

mindanaona by Brenske was somewhat

brief. The ensuing description was therefore

prepared by Dr. E. A. Chapin:

Color above medium to pale castaneous,

head and pronotum slightly darker than elytra,

Co pleat ¢

Ss:

77 re ee Oe eee

S- Jan. 15, 1945

underparts paler, yellowish brown, legs cas-

_ taneous with extreme apices of tibiae (entire

outer margin of anterior tibia) darker, apices of

; mandibles and maxillae nearly black.

Head coarsely and closely punctured, the

z punctures tending to form longitudinal groups

of two or three. Clypeal suture slightly sinuate,

_elypeus with strongly reflexed anterior margin

which is very broadly and very feebly notched

at middle. Antenna 10-segmented, club in male

about as long as first segment, in female about

three-fourths as long as first.

Pronotum more than twice as broad as its

length along median line, all margins finely

beaded, apical angles subacute, basal angles

obtuse, lateral margins nearly parallel in apical

fourth, thence strongly diverging to basal

third, the point of greatest breadth of prono-

tum. Surface moderately coarsely and sparsely

punctured on disc, more finely and densely

punctured in lateral thirds.

Scutellum broadly triangular, with a few

coarse punctures.

Elytron with prominent humeral callus and

moderately convex sutural bead, apical sutural

angles in male minutely mucronate, in female

simple. Surface as coarsely and slightly more

densely punctured than disc of pronotum, with

very feeble traces of three discal costae. Pygi-

dium sparsely and coarsely punctured.

Underparts of metathorax rather finely and

densely punctured, rather densely clothed with

pale hair. Abdominal sternites, except terminal,

completely anchylosed with sutures obliterated

across middle, very sparsely punctured at mid-

dle, more dense laterally. Terminal sternites

not notably different in the sexes. Tarsal claw

strong, moderately curved, accessory tooth

acute and subbasal.

Aedeagus, Figs. 1-3; female genital plates,

Fig. 4.

Length: 17-19 mm.

Known distribution: Philippine Islands

(Mindanao and Luzon); Guam.

The identification of the Guam specimens

was based on comparison with material from

Mindanao in the C. F. Baker Collection identi-

fied by the late J. Moser.

LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS

Studies of the life history of Ancylonycha

mindanaona were conducted under field

OAKLEY: LIFE HISTORY OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA 9

conditions from July, 1937, to May, 1939,

and in an open-air insectary from March

through May in 1938-39, when pupae,

adults, and eggs were abundant. Adults

collected in the field in April, 1938, were

confined to cages kept in an undisturbed

shed, because females would not oviposit

under insectary conditions.

DEVELOPMENTAL PERIODS

The records shown in Table 1 were ob-

tained for eggs in April, 1938, for larvae

TABLE 1.—LENGTH OF IMMATURE STAGES OF ANCYLONYCHA

MINDANAONA UNDER CAGE CONDITIONS

Length of Stage

Speci-

Stage mens | Mini- | Maxi-

cesta vevdind Average

Number Days Days Days

Wipeyi. {3 eka ee 205 11 15 12.1

Perreein es, Mae rs bik oc 19 290 309 301

Prepupa...... 45 5 20 1

PUPA Ho oe < owes 30 16 20 17.4

Egg to adult...... 19 323 346 335

1 No complete data.

from April, 1938, to March, 1939, and for

pupae, including some specimens develop-

ing from mature larvae collected in the

field, from March to May, 1938-39. It may

be seen from these that the insect has an

annual life history.

The eggs studied were deposited by the

beetles in boxes of sifted moist soil placed

in cages with adults early in the morning

and removed at dusk when beetles emerged

to feed. Eggs were incubated in small tins

and in partially open petri dishes containing

moist soil.

Newly hatched larvae were placed in

drums containing a mixture of leafmold and

soil previously planted to centipedegrass,

Eremochloa ophiuroides. Periodical observa-

tions of the grass roots established approxi-

mate periods when larvae changed from

feeding on soil organic matter to living

plant material. On January 31, 1939, the

larvae, having discontinued their feeding,

were transferred singly into vials containing

sufficient soil for the formation of pupal

cells. After entering the prepupal stage each

specimen was placed on a layer of cellu-

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

cotton covering a layer of soil, needed to

supply moisture, in a vial where dates of

pupation and final transformation to adult

could be established. The open end of every

vial was loosely plugged with cotton to re-

tard the escape of moisture. Subsequent

attempts to ascertain pre-emergence pe-

riods of adults newly transformed from

- pupae, by holding them separately in caged

tin cans of soil under insectary conditions,

resulted in failures, as no specimens emerged

and all died within a few weeks.

LARVA

The length of the larval stage, ranging

from 290 to 309 days (Table 1), was pos-

sibly shortened under cage conditions. The

young larva, hatching in March or April,

remains at a depth of 5 or 6 inches in the

soil, where it feeds on decaying organic

matter until it is almost full-grown in July,

when the summer rainy season begins.

Moisture conditions then being favorable,

it rises closer to the soil surface to attack

living roots of an abundant weedy and grass

growth, or other hosts. If the host is cleared

away before November and is replaced by

a cultivated crop, the latter—corn for ex-

ample—is attacked as soon as roots develop.

The larva burrows more deeply into the

soil from late November to January, prob-

ably to escape dry surface-soil conditions

following reduction in rainfall, and forms an

VOL. 35, No. 1

earthen pupal cell by January if a food sup-

ply is absent. Some larvae may continue

feeding until March or later if a host is

available. The cell is usually to be found

near a limestone rock formation ranging in

depth, at Dededo, from 5 to 13 inches. The

latter depth is generally sought, judged

from groups of mature larvae and pupae

often found in small areas where the soil

was slightly deeper than the average sur-

rounding soil depth. The larva remains in

the cell for days, or even weeks, turns

slightly brown, becomes limp, shrinks to

almost half its former size, and finally casts

its skin to become a pupa.

PUPS:

The first noticeable change in a pupa in

transforming to an adult is the early re-

placement of the pearly-white color by a

creamy color. The eyes and tibia become

slightly brown on the fifth day, as do the

head and thorax on the seventh day. The

entire specimen is brown by the eleventh

or twelfth day. The pupal skin is then cast

several days later to complete the transfor-

mation.

ADULT

Feeding habits—The adult remains in its

pupal cell for several days after transforma-

tion, before emerging to feed. After ma-

turity, it emerges from the soil at dusk, flies

Fia. 2.—Ancylonycha mindanaona: a—c, male genitalia; d, female genitalia.

Drawings by A. D. Cushman.

Jan. 15, 1945

briefly or until a desirable host is reached,

then feeds voraciously for an hour or two

on the outer edge of a leaf. It mates later

during the night and continues to feed until

just before daybreak, when it flies to soil

nearby, hiding during the day at depths of

2 to 6 inches.

The adult probably continues to feed

nightly throughout its life after its emer-

gence from the pupal cell. Although average

adult longevity appears to be of only a few

weeks’ duration, the individual beetle con-

sumes a large amount of leafy material.

Oviposition habits—When a female dis-

continues feeding at daybreak, it flies to

the ground, burrows to a depth of from 4 to

6 inches, and spends the day either resting

or Ovipositing. Eggs are laid singly, or in

groups of 2 to 5. A glutinous substance

secreted on each egg causes soil to adhere to

it as a protective covering. The total num-

ber of eggs an adult may deposit was not

established, although dissections of nu-

merous females indicated an average of

about 30.

Small valleys or depressions where mois-

ture prevailed during the dry season ap-

peared to be more favorable to larval sur-

vival but were apparently given little pref-

erence by females for oviposition sites. It

even seemed doubtful that the type of plant

cover had much influence on the selection of

places for oviposition. That there was some

selection of loose soils is supported by the

fact that larvae were found mostly in sandy

portions of lowland soils at Piti in 1938-39.

Adults probably had difficulty in penetrat-

ing the clay loam soils, particularly in un-

cultivated areas, which were dry and well

baked during the season of oviposition.

Concentrations of larvae in Dededo fields

during the fall of 1937-38 were invariably

found near host plants of the adults. In one

cornfield, for example, 100 percent of the

plants were destroyed by larvae in an area

located within 75 feet from the forest edge,

but at a greater distance only an occasional

plant was molested.

SEASONAL OCCURRENCE

There is a slight overlapping of the one

generation per year of Ancylonycha min-

danaona in Guam (Table 2).

OAKLEY: LIFE HISTORY OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA 11

TABLE 2.—SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF THE VARIOUS STAGES OF

ANCYCLONYCHA MINDANAONA AT Depgepo, GuaM, IN 1938-39

Period of

Stage occurrence! greatest prevalence

Adults Feb. 20 to Aug. 15 March 15 to April 30

er Sik .n Feb. 25 to June 1 March and April

Larvae....}| March 10 to May 25

of succeeding year June and July

Pupae..... Feb. 1 to May 30

March

1 Exact dates given represent the earliest and latest dates on

which individuals were actually observed in the field.

At Dededo in 1938 the beetle flight began

late in February and at Piti early in March.

During the same year the maximum flight

occurred about April 20 at the latter place,

according to data obtained from small

catches of beetles in light traps. The data

also showed a rapid decline in the popula-

tion later and a complete disappearance of

beetles by August 6. Oviposition begins al-

most immediately after the first beetle

emergence, but apparently ceases long be-

fore the last beetles of a season disappear.

Larvae of a single generation occur over a

period covering almost 15 months (Table 2).

The peak population is reached in June or

July, or within 3 to 4 months after the first

appearance of larvae in March, then starts

to decline. It develops during a period of

dry weather, which may cause considerable

mortality of both eggs and young larvae.

The 1938 generation appeared small in size

in July, by comparison with the number of

beetles present to oviposit in the previous

March and April, and was less than one-

fifth of its maximum level by January, 1939,

according to results of surveys conducted in

10 fields. Maximum concentrations of ap-

proximately 8 larvae per square foot of

surface soil existed in July at one site, as

compared with 1 larva per 10 square feet in

November.

CLIMATIC AND SOIL CONDITIONS IN GUAM

POSSIBLY AFFECTING LIFE HISTORY

Soils on the Island of Guam are largely of

three general types—the shallow upland

limestone type, lowland clay loams, and

savannah lands. The upland soils are porous

and shallow with an underlying limestone-

rock formation, of which outcroppings are

frequently to be seen; are usually from 6 to

Nb JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

8 inches in depth but may be a few inches

deeper at some sites; and have little water-

holding capacity. The lowland and savan-

nah-land soils are several feet in depth; the

former having small sandy areas in spots.

The savannah soils cover the greater por-

tion of the southern half of the Island and

produce a thick growth of swordgrass. In-

festations of Ancylonycha mindanaona were

most severe in the loose upland soils preva-

lent at Dededo and near Asan, and in the

limited sandy areas in the lowland at Piti.

No infestations were observed in the sa-

vannah lands.

The average total annual rainfall in

Guam for the period July 1, 1937, to June

30, 1939, was 79.77 inches, a reduction from

a normal average of approximately 95

inches. Most of it occurred during a distinct

rainy season extending from June to No-

vember and was followed by a dry season

from January to May during which time

the average monthly rainfall amounted to

less than 5 inches. The temperature and

relative humidity were less variable, the

former ranging from 71° to 92°F. and the

latter averaging 80.8 percent. Daily mean

minimum and mean maximum tempera-

tures approximated 74° and 87°, respec-

tively.

Crops growing in lowland areas during

the period from December to June suffer

from lack of rainfall; nevertheless they often

yield fair-sized harvests. Those in upland

areas, however, must as a general rule reach

maturity by December, in order to escape

drastic effects of too little rainfall from that

month to the following May. Young crops

are likely to be drowned out in either area

by excessive rainfall, sometimes exceeding

VOL. 35, No. 1

25 inches, in August. Favorable months for

planting corn in the upland areas are there-

fore limited to May, June, September, and

October. The problems of successful grain

storage, inadequate land acreage for culti-

vation, and an even distribution of labor

make plantings in the two last-named

months very desirable, yet they fit favor-

ably into the habits of the larvae of An-

cylonycha mindanaona.

SUMMARY

The scarabaeid beetle Ancylonycha min-

danaona (Brenske) was a destructive pest

in both the larval and adult stages in Guam

in 1937-38. The 1939 generation was smaller

than the previous ones. The larvae feed on

roots of plants and the adults attack foliage

at night.

Life-history studies proved that the pest

completed its cycle in one year, with an egg

stage of from 11 to 15 days, an approximate

10-month larval stage, and a pupal stage of

16 to 18 days. Eggs occur largely from

March to May, larvae from March of one

year to March of the following year, pupae

from February to May, and adults from

February to August with the peak in April.

LITERATURE CITED

BrENSKE, E. Melolonthiden von Borneo und

einigen anderen malayischen Inseln.

Deutsch. Ent. Zeitschr. 38: 347-358. 1895.

DAaMMERMAN, K. W. The agricultural zoology

of the Malay Archipelago, 433 pp., illus.

Amsterdam, 1929.

Loprz, A. W. Report of the entomology depart-

ment. Philippine Sugar Assoc. Ann. Rep.

1929-30: 145-172, illus. 1930.

VANDENBERG, S. R. Report of the entomol-

ogist. Guam. Agr. Exp. Stat. Rep. 1930:

23-25. 1931.

Jan. 15,1945 BOVING: LARVA AND PUPA OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA 13

4 ENTOMOLOGY .—Description of the larva and pupa of the scarab beetle Ancy-

lonycha mindanaona (Brenske).!

mology and Plant Quarantine.

In the larval stage Ancylonycha appears

congeneric with the genus Phyllophaga

from the mainland of America and is in-

separable from it except on geographical

grounds. To be sure, the larva of Ancylo-

nycha mindanaona is readily separated from

all the species of Phyllophaga by possessing

numerous round, dark spots (DS, Figs. 3, 7)

on different places of the body, but similar

dark spots have not been found on the larva

of any other known species of Ancylonycha

and must therefore be considered as a spe-

cific, not a generic, character. The larva of

A. mindanaona comes very close to the

larvae of the least-differentiated species of

Phyllophaga, notably to the larvae of P.

vetula (Horn), P. crinita (Burmeister), and

P. tristis (Fabricius).

In the following description of the three

larval instars of A. mindanaona, little re-

gard is paid to the tribal and generic char-

acters, which, as mentioned, are identical

with those well known in the corresponding

instars of Phyllophaga. On the other hand,

all the specific characters are given that

show the systematic relation of Ancylonycha

mindanaona to the different species of

Phyllophaga and especially the three above-

named forms.

DESCRIPTION

First-stage larva-—(Typical sample in U. S.

National Museum labeled: ‘Interception No.

556, reared from eggs oviposited by adults in

Interception No. 554; Guam 1938. R. G. Oak-

ley.) Posterior part of labrum behind the

transverse labral ridge without setae (compare

TrR, Fig. 8). Anterior marginal region of frons

(AF, Fig. 8) with one moderately long seta on

each side. Epicranium on each side opposite

the concave posterior part of the frontal suture

(FS, Fig. 8) and the epicranial suture (ES,

Fig. 8) with two setae. Dorsomolar region of

right mandible (compare DMR, Fig. 2) with a

transverse patch of about 12 setae; dorso-

exterior region (DER, Fig. 2) with no punc-

tures and no setae; scrobis (Sr, Fig. 2) with

about 10 punctures in a longitudinal row and

1 Received October 4, 1944.

ApaAm G. Bovina, U. 8S. Bureau of Ento-

no setae; ventrolateral carina (VLC) without

setae; basolateral region with a patch of about

seven fairly long and small setae. Epipharynx

(compare Fig. 6) with about nine heli (HI);

proplegmatium absent; chaetopariae (Chp)

without punctures among the setae; crepidal

punctures (Crep) about 20. Raster (compare

Fig. 1) with an elongate-ovate septula (Sept),

which is sometimes slightly constricted at the

middle; palidium (Pa) with one regular row of

about 25 slightly curved, pointed, rather short

pali (P); distance between bases of pali from

less than half the length of a palus to as long as,

or longer than, a palus; preseptular setae

(PrSept) five or a few more. Numerous dark

spots present in groups on different parts of the

body but especially in the bottom of a fold

posterior to the spiracles of most segments

(compare DS, Fig. 7). Hatching tooth ( =rup-

tor ovi) (Fig. 4) on the posterior dorsal area of

metathorax, small, dome shaped, and with a

moderately long seta. Spiracles (Fig. 5) with a

circular, disk-shaped, multifenestrate, cribri-

form respiratory plate and no bulla and no

spiracular orifice. Mediodorsal length of body,

measured segment by segment from anterior

margin of prothorax to V-shaped anus, about

9 mm; width of head capsule about 2.5 mm;

length of head capsule about 2 mm.

Second-stage larva.—Similar in all characters

to the third-stage larva, except in size. Medio-

dorsal length of body from anterior margin of

prothorax to anus about 28.5 mm; width of

head capsule about 5 mm; length of head cap-

sule about 3 mm.

Third-stage larva.—(Typical sample in U. S.

National Museum labeled: “In soil, field;

Guam; Guam No. 1784; 17.1I1.1939; R. G.

Oakley.’’) Labrum (Fig. 8) rugose, with pos-

terior part behind the labral ridge (7rR) bear-

ing a transverse, irregular series of about six

moderately long setae (e) on each side. Head

capsule finely verrucose, yellowish brown. An-

terior marginal region of frons (AF) with a

transverse, irregular series of six to nine mod-

erately long setae (k) on each side (and some-

times with a few short additional setae).

Epicranium (Fig. 8) on each side opposite the

concave posterior part of one of the frontal

pS A

14 _ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 1

Se ee ee ee ee ee ee

an wis

Fries. 1-8 —(See opposite page for legend)

ee ee ee ea a eS ee a a ee a ee ee

JAN. 15, 1945 BOVING: LARVA AND PUPA OF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA 15

sutures (FS) and the epicranial suture (ZS)

with a somewhat oblique, longitudinal series of

three setae (p) of various lengths. Dorsomolar

region (DMR, Fig. 2) of right mandible with a

transverse patch of about 12 setae, dorso-

exterior region (DER) with no punctures and

no setae; scrobis (Sr) without setae but with

several longitudinally arranged sensorial punc-

tures distributed over most of the surface and

in the wall of the carinae, which limit the re-

gion; ventrolateral carina (VLC) with about 10

moderately long setae; basolateral region with

a patch of about 10 fairly long setae. Epi-

pharynx (Fig. 6) with about nine heli (HI);

proplegmatium absent; chaetopariae (Chp)

without sensorial punctures among the setae;

crepidal punctures (Crep) about 20. Raster

(Fig. 1) with elongate-ovate septula (Sept);

palidium (Pa) with one regular row of from 20

to 27 depressed, straight, dagger-shaped,

pointed and (when not worn) moderately long

pali (P); distance between bases of pali about

half as long as, or considerably shorter than,

length of a palus; preseptular setae (PrSept)

six or a few more or less. Claws unequal in

length and different in shape on the three pairs

of legs; on first and second pairs of legs about

one-third length of tibiotarsi, enlarged at bases,

straight and distally pointed; on third pair of

legs less than half as long as claws of first and

second pairs of legs, at base enlarged and dis-

tinct but distally very short. Spiracles (Sp,

Fig. 7) well developed, each with the respira-

tory plate C-shaped, surrounding more than

three-fourths circumference of bulla, and with

an open, curved, spiracular orifice; minute

fenestral elements of cribriform respiratory

plate oval and arranged in numerous transverse

series with about 20 in each series; thoracic

spiracle one and one-half times as large as the

first abdominal spiracle; abdominal spiracles

decreasing slightly and gradually in size pos-

teriorly. Mediodorsal length of body, measured

segment by segment from anterior margin of

prothorax to the simple V-shaped anus, 42.5

mm; width of head 6 to 6.2 mm; length of head

4mm.

Pupa.—Body soft-skinned, free from vesti-

tures, all segments without lateral expansions.

Mesonotum and metanotum slightly grooved

longitudinally in the middle line; scutellum

distinct. Base of each elytron with a thornlike,

conical projection. Dorsal portion of each of the

anterior abdominal segments rounded, but

dorsal portions of the last three segments more

flattened and with obtusely waved wrinkles;

posterior margin of dorsum of each of fourth

and fifth abdominal segments furnished with a

pair of paramedian, dark, flat, dorsally convex

knobs. Pleura of abdominal segments fused

with their ventral parts. Cerci rather slender,

conical, glabrous, directed obliquely backward

and extenuated into a corneous, incurved,

sharply pointed hook; each cercus about five

times as short as one of the sides of the ninth

abdominal segment. Anterior four pairs of

abdominal spiracles provided each with a

slightly tubular, rather thick and dark peri-

trema; rest of abdominal spiracles without

distinct and dark peritremata. Mediodorsal

length of pupa, measured from middle of ver-

tex to posterior end of abdomen (excluding the

cerci), about 28 mm; greatest width of pro-

thoracic shield about 8 mm.

Figs. 1-8.—Larva oF ANCYLONYCHA MINDANAONA (BRENSKE)

The drawings for the figures were made by the author. When a figure presents a dorsal view of a

structure the front part of the structure is shown pointing toward the upper margin of the plate, but

when a figure gives a ventral view it is the rear part which points toward the upper margin. The right

and left sides of the structure as they appear on the figure will then correspond to the veritable right

and left sides of the structure in natural position on the insect when the latter is seen from above with

its head away from the observer.

Fig. 1.—Raster: P, palus; Pa, palidium; PrSept, preseptular setae; Sept, septula. Fie. 2.—Right

mandible, dorsal view: DER, dorsoexterior region; DMR, dorsomolar region; Sr, scrobis; VLC,

ventrolateral carina. Fic. 3.—Left maxilla (facing the cavity of the mouth): Ca, cardo; DS, dark

spots; G, galea; L, lacinia; Pl, palpus; St, stipes; Str, stridulatory teeth. Fic. 3a.—Stridulatory teeth.

Fie. 4.—Hatching tooth (ruptor ovi). Fie. 5.—Spiracle of first-stage larva. Fie. 6.—Epipharynx,

ventral view: Chp, chaetoparia; Crep, crepidal punctures; Hl, helus. Fie. 7.—Sixth and seventh

abdominal segments, lateral view: DS, dark spots; Sp, spiracle. Fic. 8.—Dorsal surface of head:

AF, anterior marginal region of frons (with 6 to 9 setae, k, on each side); ES, epicranial suture; FS,

frontal suture (p, oblique longitudinal series of 3 setae opposite and close to the concave posterior part

of frontal suture and the epicranial suture); TrR, posterior transverse labral ridge (e, transverse series

of about 6 setae on each side behind the ridge).

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. |

ENTOMOLOGY .—Five mites of the family Ereynetidae from Mezxico.: EDWARD

W. Baker, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

by ALAN STONE.)

The mites of the family Ereynetidae

are prostigmatic and in addition are char-

acterized by the two pairs of long, finely

pilose, sensory hairs, one pair on the thorax

and the other on the rear of the abdomen;

by the 3- or 5-segmented palpus; and by the

presence of two pairs of genital cups. Most

of the species are known from Europe, the

majority of these being parasites or

‘“nseudoparasites’’ on snails and insects, al-

though some are found in moss or on

plants. Of the five species presented in this

paper, one is already known from snails in

Holland, while the others appear to be new.

Type slides, as well as a slide of the snail-

inhabiting species, have been deposited in

the United States National Museum, Wash-

ington, D. C.

Genus Riccardoella Berlese

Riccardoella oudemansi Sig Thor

Fig. 1

Riccardoella oudemansi Sig Thor, Zool. Anz. 99:

249, figs. 1-17, 1932; Das Tierreich 60: 63, figs.

71-87, 1933.

(Description after Sig Thor, 1933. Translated

by the author.) Body broad, egg-shaped,

rounded, not segmented. Color yellowish or

reddish white, with a broad dorsal stripe. Skin

with fine tuberculated striations. Hairs short,

stiff, thick, and finely pilose. Rostrum short,

broad, sharpened triangularly to tip, with two

pairs of very short, pilose hairs. The 3-seg-

mented, short palpus has short, relatively thick

segments, the end segment with four short,

pilose hairs. Thorax without eyes or chitinous

plates but with the usual four pairs of hairs;

between the two long sensory hairs the usual

setae, and close anteriorly a pair of very small

hairs; thoracic shoulder hairs longer, the 14 ab-

dominal hairs of the usual arrangement and

size. Few hairs ventrally; five pairs of small

genital hairs, and five pairs of longer hairs more

laterally. Two pairs of round genital cups. Anal

opening indistinct (easily seen in Mexican ma-

terial). Epimera of medium size, with one to

three pairs of hairs; the two anterior pairs of

1 Received September 18, 1944.

(Communicated

epimera have a single bent chitinous rod or

plate. The legs relatively thick and short, about

200—240u long, with few pilose hairs. On the

tarsi many flat, leaflike, pilose hairs; a small

clavate seta on tarsi I and II; two weak claws

and a pilose tarsal pad. Length about 360—-

A0Ou, width 224—280y.

In Holland the mite was taken on Limaz sp.

In Mexico, D. F., the mites were found in some

abundance running over the slimy part (the

foot) of the snail Helix pomatia Linnaeus,

which is European in origin. The mites were

taken December 4, 1943.

Genus Opsereynetes Sig Thor

Opsereynetes simplexus, n. sp.

Fig. 2

Female.—Of medium size; thoracic furrow en-

tire in fresh mounts; amber colored, with a

lighter dorsal stripe and lighter legs and beak.

Striations typical. Rostrum of normal size;

venter with a pair of pilose hairs out under seg-

ment I of palpus, and a posterior pair of pilose

hairs. Second mandibular segment long, nar-

row, slightly curved. Palpus of normal length,

segment III reaching to about tip of rostrum,

22u long and 16yu wide, with two pilose hairs

about as long as segment IV; segment IV lly

long and 9u wide, rounded, with two pilose

hairs about length of segment; segment V 10y

long and 5.5u wide, constricted toward tip, .

with two pilose lateral hairs and a simple strong

end hair. Cephalothorax with a pair of large

eyes just outside and slightly anterior to the

thoracic sensory hairs; all body hairs pilose;

thoracic sensory hairs 83y long; the tiny pair of

hairs just anterior to the sensory setae 5.5y

long; longer pair 16.6 long, between the sen-

sory setae. No chitinous shields seen. Dorsal

abdominal hairs 19.5u long; posterior abdom-

inal sensory setae 75u long. Anal opening on

rear. Genital opening of female with five pairs

of pilose hairs. Legs normal; legs I, III, and

IV about 166y long, leg II 133 long; all leg

hairs pilose, those on tarsi strong; tarsus I with

a small, broad, clavate seta; tarsus II with a

narrow clavate seta. Tarsal pads with hairs.

Length with rostrum 266y, width about 100y.

Jan. 15, 1945 BAKER: FIVE MITES FROM MEXICO 17

rv °

ee ROR Pe eS aya ees aF wie —_ .

Fig. 1.—Riccardoella oudemansi Sig Thor, adult. Fic. 2.—Opsereynetes simplexus, n. sp., adult.

Fic. 3.—Opsereynetes tuberculatus, n. sp., adult. Fia. 4.—Opsereynetes robustus, n. sp., adult. Fra. 5.

—Ereynetes sabinensis, n. sp., camera-lucida drawing of dorsal shield.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Type.—U.S.N.M. 1468.

Type on slide with two paratypes from moss

taken at the Desierto de los Leones, Mexico,

December 5, 1943. A nymph was also collected

from moss by Penelope, Carlos, and Sandra

Plummer, November 19, 1943, at the same

locality.

The lack of dorsal shields and presence of

strong pilose hairs are distinctive of this spe-

cles.

Opsereynetes tuberculatus, n. sp.

Fig. 3

Female.-—Of medium size; body furrow not

seen dorsally but present laterally; light amber-

colored body with lighter legs and beak. Finely

striated. Rostrum of normal size, pointed;

venter with a pair of fine pilose hairs out under

segment I of palpus and a pair of anterior pilose

hairs. Mandibular segment I not broad, sides

about parallel; second mandibular segment

short, stubby, slightly curved. Palpus shorter

than that of the other species, segment III

reaching about to tip of rostrum; segment III

with one center and one distal hair, both pilose,

the distal hair reaching about halfway out of

segment IV; fourth segment oval, with three

pilose hairs not so long as segment is wide; fifth

segment about as long as fourth is wide, con-

stricted toward tip, but rounded, with four or

five end hairs, which appear pilose. Cephalo-

thorax not distinct from abdomen dorsally;

eyes not seen (probably dissolved by mounting

fluid) ; sensory setae about 50y long, fine, wire-

like, pilose; laterad of sensory setae a pair of

pilose hairs about 20u long; anteriorly and

slightly inside a pair of shorter pilose hairs,

about 15u long; in the center and anteriorly a

small tubercle with two short pilose hairs about

10u long. Shield lines all faint, hard to see (in

some specimens not seen), consisting of a

branch forking to include the sensory hair and

apparently connected medianly by another

forking line as illustrated. Abdominal body

hairs about 12.5y long, stiff, strong, pilose; pos-

terior sensory hairs fine, pilose, of same length

as thoracic sensory hairs. Ventral body hairs

short, pilose, broadening slightly toward tip.

Six pairs of pilose genital hairs; three pairs

more laterad. Legs apparently normal, sparsely

haired with blunt, heavy, short, pilose setae;

length of legs: I, 1664; II and III, each 133y;

IV, 155; tarsus not blunt at tip; tarsal pads

VOL. 35, No. 1

with hairs. Length with rostrum 255yu, width

11lp.

Type.—U.8.N.M. 1469.

Type and paratype from moss from the

Desierto de los Leones, Mexico, February 7,

1943. Also a paratype from the west slope of

Mount Popocatepetl at about 9,000 feet, De

cember 29, 1943.

The faint dorsal shield and lines and the an-

terior tubercle appear to be distinctive for this

species.

Opsereynetes robustus, n. sp.

Fig. 4

Female.—Of medium size; light amber in

color; active. Body furrow not seen dorsally,

present laterally; body broad in shoulders.

Finely striated. Rostrum of normal size blunt

at tip; venter with a single pair of posterior

pilose hairs. Mandibles not sharp, somewhat

blunt but broader at base; second mandibular

segment long (about two-thirds as long as first

segment), curved, somewhat thicker at base.

Palpus of moderate length, segment III reach-

ing past tip of rostrum; third segment with two

pilose hairs, one in center and one on apex;

fourth segment with one pilose hair the length

of the segment; fifth segment small, round,

with four or five end hairs, which appear to be

simple. Cephalothorax short, not defined dor-

sally from abdomen; eyes not seen (probably

dissolved by mounting fluid); anterior sensory

setae fine, pilose, 66—77y long; inside anterior

sensory setae a pair of short pilose hairs, and —

anterior and outside another pair of short pi-

lose hairs; the thoracic shoulder hairs longer, of

the size of the abdominal hairs. Thoracic shield

lines hard to see, fine, short, in form of a half

circle medianly of the sensory hairs and con-

nected posteriorly to another fine, short line;

not connected to one another. Dorsal abdom-

inal hairs heavy, pilose, about 14y long; ab-

dominal sensory hairs about 56y long, pilose.

Five pairs of short pilose genital hairs; large

egg in body, about 70u times 110yu; anal open-

ing on rear. Legs of normal size: legs I and IV

about 157u long, II and III each, about 135y

long. Legs sparsely clothed with short, blunt,

pilose hairs; tarsal tips stubby, with a pilose

tarsal pad and normal claws. Length with ros-

trum about 292u, width about 157.

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 1470.

The type was found in moss collected by

i i a a a Hu | rye

JAN. 15, 1945

Penelope, Carlos, and Sandra Plummer at the

Desierto de los Leones, Mexico, November 19,

1943. The allotype (male) is on the type slide

for Ereynetes tuberculatus, n. sp.

The body shape and the dorsal lines are dis-

tinctive.

Genus Ereynetes Berlese

Ereynetes sabinensis, n. sp.

Fig. 5

Female.—Medium sized; color not known, as

described from mounted specimen. Finely stri-

ated. Rostrum somewhat long and narrow in

proportion to body; venter with a pair of

medium-length posterior pilose hairs and a pair

of shorter anterior pilose hairs. Second mandib-

ular segment of medium length, curved. Pal-

pus slender; segment III slender, with two me-

dium-length pilose hairs; segment IV with one

medium-length pilose hair, segment V hard to

ZOOLOGY .—A new starfish of the genus Luidia from the coast of Georgia.

H. Criark, U.S. National Museum.

The genus Luzdia, represented in all seas

except the polar and subpolar, includes 45

species, of which nine occur in the western

Atlantic, chiefly in the Tropics, two of

these ranging to west Africa. The discovery

of a well-marked new species of this genus

in a region so well known as the southeast-

ern United States is a matter of no little

interest.

Luidia bernasconiae, n. sp.

Diagnosis.—A species of the alternata group

(subgenus Alternaster) with 5 arms, numerous

long and prominent paxillar spines, the actinal

intermediate plates with pedicellariae, and the

lateral paxillae each with a prominent pedicel-

laria.

Description—R=100 mm; r=10 mm;

breadth of ray at base 12 mm. The arms are

slender, tapering evenly to a rather sharply

rounded tip, rather thick, the abactinal surface

flat and the sides, formed of the three outer-

most rows of paxillae, sloping abruptly down

to the inferomarginals, as in L. alternata.

Above the inferomarginals there are three

1 Published by permission of the Acting Secre-

tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

October 4, 1944.

CLARK: A NEW STARFISH OF THE GENUS LUIDIA 19

see but with several apparently simple hairs.

Cephalothorax with dorsal chitinous pattern

as shown by the camera-lucida drawing in Fig.

5, anterior portion either weakly or not at all

connected. Thoracic sensory setae fine, pilose,

about 78u long; shoulder hair 25.5u long; tho-

racic setae on shield pattern about 12.7 long,

the hairs anterior to these about half that

length; all pilose and strong. Abdominal hairs

about 16.6u long, strong, pilose; posterior ab-

dominal hairs shorter. Seven pairs of short,

strong, pilose genital hairs. Legs normal; leg

hairs strong, pilose. Length with rostrum 288uy,

width 122y.

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 1471.

A single female was collected by Dr. F.

Bonet in bat guano in the Cueva de los Sab-

inos, San Luis Potosf, April 3, 1942.

The thoracic shield pattern appears to be dis-

tinctive.

AUSTIN

regular longitudinal rows of paxillae arising

from quadrilobate plates; these paxillae form

regular transverse as well as longitudinal rows,

each transverse row corresponding to an infero-

marginal. The paxillae of the two outermost

rows are similar, rather small, each isolated

from its neighbors. The crown is more or less

convex and bears about 15 rather stout cylin-

drical spinules with rounded tips, the length of

which is slightly greater than the diameter of

the crown. In addition to the spinules each

-paxilla bears on the distal side a conspicuous

stout pedicellaria slightly longer than the spine-

lets with two or three, very rarely four, valves.

The paxillae of the third row alternate large

and small. The small paxillae resemble those of

the two outer rows, and each bears a conspicu-

ous stout pedicellaria. The large paxillae, the

diameter of which is two or even three times

that of the small, bear a stout pointed central

spine 3 mm in length the base of which is sur-

rounded by 25 or 30 spines resembling those of

the other paxillae, arranged in a complete outer

and more or less incomplete inner row.

On the aboral surface between these three

lateral rows on either side the paxillae are

irregular in arrangement, smaller and lower,

and arise from polygonal, often 5-sided, bases.

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In the middle third of the arm they are com-

posed of one to four much swollen club-shaped

spinules, which are surrounded by seven to

nine spinules of the usual type. The paxillae

on the outer borders of this median band, which

are larger and intergrade with the lateral paxil-

lae, carry pedicellariae, and some of them bear

long central spines. Spines therefore occur in a

continuous row along the dorsolateral border

of the arms, with a partial row borne on the

adjacent paxillae and a few on the next, very

irregular, paxillar row. The paxillae of the

middle third of the arms do not bear spines or

pedicellariae.

The paxillae of the central portion of the

disk are small, like those of the midline of the

arms, but intermixed with these are a dozen or

so larger ones bearing spines of various sizes.

In a general view of the aboral surface the

paxillae do not form a continuous and un-

broken covering studded with numerous gran-

ules (the broadly rounded tips of the spinules)

as in L. alternata and in L. numidica; the paxil-

lae are more or less distinctly separated from

each other so that each appears individually,

the papular pores between them being, except

in the center of the disk, everywhere more or

less clearly visible.

The inferomarginal plates are narrow, and

the fasciolar channels between them are deep

and about as broad as the high intervening

ridges. Each plate bears a stout regularly taper-

ing spine about 4 mm long near its outer end,

with frequently a similar though usually some-

what smaller spine below it. Occasionally the

outer spine is smaller than the inner. The

~ eenter of the ridge is occupied by four to six

stout sharp spinules, the longest 1.5 to 2 mm in

length, which are somewhat irregularly ar-

ranged and are flanked by similar but shorter

and slenderer spinules. These spinules are

all well separated from one another.

Each adambulacral plate bears a_ long,

curved, and flattened furrow spine about 1.5

mm long. This is followed by a straight or

slightly curved spine nearly 3 mm long, and

this is turn by a similar but shorter and

slenderer spine that has a much smaller spine

situated at its base on the adoral side. The first

two adambulacral plates on each side of the

mouth plates each bear a very large 3-bladed

pedicellaria (rarely two); these pedicellariae

are larger than those on the adjacent actinal

VOL. 35, NO. 1

intermediate plates. None of the other adam-

bulacral plates carry pedicellariae.

Throughout most of the length of the arms

the actinal intermediate plates project in the

form of a thick column resembling the stalk

of a paxilla between the outer ends of the

adambulacrals and the inner ends of the infero-

marginals. This column is surmounted by a

large conical pedicellaria 2.5 to 3 times as long

as broad at the base and about 1.25 mm high

with three slender jaws. Just beneath this

pedicellaria on the adoral side is a very slender

spinule the length of which is one-fourth to about

one-half that of the pedicellaria, and there are

usually from one to several similar spinules

elsewhere about the summit of the column.

These large pedicellariae continue to within

about 15 mm of the tips of the arms, where

they disappear and the plates become incon-

spicuous.

In the interbrachial areas about the mouth

there are four actinal intermediate plates in

addition to those of the complete row, each of

which bears a large 3-valved pedicellaria and

beneath it a circlet of about five long slender

spinules.

The narrow mouth plates each bear a margi-

nal row of four long and stout spines, which re-

semble those on the adjacent adambulacrals

but are slightly smaller; the two innermost

spines are usually slightly larger than the

others. In addition to these large spines there

are numerous spinules, but no pedicellariae.

The color, dried from alcohol, is uniform

white tinged with pale brownish gray.

Type.—U.S.N.M. E.6718; from between 60

and 100 miles off the Sea Islands, Ga.; collected

by William W. Alexander, August 6, 1931.

It gives me great pleasure to dedicate this

new species to Miss Irene Bernasconi, the

talented custodian of echinoderms in the

Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, Buenos

Aires.

Comparisuns.—This new species is a member

of the alternata group of Luidia, the 19 mem-

bers of which are distributed throughout the

warmer portion of the oceans, occurring from

the shore line down to 380 meters, though most

of them live in shallow water. Six species of

this group were heretofore known from the

Atlantic, one, numidica, from west Africa, the

other five, alternata, barbadensis, convexiuscula,

quequenensis, and variegata, from tropical and

—

Jan. 15, 1945

subtropical America, chiefly from the Carib-

bean region. Two of these species, barbadensis

and convexiuscula, have six arms and need not

be further considered. From alternata this

species differs in the smaller paxillae with

stouter spinules and in the occurrence of pedi-

cellariae on the paxillae of the lateral portions

of the arms. From variegata and quequenensis

it differs in the presence of pedicellariae on the

lateral paxillae, and in the fewer and more

localized spine-bearing paxillae. In the presence

FRASER: SOME RECENTLY COLLECTED HYDROIDS 21

of numerous pedicellariae on the lateral paxil-

lae, in the character of the paxillae, and in the

form of the pedicellariae on the actinal surface

it agrees with the west African numidica. It

appears to differ from nwmidica in having the

spines on the abactinal surface more numerous,

longer, and more slender, the abactinal pedicel-

lariae more regular and more numerous, and

the paxillae in the midline of the arms smaller

with less diversified spinelets. It is without

doubt the American representative of numidica.

ZOOLOGY .—Notes on some recently collected hydroids in the United States Na-

tional Museum, with descriptions of three new species.

(Communicated by Waupo L. ScHmirrT.)

University of British Columbia.

A small assemblage of hydroids from the

United States National Museum, recently

collected, is made up of three lots: a collec-

tion made off the coast of South Carolina,

Georgia, and northern Florida by the Peli-

can, February, 1938, to February, 1940; a

collection made from the lower Potomac

oyster bars in December, 1942, and Janu-

ary, 1943; and a collection from the Lou-

isiana State University, obtained off the

Florida and Louisiana coast in the summers

of 1942 and 1943, respectively.

Although only 13 species were obtained,

most of them common, the collections were

not lacking in interest. Three of the species

appear to be new, and the known range of

each of three others was extended. Two of

the new species were from the Pelican col-

- lection and the other one from the Louisiana

collection. Of the species of which the range

was extended, two were from the Pelican

collection and one from the lower Potomac.

I wish to express my indebtedness to the

United States National Museum for again

making available to me for study interesting

hydroid material, and also to Miss Marian

McCrea, of Vancouver, who has made the

enlarged drawings used in illustration.

SPECIES FROM THE Pelican COLLECTION

Halecium gracile Verrill. Station 182-16; lat.

32°53’ N., long. 79°30’ W., 5 fathoms.

Synthecium tubithecum (Allman). Station 181-

13, lat. 32°03’ N., long. 79°49’30’’ W., 14

fathoms.

1 Received October 18, 1944.

C. McLEAn FRASER,

Monostaechas quadridens (McCrady). Blackfish

Bank, 8. C., depth not given.

Aglaophenia acacia Allman. Station 181-14, lat.

32°03/30” N., long. 79°45’30” W., 16 fath-

oms; station 183-11, lat. 33°40’ N., long.

78°13'30” W., 9 fathoms. The only pre-

vious records in the western Atlantic for

this species are for off North Carolina.

These records extend the range southward

to Savannah, Ga.

Aglaophenia aperta Nutting. Station 13, lat.

29°20’ N., long. 88°16’ W., 33 fathoms;

station 14, lat. 29°20’ N., long. 88°28’ W.,

304 fathoms. There are two previous rec-

ords of this species, both off Habana, the

one in 194 fathoms, the other in 200. These

records extend the known range some dis-

tance to the northward and into much

shallower water.

Aglaophenia longiramosa, n.sp. Station 142-5.

lat. 29°58’ N., long. 88°03’ W., 16 fathoms.

Cladocarpus longipinna, n. sp. Station 13, lat.

29°20’ N., long. 88°16’ W., 33 fathoms.

SPECIES FROM LOWER POTOMAC OYSTER BARS

Bimeria tunicata Fraser. Station 19, Lower Ce-

dar Point Bar. This record extends the

known range of this species very consider-

ably, as all previously recorded specimens

were obtained off the coast of Louisiana.

Clytia longicyatha (Allman). Station 1, Sheeps-

head Bar; 3, Cords Flats Bar; 13, Higgins

Point Bar; 15 and 16, Sheepshead Bar;

18, Heron Island Bar. This must be the

common species in this area, since it ap-

peared in all the stations but one from

which hydroids were collected.

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Thuiaria argentea (Linnaeus). Station 13, Hig-

gins Point Bar.

SPECIES FROM LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY

(Presumably all littoral)

Bougainvillia inaequalis Fraser. Front Beach,

Grand Isle, La.

Eudendrium speciosum, Nn. sp.

Sound, Pensacola, Fla.

Aglaophenia late-carinata Allman. Grand Isle,

La.

Santa Rosa

Eudendrium speciosum, n. sp.

Fig. 1

Trophosome.—Colony erect, 4-5 cm, with a

continuous main stem, nearly straight, with

several branches varying very much in length;

the larger ones are branched again; there is a

tendency to alternation, but it is rather irregu-

lar. The main stem is practically free of annula-

tion, although somewhere in its length there

may be a single series of two or three annula-

tions; none appears above the origin of the

branches. Each branch has rather an abrupt

bend near the base, and the base appears to be

set on the stem rather than to be growing from

it. Each branch and pedicel has four or five

annulations at the base, but otherwise the sur-

face is smooth; even in the larger branches an-

nulations appear only at the base. The hy-

dranth is handsome, with about 25 long, slender

tentacles.

Gonosome.—Male gonophores, bithalamic,

are arranged in a single whorl around the base

of the hydranth which is not at all aborted.

Female gonophores were not observed.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 43464.

Aglaophenia longiramosa, n. sp.

Fig. 2

Trophosome.—Colony stout, 15 cm, consists

of a main stem and several long branches that

grow outward at an acute angle with the stem

and pass along in much the same direction as

the stem, to look like a portion of the stem it-

self; both stem and branches are fascicled. The

hydrocladia are given off alternately from both

stem and branches; they are long, up to 2 cm

or even more; they are divided into short inter-

nodes, but at times the nodes are not so pro-

nounced as the internal septa, of which there

are two to each internode; the one nearly op-

posite the intrathecal septum is strongly

marked; the other, just below the supracalycine

VOL. 35, NO. 1

nematophore, is not so distinct; sometimes it

scarcely shows. The hydrotheca is about 13

times as long as wide, projecting outward at an

angle of 15°, and with the margin comparably

oblique; the face is nearly straight; the intra-

thecal ridge is well marked, horizontal, and

complete, slightly lower than the corresponding

internodal septum. There are seven marginal

teeth; the median tooth is small and rather

sharp, the first lateral is slightly larger and

blunter, the other two laterals are broader and

rounded at the tip. The supracalycine nemato-

phore is curved, reaching beyond the margin of

the hydrotheca; the mesial nematophore is al-

most as long as the face of the hydrotheca; onlya

small, somewhat shovel-shaped portion is free.

Gonosome.—Not observed.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 438463.

Cladocarpus longipinna, n. sp.

Fig. 3

Trophosome.—Fragment of colony, 4 em, was

not branched; stem fascicled; hydrocladia up

to 2 cm in length, slender, divided into long

internodes that are strongly septate, usually

eight or nine septa present. The hydrotheca is

long and slender, gradually increasing in size

from base to margin; face slightly convex; the

intrathecal ridge is short, turned upward; the

margin is horizontal. There is one short median

tooth much longer than the others, of which

there are six pairs, shallow and rounded to pro-

duce a wavy appearance. The supracalycine

nematophores overtop the margin of the hy-

drotheca; the mesial nematophore is short,

with the base adherent to the internode below

the hydrotheca and the short free portion pro-

jecting out past the base of the hydrotheca;

there is a definite joint at the base.

Gonosome.—The gonangia are oblong, with

the tip curved over, and the opening pointing

outward or downward; they grow in large num-

bers from the bases of the hydrocladia and from

the stem nearby. The phylactogonia are of the

staghorn type with two prongs, each regularly

curved, with usually four points to each prong.

Remarks.—This species closely resembles

C. septatus Nutting. It differs from it in having

a fascicled stem, a longer and slenderer hy-

drotheca, with a greater number of small teeth

on the margin, and in having simpler phylacto-

gonia. .

Type.—U.S.N.M. 43465.

JAN. 15, 1945 FRASER: SOME RECENTLY COLLECTED HYDROIDS

e°>eRrite.

kal

seeReric .&

emetie

+5 ae

stoa>e?

Sp Litislmar”

ts i

pate ye nwt whee et)

". Woe Tatas } ae

ra La beary Ay

ded peeked

PRT PT

Meee,”

ects anesnnrar

eb.

wen

wee

ay:

:in'n Noten Wi aON AA Me LN caren nce NET

STN ariel Sure ott

Ween

Drank 1 he Akal ee inten,

Meer tec cae

Fic. 1.—Eudendrium speciosum, n. sp.: a, natural size; b, portion of colony showing

hydrothecae and male gonophores (X20). Fria. 2.—Aglaophenia longiramosa, n. sp.: 4,

natural size; b, portion of hydrocladium with hydrothecae (X20); c, portion of hydro-

cladium with hydrothecae (X40). Fia. 3.—Cladocarpus longipinna, n. sp.: a, natural size;

b, portion of colony showing hydrothecae, gonangia, and phylactogonia (X20); c, portion of

hydrocladium with hydrothecae (X20); d, two hydrothecae (X40).

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 35, No. 1

ZOOLOGY .—WNotes on the amphipod genus Bactrurus Hay, with description of a

new species.'

In proposing the generic name Bactrurus

in 1902, Dr. William P. Hay (Proc. U. S.

Nat. Mus. 25: 430) said, “C[rangonyz|

mucronatus Forbes is neither Crangonyx

nor Niphargus, but belongs to a distinct

genus for which I propose the name Bac-

trurus.”’ His proposition appears not to have

been accepted, as subsequent students al-

lowed the species to remain in Hucrangonyx

where it had been placed by T. R. R. Steb-

bing in 1899 (Trans. Linn. Soc. London

(ser. 2) 7 (pt. 8): 423). In 1940 Leslie

Hubricht and J. G. Mackin (Amer. Mid-

‘land Nat. 23 (1): 201) revived the genus

and gave a diagnosis, which Hay had failed

to do.

I am here giving a fuller description of

some of the generic characters, and I am

also describing a new species from a well at

Topeka, Kans.

Description of Bactrurus.—Animal long

and slender, with the first 4 coxal plates

about as deep as their respective segments.

Head rather long with evenly rounding lat-

eral lobes. Eyes absent. Antenna one-half to

two-thirds the length of the body; primary

flagellum very long, accessory flagellum 2-

jointed and very short. Antenna 2 much

shorter than 1. Mandible, molar strong, ac-

cessory cutting plate complex, about 7

spines in spine-row, palp with second and

third joints subequal in length. Maxilla 1,

inner plate with 5 or 6 plumose setae; outer

plate with 7 spine-teeth. Maxilla 2, inner

plate with oblique row of plumose setae.

Maxilliped, inner plate with 4 or 5 apical

spine-teeth; outer plate with from 5 to 7

spine-teeth on inner margin. Gnathopod 1

shorter and stouter than gnathopod 2,

palms armed with many stout, notched

spine-teeth. Peraeopods 3 to 5 with second

joint moderately expanded. Abdomen elon-

gate. Metasome segments with lower hind

margins broadly rounding. Urosome seg-

ments free. Uropod 3, outer ramus about as

long as its peduncle; inner ramus rudi-

mentary. Telson entire or with slight emar-

1 Published by permission of the Acting Secre-

tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

October 31, 1944.

CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER, U. S. National Museum.

gination. Stalked coxal gills occur on gnath-

opod 2 and peraeopods | to 5, but may be

absent on peraeopod 5. Simple lateral

sternal gills occur on mesosome segments

6 and 7 and may occur on metasome seg-

ment 1.

The two described species and the new

species which I am here describing bear a

close superficial resemblance, but they can

be distinguished by certain characters, as

follows:

Telson of male very long and cylindrical; telson of

female extending beyond third uropods, slightly

notched and armed with rather long spines.

mucronatus

Telson of male extending slightly beyond third

uropods, apex slightly convex, entire, and

armed with many short spines; telson of female

extending beyond third uropods, slightly

notched and armed with many short spines.

brachycaudus?

Telson of male and female not extending beyond

third uropods, notched and armed with long

Spines . «3.46700 Sek hubrichtt

Bactrurus mucronatus (Forbes)

Fig. 1

Crangonyx mucronatus 8S. A. Forbes, Illinois State

Lab. Nat. Hist. Bull. No. 1: 6, figs. 1-7. 1876.

Crangonyx mucronatus O. P. Hay, Amer. Nat.

16: 241. 1882.

Eucrangonyx mucronatus T. R. R. Stebbing,

Trans. Linn. Soc. London (ser. 2) 7 (pt. 8):

423. 1899.

Bactrurus mucronatus W. P. Hay, Proc. U. 8. Nat.

Mus. 25: 4380. 1902.

Eucrangonyx mucronatus T. R. R. Stebbing, Das

Tierreich, Amphipoda I: 388. 1906.

Eucrangonyx mucronatus A. L. Weckel, Proce.

U.S. Nat. Mus. 32: 29, fig. 2. 1907.

Bactrurus mucronatus L. Hubricht and J. G.

Mackin, Amer. Midl. Nat. 23 (1): 201. 1940.

Bactrurus mucronatus L. Hubricht, Amer. Midl.

Nat. 29 (3): 698. 19438.

Forbes’s description and figures of this spe-

cies, which he first discovered in a well at Nor-

mal, Ill., are very good, but I am here giving a

figure of the anterior part of the animal and

detailed figures of the gnathopods of the male.

I am also figuring the mouth parts, which were

not figured by Forbes.

The gnathopods of B. mucronatus have the

palms slightly concave, and gnathopod 1 is

2 Husricut and Mackin, Amer. Midl. Nat. 23

(1): 201, fig. 8. 1940.

-y

- Jan. 15, 1945 SHOEMAKER: THE AMPHIPOD GENUS BACTRURUS 25

; shorter and appears to be somewhat stouter is armed distally as follows: a sharp spine at the

_ than 2. The mandibular spine-row contains 7 upper inner corner followed by a stout sharp

- spines; second and third joints of mandibular — spine-tooth, then a plumose or pectinate spine

a a

ifs j

Y K \ f 1 Nie ’,

TR Ms

Y WN xs

H F

Fic. 1.—Bactrurus mucronatus (Forbes): Male: A, anterior half of animal; B, mandible; C, maxilla 1;

D, maxilla 2; HZ, maxilliped; F, lower lip; G, gnathopod 1; H, gnathopod 2; J, uropod 3.

palp subequal. Inner plate of first maxilla with followed by a stout sharp spine-tooth and a

5 plumose setae; outer plate with 7 spine-tecth. curved spine; outer plate armed with 5 or 6

Second maxilla with oblique row of plumose _ spine-teeth on inner margin.

setae on inner plate. Inner plate of maxilliped The outer ramus of uropod 3 is rather

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 35, No. 1

K J F L

Fia. 2.—Bactrurus hubrichti, n. sp.: Male: A, anterior half of animal; B, apex of inner plate of maxilli-

ped; C, D, palm of gnathopods 1 and 2; E, seventh joint of peraeopod 1; F, peraeopod 5; G, posterior

all of animal; H, uropod 3; J, telson. Female; J, K, palms of gnathopods 1 and 2; L, uropod 3;

, telson.

JAN. 15, 1945

slender, converges to the narrow truncate apex

and is about as long as the peduncle; the inner

ramus is very small and apparently unarmed.

The telson of the male is very long and slender;

that of the female is about twice as long as

wide, slightly emarginate and armed distally

with 2 groups of rather long spines. In the fe-

male the telson extends decidedly beyond the

third uropods. Forbes says that the telson of

the female is very similar to the telson of

Crangonyzx gracilis, but this is not correct, as

the telson of C. gracilis in the female is some-

what wider than long and is cleft for about one-

third its length. Coxal gills are present on the

second gnathopods and the first 4 peraeopods

but are not present on the fifth peraeopod in

either sex. Lateral sternal gills are present on

the sixth and seventh mesosome segments and

may sometimes be present on the first meta-

some segment in either male or female. Forbes

gives 9 to 10 mm as the length of the animal,

but his specimens were apparently not fully

grown, as some males in the national collection

measure 16 mm from the front of the head to

the end of the first uropods, and some of the

females measure about 12 mm.

As no type has ever been designated for this

species and as none of the original material ap-

pears to be extant, I am creating a neotype as

follows: A male, U.S.N.M. 81546, taken from

a well at Champaign, II]., March 29, 1902.

Bactrurus hubrichti, n. sp.

Fig. 2

Male—Antenna 1, peduncular joints de-

creasing consecutively in length; primary

flagellum of about 40 joints, all of which except

the first eight and the terminal joint bear small,

slender sense clubs; accessory flagellum of 2

joints, the terminal joint very small. Antenna

2, fourth joint a little longer than fifth; flagel-

lum shorter than peduncle and composed of

about 13 joints. No sense organs present.

Mouth parts very much like those of B. mucro-

natus. Maxilliped, inner plate armed distally

as follows: at upper inner angle a sharp spine

followed by two larger sharp spine-teeth, then

a pectinate spine followed by another large

sharp spine-tooth and a curved spine (Fig. 2,

SHOEMAKER: THE AMPHIPOD GENUS BACTRURUS

B); the outer plates in the male figured have 6

marginal spine-teeth on right plate and 5 on the

left, but other males examined had as many as 7

teeth on a plate.

The first 5 coxal plates are as shown by Fig.

2, A. Gnathopod 1 perhaps a little shorter, but

much stouter than 2. The palm of gnathopod 1

is slightly convex and that of gnathopod 2 is

nearly straight. The armature of these palms is

shown by Figs. 2, C, D. Peraeopods 1 and 2 sub-

equal in length and alike in form; the seventh

joint is strong and has a long sharp nail and a

spine on inner margin. Peraeopods 3 to 5 in-

creasing consecutively in length; the second

joints bearing short spines on front and hind

margins; seventh joints like those of peraeopod

1 and 2. Coxal gills are present on gnathopod 2

and all the peraeopods; lateral sternal gills are

present on the sixth and seventh mesosome seg-

ments and the first metasome segment.

Metasome segments with lower hind margins

broadly rounding and bearing short setae; and

lower margin of segments 2 and 3 with a few

short spines. Uropods 1 and 2 stout and very

spinose, as shown by Fig. 2, G. Uropod 3 ex-

tends quite noticeably beyond the telson; outer

ramus as long as peduncle and armed on outer

margin with two groups of spines, each contain-

ing 3 spines, and a single spine proximally; in-

ner ramus very small and without spines. Tel-

son as long as wide; distal margin divided into

two lobes by a shallow sinus, each lobe armed

with about 10 long stout spines; lateral margins

each with a central plumose seta. Length of

male from front of head to end of uropod 1

about 21 mm.

Type.—A male, U.S.N.M. 80039, taken from

a well at Topeka, Kans., by E. A. Popenoe,

April 16, 1912.

Female.—The female closely resembles the

male, the principal difference being in the sec-

ond gnathopod. The palm of this gnathopod is

convex, while that of the male is nearly

straight. The arrangement of the spine-teeth

of the gnathopods is shown by Figs. 2, J, K.

The telson is a little wider than long, but other-

wise like that of the male. Length of female

from front of head to end of uropod 1 about 19

mm.

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 1

ICHTHYOLOGY.—Snyderichthys, a new generic name for the leatherside chub of

the Bonneville and Upper Snake drainages in Western United States.!

ROBERT

R. Miuuer, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by LEonarp P. ScHULTZ.)

During a preliminary survey of the spe-

cies of cyprinid fishes currently referred to

the genus Gila, I made a detailed study of

the pharyngeal teeth and arches of the

leatherside chub, ‘‘Gzla’’ cope. This species

has been classified in six different genera:

Squalius Bonaparte, Leuciscus Walbaum,

Tigoma Girard, Cheonda Girard, Richard-

sonius Girard, and Gila Baird and Girard,?

but my work indicates that copez belongs to

none of these. Therefore, I am erecting a

new genus for its sole reception.

Snyderichthys, new genus

Genotype.-—Squalius cope. Jordan and Gil-

bert.

Snyderichthys differs from the other Gila-like

fishes of the West principally in having only

four teeth in the main row of each pharyngeal

bone, instead of five on the left side and four on

the right. I have examined the pharyngeals of

34 specimens of S. copei as follows: 5 from Provo

River, at Provo, Utah (U.S.N.M. 125138); 10

from the same place (U.S.N.M. 41632); 10

from Little Wood River at Shoshone, Idaho

(U.S.N.M. 48041 and 48111); 2 of the 3 types

of Squalius aliciae, a synonym of Snyderich-

thys copet, from Provo River near Utah Lake

(U.S.N.M. 27412); 5 from the Beaver River at

Beaver, Utah (U.S.N.M. 15795); and the 2

types of Squalius cope: from Bear River,

Evanston, Wyo. (U.S.N.M. 27409). Despite

published tooth counts, these fish (with two

exceptions noted below) have only four teeth

in the main row of each side. The dental for-

mula varies in these specimens from dominantly

2,4-4,2 in the Bonneville system to dominantly

1,4-4,1 in the specimens from Little Wood

River. The pharyngeals of the two types of

1 Published by permission of the Acting Secre-

tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

November 22, 1944.

2 See JORDAN and EverMann, U.S. Nat. Mus.

Bull. 47, pt. 1: 236. 1896; JorpaAN, EVERMANN,

and CLarRk, Rep. U. 8. Comm. Fish., pt. 2: 119.

1928 (1930); Simon, Wyoming Wild Life 7 (4): 7,

1 fig. 1942; Stmon and Simon, Univ. Wyoming

Publ. 6 (4): 51, 61. 1942; Tanner, Utah Acad.

Sci., Arts and Letters 13: 160, 169. 1936.

3 Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 3: 461. 1880 (1881).

Squalius aliciae, which previously had been

examined (presumably by Jouy), were 2,4-4,2

and 2,4-3,2, the third tooth of the right arch

of the second pharyngeal appearing to be en-

larged as if representing a fusion of two teeth.

This abnormality was also noted in one speci-

men from Little Wood River, which had a

formula of 1,4-3,1. In the two types of S.

cope, the larger specimen has the right arch

missing (teeth 1,4 on left arch, the single tooth

represented by a strong alveolus), and the

smaller one lacks the left arch (teeth 4,1 on

right arch, one tooth of the main row repre-

sented by a prominent alveolus). No other

specimens from Bear River are at hand.

Snyderichthys differs further from the fishes cur-

rently placed in the genus Gila in having the

gill membranes attached very close together

rather than comparatively wide apart.

Of the other known genera of cyprinid fishes

in the Bonneville and Columbia River drain-

ages with biserial dentition, only three have

four teeth in the main row on each side. These

are Rhinichthys Agassiz (including the subgenus

Apocope Cope), Oregonichthys Hubbs, and

Couesius Jordan. Snyderichthys differs from

each of these genera in lacking a barbel and

differs further from Rhinichthys in the absence

of basal radii on the scales. The monotypic

genus Oregonichthys, with very large specialized

scales, is obviously distinct, and Couesius (as

represented by the type of greeni, U.S.N.M.

44454) is likewise not closely related to Snyder-

ichthys. So far as known, the new genus is

monotypic, and it is confined to the basin of

Pleistocene Lake Bonneville in Utah, Wyo-

ming, and Idaho, the Upper Snake River of

Idaho and Wyoming, and the Wood River

drainage of western Idaho.

It is a pleasure to name this distinctive fish

in honor of the late John Otterbein Snyder, in

recognition of his pioneering work on western

fishes. Snyderichthys takes its place among the

peculiar cyprinid genera Jctichthys Jordan and

Evermann, Mylocheilus Agassiz, Acrocheilus

Agassiz, and Oregonichthys, which are confined

to the Bonneville and Columbia River drainage

basins. ; .

: ‘ . " ‘

—— Se, eS a ee eee eee eee

| =a

Jan. 15, 1945 SCHULTZ: A NEW CATFISH FROM VENEZUELA 29

ICHTHYOLOGY.—Pygidium mondolfi, a new catfish from Venezuela.’ LEONARD

; P. Scuutrz, U. 8. National Museum.

q Recently, three specimens of a South 12.2 (14.3; 14.8); least depth of caudal pe-

- American catfish, collected near Caracas, duncle 10.6 (11.0; 11.2); length of caudal pe-

4 Venezuela, by Sr. Egardo Mondolfi and Sr. duncle from base of last anal ray to midcaudal

_ Vivas, were turned over to me for study. fin base 18.8 (20.4; 20.0); distance from tip of

_ After careful comparisons were made with snout to origin of dorsal fin 65.3 (66.8; 66.7);

_ related species in the collections of the snout to anal origin 75.3 (72.5; 74.2); snout to

United States National Museum, it was pelvic insertion 63.2 (58.6; 62.1); snout to anus

q concluded that these fishes represent a dis- 72.7 (68.6; 70.3); pelvic insertion to anal origin

tinct species, and this is described below

and named in honor of Sr. Mondolfi,

through whose efforts the specimens were

eollected and forwarded to me. It is re-

gretted that they were received too late to

be included in my recent paper on The cat-

fishes of Venezuela (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus.

94: 173-338, figs. 1-5, pls. 1-14. 1944).

Genus Pygidium Meyen

Pygidium mondolfi, n. sp.

Holotype.—U.S.N.M. 120377, a sexually ma-

ture male, 60.5 mm in standard length, col-

lected by Sr. Egardo Mondolfi and Sr. Vivas,

July 16, 1939, from Quebrado Chacaito near

Caracas but in Estado de Miranda, Rio Tuy

system, Venezuela.

Paratypes.—U.S.N.M. 120378, 2 specimens,

45.5 and 33 mm in standard length, collected

along with the holotype and bearing the same

data.

Description.—Based on the holotype and two

paratypes. Measurements, expressed in hun-

dredths of the standard length, are recorded for

the holotype then paratypes in parentheses,

respectively. Standard lengths in mm. 60.5

(45.5; 33). The two longest specimens are

sexually mature males.

Length of head 19.3 (19.8; 20.0) ; width across

body at pectoral insertions 14.4 (15.4; 17.3),

greatest depth of body 17.2 (18.5; 15.2); length

of snout 7.28 (8.78; 7.88); diameter of eye

1.98 (2.20; 2.73); least width of fleshy inter-

orbital 5.12 (4.62; 5.76); postorbital length of

head 9.58 (10.5; 10.3); length of longest ray

(first branched) of anal fin 10.4 (11.2; 10.0);

longest dorsal ray 10.1 (11.2; 10.6); longest

pelvic ray 6.62 (7.90; 8.18); longest (first) pec-

toral ray 10.6 (14.3; 13.9); longest caudal ray

1 Published by permission of the Acting Secre-

tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

September 22, 1944.

13.4 (13.4; 11.5); length of upper maxillary

barbel 8.27 (13.4; 13.0); length of lower maxil-

lary barbel 6.62 (9.67; 9.09); length of nasal

barbel 6.94 (10.8; 12.1); distance from edge of

eye to margin of posterior nasal opening 1.98

(2.42; 2.42): distance from tip of first pectoral

ray to pelvic insertion 37.2 (30.2; 30.3); dis-

tance that first pectoral fin ray projects beyond

other pectoral rays 1.65 (2.20; 1.51); distance

from dorsal origin to midcaudal fin base 32.7

(31.9; 30.6); anal origin to midcaudal fin base

26.4 (27.0; 26.4); pelvic insertion to midcaudal

fin base 38.8 (40.1; 39.4).

The following counts were made, respec-

tively: Dorsal rays, v, 5 (iv, 6; iv, 6); anal iv, 4

(iv, 4; iv, 4); pectoral i, 7-i, 7 (j, 7-1, 7;1, 7-i, 7);

pelvic i, 4-i, 4 (i, 4-4, 4; 1, 44, 4); branched

rays of caudal fin 10 (11; 10).

Teeth all conical; anal origin under a vertical

line through fourth branched dorsal fin ray;

dorsal origin in front of a vertical line through

front of anus; depressed dorsal fin reaches to

opposite middle of depressed anal fin; pelvic

fins not quite reaching to anus; pectorals much

shorter than the head, the first ray little pro-

longed; nasal barbel reaches a little past the

eye; upper maxillary barbel reaching about two-

thirds the way to rear of opercle, and lower

maxillary barbel a little shorter. The eye is in

the anterior half of the head, the rear of orbit

about equidistant between tip of snout and

rear of head; the caudal fin is rounded or what

may be considered as truncate-rounded, at

least the middle rays are longest; dorsal and

anal rounded; the pectoral fins are short and

the first pectoral fin ray is barely prolonged;

the dorsal origin is about equidistant between

tip of caudal fin and base of pectorals; distance

from midcaudal fin base to dorsal origin about

1.9 times in distance from tip of snout to dor-

sal origin; pelvic insertions about equidistant

from midcaudal fin base and middle of length -

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of pectoral fisn; distance between pelvic inser-

tions and anal origin is contained from 23 to 23

times in distance from tips of pectoral rays to

pelvic insertion.

Coloration.—A_ distinct interrupted dark

brownish lengthwise streak, a trifle above the

midaxis of body, formed of irregular-shaped

dark brown blotches more or less elongate,

these blotches with extensions of the pigment

dorsally, sometimes reaching nearly to the

back, but ventrally this streak of elongate

blotches ends abruptly; below dark streak on

the largest two specimens are minute brown

specks, but lacking in the smaller specimen;

above the dark lateral streak are numerous Ir-

iregularly shaped brown blotches, less distinct

and smaller than any forming the lateral

stripe; area around nasal openings darkish;

peritoneum white ventrally, dusky dorsally and

laterally.

Remarks.—This new species belongs among

those species of Pygidiwm with these character-

istics: Conical teeth; a rounded or truncate-

rounded caudal fin; the dorsal origin a little

closer to midcaudal fin base than tips of pec-

toral rays; pelvic insertions a trifle closer to

tips of pectoral fin rays than midcaudal fin

base; with the eyes located just in front of

middle of head length and the sides with a

lateral streak of dark blotches. In this group

P. mondolfi is related to the following:

In P. dorsostriatum Eigenmann, P. latistri-

atum Eigenmann, and P. venulosum Steindach-

ner, the dorsal origin is farther forward so that

it is equidistant between tip of caudal fin and

some point on the head instead of near tips of

pectoral rays as in the new species.

In P. regani Eigenmann the maxillary barbel

reaches beyond the head, but in P. mondolfi it

does not reach to rear of head.

VOL. 35, NO. 1

In P. striatum Meek and Hildebrand, the

pelvic insertion is equidistant between mid-

caudal fin base and rear of head instead of tips

of pectoral rays as in mondolfi, and in the latter

the barbels are much shorter, not reaching rear

of head.

Pygidium mondolfi may be distinguished

from other species of Pygidiwm reported from

Venezuela by the following key:

la. Caudal fin rounded or truncate-rounded, mid-

dle rays longest.

2a. Maxillary barbels slender, reaching to mid-

dle of pectoral rays; nasal barbel short,

reaching a little past eye, or about half-

way to end of operculum; origin of dorsal

a trifle closer to base of midcaudal fin

rays than to tips of branched rays of

pectoral; insertion of pelvics equidistant

between base of midcaudal fin rays and

end of operculum; length of upper pro-

longed pectoral ray 1} times in distance

from its tip to insertion of pelvics; a ver-

tical line through origin of dorsal passes

a little closer to insertion of pelvics than

to anus; dark diffuse spots or blotches, no

lateral band. . Pygidium meridae (Regan)

2b. Both maxillary as well as nasal barbels not

reaching beyond three-fourths way to

rear of opercle; origin of dorsal much

closer to midcaudal fin base than tips of

pectoral rays; insertion of pelvics an

equal distance between base of mid-

caudal fin rays and rear of pectoral fin;

length of upper or first pectoral fin ray

23 to 3 times in distance from its tip to

pelvic insertions; a vertical line through

dorsal origin passes about an equal dis-

tance between pelvic insertions and

middle of anus; a dark lateral streak

composed of dark brown blotches, with

other smaller dark blotches dorsally.

Pgidium mondolfi, n. sp.

1b. Caudal fin emarginate or a little concave.

3a. Color plain or sides with one or more con-

tinuous dark lengthwise bands, but no

dark spots on back or sides.

Fig. 1.—Pygidium mondolfi, n. sp.: Holotype, U.S.N.M. 120377, from Quebrado Chacaito near

Caracas, Venezuela. Ca. X2. Drawn by Mrs. Aime M. Awl.

Jan. 15, 1945

4a. Three dark bands, two on sides, one

along middorsal line anteriorly; a wide

diffuse blackish band along lateral line

with wide pale streaks above and be-

low; a second wide blackish band

above upper pale band beginning at

base of nasal barbel and passes through

eye, thence along upper sides close to

base of dorsal fin, thence fading pos-

teriorly on upper sides of caudal

peduncle; a third blackish streak sepa-

rated from second black band by a pale

streak runs along middorsal line of

head and back, fading in front of dor-

sal fin; nasal barbel long, reaching past

end of operculum; origin of dorsal equi-

distant between base of midcaudal fin

rays and posterior one-fourth of length

of branched pectoral rays; insertion of

pelvics equidistant from base of mid-

caudal fin rays and middle of post-

orbital length of head or eye in young;

length of prolonged upper ray of pec-

toral fin about equal to distance from

its tip to insertion of pelvics; usually a

more or less evident dark streak across

outer two thirds of length of caudal fin.

Pygidium emanueli emanueli Schultz

4b. Three dark bands on sides, none along

middorsal line of back anteriorly; a

blackish band on midsides along lat-

eral line, above and below which is a

pale band or streak; below lower pale

streak another band, more or less a

series of diffuse blotches running to-

gether, beginning in axil of pectoral

and continuing above pelvic base and

fading posteriorly; a third intense dark

band above upper pale streak, begin-

ning at base of nasal barbel, passing

through eye, thence a little distance

away from base of dorsal, fading pos-

teriorly ; origin of dorsal fin equidistant

OBITUARIES

from base of midcaudal fin rays and

middle of length of branched rays of

pelvics; insertion of pelvics equidistant

from base of midcaudal fin rays and

about middle of postorbital length of

head; nasal barbel reaching past end

of operculum; length of upper pro-

longed pectoral ray contained 1 to

1-1/7 times in distance from its tip to

insertion of pelvics.

Pygidium emanuelt motatanensis Schultz

Color plain in adults, but in young about

30 to 40 mm or shorter a single black

streak occurring along midsides, but at

70 mm streak barely discernible; origin

of dorsal equidistant from base of

midcaudal fin rays and tips of branched

rays of pectoral; insertion of pelvics

equal distance from base of midcaudal

fin rays and middle of postorbital

length of head; length of first (pro-

longed) ray of pectoral contained 14

to 1¢ in distance from its tip to inser-

tion of pelvics; nasal barbel reaching a

little past end of operculum; pelvics

not reaching past anus.

Pygidium knerit Steindachner

3b. Back or sides or both with numerous black-

ish or brownish spots, these small or of

moderate size; caudal fin a little concave;

belly plain; sometimes spots along mid-

sides more or less fusing into a dark, nar-

row streak; origin of dorsal a little closer

to tips of branched rays of pectoral fin

than to midbase of caudal fin; insertion

of pelvics equidistant from midcaudal

fin base and second third of postorbital

length of head; length of upper prolonged

ray of pectoral 0.9 to 1.2 times in dis-

tance between its tip and pelvic inser-

tion; nasal barbel extends considerably

past end of operculum.

Pygidium banneaui maracaiboensis Schultz

4c.

@bituaries

Harry FIELDING REID, emeritus professor of

dynamical geology and geography at the

Johns Hopkins University, died on Sunday,

June 18, 1944, just one month after his 85th

birthday. Born in Baltimore, he took his A.B.

and Ph.D. degrees at Johns Hopkins. After

graduation he served successively as professor

of mathematics and then of physics at Case

School, returning to his alma mater in 1894

as lecturer, then as professor of geological

physics, retiring in 1929. He is survived by his

wife, Edyth Gittings, a son, and a daughter.

His was a long and distinguished career as a

scientist as evinced by his early election to the

National Academy of Sciences. He was devoted

to the precise thinking and rigid demands of

proof which doubtless grew out of his mathe-

matical training and exercised a very salutary

influence by both example and precept in the

field of geology which is, to such a large degree,

an eclectic science. Trips to Switzerland and

Alaska to investigate glaciers and an absorbing

interest led to his presidency of the Seismologi-

cal Society of America and presidency of the

Geophysical Union as well as to his appoint-

ment to the California Earthquake Commission

and to that which made a study of the Panama

Canal slides. Along with the late Joseph S.

oa: JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Ames, he was sent to Europe during the early

part of World War I to report on the contribu-

tions of British science to the war effort.

Dr. Reid was a member of the American

Philosophical Society, the International Geo-

detic and Geophysical Union, Geological Soci-

ety of America, Seismological Society, Société

Hélvetique des Sciences Naturelle, Interna-

tional Seismological Association, Washington

Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia Academy of

Sciences, and others. He was Hitchcock lec-

turer in 1911.

He served his state as director of the High-

way Division of the Survey for several years.

He will be widely missed in all quarters where

clear and precise thinking is practiced. It seems

to me that the highest tribute that can be paid

his memory is that all his life he was a high-

minded gentleman and scholar.

Epwarp W. Brrry.

On June 3, 1944, “‘finis’’ was written to the

many-sided crowded career of WiLL1aAM Mat-

COLM CorsE, a member of the Academy since

1923 and, at the time of his death, vice presi-

dent representing the Society of Military Engi-

neers. Brimming over with vitality, energy, and

enthusiasm, Mr. Corse was an outstanding fig-

ure in American metallurgical circles for many

years. He was born at Malden, Mass., in 1878,

of New England parentage dating back to early

colonial days. Twenty-one years later he was

graduated from Massachusetts Institute of

Technology. He soon turned from chemistry,

his first interest, to metallurgy as a life career

and during a period of 20 years (1902-1922)

had a wide and varied experience. He held a

number of metallurgical industrial positions of

constantly increasing importance. Brass was

seemingly his favorite, although nickel and

bearing metals were close seconds. During

World War I, on a special Navy civilian assign-

ment, he spent much time at the Portsmouth,

N. H., Navy Yard on brass foundry problems.

His Washington career began in 1922 with the

National Research Council and his special as-

signment of administrative work in connection

with the International Critical Tables project.

VOL. 35, No. 1

After 1925 he conducted a metallurgical con-

sulting service in Washington in the course of

which his ability to make and hold friends was

strikingly demonstrated. He became well

known in Army, Navy, and other Washington

circles. ;

Mr. Corse’s outstanding ability as a leader

and organizer is well illustrated by the leading

part he played in 1912 in the organization of the

American Institute of Metals, now the Insti-

tute of Metals Division of the American Insti-

tute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers.

For 20 years he served either as the secretary-

treasurer or secretary of this unit. He also

served as the American corresponding secretary

of the British Institute of Metals for many

years up to the time of his death. For over 21

years he was a member of the metallurgical ad-

visory committee of the National Bureau of

Standards, where he will long be affectionately

remembered. He played an important part in

the organization of this committee by his close

friend Dr. George Kimball Burgess, then chief

of the Division of Metallurgy.

He was the author of the book Bearing

Metals and Bearings, a pioneer in the field pub-

lished as one of the technologie series of the

American Chemical Society, as well as many

technical papers dealing with metallurgical sub-

jects. His many nonmetallurgical interests are

illustrated by his membership in the Society of

Colonial Wars, Sons of American Revolution,

Arts Club of Washington, Cosmos Club, Ro-

tary Club (Keene, N. H.), Society of American

Military Engineers, and Army Ordnance Asso-

ciation.

Mr. Corse was married twice, and through

the son of the daughter of his first wife his

name is carried on. He is survived by his wife

at the home, ‘‘Windy Hill,” Westmoreland,

N. H., to which he retired a few years ago when

his health first became impaired. As a man who

always rang true as the metal with which he

worked and as a sympathetic friend with an

earnest disposition to make others happy, he

will long be remembered by his many associ-

ates in the metallurgical profession.

H. 8. Rawpon.

CONTENTS

LINGUISTICS. —Phonematic daylight i in Lhiinkit, Navajo of ie North.

JoHN P. HARRINGTON Pecgtt Lec hey these ae ih OO RA WaiRL Ve eee as eR ge a

ENTOMOLOGY.—Preliminary life-history studies in Guam of the scarab

beetle Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske). R. G. OAKLEY......

ENToMOLOGY.— Description of the larva and pupa of the scarab beetle

Ancylonycha mindanaona (Brenske). ApAm G. BOvING.........

ENTOMOLOGY.—Five mites of the family Ereynetidae from Mexico.

Epwarp: W. BAKER. i000 005 0.3. Shen Ta a 2 ee

ZooLocy.—A new starfish of the genus Luzdia from the coast of Georgia.

AUSTIN ET, Cuame | oo es i ta ap apace he a

ZooLtocy.—Notes on some recently collected hydroids in the United

States National Museum, with descriptions of three new species.

GC. McGLRaAn PRAM. 00) ae tao PSS a el ee

ZooLoGcy.— Notes on the amphipod genus Bactrurus Hay, with descrip-

tion of a new species. CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER..............

IcHTHYOLOGY.—Snyderichthys, a new generic name for the leatherside

chub of the Bonneville and Upper Snake drainages in Western

United States... Roser Ry: Mraume . of. ose as el. as Oe ee

IcHTHYOLOGY:—Pygidium mondolfi, a new catfish from Venezuela.

LEONARD P. SCHULTZ......... Se tae FCs RETRO ee en RS

OBITUARIES: Harry Fielding Reid; William Malcolm Corse...:......

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals.

i a eae Rl .*

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Vou. 35 Fesruary 15, 1945 No. 2

JOURNAL 7

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

G. ArtHurR CoopEeR Lewis V. Jupson

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U. 8S. NATIONAL MUSEUM

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

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PHILOSOPHICAL BOCIETY

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GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

ALBERT E. LonNGLEY WiuuraM N. Fenton

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL BOCIBTY

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CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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;

ve 2

OLUME 35

JOURNAL

OF THE

“WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fresruary 15, 1945

No, 2

a —A new form of the moonvine Calonyction aculeatum with divided co-

rolla limb, and length-of-day behavior and flowering of the common form.

H. A.

ALLARD, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering.

The corolla limb of the moonvine Calo-

nyction aculeatum is normally undivided. A

form has been discovered differing from the

typical form only by having the corolla

limb divided into five (sometimes four)

rounded, distinctly clawed segments. This

distinctive form, which appears to have

arisen as a mutant, seems worthy of a name

and is diagnosed as follows:

Calonyction aculeatum (L.) House f.

apopetalum Allard, forma nova

Limbus corollae in segmenta 5 (interdum

4) unguiculata divisus.

Type material has been deposited in the

: U.S. National Herbarium under the num-

ber 1871928. Isotypes have also been de-

_ posited in the general herbarium collection

and the herbarium of introduced plants un-

der the numbers 1871929 and 1871930, re-

- spectively. An abundance of herbarium ma-

terial of the original type plant has been

distributed among other large herbaria in

_ the United States, including the Herbarium

of the National Rebaresunh at Beltsville,

_ Md., and the Gray Herbarium at Harvard

_ University.

.. ie

ORIGIN OF THE NEW FORM

For many years I have grown a number of

- moonvines each summer at Arlington, Va.

_ As this vine is a native of the American

‘Tropics, where cold is never experienced,

_ the plants are not constituted to withstand

_ winter severity at any stage in northern

latitudes. A few plants, however, usually

appear spontaneously each spring in my

a ® Seen ape Sere 7. 7:

Ps 4 i

1 Received October 12, 1944.

garden. The survival of such seeds seems to

be favored by the very hard, impermeable

seed coat and the protection afforded by an

abundance of leaf litter, which may some-

times accidentally cover and Loess them

from freezing.

In October 1943 a vigorous seedling

appeared in my garden under such cir-

cumstances and was left undisturbed until

some time in November. For a brief period

it was covered with a bucket to protect it

from frost; then when it had begun to show

signs of injury from the cold nights it was

transplanted to a bucket in the warm

greenhouse. Here it grew _ vigorously

throughout the winter but showed no evi-

dence of flowering until late in March and

April, when the first buds appeared. Early

in May 1944 the plant was transferred from

the bucket to a spot in my garden where it

could climb a high wire fence.

The first open blossom appeared on the

evening of June 20. From this date new

flowers appeared nightly, their number in-

creasing throughout July and August, and

on several nights as many as 45 flowers were

displayed at one time. The first ripe seed

pods appeared on July 7, the seed coat be-

ing mostly brownish in color. The. usual

color is a uniform black, but some plants

produce seeds with entirely white seed

coats. In all, 1,015 blossoms appeared on

this vine up to and including September 16.

Few blossoms appeared after that date.

The corolla limb was divided usually into

five broad, rounded, distinctly clawed seg-

ments. Only four blossoms departed from

this form, these being distinctive in having

four segments. The twist of the lobes in the

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

bud is similar to that of the normal form,

the direction of twist being clockwise, or

from right to left. The pollen grains, as in

the normal form, average about 160.15 in

diameter, ranging from 144y to 165.6y.

The moonvine normally produces five

exserted stamens, which are adnate to the

corolla tube, a stamen being situated below

or 1n line with each sinus. In those blossoms

having only four lobes, however, or four

sinuses, the stamens are always four in

number.

Numerous cuttings have been rooted

from the original plant and cross pollina-

tions with the normal unlobed form have

been made to determine the genetic be-

havior of the mutant form. An abundance

of selfed seed has also been obtained from

the original plant, since it was induced to

flower very early outdoors and has con-

tinued to flower until fall. The moonvine

normally does not flower around Washing-

ton, D. C., until late in July or August when

grown from seeds planted outdoors in May.

LENGTH-OF-DAY BEHAVIOR OF THE

MOONVINE

The length-of-day behavior of the moon-

vine appears to be typical of that of many

tropical plants, since it can flower in re-

sponse to days only 12 hours long at the

Equator and also during the much longer

days that prevail during the warm growing

season in middle latitudes.

Experiments carried out 15 or 16 years

ago with seedlings subjected to various con-

stant lengths of day from April 17, the date

of germination, have revealed that days

much below 12 hours in length may be un-

favorable to flowering. The plants experi-

encing a 10-hour day never flowered, while

the plants experiencing a 12-hour day and

the controls experiencing full day began

flowering July 27. The plants experiencing

full day showed indications of becoming

less floriferous and finally ceased flowering

in September. Since this behavior may have

been considered the result of aging, or a

response due to lowering temperatures, fur-

ther studies were made. To test this point a

plant was transferred to a large bed of soil

in the warm greenhouse September 27. This

plant remained in a vigorous growing condi-

VOL. 35, NO. 2

tion throughout the winter, but buds did

not appear until March 29.

The plants experiencing the 10-hour day,

which had never flowered, were also brought

into the warm greenhouse and given the

same conditions. These plants likewise

failed to produce buds until April.

The mutant form that germinated in Oc-

tober showed the same nonflowering tend-

ency throughout the winter, since in the

warm greenhouse buds did not appear un-

til late in March and early in April, a pe-

riod of at least 162 days. Experiments have

shown that normal plants will flower at

Washington, D. C., in summertime when

planted outdoors in about 100 days, which -

is about two months sooner.

This would indicate that the moonvine

may show a more or less intermediate be-

havior in its flowering, since days as short

as 10 or 11 hours do not appear favorable

to free flowering. Whether there are upper

limits with days too long for flowering is

not known. A length of day of 14.9 hours

from sunrise to sunset, which is the longest

day prevailing in the Washington area, does

not appear to be very unfavorable to flower-

ing when earlier flowering has been induced.

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

The moonvine is a very ornamental

climber and a worthy addition to any gar-

den. Its big, immaculately white flowers,

exhaling a delightful perfume, opening at

dusk and enduring until the next morning,

always excite admiration in the lover of

flowers. The flowers appear to self-pollinate

very readily, as the anthers, usually closely

investing the stigma in the bud, have de-

hisced and exposed their large pollen grains

even before the flowers have actually ex-

panded their corollas. If plants can be

started in the greenhouse in winter and

grown to good size before transplanted into

the garden in May, flowering can be induced

a month or more in advance of those grown

from seed outdoors.

The common peduncle of the flowers and

the pedicels of the individual blossoms

show a strong negatively geotropic be-

havior, and so the buds and flowers are usu-

ally held stiffly erect. After flowering and pol-

lination the thick, enlarged pedicel of the

Fes. 15, 1945

opened blossom bends downward sharply

under the influence of a positive geotropism,

causing the enlarging, immature capsules

to point earthward. This positive geotro-

pism affects only the individual maturing

blossoms of the cluster. Experiments have

shown that when the stamens are removed

and fertilization is prevented, the pedicels

do not bend earthward, and after yellowing

they finally dehisce at the base and fall off.

The moonvine under normal summer con-

ditions is a nocturnal flowering plant and in

warm weather opens its flowers in the eve-

ning some time after sundown. The flowers

soon wither the next morning. As the au-

tumn days approach and cooler weather

intervenes, the opening of the flowers may

be retarded. When the night temperatures

become too low the time of flowering is com-

pletely reversed. The plants then behave

like the morning-glories, their flowers open-

ing only during the day and persisting even

until the next day.

During the warm days of late summer

the nocturnal flowering of the moonvine is

a very persistent behavior. Some years ago

ALLARD: A NEW FORM OF THE MOONVINE 35

I cut off the main stem of a large flowering

plant at the ground and noted its subse-

quent behavior. This plant continued to

open its blossoms in the evening at the nor-

mal time for one or two evenings until pro-

found wilting had set in.

It would be of some interest to know

whether the flowering of the moonvine is

seasonal and becomes reduced in the tropi-

cal and subtropical conditions of its native

home when the shortest days prevail.

As previously stated, flowering outdoors

becomes noticeably reduced in September,

but lower temperatures conceivably might

be an unfavorable condition here. How-

ever, plants kept in a greenhouse with

warm summer temperatures still tend to be-

come nonflowering. Some change in light

conditions appears to be responsible for

this behavior. Not only do greatly short-

ened days intervene in wintertime, but also

there is reduction in ultraviolet and other

qualities of radiation in the greenhouse dur-

ing the winter months in temperate regions.

Furthermore, there is a great reduction in

intensity of radiation throughout the win-

Fic. 1.—Blossoms of mutant form of moonvine, Calonyction aculeatum f. apopetalum; 0.58 natural size.

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ter, since the average maximum intensity is

perhaps less than 1,000 foot-candles in com-

parison with an average of 10,000 foot-

candles in summertime. It is evident, then,

that while a shortened length of day may

appear to explain the nonflowering tend-

ency of the plants in wintertime, this may

not be the only factor involved at this sea-

son. The failure of the plants to flower un-

der daily durations of summer sunlight of

10 hours, as tests have shown, would appear

to be correctly explained as a length-of-day

response.

While the moonvine is highly regarded in

our gardens only for its beauty, the natives

of Central America long ago somehow

learned that a decoction of the macerated

plant would coagulate the latex of the

castilla tree in the production of its rubber.

This coagulating characteristic has been

BOTAN Y.—Dyipterocypsela, a new genus of Vernonieae from Colombia.!

VOL. 35, NO. 2

studied and a resin has been isolated? that

may find use in the commercial production

of castilla rubber.

The scientific name Calonyction is a most

appropriate one for this lovely flower, be-

ing a compound of the Greek words kalos,

beautiful, and nyktios, nightly, meaning

beautiful at night. Surely the flower de-

serves this characterization.

The flowers are so very fragrant during

the warm summer nights that their delight-

ful perfume can be detected some distance

from the plants. However, during the cool

autumn days and nights the blossoms are

almost entirely devoid of fragrance.

2 WitpmaNn, 8. G., McMutuan, A. V., and

Grieas, Rosamonp, Isolation of an active sub-

stance from Calonyction aculeatum capable of co-

agulating castilla latex. Science 97: 471-472. May

21, 1948.

Se Ee

BuakE, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering.

A composite from a little-known area in

interior Colombia, referred to me for study

by E. P. Killip, of the U. 8. National Her-

barium, proves to represent a new genus of

Vernonieae with somewhat remarkable fea-

tures of involucre, corolla, and achene.

Dipterocypsela Blake, gen. nov.

Capitula homogama discoidea multiflora. In-

volucri hemisphaerici phyllaria ca. 3-seriata

gradata, extima parva linearia subherbacea

saepe cornuta, media oblonga submembranacea

margine subscariosa plusminusve concava apice

cucullata dorso infra apicem herbaceo-cornuta,

intima ovata submembranacea plana inappen-

diculata. Receptaculum planum nudum. Corol-

lae irregulares 5-fidae, fauce campanulata

tubum subaequante, limbo bilabiato, labio

exteriore e dentibus 2 longioribus, interiore

e dentibus 3 brevioribus constante. Antherae

apice appendicibus ovatis praeditae, basi alte

sagittatae, auriculis obtusis ecaudatis, eis con-

tiguis connatis. Styli rami anguste lineari-

subulati hispiduli. Achenia (immatura) late

ovalia valde obcompressa saepius bialata, facie

interiore 4-costata exteriore 3-costata, alis (una

vel ambabus) saepe in cornua productis. Pap-

pus pluriseriatus gradatus fragilis deciduus e

setis numerosis hispidulis compositus.—Herba

1 Received December 14, 1944. ©

elata succulenta apice bifurcata inconspicue

pilosula pilis appressis; folia ampla late ovata

repande paucidentata (suprema integra) pen-

ninervia sicc. membranacea olivaceoviridia

longe petiolata petiolis supra alatis; capitula

mediocria numerosa in spicis scorpioideis longis

nudis pedunculatis basi interruptis axillaribus

v. extra-axillaribus et terminalibus disposita;

corollae purpureae. Species typica D. succu-

lenta, sp. nov.

Dipterocypsela succulenta Blake, sp. nov.

Herba 2.5 m alta, basi invisa, partis novellis

cinerascentibus. Folia inferiora magna, petiolo

9-20 em longo infra nudo supra cuneate alato,

ala interdum 1-—2-dentata, lamina late ovata

ca. 30 cm longa et lata acuta basi subtruncata

vel obscure cordata paucidentata et inter

dentes vix evidenter multidenticulata dentibus

venulas terminantibus obtusis glandulosis inter

se saepius 1.5-3.5 mm distantibus penninervia

nervis 8—10-jugis apice curvato-anastomosanti-

bus albidis; folia media minora, basi rotundata;

folia suprema multo minora integra v. sub-

integra, petiolo 1.5—4.5 cm longo, lamina 7.5—

11.5 em longa, 5.5-8.5 cm lata. Pedunculi

saepius 5.5—9 cm longi; spicae 8-30 cm longae,

duabus terminalibus equalibus v. inaequalibus.

Capitula ca. 26-flora basi lata sessilia ebrac-

teata ca. 1 em diam. 7 mm alta, vel florentia

;

‘Fen. 15, 1945

(sicca) ca. 20 mm diam. 8 mm alta. Phyllaria

-extima ca. 5 anguste linearia ca. 4 mm longa

0.5 mm lata laxa apice saepe breviter herbaceo-

_ cornuta vel cucullata; media ca. 4 oblonga ca.

6.5 mm longa obtusa submembranacea dorso

_viridescentia margine et apice subscariosa

Fig. 1.—Dipterocypsela succulenta, from the type: a, Apex of plant, 4; b, upper part of stem,

3%; ¢, d, phyllaries of outermost series, <5; e, f, phyllaries of middle series, 5; g, phyllary of inmost

series, <5; h, corolla in side view, X5; 7, corolla spread out, X5; 7, 3 stamens, X5; k, style, 5; J,

achene, X5; m, pappus bristle, 10.

BLAKE: A NEW GENUS OF VERNONIEAE 37

plusminusve concava apice saepe cucullata

infra apicem cornu dorsali obtuso molliter

herbaceo recte patente donata; intima ca. 4

late ovata ca. 8 mm longa, 4.5 mm lata,

obtusa apice paullum erosa submembranacea

dorso viridescentia margine et apice subscariosa

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

paene ad apicem breviter ciliata ut phyllaria

cetera dense cinerascenterque pilosula pilis

appressis; omnia margine et apice saepe pur-

pureo-tincta. Corollae purpureae ca. 8 mm

longae, saltem exteriores horizontaliter pa-

tentes tubo stamineo et stylo sursum curvatis;

tubus tenuis ca. 2.5 mm longus glaber; faux

campanulata ca. 2.56 mm longa glabra; dentes

apice recurvati dorso prope apicem praecipue

juventate stipitato-glandulosi, ei labil exterioris

3 mm ei labii interioris 2 mm longi. Achenia

valde immatura ca. 1 mm longa 1.5 mm lata

(alis tenuibus ca. 0.25 mm latis inclusis) trun-

cata glabra. Pappi albi setae ca. 56, exteriores

ca. 1.5 mm interiores 3 mm longae.

Cotomsia: Erect succulent herb to 2.5 me-

ters high, flowers purple, showy, in dense colo-

nies on masses of broken limestone in forest

5 km south of Codazzi, Dept. Magdalena, alt.

ca. 150 meters, 31 Oct. 1948, Oscar Haught 3796

(type no. 1708581, U. 8. Nat. Herb.).

The proper position of this plant in the tribe

Vernonieaeis not easy to determine. Bentham

and Hooker’s series Ethulieae, containing 11

genera, was separated from their series Euver-

nonieae, containing 6 genera, by no definite

character aside from the pappus. In the Ethu-

lieae the pappus was described as absent or

composed of very caducous and usually few

bristles, in the Euvernonieae as more or less

persistent and usually 2-3-seriate, with copi-

ousinner bristles. Hoffmann, in Die natiirlichen

Pflanzenfamilien, split the Ethulieae into two

groups, the first without pappus. the second

with a pappus of caducous (‘leicht abfallen-

den’’) bristles, but did not assign them the

dignity of series names. In this, as in some simi-

VOL. 35, NO. 2

lar cases in other groups of Compositae, it is not

too easy to discriminate between a caducous

pappus, one that is fragile and readily decidu-

ous, and one that is definitely persistent.

Moreover, some species of Vernonia and related

genera of the Euvernonieae possess a pappus

that is quite as fragile and as readily deciduous

as that of Erlangea and Blanchetia (of the

Ethulieae).

For the present the genus may be placed

after Vernonia. It differs primarily from that

genus, as from all other known Vernonieae, in

its truly winged and strongly obcompressed

achenes. Its bilabiate corollas and curiously

appendaged phyllaries are additional points of

distinction. The presence of an outer lip made

up of two petals instead of three is certainly

very rare in Compositae, but repeated and care-

ful dissection seemed to leave no doubt of its

reality.

The immature state of the achenes makes a

complete description of their characters im-

possible. Those of the two or three outer series

of flowers are normally although not invariably

winged as described; the very immature inner

achenes show no evidence of a wing. Several

instances of connation between two ovaries of

the same series, and in two cases even between

three, were observed in the material dissected;

these immature fruits were much broader than

normal ones and showed two circles (in two

cases three) of more or less completely detached

pappus bristles at apex. In one instance two

corollas were found in place on a double ovary,

and in another three embryos, one much

smaller than the others, were found in place

in a triple ovary.

ENTOMOLOGY .—The mealybug genus Heterococcus Ferris and some of tts rela-

tives (Homoptera: Coccoidea).}

and Plant Quarantine.

First described in 1918 by Ferris (4, p.

65), Heterococcus has attracted little atten-

tion in the years since its description, and

only a few species have been assigned to it

during this time. In fact the genus has been

so infrequently recognized that for most of

this period no examples of any species be-

longing to it have existed in the United

States National collection of Coccidae.

While a few specimens have become avail-

1 Received December 11, 1944.

Harotp Morrison, Bureau of Entomology

able in recent years, this situation was

modified only during the summer of 1944,

when specimens in numbers from an in-

festation of one species on timothy were

sent in for examination from Wooster, Ohio,

and when this same species was found on

foxtail inside the city of Washington, D. C.

After reviewing the descriptions of the

species that have been assigned here, it ap-

pears reasonably certain that this recently

collected insect is undescribed, and since it

has been reported from an important forage

Fes. 15, 1945 MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 39

plant, the name and description here pre- specific descriptions are too incomplete to

sented may prove useful to economic en-

_tomology. At the same time a review of the

other species assigned to the genus is at-

permit accurate recognition of their rela-

tionships.

First in line for consideration is one of the

species originally described in the genus

Heterococcus, H. painei Laing (15, p. 20).

This species, while conforming with some

tempted, although this, of necessity, is

based mostly on literature and not on actual

3 specimens of the species involved and so

| undoubtedly possesses the deficiencies of

work so based. Through the much appre-

ciated courtesy of Prof. G. F. Ferris, it has

been possible to examine a specimen from

the type material of the genotype, Helero-

_coccus arenae Ferris, and supplementary

descriptive notes and figures for this spe-

cies, as well as a broadened generic diagno-

sis, thereby have been added to the paper.

The illustrations accompanying the paper

were drawn by Mrs. Sara Hoke DeBord.

GENERIC RELATIONSHIPS OF HETEROCOCCUS

There exists at present so much confu-

sion respecting the characteristics and

limits of the various genera that have

been described among the mealybugs that

any suggestions or conclusions that may

be offered in this restricted study must be

accepted as tentative or preliminary. Pro-

fessor Ferris in his initial presentation of

this genus stressed the combination of the

characters 9-segmented antennae, tarsal

claw with denticle, and presence of circular

pores only in the dorsal derm as a basis

for generic recognition. With some additions

and elaboration these still seem to present

the most significant characteristics of the

group of species involved.

To anyone who has examined numbers of

mealybugs, the outstanding characteristic

of this genus surely will be the numerous

circular multilocular disk pores, normally

quinquelocular, that are distributed widely

over both surfaces of the body and that

_ appear obviously to represent an alternate

to the small trilocular (and usually triangu-

lar) disk pores that may be called a normal

feature of mealybug anatomy. These circu-

lar pores are so distinctive that they must

have some classificatory significance, and

on this account consideration has been

given to certain other mealybugs that are

known to possess them in comparable strik-

ing fashion. Possibly additional species in

_ the mealybug group beyond those discussed

should be considered, but many of the

elements of the original generic character-

ization, is described as lacking any definite

indications of cerarii, such as the paired

spines on the anal lobes of the genotype,

and as possessing a single transverse ventral

cicatrix (or circulus), a structure not found

in any of the species here considered to be-

long properly in the genus. The stout oval

body of painei and its very different habitat,

on coconut in the South Pacific, also con-

tribute to the conclusion that it would be

best to exclude the species from Heterococ-

cus. On the basis of present imperfect

knowledge of mealybug generic standards,

a new genus for this species would seem to

be indicated and is described in this paper.

A second species in which the quinqueloc-

ular pores are numerous and conspicuous,

and which possesses other characteristics of

Heterococcus, as 9-segmented antennae, ce-

rarian spines, and denticulate claw, is the

one described as Pseudococcus flagrans by

Brain (3, p. 140). Although it is so similar

to Heterococcus, it became evident, in the

process of checking literature, that flagrans

is congeneric with and closely related to

Annulicoccus ugandensis James (13, p. 209),

having the same 9-segmented antennae, the

same row of four ventral cicatrices down the

ventral abdominal midline, and, from

James’s illustration, an even greater abun-

dance of large quinquelocular and smaller

multilocular disk pores. Surprisingly, how-

ever, while James in his generic discussion

states flatly that the claw lacks a denticle,

this, as indicated above, is definitely pres-

ent, and sometimes almost conspicuous, in

specimens of Brain’s species. From exami-

nation of many species in the so-called

Phenacoccus series of mealybug genera it

has seemed that the presence of a claw

denticle (usually in association with 9-seg-

mented antennae) was positively signifi-

cant as evidence of a segregation group

including several genera. Even if the pres-

ence or absence of a claw denticle is actually

without classificatory significance in An-

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

nulicoccus, the genus certainly seems to be

a sound morphological and ecological segre-

gate with the two species here associated in

itis Ve

The presence of more or less enlarged,

circular, usually quinquelocular pores has

been reported for several species of Ripersza,

but, so far as has been ascertained, only

one of these, Ripersia asphodelt Boden-

heimer (1, p. 178) appears to approach

Heterococcus in respect to the abundant de-

velopment and very wide distribution of the

quinquelocular pores. In this species, on the

basis of specimens supplied by Dr. Joseph

Carmin, the large quinqueloculars (many

actually are quadrilocular, or sometimes

even trilocular) are heavily distributed over

the body, especially along the margin and

towards the apex of the abdomen, there is

a distinct claw denticle, apical cerarii are

developed and no ventral cicatrix or circulus

is present. To this extent the insect is very

strongly suggestive of Heterococcus, but the

antennae are reduced to six segments, a

few normal, small trilocular, pores are pres-

ent, chiefly in the developed cerarii, and

there are none of the large multilocular disk

pores which occur in most of the species of

Heterococcus. The situation of this species

seems to be comparable to that of H. painez,

already discussed, in that its characteristics,

on the basis of our present knowledge of

mealybug generic standards, appear to en-

title it to segregation in a distinct generic

unit; certainly it stands out as sharply as

Brevennia and Lacombia separated from

Ripersia as subgenera by Goux (10).

Accordingly, it has seemed best, in spite

of the fragmentary character of this study,

to establish a new genus for this anomalous

species.

VOL. 30, NO. 2

These various genera, so far as our pres-

ent knowledge goes, may be separated from

all other described mealybugs by the pres-

ence in the derm, both dorsally and ven-

trally, of numerous, circular, usually quin-

quelocular (but the loculi may range from

three to six or more) disk pores, these oc-

cupying the place of the characteristic small

trilocular pores of most mealybugs, with the

triloculars either wanting entirely or greatly

restricted in numbers and distribution.

The key below is offered for the separa-

tion of the four genera under discussion.

Genus Annulicoccus James

Adult female—Thinly coated with white

secretion, without cerarian tassels, body color

pinkish, size medium (length 2-4 mm), elongate

elliptical, length more than twice width, wholly

membranous. Antennae 9-segmented, as in

Heterococcus. Eyes approaching hemispherical, —

with only a small asymmetrical sclerotized

base. Legs a little thickened, an obscure pattern

of widely scattered tiny pores more or less de-

veloped on femur and tibia, these lacking on

coxa, claw with or without denticle, tarsal digi-

tules slender, acute, attaining or exceeding claw

apex, claw digitules slender, slightly knobbed

apically, slightly exceeding the claw apex.

Beak very short conical, incompletely 2-seg-

mented. Spiracles not unusual, with both quin-

queloculars and multiloculars associated with

each. Dorsal ostioles developed, not conspicu-

ous, lips with some pores and setae. Cerarii not

sharply developed, superficially with only the

apical two or three pairs obvious, these each

with two (rarely one) lanceolate spines and

numerous rather long and stout setae and quin-

quelocular-type pores associated; actually (at

least in flagrans) with 16 or 17 pairs of cerarian

structures, each, except posterior as stated,

Key to HETEROcOccUS AND ASSOCIATED GENERA

a. One or more ventral cicatrices present.

b. A single transverse ventral cicatrix; no traces of cerarii, not even one or a pair of slender spines in

any cerarian area; multilocular disk pores few, restricted to midventral areas of last three seg-

MENS st HS Pes Ee ee

op ete PER ER oN AS Laingiococcus, n. gen.

bb. Four conspicuous, circular to transversely elliptical ventral cicatrices in a row down ventral mid-

line of abdomen; definitely recognizable cerarian spines present, on anal lobes at least; multi-

locular disk pores much more abundant, in wide bands on ventral surface of posterior ab-

dominal segments and in irregular rows dorsally; quinquelocular-type pores distinctly larger

than ’multioculars; ere a ee

aa. No ventral cicatrices present.

LAE ESS SLOG, See ere Rete eer Annulicoccus James

c. Antennae normally 9-segmented; no trilocular (triangular) pores present; multiloculars usually

present, lacking in one species...........

OE arta Mee an Cae Sten ACen Mee OT: Heterococcus Ferris

cc. Antennae 6-segmented; a few trilocular pores present in cerarii and widely scattered elsewhere;

mintiloculars lacking’). S.-cmaee oleae

wa hatin Toon ans Soe eae ee ee Asphodelococcus, n. gen.

ee ee ee ee ee

sp ania Neg aie se by

with a single slender, lanceolate spine and sevy-

eral setae and quinquelocular-type pores. Anal

lobes not developed, at most a faint bulge, no

ventral thickening or any sclerotized area. Anal

ing approaching the normal pseudococcine

shape, loosely arranged in middle of row,

bunched at ends, pores of inner row more

tightly bunched throughout, this row shorter

than outer; with six setae, the longest a little

shorter than apical anal lobe seta. Four types

of derm pores present, all in numbers: Large

-quinquelocular-type with range of four to six

even nine loculi, multiloculars, here smaller

than the quinquelocular-type, much smaller

‘short tubulars, expanded at inner ends, and

“finally very tiny, short, cylindrical, simple

pores; no normal triloculars and no normal

elongate, slender tubulars. Body setae numer-

ous on both surfaces, varying strongly in size,

stiff basally but tapering to delicate tips. Char-

_ acteristically four circular to transversely stout

elliptical ventral cicatrices, posterior smallest,

located on the midline seemingly in the inter-

_ spaces between the second to sixth segments.

_ Type of genus.—Annulicoccus ugandensis

James (13, p. 209).

The preceding description has been based, in

aus. on specimens of the second species in-

cluded, that is, flagrans (Brain), since the de-

es ption of ugandensis omits mention of a few

of the characters considered.

i The two species now included may be sepa-

rated by the following key:

| a. Claw without denticle; large quinquelocular-

pee pore described as actually with 6 to 9

het ili Sie nae pias ugandensis James

aa, clas rail distinct denticle; quinquelocular-

type pore actually normally with 5 loculi.

flagrans (Brain)

3 The preceding discussion and the accompany-

ing illustrations (Figs. 6, 14-21) of flagrans,

drawn from specimens Se Brain’s type ma-

terial, should serve not only to fix the generic

characters clearly but also to present descrip-

_ tive details beyond those provided by Brain in

a his original description of this species (3, pp.

140-143).

Asphodelococcus, n. gen.

Adult female.—Secretionary covering uncer-

tain, body color pink, size medium, length

around 3 mm, elliptical, wholly membranous.

_ Antennae 6-segmented, apical segment much

| onger than any other and with four sensory

MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 41

setae. Kye somewhat rounded and on a flat,

asymmetrical, basal collar. Legs normal but

small and a little thickened, posterior without

pores On coxa or femur, a few scattered on

tibia, claw denticle distinct, tarsal digitules

acute, not exceeding claw apex, claw digitules

faintly knobbed apically, surpassing claw apex.

Beak stout conical, wider than long, incom-

pletely 2-segmented. Spiracles not unusual.

Both pairs of dorsal ostioles present. Only the

posterior two or perhaps three pairs of cerarii

plainly developed and recognizable, but others

along the body margin vaguely indicated, de-

veloped cerarii including slender spines, trilocu-

lar pores, and spinelike accessory setae, smaller

than spines, but otherwise hardly differenti-

ated. Anal lobes indicated by rounded bulges,

no ventral thickening, apical setae of moderate

length. Anal ring approaching normal pseudo-

coccine type, with two rows of pores on each

half, and with six setae, the longest a little

shorter than apical seta. Three types of pores

present, normal small triloculars scattered in

small numbers, large quinquelocular-type, with

three to six loculi, very numerous and crowded,

and small tubular ducts with inner ends thick-

ened and swollen and externally protruding

openings; no multiloculars. Dorsal body setae

small, almost spinelike, scattered, inconspicu-

ous in midst of pores, ventral considerably

longer and more slender, but few and likewise

inconspicuous. No ventral cicatrix.

Type of genus.—Ripersia asphodeli Boden-

heimer (1, p. 178).

This is the only species at present known to

possess any close approximation to the above

combination of structural characters. From lit-

erature, Lacombia Goux (10, p. 62), based on

the species Ripersia bouhelieri Goux (9, p. 199),

possesses certain characteristics indicating pos-

sible relationship, since it lacks multilocular

disk pores, but does have triloculars, quinque-

loculars, and tubular ducts with protruding

openings. However, there is no evidence from

the description that the quinqueloculars occur

in abundance as with this genus, the apical

antennal segment is not so conspicuously elon-

gated, there is no claw denticle, the body setae

are comparatively very numerous, the anal ring

is unusual, with the pores in the bands reduced

in size and mostly widely separated, no cerarii

are developed, and at least one ventral cicatrix

is present. Certainly it is preferable to let these

two stand as independent generic units until

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

much more knowledge on mealybug classifica-

tion has accumulated.

The following descriptive details on the spe-

cies asphodeli are supplementary to those given

above in the generic description, and both

should be used together for specific recognition.

Asphodelococcus asphodeli (Bodenheimer)

Fig. 1-5, 7-13

Adult female——As mounted, elongate ellipti-

cal, maximum observed length 3.25 mm, width

1.6 mm. Antennal segments in microns: I, 40—

44; II, 36-40; III, 44-48; IV, 18-20; V, 23-24;

VI, 64-70 (four antennae); preapical segment

with a single long, slender, somewhat curved

sensory seta in addition to the four similar

ones on the apical segment. Lengths of parts of

a posterior leg in microns: Trochanter, 52;

femur, 112; tibia, 100; tarsus, 68; claw, 17;

tarsal digitules, 20; claw digitules, 20; a few

large indistinct areolae on coxa, pores on tibia

12-16; small, widely scattered; leg setae small,

stiff. Observed beak dimensions: Length 62-

72u, width 76—-80u, with proportions main-

tained. Spiracles stout, but not enlarged, the

bar with wide sclerotized extensions; posterior

a little larger than anterior; a definite pore

cluster around the opening of each spiracle,

including 2—5 small triloculars immediately

adjacent to outer margin of opening and a much

larger number (25-50) of quinquelocular-type

pores around three sides. Each dorsal ostiole

centered in a roughly circular dermal area, of

considerable size, free of the large quinquelocu-

lar-type pores; pore and setal association with

the individual lips variable, from one tiny

trilocular pore to as many as six, and from

usually no setae to an observed maximum of

two small, stiff ones. Only the two posterior

pairs of cerarii sharply defined, each comprising

two slender, faintly lanceolate spines about 19u

VOL. 35, NO. 2

long, perhaps 12-15 (apical) or 6 to 10 (penul-

timate) small triloculars and around five short,

stiff setae of varying sizes, some hardly distin-

guishable from the paired spines, all loosely

grouped in a marginal area of appreciable size

devoid of the large quinquelocular-type pores;

other abdominal segments with suggestions of

cerarian development involving similar rather

distinct cleared areas and one to several small

spines or setae plus a few small triloculars;

parallel obscure hints at cerarian development

anteriorly, but here intermingled directly with

the large quinquelocular-type pores, not in

cleared areas. With a very small, irregular,

sclerotized area around the bases of the cerarian

spines of the anal lobe, apical seta about 120u

long, ventral subapical about 42u. Anal ring

small, the pores in the outer row approximately

circular, separated by interspaces except at

ends; pores in inner rows irregular in shape,

crowded; longest and ring seta about 105y.

Trilocular pores around 3.5u in diameter, quin-

queloculars around 7y, internal length of tubu-

lar ducts about the same, these with a short,

cylindrical, external collar and a considerably

longer membranous, somewhat tapering exten-

sion, together approximating a little more than

half the internal length of the duct. The few

scattered dorsal setae with an observed length

range of 9-16, the longer ventral setae ranging

up to 43yn.

This redescription is based on mounted ex-

amples of the species, collected by Dr. Joseph

Carmin at Tel-Aviv, Palestine, April 12, 1927,

prior to the date of publication of the original

description of the species. Examiners of both

this and the original description will find some

discrepancies between the two, notably in the

measurements of the antennal segments; all

such divergences have been rechecked on the

material studied, and statements here pre-

sented are believed accurate for this material.

Fias. 1-5, 7-13.—Asphodelococcus asphodeli, adult female: 1, Apex of abdomen, dorsal and ventral,

115; 2, posterior spiracle with associated pores, 460; 3, posterior leg, 230; 4, body, optical section,

x50; 5, antenna, 230; 7, disk pores in spiracular area, 1,500; 8, ventral disk pores, 1,500;

9, tubular duct, 1,500; 10, dorsal disk pores, 1,500; 11, ventral setae, showing size variation,

1,500; 12, dorsal setae, 1,500; 13, single cerarian spine, 1,500.

Fies. 6, 14—21.—Annulicoccus flagrans, adult female: 6, Body, optical section, X50; 14, apex of ab-

domen, dorsal and ventral, 115; 15, multilocular disk pore from spiracular area, X1,500; 16, ventral

multilocular and quinquelocular disk pores, X1,500; 17, body setae, 1,500; 18, dorsal multilocular

and quinquelocular disk pores, X1,500; 19, cerarian spine, X1,500; 20, tubular duct, 1,500; 21, mi-

nute simple pore, 1,500.

Fies. 22, 23.—Heterococcus graminicola, adult male: 22, Apex of abdomen, dorsal and ventral,

650; 23, disk pore from cerarius of same, 1,500.

Fes. 15, 1945 MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 43

Pee a See —

a: ee ee =

Fias. 1-6.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

44. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 2

se °

gn? So Kee

° ©o Oo °

oes? °

22 Je onl

o*/o ° st x

}: e

3 Oo 8°

eo 90 o

: ©0095

Fies. 7-23.—(See p. 42 for explanation.)

Fes. 15, 1945

Genus Heterococcus Ferris 4

Adult female.—Occurring on Gramineae, be-

neath leaf sheaths, accompanied by more or

less white secretion and thinly coated with

white powder. Size medium (length 1.5-3 mm),

varying strikingly according to maturity of the

individual; elongate elliptical to almost paral-

lel-sided, length usually more than twice width.

Membranous throughout. Antennae charac-

teristically 9-segmented, the joint between

eighth and ninth rigid and often incomplete

or lacking; one slender sensory seta on seventh,

one on eighth, three on ninth. Eyes circular in

outline, approaching hemispherical, each on a

small asymmetrical base. Legs normal, a little

thickened, no pores on hind coxae, but tiny

ones scattered on hind femora and tibiae; claw

denticle developed; tarsal digitules slender,

acute, not exceeding claw apex, claw digitules

slender, slightly knobbed apically, definitely

exceeding claw apex. Beak short conical, in-

completely 2-segmented. Both pairs of dorsal

ostioles present, the lips more or less orna-

mented with quinquelocular pores and small

setae. Definitely recognizable cerarian develop-

ment at most restricted to the posterior two to

four pairs, and the cerarli, even here, not

sharply defined, the association of the two

MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS

spines, quinquelocular pores, and spinelike

setae loose and sometimes even indistinct;

existence in some species of additional cerarii

on anterior abdominal segments and especially

on head above eyes more or less suggested but

not clearly evident. Anal lobes at most rounded

bulges, apical seta definitely developed on each,

no ventral thickening. Anal ring of normal

pseudococcine type, with six setae, the longest

a little shorter than apical seta, and inner and

outer rows of pores on each half. Several pore

types developed among included species though

not all present on each, these including quin-

quelocular disk, large multilocular disk, tiny

clear circular disk, and slender tubular duct.

Dorsal body setae small, inconspicuous, vary-

ing from slender to almost spinelike; ventral

setae slender, averaging much longer, all vary-

ing much in size. No ventral cicatrix.

Type of genus.—Heterococcus arenae Ferris

(4, p. 65).

Although no attempt is made at this time to

provide generic descriptions for stages other

than the adult female, since these are known

from only a single species, the descriptions of

the first-stage larva and adult male that are

presented for the new species described later

from timothy and other hosts should supply

Key To SpEcIES OF HETEROCOCCUS

a. Multilocular disk pores wanting; cerarii not developed, cerarian spines represented only by slender

ns ik, cw aol oh eine

SNe Ee Re eee oe ie, ee biporus (Goux)

aa. Multilocular disk pores present; at least the apical cerarii developed and usually with evidence

of others.

b. Posterior cerarian spines tiny, perhaps one-sixth length of longest of 4 or 5 slender accessory setae

associated in each cerarius..............

suit Sat Senate 13 ht EiRein es ow 00s LEE. x rae nudus (Green)

bb. Posterior cerarian spines much larger, at least half length of longest of associated accessory setae.

c. Cerarian spines and dorsal derm setae slender (see figures), tapering, at most only very faintly

lanceolate; multilocular disk pores relatively few, restricted to vulvar area of ventral surface.

arenae Ferris

cc. Cerarian spines and dorsal derm setae with obviously stouter proportions, definitely slender

spinelike, often fairly distinctly lanceolate; multilocular disk pores much more numerous,

present all along body margin and on both surfaces. of the abdomen.

d. Multilocular disk pores more numerous in midabdominal area, dorsally fourth to seventh

segments inclusive each with two rows, one complete and one interrupted medially, ven-

trally with a broken transverse row on third segment, an entire row on fourth, a band

three pores wide on fifth, and numerous pores across sixth and seventh [tritici Kiritshenko

Le a eS ee Sige Saree Ss ae ae

oe Cee ee Ef Fens ea en whe 2 apn borkhsentt, n. sp.

_dd, Multilocular disk pores, while variable, fewer in midabdominal area, thus, dorsally fourth

to seventh segments inclusive each with a single, often somewhat irregular and often in-

complete row of pores, ventrally one or two pores on third, several on fourth in a medially

interrupted single row, around 20 on fifth in a more narrowly interrupted single row, a

continuous band two or three pores wide on sixth, a similar band on seventh, and numer-

ous pores on eighth.

e. Anal lobe apical and anal ring setae normal, slender, long-tapering, lobe seta around 150xz,

longest anal ring seta around 96x. .

ee Ses La! ee WE Roe es graminicola, n. sp.

ee. Anal lobe apical and anal ring setae heavy, short, often bifurcate apically, lobe seta 684

or less, anal ring setae less than 50u

SA Mae we “hint gd “aa loniy' oi. 0.00 9 5 occidentalis, n. sp.

a6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

reasonably satisfactory evidence as to the

structural characteristics to be expected for

these stages in all the included species.

Thus far, five species have been described in

or have been transferred to this genus. One of

these, painer Laing, is made the type of a new

genus in this paper. The remainder, together

with two apparently undescribed species, are

discussed below. All these have been reported

from grasses (Gramineae) only.

Goux (8, p. 253), in connection with his de-

scription of the new species biporus, reduces

Heterococcus Ferris to the status of a subgenus

of Phenacoccus Cockerell, but from the present

and other studies of mealybug classification it

appears that the basic framework of a classifi-

cation in the group is so poorly developed that

there is little assurance that such a subordinate

relationship presents a true picture. Accord-

ingly Heterococcus Ferris is re-accepted in its

original standing as a genus.

The foregoing key is offered for the separa-

tion of the species here included in the genus.

No specimens of any of the three European spe-

cies have been available for examination.

Heterococcus arenae Ferris

Figs. 24-38

Adult female-—Elongate, sides nearly paral-

lel, length 1.6 mm, width 0.55 mm, rounded

tapering at anterior end, tapering posteriorly

past the penultimate segment, then sharply

constricted to the protruding anal segment.

Membranous throughout. Antennae normally

9-segmented, maximum longitudinal dimen-

sions of the segments in microns as follows:

I, 32-36; II, 40; III, 28-32; IV, 20-22; V, 20;

VI, 18-20; VII, 24; VIII, 24-26; IX, 35-38;

last two segments incompletely separated in

one antenna, combined length 60; sensory setae

slender, curved, about 20y long. Eye small,

rounded, set on a comparatively large base, eye

diameter about 16u, base about 33u. Posterior

leg maximum longitudinal dimensions in mi-

crons: Trochanter, 60; femur, 120; tibia, 116;

tarsus, 68; claw, 20; tarsal digitules, 20; claw

digitules, 18-20; claw denticle sometimes ob-

VOL. 35, NO. 2

scure; pores on leg parts somewhat uncertain

from specimen available, presented in figure

as believed to occur. Beak somewhat distorted,

apparent dimensions: Length 60u, width 72y.

Bar of spiracle rather broadly sclerotized, a

few scattered pores adjacent to opening. Lips

of dorsal ostioles each with two to four quin-

queloculars and posterior lip of anterior ostiole

with two to three small setae in addition. Each

apical cerarius recognizable as a combination

of two slender spines about 18u long, with a

quinquelocular pore between them, and with a

tiny, irregular, sclerotized area at base of one

or more spines, and of a loose group of six to

nine additional quinqueloculars and four to

five stiff setae, hardly differentiated from the

spines and 9-38u long; the penultimate cera-

rian association is recognizable as two slender,

well-separated spines, each being about 18y

long with a slightly closer association of the

quinqueloculars around them; spines of other

anterior cerarii probably present, but not

clearly distinguishable through size, shape, or

pore association. Anal lobes somewhat devel-

oped, rounded (the specimen probably recently

molted), apical seta around 112y long, subapi-

cal ventral 35—56y; no ventral thickening. Anal

ring with longest setae about 84u. Body with

numerous quinquelocular pores with average

diameter about 5y, but varying somewhat,

these approximately uniformly distributed both

dorsally and ventrally, except on the interseg-

mental lines; a few multiloculars, each usually

with 10 loculi and average diameter about 6.6y,

on the underside of the abdomen, as follows in

specimen examined: 16 behind vulvar opening,

17 in a loose cluster just anterior to vulvar

opening, 4 on the next segment anterior; with

a few slender, delicate tubular ducts about 10—

lly long, and somewhat varying in diameter,

distributed over the body on both surfaces,

some, at least, with opening on a protruding

cone. Body setae small and inconspicuous dor-

sally, stiff but not spinelike, lengths from 4-12

in middorsal area; ventrally much larger and

more slender, lengths from 7—55y in midventral

area.

Fias. 24~-38.—Heterococcus arenae, adult female: 24, Posterior spiracle, 460; 25, beak, K330; 26,

eye and tubercle, X370; 27, apex of abdomen, dorsal and ventral, X230; 28, anal ring, detail of right

half, X460; 29, antenna, 230; 30, dorsal aspect of left anal lobe area, X230; 31, anterior dorsal

ostiole, X230; 32, tubular ducts, one with protruding opening, 1,500; 33, ventral disk pores, multi-

locular, normal quinquelocular and abnormal quinquelocular, 1,500; 34, body, dorsal and ventral,

showing pore distribution, X87.5; 35, posterior leg, 230, with detail of claw, 650; 36, detail of

cerarian spines, 1,500; 37, dorsal setae and disk pore, X1,500; 38, ventral body setae, 1,500.

wares

LE.

be ig EE

Fes. 15, 1945

MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS

Fies. 24-38.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

This species has been redescribed from a

single adult female, evidently recently molted,

from the type material labeled as collected from

Poa douglasit on dunes near Pacific Grove,

Calif., December 1, 1917, by G. F. Ferris. In

addition to this record, Ferris again collected

the species, on an undetermined perennial

grass, in Inyo County, Calif., between Big

Pine and Deep Springs (5, p. 22).

Heterococcus biporus (Goux)

Judged from Goux’s description (8, p. 253),

this species differs more widely from the char-

acteristic generic condition than does any other

included, since it lacks the multilocular disk

pores that appear in all the others, the tubular

ducts are described as restricted to the ventral

surface, and cerarii are reported to be unde-

veloped, though possibly represented by a pair

of long setae on each margin of each of the last

two abdominal segments. In his discussion of

its relationships the author suggests that it

would be desirable to erect a new subgenus of

Phenacoccus for his species if it were established

that the type of Ferris’s genus possessed multi-

locular disk pores. However, from this study of

available specimens and descriptions it has

seemed best to retain the species in Heterococ-

cus, although possibly a different conclusion

might have been reached if actual specimens

of biporus had been studied.

The insect was collected in July 1934 at

Tamaris, in the Var Department of France, on

Brachypodium pinnatum, and there appears to

have been no subsequent published record of its

rediscovery.

Heterococcus borkhsenii, n. sp.

In 1932 Kiritshenko (14, p. 135) (as Alexis

Kiricenko) described the species Trionymus

tritict from the vicinity of Odessa, U.S.S.R.,

reporting among other descriptive items body

dimensions of 8-9 mm by 3 mm, and the color

as pale pink. Later, in 1937, Borkhsenius (2, p.

55), in his tables for the identification of coccids

(Coccidae) injurious to cultivated plants and

forests in the U.S.S.R., transferred this species

to the genus Heterococcus and presented a short

description and figure for it. On the basis of a

noncritical translation of this portion of his

paper, which appeared only in Russian, the

conclusion appears unavoidable that the speci-

mens which he discusses represent a different

species from that described by Kiritshenko. As

VOL. 35, NO. 2

partial evidence it may be noted that the Borkh-

senius specimens have reported dimensions of

2mm by 1 mn, instead of 8-9 mm by 3 mm,

and that the body color is yellowish, not pink-

ish. Discrepancies in other parts of the descrip-

tions, though less striking, are likewise evident.

So far as the literature has been examined no

other name seems applicable to the material

reported by Borkhsenius and it is therefore here

called borkhsenit, n. sp., on the basis of his de-

scription and figure (2, p. 55). This insect evi-

dently is extremely closely related to the first

of the new species described below, and, indeed,

it has been difficult to find in Borkhsenius’s

brief description a positive basis for the separa-

tion of the two, yet without some tangible

evidence of actual interchange, or, at least,

opportunity for this, it does not seem desirable

to assume that our American specimens are —

identical with the Russian species which Borkh-

senius discussed.

Heterococcus graminicola, n. sp.

Figs. 22, 23, 39-49, 51-61

Adult female.—Developing between the leaf

sheaths and stems of the host, producing some

white waxy secretion, and lightly coated with

white secretion. Color a pale yellow. Body, as

mounted, at least twice as wide as long, varying

considerably in size, from a minimum of 1.41

mm by 0.53 mm in recently molted adults to an —

observed maximum of 3.25 mm long by 1.6 mm

wide in fully distended individuals. Maximum

dimensions in microns of segments of one, ap-.

parently average, antenna as follows: I, 36;

IT,.40; 11, 32; 1V, 21; V, 25; Vi, 22- Vile;

VIII, 37; IX, 44; however, obviously with

much variation in the lengths of all segments;

the sensory setae on apical segments slender,

curved, showing an observed length range of

28-44u; each intermediate antennal segment

with a minimum of four to five setae. Eye base

about 36yu long, 24u wide, and, with eye itself,

perhaps 12u high, but variable. Posterior leg

with maximum dimensions in microns of parts

measured: Trochanter, 73; femur, 170; tibia,

163; tarsus, 85; claw, 20; tarsal digitules, 24;

claw digitules, 26; claw denticle usually quite

distinct; as with the antennae, considerable

variation in the dimensions of the parts of the

posterior leg apparent in different individuals;

a pattern of scattered, tiny, clear pores over the

upper surface of femur and tibia, but none on

coxa. Beak around 73y long by 76u wide, but

Fen. 15, 1945

dimensions varying somewhat. Dorsal ostioles

inconspicuous, especially on distended speci-

mens, usually three to four quinqueloculars on

each lip, and a single short, stiff seta on the

posterior lip of each cephalic ostiole. The pos-

terior three pairs of cerarii fairly plainly de-

veloped, and the fourth and fifth from the cau-

dal apex often suggested by a pair of recogniz-

able cerarian spines, the two spines in each

pair usually distinctly separated, but appreci-

able variation occurring in the extent of de-

velopment of all these cerarii; an average anal

lobe cerarius including two faintly lanceolate

spines around 17—22u long, about 15-18 loosely

grouped quinquelocular pores, and 3-6 stiff,

short setae, differentiated from spines chiefly

by smaller size; basic organization of the other

evident cerarii including two spines and a few

quinqueloculars, with the small setae really

outside this association; a recognizable supra-

ocular cerarius including, usually, three small

spines and two or more quinqueloculars; or-

ganization of all cerarii, except anal lobe pair,

tending to become obscured with body disten-

sion at maturity. Anal lobes suggested by

rounded bulges in just molted adults, not evi-

dent in fully distended individuals; apical seta

with maximum observed length 157y, ventral

subapical 60u, and several smaller ventral

setae from 16u to 32u long. Longest observed

anal ring seta 100u. Derm pores and ducts nu-

merous, quinqueloculars widely and fairly uni-

formly distributed over both surfaces except

for intersegmental clear bands and areas oc-

cupied by multiloculars, diameter around 4y;

- multiloculars with diameter around 6—7y and

10-12 loculi distributed in groups or rows

dorsally, ventrally, and along margin, these

groups conspicuous only in recently emerged

adults, more or less obscured in fully distended

individuals; numbers and groupings varying

much from individual to individual, approxi-

mately as follows in one examined fully: Along

margin, each side a cephalic group of 25 before

antennal base, an ocular group of 5 or 6, a

postocular of 17, about 5 scattered, a group

opposite anterior coxa of 11, 2 scattered, a

group opposite midcoxa of 8, 4 scattered, a

group opposite posterior coxa of 7, first ab-

dominal 6, second abdominal 3, third abdomi-

nal 12, fourth abdominal 15, fifth abdominal

20, sixth abdominal 36, seventh abdominal 46,

last two practically continuous with ventral

transverse rows of similar pores; dorsally with

MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 49

a scattered transverse row of 10 pores on ab-

dominal segment III, of 17 on abdominal seg-

ment IV, of 20 on V, of 15 on VI, of 5 on VII;

ventrally with 1 on III, 9 on IV, interrupted

medially, 31 on V, 44 on VI, about 70 on VII,

and about 65 on VIII; slender tubular ducts

numerous ventrally, in one individual around

16 on underside of each anal lobe, around 66

across abdominal segment VII (prevulvar),

around 98 across the next preceding (VI),

around 71 on the next (V), and successively

fewer on the anterior abdominal segments; ap-

parently wholly absent on head and thoracic

segments, much fewer dorsally on abdominal

segments and likewise apparently absent on

head and thorax, approximate length 9-10y,

diameter at opening 1.7y, at inner end 2.1y; a

very few tiny, flat, cylindrical pores without

apparent internal structure, with diameter

about 1.6u visible both dorsally and ventrally.

Dorsal setae not numerous, small and incon-

spicuous, stiff, almost spinelike, observed

lengths varying from 3—6u in the middorsal

area, to 10u toward margins; ventral setae slen-

der, much longer, 12—36u in midventral area

and up to 44u toward apex of abdomen.

Larva.—Elongate ovoid, length 0.52 mm,

width 0.2 mm. Body membranous throughout,

except a small, slender thickening from base of

ventral subapical seta of each anal lobe. An-

tennae not unusual, dimensions of one in

microns; I, 20; II, 20; III, 16; IV, 10; V, 12;

VI, 56; three long sensory setae at apex of

terminal segment, one on preapical. Eyes dis-

tinct, somewhat bulging, anterior margin of

small, basal collar much wider than posterior.

Legs not unusual, maximum lengths, in microns

of parts of a posterior one: Trochanter, 32;

femur, 64; tibia, 52; tarsus, 56; claw, 18; acute

tarsal digitules, 24, faintly knobbed, slightly dis-

similar, claw digitules, 18; claw denticle weakly

developed but usually evident, sometimes ob-

scure or wanting. Beak short conical, rounded

apically, 40u long by 44y wide, incompletely

2-segmented. Spiracles small circles with slen-

der tapering bar, a single quinquelocular pore

outside each. Dorsal ostioles present, but ob-

scure, especially the anterior. No complete

ceraril developed, but a pair of enlarged spines

on each side of anal ring, and additional pairs,

reduced in size and the two spines more or less

obviously associated, along the body margin to

the cephalic apex, a total of 18 pairs evident

and possibly homologous with the true cerarian

spines of species having these fully developed;

individual quinquelocular pores more or less

obviously associated with each spine pair. Anal

lobes not developed, only a slight bulge on

each side of anal ring; apical seta 76u, ventral

subapical 28u, a small, irregular thickening

about twice as long as wide extending forward

from this. Anal ring normal, with 6 setae with

maximum length around 40yu. Only quinque-

locular-type pores present, appearing as if in

longitudinal rows on abdomen, middorsal about

2.4u in diameter, laterals up to 4u. Setae tiny,

almost spinelike, about 4u in middorsal area,

somewhat larger laterally and posteriorly, with

anal lobe cerarian spines about 8; ventral

setae slender, maximum about 20u.

Adult madle-—Fully developed, winged, tho-

rax strongly sclerotized; body length (of one

individual) 1 mm, width (through thorax) 0.26

mm. Head rounded from above, ventral surface

more strongly sclerotized, this sclerotization

continued dorsally on each side into an elongate

triangular area enclosing the two upper eyes.

Front of head, around and between antennae,

and middorsal area between eyes somewhat

less strongly sclerotized, bearing an irregularly

elongate cluster of 10-12 tiny, simple pores

above each antennal insertion, an irregular row

of around 10 curved setae, each about 13y, on

each side between upper eye and mid-line, and

perhaps 15 longer curved setae, up to 22y, be-

tween antennal insertion and lower eyes; pos-

terior portion of head membranous, transpar-

ent, bearing a cluster of 4-5 small setae

(around 14u) dorsally on each side behind

sclerotized area enclosing upper eye. Prothorax

strongly transverse, anterior margin, and a tri-

angular, posteriorly directed extension of this

on each side, an irregular plate at posterior

margin behind the anterior marginal areas, and

coxal attachment piece all sclerotized; remain-

der of prothorax membranous; quinquelocular

disk pores and small setae dorsally as in figure,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 2

a pair of quinqueloculars and two tiny simple

pores between coxae, and a pair of setae with a

tiny simple pore behind each coxa ventrally.

Mesothorax and metathorax definitely sclero-

tized, shape and dorsal setae as shown in figure,

length 280u, width 260u; wing shape and vena-

tion as in figure, surface thickly clothed with

tiny hairs, with larger ones forming a marginal

fringe, length 800y; halteres about 60y long,

elongate, somewhat enlarged about middle but

with anterior margin irregular and incised at

one or more points; a single apical seta, strongly

recurved, at apex, length to apex of curve 48y.

Legs moderately slender, each trochanter with

three sensory pores on each face, each tarsus

plainly 2-segmented, the basal ringlike, claw

nearly straight, with small denticle on inner

face about one-third of length from tip; leg

setae stiff, but tapering to very slender apices,

a pair of definitely enlarged, spinelike setae at

apex of each tibia; lengths of parts of a hind leg

in microns: Trochanter, 48; femur, 120; tibia,

162; tarsus, 84; claw, 27; slender tarsal digitules,

32; short, acute claw digitules, 5. Abdomen

membranous throughout, except for apex and

for one complete transverse sclerotized band

just behind scutellum and one to three addi-

tional, medially interrupted and obscure, on

the one to three segments immediately follow-

ing that bearing the complete band; arrange-

ment of dorsal quinquelocular and tiny disk

pores and setae (about 22) about as shown in

figures; ventrally with a transverse row of from

four to eight setae (about 16) across the mid-

line of the segments, and with a marginal

cluster, characteristically of three to four setae,

a single quinquelocular and a single tiny disk at

each margin of the segments anterior to the

cerarii; two pairs of cerarii, each cerarius with

two long (156), slender setae, a close cluster

of quinquelocular pores (anterior around 24,

posterior around 46), two to four tiny disk

pores, and usually just outside the pore cluster

Fies. 39-49, 51, 54.—Heterococcus graminicola, adult female: 39, Ventral setae and disk pores,

1,500; 40, cerarian spine, X1,500; 41, tubular duct, 1,500; 42, dorsal setae and disk pores, X 1,500;

43, eye and adjacent supraocular cerarius, 370; 44, apex of abdomen, dorsal and ventral, «230; 45,

anal ring, right half, X 460; 46, anterior and 47, posterior dorsal ostioles, X 230; 48, posterior leg, 230,

with detail of claw, 650; 49, body, dorsal and ventral, with distribution of pores, X50; 51, antenna,

X 230; 54, beak, 330.

Fig. 50.—Heterococcus occidentalis, adult female, apices of abdomen, dorsal of two individuals,

X 230.

Fias. 52, 57-61.—Heterococcus graminicola, adult male: 52, Posterior leg, attachment plate and

halter, X165; 57, body, dorsal, X87.5, with detail of wing margin, X165; 58, ventral disk pore, X 1,500;

59, marginal disk pore, 1,500; 60, dorsal disk pores, X1,500; 61, antenna, 165.

Figs. 53, 55, 56.—Heterococcus graminicola, first stage larva: 53, Beak, 650; 55, anal ring, left half,

X 825; 56, body, dorsal and ventral, 230.

MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS 51

Figs. 39-51.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 2

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

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Figs. 52—61.—(See p. 50 for explanation.)

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Fes. 15, 1945

two to five slender setae; genital capsule at

apex of abdomen about 100y long, its protrud-

ing tip with expanded conical base about 36u;

_ penis proper about 60y; penis directed diagon-

ally downward, nearly straight except for

slightly curved base.

This insect has been described from a num-

ber of specimens, mounted and unmounted, in-

eluding material on timothy (Phleum pratense)

from Wooster, Ohio, June, July, and August

1944, the first and last lots forwarded for study

by J. S. Houser, the July lot collected by Dr.

F. W. Poos (holotype and paratypes); from

foxtail (Setaria viridis) from Washington, D. C.

(Mount Pleasant section), August 13 and 20

and September 3, 1944, collected by Harold

Morrison (paratypes and male allotype); in

grass sheaths, from Fort Lee, N. J., May 24,

1938, collected by George Rau (paratypes);

and on Poa sp., Portland, Oreg., May 12, 1944

(No. 16271) collected by George C. Anderson

and James Roaf. In addition, specimens on Fes-

cue grass from State College, Pa., October 25,

1941, collected by Keil, although all preadult

stages, are considered to be this species, as are

adult females on Festuca rubra in field, collected

at State College, Pa., in 1942 by Keil (received

through G. F. Ferris). The types are in the

U.S. National, collection of Coccidae.

The relationships of this species have been

indicated in the key to species, and in the dis-

cussion under Heterococcus borkhsenti. The New

_ Jersey specimens examined are very similar to

the material from Ohio; the specimens from the

District of Columbia seem to average a little

lower with respect to numbers of pores on vari-

ous parts of the body, but no basis has been

found thus far for a suspicion that they might

be specifically distinct from the Ohio speci-

mens.

Heterococcus nudus (Green)

First described in 1926 (11, p. 172) as a

Phenacoccus, this species was transferred two

years later by its author (12, p. 21) to Heter-

ococcus. The only subsequent references of sig-

nificance that have come to attention are by

Goux (6, p. 332; 7, p. 63; 8, p. 256), who found

the species in southern France.

Assuming the full accuracy of all details of

the original description and figures, we may

distinguish the species easily from others in-

cluded in the genus, as shown in the key.

Green’s specimens came from undetermined

MORRISON: THE MEALYBUG GENUS HETEROCOCCUS

grasses taken at Camberly, England; Goux’s,

from Holcus lanatus collected at Courzieu,

Rhone Department, France.

Heterococcus occidentalis, n. sp.

Fig. 50

Adult female.—V ery similar to graminicola in

size and organization of pores, ducts, and

setae but differing sharply in respect to appear-

ance and dimensions of anal ring and anal lobe

apical setae, these in all specimens examined

much shorter and much stouter in appear-

ance than with graminicola. Size as mounted

up to 2.93 mm by 1.63 mm; elongate ellip-

tical, broadly rounded at ends. Antennae

characteristic, lengths of one in microns: I, 40;

II, 44; III, 36; IV, 23; V, 24; VI, 23.6; VII,

28; VIII, 32; IX, 44; sensory seta on VII

often curved and twisted, that on VIII about

28u long, those on IX about 24y long. Eye

with outside dimensions of base around 24yu

by 8u. Legs characteristic, posterior with

an obscure pattern of tiny clear pores as in

other species, and with maximum lengths of

parts of one in microns as follows: Trochanter,

64; femur, 153; tibia, 140; tarsus, 84; claw,

19.5; tarsal digitules, 21; claw digitules, 20; claw

denticle present but often inconspicuous. Beak

characteristic, length of one 68u, width 72y.

Spiracles characteristic. Dorsal ostioles quite

inconspicuous. Usually only the apical two

pairs of ceraril definitely recognizable, spines

in anal lobe cerarii about 17y long, with 10-12

quinqueloculars adjacent, and one to two stiff

body setae associated; penultimate cerarii less

developed, and cerarian traces on next two

anterior segments of abdomen rather obscure.

Anal lobes not developed, apical seta short,

usually heavy, observed length range from 44y

to 4 maximum of 68u, ventral subapical seta

likewise stout, about 28u long, perhaps six addi-

tional scattered ventral setae, approximating

16u in length. Anal ring with setae short, ob-

served maximum 40yu, many between 30y and

36u, some of normal shape, but many flattened

and split apically, as if composed of two setae

fused together for most of their lengths. Quin-

queloculars widely distributed, general dis-

tribution of multiloculars as in graminicola,

along margins and dorsally and ventrally in

abdominal area; numbers very variable, ob-

served range of total marginal multiloculars

120-225, dorsal and ventral about as in gram-

inicola, but variable; small tubulars similar,

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

but somewhat fewer. Body setae likewise sim-

ilar, observed range of middorsal 5-10, maxi-

mum observed midventral 24u, all somewhat

stiffer than with graminicola.

This species is based on a few mounted and

unmounted specimens collected August 28,

1940, on grass at Yakima, Wash., by F. W.

Carlson. These are so very close to graminicola

that a decision was made to describe them only

after long consideration. The extraordinary

condition of the anal ring and anal lobe setae

surely is due, in part at least, to molting difh-

culties of some sort at the time of change from

preadult to adult, but this would not with cer-

tainty account for all the differences that ap-

pear in these structures, since the few in the

material examined that approximate normal

condition are likewise much shorter and stouter

than corresponding structures in graminicola.

The types are in the U. 8S. National collection

of Coccidae.

Laingiococcus, n. g.

Adult female—Appearance in life uncertain.

Broad elliptical, flattened dorsally and ven-

trally, posterior apex broadly notched. Size

medium, length 2 mm; derm membranous

throughout. Antennae 9-segmented, apical seg-

ment short, not enlarged, with two sensory

setae, preapical with one. Eyes developed. Legs

not unusual, claw with distinct denticle, tarsal

digitules acute, not attaining claw apex, claw

digitules longer, extending well beyond tip of

claw, knobbed at apices. Beak described as 1-

segmented. Spiracles not unusual. Dorsal

ostioles described as absent. No cerarii of any

sort developed, at most with evident clusters —

of large body setae on margins of terminal ab-

dominal segments. Anal lobes broadly rounded

protrusions, apical seta not differentiated. Anal

ring removed from the body apex, appearing

dorsal, presumably with six setae, each half

narrow, apparently with a single pore row.

With circular quinquelocular pores on both sur-

faces, and multilocular disk pores on posterior

abdominal segments. Body setae numerous,

some large, stiff, some small, slender. A single

transversely elliptical ventral cicatrix.

Type of genus.—RHeterococcus painet Laing

(5, p. 20).

The preceding description has been based en-

tirely on the description of the genotype (15).

Laing’s placement of this species in Heterococ-

cus has been accepted as the starting point for

VOL. 35, NO. 2

its reassignment to a related new genus, but it

should be noted that the description contains

certain discrepancies which, if verified, may

prove barriers to the assumed close relation-

ship. Thus the described absence of doral osti-

oles and of all traces of cerarii, the occurrence of

an unsegmented beak (perhaps a question of

interpretation of structure), and (from its illus-

tration) the narrow anal ring with only a single

pore band all depart widely from the basic

pseudococcine structure exhibited by the other

genera here discussed.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) BoprenueEImeER, F. 8. Third note on the

Coccidae of Palestine. Agr. Rec. Inst.

Agr. and Nat. Hist. in Tel Aviv 2:

177-186, illus. 1927.

(2) BorxusEentius, N.S. Tables for the iden-

tification of coccids (Coccidae) injurious”

to cultivated plants and forests in the

U.S.S.R. [title translated]. Leningr.

obl. karant. Insp., 148 pp., illus. 1937.

(3) Brain, Cuartes K. The Coccidae of

South Africa I. Trans. Roy. Soe.

South Africa 5: 65-194, illus. 1915.

(4) Ferris, Gorpon Fioyp. The California

species of mealy bugs. Stanford Univ.

Publ., Univ. Ser., 78 pp., illus. 1918.

. A contribution to the knowledge of

the Coccidae of the southwestern United

States. Stanford Univ. Publ., Univ.

Ser., 68 pp., illus. 1919.

(6) Goux, L. Notes sur les Coccides |[Hem.

Coccidae] de la France I. Note prelimin-

aire: Monophlebinae, Ortheziinae, Dac-

tylopunae, Ervococcinae. Soc. Ent.

France Bull. 20: 330-333. 1930.

. Notes sur les coccides [Hem. Coc-

cidae] de la France II. Contribution a

Vétude des Eriococcus de la France.

Soc. Zool. France Bull. 61: 58-75, illus.

1931.

. Description dun Phenacoccus

nouveaux graminicole et remarques sur

quelques espéces décrites anterieurement.

Soc. Ent. France Bull. 42 (17): 253-

256, illus. 1937.

. Description d’une Ripersia [Hem.

Coccidae] nouvelle du Maroc. Soe. Sci.

Nat. Maroc Bull. 18: 199-201, illus.

1988. ‘

. Remarques sur le genre Ripersia

Sign. et description d’une Ripersia et

d’une Eriococcus nouveaux (Hem. Coc-

cidae). Soc. Hist. Nat. Afrique du

Nord Bull. 31: 55-65, illus. 1940.

(11) Green, E. Ernest. Observations on

British Coccidae X. Ent. Monthly

Mag. 62: 172-188, illus. 1926.

(5)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(12) . Observations on British Coccidae

XI. Ent. Monthly Mag. 64: 20-31,

illus. 1928.

Fes. 15, 1945

(13) James, H. C. New mealybugs from East

Africa. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc., Lon-

don 85: 197-215, illus. 1936.

(14) Kiricenxo, ALEXIs. Descriptions of

some new Coccidae (Hemiptera) from

Turkestan and Ukraine. Trav. Inst.

Zool. Acad. Sci. U. 8. S. R.: 135-141.

RUSSELL: NEW NEOTROPICAL WHITEFLIES 55

1932. [Author’s name later transliter-

ated in various Russian publications as

Kiritshenko. |

(15) Laine, F. A new genus and two new spe-

cies of Coccidae from the Solomon Is-

lands. Bull. Ent. Res. 21: 19-21, illus.

1930.

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new genus and twelve new species of Neotropical whiteflies

(Homoptera: Aleyrodidae).}

and Plant Quarantine.

This paper treats the pupae of an inter-

esting new genus of Aleyrodidae that is

widely distributed in the Antillean Subre-

gion of the Neotropical Region but that is

unknown elsewhere. Members of the group

appear to be somewhat restricted in their

host associations, for each available species

is recorded from only one plant genus, and

several of those at hand are known from a

single species of plant. Such geographical

and host limitations doubtless will be some-

what modified by additional collecting,

however. Two species described here, from

Malpighia and Stigmaphyjllon, respectively,

were received for identification. Ten species

were collected from herbarial specimens of

Coccoloba by Marjorie J. Camp, Bureau of

Entomology and Plant Quarantine, through

the courtesy of the persons in charge of the

Arnold Arboretum, the Gray Herbarium,

the New York Botanic Garden, and the

United States National Herbarium. In the

collection data for the species from Coc-

coloba the names of the herbaria are ab-

breviated; the name of the plant collector

is given when known. Type specimens are

in the collection of the United States Na-

tional Museum.

Crenidorsum, n. gen.

The genus Crenidorsum is composed of both

similar and diverse species, with intergrading

forms between the extremes of the group.

Little variation has been observed in the char-

acters which separate the species, and the most

closely related forms are amply distinct from

one another. The genus appears to be most

closely allied to three genera established by

Quaintance and Baker, Aleuroplatus, Aleuro-

trachelus, and Aleurotulus, and superficially at

least it resembles Aleuroputeus and Laingiella,

1 Received November 11, 1944.

Louise M. Russexu, Bureau of Entomology

(Communicated by C. F. W. MursEBeEck.)

both erected by Corbett for Oriental species.

Crenidorsum can be distinguished from these

and other genera by the following combination

of characters: A somewhat longitudinal, differ-

entiated line consisting of a row of scallop-

shaped thickenings, or a ridge, or a furrow, in

inner subdorsum (for terminology see Russell,

Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 45: [131]-132,

1943) on each half of body; those intersegmen-

tal sutures lying between differentiated lines

terminating mesad of lines; vasiform orifice

subcordate to broadly elliptiéal, its sides ap-

parently without minute spines and not con-

tinued forward to form the bottom of the

orifice; operculum nearly or actually filling

orifice, not recessed posteriorly; lingula appear-

ing jointed near the center, expanded distally

but not transverse, with an apical notch; sub-

median cephalic setae present; submargin not

separated from dorsal disk; without median

abdominal disk pores, a complete submarginal

or subdorsal row of setae, or a tubercle between

caudal setae.

Generic description—Body somewhat oval,

flat to slightly convex dorsally, flat ventrally.

Brown or black and heavily sclerotized, or

colorless and membranous.

Body margin weekly to strongly dentate.

Anterior and posterior marginal setae present.

Ridges extending mesad from margin. Sub-

margin not separated from dorsal disk, not de-

flexed.

A somewhat longitudinal, differentiated line

consisting of a row of scallop-shaped thicken-

ings, or a ridge, or a furrow, in inner subdorsal

area of cephalothorax and abdomen, on each

half of body. A submedian pair of cephalic,

eighth abdominal, and caudal setae. Three sub-

dorsal pairs of minute setae on thorax and 1

anteriorly on abdomen. Transverse molting

suture extending laterocaudad from its mid-

point, curved cephalad slightly mesad of, and

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

continued at least to, differentiated lines; its

center approximately three times as far from

mesometathoracic suture as from thoracoab-

dominal one. Intersegmental sutures between

differentiated lines terminating mesad of lines;

cephalothoracic and promesothoracic sutures

curved posteriorly. Median length of cephalic

segment greater than that of thorax; pro-,

meso-, and metathorax subequal; abdominal

segments 1-6 subequal. Pockets rather small,

not contiguous. Pairs of submedian depressions

arranged as follows: Three on cephalic segment

(1 or 2 mesocephalad and 0 or 1 mesad of

setae, and 1 posterior to setae near suture),

2 small or 1 large in cephalothoracic suture,

1 on prothorax, 1 in promesothoracic suture,

1 each on meso- and metathorax, 1 adjoining

posteriorly thoracoabdominal and each ab-

dominal suture; cephalothoracic and posterior

abdominal ones often rather faint. Vasiform

orifice subcordate to broadly elliptical, located

approximately its length from posterior suture

and at least its length from body margin; its

sides minutely ridged vertically, apparently

without minute spines, slightly converging near

base but nearly vertical, not continued forward

to form the bottom of the orifice; rim of orifice

rather thick. Operculum nearly or actually fill-

ing orifice, not recessed; ventrally covered with

minute spines, a pair of small setae near center.

Lingula somewhat linear near base, narrowed

and appearing jointed near the center; gradu-

ally expanded distally, but not transverse, with

an apical notch; longer than orifice but lying

in a curved position and contained in it; a pair

of minute lobes bearing a pair of small setae,

near base of expanded area; a pair of elongate

setae arising ventrally just before apex; cov-

ered with minute spines. Caudal furrow broad,

shallow. Caudal ridges (ridges laterad of either

or both the vasiform orifice and caudal fur-

row) present.

Tracheal folds defined. Spiracles small, tho-

racic and anterior abdominal pair nearly as

large as posterior pair, the latter slightly pos-

terior to widest part of orifice. Antenna reach-

ing to anterior spiracle; distal eighth narrowed,

covered with minute spines, a sensorium at base

and a seta at apex. Two minute setae just be-

fore disk of each leg, one just before these, and

at least one on inner basal area of each middle

and posterior leg. One pair of adhesive sacs.

Male organ apparently a simple (not bifid) sac.

Genotype, Crenidorsum tuberculatum, n. sp.

VOL. 35, NO. 2

KEY To SPECIES OF CRENIDORSUM

1. Minute spines absent ventrally; submedian

cephalothoracic and eighth abdominal

setae either about 14 long and somewhat

nail-shaped, or about 6 or 100-125, long

and slender, not stout at base in relation to

length’ (Figs. 5; 18,20). 773.2 eee 2

Minute spines present ventrally; submedian

cephalothoracic and eighth abdominal setae

30-60u long, somewhat conical, stout at

base in relation to length (Figs. 22, 30). .9

2. Derm brown or black and heavily sclerotized;

a row of large scallop-shaped thickenings in

inner subdorsum, terminating on abdom-

inal segment 7; submarginal teeth present;

minute setal bases present, located mesad

of scallops; submedian cephalothoracic and

eighth abdominal setae somewhat nail-

shaped (Fig: 5). (us. oss.sd.ca yo et ee 3

Derm colorless and membranous; a row of

small scallop-shaped thickenings, or a ridge

with scallops suggested, or a furrow with-

out a suggestion of scallops, in inner sub-

dorsum, each terminating before abdominal

segment 7; submarginal teeth apparently

absent; minute setal bases absent; sub-

median cephalothoracic and eighth abdom-

inal setae tapered from base to tip (Figs.

18,20) Sea ok a ee fi

3. Outer side of ridge over scallops densely

sclerotized and tending to be divided into

somewhat rectangular, transverse plates

with a plate over each scallop, rows of min-

ute, stout spines running lengthwise of each

plate (Figs. 10, 11); submedian depressions

and intersegmental sutures unusually con-

spicuous, deep, dotted and bordered with

minute irregular areas and minute spines

(Fig. 10); marginal teeth about twice as

long as wide, about 15 in 100u; 3 pairs of

subdorsal minute setae on cephalic segment.

ornatum, nN. sp.

Outer side of ridge over scallops, and sub-

median depressions and intersegmental

sutures not as in ornatum; marginal teeth

not or only slightly longer than wide, no

more than 13 in 100u; 0 or 1 pair of sub-

dorsal minute setae on cephalic segment. . 4

4. Outer disk pores subdorsal in position, the

majority approximately three times the

width of a marginal tooth from submarginal

teeth (Fig. 3); a well-defined median tuber-

cle on each of abdominal segments 2-6

(Fig. 1); 1 pair of outer subdorsal minute

setae on cephalic segment.

tuberculatum, n. sp.

Outer disk pores submarginal in position, the

majority no more than the width of a mar-

ginal tooth from submarginal teeth; median

tubercles absent, or well-defined only on ab-

dominal segments 2—5; no subdorsal minute

setae on cephalic segment.............. 5

5. Two pairs-of subdorsal disk pores on poste-

rior segment, 0 just laterocaudad of vasi-

Fen. 15, 1945

form orifice (Fig. 12); majority of outer

disk pores the width of a marginal tooth

from submarginal teeth; most marginal

teeth slightly longer than wide, approxi-

mately 13 in 100u........ commune, N. sp.

Three pairs of subdorsal disk pores on poste-

rior segment, 1 pair just laterocaudad of

vasiform orifice; majority of outer disk

pores at ends of submarginal teeth; most

marginal teeth at least as wide as long, ap-

spoxumately 10 in 100g................ 6

6. A median tubercle on each of abdominal seg-

ments 2—5; ends of body broadly curved,

the posterior end as broad as the anterior

end and nearly straight in the center; cau-

dal setae as near to body margin as to vasi-

> a io malpighiae, n. sp.

No median tubercles on abdomen; ends of

body less broadly curved, the posterior end

narrower than the anterior end and curved

in the center (Fig. 13); caudal setae about

one-third nearer to vasiform orifice than to

body margin..............armatae, n. sp.

7. (2) Differentiated inner subdorsal line consist-

ing mostly of small scallops (Fig. 14); sub-

median mesothoracic setae present, these

and other submedian setae about 6y long.

leve, n. sp.

Differentiated inner subdorsal line either a

ridge or a furrow, without distinct scal-

lops; submedian mesothoracic setae absent,

or these and other submedian setae at least

ES cay Uc oe 8

8. Differentiated inner subdorsal line a low dis-

tinct ridge sclerotized on its outer side (Fig.

17); submedian setae approximately 100—

125 long, mesothoracic pair present (Fig.

16); 0 submedian disk pores on first ab-

dominal segment, 1 inner subdorsal pair on

meso- and metathorax (Fig. 16).

differens, n. sp.

Differentiated inner subdorsal line a narrow

furrow sclerotized on each side (Fig. 19);

submedian setae approximately 6y long,

mesothoracic pair absent (Fig. 21); 1 pair

of submedian disk pores on first abdominal

segment, 2 inner subdorsal pairs on meso-

and metathorax (Fig. 21).marginale, n. sp.

9. (1) Derm membranous, colorless; submedian

meso- and metathoracic setae absent,

cephalic ones about 40 long, and 8y in

diameter at the base, eighth abdominal

ones about 30y long, and 6y in diameter at

the base; rows of scallops terminating on

abdominal segment 6 (Fig. 29).

diaphanum, n. sp.

Derm sclerotized, brown or black; submedian

meso- and metathoracic setae present,

these, cephalic, and eighth abdominal ones

about 60y long, and 14-20u in diameter at

the base; rows of scallops terminating on

abdominal segment 5................. 10

10. Ridges extending inward from submarginal

furrow of ventral surface except in tracheal

RUSSELL: NEW NEOTROPICAL WHITEFLIES 57

folds and beside abdominal tracheal fold;

a band of minute spines reaching from

ridges to submedian area, also present

across tracheal folds (Fig. 26); a tongue-

shaped projection extending inward from

collar around each submedian cephalotho-

racic seta (Fig. 28); 20-26 scallops in each

a On Rae: Se stigmaphylli, n. sp.

Ridges extending inward from submarginal

furrow of ventral surface much less numer-

ous than in stigmaphylli, or absent; minute

spines much less numerous or arranged dif-

ferently than in stigmaphylli; no tongue-

shaped projection extending inward from

collar around submedian cephalothoracic

seta; 26-36 scallops in each row....... 11

11. Ventral surface with ridges extending mesad

from submarginal furrow on cephalic seg-

ment and on abdominal segments 2—4; min-

ute spines in a band starting near median

line anteriorly, and terminating before ven-

tral abdominal setae, mesad of ridges (Fig.

25); a rather deep invagination in anterior

margin of vasiform orifice (Fig. 24); caudal

setae considerably farther apart than eighth

abdominal ones........... debordae, n. sp.

Ventral surface without ridges; minute spines

along tracheal tract from anterior edge of

thoracic tracheal folds to anterior abdom-

inal spiracles (Fig. 23); a relatively shallow

invagination in anterior margin of vasiform

orifice; caudal setae as far apart as eighth

abdominal ones.........magnisetae, n. sp.

Crenidorsum tuberculatum, n. sp.

Figs. 1-5

White, cottony, waxy material extending

outward from submargin in contiguous strands

about one-third as long as width of body;

similar strands also extending from inner sub-

dorsum to body margin; a few flecks of white,

waxy material scattered mesad of strands. A

layer of transparent, colorless wax present ven-

trally, rather thick at margin, thin elsewhere.

Body broadly oval, ends broadly curved,

posterior end nearly straight in center; slightly

narrowed on pro- and mesothorax, widest

across metathorax and first abdominal seg-

ment; 0.75-1.10 mm long and 0.60—0.85 wide.

Brown to black, heavily sclerotized.

Marginal teeth strong, close-set, their sides

converging slightly and their apices broadly

curved, slightly longer than wide, 3 or 4 at each

tracheal pore area often slightly smaller than

others, slightly variable in width, approxi-

mately 10 in 100u. Submarginal teeth located

slightly mesad of marginal ones, weak, light

colored, netlike in appearance. Each marginal

seta about 28u long.

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Ridges extending from margin to inner sub-

dorsum, as wide as a marginal tooth in sub-

margin, at least twice that width in subdorsum.

Aninner subdorsal row of 24-30 strong, heavily

sclerotized, scallop-shaped thickenings; 1 or 2

scallops smaller and mesad of others (some-

times poorly defined) on cephalic segment,

rows slightly and evenly curved from cephalo-

thoracic suture, terminating on abdominal

segment 7; scallops nearly contiguous, the

curved portion extending into the body cavity,

the outer ends in derm and forming the basal

part of the outer side of a rather sharp ridge

extending over scallops; scallops as long as

height of ridge; outer side of ridge more heavily

sclerotized than subdorsum, a membranous

line at top of ridge. A subcircular or transverse,

smooth, median tubercle near posterior edge of

each of abdominal segments 2—6. A submedian

pair of meso- and metathoracic setae present;

these, cephalic, and eighth abdominal ones

somewhat nail-shaped, about 14u long; meta-

thoracic ones located close to anterior edge of

transverse molting suture, eighth abdominal

pair cephalolaterad of vasiform orifice, midway

between orifice and posterior suture; caudal

setae tapered from base, about 6yu long, located

on outer side or on top of caudal ridges,

slightly nearer to body margin than to orifice,

practically as far apart as eighth abdominal

ones. The four pairs of subdorsal minute setae

in central subdorsum, an additional pair in

outer subdorsum on cephalic segment. Two

inner subdorsal (mesad of scallops) pairs of

minute setal bases on prothorax and 1 pair

usually on each of abdominal segments 3-5.

Inner margin of disk pores not circular, with

2-5 points, larger than associated porettes;

pores arranged in a row about three times the

width of a marginal tooth from submarginal

teeth, about one-seventh as numerous as teeth;

other pores in a row distad of and about one-

half as numerous as scallops; an occasional pair

between the rows and 3 or 4 central subdorsal

pairs on cephalic segment; mesad of rows of

scallops and an imaginary curved line extend-

VOL. 39, NO, 2

ing from their ends to median line of body,

pairs of pores arranged as follows: Cephalic

segment, 1 submedian anteriorly and 1 near

cephalothoracic suture, and 1 subdorsal; pro-

thorax, 1 submedian and 2 subdorsal; meso-

and metathorax, each 2 submedian and 1 sub-

dorsal; first abdominal segment, 0; second, 1

submedian; third through fifth, and seventh,

each 1 submedian and 1 subdorsal; sixth, 1 sub-

dorsal and rarely 1 or 2 submedian pores;

eighth, 1 subdorsal laterocaudad of eighth ab-

dominal seta, 1 slightly posterior to widest part

of orifice, and 1 just laterocaudad of orifice.

Transverse molting suture terminating just

outside scallops, its ends nearly opposite its

center; a little transverse sculpturing along

median molting suture; abdominal sutures 1-6

terminating just outside submedian area, their

ends nearly straight; abdominal segment 7 one-

half to two-thirds as long as segment 6; inter-

segmental sutures and submedian depressions

moderately defined, the latter more distinct

on abdomen than on cephalothorax. Vasiform

orifice subcordate, the outer edge of its rim not,

or barely defined anteriorly, but the inner edge

of its rim defined around anterior end of orifice,

measuring 48—62yu long and wide (including lip

between rim and margin anteriorly and rim

elsewhere, the former 4—6y long and the latter

4—6y thick); orifice slightly elevated, a de-

pressed line along its sides, located about one

and one-third times its length from body

margin. Operculum filling orifice, with 2 longi-

tudinal depressed lines and 1 or 2 transverse

ones. Caudal ridges weak, extending from op-

posite orifice to caudal setae.

Ventrally a membranous furrow just within

margin. Minute, slender, spine-shaped mark-

ings in abdominal tracheal fold. Ventral ab-

dominal setae 24u long.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56965. Between Guaya-

nilla and Tallaboa, Puerto Rico, from Coc-

coloba.

Described from 14 specimens collected from

Coccoloba obtusifolia Jacq. in Puerto Rico; be-

tween Guayanilla and Tallaboa, plant collector

Fies. 1-5.—Crenidorsum tuberculatum: 1, dorsum, 87; 2, vasiform orifice, without operculum or

lingula, X530; 3, section of margin and submargin, 650; 4, minute setal base, disk pore and porette,

1,500; 5, cephalothoracie submedian seta, 1,500. Fias. 6—-9.—C. malpighiae: 6, median tubercle,

650; 7, section of margin and submargin, 650; 8, subdorsal scallops, ventral view, 650; 9, sub-

dorsal scallops, dorsal view, 650.

115; 11, plates above scallops, «530.

Figs. 10, 11.—C. ornatum: 10, posterior 4 segments, dorsal view,

Fig. 12.—C. commune, posterior segment, dorsal view, X165.

Fia. 13.—C. armatae, dorsum, X87. Fias. 14, 15.—C. leve: 14, area around scallops, 650; 15, pos-

terior segment, dorsal view, 165.

") ij! j hf iT / Bi

nat ali! i fullths 4

if 0 HPA Hine

"Ht! LA TT Tad

ne me i WKY 4 1h

: MOTT

rire iW HI (lb

yt NU ADEA Tg

ld i! iy 4 Hei

Vil | Nl} (eli

i} rh WN: ti

i! OE

J i (" Mi A Wii as 4

| i Nee ail PTR

/ My aif 1}

| ‘iy

Uh f ti ALOT fal 4

‘a inf ((é (ee i i a

7 ! Dugct HAD

atgaé

Ws eS

Figs. 1-15.—(See opposite page for explanation).

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

unknown, July 29, 1886 (including, holotype),

and J. A. Shafer, March 13, 1913, U.S.N.H.;

Guayanilla, Britton and Shafer, March 10,

1913, N.Y.B.G.; west of Ponce, A. A. Heller,

November 26, 1902, U.S.N.H. and N.Y.B.G.

Crenidorsum malpighiae, n. sp.

Figs. 6-9

Differing from C. tuberculatum as follows:

Marginal teeth as wide as long. Outer disk

pores submarginal in position, the majority at

inner end of submarginal teeth. A well-defined

median tubercle only on abdominal segments

2-5, one sometimes suggested on segment 6,

each usually divided into 3-5 smaller ones with

minute, stout spines. Caudal setae as near to

vasiform orifice as to body margin. No minute

setae on cephalic segment.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56966. Habana,

from Malpighia.

Described from 30 specimens from Malpighia

glabra L., Vedado, Habana, Cuba, collector un-

known, February 4, 1919, and C. H. Ballou,

February 23, 1921 (including holotype).

Cuba,

Crenidorsum armatae, n. sp.

Fig. 13

Differing from C. tuberculatum as follows:

Ends of body less broadly curved, posterior end

narrower than anterior end, curved in center;

body not narrowed on thorax in available

specimens. Marginal teeth as wide as long.

Outer disk pores submarginal in position, lo-

cated at inner end of submarginal teeth, about

one-fifth as numerous as teeth. A total of 22-24

scallops in each row. Median tubercles absent.

Caudal setae about twice as far from body mar-

gin as from vasiform orifice. No minute setae

on cephalic segment. Vasiform orifice approxi-

mately its length from body margin.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56967. La Carbonera,

Cuba, from Coccoloba.

Described from two specimens from Coc-

coloba armata Wright, from Cuba; paratype

from Calicito, Loma de Ciego, Cienfuegos,

VOL. 35, NO. 2

Santa Clara, Rob Combs, August 26, 1895,

holotype from La Carbonera, Oriente, E. L.

Ekman, September 23, 1914, U.S.N.H.

Crenidorsum commune, n. sp.

Fig. 12

Differing from C. tuberculatum as follows:

Marginal teeth slightly more tapered, apices

narrower, approximately 13 in 100u. Outer disk

pores submarginal in position, the majority the

width of a marginal tooth from submarginal

teeth; 2 pairs of subdorsal disk pores on pos-

terior segment, 0 just laterocaudad of vasiform

orifice. Median tubercles absent, or barely sug-

gested on abdominal segments 3-5. Caudal

setae as near to vasiform orifice as to body

margin. No minute setae on cephalic segment.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56968. Navassa Island,

Haiti, from Coccoloba.

Described from 30 specimens from Coccoloba

spp., as follows: C. bergesiana ovato lanceolata

E. Schmidt, near Port de Paix, Haiti, E. L.

Ekman, March 26, 1925, U.S.N.H., and E. C.

and G. M. Leonard, May 1, 1929, U.S.N.H.

and G.H.; C. laurifolia Jacq., Navassa Island,

Haiti, E. L. Ekman, October 23, 1928 (includ-

ing holotype), U.S.N.H., and H. A. Rehder,

January 6, 1930, A. A., and Baille La Lomas,

near St. Michel de |’Atalaye, Department du

Nord, Haiti, E. C. Leonard, November 26,

1925, U.S.N.H.; C. wifera L., Miami, Fla.,

J. F. Collins, December 9, 1917, G.H. The fol-

lowing from the Bahama Islands: C. diversifolia

Jacq., Rose Island, Britton and Millspaugh,

January 27-28, 1905, Inagua, Nash and Taylor,

October 11, 1904, West End, Little Inagua,

Percy Wilson, December 21, 1907, N-Y.B.G.;

C. krugii Lind., Fortune Island, plant collector

unknown, February 2, 1888, road to South

Side, Long Cay, L. J. K. Brace, December

7-17, 1905, U.S.N.HL: C. laurtfolia dacas

Nicolls Town, Andros Island, J. and A. North-

rop, April 11, 1890, N.Y.B.G., edge of Man-

grove Swamp, Hog Island, Britton and Brace,

August 29, 1904, N.Y.B.G., Harbour Island,

Figs. 16-18.—Crenidorsum differens: 16, half of dorsum, X87; 17, half of third oan segment,

dorsal view, 165; 18, cephalothoracic submedian seta, X345.

Fras. 19-21.—C. marginale: 19, sec-

tion of subdorsal furrow, X 650; 20, cephalothoracic submedian seta, X1,500; 21, half of dorsum, X87.

Figs. 22, 23.—C. magnisetae: 22, cephalothoracic submedian seta, 650; 23, ‘outline, dorsal surface on

right, ventral surface on left, X87. Fias. 24, 25.—C. debordae: 24, vasiform orifice, X650; 25, half of

ventral surface, X87. Fries. 26-28.—C. stigmaphylli:

26, half of ventral surface, x 87; 97, lingula

dorsal view, x 460; 28, base of cephalothoracic submedian seta, X650. Frias. 29, 30.—C. diaphanum:

29, outline, dorsal surface on right, ventral surface on left, X87; 30, cephalic submedian seta, 650.

(Drawings by Mrs. Sara. Hoke DeBord.)

: We

A Netcpn nS

' \§

. 7 ait

, 5 wwe

ty Pillars

YJ y JU rave Te

ee Gsinnivilyiy. tec

AE iecnivrs

(B74), 4 alien

FE eather tnide 1

Bey eae ee

Sek Lisl aliiSgieacer—S

Miata dh ont

Holy

Figs. 16-30.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Elizabeth G. Britton, February 18—March 4,

1907, U.S.N.H.; C. northropiae Britton, near

Lisbon Creek, Mangrove Cay, Andros Island,

Small and Carter, January 16-19, 1910,

N-YB-G:

Crenidorsum ornatum, n. sp.

Figs. 10, 11

Differing from C. tuberculatum as follows:

Marginal teeth more strongly tapered, apices

narrower, about twice as long as wide, approxi-

mately 15 in 100u. Three or 4 scallops in a

transverse row on cephalic segment, 30-34 in

whole row, most scallops about one-half as long

as height of ridge above them; outer side of

ridge densely sclerotized but tending to be

broken up, by less sclerotized indentations or

lines running down ridges, into somewhat rec-

tangular plates with a plate over each scallop;

plates gradually increasing in size from ends of

row to center, each one with longitudinal rows

of heavily sclerotized, minute, stout spines; no

membranous line at top of ridge but a furrow

mesad of it on abdomen. Each median tubercle

composed of 4-13 small tubercles each with

numerous minute, stout spines. Submedian

depressions and intersegmental sutures con-

spicuous, dotted and bordered with minute

irregular areas and minute spines; mesometa-

thoracic suture also with 2-6 pairs of longitudi-

nal, sclerotized bars near median line; abdomi-

nal sutures extending to furrows mesad of

ridges, ends of sutures 4—6 reflexed. Caudal

setae 20-28u long. Three pairs of outer sub-

dorsal minute setae on cephalic segment. Outer

disk pores approximately six times the width

of a marginal tooth from submarginal teeth,

about one-tenth as numerous as teeth; usually

none between these and those distad of scal-

Jops, and no central subdorsal ones on cephalic

segment; mesad of scallops, 1-4 (usually 2)

subdorsal pairs of pores on abdominal segment

3, 1 or 2 (usually 2) on segment 4, and 1 or 2

(usually 1) on each of segments 5 and 6; sub-

median pair usually present on segment 6

(present in each available female, absent in

only male available). Outer edge of rim usually

moderately defined around anterior end of

orifice. Caudal ridges and furrow rather well

defined, extending nearly to submarginal teeth.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56969. Parish of St.

Thomas, Jamaica, from Coccoloba.

Described from six specimens from Coccoloba

VOL. 35, NO. 2

longifolia Fisch., from Jamaica: Parish of St.

Thomas, N. L. Britton, September 15-19, 1908

(holotype), N.Y.B.G.; Holly Mount, Mount

Diablo, W. R. Maxon, May 25-27, 1904,

U.S.N.H.; Grier Field, near Moneague, Parish

of St.. Ann, N: L- Britten,, April; sees:

N.Y.B.G.; Leicesterfield, Upper Clarendon,

Wm. Harris, February 28, 1910, U.S.N.H.

Crenidorsum leve, n. sp.

Figs. 14, 15

Waxy secretion not observed. Differing from

C. tuberculatum as follows: Body not narrowed

on thorax. Derm colorless, membranous. Mar-

ginal teeth slightly wider than long, their sides

moderately converging, their apices moderately

curved; approximately 16in 100u. Submarginal

teeth apparently absent. Ridges from margin

extending through outer subdorsum, central

and inner subdorsum lightly sculptured. Scal-

ops small, some poorly defined, contiguous or

not, a sclerotized furrow as long as 4—6 scallops

on cephalic segment, rows terminating on ab-

dominal segment 4, sometimes only a furrow

at posterior end, 40-55 scallops defined in each

row; rows curved outward on meso- and meta-

thorax; ridge over and mesad of scallops low,

rounded, a shallow furrow mesad of it. Median

tubercles absent. Cephalothoracic and eighth

abdominal setae tapered from base, each about

6u long; metathoracic pair at least their length

from transverse molting suture; caudal setae

approximately twice as far from vasiform ori-

fice as from body margin. Subdorsal minute

setae barely distinguishable, in outer sub-

dorsum, 3 pairs on cephalic segment. Inner

subdorsal minute setal bases absent. Inner

margin of disk pores circular, they and porettes

very minute; outer row of pores about seven

times the width of a tooth from, and about one-

tenth as numerous as, teeth; pores distad of

scallops about one-fifth as numerous as scal-

lops; nearly as many pores between these rows

and on cephalic segment as in them; only 1 pair

of inner subdorsal pores on prothorax and 2 in-

ner subdorsal pairs (0 just laterocaudad of

orifice) on eighth abdominal segment. No trans-

verse sculpturing along median molting suture;

intersegmental sutures extending at least to

inner subdorsum. Vasiform orifice semioval,

broad at posterior end, 44-56 long and wide,

more than twice its length from body margin;

inner edge of its rim weakly defined around

ee ee ee ee

Es ' :

Fes. 15, 1945

anterior end of orifice, a very short lip between

it and margin of orifice. Operculum weakly or

not sculptured, slightly narrower than orifice

at posterior end, not quite filling orifice. Ventral

surface without a submarginal furrow.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56970. Seven miles west of

Ponce, Puerto Rico, from Coccoloba.

Described from five specimens as follows:

Coccoloba krugit Lind., Little St. James Island,

St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, Britton and Rose,

February 27, 1913, N.Y.B.G.; C. obtusifolia

Jacq., Puerto Rico, 7 miles west of Ponce,

A. A. Heller, November 26, 1902 (including

‘holotype), A.A., and between Guayanilla and

Tallaboa, J. A. Shafer, March 13, 1913,

U.S.N.H.

Crenidorsum differens, n. sp.

Figs. 16-18

Differing from C. leve as follows: Posterior

part of body narrower and less broadly curved

than anterior end. Marginal teeth twice as wide

as long, merely shallow crenulations, approxi-

mately 13 in 100u. Ridges from margin ending

in outer subdorsum. Scallops not actually de-

fined but the outer side of a well-defined ridge,

extending from cephalothoracic suture to fifth

abdominal segment, sclerotized and tending to

be divided into units suggesting scallops; no

furrow mesad of ridge. A low median tubercle

on each of abdominal segments 2-5. Each

cephalothoracic submedian seta about 125, and

each eighth abdominal and caudal seta about

100u long, situated on tubercles; metathoracic

pair the width of its tubercle from transverse

molting suture. A low rachis extending from

first abdominal suture to vasiform orifice.

Vasiform orifice nearly twice its length from

body margin. Caudal furrow and ridges unusu-

ally well-defined, reaching well toward margin.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56971. Near Cudjoe Head,

Montserrat, from Coccoloba.

Described from 45 specimens from Coccoloba

grandifolia Jacq., from the Leeward Islands;

near Cudjoe Head, Montserrat, J. A. Shafer,

February 8, 1907 (including holotype), and

Deshaies, Guadeloupe, H. Stehlé?, July 14,

1937, U.S.N.H.

Crenidorsum marginale, n. sp.

Figs. 19-21 i:

Differing from C. leve as follows: Marginal

teeth merely broad, short crenulations, about

RUSSELL: NEW NEOTROPICAL WHITEFLIES

18 in 100u. Subdorsal scallops and ridges ab-

sent, replaced by a lightly sclerotized, narrow

furrow; portion of furrow on cephalic segment

weak and continued from rest of furrow which

terminates on abdominal segment 4 or 5. Sub-

median mesothoracic setae absent; caudal setae

about half as far apart as eighth abdominal

ones. Meso- and metathorax each with 2 inner

subdorsal pairs of disk pores; first abdominal

segment with 1 pair of submedian disk pores;

eighth abdominal segment apparently with 3

pairs of pores (1 usually laterocaudad of ori-

fice), anterior pair on this segment laterad or

cephalolaterad of eighth abdominal setae.

Transverse molting suture terminating at inner

subdorsal furrows. Vasiform orifice 36—42y long

and wide, inner edge of its rim well defined

around anterior end, a well-defined lip between

it and margin of orifice. Operculum broad at

posterior end, nearly truncate.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56972. Barahona, Domini-

can Republic, from Coccoloba.

Described from three specimens from Coc-

coloba pubescens L., near Barahona, Dominican

Republic, E. L. Ekman, September 11, 1926,

U.S.N.H.

Crenidorsum magnisetae, n. sp.

Figs. 22, 23

Differing from C. tuberculatum as follows:

Columns of white, flocculent, waxy material,

supported on cephalothoracic and eighth ab-

dominal setae, rising from dorsum, their ends

curved outward and downward, covering and

extending beyond the body.

Marginal teeth as wide as long. Three or

four scallops on cephalic segment, a total of

26-36 in each row, terminating on abdominal

segment 5; the majority one-half of the width

to the width of a scallop apart, not quite so

long as height of ridge over them; ridge low,

broad, rounded, outer side not more heavily

sclerotized than subdorsum, no membranous

line at its top, a furrow mesad of it. Median

tubercles absent. Each cephalothoracic and

eighth abdominal seta approximately 60y long,

and 14—20y in diameter at base, elongate coni-

cal, covered with minute spine-shaped designs

in a netlike arrangement, set in thin collarlike

bases; the eighth abdominal ones much nearer

to posterior suture than to vasiform orifice and

the area around their bases somewhat swollen;

caudal setae as far apart as outermost point of

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 2 ;

bases of eighth abdominal ones, usually located

distad of caudal ridges. Three pairs of outer

subdorsal minute setae on cephalic segment.

One pair of inner subdorsal minute setal bases

on prothorax. Mesad of scallops, 2 submedian

disk pores at base of each cephalothoracic seta,

no submedian pair on prothorax, anterior pair

of posterior segment at bases of eighth abdomi-

nal setae. Intersegmental sutures reaching to

furrows mesad of scallops; abdominal segment

7 practically as long as segment 6. Vasiform

orifice broadly elliptical, slightly longer than

wide, scarcely more than its length from body

margin, about one and one-half times its length

from posterior suture, unusually high; a narrow

lip at anterior end, a shallow invagination be-

tween rim of orifice and lip. Caudal ridges

rather well-defined opposite and just latero-

caudad of orifice.

On ventral surface a few minute spines along

tracheal tract from anterior edge of inner end

of thoracic tracheal folds to anterior abdominal

spiracles, mesad of each leg, and around adhe-

sive sacs.

Type.—U.8S.N.M. 56973. Grande Cayemite,

Haiti, from Coccoloba.

Described from 16 specimens from Coccoloba

spp. as follows: C. diversifolia Jacq., Grande

Cayemite, Haiti, W. J. Eyerdam, August 1927

(including holotype), U.S.N.H., and below

Hardware Gap, vicinity of Newcastle, Jamaica,

Britton and Hollick, March 1, 1908, N.Y.B.G.;

C’. retusa Grieseb., Port Margot, Massif du

Nord, Haiti, E. L. Ekman, December 11, 1924,

U.S.N.H.; C. revoluta Leonard, vicinity of St.

Michel de |’Atalaye, Department du Nord,

Haiti, E. C. Leonard, November 20, 1925,

USN |

Crenidorsum debordae, n. sp.

Figs. 24, 25

Differing from C. magnisetae as follows: Cau-

dal setae considerably farther apart than outer-

most point of bases of eighth abdominal setae.

Usually 2 pairs of inner subdorsal minute setal

bases on prothorax. Scallops about half as long

as height of ridge over them; a well-defined

furrow mesad of ridge. Inner edge of rim of

orifice merging with margin at anterior angles

of orifice, lip absent, a rather deep invagination

in center of anterior margin of orifice. Ven-

trally, minute spines numerous, in a band well

removed from margin, starting near median

line on cephalic segment, passing outside legs,

greatly widened posterior to legs and terminat-

ing a little anterior to ventral abdominal setae;

also present mesad of legs, but few or none

around adhesive sacs. Several ridges, divided

into irregularly shaped areas, between minute

spines and submarginal furrow, in center of

cephalic segment and on abdominal segments

2-4.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56974. Petite Gonave Is-

land, Haiti, from Coccoloba.

Described from 12 specimens from Coccoloba

rotundifolia Meissn., Haiti, Petite Gonave Is-

land, E. C. Leonard, July 9 and 10, 1920 (in-

cluding holotype), west of Cabaret, January 12,

and vicinity of Bassin Bleu, April 17, 1929,

EK. C. and G. M. Leonard, U.S.N.H.

Crenidorsum stigmaphylli, n. sp.

Figs. 26-28

Differing from C. magnisetae as follows: Mar-

ginal teeth as wide as, or slightly wider than

long, their sides nearly parallel and their apices

broad, approximately 8 in 100u. No scallops on

cephalic segment but a short sclerotized furrow

suggestive of them; 20-26 scallops defined in

each row, about half as long as height of ridge

over them; a deep furrow mesad of ridge. A

tongue-shaped projection extending inward

from collar around base of each submedian

cephalothoracic seta; caudal setae located

rather near ends of posterior suture, slightly

farther apart than outermost point of bases

of eighth abdominal setae. Two pairs of inner

subdorsal minute setal bases on prothorax and

1 usually present on abdominal segment 6.

Inner edge of orifice rim merging with margin

at anterior angles of orifice, lip absent, a deep,

broad invagination in anterior margin of ori-

fice. Caudal ridges opposite orifice. On ventral

surface a band of ridges extending inward from

submarginal furrow, majority of ridges divided

into irregularly shaped areas (more distinct in

mature than in recently emerged pupae), ab-

sent from tracheal folds and area adjacent to

abdominal tracheal fold. Minute spines in a

band reaching from ridges to submedian area,

present across tracheal folds; also present

around mouthparts, adhesive sacs, and legs.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56975. Ponce, Puerto

Rico, from Stigmaphyllon.

Described from numerous unmounted speci-

mens and 28 mounted ones from Stigmaphyllon;

‘Fes. 15, 1945

_S. sagraeanum A. Juss. (determined by C. V.

Morton, U. S. National Herbarium), Hana-

banilla Falls, near Cumanayagua, Santa Clara,

Ouba, H. G. Myers, April 7, 1925; Stigmaphyl-

lon sp., Ponce, Puerto Rico, Martorell and

Wolcott, May 20, 1937 (including holotype).

Crenidorsum diaphanum, n. sp.

Figs. 29, 30

Waxy secretion not observed. Differing from

C. magnisetae as follows: Derm membranous,

colorless. Marginal teeth slightly wider than

long, their sides moderately converging, ap-

proximately 15 in 100u. Submarginal teeth

very faint, in basal part of marginal teeth.

~ Rows of scallops terminating on sixth abdomi-

_ nal segment, 36 or 37 (observed) in each row.

a _ Submedian meso- and metathoracic setae ab-

\ sent; cephalic and eighth abdominal ones

30-40u long, and 6—Su in diameter at base;

eighth abdominal ones located about twice as

far from vasiform orifice as from posterior

_ suture, area around their bases not swollen;

_ caudal setae located just before bases of mar-

ScHMITT. )

_ The new species of nemertean described

herein is of interest because it presents sev-

eral morphological deviations from the

_ three previously described representatives

= of the order Bdellonemertea. This order

_ contains but a single genus, Malacobdella,

the species of which are highly specialized

or a commensal life within the mantle or

_ pulmonary cavities of various mollusks.

One of these species, Malacobdella grossa

(0. F. Miller), which is specifically identi-

cal with M. mercenaria and M. obesa Ver-

rill, is widely distributed in pelecypods on

_ the coasts of Europe and on both the At-

_lantic and Pacific coasts of North America.

_ Another species (M. japonica Takakura)

has been reported only from the coasts of

Japan. The third species was found in the

1 Received September 1, 1944. Contributions

_ from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography,

_ New Series No. 243.

- ZOOLOGY.—Malacobdella minuta, a new commensal nemertean.

_ Cor. Osborn Zoological Laboratory, Yale University, and Scripps Institu-

tion of Oceanography, University of California. (Communicated by Watpo L.

COE: A NEW COMMENSAL NEMERTEAN 65

ginal teeth, as far apart as innermost point of

bases of eighth abdominal ones. Disk pores

outside scallops about one-third as numerous

as scallops; submedian disk pores absent from

thorax. Vasiform orifice approximately its

length from posterior suture and about one

and one-half times its length from body mar-

gin; a faint indication of an invagination be-

tween rim and lip at anterior end of orifice.

Ventrally no submarginal furrow; ridges ex-

tending inward from margin except in and on

each side of tracheal folds, majority of them

divided into irregularly shaped areas; a band

of minute spines mesad of ridges, extending to

submedian area on abdomen, none or few

mesad of legs and around adhesive sacs; very

minute spine-shaped markings in median area

of abdomen.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 56976. West of Cabaret,

Haiti, from Coccoloba.

Described from three specimens from Coc-

coloba rotundifolia Meissn., west of Cabaret,

Haiti, E. C. and G. M. Leonard, January 12,

1929, U.S.N.H.

WESLEY R.

pulmonary cavity of a fresh-water snail in

Chile.

DESCRIPTION

Malacobdella minuta, n. sp., is a dwarf

form, with a combination of characteristics by

which it is easily distinguished from M. grossa,

also found on the coast of California, as well as

from M. japonica. It differs particularly from

M. grossa in its small size when mature, in hav-

ing few and relatively large gonads, arranged in

a single irregular row, in having dorsolateral

nephridiopores, and in the short proboscis

chamber. The chief distinctions from M. japon-

ica are size, arrangement and number of gon-

ads, length of proboscis sheath, and position of

posterior nerve commissure. Minor differences

from each of these species are indicated in the

following paragraphs:

Length of sexually mature type specimen

only 5 to 8 mm, according to state of contrac-

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tion, as compared with 20 to 50 mm in the other

two marine species. Width 2 mm.

Color whitish and translucent; intestine pale

yellow; spermaries opaque white.

Proboscis——The proboscis sheath extends

nearly the entire length of the body, as in M.

grossa, while this organ is only two-thirds as

long as the body in M. japonica (Takakura,

1897; Yamaoka, 1940). The proboscis fills most

of the cavity of the rhynchocoel and is there-

fore coiled only as much as the sheath. It has

only a single chamber and this extends poste-

riorly somewhat less than half the length of the

body (Fig. 1). After eversion it is withdrawn by

a long retractor muscle which extends the en-

tire length of the sheath. Near the base of the

sucker this long, slender muscle passes through

the end of the sheath and some of its fibers be- |

come interlaced with fibers from the dorsal

body wall, as Riepen (1933) and others have de-

scribed for M. grossa. The proboscis chamber is

relatively much shorter and the retractor mus-

ale —

WED

ie : On

ois

vTe]oletefe fof elle le

oo, 9,0 tate Oa 8

° c

5 = & e's” pice AS

lo tedol fs yeyele]sia’|ely 18

VoL. 35, NO. 2

cle correspondingly longer than in M. grossa.

Vascular system.—The two lateral blood ves-

sels are much branched, as in other species of

the genus, and have the usual dorsal cephalic

anastomosis. In the brain region there is a sec-

ond anastomosis on the dorsal side of the

esophagus. From this anastomosis the dorsal

vessel originates and the three longitudinal

vessels are united posteriorly on the dorsal side

of the rectum.

Excretory system—The single pair of ne-

phridia extend from near the brain through

most of the anterior half of the body (Fig. 1).

The profusely branching tubules lie in the pa-

renchyma dorsal to the lateral nerves and ad-

jacent to the main lateral blood vessels. They

unite posteriorly to form a pair of large efferent

ducts which lead to the exterior on the dorso-

lateral surfaces of the body (Figs. 2, 3). In this

respect the species resembles M. japonica and

differs from M. grossa. In the latter the ne-

phridiopores are ventrolateral.

ahofe(ae lelols jelelafatele iets

Tea ee. eee a ewe Te

oj ol el #18

Malacobdella minuta, n. sp.: Fic. 1.—Diagram of organ systems from dorsal surface, showing atrium

(a), anus (an), cerebral ganglia (cg), esophagus (es), midgut (mg), one of the nephridia (nep), pro-

boscis (p), proboscis sheath (ps), rectum (r), sucker (s), spermaries (sp) and stomach (st). Fie. 2.—

Portion of transverse section through posterior portion of anterior half of body, showing right efferent

nephridial duct (nep) opening on dorsolateral surface. Other letters indicate: dv, dorsal blood vessel;

In, lateral nerve cord; lv, lateral vessel; p, proboscis; ps, proboscis sheath; smg, submuscular glands;

spy, spermary; st, stomach with columnar ciliated epithelium surrounded by gland cells. Fie. 3.—

Portion of transverse section of body, showing left efferent nephridial duct (nep) on dorsolateral sur-

face. Other letters as in Fig. 2.

‘Fep. 15, 1945

The efferent ducts lie at the posterior end of

the nephridial system and in the region where

the stomach enters the midgut. This is also the

region where the lateral blood vessels move

from the dorsolateral to the ventrolateral por-

tion of the parenchyma and a short distance

behind the most anterior gonads (Fig. 1).

Digestive system.—The broad atrium extends

_ from near the tip of the head to the brain com-

_ missures where the proboscis opens through its

dorsal wall. Posterior to the proboscis opening

_ the digestive canal continues as the esophagus

without change in the size of the lumen or in

- the character of the lining epithelium of short

ciliated cells. In the region of the nephridio-

pores and the most anterior gonads the lumen

becomes narrower, the ciliated epithelium more

highly columnar and the large, subepithelial

gland cells in the parenchyma on the external

border of the epithelium become more numer-

__ ous. This part of the gut is correctly designated

as the stomach (Figs. 1, 2, 3). This specimen

shows no indication of the caecum which

- Riepen (1933) describes as occurring between

_ foregut and midgut in M. grossa. There is no

- abrupt change but only a gradual transition in

the lumen as well as in the epithelium between

~ esophagus and stomach and between stomach

and midgut.

| Posterior to the stomach the slender midgut

bends alternately to left and right, forming

_ three loops or convolutions on the right side of

the body and four on the left. The midgut ter-

/ minates in the median rectum which opens on

the dorsal side of the sucker (Fig. 1).

| Nervous system.—The two cerebral ganglia

/ are widely separated by the broad atrium (Fig.

1) and are connected by the usual small dorsal

| and large ventral commissures. Each ganglion

has but a single fibrous core and is without di-

vision into dorsal and ventral lobes. At the pos-

terior end of the body the lateral nerve cords

| are united by a slender commissure situated on

| the dorsal side of the rectum and in close con-

| nection with the anastomosis of the three longi-

| tudinal blood vessels. In this respect the species

| resembles M. grossa and differs from M. japon-

| ica. In the latter the commissure is stated to lie

in the sucker and posterior to the anus (Tak-

3 akura, 1897; Yamaoka, 1940).

Ee Reproductive system.—In the single male

COE: A NEW COMMENSAL NEMERTEAN 67

available for study the gonads are situated in a

single irregular row on each side of the body.

In this specimen, which was sexually mature,

there are 18 pairs of large spermaries filled with

apparently mature spermatozoa (Vig. 1). In

this respect M. minuta differs from either of the

two other marine species, in which the gonads

are relatively small and very numerous. In this

new species they are arranged much as in typi-

cal hoplonemerteans. I'emale at present un-

known.

Habitat—Commensal in the mantle cavity of

Yoldia coopert Gabb. Collected by Dr. Martin

Johnson off Point Loma, southern California,

at a depth of 40 meters.

Type in Peabody Museum, Yale University.

The four species of Malacobdella at present

known may be distinguished by the following

key:

1. Commensal in marine pelecypods.......... 2

Commensal in fresh-water gastropod. auriculae

2. Proboscis sheath nearly as long as body; pos-

terior commissure of nerve cords on dorsal

SE UIAa PHU on ok ers Senter auaty ote 3

Proboscis sheath only two-thirds as long as

body; posterior commissure of nerve cords in

SO SGt hme. ae RS Nye «de i japonica

3. Nephridiopores on dorsolateral surfaces; gon-

ads large, situated in a single irregular row

pur carly side. of Oby oi5.0 625.08. e minuta

Nephridiopores on ventrolateral surfaces; gon-

ads relatively small and very numerous,

irregularly scattered: 2). .7 is... ie grossa

REFERENCES

Corn, Wrestey R. Biology of the nemerteans of

the Atlantic coast of North America.

Trans. Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sci.

35; 129-328. 1943.

GERING, Gustar. Beitr. zur Kenntniss von

Malacobdella grossa (Miill.). Zeitschr. fiir

-. wiss. Zool. 97: 673-720. 1911.

GUBERLET, JoHN IE. Malacobdella grossa

from the Pacific coast of North America.

Publ. Puget Sound Biol. Stat. 5: 1-12.

1925.

Riepen, O. Anatomie und Histologie von

Malacobdella grossa (Miill.). Zeitschr.

fiir wiss. Zool. 143: 323-496. 1933.

Takakura, U. On a new species of Malacob-

della (M. japonica). Annot. Zool. Japan

1: 105-112. 1897.

YaMaAoKa, Termcur. The fauna of Akkeshr

Bay. IX. Nemertini. Journ. Fac. Sci.

Hokkaido Imp. Univ. (ser. 6, zool.) 7:

205-263. 1940.

LINGUISTICS.—Origin of the word “maize.”? Joun P. Harrineron, Bureau of

American Ethnology.

“Corn” is the same word as “grain.”

Corn comes from the Anglo-Saxon, grain

from the Latin, the two forms being differ-

ent pronunciations of the same word, which

originally referred to any kind of grain. As

late as in the time of Queen Elizabeth in

England ‘“‘corn laws’? were enacted. Need-

less to say, they did not refer to Indian corn

but to any kind of grain.

When America was discovered, a. new

kind of seed grass was seen for the first

time, the kernels of which were so large

and delicious that there was nothing like

them in Europe. The Spanish discoverers

did not know what to call this plant, which

is now known in English as Indian corn, or

simply as corn. One of the early Spanish

writers termed it bledo de las Indias, wheat

of the Indies.

Oviedo was a Spanish writer and student

who made his home at Puerto Plata (Silver

Harbor) on the island of Santo Domingo

for 20 years or more, perhaps from 1520 to

1540. During this period he was writing his

General and tribal history of the Indies. The

native Indian languages of the West Indies

were still spoken at this early time, which

- was only a few years after the discovery of

the islands by Columbus. Oviedo, whose full

name was Gonzalo Ferndndez de Oviedo y

Valdés, is the only writer who shows how

the Indians were abused and makes it ap-

parent how they later became extinct

through the introduction of colored slaves.

His book remained in manuscript form 311

years, until it was printed in Madrid, Spain,

in 1851 and was thus made available to

historians of the modern world. By the time

this history was published the Indian lan-

guage had long since given way to Spanish

in the islands. Any Indian words that

Oviedo writes about are therefore impor-

tant, for what he says constitutes perhaps

our only source of definite information.

The word ‘maize’ is first recorded by

Oviedo as the word for corn in the Cuban

dialect of Arawak, and he gives the native

1 Received August 21, 1944.

original form in two spellings: “‘maisi’”’ and |

‘‘majisi.’”’ What is the phonetic interpreta- —

tion of these spellings? It is that the word

starts off with mah-, which is followed by —

-hi- (this syllable in colloquial Spanish re- —

duced to the second member of a diph- |

thong), and the word is then closed by a ©

third and final syllable -si. By giving two

spellings Oviedo makes it possible to know

exactly what the pronunciation was.

Though the Arawak language has for cen- :

turies been dead in the islands, there are

Indians on the mainland of South America, —

for instance, in Guiana, who still speak a

different dialect of it, and in their dialect,

if we look for the word for corn, we find

‘“marise.’? Why should -r- take the place of

Oviedo’s -j-? No one knows.

This old native Cuban word for corn was —

taken into Spanish as maiz—with an ac- —

cent written on the i to show it is a separate

syllable. In Spanish dialects the word is

often pronounced the same as English mice

(plural of mouse), but in more “highbrow”

Spanish it should be ma-is, with the ac-

cent on the second syllable. It will be seen

that only the -j- and final -i of Oviedo’s

word are missing. This Spanish word is the

name for corn in practically all the lan-

guages of Europe and Asia except English,

in which the old inherited word corn, taking

on a new restricted meaning, has knocked it

out. The Carib Indian work for corn is

similar to and cognate with the Arawak q

Indian word for corn.

The botanical name of the plant, Zea

mays, was given by none other than the 7

great Linnaeus, father of modern botanical

nomenclature. But Linnaeus spelled the —

word ‘mays’? wrongly. Spanish z is pro-

nounced in the New World as s, but the

writing of y instead of i is far from the 4

spelling given by Oviedo.

What is the etymology of this old Arawak

word for corn, which has come to be on the © |

tongue of German, Russian, French, Ital-

ian, and Hungarian? To what verb is it

perhaps related? This again no one knows.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 2am

divided corolla limb, a tay behavior mp owering

‘

_the common form. oe: A. ALLARD. ae ie

sei eR So kw

wy Le ‘ah

. ‘ i M : , \

a y bss 1 tle

Borany. —Diplerocypsela, a new genus of Vernoniene from

oh. B BuaAgE, Litas at tie ka kway case peep aniclse

Pumbinek. he me elvinn genus: Hi elerococcus eure

its relatives (Homoptera: eran: Huey iM

ae - Loorocy.—M clacobdella minuta, a new commensal nemertean,

Ss 4 , 3 Ke LEY R. Cok. . 0. 2; BS, Res © wo ao Pye (eo es b oe * o oe fe FP a ay ee oy a . . i oes . Bee r

- Lincuismic cs. —Origin of the word “maize? a J oun P. Harr

ee | & i 3} cats p ee 0 ‘set, 3 Y : ee 0d ni rn

Me Ricne Sen eee Tice ech aie tua ert

Me ou Fh ies ah Ne Se tl Wn j :

‘ “er ; A ‘ ai - an é . Precis? ince: phe

. Marcu 15, 1945 No. 3

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POR AR he

LUME 35

v1 PE NOLOGY.

_ FEenron.)

eo . "

The caste system of India is a growth of

ich vast dimensions that it requires an

roach by local surveys of a fairly in

ensive nature before any relevant ideas can

b be acquired concerning the structure as a

yhole. Geographically there is a wide range

¢ of variation i in the development of the caste

ations from the more complex groupings

of the Ganges Valley to the simpler units of

1e peripheral areas such as the Laccadives

and Ceylon. It seems both logical and easier

) commence a series of local surveys with

4 areas of simpler development and

gradually work up to the more complicated

relations in areas of central caste specializa-

tions.

_ In Ceylon the number of castes is fewer

ind the complexity of their relations is much

ess marked than on the mainland in India

proper. European penetration has to a

the indigenous system of social and eco-

nomic stratification. This process of eco-

agg change, if properly studied, should

as.a clear example be an aid to the under-

oe anding of the caste relationships both here

and elsewhere in India.

BP Ceclon. i is divided primarily between two

peoples, the Sinhalese of the south and

¢ pentral areas and the Tamils of the north.

‘he former number over 3,500,000; the

iter about 790,000, or 15 percent of the

aE : Received November 28,.1944. The translitera-

= ns. of Sinhalese words in this paper are pre-

ented as they are given in the literature. It

will be noticed that some of the caste names have

a variety of spellings. Some writers use ch for ec,

ih for s, c for §. Coomaraswamy in his work on

Medieval Sinhalese Art gives a clear and con-

al at the end of this paper gives an official transliter-

ation of the main caste names.

“oe eee = te ee

Ete, Pat

Marcu 15, 1945

JOURNAL

OF THE

\ VASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

No. 3

—The Sinhalese caste system of central and southern Ceylon2

— WituraM H. Givpert, Jr., Library of Congress.

(Communicated by W. N.

total. In addition there are about 325,000

greater degree than in India broken down.

tent system of transliteration. Appendix IV,

Moors, or Mohammedans, on the coasts of

the northeast and northwest. The Sinhalese

and the Tamils each possess a caste system

peculiar to their own nationality. The

Tamils, being in a minority and sharing the

social stratification of their fellow nationals

in India, are not considered in this paper

except where they show relationships with

the Sinhalese. The Moors do not appear to

have castes.

The most important items of inquiry to

which the present paper is devoted relate

to the identity of the Sinhalese castes, the

nature of their membership, their location

past and present, their origin, and their dif-

ferences in customs and manner of life. By

assembling the known facts concerning

Sinhalese social stratification it is possible

that a contribution will be made not only to

the understanding of caste in India but to

the science of human social stratification in

general.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

According to Arthur Perera (1917, p. 26)?

the Sinhalese castes probably had a tribal

basis. The lower castes, he says, formed

tribes of a prehistoric Dravidian race, the

Rakshas of tradition, who drove into the

interior the still earlier Australoid Veddas,

who were the Yakkas of tradition. Later the

higher castes of northern India entered

Ceylon, and the frequent subsequent con-

tacts with the Deccan in historical times

led to the formation of the artisan castes.

The original Sinhalese Kingdom compre-

hended most, if not all, of the present Island

2 Complete references are given in the Litera-

ture Cited.

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of Ceylon and was founded, according to

historical tradition, about 504 B.C. by

Vijaya, an immigrant chief from either

Bengal or Gujarat. Among other elements

of culture that he is credited with having

introduced into Ceylon the caste system

was notable. Vijaya’s Sinhalese appear to

have colonized the entire southern part of

Ceylon, both highland and lowland, dis-

placing the aborigines as they proceeded.

Later accounts tell of continued struggles

with the Tamils in northern Ceylon, but.

whether these Dravidian people arrived at

a prior date is subject to dispute.

The contests between the apparently

Aryan Sinhalese and the Dravidian-speak-

ing Tamils continued until A.D. 1505, when

the coming of the Portuguese introduced

European influences for the first time. The

explorers and colonists from Portugal were

able to subdue only the lowland coastal

areas. Here they carried on a brisk trade in

cinnamon bark and converted about a

tenth of the natives to the Roman Catholic

faith. In the highlands the independent

Sinhalese of Kandy succeeded in maintain-

ing their Buddhistic traditions, caste cus-

toms, and economic life in relative inde-

pendence. The impress of 133 years of

Portuguese rule still remains in the culture

of lowland Sinhalese today and helps ac-

count for their many differences from the

highlanders or Kandians. The economic life

of the lowland castes was affected by the

European overseas plantation culture, while

the aboriginal economy of the interior

castes was largely medieval and self-con-

tained.

The Dutch attacked the Portuguese forts

in Ceylon about 1638 and in a series of

sanguinary campaigns completely ousted

them from their coastal settlements by

1658. They were aided by disgruntled Sin-

halese whose caste system had been dis-

rupted by the impressment of men of high

caste as coolie labor by the Portuguese. For

more than a century the Dutch now monop-

olized the cinnamon trade and firmly in-

stalled the Romano-Dutch law among the

lowland Sinhalese. The Cinnamon-peeler

caste was greatly augmented by many new

recruits during this period, and friendly re-

VOL. 85, NO. 3 |

lations were maintained with the independ- —

ent Kandian Kingdom of the interior.

In 1795 the English assailed the Dutch ©

colony of Ceylon and added it to their grow- _

ing domains in British India. Later, Ceylon —

was separated as a Crown colony. Within a —

few years continued conflict with tle native —

independent Kandians was terminated by

the conquest of the highland area by the

British, and the native dynasty was ex-

tinguished. The Kingdom of Kandy in 1802

was still organized on the basis of an inter- —

change of goods and services between castes

as part of a vast native civil service depend-

ent upon the king and his nobility for its

existence and stability. With the introduc- —

tion of British rule this system rapidly col- —

lapsed, and a European plantation econ-

omy, marked by the cultivation of coffee,

tea, cacao, rubber, and other tropical prod-

ucts, was introduced into the highlands.

The castes that had formerly performed —

certain functions exclusively were now

forced to take up vocations outside of their —

former sphere, although they still main- —

tained to a large degree their restrictions on —

intermarriage with other castes.

DIFFERENCES FROM INDIA

According to Denham the

caste system differs in the following re- —

spects from the system in India. proper

(Hayley, pp. 146-147): .

(1) The Sinhalese, being of a homogeneous

race and religion, do not have the complexity —

of Indian castes, with their mingling of nes

races, and relicnyus orders.

(2) The Sinhalese castes are more or ee

alike in language, dress, and customs, with a ~

few notable picepiione

castes differ greatly in these items.

(3) Buddhist tolerance in matters of caste —

has eliminated the technical religious sanctions

and complicated rules prevailing in India.

(4) There are no Brahmans in the Sinhalese —

caste system, and their place is taken by the ©

comparatively autocratic central covert

in the native kingdom. 4

(5) The native Kandian Kingdom, by or- —

ganizing the people under state departments

each under the control of a crown officer, sup-

plied the economic needs of the realm. Thus a

system of state socialism was effected by hered-

itary occupations under official direction.

Sinhalese —

whereas the Indian ~

“Mar. 15, 1945

(6) Sinhalese caste emphasizes duties, while

Indian caste is concerned with customs and

habits.

(7) In the Sinhalese system no distinct order

_ of precedence of castes seems ever to have been

agreed upon. .

_ (8) The religious sanction is lacking in the

Sinhalese system, but popular psychology and

government control operate through the ninda

overlords and the authority of the native courts

_ to enforce the caste rules.

(9) In Sinhalese society such matters as legal

rights and liabilities, distinctions of name,

salutation, comfort of living, liability to deg-

- radation to slavery, and penal restrictions all

help to maintain caste. In India proper slavery

is rare, legal rights are interpreted by the

_ Brahmans rather than by royal officers, and

other bases of caste distinction are imposed.

Ts SOURCES

The literature describing caste as it has

_ 30 writers have listed, with varying degrees

__ of completeness, the names of the Sinhalese

- easte groups. The number listed runs from

a 7 to 63. Most of these writers content them-

_ selves with merely itemizing the castes and

furnishing a few characterizations of major

¥ groups. Some list the castes in their order

_ of strength or membership, others in their

hierarchical status from highest to lowest;

_ while still others classify the castes in terms

_ of their occupational specialties. Alphabeti-

cal lists are not given, possibly because of

the mixture of English and native terms

used as caste names.

OCCUPATION AND STATUS

__ - The titles or names of the castes are pri-

_ marily occupational, but there exists a rich

synonymy of terms, especially euphemistic

titles, which are inspired by the native

E: politeness and well-bred manners of the

_ Sinhalese. The Cultivators rank highest,

_ followed by the Fishermen, Toddy-drawers,

_ 352-353). At the base of the system are the

a Rodias, or Outcastes, a group of wandering

beggars.

Social status, while ostensibly based on

- occupation, is probably in the main de-

pendent upon numbers and racial back-

3 Cinnamon-peelers, etc. (Upham, vol. 3, pp..

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 71

ground. The most numerous caste, the

Cultivators, or Vellalas, constitutes about

two-thirds of the Sinhalese population and

also ranks highest in status. Persons of low

caste are traditionally descended from

groups outcasted by royal action or of low

degree because imported from beyond

Ceylon. Some of the caste terms are synony-

mous with those used by the Tamils and

the Malayalam-speaking peoples. Such

terms are Vellala (Cultivator) and Achart

(Smith, or Artisan). The occupational spe-

Fic. 1—Map of Ceylon, showing in schematic

fashion the general location of certain Sinhalese

castes, Tamils, and Moors. Solid line: Boundary

between Sinhalese and Tamil-Moor areas. Dotted

line: Boundary between coastal, or lowland,

Sinhalese and Kandian, or highland, Sinhalese.

1, Agriculturists; 2, Cinnamon-peelers; 3, Drum-

mers and Weavers; 4, Fishers; 5, Jaggery- makers;

6, Lime-burners; 7, Mat-weavers; 8, Outcastes, or

Rodias; 9, Potters; 10, Smiths and Artisans; 1/1,

Toddy-drawers; 12, Veddas; 13, Washers; 14,

Tamils; 15, Moors, or Mohammedans.

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

cializations of particular castes and their

grouping resemble the system found in

southern India. For example, the phrase

‘five performers of services,” or “‘five vil-

lage servants,”’ is used in both the Sinhalese

system and the Indian in referring to the

Carpenters, Weavers, Washers, Barbers,

and Shoemakers (Coomaraswamy, pp. 178—

179).

In older times there were basic distinc-

tions in dress, dwelling types, and char-

acter of food between the castes, which

were imposed by sumptuary laws under

royal command (see infra). Nowadays these

differences have largely gone by the board.

Almost the only outstanding remaining dis-

tinction is the restriction on intermar-

riage. The land rights and duties of the

various castes under royal command have

all lapsed since the abolition of compul-

sory labor or Rajkariya in 1832, and one

cannot as a rule be sure of telling a man’s

occupation from his caste. With the dis-

appearance of the occupational character of

caste restrictions has gone also the ecologi-

cal linkage whereby particular artisan

castes were located in the special localities

that furnished the raw materials for their

work. Free movement from one place to

another is now possible for all, while under

the old native system the lower castes were

attached to their estates (Ferguson, p. 135).

Slavery was permitted under the native

regime, but no one could hold slaves of a

higher caste than himself. The villages were

classified in accordance with the caste

groups that predominated among their in-

habitants. Thus we find Outcaste villages, ©

Cinnamon-peeler villages, etc. In southern

India.the larger cities of towns had special

streets for individual caste groups. Each

person was identified by his ‘“‘ge,”’ or house,

name, which referred both to his caste and

to his caste village (Denham, pp. 178-179).

In addition to distinct traditions of origin

some of the castes formerly possessed

badges or ensigns peculiar to their own

group and symbolical of traditional events

or objects connected with their history or

occupation. Thus the Fisherman caste, or

Karawe, had a fish on their flag, while the

Artisans, or Smiths, had an ape, the symbol

VOL. 35, NO. 3 7 4

of Hanuman, king of the monkeys and ,

prominent in their legends (E. W. Perera,

pp. 20-23).

BUDDHISM AND CASTE; ROMAN CATHOLICS

The Buddhist religious functionaries —

have in the past been selected entirely from

the Goigama, or Cultivator, caste since the

respect required for the religious office

could be consistent only with one of high

caste. The higher grades of castes that rank

immediately after the Gozgama, however, —

are not professedly excluded from the reli- _

gious worship of the Buddhist faith by any

formal ordinances. Lay brothers of low

caste called Szlvat frequently led a life

similar to that of the Goigama functionaries

and performed minor religious duties. These

low-caste officials were not, however, for- —

mally ordained, nor were they treated with —

any distinction (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 313). 9

The Siamese sect of Buddhists was ~

founded about 1750 and had its stronghold —

in Kandy. It admitted only Goigama to its _

membership, which constituted about half

of all Sinhalese Buddhists. The A marapara

and Ramanya Buddhist sects were both

founded later than the Siamese sect and

under Burmese influences. They, in con-

trast with the Siamese sect, profess to ad- —

mit all castes to their membership but in

reality are asserted to admit only Karawe, —

or Fishers, along with Cinnamon-peelers.

and Toddy-drawers, the three highest-rank- —

ing castes next to the Cultivators. The

Amarapara and Ramanya predominate in —

the low country and now constitute about

34 and 16 percent, respectively, of the Sin-

halese Buddhists. In the highland area

these two sects together constitute less than

10 percent of the Buddhist Sinhalese. Al- —

though in the lowlands the Siamese sect —

numbers only about 20 percent of the ©

Buddhists, they own all the temples (Cop- —

leston, pp. 250-252). 4

Sinhalese Buddhism is not alone in its —

tolerance of caste, since we find that the —

Buddhists of Kashmir, Nepal, and ancient —

Hindustan also maintained caste differ- —

ences. As in orthodox Hinduism, persons

engaged in occupations requiring the killing

of and contact with dead animals or human ~

“Mar. 15, 1945

beings, such groups, for example, as grave-

diggers, butchers, executioners, fishermen,

and leather-workers, are all outcasted.

— About 10 percent (300,000) of the Sin-

halese are Roman Catholics. This group is

mainly located in the lowlands and consists

of converted Fishers, Cinnamon-peelers,

-Toddy-drawers, Washers, and Cultivators.

The Ceylon police records under the title of

“Hue and Cry”’ in the Ceylon Government

Gazette showed during the period 1905-

1907 the following numbers of Roman

~ Catholics among Sinhalese castemen: (o7-

gama, 935 persons, 68 R.C., or 7 percent;

_Karawe, or Fishers, 158 persons, 60 R.C.,

or 38 percent; Halagama, or Cinnamon-

_ peelers, 98 persons, 21 R.C., or 20 percent;

| Wahumpura, or Jaggery-maker cooks, 94

persons, no R.C. because this is primarily a

highland caste; Durawe, or Toddy-drawers,

_ 69 persons, 12 R.C., or 17 percent; and

_ Radaw, or Washers, 34 persons, 4 R.C., or

11 percent.

THE TAMILS

The Maldive Islands to the southwest of

- Ceylon are inhabited by a Moslem people

whose speech is related to Sinhalese. It is

_ generally believed that the culture of the

3 archipelago stems historically from Ceylon.

_ The various writers who first reported on

_ the Maldives detailed four major caste

_groups—(1) the Bandara, or royal caste,

_ which was composed of the sovereign and

his relatives, (2) the Didus, or persons of

r high digtity who might intermarry with

_ royalty if specially permitted and carried

_ hereditary titles of -nobility, (3) the

_ Manike or Maniku, who were the gentry,

_ and (4) the Kalo, or Kamulo, the common

| people, made up of artisans, tradesmen, and

_ persons engaged in ordinary occupations.

Ps _ Apparently the nobility was more of a class

| than a caste, especially in relation to the

| first rank and since some were given titles

from the gentry (Bell, 1917; Hockly, p

me 111).

| The M billed would seem to correspond

| closely with the Goigama, or Cultivator,

| caste, while the lower Sinhalese castes

| would correspond with the Kalo. It is

a RELATIONS TO THE MALDIVIANS AND TO

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 73

noticeable that the Moslems or Moors of

Ceylon itself are divided into four classes:

merchants, weavers, fishermen, and _ bar-

bers. The Maldivian occupational equiva-

lents to the lower Sinhalese castes occur in

the following examples: Fishers, Lac-

workers, Mat-weavers, Carpenters, Gold-

smiths and Silversmiths, Blacksmiths,

Tailors, Barbers, Masons, Weavers, and

Toddy-drawers. The available literature

does not indicate, however, that these occu-

pations were hereditary and characterized

by in-marrying restrictions.

Among the Tamils of the north and east

of Ceylon the occupational-caste equiva-

lents to many of the Sinhalese castes are to

be found. The following are the most im-

portant of these (based on Chitty, pp. 231—

234): Cultivators (Tamil Vellala are di-

vided into four groups, which are the

equivalents of the Goigama); Herdsmen

(Tamil Idayer are equivalent to the Patti-

wala Aya subdivision of the Gozgama);

Fishers (the Tamils have six castes in this

category as the equivalents to the Karawe) ;

Toddy-drawers (Tamil Nalawers and Shan-

avars are equivalent to the Durawe); Lime-

burners (Tamil Kadeyers equivalent to

Hunno); Palanquin-bearers (Tamil Chiviyars

equivalent to Paduwo); Weavers (Tamil

Seniyers equivalent to Chalias and Bera-

wayo); Tomtom-beaters (Tamil Parreyar

equivalent to Berawayo); Barbers (Tamil

Navider equivalent to Embattayo); Black-

smiths (Tamil Kaller equivalent to Cam-

buro); Goldsmiths (Tamil Tattar equivalent

to Navandanno); Brass-founders (Tamil

Kannar equivalent to Lokuruwo); Car-

penters (Tamil Tatcher equivalent to Vadu-

vo); Masons (Tamil Sztper equivalent to

Galvaduvo); Tailors (Tamil Paver equiva-

lent to Hannali); Potters (Tamil Kusaver

equivalent to Badahelayo); and Washers

(Tamil Wanna equivalent to Radaw).

ECOLOGICAL FACTORS

The principal varieties of environment in

the Sinhalese area of Ceylon are: (1) the

forests of the uplands, (2) grassy areas of

both upland and lowland, (8) cultivated

area of upland and lowland, and (4) the

coastal areas. Each of these environmental

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

types requires a definite mode of life, and

the castes that fit one type may not be well

adapted to life in another. In the forested

uplands dwell the Veddas, the nearest

equivalents to the hill tribes of the south

Indian mainland. The Veddas are divided

into settled and wandering groups. The

economy of the wandering Veddas involves

a competition with bears for the fruits and

wild honey of the forests and with the

leopards for the deer and wild boar, which

they hunt in both pasture and forest.

Under the native regime the patena, or

grassy areas, of the western part of the

Island were used for pasturage rather than

for cultivation. The talamas, or grassy

meadows, on the eastern side of the Island

were scarcely utilized at all. In the north-

west coastal semidesert areas population

was also sparse. The Sinhalese part of the

Island was divided from the Tamil by a

forest band running from the northwest to

the southeast and including much of the

highland areas.

The cultivated areas were mainly in-

habited by the Gozgamas and their allies.

The upland areas included terrace cultiva-

tion of rice, while the lowland cultivation

was in the river basins near the sea. In the

upland the Goigamas cultivated cocoa, tea,

rubber, and in modern times coffee. The

occasional broad and marshy plains of

grass were not much used in cultivation.

In the upland the kitul palm furnished the

jaggery or palm sugar extracted by the

Hakuru caste, the grasslands material for

the Grass-cutter caste and for the Mat-

weavers, while the clayey river beds and

fields furnished material for the Potter

caste. The cinnamon tree flourished in the

lowlands and furnished a basis for sub-

sistence to the Chalia, or Cinnamon-peeler,

caste. In this area also occurred the coco-

nut palm, the basis of toddy and the sub-

sistence of the Toddy-drawer caste. Fi-

nally, on the coastal or maritime area

proper were the Karawe caste—fishermen,

carpenters, and handymen of the castes. In

addition to the above-mentioned crops the

lowlands permitted the growth of rubber,

citronella grass, and the areca palm. The

last was the basis of betel chewing.

VOL. 35, No.3

For each of the occupational castes, then,

can be plotted an area of distribution in

terms of the location of minerals, plants,

animals, topographic features, and climatic

characters most intimately related to the

caste activities. These caste areas of dis-

tribution tend to cluster around highland

and lowland and thus reinforce the basic

distinction in mode of life between Kan-

dians and lowlanders.

The castes were linked together in the

production and servicing of items of mate-

rial culture. For example, the Achari, or

Blacksmith caste, constructed the chunam

boxes to hold the betel-nut and the areca-

nut cutters, the Lime-burner caste pro- —

duced the lime that must be chewed with

the betel, while the areca palm was culti-

vated by Goigamas. As another example

the building and operation of Buddhist

temples required the services of carpenters

in the Artisan caste, of stone workers also

in that caste, of Cultivators, Painters,

Tomtom-beaters, Washers for temple linen,

of Potters for sacred vessels and of Ivory,

Lac-, and Wood-workers. Thus a fine de-

gree of cooperation was required, involving

the products of several different. types of

environment. Since the most of the castes

lived by the material goods produced or

services rendered, they appear to have

been definitely linked with the ecological

areas of the Island.

Not only were the castes localized in

terms of environmental materials but they —

also had their own streets and quarters in _

the towns, as we have already intimated. _

Thus Pridham in his account of Ceylon ~

(1849, vol. 2, p. 682) mentions that the site ~

of Madoola still had in his time straight —

fields bearing the names of streets, such

as Tomtom-beaters’ Street, Potters’ Street,

etc.

Localization of Sinhalese castes can be

determined specifically by their classified

sources of livelihood. The latter may be

roughly divided into four categories, animal,

vegetable, mineral, and special services.

The castes exploiting animal resources are:

(1) the nonsettled Veddas, who subsist on

honey and on deer and wild boar and con- —

sequently live mainly in the hill forests; (2)

Mar. 15, 1945

F the Elephant-catchers, who must also

haunt the hill forests; (3) the Fishers, who

subsist on edible marine fish on the coasts

and coastal rivers in the mangrove and palm

areas; (4) Scavengers and Leather workers,

who, along with the Pastors, inhabit the

Sections in which stock abounds, i.e., pri-

4 marily the cultivated lowlands; (5) the Lac-

_ collectors and workers who are dependent

on the hill forests where the trees inhabited

_ by lac insects are found.

The castes exploiting vegetable resources

are (1) the Goigama, who depend primarily

on rice and vegetables and who are found

in the areas of coastal and upland rice cul-

tivation; (2) the Cinnamon-peelers, who

are definitely limited to the western and

southern coasts where the cinnamon tree

abounds; (3) the Jaggery-makers, who are

_ situated mainly in the highland areas of the

kitul palm and other sugar-bearing trees;

(4) Toddy-drawers, who tap mainly the

coconut palm, a tree found in the long set-

tled coastal areas of the south and west;

(5) Grass-cutters, who are mainly in the

grassy uplands; (6) Tree-fellers, who were

timber cutters in the hill forests; (7)

Weavers, who were located in the areas that

produced cotton, namely, the highlands;

(8) Mat-weavers, who wove materials such

as rattan and reeds found in the upland

grassy and swampy areas; (9) Basket-

makers, who were similarly employed and

lived in similar areas; (10) Gardeners, who

cultivated flowers in the uplands areas;

and (11) Carpenters, who subsisted by their

labor on economic woods from the hill

forests.

The castes whose major source of liveli-

hood lies in mineral resources are (1) Pot-

ters, who were wont to collect their clay

from cultivated areas (ricefields) and river-

sides in the uplands; (2) Smiths, who were

located in the uplands near the sources of

iron ore, which latter was extracted for

them by the Yamannu; (3) Gem-collectors,

a division of the Goigama who haunted the

river beds and earth deposits of the Rat-

napura region in the highlands; and (4)

-Lime-burners, who burned coral rock, wood,

and other materials for lime and charcoal

in both upland and seacoast.

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 75

The service castes, whose major duties

were ceremonial and sumptuary, were (1)

Barbers, located at the royal court; (2)

Palanquin-bearers, who were mainly in de-

mand at the royal court or the towns of

the overlords; (8) Tomtom-beaters, who

were most important in services connected

with planet and devil worship and with

temple rites; (4) the Dancers, who were

similarly employed and _ located; (5)

Washers, who served all the castes in rites

of ceremonial purification and whose loca-

tion was consequently the same as the

other groups; (6) Tailors, who were located

at the royal court in Kandy, as were also

(7) the Silversmiths and Goldsmiths.

CASTE NUMBERS

No available census records exist of Sin-

halese caste numbers. Evidently the Euro-

pean administrators of Ceylon thought

that it was possible to make this social

phenomenon disappear by ignoring it. Ac-

cording to Coomaraswamy the most im-

portant caste groups in the Kandian popu-

lation are: Goviyo (Goigama); Kamburu

(Navandanna and Galladdo artificers); Va-

duvo (Carpenters and Blacksmiths); Radav

(Washers or Dhobies); Duravo (Toddy-

drawers); Kumbakarayo (Potters); Bera-

vayo (Musicians, Weavers, Astrologers) ;

and Padwvo (servile Cultivators, Palanquin-

bearers) (Coomaraswamy, p 22).

An examination of the caste data re-

ported in the “Hue and Cry,” or Ceylon

police records, for 1905-1907 shows the

following (1) numbers, (2) percentages, (3)

estimated number in the gross population,

and (4) (where available) the number

shown by the 1901 census of occupations:

Goigama, 935, or 60 percent, est. 1,400,000;

Karawe, 158, or 10 percent, est. 237,000.

Fishers by occupation 38,504; caste not

recorded, 104, or 7 percent; Halagama, 98,

or 6 percent, est. 147,000; Cinnamon-

peelers by occupation 15,222; Wahumpura,

94, or 6 percent, est. 141,000 (Cooks of

- Jaggery-maker caste); Durawo, 69, or 3

percent, est. 103,000, Toddy-drawers by

occupation 11,836; Radaw, 34, or 2 percent,

est. 51,000, Washers by occupation 29,749;

Navandanna, 26, or 1.5 percent, est. 39,000,

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Goldsmiths and Silversmiths by trade

14,361; Hunno, 23, or 1.5 percent, est.

34,000, Lime-burners by occupation 870;

Salagama, 16, or 1 percent, est. 24,000

(Weavers); Batgama, 13, est. 18,000 (La-

borers); Duraya, 13, est. 18,000 (Laborers) ;

Paduwa, 13, est. 18,000 (Laborers); Ha-

kuru, 7, est. 10,000, Jaggery-makers by oc-

cupation 803; Berawa, 5, est. 8,000, Tom-

tom beaters by occupation 1,649; Oliya, 5,

est. 8,000, Dancers by occupation 5,423;

Badahela, 5, est. 8,000, Potters by occupa-

tion 9,678; Pannaya 3, est. 4,500 (Grass-

eutters) ; Badala, 2, est. 3,000 (Silversmiths) ;

Rodiya, 2, est. 3,000 (Beggars); Hedide-

mala, 2, est. 3,000 (Tamils); Vedda, 1, est.

1,500 (Primitive Hunter); Parava, 1, est.

1,500 (Tamil); Pannaderia, 1, est. 1,500

(Grass-cutters) ; Demalagattera_ 1 est. 1,500

(Tamil Slaves); and Porokara, 1, est. 1,500

(Axmen).

It can be safely assumed that the tradi-

tional caste occupation is generally disre-

garded today. A very small minority of the

Karawe are fishermen; of the Halagama

cinnamon-peelers; of the Durawo toddy-

drawers, etc. On the other hand, the great

majority of the Gotgama are still rice-culti-

vators; of the Radaw washermen and of the

Navadanna goldsmiths. Pieris (n.d., vol.

2, pp. 256-258) asserts that the Portuguese

first violated traditional occupations by

forcing large numbers of the Goigama to do

coolie labor, and other sources assert that

the Dutch were likewise guilty of violations

of caste regulations in regard to occupation

(Tennent, 1889, vol. 2, pp. 123-124).

CASTE SERVICES, VILLAGE TYPES, AND

SUMPTUARY LAWS

In the native Kingdom of Kandy there

existed a system of forced labor, the so-

called rajgkaria, in which royal authority

was employed to allocate the different oc-

cupations of the realm among the available

labor supply. Families performed the tenant

services by turns, i.e., alternating in giving

their services under public officers in return

for their land holdings. At a late date the

labor services might be commuted by a

money payment (Coomaraswamy, 1908,

pp. 22-24).

VOL. 35, No. 3 @

Some of the more important lines of spe-

cial service performed in the native Kandy —

Government included messenger or guard —

duty (Atapattu vasama); husbandman (Gan- ~

vasama); military duty (Heva vasama); —

artificer work (Badal panguva); potter work

(Badahela panguva); musician (Davul pan- —

guva); washermen service (Rada vasama); —

servant (Nila vasama or Uliyam vasama);

iron-smelting (Yamanna); and outcaste —

services (Rodiya). (Ibzd.) 4

There are six departments in the Kandian

Government, as follows: Kottalbadde, or Ar- —

tificer’s Department; Badahelabadde, or Pot-

ters’ Department; Radabadde, or Washers’ —

Department; Handabadde, or Mat-makers’ —

Department; Kuruwe, or Elephant Depart- —

ment; and Madige, or Carriage Bullock —

Department (D’Oyly, pp. 7-18). Each de- —

partment was organized with a hierarchy

of officials responsible for the performance —

of duties by the particular castes concerned —

with work in that department. a

The work of the departmental officials —

was made easier by the caste segregation —

in specific villages. In fact, each village was

classified according to the type of caste or —

service to which it belonged. The following —

were the more important types of village: —

(1) Gabada-gama, a royal village or manor ~

that was the private estate of the king and ~

consisted of crown lands cultivated under —

the half-share system; (2) Bat-gama vil- —

lages inhabited by the Paduwo caste of low

status (their services included carrying the —

hinder parts of palanquins, watching the —

house or fields, and other menial work), —

who could never acquire any permanent —

rights to the land; (3) Brso-gama, or royal —

villages set apart for the Pallervahala or —

queen’s palace or for the royal household ~

on the same terms as the Gabada-gama —

(this type of village, along with the first —

and second, was inhabited by degraded ~

castes who as tenants could be ejected at —

any time in favor of some other caste at —

the will of the king); (4) Vzhara-gama type —

villages belonged to some Buddhist temple —

and services were performed for the priest- —

hood; (5) Devala-gama were villages belong- —

ing to some Hindu temple or deity with —

services as in (4); (6) Nindagama was a —

Mar. 15, 1945

village under the entire protection of a

local chief or landlord, and tenure of land

was conditioned by service tohim; (7)

_Vidanegam was a village of low-caste people

liable to public services under Vidanes, or

Siéadmen ; (8) Wedi-gama were villages in-

_habited by Veddahs; (9) Gattaru-gama were

inhabited by persons who had been out-

-easted by the king; (10) Gahala-gama were

‘inhabited by executioners, scavengers, and

persons of extremely low caste; and Kup-

payama were villages of Rodiyas, the heredi-

tary outcaste beggars. (Denham, pp. 191-

193; Coomaraswamy, p. 27.)

Not only were the castes segregated in

terms of departmental services and village

residence, but they were strictly regulated

_as to the goods they might use for clothing

_and the kinds of houses they might inhabit.

Barbers wore doublets but could not sit on

stools. Potters wore no doublets and could

not sit on stools. Only the king could wear

certain types of gold or silver jewelry, an

eight-cornered hat, shoes, stockings, or

trousers, be served with an umbrella, or.

live in plastered walls under tiled roofs and

in two-story dwellings. (Knox, in Phila-

lethes, p. 138.)

According to Pridham (1849, p. 597), at

one time there was a thriving trade in

carved figures portraying the native castes

at the town of Matura. Between the low

and high castes there were many invidious

distinctions of dress. No low-caste woman

was allowed a neck ornament except one

of the Potter or Smith caste. She could not

wear clothing above the waist except in cold

weather. Low-caste men were not allowed

_to wear colored cloth or cloth embroidered

with colored thread in Kandy or in the

presence of higher castes. (Pamatella, p.

119 ff.).

NAMES AND CASTES

_ The ge name is a surname used before

the personal name—a praenomen—and is

SO called because of the ending ge or geyi

generally affixed to such surnames. The

word varige and vasagana are used to ex-

press these surnames. The ge name is the

most important part of a Sinhalese proper

name as it usually reveals the rank, occu-,

‘=

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 77

pation, residence, caste, native place, or

some characteristic or achievement of the

original ancestor of the family bearing the

ge name. Thus Bentarahunuge indicates a

Lime-burner caste (Hunuw) and the type

of village (ge) whence the person came. Per-

sons of Washerman or Barber caste often

drop the part of the name showing occupa-

tion and assume the family name of the

person they serve. In some instances names

are changed where they furnish impedi-

ments to securing suitable marriages for

sons and daughters. The Goigama formerly

named their children about 16 days after

birth, while the other castes allowed 32

days to elapse. The wife keeps the ge name

of her father after marriage. (Denham, pp.

178-179.)

In former times personal names were re-

stricted to the particular castes, and this is

still the practice in some parts of the Kand-

ian area. Although today it cannot be said

that a particular name belongs to a certain

caste, the termination usually indicates

whether the bearer of the name is of high

or low caste. Modes of salutation vary

. greatly with the caste and rank of the ad-

dressee. Terms of affection and endearment

are often applied to persons of low caste,

such as ‘‘uncle”’ and ‘‘aunt’’ when address-

ing members of the Washerman caste or

‘“‘boss’”’ in addressing a Carpenter caste

member. (Denham, 1912; Alwis, 1856-

58; Hocart, 1938.)

In the earlier days a caste consisted of a

group of clans, each clan claiming descent

from a common ancestor from whom it

took its name. Its name might also be taken

from the office he held or from the village

whence he came. Hereditary surnames were

given to chiefs and the clan name dropped.

During the Portuguese ascendancy Euro-

pean surnames were adopted by converts

to Roman Catholicism. (A. A. Perera,

1917, p. 26.)

AGRICULTURISTS, OR CULTIVATORS

The Goigama, or Vellala, the great cul-

tivating caste of the Sinhalese, is given the

following synonyms by Upham (1883, pp.

338-339): Khetta or Kettauw Jiewakayo,

livers by the field; Kassakayo, plowers of

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the land; Goyankaranno, sowers or culti-

vators of rice; Gozyo or Goigama Etto, cul-

tivators (or rice village people); Goz Ba-

muno or cultivating Brahmans; Gozkulayo

or of the cultivating caste; and Handuruvo

or Sandurowo, sons of peace. The plow-

share was their flag symbol (see E. W.

Perera, p. 23).

This caste was subdivided into a consid-

erable number of subgroups in terms of oc-

cupations and hereditary or ceremonial

rank and the upper divisions did not for-

merly intermarry freely with the lower. The

upper rank of Gozgama could marry a

Pattea (Shepherd) woman, but no man of

the latter could dare present openly a claim

to a bride in the upper ranks. (Pridham,

1849, vol. 1, p. 235.)

The Hondrews (Hamaduruwo), or Gen-

tlemen, were distinguished by their names

and their clothing. The men wore the

cloth halfway down the legs and the women

to the heels with one end flung over the

shoulder. The Hondrew head-covering con-

sisted of two flaps tied over the top of the

crown. Their caps were always white or

blue and those of inferiors of different

eclors. (Pridham, loc. cit.) The Hondrew

chiefs and nobles performed various hon-

orary services for the king and paid homage

on New Year’s Day, presenting a roll of

betel leaves. (A. A. Perera, 1903, pp. 336—

aon.)

Goigama tenants carried messages, sup-

plied betel and areca, kept guard, provided

for strangers or visitors, attended during

domestic ceremonies, and when necessary

cooked provisions or provided buffalo for

plowing (zbzd.). |

The duties of the various classes of Goz-

gama tenant were highly specialized and

carefully delineated. For example, the Ata-

pattu-wasama, or messenger. class, carried

messages, kept guard over treasures, tem-

ples, and chiefs’ houses, carried state um-

brellas in procession, watched threshing

floors, and accompanied proprietors on

journeys. (Coomaraswamy, p. 24.)

The Dunukarawasama, or military class

of archers, held land in return for services in

carrying letters and messages, keeping

guard at the house of the proprietors,

VOL. 35, NO. 3 ;

watching the threshing floor, and accom- _

panying the proprietor on journeys of state

bearing the lance. (A. A. Perera, 1917, App.

Ds Vis)

The Dalumura-Panguwa performed. the

service of supplying weekly or fortnightly _

and at festivals a certain quantity of betel

leaves for consumption by the officers and ~

priests. This service was of greatimportance

at the royal court, and the king had plan- —

tations of betel in different parts of the

country complete with staffs of officers, —

gardeners, and carriers. Later under British —

rule the tenants of this class supplied betel

to proprietors for consumption at home and

while on journeys. In some instances a

quantity of areca nuts also was furnished.

brads p:ave)

The Ganwasama were a superior class of —

tenants in the village who supplied the

proprietor with subordinate village officials

such as vzdanes (headmen), lekamas(writers)

and kankanamas (overseers). This class was

often of the same social standing as the

proprietor and sometimes related to him.

They were often the wealthiest people in

the village, holding the most fertile lands.

They had to make heavy contributions to

the proprietors and their retinues. This

class also provided sustenance and shelter —

for visitors and strangers. The superin- —

tendence of building work at the proprie-

tor’s house and the function of presiding at

festivals also devolved upon them. The

Ganwasama accompanied the proprietor on —

journeys and took the lead in the annual —

presentation of the tenants before the pro- —

prietor. (Ibid., p. vii; Coomaraswamy, p.

24.)

The Hewawasama was a military class

whose services included carrying messages _

and umbrellas, keeping guard, and attend- —

ing at funerals. They also furnished sub- 7

ordinate officials. This class had charge of —

_ proprietors’ houses, of cleaning and repair- —

ing the premises, and of supplying flowers”

to the temples. (Perera, p. xii; Coomar- —

aswamy, p. 25.) .

The Lekam Panguwa tenants did duty as —

writers to the proprietors, superintended —

working parties and harvesting operations, —

and appeared before the proprietor at the —

‘

~ Mar. 15, 1945

annual presentation of the tenants. They

- also attended the proprietor on journeys,

eared for him when he was sick, and helped

guard his house. They also occasionally as-

sumed the duty of headmen, but their regu-

lar duty was to keep accounts of things re-

- ceived and issued and of arranging and

supervising services of tenants. (Perera, p.

xii.)

The Nilawasama class supplied temples

with vegetables for festivals and performed

avast array of domestic duties of outdoor

type. They supplied fuel and water to the

kitchen and bath, pounded paddy, ex-

tracted oil from nuts, repaired walls and

floors, transported timber, prepared clay,

supplied firewood for brick and tile kilns,

blew bellows for the smith and supplied him

with charcoal for the forge, broke up lime-

| ‘stone, cut banks and ditches, put up fences,

cleared gardens, swept out courtyards and

compounds, joined in all agricultural opera-

tions in gardens and fields such as planting

and harvesting, tied straw and assisted in

thatching, carried palanquins or baggage on

journeys, bore objects in processions, and

served in the ceremonies at weddings, fu-

nerals, Yak(Devil Worship) and Bali (Planet

Worship) rites. (Perera, pp. xv—xvi.)

Nilawasama tenants were of low status

_ for the most part, and their yearly dues

consisted of vegetables and contributions

of uncooked food. Beside working for the

proprietor they also performed services

for headmen and for other classes working

in the fields for a few days and carrying

their baggage on journeys. Some were

placed in charge of temple cattle and pro-

vided fresh milk at ceremonies and at New

Year’s. (Perera, pp. xv—-xvi.)

The Manana tenants measured out

paddy given to be pounded as well as

paddy brought in from the fields. This office

came to be held by a low class of Goigamas

and has been equated with those who put

up privies, put mud on walls, or carry

palanquins, baggage, and torches. They

served as messengers for the headmen of

the village, watched at the threshing floor,

took care of buffalo brought in for plowing

or threshing and assisted in the collection

of dues. (Perera p. xiii.)

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 79

The Nillemakareyea or Pattea people

were not very numerous since their occupa-

tion was stock-keeping, and large pasture

areas were few in old Ceylon. They were

also cultivators and paid taxes in rice,

milk, and ghee. They were of inferior status.

(Pridham, vol. 1, p. 236.)

The Veddas (Dodda veddas) are of Goi-

gama caste. They were called Wanachara-

kayo, wild men or men of the desert, and

Weddo or tormentors because although they

fled to the jungle to escape oppression or

being tormented they killed animals for a

living there. They lived in Wedigama vil-

lages and were held in low status because

of their taking animal life. Under the Kan-

dian regime they were required to furnish

the king with wild game. (Upham, vol. 3,

p. 346; Pridham, vol. 1, p. 240.)

There were several minor groups of

Goigamas such as the Gauraykawallu or

village watchmen and the Kappuwo or

temple watchmen, the Hunu gambadu or

coolie pezsants who foddered and took care

of cattle, and the Malcaruwo or flower gar-

deners. The last were sometimes called

Mawlacawrayo, or chain makers, because

they made garlands or chains of flowers.

(Upham, vol. 3, pp. 349-350; Pridham, vol.

1, p. 241.)

The dress of the Gozgama men consisted

of a topett:, a long cloth of two breadths

about the loins and extending as far down

as the ankle. A cloth about the head was

folded like a turban leaving the top of the

head exposed. On state occasions a short

jacket was worn except in temples. (Prid-

ham, vol. 1, p: 235.)

The dress of the Gorgama women was a

long cloth of a single breadth called a hala

wrapped around the loins and cast over the

left shoulder. On state occasions a jacket

was worn with a kind of ruff hanging from

the neck over the shoulders. Rings, silver

or crystal bangles, and ear ornaments also

were worn. (Pridham, zb:d.; Bennett, pp.

98-99.)

Rank with the gozgamas was indicated by

the rich quality and quantity of apparel

rather than by fashion. The highest rank

wore the finest embroidered muslin set off

by a succession of topetties, often six or

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

eight in number, with the shoulders un-

naturally widened by a jacket stuffed and

padded to correspond with the girth of the

hips. (Lbid.)

According to Coomaraswamy (p. 22) the

Goigama constitute about 90 percent of the

Sinhalese population. This seems to be too

high when other evidence is taken into ac-

count. The minor groups such as the Ved-

das have always been small in modern

times. The Veddas numbered 2,030 in 1871,

5,332 in 1911, and 4,510 in 1921 (Census

of Ceylon).

In the ‘‘Hue and Cry”’ statistics 780

Goigama were found in the following occu-

pations: cultivators (317), coolies (266),

carters (49), miners (43), domestic servants

(27), traders (21), masons (12), carpenters

(10), cooks (10), clerks (9), boatmen (6),

breadsellers (5), and peons (5). According

to the same source the chief crimes charged

to 401 Gozrgama castemen were theft (es-

pecially of cattle) and housebreaking (234),

causing hurt (55), robbery (34), criminal

breach of trust (27), habitual criminal (18),

assault (9), criminal misappropriation (8),

forgery (6), arson (5), and cheating (5).

There are almost a score of divisions re-

corded for the Gorgama. They are as fol-

lows: (1) Axmen and Porakara or Porawak-

karayoand Kunammaduvegamayo (Niti Nig-

handuwa); (2) Bali ceremonialists, Balibat-

gamayo (Niti Nighanduwa); (3) Betel-

furnishers, Dalaemurecarao (Valentyn); (4)

Bridge-builders, Waddewassam Karayo (De

Saram); (5) Cattle-tenders, Pattiwalayao

(Armour) or Pattewala aya (Niti Nighand-

uwa); (6) Cultivators, Ratte etto or Wel-

lales (Armour) and Gombaducarao (Val-

entyn); (7) Elephant-keepers, Hiwalapan-

nikkayo (Niti Nighanduwa); (8) Flower-

growers, Malkaruvo, Garland-makers (Niti

Nighanduwa) or Mallaccarao (Valentyn);

(9) Gem-collectors, Dzegaranno collected

from stream beds and Goddegaranno col-

lected from the soil (Valentyn); (10)

Hunters, Weddo (Armour) or Wediwanse

(Niti Nighanduwa) or divided into Wan-

neweddas and Dadaweddas (Valentyn); (11)

Milk-suppliers, Munkicarao (Valentyn);

(12) Nobility and Gentlemen are divided

into Handuruwo (Armour), Bandaarawaliya

VOL. 35, No.3 7

(Armour) or Bandares or Adassing (Dukes, —

Princes, etc., of Royal Family—Upham), —

Appuhames (De Saram), Safframadoo Ap- —

puhamies (De Saram), Mantriunu (Privy

councilors—Upham), Mandelliperu. (Mili- —

tary officials and modeliars, adiyars, des- —

saves—Upham), Radalakamperuwa and —

Mudeliperuwa (Armour and Niti Nighand- —

uwa), Paindi Peruwa or Rate Eito (Niti —

Nighanduwa); (13) Outcastes from Goi- —

gama, Gattaroo (Armour) or Gattaru (Niti —

Nighanduwa); (14) Seeders, Batgamwella —

etto (Valentyn); (15) Shepherds, Nilemak- —

kareyo (Armour) or Nillamakkarayo (Niti —

Nighanduwa); (16) Soldiers, Hewapannay —

(Soldiers and lascoreens—De Saram) or —

Gowiperu (Military and agricultural la- —

borers—Upham); (17) Soothsayers and —

Jugglers, Wiramestaragolla (Niti Nighandu- —

wa); (18) Tamil Fishermen, 3

(Armour) or Jzbiblo (Niti Nighanduwa); —

(19) miscellaneous groups such as Cari- ~

awassin or Mayorals (De Saram), Kuttan- ~

wala etto (Niti Nighanduwa), Weerames- —

seroo or Gooroowo (Armour) and Kammal- —

handooroowo or Wagayo (Armour).

BARBERS

The Barber caste was always a small one, —

since the Sinhalese usually shaved them- —

selves. However, the royal court at Kandy —

required some barbers. The following syn- —

onyms are given for this caste by Upham —

(vol. 3, p. 343): Cappakayo, or cutters;

Nahapikayo, or comforters; Karranawiyo,

or razor users; Pannikkiyo, which means

leaf or foliage cutters; Ambetteo or Embet- —

tayo, i.e., near approachers or livers near in

reference to their position as ministers of —

the royal cabinet and proximity to the —

king’s person. 4

As a rule barbers shaved only the higher —

castes. The Barber paid a tax in money for ~

his land and was liable to service as a —

baggage porter. The annual ceremony of —

feigned shaving of an image of the Buddha ~

in the Temple at Kandy was performed by —

a member of this caste with the aid of a ~

looking glass so that he might not desecrate —

the image by looking at it directly. The ©

manorial lord was always attended by his —

barber. Barbers had the privilege of wearing

Timbillo

Mar. 15, 1945

_ white linen under the Kandian monarchy.

Both men and women of this caste could

_ wear doublets but could not sit on stools.

- Upper-caste Washermen washed for them

| but would not dine with them. (Pridham,

_ vol. 1, p. 238; Davy, p. 125.) Virchow says

_ that the Barbers and Hanomoreyo (betel

- box-makers of Uva) were even lower in

- status than Rodiyas.

The vidahn mohandiram, or caste head-

man, wore a cloth or linen coat with silk

buttons and loops; a sword hilt and scab-

bard of silver, the latter with two plates of

tortoise shell on it; and a belt of colored

_ yibbon embroidered with flowers of silver

thread. (Bennett, p. 100.)

_ Sinhalese Barbers numbered 260 in 1881;

~ 1,287 in 1891; and 1,327 in 1901, according

to the Census Report.

BASKET-MAKERS

The Basket-maker caste was apparently a

small one. Upham (vol. 3, pp. 348-349)

gives the following names for this group:

Sinnawo, or cutters, referring to their cut-

ting and bringing home of their materials;

Hadayo, or plaiters, because of their weav-

ing or plaiting of materials; Welwaduwo, or

rod-carpenters in reference to their use of

| rods to manufacture articles; and Cooloopot-

to, or peeling winnower makers, because

they made winnowers by peeling bamboo

cane and reeds. More commonly this group

was called Handee, or Handi. They were

required to furnish the stores of the

Kandian monarch with baskets and win-

nows, and were thought to be a beggar

caste by some writers. (Pridham, vol. 1,

p. 348-349; Davy, p. 129.)

BRAHMANS AND OTHER VARNAS

There are apparently no Brahmans

among the Sinhalese of today. Tradition-

ally this caste, however, was present among

them and constituted the next to the high-

est, if not the highest, of all the castes. The

- Kings, or Rajahs, were members of the

_ Kshatria Varna and were the landlords of

_ Ceylon. Regarding the third major division,

| the Wysya (Vaishya) Varna, there is some

- confusion. Buyers and sellers as well as

makers of merchandise were once classed

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 81

as Wysyayo and were divided into three

categories: (1) dealers or merchandisers,

(2) cattle tenders, and (3) tillers of the

soil. The merchants, or Welindo, seem to

have disappeared from the Sinhalese sys-

tem and their place was taken by the Tamil

Chittys and Moslems.

The Goigama claimed descent from the

Vaishyas and held themselves aloof from

all the lower groups who were called

Sudras. Members of other castes assert

that the Goigamas were originally Sudras

rather than Vaishyas. Karawe caste mem-

bers have laid claim to Kshatriya status.

The different divisions of the Kshoodra

Wanse, or Sudras, were organized by the

government for its own use and for the

benefit of the ruling caste of the Goigama.

Under the Kandian monarchy each caste

had specific duties to pay and certain serv-

ices to perform and were responsible to

officers appointed by the king. Armour

lists 18 Wanam, or occupations, that in

their names were reminiscent of the 18 guilds

of the Buddhist Period and the 18 servants

of the Tamils. Bennett speaks of the five

performers of service, namely, carpenters,

weavers, washermen, barbers, and sandal-

makers. This recalls the fivefold division of

servants into smiths, tailors, washers, bar-

bers, and leather-workers given in the Jana-

vamsa. Arthur Perera (1917, pp. 26-27)

divides the groups below Gozgamas: into

Naides (smiths and allied groups), Durayas

(servants), and professional or service

groups including barbers and washers. The

Pancha-chandalo, or five men of degraded

caste, were among the Sinhalese tradition-

ally the washermen, potters, barbers, silver-

smiths, and tailors. In addition there is the

tradition of the Pas kula or five tribes (five

handicraft castes or traders), viz.: car-.

penters, weavers, washers, barbers, and

shoemakers.

CINNAMON-PEELERS

The following synonyms are given by

Upham (vol. 3, pp. 339-340) for this caste:

Paisakara Brahmanayo, or gold and silver

thread weaving Brahmans; TJ’ antavayo, or

yard-stretching weavers (because they

stretched and ordered their warp and wove

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

it with weft); Parsacawrayo, or Pathairo,

i.e., weavers of gold and silver thread;

Salagamayo, or Halagamayo, i.e., people

who inhabit the large hall village (referring

to Chilaw on the west coast whose older

name was Salawa); and Mahabadde, the

great rent, referring to cinnamon as the

principal source of revenue (they were also

called Chalias, or people of Chilaw, some-

times abbreviated to Hali); and Pesa kar-

ayan, or makers of cloth strainers to filter

water.

According to tradition the king of Dam-

balewa in the Seven Corles, called Walthi-

mi Buwanaika Rajah, six or seven hundred

years ago caused a colony of Paisekara

weavers to be brought from India to estab-

lish a cloth manufactory at Chilaw. Special

apartments or large halls were reserved for

their use. (Upham, loc. czt.; Johnson, pp.

44-84; EK. W. Perera, pp. 20-21.)

In later times, with the coming of the

Portuguese, these weavers took up cinna-

mon-peeling as a major occupation. Their

numbers were always small and insignifi-

cant in the highland area of Kandy, but in

the maritime provinces they were numer-

ous. Many have become wealthy and am-

bitious under European rule. A small

branch called the Velledurat weavers were

described as living chiefly in the barren dis-

tricts of Neurakalalawa in the north. On the

coast the Chalias of today are chiefly clus-

tered about Galle and Chilaw. (Pridham,

vol. 1, p. 239; Davy, p..126.)

The Washermen for the Chalias were

called Hinnevo. Under the older regime the

Cinnamon-peeler caste was not allowed to

wear white linen. For their lands they were

required to pay a money tax and were li-

able to be employed in the royal kitchens

to fetch firewood, clean chatties or pots,

and carry provisions. They also served as

the bodyguards of the lords, especially on

journeys. De Saram (7n Hayley, p. 101)

divided the Chalias into four occupational

subcastes—Paniuidacaraya, headmen or

messengers; Hewapanne, or lascoreen war-

riors; Cooroondo Caraya, or cinnamon-

peelers; and Oliyakaraya, or palanquin-

bearers.

The services required of the Chalias of

VOL. 35, NO. 3

the Seven Corles, a total of about 500 fami-

lies, included the furnishing of the king’s

stores with an annual quota of salt fish.

They could not wear caps or cloths reaching

much below the knees, and the dress of the

women was similar to that of the Potter

caste. a

According to the ‘‘Hue and Cry” data —

the chief occupations of 60 Cinnamon- —

peelers, or Halagamas, in 1905-07 were—

cooks 27, cinnamon-peelers 10, carters 8,

traders 6, cultivators 5, and carpenters 4.

The occupations of 14 Salagama Cinna-

mon-peelers were—cultivators 7, cooks 4,

and cinnamon peelers 3.

Under the European rule in the maritime

provinces the Cinnamon-peelers came under

a special jurisdiction and ultimately felt

powerful enough to dispute precedence

with the Fisherman caste. In 1733 they

went on a strike against the Dutch Govern-

ment because of the poor working condi-

tions and income derived for their labors. —

Their disabilities and the degraded state of

the caste generally caused many of them to

flee into the highlands. The remainder were

able to obtain much more favorable terms

with the Dutch cinnamon traders. Although

the women were forbidden to do so, the

men might marry into the caste next below

them. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 239, footnote;

Tennent, vol. 2, pp. 123-124, footnote,157.)

There were, according to the Census,

1,773 Sinhalese cinnamon-peelers by occu- —

pation in 1881, 7,899 in 1891, and 15,222 —

in 1901. |

DANCERS

The masked Dancers were a small caste.

Their principal designation was Oliyo,

which is interpreted to mean disguised

actor or comedian. According to Upham

(vol. 3, p. 350) the term Uhuliyo was also

applied to this group because they appeared ~

with masked faces and made gestures. To

exorcise the Spirits of Poverty, the Gara —

Yakku, the Olt performed a special all-day _

dance called Gara, Yakuma, wearing special —

masks. One of the major functions of this

group was to carry the large effigies of the

Assooriah demons in processions at the —

annual festivals. They are thought to have —

manufactured these effigies (Pridham, vol.

~ Mar. 15, 1945

1, p. 241). Denham (p. 190) gives the

honorific term Bali-eduro, a teacher of Bali

ceremonies, and Balitiyanna, one who molds

Bali images, to members of this group.

Davy (p. 129) terms them Olee.

In older days the Olz provided the lords

of the manors with oil for burning at night

and swept out the premises by day. They

also assisted in the care of the elephants.

They were not allowed the honor of white

linen and the Gangavo Caste washed for

them. (A. A. Perera, 1903, p. 337.)

According to the census, there were 1,520

Sinhalese Devil-dancers in 1881, 3,278 in

1891, and 5,423 in 1901. Devil-dancers

might also include Tomtom-beaters.

DRUMMERS AND WEAVERS

The chief synonyms for the Tomtom-

beater caste or Weavers were, according to

Upham (vol. 3, pp. 346-347): Atodya-

wasakqyo, after*Atodya a royal minister

who first appointed them to this duty and

who himself made and played on the first

timbrel or drum with one head, which was

later called by his name; Berawayo, be-

cause they beat the barra, or tomtom;

Ganitayo, or counters (calculators), be-

cause they were astrologers and calculators

of the motions of the planets. Denham (p.

190) asserts that the term Panikkiya, which

referred to a headman of this caste, was

frequently employed as an honorific title to

ordinary members as was Nekatiya, as-

strologer, because of the knowledge pos-

sessed by this caste on the subject of the

stars. Other terms employed were Tablin-

jenos and Wajjankarayo, the latter meaning

“tomtom beaters.” In general a consider-

able variety of names were applied to this

Berawayo caste in terms of the various

functions it performed.

According to Valentyn (in Philalethes,

p. 330) the Berawayo had lime-burner,

dancer, grass-mower, and deccum-carao

(annual poll-tax payers) divisions, each of

which had its own superintendents or man-

quedams whom they especially designated

as ulewalia.

The Berawayo did not eat with low castes

but could not use white linen, and the

Pally caste washed for them. On the whole

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 83

Berawayo were numerous and well dis-

tributed through the villages. Their major

employment was as weavers of coarse na-

tive cloth, but they were noted also as

musicians and as participants in festivals or

rites, beating the drum and giving notice of

such events. (Coomaraswamy, p. 232;

Parker, 1917, pp. 28-29.) They were ex-

perts at rhythm and melody and were de-

voted also to duties as watchers at temples,

sweeping and cleaning temple premises,

gathering flowers for temple offerings, and

fetching water for the temple. Their serv-

ices were necessary at weddings, funerals,

Yak (Devil-worship) and Bali (Planet-

worship) ceremonies, and on state occa-

sions. They paid a tax in money to the

Kandian king. In addition they supplied

the royal store monthly with vegetables and

provided the wooden gutters of the Ke-

toolga tree. In some districts an annual

quantity of cloth was provided by them to

the manorial lord.

Particular families among the Berawayo

had lands for their services as_ pipers,

dancers, and players at the great festivals.

Temple lands were cultivated by them on

the same terms. They were allowed to eat

and carry away all victuals offered to the

gods and were also reputed to eat beef. The

members of the caste who beat the tomtom

were called Tammattankarayo, while those

who wove cloth primarily were called Da-

wulkararayo. Another group was the Bali-

eduro, who made the clay images for and

danced at Bali ceremonies to propitiate the

planets. A performer of devil ceremonies in

this caste was called Yakdessa. (A. A.

Perera, 1917, App.; Coomaraswamy, p.

148; Davy, pp. 128-129; Pridham, pp. 240-

241.)

The census enumerated 823 Sinhalese

Tomtom-beaters in 1881, 2,318 in 1891, and

1,649 in 1901.

ELEPHANT-CATCHERS

The Weenawo were a caste devoted to the

function of elephant-snaring. They fol-

lowed the track of elephants and drove

them into snares or put them to death in

cases of peril or emergency. Special washer-

men washed for them but would not eat

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

with them. They did not have the privilege

of wearing white linen. (Valentyn, in

Philalethes, p. 329.)

FISHERS

| Upham (vol. 3, pp. 345-346) gives the

following synonyms for the Carawo, or

Fisher, caste: Wagurikayo, 1.e., workers or '

dealers in the water, referring to their habit

of wading and working in the water; Jaw-

likayo, or workers with nets; Kay-wattayo,

or surrounders of water, because in fishing

they surround a spot in the water; Kaywulo

of Kaywattayo, which means those who

dwell near the shore; and Carawo, which

means ‘‘shore people” or dwellers near the

shore.

The Fisher caste was evidently divided

into a considerable number of sub-groups,

and, according to Valentyn (7m Philalethes,

pp. 325-327) the lower ranks were kept

separate from the rest. The higher ranks of

Fishers participated in the privileges of the

Vellalas or Goigama, and higher washerman

were under obligation to wash their clothes.

On the great festive occasions the higher

Fishers could spread a white cloth on which

they could dine and could cover their stools

with white cloth also. Their dwelling could

be decorated likewise, and they could carry

a torch in their processions. They displayed

a white flag with the device of a fish or

‘elephant in the center. (Fonseka, pp. 1-11;

E. W. Perera, pp. 21-22.) In addition they

could carry an umbrella of the tallcpot

palm and in their own lands could have a

white calico cloth spread beneath their

feet. They possessed military offices and

some were appointed to the office of adzgar

by the king. They might be carried in

palanquins with drums beat before them on

the road in ceremonial parades. (Valentyn,

op. cit.; Pridham, vol. 1, pp. 236-237.)

The Fishers were members of the Madege

Department in the government along with

the Moors, or Moslems, whose reputation

and status they shared. (Davy, pp. 122-123;

Pridham, vol. 1, p. 237.) The Modeliar and

Mahavidahn Modeliars of this caste wore a

silk or cloth coat with silver buttons and

loops; sword hilt and scabbard of silver

and with eyes and tongue of the lion’s head

VoL. 35, No. 3

made of gold, the belt of gold or silver lace _

but not spangled. The headmen of the

Chandoos, or Toddy-drawers, shared this. —

costume. (Bennett, p. 99.) 7

The duties of the Karawe tenants in-

cluded the transportation of the paddy from

the fields to the granary and attendance to

the carriage department already noted.

They also provided fish for the kitchen of

the landlord. (A. A. Perera, p. 336.)

Dharmaratne (pp. 27, 40, etc.) divides

the Sinhalese castes into two geographical

groups, namely (1) Coastal or Lowland

Karawe, together with their ancient allies _

the ‘poetic’ Durawe, and the “witty” —

Chalias, and (2) Kandyans who comprised

Goigamas, Navandannas, Badahelas, and

Wahumpuras. Further, he would add the

Tamil-speaking ‘‘Karawe’”’ of the North

and east coasts to the Sinhalese Karawe

caste. Three-fourths of the Karawe, he as-

serts, are today the owners of extensive

lands, planters, traders, merchants, etc.,

and the remaining one-fourth are car-

penters, coopers, builders, boatmen, cart- _

ers, and coolies, with only a scant one- —

sixteenth engaged in fishing.

In the recent period the Karawe have

engaged in a vigorous rivalry with the

Goigama for social position. The period of

Portuguese rule was marked by extensive

conversion of the Karawe to Roman Catho-

lic faith. For this reason the Protestant

Dutch favored the Gozgama over the Kara-

we, it has been asserted. ([bid.)

Under English rule the Karawe prospered

once more, and their acquisition of new —

wealth led to the demand early in the ~

twentieth century for better representation

in the Legislative Council of Ceylon. —

Hitherto the Goigama had monopolized the —

position of representing Sinhalese interests

on the council. From this situation it can

be seen that the caste spirit is still very —

much alive among the Sinhalese even at the

present time, in spite of the decline of the

old occupational sanctions. (Encyclopedia

Britannica.) a

The ‘‘Hue and Cry”’ gives the following ~

occupations for 112 Karawe members

listed: coolies 51, cultivators 18, carpenters

16, traders 9, fishermen 9, and carters 9.

~ Mar. 15, 1945

_ According to the census the Sinhalese

_ fishermen numbered 10,414 in 1881, 35,367

in 1891, and 38,504 in 1901. In the ‘‘Hue

- and Cry” records of crimes charged to 149

_ Karawe, we find the following figures:

theft and housebreaking 67, causing hurt

_ 32, criminal breach of trust 15, robbery 14,

_ murder 9, assault 6, and escaping custody 6.

The Fisher caste is subdivided into about

17 groups, as follows: (1) Animal-trap-

makers, Ugulwadi (Bennett and Pridham);

| (2) Archers, Dunuwaayeli (Bennett and

_ Pridham); (3) Ax fishers or Timber-fellers,

- Porawakkara Karaway (De Saram); (4)

_ Bird-catchers, Paksi or Pakai wadi (Ben-

~ nett and Pridham); (5) Bird-snarers, Wil-

| liya (Bennett and Pridham); (6) Boat-

fishers or Skate fishers, Oru Karaway (De

Saram) or Moru-karawo (Valentyn); (7)

_ Crocodile-fishers, Kayman wadi (Bennett

and Pridham); (8) Date-flower fishers,

Indimal Kewulu (De Saram) or Indimal-

_ keulo (line-makers and net-makers—Va-

lentyn); (9) Executioners, Wadekayo (Ben-

nett and Pridham); (10) Fishmongers,

Maswikunanno (Bennett and Pridham);

(11) Hook-and-line anglers, Kaywulo (Ben-

nett and Pridham); (12) Madel-net fishers

or red-sail fishers, Madel Karaway (De

-_ Saram) or Kadul-karawo (Valentyn); (13)

Net fishers in the sea, Muhududaye or

Meehududaye wadi (Bennett and Pridham)

and Baroodel Karaway (De Saram) or

_ Barudel-karawo (Fishers who do not use

| casting nets—Valentyn); (14) Rivermouth

fishers, Gode kewuloo (Fishers from land—

De Saram) or Godo-keulo (Valentyn); (15)

Rod fishers with bamboo, Dandoo Karaway

(De Saram) or Dandukarawo (Valentyn);

(16) Tok fishers, Tok Kewuloo (De Saram)

or Tock-keulo (Fishers in fresh water—

Valentyn); and (17) Turtle- or Tortoise-

fishers, Kesbakaraway (De Saram) or

Kespe-karawo (Valentyn). According to De

Saram numbers (3), (14), (16), and (8)

were low in status and did not intermarry

with the rest. Similarly, Valentyn lists

(16), (14), and (8) as of low status and not

- intermarriageahle with the others. There

are some indications that (11) and (16)

may be identical groups. There are also

evidences of two distinct classifications,

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM 85

with Valentyn and De Saram agreeing

fairly closely as against Bennett and Prid-

ham.

GRASS-CUTTERS

The term Pannayo is generally applied to

the Grass-cutter caste and is derived from

the word pan, a name for a species of high

grass that they cut. This caste is also called

Jana Capanno, or grass-cutters, because

they cut fodder for horses and gathered

leaves and branches for elephants. (Upham,

vol. 3, pp. 347-348.)

This was a numerous group, and the

services they rendered in return for their

land tenures included the care of the royal

cattle, and elephants, and the horses, as

well as the furnishing of vegetables for the

king’s stores every fortnight. (Pridham,

vol. 1, p. 240; Davy, p. 127.)

They also wove grass mats (peduru) out

of various grasses and palm leaves and

manufactured baskets and betel pouches.

They employed a grass knife making their

baskets of cane or rattan (Calamus roz-

burght) and dyeing them red. Mats were

provided for royal use when required.

(Coomaraswamy, p. 240; Pridham, vol. 1,

p. 240.)

In 1881 the census recorded 104 grass

cutters and in 1891 listed 918.

JAGGERY-MAKERS

The manufacturers of sugar from palm

juices were quite a distinctive caste. Accord-

ing to Upham (vol. 3, p. 347) they are called

Kandey Etto, or Kandians, because of their

residence in the Kandian highlands; San-

garammu, or defender of the priests’ gar-

dens (also interpreted as cohabitors with

sisters or with own blood); and Sakuro or

Pakuro, stone-makers because of the hard

cakes of sugar or jaggery they produced.

Frequently heard in modern times are the

terms Hakuru and Wahumpura, or cook.

According to Denham (p. 189) the honorif-

ic terms Devayo and Vahum purayo applied

to this caste means workers in the kitchen.

They were also called by the euphemistic

name of Kande-minissa, or hillmen, because

they were located primarily in the high-

lands.

In general the duties of this caste in-

cluded sugar-making, cookery, palanquin-

bearing, domestic service of various kinds,

baggage-carrying, and agricultural activi-

ties. They were required to attend the

manorial lords on journeys and to carry the

palanquins of female members of the pro-

prietor’s family. When not engaged in

domestic duties they supplied jaggery and

vegetables, attended agricultural duties, or

carried baggage. One-half share of the

toddy (Kitulanda-Mure) of all kitul palms

tapped was due to the proprietor. The tod-

dy was converted into sugar by the Ha-

kuru. This caste furnished the Gozgama

with cooks and were a fairly numerous

group. The Hinnevo washed for them and

they were excluded from the use of white

linen. (A. A. Perera, App. p. xxii, uses the

name Wahumpuraya for them; see also

Upham, vol. 3, p. 347; Pridham, vol. 1,

pp. 239-240; Davy, p. 127.)

The Sinhalese jaggery-workers numbered

303 in 1881, 1,990 in 1891, and 12,413 in

1901. The chief Hakuru occupation in the

‘“‘Hue and Cry” records was agriculture,

while the chief Wahuwmpura pursuits were

coolie labor and agriculture, with small

numbers serving as carters and masons.

LEATHER-WORKERS

The Leather-workers (Tanners) and the

Shoemakers appear to have been one and

the same caste. Following Upham’s ac-

count (vol. 3, p. 344), the principal terms

employed for this group were Chammakar-

ayo (Chamars?), i.e., skin dressers; Rat-

takarayo, i.e., carriage makers in reference

to the manufacture of harness for chariots

and carriages; Samwaduwo, or skin car-

penters; and Sammahanno, or shoemakers.

The common terms Sommaru and Hom-

maru were employed to designate leather-

workers. According to Bennett (p. 365)

this caste was one of the Pass mehe Karayo

or five performers of services along with

carpenters, weavers, washermen, and bar-

bers. The standing of Leather-workers is

fairly good among Sudra groups. The

Janavamsa includes them as one of the

five servants along with smiths, tailors,

washers, and barbers.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 3

LIME-BURNERS

The caste of Lime-burners

has been

designated by a variety of names. Accord-

ing to Upham’s account (vol. 3, p. 347) the

principal ones were Chunna-karayo (re-

ducers to powder, i.e., by burning stones,

shells, and trees), Suwnno, and Hunno. Den-

ham (p. 190) asserts that the Hunno, or

Lime-burners, may be addressed as Pani-

vidakaraya or Payunda, literally a mes-

senger. He believes that persons of this

caste may have been formerly employed as — 4

messengers or that perhaps the term arose

from a designation for a minor headman.

The terms Chunam burner and Chinambero _

were also used for them. According to Ben-

nett (p. 566) the Hunno or Chunam makers

were of the Jolil Karayo or particular serv-

ices, along with the Tailors, Cooks, Tom-

tom-beaters, and Palanquin-bearers. In

general, the Lime-burners were given a low

status among the Sudra castes, and accord-

ing to Davy they were rather few in num-

bers. (See also Pridham, vol. 1, p. 240.)

The headmen of the Lime-burners were

called Hunudewea and usually were en-

gaged in plastering walls or superintending

others of their caste. In olden times these

persons whitewashed the house of the

manorial lord once or twice a week. They

also furnished purified lime for chewing

with the areca nut and betel leaf. The Dec-

cum carao of this caste paid an annual poll

tax to the Kandian king and were required

to keep up the lime furnace, to supply fuel,

and to attend until the process was finished.

They did not have the privilege of wearing

white linen, and the Pallys washed for them.

The Huno kattanno were employed in felling

trees in the woods and in providing fuel ‘+

the lime kilns. (Upham, vol. 3, p. 347.)

According to the Ceylon census of o¢c.-

pations in 1881, there were 785 Sinha ose

Lime-burners, in 1891 some 2,092, anc

1901 about 870. The Lime-burners in |

“Hue and Cry” records were prima

coolies and masons.

MAT-WEAVERS

The following terms are used for Mat- _

weavers, according to Upham (vol. 3, pp. —

350-351): Pannakarayo, i.e., leaf-workers, _

ie.

Mar. 15, 1945

referring to the weaving of various kinds

of leaves; Cattakarayo, i.e, workers in hard

matter or wood, because they pound on tree

fibers until these are reduced to a pulp or

wooly substance, which they use to make

mats; Tinakarayo, i.e., workers in grass,

because they make some kinds of grass into

mats, and this by a transposition of con-

sonants becomes Kinnaru, grass-workers;

and Hainawalaya, i.e., fringe-makers be-

cause some mats are made with fringed

selvedges. According to Denham (p. 190)

the honorific term Karmantakaraya, or

workmen, was applied to this caste.

Under the Kandian regime the Kinnaru

were not allowed to wear any head covering

or handkerchief. They were required to pay

a deccum or poll tax and in virtue of this

were called Hiene Jaty. They were regarded

as a very low caste and were rather small

in numbers. Their function was to furnish

the royal stores with ropes and rush mats.

They also wove cane baskets, made fans for

fanning corn, and manufactured lace bed-

"PALEOBOTANY.—The Lower Eocene

BERRY: LOWER EOCENE FLORA

steads and stools. The Dumbara mats were

made of niyanda fibers (bowstring hemp or

Sanseveria zeylanica). (Pridham, vol. 1,

p. 241; Coomaraswamy, p. 243, gives exam-

ples of their work songs; Valentyn, in

Philalethes, p. 331, gives the term Hiene

Jaty; Parker, 1917, p.30; Parker, pp. 44—45,

563-566. )

The Kinnaru were considered semi-out-

castes of slightly higher position than the

Rodias. The men were forbidden to grow

hair beyond their necks, and the females

from wearing anything more than a.narrow

strip of cloth above the waist to cover their

breasts. Mat-weavers were absolutely for-

bidden to enter temples or sacred enclosures.

Like the Rodias, they had their own doc-

tors, astrologers, soothsayers, and officials

for demon ceremonies. (Parker, 1917, p.

30; A. A. Perera, p. 337.)

According to the census, Sinhalese cane-

workers numbered 40 in 1881, 363 in 1891,

and 438 in 1901.

(To be concluded.)

flora of southeastern North America.!

Epwarp W. Berry, Johns Hopkins University.

The Lower Eocene flora of southeastern

North America comprises what is probably

the most extensive fossil flora known from

a single horizon in the world’s Tertiary. It

consists of several hundred nominal species

—the precise number is immaterial, coming

from 132 localities scattered along the

shores of the Wilcox embayment through

Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky,

Illinois, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas.

I said the exact number of species is im-

material and I designated the species as

nominal because it is a sound paleobotanical

principle that in describing any fossil as-

semblage, where gradations between vari-

ants are not preserved or discovered, the

_ new forms should be carefully described as

new species. Hence, in all good paleontologic

work there are probably more species de-

scribed than actually existed. It is a sound

method for a refined analysis to precede an

attempted synthesis.

1 Received December 20, 1944.

In a recent number of this JouRNAL? four

Wilcox species and others inferentially are

combined in three new generic assignments.

It is these three generic assignments that

invite comment. It is far from my purpose

to become a knight errant in defense either

of my own or of Knowlton’s determinations,

and I suspect that most readers have slight,

if any, interest in the problem, but inas-

much as certain fundamental questions of

paleobotanical practice are involved I feel

constrained to review them. The first in-

volves a form named Diospyros asper and

thought to be a concrescent calyx compared

with that of the living Asiatic D. lanceolata

Roxburgh and with the fossil D. rugosa

Saporta. Brown states in the article cited

that these comparisons “fail to be convinc-

ing,’ and he therefore transfers the Dzo-

spyros to the genus Fagus and suggests that

Dryophyllum tennesseensis Berry, a wide-

2 Brown, R. W. Temperate species in the Eocene

flora of the southeastern United States. This Jour-

NAL 34: 349-351. 1944.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

spread and very common leaf in the Wil-

cox, represents the leaves of this Fagus, of

which the Diospyros calyces are regarded

as the burs. Neither of these suggestions ap-

peals to me as convincing, but there is more

to be said.

These supposed burs have been found

only at a single locality in Tennessee, and

the Dryophyllum leaves have been found

abundantly at 38 plant localities in five

states and at none of these localities have

the supposed burs been detected. Brown |

may, of course, be right. Fagus and the

scarcely distinguishable Nothofagus are

found in beds of this general age in various

-antipodeal regions and are considered to

have had ancestors in the Northern Hemi-

sphere, a fact that invalidates any argu-

ment against the presence of Fagus in as

low a latitude as Tennessee at this time.

By the same token it precludes the possi-

bility of Dryophyllum representing a Fagus

lead.o

Fagus burs are carried greater distances

by natural means than are the leaves, and

if, as Brown’s hypothesis has it, this Wilcox

material was brought into the basin of

sedimentation from uplands with a cooler

climate than that of the coastal Wilcox

strip, these ‘‘burs’’ would be expected to be

more abundant than the leaves. They are

objects that would scarcely fail of detec-

tion, and it is strange that they have not

been found at any of the 132 plant locali- .

ties. Moreover, there is evidence that the

eastern United States in Eocene time was a

region of low relief and mature topography,

and the fact that a considerable number of

Wilcox species are identical with forms

found in the contemporaneous lignites of

Brandon, Vt., suggests that there was a

general amelioration of climate, not only in

eastern North America but in other parts of

the world, notably shown in southern Eng-

land..

The second species is called Sassafras

suspectum and is based on certain leaves of

Sterculia wilcoxensis found by me at Pine

Top, Tenn. Although opinions may legiti-

mately differ as to the propriety of associa-

ing the Pine Top specimens with the other

occurrences of this species, I see no basis

for referring them to Sassafras. Back in

VOL. 35, NOs 4

1902 I made a study of the leaves of the liv-

ing Sassafras* based on what was probably

the largest collection ever made, and so

there is presumably some actual basis for a

judgment. The Wilcox leaves in question

are too large to.be those of a Sassafras ; they

have a different texture, which is hard to

define in. words but unmistakable to the

trained observer; they do have the marginal

hem in the sinuses, but this is also a feature’

of Artocarpus and other unrelated genera;

they lack the characteristic venation of the

basal triangle. — -

The chief point I want to make is that

students should refrain from making

changes unless they have facts as a basis

rather than opinions. For example, I have

long been of the opinion that some of the

Wilcox leaves that are referred to Ficus

mississippiensis really represent the genus

Hernandia, but I certainly would not sug-

gest such a change unless I had something

more valid than a hunch with which to

proceed, even though the genus Ficus is not

very convincing. Another example is a

statement (made, to be sure, when the au-

thor was inexperienced and afterward re-

gretted by him) in the first volume of the

late A. C. Seward’s Fossil plants, where he

implied that the paleobotanist could not

differentiate between Restio (a monocoty-

ledon), Equisetum (a lepidophyte), Casua-

rina (a dicotyledon), and Ephedra (a gym-

nosperm). The convergence in habit of

these four is quite beside the point, since

never in earth history have all four grown

together or would they ever occur in the

same deposit or ecological assemblage.

The third questionable proposal is to

unite Euonymus splendens Berry and H7-

coria crescentia Knowlton, to constitute a

new species of Staphylea. The latter genus

has trifoliate or pinnate leaves of moderate

size with serrate margins and with the lat- — q

eral leaflets sessile or subsessile. The fossils —

average 100 percent larger, are much more

broadly ovate, and have acuminate tips —

and dentate margins. The petioles are long

even in the minimum-sized specimens. 4

Waiving the question of whether the ~

Wilcox leaves determined as Hicoria cres-

3 Bot. Gaz. 34: 426-450. 1902.

‘>

_— a

— ENTOMOLOGY .—Five new flea beetles from the West Indies

Mar. 15, 1945

centia are identical with Knowlton’s type

from the West, they seem to me to differ

from Huonymus splendens, and here again

the Huonymus is abundant at 31 widely

scattered localities at not one of which, or

any other of the 132 plant localities, has a

seed or the characteristic inflated fruits of

Staphylea been found, the sort of a fruit

admirably adapted for preservation had it

(Communicated by 8. F. Buake.)

The following species of flea beetles, with

_ one exception, were collected by P. J. Dar-

lington, Jr., and were found in unidentified

material at the Museum of Comparative

Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

Genus Hadropoda Suffrian

Hadropoda albicincta n. sp.

Fig. 4

About 3 mm long, reddish brown with pice-

ous head and prothorax and dark, somewhat

metallic markings on elytra and body beneath;

covered with golden appressed pubescence not

concealing the dense punctation of the head

and prothorax and large striate punctures of

the elytra. Elytra considerably wider than

prothorax and with numerous dark spots, the

ones nearest the suture raised to form warty

swellings, also a hump at the apical narrowing.

Antennae short, with greatly enlarged apical

joints, fifth and sixth conspicuously white.

Head with interocular space more than half

its width, piceous, densely and roughly punc-

tate, with fine, short, appressed pubescence;

frontal tubercles not very distinct, interan-

tennal area not produced, lower front short.

Antennae extending below humeri, the five

apical joints darker and much wider than the

basal ones, fifth and sixth joints conspicuously

white. Prothorax with sides nearly straight,

only slightly curved, with a nodule at each

corner, densely punctate, covered with short,

appressed pubescence, surface uneven with two

sharp median elevations slightly before the

middle and a shorter one below and between

them; piceaqus with basal margin paler. Scu-

— tellum covered with golden pubescence. Elytra.

1 Received January 5, 1945.

BLAKE: NEW FLEA BEETLES FROM WEST INDIES 89

been in existence anywhere in the general

region.

In closing, may I again disclaim any feel-

ing of proprietary interest or chivalry in de-

fending the species discussed, but I do feel

strongly that if science is not to become a

joke its votaries must refrain from making

changes in which opinions and not facts are

allowed to assume so leading a role.

Doris H. BLAKE.

considerably wider than prothorax, fairly con-

vex, deep reddish brown with a darker area at

base and along the sides, and dark spots, the

spots in the line nearest suture raised to form

warty elevations, one on the callosity near the

scutellum, one before and one after the middle,

and a swollen area on the side at the apical

narrowing, other less prominent spots along the

sides, these not raised, about all these spots

the pubescence arranged in a sort of circular

whirl; a deep incurving sulcus running from

within the humerus about the basal callosity

nearly to the suture. Striate punctation large

and deep. Body beneath deep reddish brown,

shining, with pale pubescence, basal half of ante-

rior femora pale, hind femora on back densely

pubescent with dark median band. Anterior

claws exceptionally large, and with a basal

tooth; hind claws swollen. Length 3 mm, width

1.4mm.

Type female, Mus. Comp. Zool. 26925.

Type locality—Morne La Hotte, elevation

5,000—7,800 feet, Haiti, collected October 16,

17, 1934, by P. J. Darlington.

This species belongs to the same group as

Hadropoda barberi and hugonis, the former from

Puerto Rico, the latter from the Dominican

Republic. Together they form a group that

stands a little apart in the genus and resembles

in many ways the species of the North Ameri-

can genus Distigmoptera. H. albicincta closely

resembles hugonis but differs in having raised

sutural margins and three warts as well as an

apical tumidity on each elytron. Its elytral

punctation is a little finer and the whole beetle

slightly more slender. All three species are

peculiar in having a white fifth, and in this

species also a white sixth, antennal joint.

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 35, NO. 3 -@

Genus Oedionychis Latreille

Oedionychis pseudothoracica, n. sp.

Fig. 5

About 6 mm long, oval, not very shiny,

densely and coarsely punctate; head, pro-

thorax, abdomen, coxae, and middle of breast

yellow, antennae, legs, and rest of under-

surface and five spots on pronotum dark

brown, elytra blue-violet.

Head densely and rugosely punctate, the

tubercles distinct, area between antennae

slightly produced; interocular space approxi-

mately half the width of head; yellow-brown

with dark mouthparts, slightly darkened tu-

bercles, a spot on occiput and margin about

eyes darker. Antennae rather heavy, extending

to the middle of elytra, entirely dark brown,

joints 3, 4, and 5 long and about equal. Pro-

thorax at base twice as wide as long, narrowed

anteriorly with the explanate margin becoming

wider and slightly produced; disk covered with

coarse and moderately dense punctures, yel-

low with five piceous spots. Scutellum black

and shiny. Elytra smoothly convex, slightly

wider posteriorly, with a narrow margin; in-

trahumeral depression short and not marked,

‘sutural edges smooth, a little raised, surface

more densely punctate than prothorax, deep

violet-blue. Body beneath very sparsely pu-

bescent, legs and metasternum shining with a

faint metallic lustre, prosternum, middle of

metasternum, coxae and abdomen pale. Length

5.7 mm, width 3 mm.

Type male, U.S.N.M. 57228.

Type locality Camagiiey, Cuba, collected

July 30, 1923, by J. Acufia.

Superfically this species resembles the North

American Oedionychis thoracica Fabricius in

markings and coloration. It belongs, however,

to the group with the front of the head pro-

duced and the eyes rather closely set. It also

has fewer pronotal spots than are found in

O. thoracica.

Genus Pseudoepitrix Jacoby

Pseudoepitrix tetraspilota, n. sp.

Fig. 1

About 2.5 mm long, shining, reddish brown

with four darker brown elytral spots, two at

base and two in middle, and a dark abdomen;

the striate elytral punctures distinct to the

apex.

Head with interocular space half its width, —

frontal tubercles not distinctly marked, a de-

pression behind running up to fovea by the

eye, lower front of head long and gradually

narrowing to labrum, distance from top of

labrum to antennal sockets approximately

equal to width between the eyes; occiput alu-

taceous and with a circle of fine punctures in |

the middle; head reddish brown, alittle darker |

on top. Antennae extending to the middle of

the elytra, gradually deepening in color, fifth

joint long. Prothorax about a fourth wider

than long, widest anteriorly, narrowed slightly

to a prominent basal nodule, sides straight;

basal margin somewhat sinuate; disk with a —

deep basal sulcus, punctation moderately dense

and distinct. Scutellum deep reddish brown. — i

Elytra shining, a distinct callosity at base near

the suture and a well marked intrahumeral

depression extending around and below it; on

this callosity a deepening in coloration, a

similar dark area in the middle of each elytron,

these dark areas more or less conspicuous in ~

four of the five specimens examined, in one ~

only traces of the spots. Striate punctures dis-- _

tinct to the apex. Body beneath polished yellow

brown, the abdomen, except for the pale tip,

deep reddish brown. Length 2.3-2.6 mm, width

1:2-1.3. mm.

Type male, Mus. Comp. Zool. 26922. Four

paratypes, two males, two females, a pair of

these in National collection, U.S.N.M. 57229.

Type locality—Pico Turquino, 5,000—6,000

feet elevation, Cuba, collected in June 1936 by —

P. J. Darlington. q

This is the first species of the genus to be de- —

scribed from Cuba and the first spotted species

known in the genus.

Pseudoepitrix longicornis, n. sp.

Fig. 3

About 2 mm long, shining, pale yellow-brown

with slightly darker head and antennae, an-

tennae in male approximately equal to length

of beetle; elytral striae poorly marked toward —

apex ofelytra. q

Head with interocular space a little more

than half width of head, lower front tapering,

giving head a triangular shape in front, occiput

alutaceous, very finely punctate on vertex, a

depressed line running behind tubercles to

fovea at margin of eyes. Antennae very long, —

seudothoracica’

2. Re udoepitrix darling toni

aie

ae ° n

; ae

are

Go ie

. ~Q

= ww a

Lf S 4

ee eee L : 3

( ae eres -? ee, aes 2

r ae e- : © ™

es Se (o) 3

ae = 3

—— *

x wR

—

a 3

re) Z

~ ®

‘ ie

L 3) e

S ,, ND i

py oar

Ds a]

Ip OEE oe oO

S -

= a

Pse udoe pilrix

4 Hadropoda albicinefa

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

in male equaling the length of the insect, not

quite so long in female, reddish brown. Pro-

thorax less than a fourth wider than long, with

straight sides narrowing slightly toward basal

sulcus, basal sulcus well marked, disk covered

with moderately dense and distinct punctures.

Scutellum pale. Elytra entirely pale, basal

callosity well marked, elytral striae becoming

very faint and indistinct at apex and on sides.

Body beneath pale in all but one of the four

specimens, in that one the abdomen deep

reddish brown, very sparsely pubescent, shin-

ing. Length 2—2.2 mm; width 0.8—1 mm.

Type male and 3 paratypes, Mus. Comp.

Zool. No. 26924. One paratype in National col-

lection, U.S.N.M. 57230.

Type locality — Mountains north of Imias,

3,000—4,000 feet altitude, eastern Oriente

Province, Cuba, collected July 25-28, 1936, by

P. J. Darlington.

This species is well distinguished by the un-

usually long antennae, which in the male equal

the length of its body; in the female they are

not quite so long. In addition, it is smaller than

the two other species described here from Cuba,

and the punctation is less marked at the

apex.

Pseudoepitrix darlingtoni, n. sp.

Fig. 2

About 2.5 mm long, shining, yellow-brown,

with the head sometimes reddish brown, elytral

striation visible to the apex.

Head with interocular space a little more

~ than half its width, the front not so long as in

ZOOLOGY .—New urocoptid mollusks from Mezxico.}

tional Museum.

The United States National Museum re-

cently received two collections of mollusks

from Mexico representing several new

species of the family Urocoptidae. One of

these collections was made at Teotitlan del

Camino, Oaxaca, by the indefatigable col-

lector Miss Marie E. Bourgeois, whose en-

_ deavors in the past have yielded a consider-

able number of new species as well as in-

formation pertaining to the ecology and

distribution of previously described forms.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution. Received January

22, 1945.

VOL. 35, NO. 3 am

P. tetraspilota, frontal tubercles not very dis-

tinct, bounded behind by a depressed line ex-

tending to fovea by the eye; occiput alutaceous

and finely punctate. Antennae pale, deepening

in color to apex, extending a little beyond the

middle of the elytra, fifth joint longest. Pro-

thorax about a third wider than long with al-

most straight sides, narrowing slightly toward

base, basal sulcus well marked, surface moder-

ately densely and distinctly punctate. Scutel-

lum pale. Elytra with callosity at base and a

deep incurving intrahumeral depression run-

ning down around it; elytral striation stronger

at base but visible to the apex; color entirely

yellow brown. Body beneath entirely pale,

shiny, very sparsely pubescent. Length 2.2—2.4

mm; width 1—-1.1 mm.

Type male, Mus. Comp. Zool. 26923, and

three paratypes, two of which, a male and fe-

male, in the National collection, U.S.N.M.

57231. ;

Type locality—Pico Turquino, 3,000-6,000 —

feet altitude, Cuba, collected in June 1936 by

P. J. Darlington. |

This is a paler species than P. tetraspilota

and without markings. The aedeagus is also

‘more pointed. The thorax is more coarsely

punctate than in P. hispaniolae Blake, and the

aedeagus is distinguishable from those of P.

hoffmani Bryant, P. jamaicensis Blake, and P.

hispaniolae. All these species of Pseudoepitrix

are very closely related, but those on each

island appear distinct. In Cuba alone three

species have been collected.

Pau Bartscu, U. 8. Na-—

The second lot was collected by Ing. A. R.

V. Arellano and his students of the Instituto

Politécnico de México. They were obtained —

in the limestone hills 10-30 km north-north-

east of Cadereyta, Querétaro, at an eleva-

tion of about 2,100 meters.

Genus Holospira Martens

Holospira teotitlana, n. sp.

Shell cylindroconic, varying in color from

milk white to soiled white; aperture white. —

Nuclear whorls smooth. The postnuclear whorls — |

are slightly rounded on the cylindric portion of

the shell. The early postnuclear whorls are ,

Mar. 15, 1945

marked by weak, closely spaced axial ribs,

which become less well defined on the later >

turns where they are also a little more distantly

spaced. On the last whorl they become heavier

and even more distantly spaced. Base well

a : rounded with a well-impressed umbilicus. A per-

_ture subcircular with a slight angulation at the

posterior angle. Peristome white and reflected.

The columella is slender and hollow and bears

a strong lamella on the middle in the penulti-

‘mate turn, which is thick and rounded at its

free edge. The parietal lamella is broad, con-

eave on the outside, and slightly outward re-

flected. The basal lamella is less strongly de-

veloped-than the parietal lamella and occupies

the middle of the base. The labial lamella is

poorly developed, consisting of a mere heavy

thread. All three of these elements find their

_ greatest expression in the penultimate turn,

a _searcely extending beyond this in either direc-

tion.

This species somewhat resembles Holospira

nelsoni Pilsbry, from which it can be readily

distinguished by its white aperture.

I am recognizing two subspecies.

' Holospira teotitlana teotitlana, n. subsp.

Fig. 2

This subspecies differs from Holospira teo-

Fie. 1.—Holospira teotitlana filia. Fia.

BARTSCH: NEW UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS FROM MEXICO

2.—Holospira t.

taroensis. Fic. 4—Malinchea politecnicae. Fic. 5.—Malinchea arellanot. (All X33.)

titlana filta in being smaller, more slender, and

with the axial sculpture a little more pro-

nounced.

The type, U.S.N.M. 431954, has 12.5 whorls

and measures: Height, 17 mm; diameter, 5.5

mm. It and 27 additional specimens were col-

lected by Miss Bourgeois under rocks of a

small circular foothill at the foot of the higher

sierra called Cerro Blanco or Cerro de Tiza-

tepec at Teotitladn del Camino, Oaxaca. Seven-

teen topotypes are entered as U.S.N.M. 431955.

U.S.N.M. 431956 contains five specimens

from a nearby locality, and five additional spec-

imens from the same lot are in Miss Bour-

geois’s collection.

Holospira teotitlana filia, n. subsp.

Fig. 1

This subspecies is in every way larger than

Holospira teotitlana teotitlana, with the axial

sculpture less strongly pronounced.

The type, U.S.N.M. 431957, has 13.2 whorls

and measures: Height, 19.4 mm; diameter, 6

mm. It and seven additional specimens were

collected by Miss Bourgeois at the foot of an-

other circular hill near the village of Ignacio

Mejia, Cerro de Tizatepec, State of Oaxaca,

which is 10 km distant from the type locality

of Holospira teotitlana teotitlana. Four of seven

teotitlana. Fic. 3.—Malinchea quere-

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

specimens are entered as U.S.N.M. 431958;

three are in Miss Bourgeois’s collection.

Malinchea, new name

Tristemma Bartsch, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 31:

133. 1906. (Not Tristemma Brandt, Prod.

Anim. Mertens 1: 15. 1835.)

When I defined the genus T’ristemma in 1906

I overlooked Brandt’s previous use of this

name. I am therefore rechristening the group

as above.

Malinchea arellanoi, n. sp.

Fig. 5

Shell cylindroconic, bluish white, marked

with a few feeble rust spots; interior of aper-

ture and peristome white. The nucleus forms a

slightly bulbous apex, which consists of 2.2

well-rounded, smooth turns. The early post-

nuclear whorls increase rapidly in size and are

marked by well-developed, retractively slant-

ing axial ribs, which are about half as wide as

the spaces that separate them. These ribs vary

somewhat in strength and spacing. On the suc-

ceeding whorls the axial ribs rapidly become

diminished and completely disappear on the

cylindric portion of the shell. On the last 1.5

turns, however, they recur and become very

strong and almost vertical. The whorls on the

cylindric portion are almost flattened and sep-

arated by a slightly impressed suture. Base

moderately long, openly umbilicated, and

marked by the axial riblets. Aperture obliquely

broadly oval, slightly angulated at the poste-

rior angle of the aperture. Peristome expanded

and reflected, free at the parietal wall. The

columella is rather broad and hollow, and in

the penultimate whorl it bears a well-devel-

oped median lamellar fold. A broad, somewhat

concave fold subtends from the parietal wall,

while another a little less strong is present on

the middle of the base. There is no indication

of a fold or thread on the inside of the outer lip.

The type, U.S.N.M. 481959, was collected

by Ing. A. R. V. Arellano and his students on

a limestone hill 10 to 30 km north-northeast of

Cadereyta, Querétaro, Mexico. It has 14.4

whorls and measures: Height, 18.3 mm; diame-

ter: 7° mm.

U.S.N.M. 481960 contains seven topotypes

from the same source; three more are in the

collection of the Instituto Politécnico de

México.

VOL. 35, NO. 3

Malinchea politecnicae, n. sp.

Fig. 4

Shell rather small, cylindroconic, white with — 4

the peristome and the interior of the aperture —

yellowish white. The nucleus consists of about

2.2 whorls, which form a somewhat bulbous _

smooth apex. The early postnuclear whorls are

marked by retractively curved, strong, axial

ribs, which are separated by spaces a little

wider than the ribs. The middle whorls are

‘almost flattened and marked by strong incre-

mental lines amounting almost to ribs, while

the last two turns bear very strong, almost

vertical, curved axial ribs, which are not

quite so wide as the spaces that separate

them. The suture is slightly impressed. The

base of the last turn is narrowly openly um-

bilicated and marked by the continuation of

the axial ribs. The aperture is irregularly

ovate, angulated at the posterior angle. The ~

peristome is expanded and reflected, free, and

elevated at the parietal wall. The columella is

rather broad and bears a strong median fold in

the penultimate turn. Here also on the parietal

wall is a moderately broad, concave lamella,

while the basal wall in the same region bears a

less elevated lamella. There is no sign of a

lamella or thread on the inside of the outer lip.

This species comes from another limestone

block 10 to 30 km north-northeast of Cade-

reyta, Querétaro, Mexico. | .

The type, U.S.N.M. 431961 has 12.2 whorls

and measures: Height, 14.6 mm; diameter, 6

mm. natch

U.S.N.M. 431962 contains 12 topotypes and

some fragments from the same locality. Five

additional specimens are in the collection of the

Instituto Politécnico.

This species resembles Malinchea areallanor

but can readily be distinguished from it by its

smaller size and stronger axial sculpture.

Malinchea queretaroensis, n. sp.

Fig. 3

Shell small, cylindroconic, yellowish white,

with the interior of the aperture and peristome

pale yellowish white. The nucleus consists of 2.3

well-rounded, smooth turns which form a _

slightly bulbous apex. The early postnuclear

whorls increase rapidly in size. These, as well

as the rest of the whorls of the shell, are marked

by strong, retractively slanting axial ribs,

Mar. 15, 1945

which are almost sublamellose. The spaces sep-

arating these ribs vary from twice to three

times the width of the ribs. Suture moderately

constricted. Base of the last whorl! short, rather

widely openly umbilicated and marked by the

continuation of the axial ribs. Aperture sub-

quadrate. Peristome expanded and reflected;

that of the parietal wall free. Columella rather

broad. In the penultimate turns this bears a

moderately strong fold, which is anterior to

the middle. The parietal fold is very broad and

lamellose and extends in its widest portion

RIVAS: THE TYPES OF RIVULUS MARMORATUS POEY 95

over more than half of the width of the whorls.

The basal fold, on the other hand, is rather

low when compared with the parietal fold.

There is no indication of a fold or thread on the

inside of the outer lip.

The type U.S.N.M. 431963, was collected

by Ing. A. R. V. Arellano and his students on

a limestone hill 10 to 30 km north-northeast of

Cadereyta, Querétaro, Mexico. It has 13.5

whorls and measures: Height, 14.2 mm; diame-

ter, 5.7 mm.

ICHTHYOLOGY.—The discovery and redescription of the types of Rivulus mar-

moratus Poey, a cyprinodont fish from Cuba.}

Historia Natural, Colegio de La Salle, Habana, Cuba.

LEONARD P. ScHULTZ.)

While recently examining material of

Rivulus in the United States National Mu-

seum, Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of

fishes, kindly called to my attention two

specimens of Poey’s, long ago labeled Riv-

ulus cylindraceus Poey, and suggested that

they were possibly a new species, since no

fine-scaled Rivuius was recognized from

Cuba by any current author. After careful

examination of several facts and from cir-

cumstantial evidence, I am convinced that

the two specimens are the types of Rivulus

marmoratus Poey (1880: 248), and I submit

the evidence below.

I wish to thank Dr. Schultz for calling

these two specimens to my attention and

am grateful for the opportunity to report on

this Cuban fish, which has never been cor-

rectly diagnosed.

Rivulus cylindraceus Poey (1860: 308) was

described first and is a coarse-scaled species

that cannot be confused with the two fine-

scaled specimens at hand. Furthermore, the

types of R. cylindraceus are deposited in the

Museum of Comparative Zoology; the holo-

type is a female bearing M.C.Z. No. 6423,

a male paratype being in the same jar.

There is another series of paratypes bearing

_M.C.Z. No. 6395 (see Luis Howell-Rivero,

_ 1938: 176). I have examined these speci-

mens and they agree with Poey’s original

description of R. cylindraceus. In addition,

I have collected a fine series of topotypes

1 Received November 1, 1944.

Luis René Rivas, Museo de

(Communicated by

that agree perfectly with Poey’s descrip-

tion. Thus I have concluded that there can

be no doubt cast on the current diagnosis of

this species.

Poey’s original description of Rivulus

marmoratus, translated into English, reads

as follows: “I have in my possession two

specimens which I believe I have received

from Dr. Rafael Arango; and they are from

Cuba, if they do not exist in the United

States of America, whence Professor Gill

has sent me some species of Cyprinodontes.

The ocular blotch indicates that they are

males; they are 55 millimeters long.

“Tt differs from the preceding species

[Rivulus cylindraceus Poey] in the more pos-

teriorly inserted dorsal, because its distance

to the caudal extremity equals that of said

dorsal to the opercle, which is why the anal

appears more advanced. The body is cov-

ered with dark and light blotches. A black

blotch is noticed above the base of the pec-

toral fin.—No. 774.”

This description by Poey fits exactly the

two specimens under consideration, even in

regard to the total length of about 55 mm.

It is concluded that to have two of Poey’s

specimens of Rivulus 55 mm. in length in

the same jar from Cuba is also additional

evidence and especially significant. I be-

lieve, therefore that they are the two speci-

mens described as Rivulus marmoratus

Poey, and I recognize them as the types of

that species.

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Rivulus marmoratus, after examination of

the pertinent literature, I conclude has been

erroneously synonymized by most authors

with Rivulus cylindraceus Poey (1860: 308),

the only other Cuban representative of the

genus, from which it differs widely. Jordan

and Evermann (1896: 663) wrongly stated

(footnote) that Poey was in error in indicat-

ing the existence of an ocellus above the pec-

toral origin. The ocellus, although some-

what faded after the long preservation, is

present on both specimens, thus confirming

Poey’s description. Later, Myers (1927:

121) was in error in stating that Jordan and

Evermann (l.c.) had mistaken the ‘‘anal”’

for the “dorsal” in Poey’s original descrip-

tion of Rivulus marmoratus. A careful check-

ing of Jordan and Evermann’s account with

Poey’s description proves that these au-

thors were correct in that respect.

The taxonomic status of this species and

a redescription of the two types are given

below.

Rivulus marmoratus Poey

Rivulus marmoratus Poey, 1880: 248 (original de-

scription; compared with FR. cylindraceus).—

Jordan, 1887: 564 (listed).—Garman, 1895: 134

(erroneously synonymized with R. cylindra-

ceus).—Jordan and Evermann, 1896: 663 (de-

scription, after Poey),—Regan, 1912: 500 (er-

roneously synonymized with R. cylindraceus),

—Myers, 1927: 121 (erroneously synonymized

with R. cylindraceus),—Jordan, Evermann, and

Clark, 1930: 179 (erroneously synonymized

with R. cylindraceus).

I am designating as the lectotype U.S.N.M.

37429, a female 46.5 mm in standard length

(56.5 mm total); the paratype, U.S.N.M.

123000, also a female, measures 45.5 mm in

standard length (54.8 mm total).

Measurements are expressed in hundredths

of the standard length. Throughout the de-

scription, the measurements and counts of the

lectotype are given first, followed by those of

the paratype in parentheses. For the methods

followed in measuring and counting, see Rivas

(1944: 41). |

Greatest depth of body 19.8 (19.3); greatest

width 18.3 (15.6); length of head 28.0 (27.3);

greatest width 20.4 (19.1), greatest depth 14.2

(13.8); eye 6.7 (6.4); interorbital 12.7 (12.7);

snout 8.2 (7.2); greatest width of mouth 11.2

(10.0); least depth of caudal peduncle 14.4

VOL. 35, No. 3°

(13.8), length 21.5 (20.4); distance between

anal origin and tip of mandible 61.7 (65.2).

Dorsal rays 8 (8); anal 10 (10); pectoral 13

(13); pelvic 6 (6); branched caudal 14 (14);

origin of anal fin midway between caudal base

and anterior margin of orbit in the lectotype;

midway between caudal base and posterior — :

margin of orbit in the paratype. Distance be-

tween dorsal and anal origins 21.1 (20.0); be-

tween dorsal origin and caudal base 26.9 (25.5);

between anal origin and caudal base 36.8

(34.3); length of dorsal fin—19.6 (19.3); anal

24.1 (24.4); pectoral 24.1 (16.9); pelvic 6.9

(7.0); middle caudal rays 19.8 (18.9).

Scales in 48 (46) transverse rows and 14 (18)

longitudinal rows; 18 (18) rows around caudal

peduncle, and 15 (15) zigzag rows between pec-

toral bases; 35 (33) predorsal scales.

General - coloration (in alcohol) reddish

brown. A reddish-brown humeral spot (faded

ocellus); both specimens have a dark spot

(faded ocellus) on the upper part of the caudal

base; there are faint traces of spotting on the

dorsal, anal and caudal fins; pectoral and pelvic

fins colorless; faint traces of spots all over the

sides of the body.

This species differs from R. cylindraceus in

the smaller scales (about 36 transverse rows in

cylindraceus), smaller head, more advanced

anal and other characters; the size seems to be

larger. It resembles R. hildebrandi Myers (1927:

-123) from Panama and R. myerst Hubbs (1936:

210) from Yucatén in having more than 42

transverse rows of scales. A direct comparison

with these two species should be made.

LITERATURE CITED

GARMAN, SAMUEL. The cryprinodonts. Mem.

Mus. Comp. Zool. 19 (1): 1-179, pls. 1-12.

1895.

Howe ui-Rivero, Luis. List of the fishes,

types of Poey, in the Museum of Compara-

tie Zoology. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.

82 (3): 169-227. 1938.

Huss, Cart L. Fishes of the Yucatan Penin-

sula. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ.

457: 157-287, fig. 1, pls. 1-15. 1936.

JorpAN, Davip Starr. A preliminary list of

the fishes of the West Indies. Proc. U.S.

Nat. Mus. 9: 554-608. 1887.

JorDAN, Davip Starr, and EverMANN, Bar-

TON WARREN.

Middle America.

47 (4 pts.): 1-3313, pls. 1-392. 1896-1900. 7

JorDAN, Davip Starr; EvVERMANN, BARTON ~

The fishes of North and =

U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Bull) 3

Mar. 15, 1945

WarREN; and Citark, Howarp WALTON.

Check list of the fishes and fishlike verte-

brates of North and Middle America north

of the northern boundary of Venezuela and

olombia. Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. for

1928, pt. 2: i-iv, 1-670. 1980.

Myers, Georce 8. An analysis of the genera

of neoptropical killifishes allied to Rivulus.

_ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 9) 19: 115-129.

oe 1027,

Porgy, Feruirpe. Poissons de Cuba, especes

nouvelles. Mem. Hist. Nat. Isla de Cuba

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY | 97

2 (ch. 49): 115-336. 1860.

. Revisio pisctum cubensium. An. Soc.

Esp. Hist. Nat. 9: 243-261 (1-19). 1880.

ReGan, C. Tare. A revision of the poeciliid

fishes of the genera Rivulus, Pterolebias and

Cynolebias. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser.

8) 10: 494-508. 1912.

Rivas, Luts René. Contributions to the study

of the poeciliid fishes of Cuba. I. Descrip-

tions of six new species of the subfamily

Gambusiinae. Proc. New England Zool.

Club 23: 41-53. 1944.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1221sT MEETING

The 1221st meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, Octobér 23, 1943, President

SEEGER presiding.

Program: Ropert Simua, Howard Univer-

sity: Elasticity and flow in high polymers.——The

mechanical properties of high polymeric sys-

tems were considered in a state of equilibrium

and in regard to rate phenomena such as creep,

relaxation, volume-temperature, and volume

pressure behavior. The characteristic differ-

ences between the molecular mechanism under-

lying elastic deformation in ordinary solids and

in rubberlike polymers were discussed and con-

ditions favorablefor highly elasticresponse were

pointed out. Creep was interpreted in terms of

of a distribution of mechanical relaxation fre-

quencies attributable roughly to three molec-

ular mechanisms: the diffusion of chain seg-

ments in the field of stress, the change of shape

of flexible chains under stress, and the relative

displacement of the centers of gravity of the

molecules which ultimately leads to flow. In a

rubberlike system the relaxation spectrum is

broad and the average time constant small.

Oppression of “chain effects’? by increased in-

tensity of molecular interactions, excessive

cross linking, or crystallization leads to a nar-

rowing down of the spectrum and to an in-

crease of the mean time parameter, as is char-

acteristic for a plastic or fibrous material. The

transition from ordinary to high elasticity upon

increase in temperature was interpreted on the

same basis as the transition points observed by

means of thermal expansion and specific heat

data and those to be expected in the volume-

pressure curves. Finally the importance of

mechanical absorption and dispersion measure-

ments below and above the transition tempera-

ture was pointed out. (Author’s abstract.)

1222pD MEETING

The 1222d meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, November 6, 1943, Presi-

dent SEEGER presiding.

Program: R. Weller, Naval Ordnance Labo-

ratory: Photoelasticity. (Abstract not received.)

1223D MEETING

The 1223d meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, November 20, 1943, Presi-

dent SEEGER presiding.

Program: L. B. TuckeRMAN, National Bur-

eau of Standards: Mathematics as she are

taught: Fit the Second—Part I: Teachers of

college physics have long recognized that if

they are to inculcate correct ideas they must

spend a large part of their time in eradicating

many misconceptions about mathematics,

physics, and science in general, which are firmly

entrenched in their students’ minds. In recent

numbers of the American Journal of Physics!

there are listed 158 current misconceptions. In

discussing this problem Prof. Henry A. Per-

kins? says: ‘‘They originate in outworn notions

whose vitality is perennial, in lack of clarity

or in positive misstatements in text books and

in previous faulty instruction.”

A fruitful source of such faulty instruction

was recently brought to my attention by a very

favorable review of A Source book of mathe-

matical applications, 17th Yearbook of the Na-

tional Council of Teachers of Mathematics,

1 Vol. 11: 101-102, 110-111, 164-165, 227-228.

1943.

2 L.c., p. 101.

Se JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

published by the Bureau of Publications,

Teachers College, Columbia University, New

York, 1948, and planned as a “reference book

for the.teachers of the mathematics usually

offered in grades seven through twelve.”

It seems incredible, but it is unfortunately

true, that in this book there is crowded more

misinformation than I have ever seen within

the covers of a single book issued by a sup-

posedly reliable organization. It abounds in

grossly careless proofreading, in careless check-

ing of references, in confusion of units such as

“knots per hour,’’ “force” for energy, “‘watts

consumed ...in one hour,’ in careless state-

ments and even in sheer asininities—boners

which deserve to be immortalized in a book

devoted to boners. Numerous quotations from

the book were given as illustrations of these

statements. Students have enough difficulty

with mathematics as it is ordinarily given in

schools without being further confused by the

absurdities printed in this book.

Part II: Recently there appeared in my mail

a flamboyant advertisement of the ‘‘National

Educational Alliance’? announcing a ‘“‘vital

new 180-day Emergency Short”... ‘“‘N.E.A.

Course in PracticaAL MaTHEMATICS”’ contain-

ing amongst a plethora of other eulogistic

statements the following:

5. ... No previous Mathematics Knowledge

Needed....

6. ... ANY AVERAGE PERSON can readily

acquire....

Not in 4 Years, but Only 6 Months—a Practical

Working Knowledge of ALL 14 Branches of

Mathematics—Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry,

Trigonometry, Calculus, etc., and their Practical

Applications to Machine Shop, Engineering,

Chemistry, Electricity, Navigation, Aviation,

Gunnery, Business, etc.

Many similar advertisements come in my mail.

I usually glance at them and drop them in the

waste basket, though I have called some of

them to the attention of the Post Office and

some to the Federal Trade Commission only

to learn that they were so carefully worded

that, although they were false and even fraudu-

lent in their implications, under our present

laws no action could lie against the adver-

tisers.

This advertisement, however, I did not drop

in the waste basket. My eye was caught by the

words: “No Single Faculty Ever Could Proclaim

such a Distinguished Group of Mathematicians.”

VOL. 35, NO. 3

In the list of names following were two mem-

bers of the National Academy o° Sciences and

nine other professors of mathematics in some

of our largest universities and technical schools.

What sort of mathematics teaching can we

expect when the names of such distinguished

mathematicians appear as sponsors on such an

advertisement? (Author’s abstract.)

An informal communication on the measure-

ment of temperature in moving aircraft was

presented by Mr. BRoMBACHER.

1224TH MEETING

The 1224th meeting, constituting the 74th

annual meeting, was held in the Cosmos Club

Auditorium, Saturday, December 4, 1943,

President SEEGER presiding.

The Treasurer reported that the income

from dues and from interest on investments

was $1,196.99 and that the expenditures, other

than investments, were $1,138.74, leaving a net

surplus of $58.25 on ordinary expenses. The

ordinary expenditures were at the rate of

$3.55 per member. The Treasurer reported the

sale of a $1,000 Bond of Fort Dodge, Des

Moines & Southern Railway for $269.25.

The Secretaries’ joint report showed an ac-

tive membership as of December 1, 1943, of

321, of whom the following were new members:

ARTHUR D. BERNSTEIN, RALPH Moore BERRY,

RicHarp S. Burincton, Howarp F. Cart,

DonaLp H. Jacoss, Paut J. Kopp, WALTER

H. MacWI.tiams, Jr., ALBERT May, LAwson

M. McKenziz, Rospert G. Nucent, WILLIAM

R. Oseoop, Exizasersa Rona, Anatou J.

SHNEIDER, SIDNEY T. Smitu, F. LEo TALBOTT,

and Harotp O. Wyckorr. They reported the

following deaths: ALan S. HAWKESWORTH,

JaMEs E. Ives, G. W. LirrLEHALES, CHARLES

F. Marvin, and NATHAN S. OSBORNE.

Following the report of the Committee on

Elections, the following officers were declared

elected for the year 1944: President, H. F.

Stimson; Vice-Presidents, CLemMEnT L. Gar-

NER and Grorce R. Wait; Corresponding

Secretary, WaLTeR RampBerG; Treasurer,

Francis E. Jounston; Members-at-Large of

the General Committee, Frank C. Kracek

and ALBERT K. Lupy.

Program: 8. CHANDRASEKHAR, Yerkes Ob-

servatory: Galactic evidences for the time scale

of the universe.—Galactic star clusters like the

Pleiades and the statistics of double stars pro-

4 BS

Mar. 15, 1945

vide two independent sources of information

for drawing inferences concerning the time

- scale of the universe.

Considering first star clusters, we can readily

4 show that they are continually being impover-

ished by the gradual escape of stars. An esti-

mate of this escape of stars will therefore pro-

- yide a means for determining the average life

of a star cluster. And it is found that the mean

life of a cluster like the Pleiades is about

3X10° years.

With respect to binary stars, it is clear that

as aconsequence of the tidal effects of the neigh-

boring stars, double stars should gradually tend

to be disrupted. An estimate of this gradual

- dissolution of binary stars shows that binaries

ir Pith separations between 1,000 and 10,000

| astronomical units will be disrupted in times

ranging from 7 X10" to 2 X10° years. However,

the number of known binaries in the range spec-

_ ified is far too large to be compatible with a

| time scale long compared to 3 X10° years.

ia Thus both the star clusters and the binaries

| agree in indicating a time scale of 3 X109 years.

ie (Author’s abstract.)

a 1225TH MEETING

The 1225th meeting was held in the Cosmos

- Club Auditorium, December 18, 1943, Presi-

dent STrMson presiding.

r Program: ATHERTON H. Mears, Weather

_ Bureau: Electrical instruments for meteorologi-

| cal measurements. (Abstract not received.)

_ An informal communication on paper fold-

| ing, with a demonstration of the construction

| of the regular octahedron, was presented by

Mr. GorpBerc. :

1226TH MEETING

The 1226th meeting was held in the Cosmos

_ Club Auditorium, January 15, 1944, President

_ SrrMson presiding.

The Retiring President, R. J. SrEGER, gave

| an address entitled On understanding electric

_ breakdown in solids. It will be published in this

| JOURNAL.

1227TH MEETING

S. The 1227th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, January 29, 1944, President

me Frogram: E. a KENNARD, Cornell Univer-

: pity, and Davin Taytor, Model Basin: Why

«ie

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 99

be scientific—A striking feature of the natural

sciences, in contrast to the continual fluctuation

of opinion in certain other fields, is the steady

growth of a large body of well-established facts

and laws. This feature is to be ascribed in part

to the employment of a characteristic method.

Neither the use of experiment, however, nor of

measurements, nor of mathematics, nor of

theories is essential; for, in spite of their enor-

mous value, each of these-procedures is absent

in much scientific work. The basic unifying

principle in all sciences appears to be the

search, by any means available, for objective

knowledge, that is, for conclusions acceptable

to all honest and sane men who will take the

trouble to inform themselves.

Two subsidiary universal procedures are the

adequate definition of terms and a principle of

restraint; problems that cannot as yet be at-

tacked receive little emphasis or discussion.

Extension of the scientific method to other

fields is going forward. The ultimate basis of

values, however, lies in the realm of feeling and

so is not a question of truth. Furthermore,

scientists should be distinguished from practi-

tioners, who are compelled to do something

about practical problems even in the absence

of relevant scientific knowledge. (Author’s ab-

stract.)

An informal communication on a curious and

interesting little point in the theory of electric

circuits was presented by Mr. Oscoop.

1228TH MEETING

The 1228th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, February 12, 1944, Presi-

dent Strmson presiding.

Program: Ricuarp §. BurineTon, Case

School of Applied Science: Invariance in science.

—This lecture was concerned with applications

of the theory of invariance as it permeates

various old and modern physical theories.

As an introduction, an elementary but brief

survey of various types of geometries (transla-

tional, rotational, affine, projective), their

groups of fundamental invariants, was given.

Many illustrations from various fields of

physics were included, both classical and mod-

ern.

Brief reference was made to the fundamental

items of invariant theory in general, with men-

tion: of the case when the underlying transfor-

100

mations do not necessarily form a group. A

short summary was given of the role of invari-

ants in certain mathematical fields that appear

in physics; in particular, brief mention was

made of differential invariants, the existence of

fundamental systems of invariants, the invari-

ant characterization of. boundary value prob-

lems and their relation to characteristic values

and quadratic forms and their principal invari-

ants.

The meaning and significance of invariants

both in mathematics and in physical situations

were stressed and carefully illustrated. In par-

ticular, to indicate the nature and role of in-

variants in a physical field, considerable use

was made of the set of energy quadratic forms

commonly considered in linear dynamics and

electrical circuit theory, together with its prin-

cipal invariants, under a group of m-affine

transformations.

Specific mention was made of the trend of

the concept of invariance in Newton’s theory

of the universe, Maxwell’s theory of electro-

dynamics, and Einstein’s special theory of

relativity.

' A short résumé of the part played by invari-

ance in various other parts of physics, engineer-

ing, economics, and the medical and social

sciences was included.

Some indication of the trend that theories of

invariance may take in the future was dis-

cussed in a broad way. (Author’s abstract.)

An informal communication on the origin of

the Japanese Nation was presented by Mr.

SHNEIDEROV.

1229TH MEETING

The 1229th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, February 26, 1944, Presi-

dent STIMSON presiding.

Program: RicHarp C. DarRNnELu, Office of

the Chief of Ordnance, War Department: The

problem of antiaircraft fire control.—Antiair-

craft fire-control systems vary in complexity

from the simplest for .50-caliber machine guns,

the more elaborate for intermediate caliber

weapons (37 and 40 mm material), to the most

complex and precise for the major caliber guns,

which comprise the 3 inch, 90 mm, 105 mm,

and larger cannon.

A major caliber system will include sound

locators or other devices for early warning and

location of hostile aircraft, and searchlights for

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

their illumination at night..These are placed

some distance in advance of the gun battery.

The present angular position in azimuth and

elevation is determined by optical tracking of ye

the target by the Director. A 133-foot base op-

tical height finder is used to measure either the _

slant range or height of the target. From these _

data the target’s future position, after the in-

terval required for the travel of the projectile, 4

is calculated and corrections then applied for

horizontal and vertical parallactic displacement

of the guns, gravity drop, wind, drift, air den-

sity, and muzzle velocity. This solution is trans-

mitted by a self-synchronous data transmission

system to the guns, which are automatically

oriented in aximuth and elevation by an elec-

tronic-hydraulic remote control device in ac-

cordance with the data received. A fuse setter

cuts the mechanical timer fuse on the projectile

so as to cause it to explode at the expiration of

the. computed time of flight. (Author’s ab-

stract.)

1230TH MEETING

The 1230th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, March 11, 1944, President

STIMSON presiding. s

Program: IrveN Travis, Bureau of Ord-

nance, Navy Department: Differential analyzers.

(Abstract not received.) In the discussion Mr.

SHNEIDEROV called attention to the existence

of a paper, A mechanical integrator for the solu-

tion of ordinary differential equations, referring

to an instrument designed by A. J. Zavrotzky,

available at the Smithsonian Institution.

The Secretary read a letter from Mary G.

WorTHLEY, of Western High School, on the

the paper Mathematics as she are taught, fit

the second presented by Mr. TuckERMAN on 4

November 20, 1943. It was discussed by Mr. —

TUCKERMAN.

1231sT MEETING

The 1231st meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, March 25, 1944, President

STIMSON presiding. ‘

Program: Herpert G. Dorsey, U. 8. Coast

and Geodetic Survey: Radio applied to ocean

current observations.—This instrument, devel-

oped by Lt. Comdr. E. B. Roszrts, of the

Coast and Geodetic Survey, consists of aradio

transmitter in a floating buoy anchored at the

place where observations are desired actuated

VOL. 35, No.3.

~ Po

~ Mar. 15, 1945

by a meter suspended beneath. Vertical vanes

- onthe meter cause it to face the current and an

impeller rotates as a function of the current

flow. A magnetic drive in the impeller com-

municates motion to the interior without fric-

_ tion. An alnico compass is pivoted over a hori-

- zontal gear, rotating at $ the speed of the im-

_ peller. The horizontal gear carries a planetary

_ rotating at 3/2 the speed of the horizontal.

_ Contacts are arranged to close an electrical cir-

~ euit on each revolution of the horizontal about

the vertical axis of the compass and every

other revolution of the planetary. A pair of

wires passing through stuffing boxes in the

_ meter and buoy operate a relay to send a radio

dash from the battery operated crystal con-

trolled radio transmitter. These dashes are re-

ceived at a central station, preferably on a sur-

-veying ship and actuate a tape chronograph.

Dashes by pairs give the velocity of the water

and the third dash, by its spacing between the

others, gives the direction. Observations are

_ made at several locations by tuning the receiver

to different buoys using different radio fre-

quencies. (Author’s abstract.)

An informal communication on a misconcep-

tion concerning crystallization in metals, and

its appearance in the literature was presented

by Mr. TuckEeRMAN.

An informal communication on the differen-

tiation of empirical functions was presented by

Mr. Buake.

1232D MEETING

The 1232d meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, April 8, 1944, Vice-President

WalrT presiding.

Program: GrorcE F. A. Stutz, New Jersey

Zine Co. (of Pennsylvania): Luminescent pig-

ments (illustrated)—Luminescent materials

are described as capable of absorbing invisible

ultraviolet light and re-emitting visible light.

They are divided into two classes: fluorescent

_ materials glow only while the activating light

shines on them; phosphorescent materials con-

tinue to glow after the activating light is ex-

tinguished. Fluorescent materials include a wide

variety of organic dyes, dye intermediates,

metallo-organic compounds, and zine and cad-

_ mium sulphides. Phosphorescent materials in-

clude zine sulphide, zine and cadmium sul-

_ phide, calcium sulphide, and strontium sul-

_ phide. Activation of these materials is accom-

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

101

plished by a variety of sources of ultraviolet

light, including daylight.

Fluorescent materials are used in plastics,

wool, silk, cotton or paper, lacquers, printing

inks, and powders. Phosphorescent materials

are somewhat more limited in application be-

cause of coarse particle size. They may be

fabricated in plastics, paints, and vitreous

enamels. The phosphorescent materials are

useful only where their low brightness is ade-

quate. In general, this requires complete or

nearly complete darkness and dark-adaptation

of the observer.

Radioactive materials are a third type of

luminescent materials, the activation in this

case being furnished by an admixed radium

compound. Such materials require no activa-

tion by external light sources.

The application of luminescent materials in

the present war effort has resulted in a number

of newly developed pigments and in a greater

variety of practical applications. A demon-

stration of prewar applications, wartime appli-

cations, and possibly postwar applications is

given. (Author’s abstract.)

1233D MEETING

The 1233d meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, April 22, 1944, PREsIDENT

STIMSON presiding.

Program: Joun G. KtrKwoop, Cornell Uni-

versity: The structure of liquids——The struc-

ture of liquids on the molecular scale has been

investigated on the experimental side by the

X-ray scattering technique and on the theo-

retical side by the methods of statistical me-

chanics. Although liquids lack the long-range

order characteristic of crystal lattices, they are

found to possess residual local order maintained

by each molecule in its immediate environ-

ment. Local order in liquids is characterized

by the radial distribution function, which spec-

ifies the average local molecular density in the

vicinity of any given molecule. The radial dis-

tribution function is characterized by a series

of rapidly damped maxima and minima cor-

responding to a blurred crystalline arrangement

of neighbors merging into randomness at dis-

tances of several molecular diameters.

The X-ray scattering technique for the in-

vestigation of liquid structure was originated

by Zerniekie and Prins and by Debye and

Mencke. By means of a Fourier integral inver-

102

sion the radial distribution function may be

calculated from the intensity of scattered X-

rays measured as a function of scattering angle.

The method has been employed to investigate

the structure of many liquids and gases.

The methods of statistical mechanics have

been used to determine the relationship be-

tween the radial distribution function of a

liquid and the intermolecular forces acting be-

tween its molecules. In this manner it has been

possible to make a theoretical analysis of liquid

structure and to establish its connection with

thermodynamic and other bulk properties of a

liquid. (Awuthor’s abstract.)

An informal communication on focal plane

properties of a telescope was presented by Mr.

ARCHIE MAHAN.

1234TH MEETING

The 1234th meeting was held in the Audi-

torium of the U. S. National Museum, April

29, 1944, President STiMson presiding.

The thirteenth Joseph Henry lecture, en-

titled Faster than sound, was delivered by

THEODORE VON KarMaN, of the California In-

stitute of Technology. It will be published in

this JOURNAL.

1235TH MEETING

The 1235th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium May 20, 1944, President

‘STIMSON presiding. Program: Dran B. Cowltz,

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Car-

negie Institution of Washington: The 60-inch

cyclotron at the Department of Terrestrial Mag-

netism.—The operation of a large cyclotron is

dependent upon a large number of electrical

and mechanical components functioning in uni-

son. This paper outlined the theory of operation

of the instrument and indicated the large num-

ber of safety factors included in its construction

to assure continuous reliable operation.

The principles of artificial radioactivity were

briefly discussed to indicate ultimate use of the

products of the cyclotron in medicine, physics,

and industry. Perhaps the most important use

could be ascribed to the “‘tracer technique of

radioactivity’? where the various radioactive

isotopes are used to follow chemical and bio-

logical processes heretofore impossible by other

means.

Some discussion was made concerning the

protection of personnel both from the large

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 3

amounts of radiation produced by the cyclotron

and from the electrical hazards associated in its

operation. A specially designed building hous-

ing the instrument incorporates many auto-

matic safety measures eliminating many

sources of danger. (Author’s abstract.)

Mr. Tuckerman presented an informal com-

munication on lack of rigor in textbooks of

calculus.

ARCHIE BLAKE, Recording Secretary

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

564TH MEETING 3

The 564th meeting was held at George —

Washington University on October 12, 1944. 4

At the conclusion of a general meeting the fol-

lowing divisional meetings were held:

Biochemistry, Huau J. CREEcH,

presiding

Some properties of cystine oxidase. J. P.

GREENSTEIN (National Cancer Institute).

The determination of tryptophane in proteins

and foods. (a) A rapid colorimetric method for

the determination of tryptophane. M. J. HORNE

and D. B. Jonrs (Bureau of Human Nutrition

and Home Economics, U. 8. Department of

Agriculture). (b) T’wo microbiological methods

for the determination of 1-tryptophane. G. G.

Woo.ey and W. H. Sesreu (National Insti-

tute of Health).

Organic Chemistry, L. W. Butz,

. presiding

The phosphorylation of 4,4'-diaminodiphenyl-

sulfone and conversion of the products into

amidophosphoric acid derivatives. ERNEST L.

Jackson (National Institute of Health).

A study of the direction of enolization of 3-nitro-

4'-methoxydibenzoylmethane. R. Percy BARNES

and JoNATHAN L. SnEap (Howard University).

The cyclopentenolone components of pyrethrins.

F. B. LaForce and W. F. Bartuet (Bureau of

Entomology and Plant Quarantine, U. S. De-

partment of Agriculture).

Physical Chemistry, M. H. Van Horn,

presiding ;

The use of the mass spectrograph in studies of

hydrocarbon miztures. A. Kn1tH BREWER (Na-

tional Bureau of Standards).

The mechanism of certain organic reactions in

non-aqueous solvents. A. L. SkuaR and JoHN

DurFiz (Catholic University of America).

Vee

Mar. 15, 1945

The determination and elimination of liquid

junction potentials. GeorGe F. Manov, N. x

Da Louis, and 8. F. Acrer (National Bureau

of Standards).

Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry,

R. E. STEvENS, presiding

New developments in the use of sealed tubes

in chemical analysis. C. L. Gorpon, W. G.

Scuiecut and Epywarp Wicuers (National

Bureau of Standards and U. 38. Geological

Survey).

Tnternal structure and decomposition of crys-

talline materials. W. G. Scuutecnut and K. J.

Morava (U.S. Geological Survey).

Spectrographic sensitivity of elements in sili-

cate materiols. K. J. Murata (U.S. Geological

Survey).

Anclytical patterns in inorganic analysis:

Applications to mineralogy, metallurgy, and

histology. HerMAN Yacopa (National Insti-

tute of Health).

565TH MEETING

The 565th Meeting was held at the Cosmos

Club on November 9, 1944. Dr. KENNETH C. D.

Hickman, Distillation Products, Inec., spoke

on An in vitro chemistry of nutrition (with spe-

cial reference to vitamins A and E). The election

-of officers for 1945 was held with the following

results: President, H. 8. ISBELL; Secretary,

L. A. Suinn; Treasurer, J. J. FAHEY, Coun-

cilors, N. BEKKEDAHL, N. L. Drake, W. L.

eee by. Hatter, W. J. Hamer, F. C.

Kracex, B. H. Nicoter; N. K. RicuTMyYeEr,

J. H. Roe, E. R. Suitru, B. D. Van Evera,

J. K. Wotre; Managers, R. Giucurist, A. T.

McPuerson, W. I. Patterson, J. L. Svir-

BeLY, W. W. WatrTon, C: E. WHirTe.

566TH MEETING

The 566th meeting was held at the Cosmos

Club on December 14, 1944. Dr. Norman

BEKKEDAHL, of the National Bureau of Stand-

ards spoke, on Rubber research in_ tropical

Brazil.

Leo A. SHINN, Acting Secretary

PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

103

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington

at its annual meeting held January 16, 1945,

elected the following officers: President, T-

DALE STEWART; Vice-President, REGINA FLAN.

NERY; Secretary, WILLIAM N. FENTON; Treas-

urer, WALDO R. WEepEL; Members of the Board

of Managers, W. M. Coss, Wm. H. GILBert,

ALFRED Mrrraux, Maurice A. Mook, and

JuLIAN H. STEWARD.

A report of the membership and activities of

the Society since the last annual meeting fol-

lows:

Life members, 1; active members, 63; Asso-

ciate members, 24; total, 88. This represents

an increase of 21 over last year.

The members elected during the year were:

Dr. Joun M. ArmstronG, Rev. HuGuH BIHLER,

S.J.. HuNTINGTON CaIRNS, JOSEPH BLAKE

EGe@En, Witt1AM Leo Hansperry, Mrs. ANNE

FROMME HERTFORD, Dr. FREDERICK 8S. HULSE,

Dr. Epwin M. Lors, Ernest Mass, Dr. PrEv-

ERIL Meics, Joun A. Pops, Sister Lucta Van

DER EERDEN, Dr. A. J. WARING, JR., active

members; Mrs. Susan W. ArmsTRONG, Miss

ELIZABETH Bacon, Lt: FREDERICA DE LAGUNA,

U.S.N.R., Gorpon W. Hewes, Lt. W. W.

Howe tts, U.S.N.R., Lt. Comdr. A. H. Lereu-

TON, U.S.N.R., Dr. Dorornea C. LEIGHTON,

Dr. Marcaret Meap, Dr. J. 8. Storxin, Dr.

Laura THompson, Dr. Grorce L. TRAGER,

Capt. Witit1am L. Van NEss, associate mem-

bers.

One member, Dr. WiLtu1AmM H. SPINKs, ac-

tive member since 1942, was lost through

death. The Society voted to record its deep

sense of loss at the death of this member and to

extend its sincere sympathy to his wife.

The report of the Treasurer follows:

Funds invested in Perpetual Building

Association (with interest to July 1,

pS ite at ce, ae ie see Rae een a 2

21 shares Washington Sanitary Im-

provement Co. (par value $10 per

$1,789.35

BATS see, paced GR WE ela 210.00

2 shares Washington Sanitary Housing

Co. (par value $100 per share). .... 200.00

U.S. Savings Bond, Series G........ 500.00

257.39

$2,956.74

Car Pawan ttle , s1 ag he hs eee Ss OL

104.

Bills outstanding:

To American Anthropological Asso-

ciation (subscriptions to Ameri-

can Anthropologist for 4 members

ateS aceach)'s etal Ae ees ee 20 .00

fovhickersPrinting: Co .4 oe aes oe 21.48

$2,915.26

Total as of January 17, 1944.. 2,959.04

Deerense:..:its ha Ae ee $ 6643.78

The Society acted as host to the Society for

American Archaeology on the occasion of its

annual meeting on May 13, 1944, at the Cos-

mos Club.

All regular meetings were held at the U. 8.

National Museum. The May meeting was the

oceasion of a dinner in honor of Dr. ETHEL

Joun LrnpGreNn at the National Zoological

Park restaurant. Continuing a practice adopted

in 1942 of keeping the mailing list current with

the roster of anthropologists in Washington,

the Secretary has sent out an average of 180

notices for regular meetings. The Washington

Urban League members were invited to the

November meeting; the social scientists in the

Department of Agriculture were invited to

the January meeting; 600 invitations went out

for Mrs. Roosevelt’s lecture, including the

membership of the Washington Academy of

Sciences.

The Society has continued to enjoy the pres-

ence in the Capital of a large number of an-

thropologists. Some of them have joined our

ranks and others have delivered papers. The

programs of meetings during the first months of

the year continued under the direction of a

committee headed by the Secretary. This

group, having served two years, requested that

a new committee be appointed. The President

appointed Dr. Juutian H. Stewarp. chairman

and asked Dr. Gorpon R. WiLuBy and Dr.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES |

VOL. 35, No. 3 _

W. R. Wxper to serve with him. Turning from _

the anthropology of war areas, with occasional —

discussions of theoretical anthropology, the

new committee initiated a series of symposia

first, on New World Prehistory, followed by a

series of Discussions of oy and Con-_ j

temporary Problems.

meetings of the Society were as follows: _

January 18, 1944,717th meeting, Dr. Gorpon —

T. Bowes, Probable developments in the fle

of comparative racial anatomy.

February 15, 1944, 718th meeting, ELE ANOR-

‘a

Titles of papers presented before the regular

R. RoosEvett, Civilization .in the South Paw a

cufic.

March 21, 1944, 719th meeting,

Ruta *

Evans ee Some aspects of Minankdbau 4

socrety.

On,

April 18, 1944, 720th meeting, Dr. Homes

G. Barnett, Emotional factors in cultural

change.

May 31, 1944, 721st meeting, Dr.

JOHN LINDGREN, Some current trends in Briel

anthropology.

October 17,

pon R. Wiuuey, Dr. Frank H.. H. Roperts,;

JR.,

on Dating in New World Prehistory.

November 21, 1944, 723d meeting, Discus- 3

ETHEL

1944, 722d meeting, Dr. Goma

and Dr. Watpo R. WxpeEL, symposium ~

sions of Anthropology and Contemporary —

Problems—I, Dr.

thropology and Colonial administration.

RayMOND KENNEDY, An- —

December 19, 1944, 724th meeting, Discus-

sions of Anthropology and Contemporary —

Problems—II, Symposium on Race. contacts 3

and race conflicts; Dr. Morris E. OPp.mr,

American White-Oriental relations; Dr. ARTHUR

Raper, American White-Negro relations; and _

Dr. ALFRED Mérravx, Race relations in Latin —

America.

Wiuuram N. Fenton, Secretary

CONTENTS

coo eapaeL Gayo The Siahtiiae ee system of central and sewers: eee

nae Ceylon. Wiii1am H. GitBert, JR. ieee eee eee eee eee

F any 7 XM ae ;

PALEOBOTANY.—The Eimne Rocce Hors of ‘southeastern, ‘No

America. Epwarp W. Brrry..

ENromo.oey. —Five new flea beetles from the West. Indies, Doris I ™

BLAKE. ee

3 5 ; Vinx oat at all

a aay te © eNT> ee

4 F, ¥ . ae <3 ae edie ee ee Mie

7 ‘

i ‘ Mas x i ied

Ragan se a eee

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 2.04 0°. finns eee ea ee es

fe me Procrepines: CHEMICAL SOCIETY... 0... c ee bee eee ee

~ v ~~

/ Procnepines: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY......2.5..3...

oad S A This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals.

No. 4

_ JOURNAL |

OF THE

BOARD OF EDITORS ; We

- Haraup A. Reaper Wituam N. Fenton

U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BURBAU OF AMERICAN BTHNOLO@Y eee .

ASSOCIATE EDITORS : |

C. Kracex ALAN STONE pe

PHICAL SOCIETY —t™S ENTOMOLOGIOAL SOCIETY _ . i

Tra B. Hansen | - -Raupxa W. Imuay bs ps

; "BIOLOGICAL SocTETY > GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY x

BRT tt LonGLEY Xe T. Daty Stewart

SICAL SOCIETY Fa : ; ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY — ot

James I, HorrMan ath Ba er 0

+45 . CHEMICAL SOCIETY — | ; ey See a

\ pUBLISHED MONTHLY : e :

es BY THE . =

- WASHING GTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ay “oi

aes 450 AnnarP Sr, a

ar ManasHa, WIsconsIN : , a

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Nt et ee ee

_ (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy 3(2)

_ Manuscripts should be typewritten, double-spaced, on good ewvige Footnotes souls |

addressed to the Treasurer, H. S. Rappierg, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Waee

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This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington A caimeny of ‘Beiativesn ere

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: | JOURNAL

OF THE

“WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

rv OLUME 35

FENTON.)

(Continued from page 87.)

OUTCASTES

The Rodiyas, or Outcastes, had the fol-

" Ic wing names, according to Upham (vol. 3;

. 351): Rogadikayo, i.e., incurably ‘sick

a en because they were originally lepers;

¥. idarmishtayo, le., unrighteous men _ be-

cause they were addicted to bestiality; and

Wasalo, or Wasalayo, i.e., subject to all be-

“cause they were below all other castes in

status. The term Roda is stated to be a

‘es ruption of Rogadikayo. They were also

called Antere Jaty. The euphemistic terms

7 iived for Rodia were Hulawaliya (title

of a headman of this caste) and Madu-

karaya, or rope man because they made

x propes. (Valentyn, in Philalethes, p. 351.)

The Rodiyas have engaged the attention

_of writers on Ceylon out of all proportion to

their numbers and comparative importance.

T hey were always a small group and found

in but few areas. Their primary duty in the

Kandian Kingdom was to supply prepared

aie: for drums and ropes of hide, halters,

‘ ies, and cords for cattle, as well a8 to

bury carcasses of dead aniials found on

t he estate to which they belonged. (A. A.

Perera, p. 337; Knox, im Philalethes, pp.

ape Parker, 1917, pp. 29-30.) They

ere occasionally called Gasmundo as a

‘euphemism based on the fact that they

sed a rope by this name for catching and

astening elephants to trees. They were of a

Dindering gypsylike character and given

to begging, but they are not to be confused

with the true gypsies in Ceylon, the Ahli-

Be oskavo. The Rodiyas were not exempted

a rom taxation, and their services to the king

APRIL 15, 1945

No. 4

BTHNOLOGY.—The Sinhalese caste system of central and southern Ceylon.

Wiuuram H. Gipert, Jr., Library of Congress.

(Communicated by W. N.

were supplied supposedly because of the

land allotted for their village or camp sites

and the alms they were given. (Pridham,

vol. 1, pp. 241-2438. For the true Ceylon

gypsies see Spittel, pp. 229-244, and Bell,

pp. 108-114.)

Only the village charcoal burner or the

King’s gaoler communicated with Rodias

and then generally at a distance. Rodiya

dwellings were the merest sheds open com-

pletely on one side. Their hamlets, or

cupayas, were miserable collections of these

hovels temporarily erected until the band

moved on elsewhere. In carrying a pingo

load they were required to load it at one

end only. If a Rodia met a Goigama he was

required to salute with uplifted hands and

move out of the way or, if the way was too

narrow, to retreat to a distance until the

higher caste man passed by. Rodias were

barred from temples and were in general

absolutely untouchable. They were not

allowed the use of white linen and were re-

quired to tie the hair in a knot on the top

of the head. (Pridham, vol. 1, pp. 241-2438.

Tennent, vol. 2, pp. 187-191, compares the

Rodias with the Cagots of the French

Pyrenees, the latter group being also of re-

puted leper origin and engaged in occupa-

tions similar to the Rodias with correspond-

ing outcaste position.)

Rodia women were often given the euphe-

mistic designation of Nettukkaraya, or

dancers, and were skilled in that art and in

fortune-telling. They were prohibited from

wearing clothing above the waist but were

attractive and often found favor in the eyes

of men of the higher castes. It has been as-

serted that not only the women but also the

105

APR 23 "45

106

men were in general robust and physically

well developed. (Davy, pp. 129-131, See

list of illustrations of castes in Sppendis V

herein.)

Traditionally the Rodiyas were degraded

by a king because they ate human flesh and

beef. They. were not reputed to be trust-

worthy and much of the thefts or other

damage to property was attributed to them.

When displeased with the alms given it was

claimed that they were especially prone to

vandalism. The census of 1901 gave their

number as 1,464, of 1911 as 1,573, and of

1921 as 1,619.

The patron goddess of Rodiyas was

Navaratna Valli, who was born from the

Telembu Tree (A. A. Perera, 1917, p. 19).

PALANQUIN-BEARERS

The Palanquin-bearers were called by

the following terms, according to Upham

(vol. 3, p. 349): Baddo, or Paddo, a deriva-

tive of Padiwo and meaning rice-makers;

Batgammu, Batgamayo, or Batgama Eitto,

1.e., rice-village, people because they culti-

vated the rice in villages for the Kandian

king.

The Palanquin-bearers lived in Batgama

villages. According to Davy the Paduwo, or ©

Palanquin-bearers, were divided into three

sections: (1) the Paduwo proper, who were

fairly numerous and paid a pecuniary tax,

built walls for houses, thatched roofs, car-

ried loads, fetched wood and ornaments for

archways, and carried objects in proces-

sions; (2) the Y amanoo, or ironworkers, who

sialvans iron for the Kanan king; ae (3)

the Gahalagambadayo, or Gahalayo a very

degraded section who were not allowed to

eat or intermarry with the other divisions

and who served as executioners, street

Sweepers, and removers of carcasses. Of the

latter group one subsection ate beef and

were held to be lower than the rest. The

washermen for Gahalayo were called Hina-

wo. (Davy, pp. 127-128; Pridham, vol. 1,

p. 240.) »

In general the Palanquin-bearers were a

lowly caste. They were not permitted to

wear a Cloth that reached below the knees,

and the women were not allowed to wear

one over their shoulders or to conceal the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

_ upper parts of their bodies. When carrying ©

palanquins the Paduwo were allowed to

VOL. 35, NO. 4) q

carry only males, the J ageery-makers _ |

(Wahumpura) enone the palanquins of ,

females. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 240.) Accord-

ing to one account the Paduwo could carry —

only the hinder part of the palanquin of a —

dissawa, or high official. ‘They served also —

as atenraen and performed a variety of —

menial duties. a

Although some Paduwo paid a poll be

and served as lascoreens (soldiers), they —

were not allowed to acquire any permanent ~

rights in land and were always at the dis- —

posal of the king (cbzd.). According to —

Arthur Perera (1903, p. 337) the Paduwo

tenants were required to furnish onions and

garlic (lunubadda duties). 7

Upham (vol. 3, p. 348) gives the following. ;

synonyms for the Gahalayo, or Scavengers:

Pookoosayo, 1.e., removers of city dirt; —

Pupphachaddakayo, 1.e., casters away of —

flowers because they removed the faded —

flowers from temples; Kasalayo, or throw- —

ers away of dirt; and Gahalagambadayoo, —

i.e., elephant or other carcass removers. ~

They inhabited the Gahala-gama villageas 4

(Pridham, vol. 2, p. 491). The census of ~

1891 listed 99 Sinhalese scavengers and that f

of 1901 some 120. 3

The position of the Paduwo in célatiegn to. J

ironworking is not clear. According to A. A.

Perera (1903, p. 337) the Paduwo tenants © ;

brought charcoal for the smith and work 4

at the bellows as yamanu. Pridham (vol. 1, |

p. 240) says that the Yamanoo were iron- —

smelting Paduwo and were required to fur- ~

nish the king’s store and the district head- ~

man with a certain quantity of iron for their

land tenures. This does not clarify their ex- —

act relation to the ironworking smiths.

The term Duraya appears to have been ©

employed in recent years for the laboring ~

castes that performed Palanquin-bearing —

duties. Perera lists five classes of Durayas:

(1) Kande duraya, or molasses-makers ~

(Wahumpura); (2) Batgam duraya, or —

palanquin-bearers; (3) hunu duraya, or

lime-burners; (4) Valli duraya, or cloth- —

weavers; and (5) panna duraya, or bringers —

of fodder for elephants and cattle. (A. A. —

Perera, 1917, App. p. xxiv, Yamanna.)

BApn. 15, 1945

~ The Duraya caste were required to pro-

vide the manorial lord with uncooked pro-

visions, such as vegetables and raw rice, as

_ part of their services (cbid.). Parker (1917,

_ p. 29) asserts that Dwraya women could not

_ wear above the waist more than a strip of

calico about a hand’s breadth across the

breasts and that later a colored handker-

_ chief took the place of this article.

_ Pridham (vol. 2, p. 491) tells us that

Paduwo were numerous in the Moderagam

Walley of Northern Province, where they

drew sound from earthen pots with the

breath and kept admirable time in the

dance.

POTTERS

_ The terms for Potters, according to Up-

ham (vol. 3, p. 345), were: Cumbakarayo

and Cidailayo after Coombeya and Culala,

_ eponymous ancestors who were the reputed

first Potters; Pandittayo, or wise men, be-

cause they made their wares according to

their own fancy without any previous pat-

_ tern; Bada Sellaya, i.e., possessors of near

halls because they burned their wares in

a halls or places close to their dwellings; and

_ Cumballu, another name derived from

_ Cumbakarayo. According to another ver-

sion (Denham, p. 189) the name Pandit-

tayo derives from the name for scholars be-

S cause a tradition tells of a scholar who once

_ disguised himself as a potter in order to es-

: i cape a king’s wrath. Other terms in com-

mon use were Baddaballaya, Badahela,

~ Cubello, and Kumballa.

: _ The Potters were fairly numerous and

paid a small tax in money for their lands in

“7 addition to furnishing the kitchens of the

king and nobles with earthenware. Because

_ all earthenware vessels used at a feast were

| destroyed immediately thereafter through

| fear of pollution or disgrace by lower caste

| contamination, the demand for new pottery

cS was fairly high. Thus the fear of caste con-

_ tamination or disgrace aided the Potter’s

_ trade. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 238.)

In addition to pottery this caste also

_ made tiles and helped repair roofs of this

| material, made bricks for walls, and manu-

3 " factured clay lamps and other pottery ob-

| jects for temples and for festivals or rites.

A Pa

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM

107

Some Potters were attached to temple

properties and were required to service

these institutions. Potters had Dureas or

overseers and were required to pay a poll

tax or deccum. Coomaraswamy, pp. 25,

218 ff., gives examples of Potters’ work

songs. Potters did not have the privilege

of wearing white linen, nor could they

wear any doublets or any cloth much below

the knees. They might not sit on stools, and

Goigama would only give them drink by

pouring the water. (A. A. Perera, 1917,

App. p. ii, Badahela-Panguwa; Valentyn,

in Philalethes, p. 327 ff.).

The flag of the Potters bore a wheel as

the symbol of the caste (E. W. Perera, p. 5).

According to Parker (1917, p. 28) some of

the Potters undertook service as priests for

the ceremonies of propitiating planets or

other evil bodies and served as astrologers.

The census lists 5,255 Sinhalese potters in

1881, 11,248 in 1891, and 9,678 in 1901.

SLAVES AND MINOR CASTES

Slaves were in general deemed to belong

to the Wallu, one of the low castes, but

these again were subdivided into at least

three groups, namely, Covias, Nalluas, and

Pallas. The Covias were domestic servants.

(Pridham, vol. 1, p. 241.)

In the management of slaves the restric-

tions of caste could not be neglected by the

owners, and no one might hold as a slave a

member of a caste higher than his own.

(Coomaraswamy, p. 22.) ”

The origin of the slave groups was

largely through war with the Tamils. One

of the groups is actually called Demala-

gattaru or Tamil captives. This body was

found chiefly in a few villages of the west-

ern and southern provinces. (Pridham, vol.

1, p. 241.)

In addition to the slave castes there were

several groups of obscure origin, such as the

Palleru or Pallaroo, bandits and freebooters

living in woods and caverns; the Raadayo,

or Comb-makers; the Hirawas, or Sieve-

makers; and the Indrajaliko, or Conjurers.

Pridham (zbid.) names certain obscure

castes concerning which little is known,

such as the Yaka Daru, or Devil-worship-

pers; Kontayo, or those who carried the

108

frame upon which the king’s palanquin was

placed when he traveled; the Pidaynidanno,

- or Offering-makers to devils; the Gauray-

kawallu, or Village-watchmen; and the

- Kappuwo, or Temple watchmen.

SMITHS AND ARTIFICERS

The workers in metals are called by the

following terms, according to Upham (vol.

3, pp. 340-342): Cammakarayo, or workers |

in copper, brass, and silver (i.e., workers in

metal); Swwannakarayo, workers in gold;

Ayokarayo, workers in iron; Achariyo

(Guruwarayo), masters; Nawankaranno,

makers of new things; Nawandanno,

knowers of the art of making new things

out of old; Lokuruwo, founders or makers of

vessels with melted lead; and Cammaro

(Camburo), a term of reproach because they

took employment from high and low (Kam-

-buranawa meaning subject or slave). Up-

ham goes on to differentiate the carpenters

who, he thinks, are possibly a distinct

group as Waduwo, enhancers of value, and

Tachakayo, i.e., smoothers or planers.

According “6 Coomaraswamy’s account

(p. 54) the artificers were split into a higher

division called Gallado and a lower division

called Vaduvo, between which there could

be no interdining or intermarriage. The

Gallado included architects, painters, gold-

smiths and silversmiths; brass-repoussers,

_ivory-carvers and wood carvers, while the

Vaduvo included carpenters, wood and ivory

turners, blacksmiths, damasceners, stone-

carvers, and lac-workers. (Pridham, vol. 1,

p. 237, also gives subdivisions. )

Achart was a general term meaning

masters. or teachers of the arts, and this

was frequently applied to the Smiths. Oc-

casionally the term Gurunnehela, or teacher,

was used for them because of their claimed

descent from Brahmans who are teachers,

according to Coomaraswamy.

’ One - interesting group discussed by

Coomaraswamy (p. 215) were the Iwaduwo,

or lac-workers, formerly arrowmakers. The

two lac-producing insects in Ceylon are

both different from those occurring in

India. The Ceylonese species are Tachardia

albizzgae (Green), occurring on the. acacia,

and Tachardia conchiferata (Green), occur-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

‘years.

VOL. 35, NO. 4 |

ring on euphorbiaceous plants. Some Indian

lac has been imported into Ceylon for a a

long period. The native work in this sub- ~

stance was carried on at South Matura and —

in the lowlands near Tangalla in recent

The blacksmiths, or Achart, supplied —

nails for roofing houses, for hinges, locks, —

keys, kitchen utensils, agricultural imple-

ments, tools for felling and working timber,

areca nut cutters, chunam or lime boxes, —

and for ear and tooth picks. The last four a

items were penum, deccum, or presents for

chiefs. The braziers, or Lokuruwo, mended —

all brass and copper vessels of the temples —

and took part in the services of the oe "7?

Smiths. (A. A. Perera, 1917, App. p. s

Badal-Panguwa. )

Silversmiths and goldsmiths worked for.

the proprietors in their special craft when

required and in temples. They mended and

polished sacred vessels, did engraving and ~

carving, decorated the car of the deviyo or

god, remained on guard during the Pera-

hera ceremony, attended at the Kaphita- —

wima, and supplied the silver rim of the ~

Ehala-gaha. Their penum or dues consisted

of silver rings, betel boxes, and ornamental —

arrowheads. (Perera, bid.) _ a

The Stttaru was a tenant of the Smith —

caste who mended and-kept in repair the —

images and paintings in the temples. He

also supplied ornamental sticks as handles _

for lances, flags, walking sticks and betel

trays. (Perera, zbid., 1917, Sittara.)

The Navandanna artificers carried a flag .

with a device of an ape on it, which was —

called anumanta after Hanuman the Mon- —

key god. At festivities they had hangings of

white calico. In general practice the Smiths =

were permitted to sit on stools, which none .

of the inferior castes might do. In consid- a

eration of the value of the services of the —

Smith he was often allocated a large ex- —

panse of fertile land. Men of the caste were

entitled to wear the cloth below the knees ~

and the women the ohoriya cloth thrown —

over one shoulder but separate from the

regular cloth. (Perera, zbid.; see E. W.

Perera, pp. 21-22.) : :

Certain names were peculiar to the Smith ~

caste, and some of their lore bore witness to

B.S

Apr. 15, 1945

Tamil families of the sixteenth and seven-

_ teenth centuries. The men were frequently

4 ppelied Jiwan and Vijendra, while the women

_ Were styled Nachchire or Nachchilli, and by

B inferiors Etana. The goldsmiths, alone of

_ the Kandians other than the Vellalas, held

_ slaves. (Codrington, p. 222.)

_ The Kottal-Badda, or Artificer Depart-

_ ment, was organized for Smiths in each dis-

trict of the Kandian Kingdom. The royal

_ goldsmiths and silversmiths formed a close

_ corporation known as the Pattal-hatare, or

_ the Four Workshops, all others being village

- Smiths. (Ibid.)

_ The costumes of the headmen of the

Smith and Washermen castes were much

- alike. The Mahavidahns and Mahavidahn

_ Mohandirams wore a cloth or linen coat,

- with silver buttons and loops, sword with

“hilt and scabbard of silver, and a plate of

_ tortoise shell on the scabbard, a belt or

ribbon embroidered with flowers and gold

| Band silver thread. The Arrachies wore a

~ linen coat with silver buttons and silk

loops; sword hilt of horn, embellished with

_ silver, the scabbard of horn or wood and

| with silver bands; and the belt of plain

_ colored ribbon. The Canganies wore a linen

| coat with horn or covered linen buttons,

| a sword hilt of horn, the scabbard of horn

or wood; three copper bands; and a plain

ribbon belt. (Bennett, pp. 99-100. )

| The Yamanna iron-smelters were re-

| quired to give a certain number of lumps

| yearly as part of their services and also to

| burn charcoal for the forge, to carry bag-

| gage, and assist in field work and at Yak

| and Bali ceremonies. They put up the Tali-

| mana or pair of bellows for the Smith, but

~ they were of Paduwo origin and not mem-

Py | bers of the Smith caste. (A. A. Perera,

od App. ., Dp. xxiv, Yamanna.)

Bias than 4 percent of the Kandian popu-

Ration now appear to belong to the Smith

ecaste if present occupations are any guide.

| The number of persons belonging to this

- easte, however, undoubtedly is greatly in

. excess of the number of those still practicing

is ‘the ancient craft. It is conjectured that per-

haps 10 percent of the population of Kandy

during the eighteenth century were Smiths

ond their dependents and that perhaps one-

;

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM

109

half of these were Navandanno. (Coomar-

aswamy, p. 54.)

The following occupations were pursued

by 20 members of the Navandanno group

in the ‘‘Hue and Cry” records: goldsmith 8,

cultivator 5, cooly 3, carpenter 2, silver-

smith 1, and blacksmith 1. The census fig-

ures for Sinhalese carpenters are: 1881,

12,648; 1891, 39,179; 1901, 56,143. The cor-

responding figures for masons were: 1881,

1,765; 1891, 6,850; 1901, 13,088. The fig-

ures given for blacksmiths were in 1881,

3,185 and in 1891, 10,298. Finally, the fig-

ures for goldsmiths and silversmiths were in

1881, 3,764; 1891, 11,469; and 1901, 14,361.

It is notable that the goldsmiths had

particular quarters in the large cities: and

certain streets were reserved to them.

The subdivisions of the Smith caste are

as follows: (1) Architects, Galladdo (Coo-

maraswamy); (2) Arrowmakers and Lac-

workers, Ee waduwo (Bennett) or Vaduvo

(Coomaraswamy) and Iwaduwo (Valen-

tyn); (3) Artificers, Nawandanno (Armour),

Nawaymiyo or 9 services (Bennett), Nayide

(Parker) and Nazdes (Perera); (4) Black-

smiths, Kamburo or Acharz (Armour, Per-

era, Pridham), Achiary (Valentyn); (5)

Brass-founders, Repoussers, or Braziers,

Lokooroowo (Armour), Braziers or Loko-

ruwo (Perera), Brass-founders (Pridham),

Brass-repoussers (Coomaraswamy), La-

curuwo or Smelters (Valentyn); (6) Car-

penters, Waduwo (Armour, Valentyn); (7)

Damasceners, part.of Vaduvo (Coomaras-

wamy); (8) Goldsmiths, Tarahallo (Ar-

mour), Ranhallo (Bennett, Pridham), part

of Gallado (Coomaraswamy), Ridiceto An-

carao or Gold and silver inlayers (Valen-

tyn); (9) Lapidaries, Galwaduwo (Bennett,

Pridham); (10) Masons, Galwadoowo (Ar-

mour); (11) Painters, Hzttaroo (Armour),

Sittaru (Bennett, Perera, Pridham), Szit-

tereo (Valentyn), part of Galado (Coomar-

aswamy); (12) Sculptors, Galwaduwo

(Pridham, Valentyn), Stone-carvers or Va-

duvo (Coomaraswamy); (13) Silversmiths,

Badaalo (Armour), Badallu (Perera), Bad-

dallo (Valentyn); (14) Solderers of metal,

Yamanu (Bennett); (15) Turners, ivory and

wood cabinetmakers, Liyana waduwo (Ben-

nett, Pridham), Adatketeancarao (Valentyn) ;

110

miscellaneous, Hommaru or Carcass-remov-

ers and Skin-dressers (Bennett, Pridham),

Ratneenderecarao or Jewellers (Valentyn).

TAILORS

The Tailors, like the Barbers, were a

luxury caste for the Sinhalese. There were

several terms for this group, as noted by

Upham (vol. 3, p. 342), namely: Tunna-

wayo, or weavers (sewers) of pieces; Sochi-

kayo, or workers with the needle; Sannaw-

liyo, makers of cloth armor; Mahanno

(Mananno), or sewers; and Hannalio (Han-

— nawilt).

Washermen washed for them but would

not eat with them, and they did not enjoy

the privilege of white linen unless by special

permission of the Kandian king. The caste

was a small one and was employed princi-

pally by the royal palace for embroidery

work and by the large Hindu Dewalas or

temples and Buddhist Wiharas where as

tenants they sewed and stitched the sacred

vestments, curtains, and flags. They as-

sisted in decorating these establishments

and were responsible for the manufacture

of the gorgeous costumes worn by the king

and court in return for which land was al-

lowed them. (Pridham, vol. 1, p. 238; A. A.

Perera, 1917, App. p. viii, Hannaliya;

Coomaraswamy, p. 237 ff.)

According to the census there were 3,465

Sinhalese tailors in 1881, 1,716 in 1891, and

in 1901 approximately 6,803.

TODDY-DRAWERS

The Toddy-drawers, or Chandos, have

the following synonyms, according to Up-

ham: Sondikayo, or producers of lust (from

Sondamakaya, who first discovered toddy) ;

Maggawikayo, or vendors of intoxication;

Surawbeejayo, i.e., toddy-makers or pro-

ducers of good taste (referring to their sale

of toddy to bakers); Madinno, i.e., pruners

of trees; Surawo, gives of pleasant taste;

and Durawo, producers or givers of the

evil-producing taste. (Upham, vol. 3, pp.

344-345. )

This caste was employed in collecting the

sweet juice or toddy from the decapitated

flower stalk of the coconut: palm, kitul

palm, and other trees for the purpose of

fermentation. Since use of intoxicants is

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

contrary to Buddhist precept, the Toddy-

drawers’ calling is confined to a very few

families of the interior. (Pridham, voll 1am

Di zat.)

There were a number of subdivisions of —

the Toddy-drawer caste, according to Ben-

nett, Pridham, and Valentyn (see data be-

low). The highest grades of this caste, ac- —

cording to Valentyn (in Philalethes, p. 327 _

ff.) were the elephant-tamers, who had the

right of using white linen or ealico and pos- —

sessed a flag with a red lion on the middle of

a white background, along with other dis- 4

VOL. 35, NO. 4 7

tinctions from which inferior sections were _

barred. Dress of the headmen is described _

by Bennett (p. 99). (See also E. W. Perera,

pad) :

The ‘‘Hue and Cry” data show the fol- :

lowing occupations as pursued by 47

Toddy-drawer people: coolies 23, cultiva- 3

tors 13, toddy-drawers 6, and servants 5.

The census of Sinhalese Toddy-drawers _

listed 2,604 in 1881, 9,857 in 1891, and 11,- —

836 in 1901.

The principal subdivisions of the Toddy- —

drawers are: (1) Blacksmith helpers, Acker- —

(2) Carriage-makers, —

Rata Karayo (Pridham); (3) Cowherds, —

(4)

Dancers, Kuttadi (Bennett, Pridham), Cu- —

tany Wolle-etto or Arambeo (Valentyn); (5) —

(6)

ammo (Valentyn);

Pati Karayo (Bennett, Pridham);

Drummers, Agunmady (Valentyn);

Elephant-feeders, Pannayo (Bennett); (7)

Knife-carriers, Niello (Valentyn); (8) La- —

borers, Duravo or Chando (Bennett, Prid- —

ham, Valentyn); (9) Rice-sacrificers, Bali- —

battu (Bennett, Pridham); (10) Riders of —

elephants, Magul Duravo (Pridham, Valen- —

(Bennett, —

Pridham), Usanno (Valentyn); (12) Tim- ~

ber-fellers, Porawa Karayo (Bennett, Prid- —

ham); (13) Toddy-drawers, Harz duravo or —

Nattambu (Bennett), Hari Duravo or Nal- —

lambu (Pridham), Nattambovo (Valentyn); —

tyn); (11) Servants, Aynadz

(14) Washermen, Hiwattayo (Bennett,

Pridham); miscellaneous, Solil Karayo or

particular services (Pridham), Weedy and a

Cottu (Valentyn).

TREE-CUTTERS

The Heert, or pioneers, were a small caste. 4

They had a vidane, or chief, and their of-—

fice was to fell all kinds of trees, to carry —

, Sh

“Apr. 15, 1945

“ammunition in war, and to act as pioneers in

clearing the way for troops. They did not

enjoy the privilege of wearing white linen,

and a particular caste called the Gangavos

washed for them. (Valentyn, in Philalethes,

331.) The census enumerated 309 Tim-

_ber-fellers in 1881 and 258 in 1891.

| ¥ WASHERS

_ The following are the names given by

Biicham (vol. 3, pp. 342-343) for the Wash-

erman caste ; Winney Jakaya, restorers; Ra-

jakayo or Radau. removers of dirt; Paihara

Haliyo, cloth cleaners; Paidiyo or takers of

“payment; and Hainayo or Snathayo, be-

loved persons (referring to their washing

the foul linen of little children and thereby

_ ot aining their affection).

The accounts concerning the Washer

“caste are rather confusing inasmuch as the

_ identity of the different washermen groups

and their status relation to each other is

“not indicated. Apparently the Radaw

_(Henaya or Henawlaya) were the washers

for the Gorgama and other castes of high

_ status such as sections of the Fishers, Tod-

| _ dy-drawers, etc. Below the Radaw were at

least three other washer castes, namely: (1)

_ Hinniwo or Hinawa, who washed for Cin-

Dy amon-peelers Meiaziy and also for

Peiniths, Toddy-drawers, Potters, Tailors,

eee and Scavengers; (2) Gangavo, pri-

oy washers for Tree-cutters and

Dancers; and (3) Pali, Paliyo, or Apul-

_ lanna, Washers primarily for low castes such

as Rime-burners, Palanquin-bearers, Bar-

bers, Drummers, and J agvery-makers. In

Saddition, there appears to have been still

_ another group of washers, the Tarumpar,

who worked for outeastes. Thus it seems

~ evident that the caste status of their clients

| was reflected in the status of the different

_ Washer groups.

. The Washers were a fairly large caste and

s oc for their land in one-twentieth of its

produce in rice. They were said to possess

etent powers as arbiters in cases of violation

_ of social-etiquette or custom, and their re-

| fusal to wash the clothes of objectionable

‘persons constituted a form of social ostra-

_cism. Washers were occasionally officials at

Yak or demon ceremonies, and Parker has

: recorded some of their songs sung while at

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM

111

work. Paddy was often used to pay them

for their services. The term Henaya was

used in polite address and means a cleaner.

(Pridham, vol. 1, pp. 238-239; Knox, in

Philalethes, pp. 136-137; A. A. Perera,

1917, App. p. xix, Rada-Baddara-Raja-

karzya.)

The dress of the females of this caste

consisted of two short cloths, one wrapped

around the loins and the other thrown over

the shoulder. None of the Washers was al-

lowed to wear white linen. (Knox, ibid.)

The Radaw could eat with Fishers and

Toddy-drawers but could not eat with

Tailors, Potters, and Barbers, nor could

they go to their festivals even though they

might wash for them. They washed also for

themselves.

They were said to use lye in their wash-

ing. They set a pot containing seven to

eight gallons of water over the fire and then

laid the dirty clothes on top. The steam of

the water went through the clothes and

scalded them. Afterwards they were taken

to the river and flapped against the rocks

until clean. (Knox, ibid.) A square repre-

senting the stone on which the linen was

bleached served as a symbol on their flag.

(E. W. Perera, p. 37.)

The duties of the Washers consisted in

furnishing of white cloth to spread on the

ground at ceremonies; to line rooms and

cover chairs whenever the Kandian king or

his chiefs were expected; to wash at peri-

odic intervals clothes, curtains, flags, and

temple vestments; to decorate temples and

homes at weddings and ceremonies; to sup-

ply carpets and bathing costumes; and to

attend the manorial lords on journeys car-

rying torches of wick and tow. (Coomaras-

wamy, p. 26; A. A. Perera, 1917, App. p.

xix, Rada-Baddara-Rajakariya.) The fami-

lies who washed for the court had their

land free for that service. They were not

required to wash for any of the superior

castes without payment or to degrade them-

selves by washing for those beneath them-

selves. At the New Year ceremonies the

Washer received in addition to sweetmeats

and rice a coin from every member of the

family. The coin was tied up in a cloth de-

livered for washing. At funerals and pu-

berty ceremonies the Washer is entitled to

112

certain of the clothing used, the clothes not

being burnt on the funeral pyre. For details

of the dress of the caste headmen see Ben-

nett, pp. 99-100.

The ‘‘Hue and Cry” data indicate that

out of 36 persons of Washer caste 14 were

following that occupation, 6 were cultiva-

tors, and 16 were unrecorded or miscel-

laneous. According to the census there were

12,601 Sinhalese washermen in 1881, 27,-

466 in 1891, and 29,749 in 1901.

CONCLUSION

The picture herein presented of Sinhalese

castes may seem to be somewhat confusing

in detail, yet there are certain integrating

factors in the system that call for notice.

First, there was the formerly existing

system of rajkariya or fixed economic serv-

ices, which were required of each caste in

return for its land tenure. These services,

each of which was peculiar to the single

caste, were rendered to the king, the land-

lord, or the proprietary temple. The local

village or caste headman and the village

council were responsible for the perform-

ance and maintenance of these duties as

royal or local officials. The departmentaliza-

tion of the government of the native Kan-

dians assigned to each caste specific duties

within a section of the political hierarchy.

When new services were required new castes

were often imported from India to perform

them. The disposition of duties and assign-

ment of caste functions constituted a royal

prerogative but were limited by customs

and traditions of the castes themselves.

Thus there existed a complete system of

economic exchange. between villages, each

of which specialized in its particular caste

occupations.

Second, a pattern of exploitation of the

natural environment becomes apparent in

the various caste divisions. The majority

caste was the Agriculturist, or Vellala, who

specialized in the exploitation of the rice-

fields of the Island. Other castes such as the

Potters and Iron-miners specialized in the

extraction and use of inanimate mineral

substances, while still others such as the

Fishers and Lac-collectors exploited the ani-

mal resources. As a result of this specializa-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tion there occurred a geographical segrega- a

tion of caste villages and of urban caste

quarters by means of which specialization ~

could be maintained in exclusiveness and —

without interference from the outside. The —

manner and the matter of exploitation ele- —

vated or debased the social station of the —

various castes, the Farmer being of high ~

status, the Scavenger of low. :

Third, as Hocart (1935, 1936) has shown —

so ably in his writings on the subject, a

group of ritualistic functions assigned to —

each caste made the services of that caste —

indispensable to the community generally —

and to each of the other related castes indi- —

vidually. Thus the Washer was necessary ~

in the purification of clothing from the pol- —

lution of menstrual blood and for the per- ~

formance of rites of marriage; the Barber —

was necessary for funeral services; the Tom- —

tom-beaters were needed for Devil exor-

cism; and the Jaggery-maker cook for tem- —

ple feasts. The various washer castes re- —

flected the standing of their respective ~

clients and furnished a parallel hierarchy

of ceremonial ministrants who buttressed —

and reinforced the hierarchy of castes ~

proper. A similar situation exists in India —

where the various Brahman groups are cor-

related with the social status of their clients —

and parallel the caste ladder of ranks. The ~

annual processions and seasonal ceremonies —

in which the Tomtom-beaters and Dancers ~

participated likewise reinforced and re- ~

iterated the social priorities of specific caste

groups. The repetition of the great cere- —

monies at specific times of the year helped —

to perpetuate the social order and peculiar _

functions of some of the castes and also af-

fected the other groups. The marriage rites, —

perhaps more important in some respects —

than any of the others, required the partici- ~

pation of special-service castes even though —

the rite itself was generally within the single ~

caste group.

‘Fourth, for each of the castes there was —

always a certain degree of occupational —

latitude or elasticity of function. The tasks —

involved in cultivation were performed by —

almost all the non-Cultivator castes as well —

as being a major function of the latter. ~

Each of the non-cultivator groups, how- —

aes

voL. 35, NO. 4

Apr. 15, 1945

ever, was regarded as lower in status and

more restricted in occupational choices

than the Cultivators. At the bottom of the

social scale there was also a latitude of oc-

cupational choice, since the Rodiyas and

Kinneras were forced to supply their own

_ barbers, doctors, soothsayers, and officials

_ for demon ceremonies. Each caste, in fact,

_ tended to develop a hierarchy of occupa-

tions within its own ranks, and we hear of

higher and lower degrees of Cultivators,

Fishers, Smiths, Toddy-drawers, Weavers,

~ and Cinnamon-peelers.

Fifth, in explaining the threads underly-

% ‘ing Sinhalese caste it is necessary to call

e attention to certain psychological tenden-

| cies apparently shared with the people of

§ _ India proper. These tendencies include (a)

- a feeling for classification and arrangement

| in neat logical sequences of all the facts and

| objects of existence, including human social

| groupings; (b) a craving for order and estab-

lished precedence expressing itself in a

| priority system for allocating goods and

services to those castes whose functional

| value is held higher than others; and (c) a

| fear of pollution or contamination shared by

- Hindu and Buddhist alike, which is evi-

ere

_denced in the avoidance of low-caste im-

_ purity by frequent use of new pottery or by

| use of clothes cleaned by the Washer. The

_ Potter, Washer, and Scavenger, since they

( _ removed the impurities of life, seemed to ac-

a quire thereby a certain impurity them-

selves. The caste having to do with life

| processes and growing, the Cultivators,

ranked highest, while the Scavengers and

| Executioners, concerned with death, were

at the bottom of the social scale.

oa Hocart maintains that each of the Sin-

_halese castes, as well as those of India

| proper and other parts of the world, consti-

_ tuted a priesthood with a peculiar ritualis-

| tic function of its own. His comparisons of

_ other systems with the Sinhalese, extending

| from ancient times to the present, from

_ Europe to Polynesia, have brought the caste

; system of Ceylon into focus with reference

| to the rest of the world. One does not have

iY to accept unreservedly his generalizations,

| but it is worth while to read him for his fer-

| tility of ideas and helpful logic in untangling

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM

113

the mass of apparently chaotic and con-

fusing practices associated with caste.

The foregoing summary represents the

gist of the material at present available in

libraries and bibliographies on the subject

of Sinhalese castes. It is evident that there

is a considerable need for field work and

further investigation of this subject. The

deficiencies can be summed up in the follow-

ing order.

(1) There is practically a complete lack

of censuses of Sinhalese castes, and although

such censuses may have been taken at some

time in the nineteenth century no record

seems to have been made of it. The occupa-

tional census is of very little value in this

regard.

(2) There are very few illustrations of

Sinhalese caste types in the literature, and

these suffer from lack of identifying cap-

tions as to whether they are Sinhalese or

Tamil and do not show physical types. Pic-

tures of Jaggery-makers, Palanquin-

bearers, and Lime-burners in particular

seem difficult to find. In Appendix V of this

paper a list of illustrated material on the

castes is given. Anthropometric data on the

different castes are needed in addition to

good photographic records.

(3) There seems to be dearth of mate-

rial on the internal structure of the Sin-

halese castes. Though we are told in a gen-

eral way that each village had a council

and a caste headman, little is really gath-

ered regarding the actual operation of the

system. Can we say that there are caste

panchayats or other institutions similar to

those of India proper?

(4) There are no records of community

surveys including caste data along with

other relevant social facts concerning resi-

dence, segregation, present occupational ac-

tivities, incomes, endogamy, and tenden-

cies toward disregard of caste rules. Even a

single instance of such a survey would go

far toward throwing light on the present

social conditions of the Sinhalese castes.

(5) There are no facts relevant to the ef-

fects of the European system on the native

economy, especially as regard the caste ob-

ligations and how the transition was made

from one to another. If this story were ever

~~ eo ee aaEEeEeEOEeEeEEeeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEOEOEeeeee

112

certain of the clothing used, the clothes not

being burnt on the funeral pyre. For details

of the dress of the caste headmen see Ben-

nett, pp. 99-100.

The ‘‘Hue and Cry” data indicate that

out of 36 persons of Washer caste 14 were

following that occupation, 6 were cultiva-

tors, and 16 were unrecorded or miscel-

laneous. According to the census there were

12,601 Sinhalese washermen in 1881, 27,-

466 in 1891, and 29,749 in 1901.

CONCLUSION

The picture herein presented of Sinhalese

castes may seem to be somewhat confusing

in detail, yet there are certain integrating

factors in the system that call for notice.

First, there was the formerly existing

system of rajkariya or fixed economic serv-

ices, which were required of each caste in

return for its land tenure. These services,

each of which was peculiar to the single

caste, were rendered to the king, the land-

lord, or the proprietary temple. The local

village or caste headman and the village

council were responsible for the perform-

ance and maintenance of these duties as

royal or local officials. The departmentaliza-

tion of the government of the native Kan-

dians assigned to each caste specific duties

within a section of the political hierarchy.

When new services were required new castes

were often imported from India to perform

them. The disposition of duties and assign-

ment of caste functions constituted a royal

prerogative but were limited by customs

and traditions of the castes themselves.

Thus there existed a complete system of

economic exchange. between villages, each

of which specialized in its particular caste

occupations.

Second, a pattern of exploitation of the

natural environment becomes apparent in

the various caste divisions. The majority

caste was the Agriculturist, or Vellala, who

specialized in the exploitation of the rice-

fields of the Island. Other castes such as the

Potters and Iron-miners specialized in the

extraction and use of inanimate mineral

substances, while still others such as the

Fishers and Lac-collectors exploited the ani-

mal resources. As a result of this specializa-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tion there occurred a geographical segrega- a

tion of caste villages and of urban caste

quarters by means of which specialization ~

could be maintained in exclusiveness and —

without interference from the outside. The —

manner and the matter of exploitation ele- —

vated or debased the social station of the —

various castes, the Farmer being of high ~

status, the Scavenger of low. :

Third, as Hocart (1935, 1936) has shown —

so ably in his writings on the subject, a

group of ritualistic functions assigned to —

each caste made the services of that caste —

indispensable to the community generally —

and to each of the other related castes indi- —

vidually. Thus the Washer was necessary ~

in the purification of clothing from the pol- —

lution of menstrual blood and for the per- ~

formance of rites of marriage; the Barber —

was necessary for funeral services; the Tom- —

tom-beaters were needed for Devil exor-

cism; and the Jaggery-maker cook for tem- —

ple feasts. The various washer castes re- —

flected the standing of their respective ~

clients and furnished a parallel hierarchy

of ceremonial ministrants who buttressed —

and reinforced the hierarchy of castes ~

proper. A similar situation exists in India —

where the various Brahman groups are cor-

related with the social status of their clients —

and parallel the caste ladder of ranks. The ~

annual processions and seasonal ceremonies —

in which the Tomtom-beaters and Dancers ~

participated likewise reinforced and re- ~

iterated the social priorities of specific caste

groups. The repetition of the great cere- —

monies at specific times of the year helped —

to perpetuate the social order and peculiar _

functions of some of the castes and also af-

fected the other groups. The marriage rites, —

perhaps more important in some respects —

than any of the others, required the partici- ~

pation of special-service castes even though —

the rite itself was generally within the single ~

caste group.

‘Fourth, for each of the castes there was —

always a certain degree of occupational —

latitude or elasticity of function. The tasks —

involved in cultivation were performed by —

almost all the non-Cultivator castes as well —

as being a major function of the latter. ~

Each of the non-cultivator groups, how- —

aes

voL. 35, NO. 4

Bitpn. 15; 1945.

Clark, Ency. Brit.); Fish-curers (Perera)

_ Karawo (Armour, Bennett; Chitty, Cordiner,

Davy, Encyel. Metrop., Guenther, Hue and

Cry, Janavamsa, Jancigny, Joinville, Niti

_ Nighanduwa, Nordhoff, Parker, Perera, Prid-

ham, Queyroz, de Saram, Schmidt, Schouten,

- Selkirk, .Upham, Valenty n); Keulht (Dhar-

- maratne); Ouagouri kayo (Gauttier).

11. Grass-cutters

- | Grass-cutters (Barrow, Upham); Fodderers

or Fodder-providers (Perera); Pannayo (Ar-

_mour, Davy, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Jana-

- vyamsa, Jancigny, Selkirk, Schmidt, Perera,

- Pridham); Pannaduras (Bertolacci); Panna

_ duraya (Perera); Hinnawo (Niti Nighanduwa).

a 12. Hunters

_ Dodda weddahs (Davy, Jancigny, Pridham);

_ Vedda (Gauttier, PapatATEe, Hue and Cry,

_ Joinville, Queyroz).

13. Jaggery-makers

__ Jaggery-makers (Barrow, Bertolacci, Encycl.

_ Metrop. ., Knox); Cooks (Bennett); Cooks or

_ porters (Cordiner, Nordhoff); Molasses-makers

_ (Perera); Jagreros (Armour, Cordiner, Encycl.

y* Metrop., Joinville, Nordhoff, Ribeiro, de

| Saram); Manparteno (Armour, Knox, Niti

g Nighanduwa, Valentyn); Hakuro (Bennett,

Chitty, Davy, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Jana-

vamsa, Jancigny, Perera: Pridham, de Saram,

Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham): Wahumpura (Hue

/ and Cry); ahde. duraya (Perera).

o 14. Leather-workers

Sandal-makers (Bennett, Pridham); Shoe-

makers (Chitty, Ribeiro, Upham, Valentyn);

_ Tanners (Cordiner); Homaru (Armour, Ben-

q nett, Chitty, Ribeiro, Valentyn); Somaru

(Bennett, Cordiner, Janavamsa, Nordhoff,

_Pridham, Upham); Nagaran Karas (Berto-

- laeei); i Spevarienn? (Guenther).

15. Lime-burners

- Lime-burners (Barrow); Chuwnam-burners

_ (Bennett, de Saram, Upham); Lime- and mor-

: tar-makers (Bertolacci) Hunno (Armour, Chit-

| ty, Cordiner, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Jana-

_ -vamsa, Joinville, Nordhoff, Perera, de Saram,

_ Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham, Valentyn): Burma

_ (Bennett, Jancigny); Hunu durayo (Niti Nig-

: OR ccdurn. Perera); Hunu badde (Davy, Jan-

| cigny, Pridham); Chinambero (Valentyn).

16. Mat-weavers

Mat-weavers (Barrow); Kinnaru (Armour,

~ GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM

Roriz

115

Cordiner, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Knox, Niti

Nighanduwa, Nordhoff, Parker, Perera, de

Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham); Hinnarayo

(Bennett); Hinnawo (Bennett); Kinnera badde

(Davy); Kinnaya (Eneyel. Metrop.), Kinna-

rayo (Janavamsa); Kinneru badde (Jancigny,

Pridham); Kinnava (Joinville); Kirinerahs

(Knox); Hiene Jaty (Valentyn).

17. Outcastes

Outcastes (Barrow, Clark, Percival); Skin-

ners (Bennett); Beggars (Knox); Leather- and

rope-makers (Upham); Rodiya (Armour, Ben-

nett, Chitty, Cordiner, Davy, Dharmaratne,

Encyel. Metrop., Guenther, Hue and Cry,

Janavamsa, Jancigny, Joinville, Knox, Niti

Nighanduwa, Nordhoff, Parker, Perera, Prid-

ham, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham);

(Queyroz); Gasmundo (Jancigny,

Schmidt); Antere Jaty (Valentyn); Gattaru

(Cordiner, Encycl. Metrop., Jancigny, Prid-

ham, Schmidt); Shenders (Cordiner, Nord-

hoff).

18. Palanquin-bearers

A. Palanquin-bearers (Barrow); Paduwo

(Armour, Bennett, Bertolacci, Chitty, Cor-

diner, Davy, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Jan-

cigny, Joinville, Knox, Nordhoff® Perera, Prid-

ham, Queyroz, Ribeif, de Sarai, Schmidt,

Selkirk, Upham, V alentyn)- Porters (Chitty):

Baggage carriers (Encycl. Brit.); Carriers

(Guenther).

B. Executioners (Barrow, Nordhoff, Niti

Nighanduwa, Selkirk, Pridham, Cordiner);

Hangmen (Guenther, Schmidt); Scavengers

(Bennett, Encycel. Brit.); House-wall builders

(Bennett, Upham); House-builders (Guen-

ther); Carcass-removers (Guenther, Upham,

Schmidt); Batgama (Dharmaratne, Hue and

Cry, Schmidt); Batgam duraya (Perera); Bat-

gam Paduvo (Niti Nighanduwa); Galahayo

(Armour, Guenther, Bennett, Janavamsa,

Gauttier, Schmidt, Selkirk); Gahalega or Bedea

(Cordiner, Nordhof, Upham); Duraya (Par-

ker).

C. Iron-smelters (Armour, Pridham,

Schmidt); Yamannu (Armour, Ribeiro,

Schmidt).

19. Potters

Potters (Ballou, Barrow, Clark, Dhar-

maratne, Ency. Brit., Knox, Percival, Perera,

Ribeiro); Tile-makers (Perera); Badahelayo

(Armour, Davy, Guenther, Hue and Cry, Niti

Nighanduwa, Parker, Perera, Pridham, de

Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham); Kumbalu

(Bennett, Chitty, Cordiner, Janavamsa, Nord-

hoff, Selkirk, Valentyn).

116

20. perecnehens

Hirawa (Armour, Cordiner).

21. Slaves

Wallu (Bennett); Daasayo (Bennett, Gaut-

tier); Nallovas (Schouten).

Ri eM TA

Smiths (Ballou, Barrow, Bertolacci, Encyel.

Brit., Knox, Parker, Percival, Perera, Ribeiro,

Upham); Mechanics (Cordiner); Artificers

(Valentyn); Nawandanno (Armour, Chitty,

Hue and Cry, Joinville, Niti Nighanduwa,

Perera, Upham, Valentyn); Nawaymiyo (Ben-

nett); Kamburu (Cordiner, Janavamsa, Nord-

hoff); Achari (Davy, Gauttier, Guenther, Jan-

cigny, Parker, Pridham, Schmidt, Selkirk);

Vaduvo (Janavamsa) ; Kottal badde (de Saram) ;

Badalo (Selkirk, Hue and Cry).

23. Tailors

Tailors (Perera, Upham); Hanali (Armour,

Bennett, Chitty, Davy, Janavamsa, Jancigny,

Niti Nighanduwa, Pridham, de Saram,

Schmidt).

24. Toddy-drawers

Toddy-drawers (Barrow, Bertolacci, Perera) ,

Coconut-climbers (Clark); Elephant-tamers

(Upham); Durawo (Armour, Bennett, Chitty,

Cordiner, Ency. Metrop., Hue and Cry, Jana-

vamsa, Jancigny, Joinville, Niti Nighanduwa,

Nordhoff, Perera, Pridham, de Saram, Schmidt,

Selkirk, Upham, Valentyn); Chando (Armour,

Bennett, Cordiner, Davy, Encycl. Metrop.,

Guenther, Jancigny, Pridham, Queyroz,, de

Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham, Valentyn);

Madinno (Davy, Parker, de Saram); Sourave

(Joinville).

25. Tree-cutters

Wood-cutters (Chitty); Woodsmen (Chitty) ;

Pioneers (Chitty); Shooters (Upham); Palleru

APPENDIX II: GLOSSARY OF

ABORIGINALS: Veddas.

ACHARI or ACHARIYO:

Achariya, a blacksmith.

Acutary: Achari.

AcKERANNO: Coconut-bark rope-makers and

Smiths’ assistants; Chando.

ADARMISHTAYO: Unrighteous men or beets

men; Rodias.

ADASSING: Nobility of the Goigama.

ADATKETEANCARAO: Workers in ivory and

Cabinet-makers; Smiths.

Blacksmiths, sing.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 4

(Cordiner, Chitty, Jancigny, Niti Nighanduwa,

Pridham, Queyroz, de Saram, Upham, Valen- —

tyn); Heeri (Chitty, Valentyn); Porokara (Hue °

and Cry); Hunna kotanno (Chitty).

26. Washers

A. Washermen (Armour, Ballou, Barrow,

Bennett, Bertolacci, Clark); Washers (Encyel.

Brit., Guenther, Joinville, Percival, Perera,

Ribeiro, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, Upham,

Valentyn); Radav (Armour, Bennett, Chitty,

Cordiner, Davy, Ency. Metrop., Guenther,

Hue and Cry, Janavamsa, Jancigny, Joinville, — .

Knox, Niti Nighanduwa, Nordhoff, Parker,

Perera, Pridham, de Saram, Schmidt, Selkirk, ;

Upham, .Valentyn); Dhobies (Dharmaratne,

Guenther); Henayo (Parker).

B. Hinawa or Hinnevo (Bennett, de Saram,

Perera, Chitty, Upham, Valentyn, Selkirk,

Guenther); Washers to Cinnamon peelers

(Barrow, Guenther, Perera, de Saram, Selkirk,

Upham, Valentyn); Washers for Nazdes (Pe-

rera).

C. Gangavo (Chitty, Perera,

for Oli (Perera, Valentyn).

D. Pali or Apullano (Armour, Niti Nighan-

duwa, Jancigny, Chitty, Guenther, Schmidt,

Upham, Perera); Washers to Hunno (Chitty,

Valentyn); Washers to low castes (Barrow,

Guenther, Upham); Washers to Scavengers

(Bennett); Washers for Duraya, Barbers,

Neketto (Perera); Washers for Jaggery-makers,

Lime-burners, Tomtom-beaters, and Palan-

quin-bearers (de Saram).

27. Weavers

Villedurat (Davy, Guenther, Jancigny, Pe-

rera, Pridham). | :

28. Miscellaneous

Cattle-keepers (Chitty, Cordiner); Pack-

bullock-drivers (Perera); Hunugambadu (Chit-

ty); Gopaliya (Cordiner); Gopeloas (Nordhoff).

SINHALESE CASTE NAMES

AGRICULTURISTS: Goigama.

AGUNMADY: Drummers; Chando.

AHLIGUNTHIKAYO: Ceylon gypsies.

AIMADUWO: Arrow-makers.

AMBETTAYO or EmMBeEtTToO: Those who live near-

by. As ministers of the king’s cabinet they

were near the royal Beleoneee Panikkayo |

or Barbers.

Anpt: Beggars (Tamils).

ANGLERS: Kaywalo or Karawe; Dandu-karawo.

ANTERE JATy: Rodias or Outcaste Ropemakers.

Valentyn);

Washers for Heeri (Chitty, Valentyn); Washers

‘agg

Apr. 15, 1945

_ Appunamy: Descendants of chiefs and head-

men, a branch of the Goigama.

_ ApuLLANo: Washers to Lime-burners and low

___eastes, Pali or Paliyo.

_ AramBeo: Pagoda-dancers; Chando.

_ Arcuers: Dunuwaagely or Karawe.

_ ArRow-MAKERS: Iwaduwo.

_ Artiricers: Nawandanno.

_ Asrro.ocers: Weavers or Berawayo.

_ Aropya-wapakaya: Berawayo. Name derived

from Atodya, a minister who first appointed

_ them to the duty of Tomtom-beating and

_ who himself made and played on the first

_ timbrel or drum with one head which is

_ ealled by his name.

_ AympartHaro: Ambettayo or Barbers.

_ Aywapi: Servants to Duravos; a branch of

_ Duravos.

Ayoxarayo: Workers in iron.

_ Aytraxayo: Feeders of elephants.

_ Baax-Kayo: Purveyors of food.

‘BapawELa or BADAHELAYO: Coombakarayo or

_ Potters, sing. Badahelaya, a potter.

‘Bapatv: Baddallo, Silversmiths, sing. Badala,

_ asilversmith.

| Baba Setuayo: Possessors of near halls, so

_ called because they burnt their wares in

_ large huts near their dwellings. Potters.

_BappAHALLAYA: Coombakarayo or Potters.

Bappauo: Silversmiths; Achari.

_ BADDEMINIHA: Tomtom-beaters (respectful).

: - Bappo: Rice-makers; Paduwa or Palanquin-

4 bearers.

_ Baneama: Batgammi.

_ Bawiparcamayo: Bali or planet propitiatory

Oe _ eremonialists; Goigama.

ag Baui-EDURA: Teachers of Bali ceremonies;

“ Oliya.

Bau Tryana: One who makes bali images;

— Oliya.

_ Baru sattu: Rice-sacrificers; Duravos.

_ Bammanu: Brahman, sing. Bamuna.

_ BANDARA WALIYA: Goigama.

_ Barpartans: Rodias.

_ Barzers: Panikkayo;

m - tayo:

Bart Kayo: Carriers.

| BarRawABADDE MaHaBapDE:

__ Tomtom-beaters; Berawayo.

| Barupet-Karawo: Fishers who do not use

casting nets; Carawo.

_ Basket-Makers: Sinnawo; Handi.

Barcammi, Batcamayo or Batcama Etro:

_ Rice village people; Paduwo or Palanquin-

bearers.

_ Barcamweta:

_ Goigama.

Ambettayo, Embet-

Weavers or

Seeders of royal domain;

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM '

117

Bepa or Beppa: Vedda.

BERAKARAYA: Tomtom-beater, Drummer.

Berawa, Berawayo, Bereveras: Beaters of

the baira or tomtom; sing. Berawaya, a

weaver.

BeRBAYAS: Berawayas.

BETEL-GROWERS: Dalae-Murecarao; Goigama.

Brrp-cATCHERS: Pakai wadi; Karawe or Fish-

ers.

Brrp-sNARERS: Williya; Karawe

BuacksMiTuHs: Ranhallo; Achari.

BrAGHMAN: Brahman.

BrRAHMANAYO: Brahman.

BRAHMAN WANSAYA, BRAMIN,

Brahman.

Brass-FOUNDERS: Lokuruwo; Achari.

Braziers: Brass-founders; Lokuruwo.

BRACHMAN:

CampBooas: Mechanics, carpenters, goldsmiths;

Smiths.

CaMBURO, CaMMARO: Derived

buranawa, slaves; Smiths.

CAMMAKARAYO: Workers in copper, brass, and

silver; Nawandanno.

CANDALAYO: Scavengers,

food.

CanpgEyY Erro or Kanpians: Livers in the

mountains; Pakuro or Jaggery makers.

Cappakayo: Cutters; Barbers.

Carawo or KaraweE: Shore people or dwellers

by the shore; Fishers.

CARIAWASSIN or Mayorats: Goigama.

CARPENTERS: Waduwo, Danduwaduwo; Kar-

awe or Fishers.

CarreEas: Karawe or Fishers.

CARRIAGE-MAKERS: Rata Karayo; Karawe or

Fishers.

CaTTAKARAYO: Workers in hard matter or

wood. So called because they beat up pieces

of wood into pulpy matter, which they used

to manufacture mats; Kinnaru.

Cuattas: People of Chilaw; Cinnamon-peelers

and weavers by trade; Halagama.

CHAMMAKARAYO: Skin-dressers; Sanmahanno

or Shoemakers.

CHANDA LAYO: Skin-dressers; Candalayo.

Cuanpo: Toddy-drawers who extract toddy

from Coconut and kitul palm.

CHINAMBERS: Lime-burners or Hunno; Chun-

na-karayo.

Cuivias: Chalias.

CHUNNA-KARAYO: Lime-burners or reducers to

powder by burning stones and trees.

CHUNAM-BURNERS: Hunno or Lime-burners.

CINNAMON-PEELERS: Originally imported to

from Kam-

eaters of unclean

Ceylon as weavers, they became peelers of

cinnamon bark; Chalias.

ConsureErs: Indrajalikayo.

118

Cooxs: Wahunpurayo or Pakuro, Jaggery-

makers.

CooLoopotTo: Peeling winnower-makers. This

refers to their manufacture of winnowers

from peelings of bamboo cane and reed. Sin-

nawo or Handi (Basket-makers).

CooMBAKARAYO: Potters, named after Coo-

beya, a first potter.

CoomBELOOAS: Potters.

Cooroonpo Caraya: Cinnamon-peelers; Cha-

lias.

Cornacas: Elephant-tenders; Couratto.

CourattTo: Elephant-tenders.

Cottu: Chando or Toddy-drawers.

CowHeErps: Pati Karayo; Duravos. Also Gom-

baducarao division of Goigama.

CROCODILE-TRAPPERS: Kayman wadi; Karawe.

CuBELLO: Coombakarayo or Potters.

CuLAWLAYO: Potters or Coombakarayo. So

called after Culala, first potter.

CuitivaTors: Goigama or Vellala agricul-

turists.

CuMBALLU: Coombakarayo or Potters.

Curary Wo.un-rTTo: Dancers in pagodas,

etc.; Chando or Toddy-drawers.

DADEWEDDA:

Goigama.

Dancers: Oliya.

DANDU-KARAWO: Fish only with angling rod of

bamboo, anglers; Karawe.

DanpUWaADUWO DaNnpDovAbDOoUYoO: Carpenters;

Karawe.

Darawo: Elephant-tamers; Duravo.

Deccum Carao: Lime-burners or Hunno who

paid a poll tax.

DEMALAGATTERA or DEMALA GaTTaArRu: Tamil

‘slave caste, captives of Sinhalese in war.

Dervayo: Workers in the kitchen or Hakuru.

Duosy: Washerman, Radaw.

DIEGARANNO: Collectors of gems from stream

beds; Goigama.

DryaLuwo: Water-carriers.

Doppa VEDDAS: Veddas or hunters.

DrumMMERS: Berawayas or Tomtom-beaters

and weavers.

DuNnuWAAYELT: Archers; Karawe or Fishers.

Durave or Durawe: Producers of evil-pro-

ducing taste; Chando or Toddy drawers,

sing. Durawa.

Duraya: Palanquin bearers, Paduwas.

Hunters or game _ procurers;

ELEPHANT-CATCHERS:

ravo.

EMBETTAYO: Barbers.

EMBETTEO: Barbers.

ETTWALAPANNIKKAYO: Elephant-keepers; Goi-

gama.

Weenawo; Magul Du-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

von. 35, No, 4°34

EXECUTIONERS: Gahalagambadayo or “Paduwa.

Also Wadekayo or Karawe.

FAMALE: Workers in iron, miners.

FisHmMonceErs: Matwikunanno or Karawe.

FISHERMEN, FISHERS: Karawe or Carawo.

FLOWER GARDENERS: Malecaruwo or Goigama.

Gani: Rodiya (respectful).

GAHALAGAMBADAYO, GAHALAYA, GAHALA PAM: .

Removers and bane of corpses and ele-

phant carcasses. Executioners and scaven-

gers; Paduwas.

Gauuapo: Artificers of upper division.

GaLWApDuwo: Lapidaries, stonecutters and

sculptors; Achari.

GanGavo: Washers for Heeri and Olias.

GANITAYO: Counters or calculators. So called

because they are astrologers and predicters

of the motions of the planets; Berawayas.

GARDENERS: Malcaruwo; Goigama.

GASMANDO: Outcastes or Rodias. Named from

a kind of rope made by them for catching ele-

phants. Sing. Gasmanda.

GaTTARU: Outcasted members of upper castes

by royal action. Descendants of captives,

condemned thieves, etc.

GAURAYKAWALLU: Village watchmen.

GEM COLLECTORS: Diegaranno, Goddegar-

ranno; Goigama.

GODDEGARRANNO: Searchers of gems in the

soil.

GopE KEwuLoo: Fishermen or inlets of the sea

or at river mouths. They possessed a peculiar

fishing tackle. Karawe.

GOEWANSE: Goigama.

Gort Bamuno: Cultivating Brahmans;

gama.

GorcaMa or GoyicaMA: Cultivators or Vellala. —

GoIGAMA ETTO: Goiyo or Cultivators, rice-

village people. 4

GorkuLayo: Of the cultivating caste; Goigama>

Goryo, Gowrya, GoIGAMA ETTO: Cultivators.

GoupsMmiITHsS: Nawandanno, Badalo.

GOMBADUCARAO: Peasants who attended cows

and supplied king with grain; Goigama.

Gony WamsayYa: Goigama.

GoPELOOAS, GOPALAYES: Cattle-keepers.

GOYANKARANNO: Dowers or cultivators of rice;

Goigama.

GRASS CUTTERS: Pannayo.

GURUNNEHE: Tomtom-beaters (respectful).

GURUNNEHELA: Teachers; Achari.

GurRuWARAYO: Masters; Achari.

Goi-

Guruwo: A mixed caste of Sinhalese and

Moors, Moslem in religion.

Hapayo: Plaiters; Sinnawo or Handi.

HaAINAWALAYO: Fringe makers; Kinnaru.

Apr. 15, 1945

Harinayo: Beloved persons; Radaw or Wash-

. ers.

Haxuro, Haxkxkvuroo: Jaggery-makers, sing.

Hakura.

Hatiyo or Hai: Chalias or Cinnamon peelers,

sing. Haliya.

HALLAGAMA or HaLaGaAma: Chalias or Cinna-

mon-peelers.

HatuGe: People of the Washer caste.

HANDEE, Hanpt, or Henpayo: Basket-makers.

Furnished the royal stores with baskets and

winnows. Were thought to be beggars or

Rodias by some.

Hanpurvuwo: Sanduruwo or Hondrews, Gentle-

men; Goigama.

HANGAREMA or HANGAREMMU: Sugar-makers

from palm sap; Wahunpurayo or Jaggery-

makers (respectful).

Hannaui or HANNAWLI: Tailors or Mananno.

Hart Duravo: Duravos proper.

_ Haywayo: Soldiers; Paduwa.

HeEpIpEMALA: Tamil caste name.

HeEeEr!: Pioneers or Tree fellers in war.

HeNnawatayo: Mat-makers; Kinnaru.

Henayo: Washermen, sing. Henaya.

Henpayo: Handi or Basket-makers.

HEWAPANNAY: Soldiers or lascoreens; Goigama.

HieENE Jaty: Weavers of mats with which they

pay poll tax; Kinnaru.

Hinawau: Washers to Gahalaya or Scavengers.

Hinnawo: Pannayo or Grass cutters.

HInNEVoO or Hinnivo, Hinnawo: Washers for

Chalias, Jaggery-makers, and Feeders of

elephants.

Hrrawa: Sieve-makers.

Hiwartrayo: Washers for Duravos: Duravos.

Hommarv: Skin-dressers and Scavengers.

HonprkEws Honpuru: Gentlemen; Goigama.

Horv: Thieves.

Hutawa.tya: Rodiaheadmen.

Huncarammu: Hangarema or Jaggery-makers.

HuncGRAMs: Jaggery-makers.

Hounkrricarao: Suppliers of milk; Goigama.

_ Hunwo: Lime-burners or manufacturers, sing.

Hunna.

Hunters: Veddas.

Hunvu Gampapu: Peasants who fodder and

take care of cattle.

Hunv KaTranno: Fellers of trees for lime

kilns.

INDIMAL-KEULO or KEWULU: Manufacturers of

lines and nets from the bark of the coconut

tree, which they sell to the Fishers. They use

baskets and little nets to catch fish in rivers.

They employ the date-tree flower in their

festivals, which they call Indimal. They are

Karawe.

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM

119

INDRAJALIKAYO: Conjurors.

INLAYERS OF GOLD AND

Ancarao.

IRON-FOUNDERS: Yamanayo.

IVORY-WORKERS AND CABINET-MAKERS: Adat-

keteancarao; Smiths.

Iwapuwo: Arrow-makers and Workers in lac;

Achari.

SILVER: Ridiceto

JAGGERY-MAKERS: Manufacturers of Jaggery

sugar from the sap of trees, Wahunpurayo.

JAGHERERS: Coolies or common porters.

JAGREROS: Jaggery-makers.

JANA CAPANNO: Grass-cutters; Pannayo.

JAWLIKAYO: Workers with nets; Karawe.

JEWELERS: Ratneenderecarao.

KADUL-KARAWO: Sails of the fishing boats of

these Fishers are of dark red color and this

color is made from a dye extracted from the

bark of the cajou tree.

KANDE-MINISSA: Hillmen or Jaggery-makers;

Hakuru.

Kappuwo: Temple watchmen.

KaRAWE or Karawo: Fishermen, sing. Ka-

rawa. P

KARMANTAKAKARAYA: Workmen; Kinnaru.

KARRANAWIYO: Razor-users; Barbers.

Kasauayo: Throwers-away of dirt; Gahalayo

or Scavengers.

‘Kassakayo: Plowers; Goigama.

KaYMAN WADI: Crocodile-catcher; Karawe.

Kay-watTrayo: Surrounders of water; Karawe.

Kaywuto: Anglers who catch fish only with

hook and line; Karawe.

Kersspa KARAWAY, KESPE-KARAWO: Subsisters

by turtles and tortoises which they catch in

a large net; Karawe.

KeTTaAvu JIEWAKAYO, KHETTA JIEWAKAYO:

Livers by the field; Goigama.

KIDAWARU, KIDDEAS: Makers of fans to fan

corn and cane baskets, lace bedsteads, and

stools; Kinnaru.

KINNARU, KINNARAYA: Workers in grass or

Mat-weavers, sing. Kinnara.

KINNERA BADDE, KIRINERAHS: Rope: and mat-

makers; Kinnaru.

Kontayo: Carriers of the frame of the king’s

palanquin.

Koostarociyo: Lepers and devil dancers.

KsHaTrRIA: Royal Race.

KsuHupra: Sudra.

KuMBALLU: Potters, sing. Kumbala.

KuRruNDAKARAYO: Chalia, Cinnamon-peelers.

KuruneEka: Elephant-attendants, Cornacas.

KUNAMMADUVEGAMAYO: Palanquin-bearer

headmen; Goigama.

Kutrapi: Dancers; Durawo.

120

Lacuruwo, Loxuruwo: Smelters; Achari.

Lac-WoRKERS: Iwaduwo, workers in lac and

Arrow-makers.

LAPIDARIES: Galwaduwo; Smiths.

LEAD-FOUNDERS: Lokuruwo.

LEATHER-WORKERS: Sanmahanno, shoemakers.

LIANE or Liyana Wapuwo: Turners; Achari.

LIME-BURNERS: Hunno, those who burn wood,

shells, or stones for lime.

Loxuruwo: Brass-founders or Lead-makers,

Lacuruwo; Smiths, sing. Lokuruwa.

MADAMEMINIHA: Guruwo Ces peon)

Mapawn: Madinno.

Mapru Karawayr: Madel net fishers; Karawe.

Map1nno: Tree-pruners; Chando.

MADUKARAYA: Ropemen; Rodias.

~ Macau (Macut) Duravo: Riders or tamers of

the royal elephants; Duravo.

Maccawikayo: Vendors of intoxication; Chan-

do, also deer-killers.

MAHABADDE or MAHABADDEY-ETTO: People of

the Cinnamon caste. From Mahabadde, the

great rent, referring to cinnamon as the

principal source of revenue; Chalias.

Mananno: Sewers; Mananno or Tailors.

Maucaruwo: Derived from Mawlacawrayo,

flower-chain makers or garland-makers;

flower gardeners; Goigama.

Mananno: Tailors.

ManpuKARAYA: Rodiya (respectful).

MASKED DANCERS: Oliyo.

Mat-weavers: Kinnaru. ;

MATWIKUNANNO: Fishmongers; Karawe.

MEEHUDUDAYE WaADt!I: Fishers with nets in the

sea only; Karawe. :

MitkmeEn: Hunkiricurao; Goigama.

Morvu-karawo: These Fishers use hemp nets

to catch skates and extract oil from the

latter; Karawe.

MupaireRuMa: Goigama.

Musicians: Berewayas or Tomtom-beaters.

NaGARAM Karas: Leather-workers.

NAHAPIKAYO: Comforters; Barbers.

Nap or NAyip&: A group of inferior artisan

castes, namely, Smiths, Potters, Fishers,

Toddy-drawers (respectful).

NauakaRAyo: Players upon wood _ instru-

ments. : .

NALLAMBU: To ddgnaaees:

Nauutovas: Unclean slaves and servants of

cultivators.

NatTamMBovo: Chando.

NAWANDANNO, NAWANKARANNO, NAWANDAN-

naso: Makers of new things, or goldsmiths,

silversmiths, and other metal workers.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

NexaTayo: Astrologers; Berawayas, sing.

Nekatiya.

Net anp Linn-MakeERs: Indimal-keulo; Ka-

rawe. .

NiELLO: Chando. — 7

NETTUKKARAYA: Dancer, a term applied to

Rodia women. ie .

NILLEMAKAREYEA or Parrea: Shepherds;

Goigama. |

NINNEY JAKAYA: Restorers; Radawa or

Washers.

Oxras: Providers of oil for illumination at

night and tenders of elephants.

Oxryo or Our: Masked dancers; also washers

to low castes.

OLLEE or Ott: Carriers of effigies of demons

called ‘‘Assooriahs” in annual festivals.

OuutE: Procurers of coal.

OUAGOURI KAYO: Fishers.

Orv Karaway: Boat-fishers; Karawe.

OvutTcastTEs: Rodias.

OvutTLaws: Palleru.

PacwHas: Paduwa.

Pappo, Pappas,

duwo.

Pappuwoo: Erecters of house walls; Paduwo.

Papuwo: Palanquin-bearers, hereditary royal

serfs, carriers, sing. Paduwa.

ParHara Hexryo: Cloth-cleaners; Radaw.

Paiptyo: Takers of payment; Radaw.

PAINDA PERUMU: Goigama.

PAINTERS: Sittaru; Smiths.

PAISACAWRAYO, PATHARO: Weavers of fold and

silver thread from Paisecarawa in India.

Chalias.

PAISAKARA BRAHMANAYO: Gold and. silver-

thread-weaving Brahmans; Chalias.

PAKAI WADI: Bird-catchers; Karawe.

Paxuro: Stonemakers, so called by reason of "

the hard cakes of sugar that they manu- —

facture; Jaggery-makers.

PALANQUIN-BBARERS: Paduwa or Duraya.

PALHORUPADUVO: Robber, Paduwo.

Pau: Washers for low castes.

PALLAROO, PALLARU or PALLERU: Banditti or

freebooters in the woods liable to any service;

also Washermen to low castes, subdivision

of Pali.

Patuy: Washers for Lime-burners, Tomtom-

beaters, Jaggery-makers, Paduwo.

PanpDITTAYo: Wise men; Potters.

Panikxayo: Leaf or foliage cutters; Barbers. —

PANIKKILA: Tomtom-beater.

PANIKKIYA: Barber (in lowlands).

PANIVIDAKARAYA: Messenger; Lime-burner,

; je | ~ = -

VOL. 35, NO. 4

Papiwo: Rice-makers; Pa-

Apr, 15, 1945

_ PANNADERIA: Grass-cutter.

_ PANNAKARAYO: eee or leaf-weavers:

Kinnaru.

_ Pannayo: Named froth Pan, a species of high

grass which they cut. These are Grass-cutters,

leaf-cutters, or leaf-strippers for elephant

| __ fodder.

| Parava: Bard (Tamil caste).

_ Pas xutu: Five tribes; carpenter,

___washer, barber, and shoemaker.

- Pass MeHE Karayo: Five performers of serv-

ices; Karawe.

_ Parr Karayo: Cowherds; Durawe.

_ Parreras: Nillemakereyea or Shepherds.

PATTIWALA AGA: Cowherds; Goigama.

S Pawtces: Paduwa.

weaver,

-Payinpa: Messenger; Hunno or Lime-burner.

Peasants: Goigama.

_ PersakaraYeE: Carriers of Palanquins.

_ PESAKARAYO: Chalia.

_ PipAYNIDANNO: Sacrificers to devils.

_ PronEErs: Heeri.

- Poppan: Husbandmen and soldiers.

Pooxoosayo: Removers of city dirt; Gahalayo.

~ PoRAWAKKARA KARAWAY, PoRAWAWA Ka-

__- rAyo: Timber-fellers or Woodsmen; Durawo;

also Karawe.

e Poroxara: Axmen; Goigama.

_ Porters: Paduwo.

- Porrers: Coombakarayo, Badahelayo.

_ Priests: Pidaynidanno.

re PuPAWELENDO: Cake-sellers. ;

_ PuppHacHappoxKayo: Casters away of flowers;

— -Gahalayo.

| RAAWELENDO: Toddy-drawers.

_ RApALAKAMPERUWA: Goigama.

Ti Rapav, Rapaw: Washers for superior castes

and for Karawe, Chandos, Tailors, Potters,

and Barbers, sing. Radawa.

_ Rapayo: Skinners.

& RapeEas, Rapupa: Washermen.

se Raata: Kingly caste, Raja wansaya.

rs RaJAKAYO: Removers of dust; Radaw.

oo RANHALLO: Silversmiths and blacksmiths;

| _brassfounders; Achari.

_ Rat Karayo: Carriage-makers; Durawo.

_ Rartsetto: Field-cultivators; Goigama.

| RaTNEENDERECARAO: Jewelers; Achari.

a RaTTakarayo: Carriage-makers and manu-

| _ facturers of harness for chariots or carriages;

_ Sanmahanno.

_ Reau Cuaitry: Wisin i or Vaishya (Merchant)

c Caste.

a8 RICE-VILLAGE PEOPLE: Batgamma Etto or

hs Paduwo.

«2

: RIvIcETo ANCARAO:; Inlayers of gold and silver;

Achari.

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM

121

Ropawa: Radawa or Washers.

Roni: Rhodias, Barbarians or Outcastes, sing.

Rodiya.

RoGapiKayo: Incurably’ sick men or lepers;

Rodias.

Rorsr-MAKERS: Ackeranno: Chando.

Roriz: Rodias.

RuppauGuH: Radaw or Washers.

SAFFRAMADOO AppuHAMY: Hereditary titled

persons; Goigama.

SAKANI KAYO: Bird-killers.

Sakuro: Stonemakers. So called because they

make hard cakes of sugar; Jaggery-makers.

SALAGAMA or SALAGAMAYO: People who in-

habit the village of large halls. The old name

of Chilaw was Salawa. The King of Damba-

dema of the Seven Corles caused a colony of

weavers to be brought from India to Chilaw

where spacious halls or apartments were re-

served for their use. Chalias.

SamMwaDuwo: Skin-carpenters; Shoemakers.

SANDAL-MAKERS: Sommaru; Karawe.

SANDURUWO or HANDURUWO: Sons of peace,

the pacific; Goigama.

SANGARAMMU: Defenders of the priesthood’s

gardens; Cohabitors with own blood or with

sisters; Jaggery-makers.

SANMAHANNO: Shoemakers or leather-workers.

SANNAWLIYO: Cloth-armorers; Mananno or

Tailors.

ScavENGERS: Gahalayo or Candalayo; Paduwo

ScuLpTors: Galwaduwo.

SEEDERS: Batgamwella Etto; Goigama.

SEPPIDIWIJJI Karayo: Wizards.

SHANDOS, SHENDERS: Chandos,

SHEPHERDS: Nillemakareyea or Pattea; Goiga-

ma.

SHOEMAKERS: Sommaru.

SHooTERS: Veddas.

SILVERSMITHS: Baddallo; Smiths.

Sinnawo: Cutters. So called because they cut

and bring home materials; Basket-makers.

SITTARU or SITTEREO: Painters; Achari.

SKATE-FISHERS: Moru-karawo.

SKIN-DRESSERS: Chammakarayo or Hommaru.

Staves: Wallu (Tamil).

Smirus: Achari, Ranhallo, Nawandanna.

SnarHayo: Hainayo; Radaw or Washers.

Sockikayo: Needleworkers; Tailors.

Sotit Karayo: Particular services; Durawo.

SomMarayo: Leather-workmen; Sanmahanno.

SomMaru: Sandal-makers; Karawe.

Soupikayo: Producers of lust. Named after

Soudamakaya who first discovered toddy.

Chandos.

SourAveE: Toddy-drawers.

STONE cuTTERS: Galwaduwo.

122

Sunno: Chunam or Lime burners.

SURAWBEEJAYO, Surawo: Producers of good

taste (for bakers); Chando or Toddy-

drawers.

SUWANNAKARAYO: Workers in gold; Nawan-

danno.

TABLINJENOS: Berrawayo or Tomtom-beaters.

TacHAKAYO: Smoothers or planers; Waduwo.

Taitors: Mananno, Hannali.

TanTAvAyo: Yarn-stretching weavers. So

called because they stretched and ordered

their warp and wove it with a _ weft.

Chalias. ;

TARAHALLU: Smiths, sing. Tarahala.

TARUMPAR: Washers of clothes for artes:

TaTAR: Slaves, itinerant beggars.

TCHOUDERES: Sudras.

TIMBILLO or TrBrIBLO: Tamil Fishers.

TINAKARAYO: Workers in grass; Kinnaru.

Tock-KEuLO, Tok Kewvuu: Fresh-water

Fishers with a peculiar sort of net. Karawe.

Tok Fishers.

TODDY-DRAWERS: Chando, Durawo.

TOMTOM-BEATERS: Berawaya or Weavers.

TORTOISE FISHERS: Kespe-karawo.

TRAP-MAKERS: Ugulwadi; Karawe.

TREE-FELLERS, TIMBER-FELLERS: Heeri, Hunu

kattanno or Chunna-karayo, Porawa Karayo

TUNNAWAYO: Weavers or sewers of pieces;

Mananno or Tailors.

TurNeERsS: Liane Waduwo.

Ucutwapt: Trap-makers for animals; Karawe.

Unuttiyo: Oliyas or Dancers.

Usanno: Chandos.

VELENDES or VELENDE VANSE:

caste.

Veppas: Hunters. The pre-Sinhalese aborigines

of Ceylon.

VELLALA or WELLALE: Goigama.

VELLEDURAI or WELLEDURAI, VELLEDURAYI:

Weavers and descendants of Chalias.

VEL: VADUVO: Rattan-workers, Rod-carpenters.

So called because they work with or make

Merchant

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 4 7

articles with rods. Sinnawo or Basket- —

makers.

VINAKARAYO: Players on the Vina.

W ADDEWASSAM: KARAYO: Builders of bridges. —

Goigamas.

Wapuwo, Wappuwo: Carpenters and Smiths, .

Achari.

WapeExkayo: Executioners;

WADIGHE VANSE,

Velendes. a

Wacurikayo: Fishers who use nets only. —

Workers or dealers in the water; Karawe.

WaHUNPURAYO: Cooks for Goigama; Jaggery- —

makers, sing. Wahunpuraya. 4

WAJJANKARAYO: Tomtom-beaters, sing. Waj- —

jankaraya.

Wau: Slaves.

WANACHARAKAYO: Wild men or men of the

desert; Veddas.

WaANIJA WANSAYA: Merchant caste.

WANNEWEDDA: Hunters or Veddas.

WasaLo or Wasauayo: Inferior to all; Rodias. —

WasHERS, WASHERMEN:

nivo, Gangavo, Hiwattayo, Tarumpar.

WatTcHMEN: Gauraykawallu, Kappuwo.

WeAvVERS: Chalias, Wiyamao or Karawe.

Weppo: Tormentors, so called because they

live by killing animals. Veddas.

WEDDIWANSE: Veddas.

Weexpy: Chando.

WeENAwoO: Elephant-catchers.

WELINDO WELLANDU, Wysya,

WANSE: Merchant caste.

Wiuuiya: Bird-snarers; Karawe.

WIRAMESTARAGOLLA: Soothsayers or jugglers;

Goigama.

Wriyamoo: Weavers; Karawe.

WIYANNO: Weavers.

Woop cutTers: Hunu kottanno.

Woopmen: Palleru, Pallaru.

Wysyas, Wysyaya: Vaisyas, buyers and sellers.

Karawe.

praia Merchants or

WIESSIA —

YaxkpuEssa: A Berawayo who performs Devil —

Ceremonies. :

YaMANoO, YAMAMMU: Iron-smelters; Paduwo, :

sing. Yamanna: ‘

APPENDIX III: DATA DERIVED FROM HUE AND CRY REPORTS

(JAN. 1905-DEC. 1907)

Data are presented on 1,646 persons charged

with crimes in the Ceylon Government Police

Records. In each case data include name,

caste, crime charged, religion, ethnic group,

and occupation. In addition the place of birth,

haunts, location of family and of relatives and

acquaintances, marital status and children, if

any, are generally noted. Physical features are

also noticed such as complexion (fair or dark), —

eyes and their defects, hair, nose, age, height, —

body build, teeth, presence or absence of beard

or mustache, and deformities or peculiarities. —

In the present study data on occupation, —

crimes charged, religion, and relative numbers —

in relation to the different castes are summar- —

ized. .

Radaw, Pally, Hin- ~

‘Apr. 15, 1945

GILBERT: THE SINHALESE CASTE SYSTEM

APPENDIX IV: SINHALESE CASTE

123

NAMES

‘From Glossary of Native and Foreign Words occurring in Official Correspondence and other

b Documents. Colombo, 1893.

-Achari: Blacksmiths

Badahelayo: Potters

Badallu: Goldsmiths and Silversmiths

Eiddeminihs : Tomtom-beater (respectful)

Batgamayo: Paduw6é

erawayo: Tomtom-beater

Siandala: An outcaste

D awe: Chandus, Toddy-drawers

De maja Gattaru (from Demala, Tamil and

gattaru, captives)

Embettay6: Barbers

Gadi: Rodiya (respectful)

Gahalayo, Gahalagambadayo: Executioners,

_ Seavengers

Gal-addo: Lapidaries, workers in precious

stones

Gasmanda: A Rodiya

Gattaru: A low caste

Goyigama: Vellalas, Cultivators

‘Gurunnehe: Tomtom-beater (respectful)

ha Sinhalese caste mixed with Moors

kurd: Jaggery-makers

J : Haligama: Corruptly Chalias,

_ peelers

_ Hali: Chalias

Cinnamon-

_ ANNvAL GeneraL Report for 1937 on the

34 economic, social, and general condition

of the Island. Colombo, 1938.

, Potter, facing p. 46.

_ ~Kandyan dancers, facing p. 71.

Cave, Henry W. The Book of Ceylon. London,

1908.

> Barber, facing p. 85.

Cinnamon-peeler, facing p. 141.

Toddy-drawer, facing p. 181.”

Potter, facing p. 202.

- Rodiya at Udugalpitiya, facing p. 245.

Silversmith, facing p. 315.

:- Devil dancers, facing p. 389.

" CooMARAsWaAmy, ANANDA K. Medieval Sin-

| halese art. Broadcampden, Gloucester-

‘ shire, 1908.

Mat-weaver (Kinnarayo), pl. 4, fig. 1.

Potters, pl. 5, figs. 1-4.

Horn-combmaker (Rodiya), pl. 5, fig. 9.

Cloth-weavers (Berawayo), pl. 6, figs. 1-3.

Handuruwd: Vellilas

Hangarammu: Wahunpuray6d (respectful)

Hannali: Tailors

Hénaya: A washer

Hinnawod: Washers for Chalias

Hunno: Lime-burners

Karawo: Fishers

Kinnaru: Mat-weavers

Kumballu: Potters

Kurundukaray6: Cinnamon-peelers

Lokuruw6d: Brass-founders

Madaméminiha: Guruwo (respectful)

Mahabaddé: Halagama or Chalias

Nekatiya: Tomtom-beater; astrologer

Oli: Dancers

Paduwo: Palanquin-bearers

Pali: Washers for low castes

Pallaru: Subdivision of Pali

Pannayo: Grass-cutters }

Radaw: Washers

Ratéminiha: A Vellala

Rodiya: An Outcaste

Salagama: Chalias

Wahunpurayo: A Cook or Jaggery-maker

Yamanna, Yapammu: Smelters of Iron

APPENDIX V: ILLUSTRATIONS OF SINHALESE CASTES IN THE

LITERATURE

FrrGuson, JoHN. Ceylon in 1903. Colombo,

1903.

Barber, Washer, Toddy-drawer, Devil-

Dancer, App. IV (caricatures).

GUENTHER, Konrap. Einfuhrung in die Tro-

penwelt. Leipzig, 1911.

Rodias, facing p. 314, p. 313.

GUENTHER, Konrap. Ceylonfahrt. Frankfurt,

1913.

Rodias, p. 81.

NicHouas, SAMUEL E. Commercial Ceylon.

Colombo, 1933.

Cinnamon-peelers, facing p. 44.

Puatsh, Ltd. Ceylon, its history, people, com-

merce, industries and resources. Co-

lombo, 1924.

Fishermen, pp. 22, 194.

Toddy-drawers, pt. 2, p. 51.

Cinnamon-peelers, p. 101.

Scumipt, Emiu. Ceylon. Berlin, 1902.

Rodias, facing pp. 38, 182, 184.

Travtz, F. M. Ceylon. Munich, ees

Rodias, pl. 41.

124

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LITERATURE CITED

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ARMOUR, J. Armour’s grammar of the Kandyan,

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G. J. A. Skeen, 1892; 1901, 4 vols., Colom-

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IV, Occupations; V, Towns and Villages];

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Dec. 28, 1907, No. 2510.

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CuaRK, ALFRED. Peeps at Many Lands Series:

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Coprineton, H. W. The Kandyan Navan-

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CoRDINER, JAMES. A description of Ceylon, 2

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JANCIGNY, DUBOIS DE.

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contest with an appeal to the House of Com-

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Chicago, 1942.

ENCYCLOPEDIA METROPOLITANA.

16. London, 1845. Ed. 9, Edinburgh,

1904. a

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GEIGER, WiLHELM. Ceylon. Wiesbaden, —

1898 . ji

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—

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1885-1886.

126

BOTAN Y.—Seven new species of Gesneriaceae from Peru and Colombia! C. V.

Morton, U. 8. National Museum.

The seven new species of Gesneriaceae

here described have been detected in recent

collections from Colombia and Peru. One

of them was found by Prof. César Vargas, of

the University of Cuzco, and another by

Dr. W. A. Archer, of the U. S. Department

of Agriculture. The remaining ones were

all collected in the Department of Antio-

quia, Colombia, by Dr. R. D. Metcalf and

Dr. José Cuatrecasas, as members of the

third University of California Botanical

Garden Expedition to the Andes. For the

privilege of studying the latter I am in-

debted to Prof. T. H. Goodspeed, of the

University of California. The proposed new

species belong to the genera Besleria, Cen-

trosolenia, Columnea, and Episcia.

Besleria Vargasii Morton, sp. nov.

Frutex, caulibus subquadrangularibus, stri-

gosis; petioli elongati; lamina foliorum ovalis,

basi rotundata, denticulata, supra strigosa,

mox glabrescens, subtus praecipue in venis

strigosa, venis primarlis 14- vel 15-jugis; in-

florescentia cymosa, longe pedunculata, flo-

ribus numerosis; calycis lobi fere liberi, suborbi-

culares, rotundati, sub apice mucronati, venosi,

externe paullo strigosi, perspicue ciliato-fimbri-

ati; corolla aurantiaca, erecta, basi non gibbosa,

externe pilosula, intus basi glabra, faucem

versus glandulosa, limbo terminali, subregu-

lari; flamenta corollae tubi basin versus affixa,

glabra; antherae parce glandulosae; ovarium

glabrum; stylus glaber; stigma bilobum; discus

semiannularis.

Shrub 3 meters high; stems subquadrangu-

lar, 4-5 mm in diameter, densely and coarsely

sericeous-strigose above, glabrescent below;

leaves opposite, equal, long-petiolate, the pe-

tioles about 7 cm long, densely sericeous, the

blades oval, 15-19 cm long, 8-11 cm broad,

short-acuminate at apex, rounded and sub-

complicate at base, papyraceous, remotely

denticulate, deep green above, paler beneath,

sericeous-strigose above. when young, soon gla-

brate, persistently strigose beneath on the

. 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

- the Smithsonian Institution. Received January

16, 1945.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

apex; calyx 3-4 mm long in flower, the lobes —

Cuzco, Peru, at an elevation of 1,200 meters,

‘ments inserted in the middle of the corolla tube

VOL. 35, No. 473m

veins, the primary veins 14 or 15 pairs, ele-

vated beneath; inflorescence axillary, solitary, |

corymbose, many-flowered, long-pedunculate, |

the peduncles 12-16 cm long, sericeous-strigose,

the pedicels 7-10 mm long in flower, up to 2.2 — |

cm long in fruit, strigose, slightly thickened at. E |

nearly free, equal, orbicular or broader than — |

long, rounded at apex, conspicuously venose,

lacking a midrib, slightly mucronate below i.

apex, suberose, thinly sericeous externally, a i

glabrous within, conspicuously and coarsely |

ciliate-fimbriate; corolla orange, 13-15 mm |

long, erect in calyx, not spurred or gibbous at

base, the tube cylindric, 4-5 mm broad, slightly

ventricose toward apex, becoming 5.5-6 mm a

broad, slightly contracted in throat, sparingly —

pilosulous externally, lacking a hairy ring with-

in at insertion of filaments, glandular-pilosu-

lous within throat, the limb terminal, sub-. a

regular, 5-6 mm broad, the lobes suborbicular

or broader than long, spreading or reflexed,

rounded, glabrous and eglandular on both

sides, not ciliate; filaments broad, flattened, in- :

serted about 2 mm above base of corolla tube, —

glabrous, eglandular; anthers connivent, about

1 mm long, 2 mm broad, the cells orbicular,

confluent at apex, sparingly glandular; ovary

glabrous; style glabrous; stigma bilobed, pu- —

bescent; disk semiannular, glabrous; berries

(immature) spherical, 7 mm in diameter.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no.

1875008, collected at Mandor, Marcapata, —

Province of Quispicanchis, Department of —

December 11, 1943, by C. Vargas (no. 3732). —

The most nearly allied species is Besleria

tetrangularis Ruiz, also a native of Peru, which

differs in the much shorter hairs of the stems,

shorter petioles, smaller leaf blades with fewer

lateral veins, much broader corollas, and fila-

rather than near the base.

Centrosolenia conferta Morton, sp. nov.

Caules radicantes, ramulis brevissimis; folia —

rosulata, cujusque paris valde inaequalia, —

majora anguste elliptica, infra medium usque

ad basim gradatim attenuata, apice acuminata, ©

“Apr. 15, 1945

lata, supra viridia, glabra, subtus pallidi-

“ora, in venis strigillosa, venis primariis 10-

yel 11-jugis; folia minora stipuliformia, sub-

ulata, angustissima; flores axillares, conferti,

-pedunculo communi obsoleto, pedicellis sparse

ilbo-pilosis; bracteae rubrae, inconspicuae, an-

- gustae; ealycis lobi rubri, lineari-subulati,

yosticus deflexus, brevior, remote glanduloso-

denticulati, utrinque strigillosi; corolla alba,

ar ice rubro-maculata, calcarata, tubo angusto,

sursum ventricoso, externe pilosulo, limbo

amplo, patente; filamenta glabra; antherae gla-

-brae, basi subsagittatae; ovarium villosum;

stylus pilosulus; stigma pubescens; discus in

3 andulam elongatam solitariam reductus.

i — Stem about 6 mm in diameter, radicant, giv-

ing rise to short branchlets barely 1 cm long,

these strigillose, bearing a few leaves in a

‘rosette; leaves of a pair.strongly unequal, the

la ger 20—32 cm long, the expanded part 15-20

em n long, 4.2-5.8 em broad, gradually narrowed

below middle to a petiole-like base 4-12 em long

(a proper petiole lacking or nearly so), thin-

chartaceous, remotely biserrulate, acuminate at

apex, green and glabrous above, paler beneath,

_ Strigillose on the midrib and veins, the primary

_ veins 10 or 11 pairs; smaller leaf of a pair

- stipule-like, nearly filiform, about 1.8 cm long,

less than 1 mm broad; flowers axillary, crowded,

the common Setividle obsolete, the pedicels

- 10 mm long, sparingly white-pilose; bracts in-

conspicuous, about 14 mm long and, 1 mm

broad, entire, pilose; calyx lobes red, free,

_ linear-subulate, subequal, 18-19 mm long (the

posterior deflexed at base, about 16 mm long),

15-2 mm broad, filiform-attenuate, slightly

_ narrowed toward base, remotely glandular-

denticulate (the teeth 1-3 to a side), sparsely

_ strigose on both sides; corolla white with a

_ broad red stripe on anterior side below apex,

_ about 35 mm long, oblique in calyx, calcarate

_ at posterior base, the tube very slender near

_ base, about 1.5 mm broad, rather abruptly en-

_ larged and ventricose upwardly, becoming 7

- mm broad, contracted to throat (this 6 mm

_ broad), finely pilosulous externally, glabrous

- within, the limb ample, spreading, 18 mm

_ broad, the lobes rotund, not fimbriate, glandu-

_ lar within; filaments glabrous; anthers conni-

vent but not connate, about 2 mm long, 1.6

s mm broad, subsagittate at base, glabrous, the

cells oblong, discrete, parallel, the connective

MORTON: NEW SPECIES OF GESNERIACEAE

127

not thickened; ovary elongate, densely villous;

style conspicuously pilosulous; stigma bilobed,

pubescent; disk reduced to a solitary, elongate,

acute, glabrous, posterior gland.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

1833447, collected north of Dabeiba, on road

to Turbo, Department of Antioquia, Colombia,

at an elevation of 300 to 350 meters, February

25 to March 1, 1942, by R. D. Metcalf and J.

Cuatrecasas (no. 30200).

Related to Centrosolenia decurrens Morton

of Costa Rica, which may be distinguished as

follows:

Anthers bearded at apex; calyx lobes entire; hairs

of stems and pedicels red; leaf blades hirsute

along midrib beneath........... C. decurrens

Anthers glabrous; calyx lobes remotely glandular-

denticulate; hairs of stems and pedicels white;

leaf blades strigillose beneath on midrib.

C. conferta

Columnea parviflora Morton, sp. nov.

Caules vix ramosi, apice rubro-hirsuti; folia

cujusque paris valde inaequalia, breviter peti-

olata; lamina foliorum majorum elliptica,

acuta, basi obliqua, serrulata, supra viridis,

albo-hirsuta, subtus ubique rubro-purpurea,

hirsuta, venis primariis 4-jugis; folia minora

stipuliformia, lineari-lanceolata; flores in axillis

aggregati, breviter pedicellati; calycis lobi

liberi, valde inaequales, 2 antici suborbicu-

lares, denticulati, obtusi, unguiculati, 2 la-

terales obovato-spathulati, unguiculati, denti-

culati, posticus parvus, lineari-lanceolatus, at-

tenuatus, integer, omnes rubri, dense utrinque

hirsuti (posticus intus glaber); corolla minuta,

erecta, dense albo-sericeo-pilosa, limbo regu-

lari, lobis minutis, erectis; antherae parvae,

liberae; ovarium-albo-pilosum; discus in glan-

dulam posticam reductus.

Stems unbranched, or branched at base only,

30-35 cm long, 2.5-3 mm in diameter, densely

red-hirsute in younger parts; leaves of a pair

strongly unequal, the larger short-petiolate,

the petiole 4-7 mm long, hirsute; larger leaf

blades elliptic, 4.5-9.5 em long, 2-5.5 cm

broad, acute, oblique at base, the lower base

rounded or subcordate, the upper cuneate,

serrulate, chartaceous, fragile when dry, green

and white-hirsute above, red-purple all over

beneath, white-hirsute, especially along the

midrib, the primary veins 4 pairs; smaller

leaves of a pair petiolate, the blades linear-

lanceolate, not over 1 cm long and 2 mm broad,

128

acuminate, entire or toothed, green and nearly

glabrous above, red beneath; flowers 2—5 in an

axil, short-pedicellate, the pedicel 2-8 mm long,

bracteate at base, the bracts minute, lanceo-

late, 2-7 mm long, acuminate, red; calyx lobes ©

free, very unequal, the posterior one erect,

linear-lanceolate, 5-7 mm long, 0.8-1.5 mm

broad, attenuate, entire, the two lateral spatu-

late-obovate, 7-8 mm long, 4.5-6 mm broad

above middle, concave, subrecurved, unguicu-

late, glandular-denticulate upwardly (the teeth

1 or 2 to aside), acute at apex, the two anterior

lobes suborbicular, 8-9 mm long, 7-9 mm

broad, concave, subrecurved, unguiculate, ob-

tuse at apex, glandular-denticulate (the teeth -

2 or 3 to a side), all lobes red, densely red-

hirsute on both sides (except the posterior, this

glabrous within), accrescent after anthesis;

corolla yellow, 7-8 mm long, erect in calyx,

gibbous at posterior base, the tube cylindric,

not ventricose, straight, 2 mm broad at base,

2.5 mm broad above base, densely white-

sericeous-pilose externally, glabrous within, the

throat 1.5 mm. broad, the limb subregular,

about 3 mm broad, the lobes minute, erect,

about 1 mm long, long-pilose without, glabrous

within; filaments very slender, glabrous, the

sheath elongate; anthers free, oblong, minute,

0.5-0.6 mm long, 0.3-0.4 mm broad; ovary

white-pilose; style glabrous, slender; stigma

conspicuously bilobed; disk reduced to a single

entire or bilobed, posterior gland.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

1517373, collected at Tutunendo, 20 kilo-

meters north of Quibdé, Intendencia del

Chocé, Colombia, at about 80 meters elevation,

May 19-20, 1931, by W. A. Archer (no. 2145).

ADDITIONAL SPECIMENS EXAMINED:

Cotomsia. El Chocé: La Concepcién, 15 km

east of Quibdé6, alt. 75 meters, Archer 2076,

2205. El Valle: Near highway bridge over Rio

Dagua, about 20 km east of Buenaventura, alt.

40 meters, Killip & Garcia 33331. Antioquia:

North of Dabeiba, along road to Turbo, alt.

300-350 meters, Metcalf & Cuatrecasas 30179.

This plant is evidently an epiphyte and is so

described on all the specimens cited above ex-

cept the type. Archer’s note on his no. 2145

says “‘on the ground,” but this is probably an

error. The specimen has the appearance of an

epiphyte. According to Archer’s notes, the

fruit is white.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 4 —

‘Columnea parviflora has the smallest corolla

of any described Columnea. It is doubtful to

which section it should be referred, but the

closest relationship seems to be with Columnea ~

Lehmanni Mansf. and C. Herthae Mansf., both

of which Mansfeld referred with doubt to sect. —

Collandra. Columnea parviflora may be dis- : ;

tinguished from these as follows:

Ovary glabrous. Corolla 18 mm. long. .C. Herthae

Ovary sericeous-pilose.

Corolla 26 mm. long, the lobes about 4 mm.

long; leaf blades acuminate. .C. Lehmannii

Corolla 7-8 mm. long, the lobes about 1 mm.

long; leaf blades acute........ C. parviflora

Columnea Lehmannii was described from a

specimen collected on the western slopes of

the Western Andes of Popaydn, El Cauca,

Colombia, at a comparatively high altitude

(1,200-1,500 meters). The type is Lehmann

6063. I have not seen it, but the following

collection agrees very well with the description:

West of Rio San Joaquin, Micay Valley, El

Cauca, alt. 1,200-1,400 meters, Killip 7884.

Columnea Herthae was described from San _

Carlos de los Colorados, Ecuador (Schulze-

Rhonhof 1939). I have seen no specimens

answering the description.

Columnea pulcherrima Morton, sp. nov.

Caules elongati, non ramosi, dense rubro-

hirsuti; folia cujusque paris valde inaequalia,

sessilia; lamina foliorum majorum oblanceo- —

lata, abrupte et argute acuminata, basi valde

inaequalis, cordata, serrulata, supra viridis,

hirsuta, subtus viridis, marginibus et venis

perspicue rubro-purpureis exceptis, hirsuta,

venis primariis 7- vel 8-jugis; flores axillares,

conferti, longe pedicellati; bracteae rubrae, in- _

conspicuae, lineari-lanceolatae, integri; calycis

lobi liberi, lineari-subulati, subulato-dentati,

dentibus 5- vel 6-jugis, elongatis, perspicue

longe hirsuti, intus glabri; corolla lutea, faucem :

versus rubra, basi gibbosa, tubo cylindrico,

piloso, limbo subregulari, lobis non ciliatis;

filamenta glabra; antherae exsertae, connatae,

quadratae; ovarium parce pilosum; stylus

glaber; discus in glandulam magnam posticam —

et glandulam anticam parvam reductus.

Stems climbing, unbranched, 70 cm long or

more, becoming 1 cm in diameter, about 5mm

in diameter near apex, densely red-hirsute, the —

hairs 3-4 mm long; leaves of a pair strongly

unequal, sessile; larger leaf blades oblanceo-

“Apr. 15, 1945

late, 14-24 cm long, 4.5-8 em broad, abruptly

‘and sharply acuminate at apex, strongly un-

equal at base, cordate, membranaceous, fragile

when dry, inconspicuously serrulate, green

‘above, short-hirsute (the hairs flaccid, white,

’ few-celled), red-purple beneath all around mar-

_ gin and along midrib and usually at apices of

the primary veins, elsewhere green, short-

hirsute, the primary veins 7 or 8 pairs; flowers

axillary, crowded, the pedicels slender, 4—8 in

: ; oa 3-3.5 em long, conspicuously long-red-

hirsute; bracts red, inconspicuous, linear-

lanceolate, about 15 mm long, 2-3.5 mm broad,

long-attenuate, entire, hirsute; calyx lobes free,

erect, linear-subulate, about 25 mm long (the

posterior one about 20 mm long), 2 mm.

_ broad, attenuate to a filiform apex, subulate-

_ toothed (the teeth 5 or 6 to a side, up to 7 mm

long and 0.2 mm broad), densely hirsute ex-

‘te nally (the hairs red, many-celled, flaccid,

_ 2-5 mm long), glabrous within; corolla yellow

with a red band around throat, 4: 7 mm long,

erect in calyx, gibbous at posterior base, nar-

rowed to about 3.5 mm above base, the tube

_ cylindric, 7-10 mm broad at middle, minutely

. puberulous externally and also sparsely long-

“ pilose (the hairs colorless, eglandular), glabrous

_ within, slightly narrowed to throat, the limb

_ subregular, 7-9 mm broad, the lobes erect,

3 yellow, about 4 mm long, not ciliate; filaments

connate at base into a sheath about 6 mm long,

_ glabrous; anthers exserted at maturity, con-

_ nate, quadrate, 1.5 mm long and broad, the

_ cells discrete, parallel, dehiscent throughout;

ovary sparingly pilose; style glabrous; disk

composed of one large posterior gland and a

_ smaller anterior gland.

_ Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no.

_ 1833423, collected north of Dabeiba, along

road to Turbo, Department of Antioquia,

_ Colombia, at 300 to 350 meters elevation,

- February 25 to March 1, 1942, by R. D. Met-

a calf and J. Cuatrecasas (no. 30174).

_ The present species is not closely related to

_ any of the described members of the section

_ Collandra, but is very near one as yet unde-

_ scribed that was collected in the Intendencia of

Choeé by E. P. Killip (nos. 35024 and 35051).

se Columnea rubrocincta, described below, has a

similar corolla, but is not really of close af-

finity. The two are different in many ways,

_ some of which may be indicated as follows:

MORTON: NEW SPECIES OF GESNERIACEAB 129

Leaf blades red all over the lower surface, 6-10

em long, acute; calyx lobes 6.5-7 mm long,

bearing 1 pair of teeth; corolla 2.8—3.5 cm long,

the lobes ciliate with capitate-glandular hairs;

filaments glandular-pilosulous. .C. rubrocincta

Leaf blades red on margins and veins only, hir-

sute, 14-24 em long, sharply acuminate; calyx

lobes 25 mm long, bearing 5 or 6 pairs of teeth;

corolla 4—4.7 cm long, the lobes not ciliate; fila-

Piette RiIsDTOUs fT Se oan C. pulcherrima

Columnea rubrocincta Morton, sp. nov.

Planta terrestris, caulibus elongatis, apicem

versus foliosis, substrigosis; folia cujusque paris

valde inaequalia; lamina foliorum majorum

obovato-oblonga, acuta, basi valde inaequalis,

rotundata vel truncata, crenata, supra viridis,

strigosa, subtus rubro-purpurea ubique, stri-

gosa, venis primariis 6-jugis; folia minora sub-

sessilia, ovata vel elliptica, parva; flores in

axillis conferti, pedicellis ca. 6; calycis lobi

liberi, erecti, aequales, lanceolati, acuminati,

subulato-dentati, utrinque pilosi; corolla lutea,

apicem versus rubrocincta, erecta, basi gib-

bosa, tubo cylindrico, recto, faucem versus

paullo constricto,’ externe puberulo et pilis

capitato-glanduliferis dissitis praedito, limbo

subregulari, lobis superioribus paullo connatis,

rubris, alteris deltoideis, luteis; filamenta

glandoloso-pilosula; antherae connatae; ova-

rium dense pilosum; discus in glandulam posti-

cam reductus.

Terrestrial; stems unbranched, 80 cm long

or more, 8-9 mm in diameter, leafy only near

apex, substrigose, the hairs white; leaves of a

pair strongly unequal, the larger short-petio-

late, the petiole 5-10 mm long, appressed-

pilose; larger leaf blades obovate-oblong, 6—10

cm long, 3-4.7 em broad, acute, unequal at

base, rounded or truncate on both sides at base,

inconspicuously crenate, chartaceous, green

above, strigose, red-purple all over beneath,

strigose, the primary veins 6 pairs; smaller

leaves of a pair subsessile, the blades ovate to

elliptic, 1.7-3.2 cm long, 1.1—-1.3 cm _ broad,

acute, subcordate at base, green above, red-

purple beneath; flowers axillary, the pedicels

about 6 in an axil, about 1 cm long, densely

white-appressed-pilose; bracts minute, linear,

4—5 mm long, entire; calyx lobes brown, free, |

erect, equal, lanceolate, 6.5—-7 mm long, 2 mm

broad (excl. teeth), acuminate, bearing a single

pair of subulate teeth below the middle (the

teeth about 1.5 mm long, 0.2 mm broad),

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35,NO.4

densely white-hirsute externally, pilose within;

corolla yellow with a conspicuous red band

around the throat, 2.8-3.5 cm long, erect in

calyx, conspicuously gibbous at posterior base,

narrowed above base to 3.5 mm broad,” the

tube cylindric, 8-9 mm broad at middle,

slightly narrowed in throat (this 6-8 mm

broad), finely puberulous externally (the hairs

mixed with longer, capitate-glandular ones),

glabrous within, puberulous within throat, the

limb subregular, 6-8 mm broad, the 2 upper

lobes about 4 mm long, connate for 1 mm, red,

the other 3 lobes yellow, free, deltoid, about 2.5

mm long, 5mm broad at base, ciliate (the hairs

capitate-glandular); filaments connate into a

sheath for 5 mm at base, glandular-pilosulous

above; anthers exserted, persistently connate,

broader than long, about 1.6 mm long, 2 mm

broad, the cells discrete, parallel, dehiscent

throughout; ovary densely white-pilose; style

glabrous; stigma slightly bilobed; disk reduced

to a thick, posterior gland.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.

1850674, collected between Valdivia and Yaru-

mal, Department of Antioquia, Colombia, at

2,200 meters elevation, February 20, 1942, by

R. D. Metcalf and J. Cuatrecasas (no. 30133).

Columnea rubrocincta belongs to section Col-

landra. Only two or three species of this section

have been described from Colombia, but a

dozen or more are represented in recent col-

lections. Among the features of the present

species to be especially noted are the uniformly

red-purple lower surfaces of the leaves, pu-

bescence of a strigose type, the relatively small

calyx lobes, each with a single subulate tooth,

the yellow corolla much exceeding the calyx

and bearing a conspicuous red band at the

throat, the capitate glands on corolla and fila-

ments, and the exserted anthers.

Columnea silvatica Morton, sp. nov.

Epiphytica; caules parce strigillosi; folia

cujusque paris aequalia, breviter petiolata;

lamina oblongo-lanceolata, acuminata, basi

cuneata, integra, revoluta, supra glabra, sub-

tus parce strigillosa, venis primariis 2-jugis;

flores solitari, breviter pedicellati; calycis lobi

liberi, aequales, ovato-lanceolati, longe at-

tenuati, basi perspicue dentati, externe pilosi,

intus glabri; corolla coccinea, erecta, non cal-

carata, tubo calycem multo superante, valde

bilabiata, galea acuta, lobis lateralibus brevi- 4

bus, acutis; ovarium apice sparse pilosum; ~

discus in glandulam posticam bilobam re- —

ductus.

Epiphyte; stems about 40 cm long, sparingly a

branched, about 3 mm in diameter, sparsely —

strigillose; leaves of a pair equal, short-petio-

late, the petiole 3-4 mm long, sericeous-pilose;

leaf blades narrowly oblong-lanceolate, 4.5-7 4 ;

em long, 9-11 mm broad, long-acuminate, %

cuneate at base, chartaceous and fragile when _

dry, entire, somewhat revolute, pale and gla-

brous on upper surface, darker beneath, sparse-

ly strigillose, the lateral veins 2 pairs, obscure ~

above, the secondary veins obscure on both ~

sides; flowers solitary, axillary, ebracteate,

the pedicel 7-10 mm long, erect, red-sericeous-

pilose; calyx lobes red, free, erect, equal, ovate-

lanceolate, about 2 cm long, 12 mm, broad near ~

base (including teeth), sharply long-attenuate

at apex (the apex itself entire, 15 mm long, 5

mm broad at base), deeply toothed at base —

(the teeth 5 or 6 to a side, the largest 5 mm long

and 1.6 mm broad at base), sericeous-pilose

externally, especially at base of midrib, gla-

brous within, ciliate; corolla scarlet, erect in

calyx, not calcarate at base, about 5 cm long,

the tube about 3.5 cm long, about 3 mm broad a

at base, straight, gradually enlarged upwardly,

about 7 mm broad at throat, sparsely jointed-

pilose externally, the limb. strongly bilabiate,

the galea about 1.6 cm long, the free part9 mm

long, 7.5 mm broad, acute, the lateral lobes

short, the free parts 4 mm long and 2.5 mm

broad at base, acute, the lower lobe 10 mm long, ~ a

3 mm broad; anthers oblong, 1.8 mm long, 0.8

mm broad, the cells discrete, parallel, longitu-

dinally dehiscent; ovary sparsely long-pilose .

at apex; disk reduced to a bilobed, glabrous,

posterior gland.

Type in the U. 8S. National Herbarium, no. — 4

1833439, collected north of Dabeiba, along

road to Turbo, Department of Antioquia,

Colombia, at an elevation of 300 to 350 meters,

February 25 to March 1, 1942, by R. D. Met- ~

calf and J. Cuatrecasas (no. 30191). A second —

specimen was collected at the same locality,

Metcalf & Cuatrecasas 30178. The collectors .

‘

state that the plant grows in deep rain-forest

(rainfall 320 inches a year) in the crotches of

trees, always at least 10 feet from ground. The ~

leaves are succulent when fresh.

‘

oh x gr” Fg .

a 15, 1945

‘Species of the section Hucolumnea*are not

numerous in Colombia, the center of develop-

ment being in Costa Rica. The present species

is perhaps related to C. Kienastiana Regel,? de-

seribed from ‘‘Colombian Andes” from a col-

le ition of R. Pfau, from which it may be sepa-

r pated as follows (from description) :

ves (incl. petiole) 2.5-3.5 em-long, subrotund

Bat ie calyx lobes 11-12 mm long, 3 as long

as corolla, bearing 1 or 2 teeth at base; corolla

4 tube about equalling limb..... C. Kienastiana

aves (incl. petiole) 4.8-7.4 cm long, cuneate at

iiss; calyx lobes 20 mm long, more than } as

- long as corolla, bearing 5 or 6 teeth at base;

corolla tube much longer than limb.

SS C. silvatica

; 8 Regel described* another species from Colom-

via, C. ringens, also from a collection of R.

Pfau. This also is known to me from descrip-

C n only. It is evidently more distantly related

d may be distinguished as follows:

a 3 em long, the tube shorter than the calyx

Biches; calyx lobes denticulate or subentire; leaf

blades up to 27 mm broad........ C. ringens

Corolla 5 cm long, the tube much exceeding the

a calyx lobes; calyx lobes conspicuously and

ia deeply toothed; leaf blades 9-11 mm broad.

a ,C. silvatica

Episcia peltata Morton, sp. nov.

_ Herba decumbens, caulibus basi radicanti-

bus, sursum parce hirsutis; folia cujusque paris

aequalia, longe petiolata, petiolo rubro, hir-

4 to; lamina foliorum elliptico-oblonga, magna,

ints, prope basin perspicue peltata, herbacea,

Berosse dentata, supra pilosa, subtus hirsuta,

-venis rubris, primariis 10— 13-jugis; flores axil-

lai es, conferti, pedunculo communi brevissimo,

_pedicellis elongatis, hirsutis; bracteae lineares;

_ealycis lobi liberi, lineari-oblongi, obtusi, basi

angustati, glanduloso-denticulati, externe

pilosi, intus glabri; corolla flava, obliqua, sub-

ealearata, tubo cylindrico, tenuiter piloso,

limbo magno, patente, lobis non ciliatis; fila-

menta glabra; antherae oblongae, glabrae;

-ovarium pilosum; stylus glaber; stigma bilo-

bum; discus in glandulam angustam posticam

é reductus; lamellae placentarum intus solum-

| 4 ovuliferae.

~ Decumbent herb 80-50 cm long, the stems

red, 4-5 mm in diameter, radicant at the lower

‘nodes, sparingly hirsute upwardly; leaves of a

Bt.

= * Act. Hort. Petrop. 8: 274. 1883.

_ * Op. cit. 273.

MORTON: NEW SPECIES OF GESNERIACEAE

131

pair equal, long-petiolate, the petiole 6-10 em

long, red, hirsute, enlarged and flat at base;

leaf blades elliptic-oblong, the well-developed

ones 11.5-22 em long, 4-8 em broad, acute,

peltate, the petiole inserted 3-7 mm above

base, the leaf base itself rounded, herbaceous,

deeply dentate or doubly dentate to base,

sparsely pilose above, hirsute beneath, green

on both sides, the midrib and veins red beneath,

the primary veins 10-13 pairs; inflorescence

axillary, the flowers numerous, crowded, borne

on a short common peduncle (1-2 mm long),

the pedicels elongate, 2—2.4 cm long, reddish,

hirsute; bracts inconspicuous, linear, up to 1.8

em long and 2.5 mm broad, attenuate to both

ends, entire, sparsely pilose; calyx lobes free,

linear-oblong, about 14 mm long, 3 mm broad

(the posterior one narrower, 2.5 mm broad),

obtuse, slightly narrowed toward base, glandu-

lar-denticulate (the teeth 1 or 2 to a side),

sparsely jointed-pilose externally, glabrous

within; corolla yellow, oblique in calyx, about

35 mm long, subcalearate at posterior base, the

tube cylindric, 3-4 mm broad at middle, about

25 mm long, finely pilose externally, glabrous

within, slightly enlarged to throat, glandular

within throat, the limb ample, widely spread-

ing, 20-25 mm broad, bilabiate, the lobes en-

tire, not ciliate, the anterior and posterior

large, the lateral smaller; filaments slender,

glabrous; anthers free, barely exserted from

corolla tube, glabrous, 1 mm long, 0.8 mm

broad, the cells oblong, discrete, parallel, de-

hiscent throughout, the connective not en-

larged or extended; ovary densely pilose; style

glabrous; stigma conspicuously bilobed; disk

reduced to a narrow, elongate, acute, glabrous,

posterior gland; ovules borne only on the inner

surface of placentae.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no.

1883352, collected on banks of Rfo Cauca at

Puerto Valdivia, Department of Antioquia,

Colombia, at 240 to 260 meters elevation,

February 17 to 20, 1942, by R. D. Metcalf and

J. Cuatrecasas (no. 30098).

Pending a revision of the group, the genus

Episcia is here accepted in the inclusive sense

of Bentham and Hooker. The present species

does not belong in Episcia in the restricted

sense as emended by Sprague. It differs from

all described species of Episcia in its peltate

leaves.

132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO.4

ICHTHYOLOGY.—Emmelichthyops atlanticus, a new genus and species of fish 3

(family Emmelichthyidae) from the Bahamas, with a key to related genera.’ ~

LEONARD P. Scuuttz, U.S. National Museum. Z

While looking through Dr. A. E. Parr’s

publication ‘‘“Teleostean Shore and Shallow-

water Fishes from the Bahamas and Turks

Island” (Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll.

3 (4): 60. 1930), I observed that figure 12

did not agree with Poey’s figure of his spe-

cies Inermia vittata from Cuba. Poey’s

specimens in the national collections con-

firmed this observation, and upon writing

to Dr. Daniel Merriman, director of the

Bingham Oceanographic Laboratory, the

two specimens on which Parr’s figure was

based were kindly lent to me for study and

description. I am most grateful to Dr.

Merriman for the loan of the specimens and

for permission to describe them in this

paper.

Family EMMELICHTHYIDAE

Before it was possible for me to assign

this new genus and new species to any

family of fishes, its relationships were com-

pared with several forms that appear re-

lated to it. Various authors have placed

these genera in the following families:

Emmelichthyidae, Centracantidae, Maeni-

dae, Merolepidae, Erythrichthyidae, Dip-

terygonotidae, and Inermiidae, all of which

I propose to unite in the single family Em-

melichthyidae, which is defined as follows:

Marine fishes with the body oblong, fusi-

form, or compressed; mouth oblique, the

lower jaw longer than or equal to upper

jaw; teeth obsolete, small, or well developed

on jaws or vomer, usually lacking on pala-

tines and pterygoids; preopercle entire,

with thin membranous posterior border,

with or without thin serrae or small spines

at least in the young; opercle with or with-

out one or two flat thin spines; premaxil-

laries greatly protractile, the ascending

bony process reaching to orbits or even to

rear of orbits, nearly to occiput; gill mem-

branes free from isthmus, extending far

forward, with a narrow free fold across

isthmus; gills 4, with a slit behind fourth

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution. Received February

21, 1945.

arch; pseudobranchiae present; lower —

pharnygeals with teeth; pyloric caeca few; -

nostrils paired; scales strongly ctenoid,

coverings body and head, except snout,

lower jaw and sometimes underside of ~

head; a scaly sheath along soft rayed parts

of both dorsal and anal fins but no scales,

on these fins; caudal fin scaled, deeply —

forked or emarginate; lateral line continu- —

ous, complete, ending on caudal fin, mostly

following dorsal contour anteriorly but ~

running along middle of side of caudal ~

peduncle; accessory pelvic scale well de- —

veloped; pelvics I, 5, thoracic, mserted ~

nearly under base of pectorals, the latter

usually with scaly bases; spiny dorsal and ~

soft dorsal continuous or separated, with

VIII to XVII spines and 9 to 25 soft rays;

anal fin with II or III spines and 8 to 24 ©

rays; all fin spines slender; gill rakers slen- —

der, numerous; air bladder present; the —

maxillary either slips under the preorbital ~

or is almost fully exposed posteriorly; the

dentary has a large dorsally projecting leaf-

like bony lobe posteriorly inside of mouth.

Several genera in this group of fishes have %

been reviewed in part by other ichthyolo- ~

gists, and the literature has been brought

together by them, and so it is not necessary

for me to give a complete bibliography.

Dr. Paul Chabanaud published in 1924 a a

small paper entitled ‘‘Remarques sur Diptery- °

gonotus gruveli Chab. et sur la Famille des —

Dipterygonotidae”’ (Bull. Soc. Zool. France ~

49: 248-256) in which he gives a synoptic key —

to the genera Inermia, Plagiogeneion, Ery-

throdes, Boxaodon, Emmelichthys, and Diptery-

gonotus. There follows a section listing the —

various species under each genus. The next —

review or analysis of genera was givenby ~

Henry W. Fowler (U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 100,

12: 344. 1933) under the family name Emme-

lichthyidae, in which the following genera were __

recognized: Emmelichthys, Dipterygonotus, Iner-

mia, Erythrodes, Plagiogeneton, and Cypse-

lichthys. A list of species for each genus is given

with synonymy. In 1936 three genera belonging 4

in this group of fishes were placed in the family

. 15, 1945

Centracantidae by Fowler in his big work

entitled “The Marine Fishes of West Africa”

(Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 70 (2): 860-865,

1300-1301).

_ From my examination of the literature it

; g uppears that this is the first time the Maenidae

ave been combined with the Emmelichthyidae

‘into a single family. This seems a logical step,

wever, when based on the external anatomy

a d such bony structures as can be examined

: ithout the preparation of formal skeletons.

‘The true relationships within the present fam-

of and perhaps other genera not yet referred

- o this group, will have to be worked out from

earefully prepared skeletons when material for

t he genera, now apparently lacking, becomes

able in the museums where such a study

ald be made. My arrangement, therefore, is a

Dtative one, and I am unable to conclude of

Dist significance the maxillary may be in

‘sl oping almost completely under the pre-

orbital in one group of genera while in the other

‘group the maxillary is almost wholly exposed

posteriorly. Otherwise these genera appear to

have much in common.

Emmelichthyops, n. gen.

_ Genotype—Emmelichthyops atlanticus, n. sp-

_ This new genus is essentially characterized

by the two dorsal fins completely separated,

the space between fully scaled, the first dorsal

“spiny, the second with a feeble spine followed

*b y soft rays; the pelvics are thoracic, inserted a

trifle behind a vertical line through rear of pec-

toral bases; body fusiform, snout bluntly

. caudal peduncle rounded, rather slen-

the Retekilltry slips under wasrhital and :

‘mostly concealed by it; eye large; scales cten-

oid, on body and head: except snout, and

underside of head; gill membranes extending

far forward, free from isthmus; gill rakers

8 ender, numerous; teeth minute on jaws, none

‘yomer, palatines, pterygoids, or tongue;

premaxillaries excessively protractile, the as-

cending process extending a trifle past a line

through rear of orbits. Other characters are

| ing pages.

_ It differs from all other genera referred to

the family Emmelichthyidae in having the

SCHULTZ: A NEW FISH FROM THE BAHAMAS 133

other related genera by the accompanying

key.

Named Emmelichthyops, meaning appearing

like Emmelichthys.

Emmelichthyops atlanticus, n. sp.

Emmelichthys vittatus (non Poey) Parr, Bull.

Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 3 (4): 60, fig. 12. 1927

(the two specimens herein described).

Holotype.—B.0.C. 2515, a specimen, 98 mm.

in standard length, from Cat Island, Bahamas,

taken at night with surface light, Pawnee,

March 21-22, 1927.

Paratype.-—U.S.N:M. 123165, a specimen

80 mm. long, bearing same data as holotype.

The following measurements, expressed in

hundredths of the standard length, are re-

corded first for the holotype, then for the

paratype. Standard lengths 98 and 80 mm.

Total lengths 116 and 94 mm.

Greatest depth of body at front of spiny

dorsal fin 17.4 and 19.0; length of head 24.6

and 27.7; length of snout 7.96 and 8.75; diam-

eter of orbit 7.66 and 9.12; postorbital length

of head 10.8 and 11.9; least width of bony in-

terorbital space 6.02 and 6.50; tip of snout to

rear edge of maxillary 9.90 and 11.0; edge of

anterior nostril to tip of snout 4.49 and 5.25;

edge of posterior nostril to eye 2.35 and 2.38;

distance from base of last anal ray to midbase

of caudal fin 21.4 and 21.3; least depth of

caudal peduncle 5.82 and 6.62; pelvic insertion

to anal origin 35.7 and 32.6; anus (center) to

anal origin 6.94 and 7.12; tip of snout to origin

of spiny dorsal fin 35.2 and 37.5; to second

dorsal 66.2 and 68.0; to anal origin 65.8 and

65.0; tip of snout to pectoral insertion 25.5 and

28.0; to pelvic insertion 30.1 and 32.4; tip of

snout to center of anus 58.7 and 57.9; length

of longest (third or fourth) dorsal spine 14.3

and 15.4; longest anal spine (second) 4.59 and

2.75; length of spine at front of second dorsal

2.35 and 2.87; length of pelvic spine 8.37 and

10.0; longest soft ray of dorsal fin 9.08 and

10.9, anal fin 8.67 and 9.75, pectoral 14.3 and

15.0, pelvic 12.3 and 13.5, and of caudal fin

17.2 and 19.8.

The following counts were made, respec-

tively: Dorsal rays X-I, 10 and X-I, 11; anal

rays II, 11 and II, i, 10; pectoral rays ii, 16—

ii, 17 and ii, 17-ii, 17; pelvics I, 5-I, 5 and

I, 5-I, 5; branched caudal rays 8+7 =15 and

8+7 =15; scale rows from upper edge of gill

134

opening to midbase of caudal fin 78 and 77;

scales from origin spiny dorsal to lateral line

8 and 8, and from origin of second dorsal to

lateral line 8 and 8; scales from anal origin to

lateral line 10 and 9; scales between the two

dorsal fins 11 and 11; scales from origin of

spiny dorsal to occiput 18 and 19; zigzag scales

around least part of caudal peduncle 24 and

24; gill rakers on first gill arch 8+1+21 and

8 +1421.

Body fusiform, greatest depth through base

of spiny dorsal; head bluntly pointed; caudal

peduncle slender, .its least depth equals bony

interorbital space; dorsal and ventral profiles

about equally curved; snout nearly equal to

orbit but a little shorter than postorbital length

of head; interorbital space slightly convex;

lateral line complete, continuous to at least

halfway out middle rays of caudal fin; body

covered with small ctenoid scales, these con-

tinuing on head covering operculum, pre-

orbital and top of head to in front of nostrils;

tip of snout and area from front of eye to tip

of snout, gill membranes, and lower jaw, not

scaled; middorsal line and midventral line

evenly scaled over, no crowding of scales;

pelvies with a long accessory scaly appendage

reaching halfway the length of the pelvic fins;

base of pectoral fins fully scaled, these scales

continuing out along the rays for about two-

thirds their length; caudal fin sealed out about

four-fifths its length; base of soft dorsal fin and

soft anal fin with a scaly sheath, one scale wide

but no scales on the rays or membranes, these

fins partly hidden between the sheath when

depressed; origin of spiny dorsal at a vertical

line near middle of length of pelvics; a vertical

line passes through the origins of both second

dorsal and anal fins; pectorals rather short,

equal to snout and eye, not quite reaching as

far back as tips of pelvics, the latter reaching

to under the base of the sixth dorsal spine;

last ray of soft dorsal and anal fins a little

elongated; pectoral fins and lobes of caudal fin

pointed; posterior or distal margin of spiny

dorsal fin slightly concave or truncate; distal

margin of soft dorsal and anal fins truncate to

very slightly concave; gill rakers slender; teeth

minute, probably in a single row on premaxil-

laries, obsolete or absent on lower jaw; no teeth

on vomer, pterygoids or tongue; dentary with

a high leaflike lobe extending dorsally, so that

when mouth is widely opened this forms inner

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

™ Re

Z ‘ “ae

side of mouth; premaxillaries excessively pro- —

tractile, the ascending process reaching a little —

past orbits when mouth is closed; preopercle 4

with thin membraneous edge, the lower corner —

extended to form a projecting lobe, its edge :

with thin, flexible serrae; opercle ending in a —

short, thin flat spine; upper edge of shoulder —

near upper part of gill opening with a notch;

nostrils paired, somewhat near together but

well separated by a narrow dermal isthmus —

anus |

between anterior and posterior ones;

some distance in front of anal origin but closer

to the latter than to tips of pelvic fins; longest —

gill raker about equal to distance that posteraay

nostril is from eye.

Color (in alcohol) light brownish, pale

below, midline of back with a brownish streak —

and two more narrow brown streaks between it —

and the lateral line, and possibly one or two

more narrow brown streaks below lateral line ~

anteriorly, but these are hardly discernible —

now; inside of gill cover rather heavily black —

pigmented; top of head with numerous small —

brown specks. A small dark brown elongate —

spot, two-thirds the way out on the lower two —

rays of the lower lobe of caudal fin in the para-—

type, is absent in the holotype.

This new species differs from all other genera —

and species in the family Emmelichthyidae as qi

diagnosed in the key below. It was named —

atlanticus because of its occurrence in the |

Atlantic Ocean and because it undoubtedly ~

will be found to be a pelagic species of wide

distribution in this ocean. It should be noted —

that specimens of most of the species referred —

to this family are very scarce in museum col-

lections.

Key To GENERA OF EMMELICHTHYIDAE

RELATED TO EMMELICHTHYOPS

la. Maxillary slipping for most part under and

almost wholly concealed by preorbital. —

2a. Spinous and soft dorsal fins connected,

scarcely emarginate or not emarginate ©

between spiny and soft part; last rays of —

soft dorsal and anal fins elongate or with ~

last ray as long as next to last rays. ,

3a. Soft dorsal and anal rays shorter than

spines, and when fins are depressed

soft rays concealed in scaly sheath at 7

base of rays; body deep, compressed, |

depth 22 to 23

vomer fopthless: dorsal rays XII, 16;

anal III, 15 or 16: gill rakers on lowaen

part of first arch. 14 or 15; maxillary |

scarcely reaching to under front of eye.

Coleosmaris Norman —

VOL. 35, NO. 4 ;

. na

in standard length;

ee. eras?

\PR. 15, 1945

3b. Soft dorsal and anal fins not especially

- short, and when fins are depressed soft

_ parts not concealed by scaly sheath at

base.

4a. Outer teeth at front of jaws more or

less enlarged, conical, sometimes 2 to

5 pointing forward and more or less

flaring outward, at least on adults;

vomer with small or minute teeth;

Fa dorsal rays XI or XII, 9 to 11; anal

Ill, 7 to 9...Merolepis Rafinesque

Ab. No enlarged caninelike teeth at tips of

jaws; vomer toothless; dorsal rays

_ X, 15 or 16; anal III, 15 or 16.

Pterosmaris Fowler

a 2%, Either spinous dorsal separated from sec-

by a deep emargination to base or nearly

so at posterior end of spiny part of dorsal

fin; body fusiform, not compressed; last

rays of soft dorsal and anal fins a little

elongated; ascending process of premaxil-

s laries reaches to or nearly to rear of

a orbits; tip of snout rounded, without

: concave notch; each pair of nasal open-

ings separated by a narrow dermal

isthmus.

5a. Dorsal fins completely separated, inter-

vening space scaled over, this space

slightly greater than postorbital length

of head; dorsal rays X-I, 10 or 11; anal

: II, 10 or 11... Emmelichthyops, n. gen.

5b. Spiny and soft parts of dorsal fin not

me. completely separated, the intervening

a space, if present, not scaled over.

i - 6a. Posterior spines of dorsal connected

a by a membrane; dorsal XVI or

ae XVII, I, 9 or 10; anal II or III, 8

- oe a eee Inermia Poey

6b. Posterior spines of dorsal fin more or

less isolated, scarcely connected by a

membrane; dorsal XII-I, 10; anal

III, 10. ... Centracantus Rafinesque

“1b. Maxillary almost wholly exposed, its dorsal

edge searcely slipping under preorbital,

Ta. Tip of snout convex over premaxillary,

without a convex notch.

8a. Spiny part of dorsal shorter than soft

4 _ part; dorsal rays X or XI, 25 to 27; anal

J rays III, 23 or 24.

Cypselichthys Steindachner and Déderlein

_ 8b. Spiny part of dorsal fin longer than soft

a part; dorsal rays XIII to XV, I, 9 to

! 11; anal rays III, 9 to 12; last ray of

spiny dorsal notably longer than next to

last rays; a deep emargination in front

of last dorsal spine, the next to last 4

or 5 spines short; nostrils separated by

a a narrow dermal isthmus; maxillary

; naked; body fusiform but somewhat

compressed; last rays of soft dorsal and

anal probably not elongated.

Dipterygonotus Bleeker

_ 7b. Tip of snout with a concave shallow notch

2 above tip of premaxillaries; last rays of

ond dorsal or fins more or less separated,

SCHULTZ: A NEW FISH FROM THE BAHAMAS 135

soft dorsal and anal fins not elongated;

preopercle with a somewhat posteriorly

produced rounded lobe; body somewhat

compressed; maxillary sealed; spiny part

of dorsal longer than soft part; nostrils

especially close together; opercle with

two flat spines, concave between them.

9a. Last spine of dorsal notably longer than

next to last spine, the spiny dorsal

with a deep emargination in front of

last dorsal spine, but fin more or less

continuous; no teeth on vomer; dorsal

rays X, I, 11; anal III, 9 or 10.

Erythrocles Jordan

9b. Last spine of dorsal fin not longer, usu-

ally about same length as next to last

spines of dorsal.

10a. Dorsal fins continuous but with a

moderately deep emargination pos-

teriorly in spiny part of fin; minute.

teeth on vomer; dorsal rays XII, 10

or Il: anal ITI, 9.

Plagiogeneion Forbes

10b. Dorsal fin with posterior IV or V

spines isolated, probably not con-

nected by a membrane; vomer

toothless; nostrils separated by a

dermal isthmus; dorsal rays XIII, —

10 or 11; anal III, 9 or 10.

Emmelichthys Richardson

Genus Coleosmaris Norman

Coleosmaris Norman, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

(ser. 10) 7: p. 359, fig. 4, 1931 (type—Coleos-

maris nigricauda Norman) (Accra, Gold Coast,

Africa).

This genus contains but one species, Coleos-

maris nigricauda Norman, from off the African

Gold Coast. I have not examined a specimen,

but the generic diagnosis is from Norman’s

figure and description.

Genus Merolepis Rafinesque

Merolepis Rafinesque, Indice d’ittiologia sicili-

ana, p. 25. May 1810 (type—Sparus massilien-

sis Lacepéde=Sparus zebra Briinnich) (ref.

copied).

Maena Cuvier, Régne animal (ed. 2) 2: 185. 1829

(type—Sparus maena Linnaeus) (ref. copied).

Mena Swainson, Natural history of fishes... or

monocardian animals 2: 170, 215. 1839 (type—

Sparus maena Linnaeus).

Spicara Rafinesque, Caratteri di aleuni nuovi

generi e nuove specie... Sicilia, p. 51. 1810

(type—Spicara flexuosa Rafinesque =Sparus

smaris Linnaeus).

Smaris Cuvier, Bull. Sci. Soc. Philom. Paris, p. 92.

1814 (type—Sparus smaris Linnaeus) (preoc-

cupied).

Marsis Barnard, Ann. South African Mus. 21:

682. 1927 (type—Sparus smaris Linnaeus) (new

name to replace Smaris Cuvier, preoccupied by

Smaris Latreille, 1796, in Arachnida).

136

I have examined 25 specimens, U.S.N.M.

2259-2263, 5384, 6053, 2966, 29743, 37241,

45051, 48336, 48337, and 48373 belonging to

this genus, on which I have checked the charac- -

ters given in the key. This genus is treated by

Fowler in volume 2, p. 860, of his ‘‘The Marine

Fishes of West Africa,’”’ published in 1936.

Rafinesque’s descriptions are so very incom-

plete one cannot be certain of the species he

had.

Barnard (l.c.) refers Smaris australis Regan

to this genus in addition to the genotype.

Genus Pterosmaris Fowler ;

Pterosmaris Fowler, Amer. Mus. Nov., No. 162:

4. 1925 (type—Smaris melanurus Valencien-

nes).

The only species referred to this genus is the

genotype, which I have not examined. Perhaps

it should be treated as a subgenus along with

Spicara Rafinesque.

Genus Inermia Poey

Inermia Poey, Mem. Hist. Nat. Cuba 2: 1983.

1861 (type—Inermia vittata Poey).

Four specimens (U.S.N.M. 21253, 33121,

and 33124) from Cuba and one (B. O. C. 235)

from Cay Sal Bank are Inermia vittata Poey,

and from them the characters used in this key

were described. Only one species is known.

Genus Centracantus Rafinesque

Centracantus Rafinesque, Caratteri di alcuni

nuovi generi e nuove specie... Sicilia, p. 42,

pl. 10, fig. 1. 1810 (type—Centracantus cirrus

Rafinesque).

Centracanthus Rafinesque, Indice d’ittiologia sicili-

ana, p. 18. 1810 (type—Centracantus cirrus

Rafinesque) (ref. copied).

Centracantha Rafinesque, ibid., p. 67 (type—

Centracantus cirrus Rafinesque) (ref. copied).

I have examined two specimens, U.S.N.M.

94455 and 123195, which belong to this genus.

Fowler, in his ‘‘Marine Fishes of West

Africa,’”’ volume 2, p. 862, 1936, discusses this

genus. I am removing Spicara from Fowler’s

list of synonyms of this genus on the basis of

dentition and placing it with Merolepis.

Genus Cypselichthys Steindachner and

Déderlein

Cypselichthys Steindachner. and Déderlein,

Denkschr. math.-nat. Akad. Wiss. Wien 48:

14, pl. 7, fig. 1. 1883 (type—Cypselichthys

japonicus Steindachner and Déderlein).

The genotype is the only species referred to

this genus. I have not examined a specimen

but have taken my generic diagnosis from the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY. OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO

original description and figure of C. japonicus.

Genus Dipterygonotus Bleeker z

Dipterygonotus Bleeker, Journ. Indian Archi-—

pelago 3: 71. 1849 (type—EHmmelichthys leuco-—

grammicus Bleeker). a

I have examined two specimens, U.S.N, M.

126386 and 56238, which belong to this genus.

They probably are D. leucogrammicus, al-

though U.S.N.M. 56238 is in very poor condi- —

tion and my identification is doubtful. Another !

species, D. gruveli Chabanaud, is referred to

this genus. In addition, we have a large series, —

U.S.N.M. 131118, 1,505 specimens, none of ~

which exceeds 40 mm. in standard length, —

from Varadero Bay, Mindoro, Philippines, |

July 22, 1908, Albatross.

Genus Erythrocles Jordan 4

Erythrocles Jordan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- —

delphia, 1918: 342. 1919 (replaces Hrythrichthys —

Temminck and Schlegel, preoccupied) (type—_

Erythrichthys schlegels Bleeker = Emmelichthys

schlegelit Richardson). ‘

Erythrichthys Temminck and Schlegel, Faun

Japonica, pp. 117, 318, pl. 63, fig. 1. 1845 _

(type—Emmelichthys schlegelit Richardson, de- *

signated on p. 318). a

I have examined two specimens of £. schle- :

geliit, U.S.N.M. 52518 and 62367, from the i

Hawaiian Islands. From these I have taken the

characters used in the key. Besides the geno- ~

type, LErythrichthys scintillans Jordan and I

Thomson belongs in this genus. i a

”

Genus Plagiogeneion Forbes

Plagiogeneion Forbes, Trans. New Zealand Inst.

22: 273. 1890 (type—Therapon rubiginosis

Hutton).

Plagiogenion Forbes, in Fowler, U.S. Nat. Mus. -

Bull. 100, 12: 350. 1933 (error in spelling) (type

—Therapon rubiginosus Hutton). ::

Two species are referred to this genusel :

Plagiogeneion rubiginosus (Hutton) and Plagi-

ogeneton macrolepis McCulloch. I have not

seen a specimen of either. b.

Genus Emmelichthys Richardson

Emmelichthys Richardson, Voy. Hrebus and Ter-— .

ror, Fishes, 2: 47. 1844 (type—Emmelichthys” “4

nitidus Richardson). ¥

Bozxaodon Gay, Historia fisica y politica de Chile, —

Zoologia, 2: 208. 1848 (type—Boxaodon cy amie ¥

cens Gay). a

The species in this genus are Emmelichthys —

nitidus Richardson and Boxaodon cyanescens —

Gay. I have examined three specimens of BE.

nitidus, U.S.N.M. 48817, from which the char- —

acters used in the key have been taken. Re

CONTENTS

Erunotocy.—The Sinhalese caste system of oun tral and: southern — Bs

Ceylon. Cee: ). Wiutram H. Giuperr, JR........-... ve e

C: v. MORTON. .'..--4. 44.

;

ws 0 9 @ lle Rio Cin Se SSIS, ec ls env mR Ua tens ras

. ra

: IontHyoLoey. = irnadichiene atlanticus, a new genus and species ie

: ue fish (family Emmelichthyidae) from the Bahamas, wath a key to

4 related genera. Lronarp P. BURULSS: 8 <ohaget 2 Sse! heen ee

: This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals, ee

: |

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Vou. 35 May 15, 1945 No. 5

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#: OF THE

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Vo UME 35

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

y '

Geodetic surveys are surveys employed

yer areas of large extent for which the

rvature of the earth must be taken into

onsideration. Since the curvature depends

m the size and shape of the earth, every

eodetic survey of necessity is based on

ome spheroid of reference that has been

dc i for that particular part of the

rth’s surface.

FIGURE OF THE EARTH

The determination of the size and shape

' the earth has engaged the attention of

4 ny of the leading thinkers of the centur-

ies, but it was not until the early nineteenth

century that the problem may be said to

have been solved sufficiently to meet most

practical problems in surveying and engi-

neering. Extensive investigations since that

2 me have resulted in a number of determi-

ations, succeeding ones generally having

tk Padvantage of being based upon more

W videly distributed data. The exhaustive

work of Hayford published in 1910 un-

doubtedly most nearly represents the true

dimensions of the earth so far determined.

‘The accuracy of this work is evidenced. by

the fact that in 1924 the International

oagey of Geodesy and Geophysics recom-

mended the International Ellipsoid (the

Hayford Ellipsoid with slight modification)

for use by all countries that were in a

position to adopt it.

_ Yet we find several different spheroids

in use over the world today. For practical

purposes and within certain bounds these

are undoubtedly adequate. But complica-

_ 1 Address of the Retiring President of the Wash-

ington Academy of Sciences delivered at the

33lst meeting of the Academy on February 15,

1945. Received February 21, 1945.

JEODESY.—The utility of geodetic control surveys.'

3 -* * JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

May 15, 1945

No. 5

CLEMENT L. GARNER,

tions arise in regions such as Europe where

owing to different spheroids the problem of

determining the relation between coordi-

nates at the boundaries of the countries

involved is most serious. In North America

the Clarke spheroid of 1866 had been

adopted by Canada, Mexico, and the

United States before the International

Ellipsoid was recommended by the Inter-

national Union of Geodesy and Geophysics

in 1924. To change would be prohibitive

because of the great amount of surveys

already accomplished.

Great progress has been made in the

United States and Alaska during the past

15 years in the extension of arcs of triangu-

lation into new areas. These with the work

completed in other parts of the world will

afford an excellent opportunity for further

research at the first opportunity following

the war. While formerly the problem of

greatest geodetic importance was the deter-

mination of the figure of the earth, now

we are more concerned with the practical

uses of geodetic surveys as engineering and

suveying tools. Obviously the value of any

tool depends largely upon its availability.

The triangulation network in the United

States today has at least approached the

condition where one may readily realize the

adaptation of the data to its manifold uses

in our economic and industrial existence.

Fortunately we have lost little by obsoles-

cence. The basic framework started by

Hassler in 1816 conforms well to the de-

manding requirements of today although

accomplished with instruments and equip-

ment that would now be considered crude.

This is tribute to Hassler’s vision in prepar-

ing the groundwork for geodetic operations

in this country. It was in 1927, over 100

137

MAY 25 ‘45

138

years from the beginning, before the trian-

gulation had assumed the proportions of a

basic framework susceptible of adjustment

into a rigid whole. The increased interest.

in the use of geodetic control is significantly

illustrated by the fact that of the more

than 100,000 triangulation stations in the

United States today, nearly three-fourths of

them have been established in the past 15

years. This condition also applies roughly

to other geodetic operations.

PRACTICAL USE

Everyone realizes the vast demands for

surveying and mapping created by war.

This condition was experienced also in

World War I and contributed materially to

the increased activity im all classes of

mapping in this country in the interval

leading up to our entry into World War II.

Since then the needs have been unprece-

dented, and all regular Federal mapping

agencies have cooperated with the military

departments in meeting the requirements

for surveys and maps. It must be recognized

that under such conditions the compilation

of many types of maps, as for example,

aeronautical charts, had to be accomplished

as would best meet the emergency and could

not wait for the completion of geodetic

control. Otherwise extensive use has been

made of geodetic surveys in order to main-

tain complete coordination not only for

mapping in this country and Alaska but

also in various defense installations at coast

and island bases and in the solution of

various fire-control problems.

We are here principally concerned with

their usefulness as required in our peace-

time pursuits. Very briefly, the most essen-

tial applications are: :

1. For all general surveys of large areas,

such as for large-scale mapping, flood con-

trol, reclamation, forest inventory or where

coordination and permanence of location

must be had at the same time.

2. Settlement of boundaries. The use of

geodetic control in the referencing of prop-

erty boundary surveys, although nothing

new, is only beginning. When stations be-

come available within reasonable reach of

the local surveyor without too much cost

to his client, every property owner will de-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

settlement with the passage of time. Preci-

VOL. 35, NO. oe

sire to reference his surveys to oa tha

monuments that are everlasting and thus —

insure the retracement of his property

boundary lines by competent surveyors at 4

any future time. Such safeguards will result |

in savings of great sums of money now —

spent annually in litigation of such matters. q

3. Surveys required in city planning. —

Recently there has been a continually in- —

creasing use of precision geodetic surveys — pe

for city planning as needed to obtain overall — Ps

accuracy of the many surveying projects

which with time are liable to become rather —

heterogeneous in metropolitan regions. Sev-— :

eral of our large cities now have such sur- —

veys and others are anxious to obtain them. — ;

4. Surveys to determine crustal move- —

ment, such as that caused by earthquakes, — j

the lovee of ground water level, or in the

study of settlement problems Sich as that — ,

caused by the water load at Lake Mead a

above Boulder Dam. Here a network of ~

leveling was first accomplished in 1935 —

before the lake had started filling and the — s |

second in 1940, five years later when the _

water had réached a reasonable height. The ~

results so far show that some changes have

taken place, but it is probable that the full ~

effect of the water load will not be evidenced ~

for some years. It is therefore anticipated

that levels may be run over the network at —

suitable intervals to determine further ~

sion horizontal angle observations also were —

made on the marked points on the down- ~

stream race of the dam and in the construc-

tion on either side of the stream for the ©

purpose of studying problems of structural 4a

movement. BP

5. Precision measurement of base lines. 4

or distances as, for example, the measure- by

ment of the Pasadena Base and the triangu-

lation between this base and two stations on

the mountains between which Michelson :

made his experiments in determining the ~

velocity of light. @

6. For special horizontal alignment and —

in precise leveling such as that required 1 in

the work of the David Taylor Model Basin”

at Carderock, Md.

7. For the determination of great circlall

distances between airports which are being -

used extensively by aviation authorities in ~

| May 15, 1945

scheduling uniform tariffs for passenger

and freight service in this country and in

many other parts of the world.

Clearly one function of geodetic control

surveys is that of coordination—that is, in

making ties to other acceptable control

_ surveys and adjusting them to the national

net, thus making them available for general

use. Such work forms a very important and

- yaluable addition to the national net.

It is to the interest of all that stations be

located where they are least likely to be

molested or destroyed and also where they

_ will not interfere with probable improve-

ment or construction. The total cost and

value of control surveys at any time are

represented by existing stations and bench

marks and every effort is made to establish

_ permanent marks easily recoverable.

- With some 25,000 monumented triangu-

; lation stations and more than 225,000

» bench marks, the job of maintenance alone

assumes considerable magnitude. Scores of

_ stations and bench marks are lost every

year. The problem of maintenance is to

keep the loss as low as possible by having

lost marks replaced by our field parties and

- by enlisting the cooperative assistance of a

large number of engineers and surveyors

\ ae

am OF mk Se

all coe Sg De alee a Bid er ay pits iy ae pe

engaged in both public and private work.

- Such people are very public-spirited and

generally are pleased to do the work free,

since Uncle Sam, prodigal in many w ays,

has no money kc this.

Some have questioned the need for high

accuracy in the geodetic control when

many of its important uses can be served as

well with less accurate work. For many

problems such as obtaining a basic frame-

work and for property boundary surveys,

the work of high precision is absolutely

essential and it is important to bear in mind

that one job well done, and at only slightly

more cost than less accurate work, serves

all purposes equally well indefinitely.

In re-triangulation and re-leveling to

determine earth movement resulting from

seismic disturbance or in the relocation of

lost stations one comes at once to the very ~

heart of the question of accuracy. With

what accuracy were those stations or bench

marks located or replaced? The answer must

_ be obtained from an analysis of the several

GARNER: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEYS 139

actors affecting the accuracy of the final

data which may be classified under the

following general items:

1. Quality of instrument.

2. Observational procedure.

3. Refraction.

4. Phase and eccentricity.

INSTRUMENTS

Many excellent theodolites suitable for

present-day precise triangulation are manu-

factured (or were before the war) by a num-

ber of instrument makers in the United

States and in Europe. The horizontal circles

of these theodolites vary in diameter from

5 to 9 inches and can be read with microm-

eter attachment to single seconds, some-

times to tenths of seconds. Most such in-

struments are small and compact and weigh

only 15 to 28 pounds without carrying case

and are easily transported from station to

station even when backpacking is necessary.

Naturally, for precision triangulation it

is most important that the instrument

circle be of proved accuracy. This must be

obtained from tests simulating field condi-

tions as far as practicable except as regards

refraction. This is best accomplished in a

testing room where permanent collimators

at 15 to 25 feet from the instrument take the

place of distant stations as observed in the

field. Tests are made on al] new instruments

before they are sent to the field and when-

ever they are returned for overhaul. The

latest circle tests show that the maximum

probable graduation errors are not in excess

of 1.5 seconds and, since observations are

distributed over the entire circle, gradua-

tion errors have little effect on the results.

OBSERVATIONAL PROCEDURE

Observing procedure has been developed

with the view of eliminating instrumental

and personal errors insofar as practicable.

The observations are made from 16 posi-

tions of the circle. For every direction taken

with the telescope in the direct position

there is one with the telescope in the reverse

position. A horizontal angle is ‘obtained

from the mean value of a minimum of 32

pointings of the telescope on each station

for which there are 128 micrometer readings.

140

REFRACTION

Without question lateral refraction is the

greatest source of trouble in triangulation.

It is a potential danger constantly to be

guarded against. Experience shows that it

is nearly always present when there is much

cooling of the ground, but the amount is

variable and unpredictable. It has been

found particularly bad at night when cold

winds blow over dry hot ground or surface

rocks that are giving off the heat absorbed

from the sun during the day. The slope and

vegetation of the terrain and its nearness

to the ray greatly affect the bending. Some

observers claim to have experienced as

much as 15 seconds horizontal refraction

under severe conditions. However, the

greatest amount experienced under normal

conditions of observations and proved by

triangle closure of which we have knowl-

edge was between 7 and 8 seconds. Stations

and towers must be so located that rays to

other objects will not pass close to houses,

tree trunks, or tripod legs. Triangulation in

cities quite frequently is difficult because

of refraction caused by heat and smoke from

chimneys. There are certain phenomena

that an experienced observer recognizes as

indicating the existence of a disturbed con-

dition. Otherwise there is not much to be

done about it except to go ahead and ob-

serve when other conditions permit.

In observing vertical angles it is well

known that the refraction is rather variable

especially near sunrise or sunset, and some-

times it is very erratic. Furthermore, owing

to the extreme condition of cloudiness dur-

ing Some seasons, or in some regions such as

Alaska, it becomes necessary to make the

observations whenever they may be ob-

tained, generally at night. For these reasons

trigonometric leveling can not be expected

to produce precision results and such ob-

servations are made only where elevations

cannot be determined by other practicable

means. |

Spirit leveling is also seriously affected by

vertical refraction, and therefore every

effort is made to eliminate or reduce it to a

minimum. The program is planned to vary

the conditions under which the backward

and forward lines are run with reference to

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 5

the direction of wind and sun, and in all

probability the effect of refraction is elimi-

nated on level ground. In leveling up steep

grades where the upgrade sight is always

near the ground while the downgrade sight

is far from it, there is a differential in the

amount of refraction which is extremely

difficult to control.

PHASE AND ECCENTRICITY

Phase is particularly troublesome in day-

light observations when the appearance and

shape of objects are altered owing to the

change in the direction of the sunlight on

them. Observations for first and second-

order triangulation are practically all made

on electric signal lamps at night and this

procedure largely overcomes the problem

of phase. Furthermore, since each lightkeeper

is required to point the center of the beam

of his lamp to the observer, there is no ec-

centricity except what might be due to the

imperfection of the reflector. Observations

made at night are more accurate than those

made during the daytime because the at-

mospheric conditions are better generally

and there is less difficulty from lateral re-

fraction. As a rule daylight observations

are made only on chimneys, water tanks,

cupolas and other identifiable objects.

These probably are affected to some extent

by phase though precautions are taken to

guard against it insofar as practical. Such

points, moreover, are used for photogram-

metric and other control and are not con-

sidered as first-order. |

Another problem is that of eccentricity.

All horizontal angle observations should be

made with the instrument and the lamps,

heliotropes or other signals centered per-

fectly over the stations. This is not as sim-

ple as it may seem and frequently becomes

of critical importance. The shorter the lines

the greater the care required in centering

the instrument and the, objects sighted

upon.

TRIANGLE CLOSURE

On first-order triangulation it is re-

quired that the average triangle closure

shall not exceed 1 second and that no —

closure shall exceed 3 seconds. A further

Say Sk Ae Lat Re ang oF

Blige os

ey Se

May 15, 1945

_ check is that the logarithm of the length of

the sides of the triangulation as determined

by the different triangles through which the

computations are carried shall not exceed

three times the difference for 1” of the

logarithm for the smallest angle entering

the computation.

LIMIT OF ERROR

The errors that may be caused by instru-

mental or observational imperfections are

—eontrolled within very narrow limits. Di-

vergences from the true values evidently are

caused by erratic and unusual conditions

- and do not occur frequently. Where they

do occur the safeguard against them is the

- maximum allowable triangle closure of 3”,

_ which requires that the faulty observations

_ must be repeated until acceptable results

are obtained. Experience shows that 10

percent of the stations have to be reoccu-

pied in obtaining first-order results. The

maximum discrepancy that can be caused

_ by the total allowable error on one or more

directions in a single closed figure of tri-

angulation (usually a quadrilateral) de-

pends largely on the strength of the figure.

The accuracy of first-order triangulation

can best be estimated by comparing the

measured lengths of base lines with the

lengths as determined by computation

through the triangulation from the preced-

ing base and by triangulation loop clos-

ures. It was found from a recent test in-

volving 32 base lines that the average

closure on bases is of the order of 1 part in

54,500. The specifications require an ac-

curacy of 1 part in 25,000 which is the

_ largest acceptable limit.

Only a very brief discussion of the

leveling net will be given. The net consists

of more than 225,000 bench marks dis-

tributed over more than 300,000 miles of

e lines in the United States.

_ The specifications for first-order leveling

are that the forward and backward runnings

of a section shall not differ by more than

4mm \/K where K is the length of the sec-

tion in kilometers. An indication of the

accuracy is the fact that the average cor-

_ tection applied in distributing the adjusted

GARNER: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEYS

141

loop closures is of the order of 0.1 mm per

kilometer or 1 em in 62 miles.

GRAVITY DETERMINATIONS

Gravity observations properly distrib-

uted over the surface of the earth form an

excellent means of determining the shape

of the earth and were used very extensively

for that purpose until the beginning of the

war when operations in many countries

including the United States were suspended.

Differences between actual and theoretical

gravity (anomalies) are sometimes quite

large and are presumed to be due to lack of

isostatic adjustment or to buried structure

or perhaps to both. Such buried structure

may consist of salt domes or buried granite

ridges, both of which are associated with

the location of petroleum. Gravity observa-

tions made to determine the shape of the

earth and to establish the base stations used

in geophysical exploration are made with

a pendulum apparatus of which special

types have been developed for work both

on land and on the sea. Gravity observa-

tions used in search of oil and minerals have

generally been made with gravimeters of

which there are also several types, all of

comparatively recent development. These

instruments are extremely accurate for

local surveys, and observations at a station

can be made in only a few minutes. Further-

more, they are easily transported and at

small cost.

NORTH AMERICAN DATUM

In 1913 the governments of Canada,

Mexico and the United States jointly

adopted a common datum of reference for

their horizontal control surveys, which was

designated the North American Datum.

This action was taken in the interest of

efficiency and economy to avoid double

coordinates at the boundaries and to estab-

lish uniformity and continuity in mapping

procedure. Representatives of some of the

countries of Central America have also

expressed a desire to coordinate the geo-

detic surveys in their countries on the

North American Datum. Thus it would

appear that the North American Datum

cael

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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

142

New

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may eventually be expected to extend all

over North America and to a connection

' to the geodetic work of South America

“somewhere on the Isthmus of Panama.

At the request of the War Department

‘and through the cooperation of Canada it

‘has been possible during the past four years

‘to extend the North American datum into

the interior of Alaska. Through this work

what previously were four independent

geodetic datums (Yukon datum, Valdez

datum, Unalaska datum and St. Michael

‘datum) are now referred to the North

American Datum. The triangulation scheme

to Alaska follows the Alaska Military High-

way, and in fact, was carried on while the

road was under construction (see Fig. 1).

Phis single line of communications and

travel along the axis of the scheme probably

reduced the cost to one-fifth of what it

otherwise would have been. Air transporta-

_ tion was required for about 75 percent of all

field operations on the work west of Fair-

banks. This was accomplished by the use

of light float planes of from 200 to 800

_ pounds capacity which could be landed on

small lakes and streams near the stations.

By reason of this work there is now a con-

tinuous are of first-order triangulation

from Bering Strait, which separates Alaska

from Siberia, through Alaska, Yukon,

| southeast Alaska, British Columbia, the

United States, and Mexico to southern

Mexico, a distance of approximately 5,400

miles.

e _ WESTERN HEMISPHERE

_ The events of the past three years have

emphasized among other things the need

of international cooperation in mapping.

Prior to 1941 no concerted action had been

taken by countries in the Western Hemi-

sphere in regard to geodetic surveying or in

fact concerning any phase of mapping. The

situation was very suddenly changed when

he war spread to the Western Hemisphere

| bringing an unprecedented demand for all

lasses of maps of world coverage, particu-

larly for aeronautical charts.

Another potent factor toward accelerat-

ing surveying and mapping in the Western

Hemisphere has been the two recent Pan

American Consultations on the various

GARNER: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEYS

143

branches of cartography, the first of which

was held in Washington in October 1943

and the second in Rio de Janeiro August 14

to September 2, 1944. The following is

quoted from a report in the January 1945

issue of the Bulletin of the Pan American

Union by Robert H. Randall, United States

Member and Chairman of the Committee

on Cartography, Pan American Institute of

Geography and History:

The American Geographical Society acted as

host for the United States, and the Commission

on Cartography of the Pan American Institute of

Geography and History acted as joint sponsor,

and organized the Consultation. Broad lines for

the program of mapping improvement in the

hemisphere were drawn. The First Consultation

was attended by technical representatives from

_the countries of North and South America. In the

Second, all of the American nations with the ex-

ception of El Salvador, Haiti and Nicaragua,

were represented. The Brazilian Government

joined the Pan American Institute in sponsoring

the Second Consultation and the general program

outlined in the First Consultation was further

refined, and specific recommendations as to im-

mediate and future procedure were made.

The nations of the American Hemisphere have,

for the most part, always been conscious of the

need for more and better map information. The

need for maps of certain classes, notably aero-

nautical charts, has been critical since the be-

ginning of the Second World War. For while the

excellent maps compiled by the American Geo-

graphical Society were fortunately complete and

available for most of Latin America at the be-

ginning of the war, the need of charts for air

transport and related purposes made it necessary

to fly over and photograph large portions of the

Southern Hemisphere. Further, aeronautical

charts prepared in some South American locali-

ties by the Germans before the war were found

to be not only inaccurate but apparently pur-

posely so.

The lack of map information in some areas, and

the unreliability of the information in others,

called for a tremendous effort in the production of

aeronautical charts. The job was undertaken by

the United States Air Forces, in cooperation with

the other American nations concerned. The series

of aeronautical charts which resulted was pre-

pared in a remarkably short period of time. Fur-

thermore, the charts are of such a high standard

that they constitute a milestone in the geographic

progress not only of the Hemisphere but of the

entire planet.

144

Interest in such matters has been further

accelerated by the State Department’s

program of cultural relations in cooperation

with the American Republics in which

several Federal departments and agencies

are actively cooperating. The Coast and

Geodetic Survey has five small projects,

three of which consist of the intern training

type, which provide for representatives

from certain countries to visit the United

States and observe our methods of geodetic

and hydrographic surveying and of map and

chart reproduction. The present program

provides for training 21 students each year.

The principal of triangulation, that is,

the ability to determine the distance and

PHYSICS.—Faster than sound.

of Technology.

The modern mathematical theory of

flight as worked out in the past three

decades is based on the assumption that the

air can be considered as an incompressible

fluid. At first thought this assumption may

appear rather paradoxical, since, while

water is considered as the typical example

of an almost incompressible fluid, air is

justly regarded as the typical example of

compressible fluid medium. Nevertheless,

the theory of incompressible fluids fur-

nished, for example, good approximations

of the forces acting on airplane wings, pro-

vided the ‘flight speeds of airplanes are

small in comparison with the velocity of

sound. The entrance of the velocity of sound

into the problem has nothing or very little

to do with acoustic phenomena. The term

velocity of sound stands for the velocity of

propagation of small pressure changes in

the fluid medium. If this velocity of propa-

gation is large in comparison with the

velocities involved in the fluid motion con-

cerned, it can be considered as being of

infinite magnitude as well. However, infi-

nite velocity of sound is the characteristic

1 The thirteenth Joseph Henry Lecture of the

Philosophical Society of Washington, delivered at

the 1234th meeting of the Society on April 29,

1 944. Received January,27,"1945.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 5

direction to far distant and inaccessible

points without actually going anywhere

near them, probably will always be one

of fascinating interest. The discovery of this

geometric law, although certainly more

than 2,000 years old, must have been as

epochal in its time as the discovery of elec.

tricity or radio in ours. Of this, President —

Woodrow Wilson in a public address in 1916

said: “‘I have wished, particularly since I

entered public life, that there was some

moral process parallel to the process of

triangulation so that the whereabouts, in-

tellectually and spiritually of some persons,

could be discovered with more particu-

larity.”

THEODORE VON KARMAN, California Institute -

(Communicated by Hueu L. DrypEn.)

feature of an incompressible fluid. This ex-

plains the success of the classical hydro-

dynamical theory of incompressible fluids —

in aeronautics. However, as the airplane be-

came speedier, the deviations from the

results predicted by the theory of incom-—

pressible fluids became larger and larger.

As the flight velocity surpassed approxi-

mately two-thirds the velocity of sound, it

became evident that the discrepancy be-

tween the actual phenomena and the sim-

ple theory can no longer be removed by —

small corrections. The so-called ‘‘com-

pressibility effects” became a plague and

headache of the airplane designers who —

were used to thinking in terms of low speed

aerodynamics. It appeared necessary to —

consider the air as compressible and to

work out the theory of wings, propellers,

and other devices based upon the laws of

the dynamics of compressible fluids. This —

reformulation of aerodynamic theory be-

came a necessity as in our ambitious and —

air-minded age the speed of airplanes is

being pushed up to and perhaps beyond ~

the velocity of sound. The requirements of

‘ modern warfare have further accelerated

this process. .

To be sure, the science of ballistics has +

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May 15, 1945 KARMAN:

phenomena. However, the speed of pro-

jectiles is in general several times the

velocity of sound. The mathematical theory

The

great difficulties—both for the mathemati-

~ eal calculations and for the physical under-

ae. 1 “7.9

_ dimensionless combination is,

standing—appear in the range which re-

cently was denoted as “transsonic.”’ This

is the range of velocities just below and

just beyond the velocity of sound, where

the air flow pattern contains both regions

of subsonic flow and of supersonic flow.

Let us consider for example the law for

_ the resistance of a body moving in a fluid

- medium. This law can be expressed as

a functional relation between certain di-

mensionless combinations of the velocity

of motion, the size of the body, and the

physical properties of the medium. Such a

for exam-

ple, the drag force D divided by an appro-

priately chosen sectional area S of the body,

_ the density p of the medium and the half

of the square of the velocity v. It is evident

that pv?/2 has the dimension of pressure;

asa matter of fact, it is equal to the stagna-

tion pressure of an incompressible fluid

moving with the velocity v and having a

density equal to p. Hence, the surface S

multiplied by pv?/2 has the dimension of

a force. The dimensionless combination

_ D/{S(pv?/2)] is called the drag coefficient

and is a function of two other dimension-

- less combinations which are known as the

Reynolds number and the Mach number.

The Reynolds number expresses the rela-

tive influence of the inertial and the fric-

tional forces. The Mach number expresses

the influence of compressibility. It is de-

fined as the ratio between the velocity of a

motion or a flow and the velocity of sound.

Now, experience and theory show that as

_ long as the “‘Mach number of the motion,”

1.@., the ratio between the velocity of motion

_ of the body and the velocity of sound in the

medium, is small in comparison with unity

it has no significant influence on the drag.

If the Mach number reaches values com-

parable with unity, the compressibility

_of the air has very large influence on the

drag and other aerodynamic characteristics

of the body. To be sure, the Mach number

remains the governing factor over the en-

FASTER THAN SOUND

145

tire supersonic range; however, if the

velocity of the moving body is considerably

higher than the velocity of sound, aero-

dynamic coefficients change with the Mach

number at a moderate rate and the flow

pattern retains its general character. In the

range of velocities slightly lower and slight-

ly higher than the velocity of sound radical

changes in the flow pattern take place and

the phenomena are much more complex

than in the pure subsonic and pure super-

sonic ranges, essentially because regions of

subsonic and supersonic flow are coexistent.

This speed range is designated as the

transsonic range.

The magnitude of the velocity of sound

in a fluid medium is determined by the

equation c?=dp/dp where p is the pressure

and p is the density of the medium. The

pressure p is considered in this equation as

a function of the density p. It is assumed

that the change of density with change of

pressure is fairly well approximated by the

relation corresponding to adiabatic change.

The easiest way to obtain the expression

for the velocity of sound is based on the

consideration of the propagation of a small

pressure change from the viewpoint of an

observer who moves with the propagating

front. For such an observer the motion of

the fluid appears as stationary flow; the

fluid appears moving through the front

with the velocity of sound in a direction

opposite to the direction of propagation.

Let us denote the pressure increment

through the front by dp and the correspond-

ing increment of the density p by dp and

the velocity of the fluid moving against the

front by c; then according to Bernoulli’s

equation for stationary flow the velocity

c changes as the fluid passes through the

front by the amount

1 dp

Cae

Cc Pp

(1)

Now, since cp is the mass of fluid passing

through the front in unit time, the con-

tinuity of matter requires that the product

of density and velocity remains constant.

Consequently, cp=(c+dc)(p+dp) or cdp

+ pdc=0 and therefore

146

cdp

ae Se

(2)

Combining the two equations we obtain

c?=dp/dp. Hence, the velocity of propaga-

tion of an infinitesimally small pressure

increment dp is equal to /dp/dp as indi-

cated above. Substituting the value of the

derivative dp/dp from the equation of the

adiabatic change p=const p’, where y is

the ratio of the specific heats of the medium

at constant pressure and constant volume,

we have c?= yp/p.

Newton gave an expression for the veloc-

ity of sound in air, which in modern lan-

guage amounts to the formula c?=dp/dp.

In his calculation of the value of c, he used

the relation p=const. p (isothermal law).

We can not blame him for this, since in his

time the equivalence of heat and work was

not yet recognized. However, he noticed

that his value was too small in comparison

with the measured value, which was ob-

tained by observation of gun shots. He

tried to apply certain corrections in order

to reconcile theory and experiments. The

real reason for the discrepancy was found

almost a hundred years later by Laplace.

With c?=yp/p, the square of the Mach

number of a fluid flow or a moving body can

be expressed by the following combination

of velocity, pressure, and density:

2 9

iT peta ately

(3)

C YP

Perhaps the two most important basic

problems of fluid mechanics applied to

engineering are the flow of a fluid in a con-

duit and the motion of .a solid body in a

fluid medium at rest. In both cases we find

certain interesting facts in the transsonic

region, i.e., when the velocity of the fluid

in the conduit changes from subsonic to

supersonic or the velocity of the moving

body passes through the velocity of sound.

We will see that these peculiar phenomena

in the two cases are interconnected, and as

a matter of fact, engineering ingenuity was

necessary to obtain supersonic flow in a

conduit, and engineering ingenuity will be

necessary to design airplanes flying with a

speed greater than the velocity of sound.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

However, the difficulty in the first case was

surmounted when engineers recognized the

VOL. 35, NO. 5°

wate,

fundamental laws of supersonic flow, where-

as the difficulties to be surmounted for —

transsonic flying require the solution of

intrinsically difficult. problems in power

plants and airplane design. Let us consider —

first the problem of flow through a conduit.

If we mount a so-called simple rounded q

orifice on the wall of a pressure vessel and

observe the efflux of a gas, we find the y

following results: As long as the pressure

difference between the inside and outside ~

pressure is small in comparison to the in- —

side pressure, the velocity of outflow obeys

approximately Torricelli’s law. It is equal y

1/2gh, where h is the pressure height. —

The rate of flow is equal to the cross-sec-

tional area of the orifice multiplied by this

velocity. If the pressure difference is in-

creasing, the quantity of outflow gradually

lags behind the value given by this rule. —

At a certain value of the ratio between

inside and outside pressure the quantity of a

efflux reaches a maximum. We gall this .

pressure ratio the critical pressure ratio. Its —

value is given by the equation

| De flr Larne

D a 2 )

If the outside pressure is lowered further,

while the nozzle pressure is kept constant, —

the velocity and the rate of efflux remain ~~

unchanged. A simple calculation shows that —

the velocity in the orifice is equal to the ~

velocity of sound corresponding to the —

pressure and density prevailing in the ori-

fice. This experience led quite a few engi-

neers of the nineteenth century to the a

conclusion that the velocity of flow from a —

pressure vessel to the outside atmosphere

cannot be greater than the velocity of s

sound.’ It is known that the Swedish engi- —

2 St. Venant and Wantzel (1839) derived the

correct relation between velocity and pressureina —

compressible fluid. They determined the maxi- —

mum value of the efflux, but did not give a full —

picture of what happens when the pressure ratio is _

larger than critical. Since the application of their ~

formula to the pressure ratio exceeding the critical —

value would indicate a decrease of the efflux with

increasing pressure ratio and zero. efflux into ~

vacuum, they made the hypothesis that when the ~

ratio between inside and outside pressure is —

supercritical, the pressure on the orifice is not ~

oe See :

A Lae

™

ze une

May 15, 1945

neer Carl Gustaf Patrick DeLaval showed

by practical experiments that this is not

- true. If we employ a converging-diverging

— nozzle, much higher velocities can be ob-

tained. The maximum velocity corre-

- sponds to outflow into vacuum and is

~ equal to

et,

a. 2y . De

| Vin } is

bane Pe

where p, and p, are the pressure and density

_ in the pressure chamber. This value is for

air about 2.235 times larger than the

velocity of sound corresponding to the

pressure and density prevailing in the ves-

_ sel, and 2.450 times larger than the velocity

of sound prevailing at the ‘‘throat”’ of the

nozzle. The “local Mach number”’ of the

flow itself, i.e., the ratio between the veloc-

ity of flow and the velocity of sound pre-

_vailing at the same location, increases to

infinity since the velocity of sound in

vacuum is theoretically zero.

_ The reason for the necessity of a con-

_ verging-diverging nozzle becomes evident

if we combine Bernoulli’s equation for

_ adiabatic frictionless flow and the equation

of continuity. Then it appears that the

product of the velocity and density reaches

_ @ maximum value at a certain value of the

_ pressure. According to the continuity equa-

tion, the product of cross-sectional area,

_ velocity and density is constant along the

‘ - nozzle. Consequently the maximum value of

_ density times velocity corresponds to a

' minimum value of the cross section. The

_ maximum value of vp is given by the equa-

» tion d(vp) =0, or

—_—

* | dv | dp

am sao: (4)

Vv p

| If we combine this equation with Ber- :

— noulli’s equation written

in the form

| dp/p=-—vdv and eliminate dv we obtain

| discussed pro and con in the engineering literature

| of the following decades. It seems that Osborne

| Reynolds (1886) was the first author who com-

| pleted the theory both for the case of a simple

at and that of the convergent-divergent

nozzle.

KARMAN:! FASTER THAN SOUND

147

the minimum cross section, in the so-called

“throat,” is equal to dp/dp, i.e., to the

square of the local velocity of sound.

Whether the velocity be larger or smaller

than the velocity in the throat, the same

amount of mass flow requires a larger cross-

sectional area than the throat area.

Table 1 shows the comparison between

TABLE 1

Incompressible Compressible

fluid fluid

Continuity. itso. Sv =Const. | Spv =Const.

Differential form. ...| dS/S+dv/v=0 |dS/S+dp/p+dv/v =0

dp/p+vdv =0

Bernoulli's equation. |

the equations for incompressible and com-

pressible fluids. Fig. 1 illustrates the rela-

tion between cross section and velocity for

cr Umax

—> V

Fig. 1.—Relation between cross section and

velocity for an incompressible fluid (curve a) and

for a compressible fluid expanding adiabatically

(curve b).

an incompressible fluid (curve a) and for a

compressible fluid expanding adiabatically

(curve b). The equation for the cross section

S can be written in the form:

dS dv

—-=— (M*-1)

S v

where M=v/c is the local Mach number.

It is seen that dS is positive for positive

aoe

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

values of dv when M>1, and negative

when M <1.

We do not want to discuss here the ap-

plication of the mechanics of compressible

fluids to the design of machines like com-

pressors and steam and gas turbines. How-

ever, it is necessary to point out an essential

difference in the behavior of a converging-

diverging nozzle in the subsonic and super-

sonic range. The nozzle shown in Fig. 2 is

designed for a certain pressure ratio

Po/Pe, Which is larger than the critical. If

the computed pressures prevail at the inlet

and outlet, we obtain a flow with adiabatic

expansion of the gas from the pressure p>

to pe; the flow is supersonic between the

throat and the outlet. Let us now consider

the behavior of the fluid when the pressure

at the outlet is raised, whereas the pressure

at the inlet is kept constant. We start with

a small value of the pressure difference. In

this case the gas behaves approximately as

an incompressible fluid. The velocity reaches

a maximum value at the throat and the

expanding portion of the nozzle acts as a

diffuser in that kinetic energy is trans-

formed into pressure. As the pressure ratio

reaches its critical value (at an exit pressure

equal to p.’) the velocity at the throat

reaches the value of the local velocity of

sound. If we decrease the outlet pressure

below the value p.’, we observe the follow-

ing phenomena. The gas after passing

through the throat continues its accelera-

tion, the pressure drops, the velocity in-

creases until at a certain cross section the

pressure suddenly jumps to a higher value;

at the same time the density undergoes a

sudden increase and correspondingly the

velocity decreases. We call this phenome-

non a “‘compression shock.”’ Such a com-

pression shock can occur either inside the

nozzle mostly as a ‘normal shock’ or

starting from the rim of the outlet section

as a so-called oblique shock. Sometimes we

observe an oblique shock also inside the

nozzle. In such a case the flow separates

from the wall so that the main flow occu-

pies the center part of the nozzle and a

certain space in the neighborhood of the

walls is filled with eddying fluid.

The theory of compression shocks for

ideal fluids has been worked out theoreti-

cally by several scientists in detail. How-

ever, the experimental research shows

considerable variance with the simple

theory mostly due to the friction at the

wall. We know that strictly speaking the

velocity of the fluid is zero at a solid sur-_

face and increases gradually in the bound-

ary layer until the full value prevailing in

the main flow is reached. Consequently,

even if the main flow is supersonic, near the

wall we always have subsonic flow. This

fact alone is sufficient to show why the

theory of ideal fluids can not explain all

phenomena connected with compression

shocks. The experimental research in this

field is yet in the early beginning stages.

The main conclusion we draw from theory

and observations is the different behavior

of the fluid in the subsonic and supersonic

range as far as flow against increasing pres-

sure is concerned. In subsonic flow, Le.,

when the velocity at no place surpasses the

velocity of sound, we are able to transform

pressure into velocity and _ retransform

velocity into pressure in a continuous man-

ner. To be sure, the retransformation of

kinetic energy into pressure involves more

loss than the transformation of pressure

into kinetic energy, but it occurs without

discontinuous change in either pressure or

velocity. However, if the velocity once sur-

passed the velocity of sound, in general we

are unable to carry out the retransforma-

tion of the kinetic energy into pressure

without sudden change and this sudden

change involves undesirable transfer of

mechanical energy in heat instead of pres-

sure.

The main physical reason for the occur-

rence of the compression shock is the fol-

lowing: Let us first assume a purely subsonic

flow through a converging-diverging nozzle.

If we raise the outlet pressure by a small

amount, the pressure change propagates

upstream with a velocity which is equal to

the velocity of sound minus the velocity of

flow. The end effect is an adjustment of the

pressures and velocities in every cross sec-

tion to the new pressure ratio. However, if

the velocity at the outlet is supersonic, a

small pressure rise is unable to travel up-

stream, since the velocity of the gas is

larger than the velocity of pressure propa-

VoL. 35,NO.5 |

\ ‘

and p,’ denoted by p-.

May 15, 1945

gation. Consequently, the effect of pressure

change that is imposed on the periphery of

the jet is confined to the downstream por-

tion of the jet, more exactly to the region

downstream from a conical surface emanat-

ing from the cross section of the orifice.

In this case we obtain an oblique shock

outside the nozzle. Now it can be shown

that a finite pressure rise travels with a

higher velocity than the velocity of sound

which is, strictly speaking, the velocity of

propagation of an infinitesimal pressure

change. Consequently, a large pressure rise

applied to the outlet is able to intrude up-

stream into the nozzle. By doing so its

intensity and its velocity of propagation

decreases until it becomes equal to the

velocity of the stream. Thus we obtain a

stationary compression shock at some cross

section inside the nozzle.

Fie. 2.—Computed pressure distributions in a

converging-diverging nozzle for various exit pres-

sures.

Fig. 2 shows computed pressure dis-

tributions along the axis of a nozzle for

various exit pressures p,. The limiting

value for which subsonic flow occurs is de-

noted by p.’. The exit pressure which

produces supersonic flow without shock is

pe. The curves ending at values between p,

’’ refer to adiabatic

change of state after a shock occurred. The

CUIVE PecrPipeps Yefers to states in which

_ the velocity is equal to the local velocity of

sound. If the exit pressure is above the end

- point of this curve, the shock is inside of

KARMAN: FASTER THAN SOUND

149

the nozzle and the flow beyond the shock is

subsonic. If the end pressure is lower the

flow is supersonic along the whole nozzle

and the applied shock occurs downstream

outside of the nozzle.

We can produce compression shock by

performing another fundamental experi-

ment, namely, putting an obstacle, for

example, an inclined plane or a wedge in the

way of the gas moving with supersonic

velocity (Fig. 3). If we perform this experi-

/ a

¥ “

ialesihebs kcantics used & $

M= 2.5 E J

: fey MN ee ORO

be Z 2 < oe

LK Caan ras re By \*

WO OS

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

> 4

= ot \

<A NES :

< Ne

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Fic. 3.—Compressible and incompressible flow

against an inclined surface.

ment in a subsonic stream, we obtain the

stagnation pressure at the corner and the

flow is deflected smoothly to follow the new

direction. In the case of supersonic flow the

pressure rise caused by the obstacle is

unable to propagate indefinitely in the

upstream direction. If the angle of deflec-

tion is small, we obtain a compression

shock starting out from the corner. If the

angle of deflection is larger, the pressure

rise will travel to a certain distance up

stream and we obtain a stationary com-

pression shock at a certain distance up-

150

stream from the corner.® Between the

compression shock and the wedge in this

ease the flow is subsonic. These funda- ~

mental observations are helpful in the

understanding of the phenomena connected

with the problem of a body moving in a

fluid at rest which we shall consider more

conveniently as the problem of flow in an

infinitely extended fluid around a solid body.

Considerable experimental material is

available about the drag of bodies moving

with supersonic velocity from _ ballistic

experiments, essentially from firing tests.

Let us consider a body of revolution at rest

and assume that the gas is moving with

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 5

subsonic case the drag of a body consists —

of two parts; the frictional drag and the

form drag. The frictional drag is an un-

avoidable item in any real, i.e., viscous

fluid. The form drag can be avoided if we

prevent separation, or as we sometimes say,

_ vortex shedding from the body. As a mat-— |

ter of fact, a streamlined body in an ideal

incompressible fluid has no drag at all, as

was recognized very early by d’Alembert.

To be sure, we obtain a pressure rise at the

nose equal to the stagnation pressure.

However, this pressure rise is balanced by

suction at the front part and by pressure

at the rear part of the body. In the case of

Fig. 4.—Attached shock wave at a conical

ogive of small vertex angle. Mach number =2.481,

semivertex angle =12.1°.

supersonic velocity relative to this body

parallel to its axis. We obviously have a

case which is analogous to that mentioned

at the end of the last section. For example,

if the body of revolution has a sharp nose,

the fluid moving with supersonic flow is

forced to be deflected in the direction of the

tangential plane of the ogive. If the angle

of deflection is small (Fig. 4), we obtain a

compression shock starting from the vertex.

If the angle of deflection is large (Fig. 5),

we obtain a compression shock in the free

air upstream from the body. Such a shock is

called a detached shock.

Let us consider the influence of a com-

pression shock on the drag. In the purely

3 Strictly speaking, if the ‘‘deflector plate” is

extended to infinity, the compression wave would

travel upstream to infinity; if the length of the

deflector is finite, the above statement is correct.

5.—Detached shock wave at a conical

Fi.

ogive of large vertex angle. Mach number =1.25,

semivertex angle =30°.

the so-called ‘half body,” i.e., a body with

a ‘nose’’ and a cylindrical portion extend- —

ing to infinity, the pressure at the nose and —

the suction at the shoulder of the body are —

balanced in a way that the resultant force is

zero. The same statement is true for an —

ideal compressible fluid provided the flow ~

is subsonic everywhere. In the case of the —

supersonic flow the pressure at the nose is —

in general smaller than the stagnation pres-

sure, but owing to the compression shock —

no suction of the shoulder occurs or at least —

it is reduced to such extent that a con- ~

siderable form drag results. Fig. 6 shows —

computed pressure distributions on the —

nose part of a half body for incompressible —

flow and for supersonic flows at various —

Mach numbers. Fig. 7 shows experimen- —

tal drag curves for a shell with sharp —

nose, and for several shells with blunt noses, —

sea

Mar 15, 1945

including a sphere. A shell or a sphere has

- considerable form drag also at low Mach

numbers, due essentially to the wake pro-

— dueed by lack of streamlining of the rear

end of the body. However, the drag in-

_ ereases rapidly as the velocity of the shell

_ passes through the velocity of sound of the

_ medium. It is seen that this increase starts

at a Mach number ‘substantially smaller

than unity and the shape of the curve in

this transition range which we denoted by

the term “transsonic’’ apparently greatly

~ depends on the form of the nose. The fol-

lowing section deals with this range.

Instead of a shell we shall consider a

~ eylindrical body such as an airplane wing

of long span moving through the air at rest.

_ Let the velocity of motion be smaller than

. the velocity of sound. To an observer mov-

_ ing with the wing the fluid appears to ap-

_ proach the wing with a certain subsonic

velocity and is accelerated along the curved

_ boundaries of the wing. Let us assume for

_ the sake of simplicity that the air is not

_ extended indefinitely but is limited by two

_ surfaces parallel to the direction of motion

of the wing and at a certain distance from

the wing. Obviously both the upper and the

lower parts of the flow are analogous to a

Bees Seg

b's

Fig. 6.—Computed pressure distributions on

_ the nose of a half body for incompressible flow

_- (M=0) and for supersonic flows at various Mach

_ humbers.

KARMAN: FASTER THAN SOUND

151

Fig. 7.—Experimental drag curves for a shell

with sharp nose (Kent), for several shells with

blunt nose, and for a sphere.

Consequently, the velocity of sound may be

reached in the throat before the body itself

moves with sonic velocity. The flight veloc-

ity at which the local velocity reaches the

local velocity of sound is sometimes called

the “lower critical velocity of the wing.”

Now in reality the air is not restricted by a

solid surface; however, the outer part of the

air exerts a certain resistance against deflec-

tion by its inertia and the result of this

resistance is essentially similar to the effect

of a solid surface. Therefore, in the airflow

adjoining the airplane surface similar phe-

nomena will occur as are observed in

nozzles. We have seen that the flow in the

nozzle is characterized by two facts: first,

if the velocity of sound is reached in the

throat the amount of fluid flowing through

the nozzle cannot be increased further.

Second, if the downstream pressure is higher

than corresponds to the expansion ratio of

the nozzle, a compression shock results.

Both phenomena can be observed in the

case of the wing. The first one causes a sub-

stantial decrease of the lifting capacity of

the wing; the second one increases its drag.

The amount of lift produced by an air-

plane wing, is, generally speaking, deter-

mined by the difference of pressure between

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 5 am

Be Ee

—

fe | Ses | aaies

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ists die AEE

ole Ae See

PRMRER CECE

ee eae

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bale Melee as

fe ae lie dele ee ale

ete ies feu e ieee

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sracerdrscdeats

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ra Oar ee a

Fee Boe

ee ae

02 ce) os 1.0 12 14 1

is ee ee

aPrrier=

Pe eee Wear fee Ss

J Oey

CSPI MisS ace

RAE LES aie

Cee A el

JRA as

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Fic. 8.—Lift coefficients of airfoils as a function of Mach number M and angle of attack a.

eh sal

PCCCC CEC SS

Basen eae eah eek...

J fochsale hn af ale | alcatel ee saivoe [eestesie

A es se

mE = pa al Bets a8 A fe el i ee

CRB RR ECC EC.

Fig. 9.—Drag coefficients of airfoils as a function of Mach number M and angle of attack a.

eit

- .

¥ 7 A"

* "

May 15, 1945

the lower and the upper surface. For ex-

ample, in the case of a cambered wing the

air is accelerated along the upper surface to

_a greater extent than at the lower surface,

_ and therefore at the upper surface a larger

suction will be produced than at the lower

- surface. The difference of the resulting

suctions furnishes the lift of the wing. Now

;

it is evident that because of the larger

eamber of the upper surface the velocity of

sound will be reached sooner in the upper

than in the lower surface. In other words,

what we can call the throat condition will

occur earlier at the upper surface. Conse-

quently, even if we further increase the

— flight velocity of the wing the magnitude of

the suction at the upper surface will cease

to increase. The lift practically becomes

independent of the velocity of flight, where-

as in subsonic conditions the lift of an air-

plane wing increases with the square of the

‘ velocity. We call the ratio between the lift

per unit area and the dynamic pressure of

the corresponding flight velocity; the lift

a coefficient. Hence, if the lift remains con-

”

stant with increasing flight velocity, the lift

coefficient must rapidly decrease. Fig. 8

shows lift coefficients of airfoil sections as

functions of Mach number as measured in

- wind tunnel. No reliable data exist for the

_transsonic range between M=0.85 and

=1.4.

We can express the same phenomenon in

another way. The lift produced by a wing

is the result of the deflection of the air

passing along the chord. As a matter of fact,

the lifting force is the reaction of the air

pushed downward in unit time. The main

_ part of the lift is produced by the deflection

of the air passing near to the lifting surface.

The contribution of the outer parts is rela-

tively small. Now if we have a throat condi-

tion, the amount of air passing in a given

neighborhood of the wing surface ceases to

increase with increasing flight velocity and

therefore the lift will not increase at the

same rate with the flight velocity as it did

before.

The appearance of shock waves at flight

_ velocities approaching the velocity of sound

was observed both in flight and wind tun-

nel. It is the primary cause of the “‘prema-

ture increase” of the drag, i.e., the increase

KARMAN: FASTER THAN SOUND 153

that occurs before the flight velocity reaches

the velocity of sound. Fig. 9 gives measured

values of the drag coefficient of airfoils as

functions of Mach number. It was found

that the mere presence of supersonic veloc-

ity in a certain region does not necessarily

involve the occurrence of compression

shocks. The flight velocity at which the

compression shock first appears is called the

‘upper critical flight velocity.”’ Its determi-

nation, i.e., the exact conditions for the

first appearance of shock waves are the

subject of extensive theoretical and experi-

mental research work. However, most of the

scientific investigations in this field can

become common knowledge only after the

war because of the close connection between

such purely scientific problems and the

design problems of airplanes able to fly at

transsonic velocities.

Fig. 10 shows so-called “Schlieren” pic-

tures of the flow over. a curved surface

simulating the conditions on the upper

surface of an airfoil. Flow direction is from

right to left. Black means expansion in

flow direction, the white lines indicate sud-

den increase of density. Fig. 10a is taken at

a low Mach number, 10b at M=0.65,

10c at M =0.75, 10d at M =0.83. The photo-

graphs also show that simultaneously with

the occurrence of the shock wave the flow

separates from the wing surface. This sepa-

ration is the principal cause for the drag

increase.

Obviously, it is an intriguing question

whether there are any intrinsic limits for

flight velocity. Many people will ask ‘Shall

we ever fly faster than sound?” I do not

believe that at the present time this ques-

tion can be answered by a straight ‘“‘yes”’

or “no.” There is one case that can be

treated in a rather simple way: the case of

an airplane diving vertically. You may

remember we have read several times in the

news that one or another pilot claimed that

he had reached while diving a speed faster

than sound velocity. In the stationary state

of vertical diving the weight of a falling

body or a diving airplane is equal to the

drag. As mentioned before, we usually ex-

press the drag D of the airplane by the

product of the drag coefficient, Cp the

wing area S, and the half product of the

154

density p and the square of the velocity v.

Introducing the value of the velocity of

sound by the formula c?=yp/p, this equa-

tion can be expressed also in the following

form:

D => CpSpM? (5)

1.e., the drag equals the product of the wing

area, the atmospheric pressure at the alti-

tude at which the diving is performed, the

square of the Mach number multiplied with

a numerical factor equal to yCp/2. Using

the value y=1.405 and putting the drag

equal to the weight W of the airplane, we

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 39, NO. 5

obtain the following expression for the

value of the drag coefficient which permits

a certain Mach number J to be reached in

diving:

Cy etag ee (6

En ORO: (6)

For diving at sound velocity, we have to

substitute M=1 in this equation. The

weight of the airplane divided by the wing

area is called the wing loading l1,,. Hence,

we obtain for the maximum value of the -

drag coefficient which would permit diving

at sound velocity the following simple

expression:

Fic.

10.—Schlieren photographs of flow past an elliptical cylinder with 0.15 thickness ratio at zero

angle of attack. The direction of flow is from right to left. The small oblique channel visible in the

pictures at the leading edge of the ellipse serves to remove the upstream wall boundary layer. Correct

flow past the surface of an elliptical cylinder is thus obtained using only half of an elliptical section.

Dark areas correspond to expansion, light areas to compression. Exposure time 1/25 sec. ; ¥

Cp =1.42 — - (7)

i: 2 gives the values of the allowable

: maximum aay coefficient as function of

TABLE 2

_ Altitude | Pressure | oy se t

(ft.) (ib. /ft.2) | 50 je a ee

Sea level 2,106 | 0.0202 | 0.0269 | 0.0404 | 0.0538

Laie? 1,448 | 0.0294 | 0.0392 | 0.0588 | 0.0784

re, 6 968 | 0.0440 | 0.0586 | 0.0880 | 0.1172

pe 626 | 0.0680 | 0.0906 | 0.1360 | 0.1812

a 390 | 0.1092 0.2184 | 0.2912

0.1456

of 35 to 50 pounds per square feet; un-

“manned missiles have still higher wing

_ loading. On the other hand, the drag coeffi-

cient at low speeds, i.e. ye Mach numbers

_ is reported to be about 0.02 for the Spitfire

y and about 20-25 per cent lower for some

question as to whether such an pe can

_ dive with sound velocity depends on he

_ data for estimating the ratio, it appears

_ that we have a marginal case. It should not

be impossible to make design alterations

_ that would allow an airplane of the present

a general type to dive at a speed equal to the

_ velocity of sound.

p The case of level flight at transsonic #8

- supersonic speeds is much more complex.

_ The present official international world

_ record is 468.94 m.p.h. (1939). To be sure,

pe according to regulations the flight for the

international speed record has to be per-

2 formed at sea level. We do not know what

; maximum speed was reached actually in

recent years. Probably the man who will

z - first challenge the world record will have to

: prepare himself for a substantial step up.

, i

oe |

KARMAN: FASTER THAN- SOUND

155

The problem is complex because reduction

of the drag of the airplane is only less than

half of the whole story. The question of

weight is the most important point. First,

of course, a certain percentage of the total

weight is necessary for safe structure. Then

the airplane has to carry the weight of the

power plant and the weight of the fuel. The

size of the power plant is determined by the

thrust required to balance the drag, the

weight of the fuel by the thrust required

and the desired flight duration.

In general, the power plants of lighter

weight for the same power output consume

relatively more fuel. The power plants of

high fuel economy are relatively heavier.

The aerodynamic considerations give pref-

erence to high altitude; on the other hand,

a power plant of a given weight will fur-

nish, in general, less power at a_ higher

altitude.

To some extent the question of super-

sonic flrght is analogous to another intrigu-

ing problem discussed sometimes by serious

men, more often by authors having more

imagination than scientific knowledge. I

mean the question of the feasibility of navi-

gation off from the gravitational field of the

earth. Of course, some fabulous new fuel

would change the situation completely in

both eases. However, basing the considera-

tion on power plants and fuels which are

available or which we hope to have with

reasonable expectation, the answer to the

question of the feasibility of stellar naviga-

tion is probably negative, whereas there is

no evidence that the velocity of sound -

should constitute a “stone wall” of despair.

To be sure, it will be necessary to use all

good advice which aerodynamic science,

chemistry of combustion, and thermody-

namics may contribute.

We did not touch one question at all, a

question that perhaps is fundamental: Why

does anyone want to travel so fast? I think

this question is too difficult for an engineer.

It should be asked of a philosopher.

156

GEOCHEMISTRY.—Contact deposits in an artificial silicate magma.

InsutEY, Pennsylvania State College.

It is my purpose here to give an example

of how petrological laboratory methods

may be applied to a technological problem

and how in turn the solution of that prob-

lem affords some speculation on a question

in petrogenesis. Much of the work referred

to was done some years ago, but interest

in it and in the petrogenetic speculations

arising from it has lately been renewed be-

cause of war work on the corrosion of opti-

cal glass melting pots.

The technological problem in question

was the determination of the cause of the

corrosion and failure of refractories used in

glass melting, and, therefore, a necessary

part of the solution was the determination

of the course of attack and the reaction

products produced by the attack of molten

glass on the walls of the tank used as con-

tainer. The method used was the petro-

graphic-microscopic examination of the

contact zones of glass and container.

The molten glass in a melting tank is.an

artificial silicate magma and in general is

not unlike a natural magma, although there

are some marked differences in detail. The

artificial and the natural are similar in that

both are silicates, and the containing cham-

bers of both are composed of similar ma-

terials. They differ in the details of their

composition, the temperatures to which

they are exposed, the time of exposure, the

amount and character of the gaseous phase

present, and the rate of flow of the magma

in the basin.

The glass-containing portions of tanks

are generally rectangular in plan and in

elevation, varying in dimensions from one

25 feet long by 12 feet wide by 2 feet deep

to one as large as 100 by 60 by 3 feet. The

quantity of glass contained may range

from 60 to 1,500 tons. The walls and floor

of the tank which are in contact with the

molten glass are essentially an aluminum

silicate. Sometimes they are fired clay

1 Address by the retiring president of the Geo-

logical Society of Washington, delivered at the

5lst annual meeting of the Society, December 8,

1943. Received February 5, 1945.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

blocks and sometimes a mixture of alumina

and silica fused and cast into blocks. The

alumina-silica ratio of such refractories may

vary over a wide range. The roof and upper

side walls in contact with the tank at-

mosphere are generally made of silica

brick with a silica content of more than

95 percent. The melting end of the tank

is separated from the ‘refining’ end by a

refractory wall (the “bridge wall’’), the

molten glass passing from one section to the

other by means of a submerged “throat.”

The batch mixture consisting usually of a

alkali carbonate or sulphate, limestone,

and quartz sand with the occasional addi-

tion of other substances is introduced into

the melting end of the tank and melted by

the radiant gases from burning producer

gas, fuel oil, or natural gas passing over the

surface of the tank. Melting temperatures

of 1,450 to 1,500° are generally used. The

reaction to form glass proceeds by the re-

moval of carbon dioxide and the mutual ~—

solution of the alkalies, lime, and silica.

Magnesia is sometimes substituted for part

of the lime and additions or substitutions

of other oxides such as alumina, lead oxide,

barium oxide, etc., are frequently made.

In the usual commercial window or bottle

glass silica may range from 68 to 74 per-

cent, soda from 11 to 17 percent, and lime

from 8 to 14 percent. By comparison, the

igneous rocks all contain much more alum-

ina. Only the granite group contains as

much silica and only the nephelite rocks as

much alkali.

Unlike natural igneous rocks where com-

plete vitrification is extremely rare the chief

aim in the manufacture of commercial glass

is the total elimination of crystalline ma-

terial. Within the glass-melting tank itself

some crystallization may take place in

corners where circulation is poor or an

accumulation of unmelted batch material

and devitrified glass may be gathered be-

hind the bridge, but the appearance of these

materials in the finished glass will cause the

rejection of the ware.

The reactions of the molten glass with

. VOL.,.35, NO. 5 ae

“i

fit

HERBERT

petandl 5.1 jcc aie ang Te

ete a = tee. Te ee — PaO ae

Pe eet a ee ek Mea IO ae

. et he y J > on

She cine ik ee ge = ee ae

Fig. 1.—Broken piece of clay refractory block after exposure to the atmosphere of the glass tank

above the glass level showing dark crust of small crystals of corundum on outer surface (left) with

bleached layer of vitrified refractory next and unattacked refractory below. About 4 natural size.

Fic. 2.—Aggregate in glass of platy crystals of corundum in parallel arrangement probably originating

in the crust on aluminum silicate refractory above the glass level and carried down into the glass with

liquid silicate material. X16. Fic. 3.—A “‘stone”’ of aluminum silicate refractory embedded in glass

with an outer reaction rim of skeleton nephelite (marked ‘‘a’’) and an intermediate zone of thin platy

crystals of corundum (appearing as needles in area marked “b’’). X50. Fic. 4.—A “‘stone’’ embedded

in glass that was originally aluminum silicate refractory but that has been completely converted to

nephelite by reaction with the glass. An outer zone of skeleton crystals with a core of complete nephelite

crystals. 40.

May 15, 1945

the walls of the container are interesting not

only from the point of view of the glass

manufacturer, who is concerned with the.

durability of the glass tank and the purity

of the glass produced, but also from the

point of view of the petrologist and the

silicate chemist. The corrosion of the tank

walls weakens the container by loss of ma-

terials and also introduces crystalline reac-

tion products and undissolved wall ma-

terial into the glass.

‘That part of the aluminum silicate refrac-

tory above the level of the molten glass is

subject to reaction with the tank at-

mosphere. This atmosphere contains the

unburned fuel gases and the products of

combustion as well as volatilized alkalies

and the batch dusts composed largely of

alkali carbonates with smaller amounts of

_the coarser-grained quartz and limestone.

Usually the ratio of alkalies to lime and

‘silica is much higher in the tank atmosphere

than in the molten glass. The action on the

aluminum silicate refractory above the

- glass level is in general a decomposition to

form crystalline alumina (@Al,O; or corun-

dum) in a liquid sodium calcium aluminum

silicate. On vertical or sloping side walls

the platy crystals of corundum tend to

form a network from which the silicate

liquid drains away into the glass in the

tank often leaving a thick crust of corun-

‘dum crystals (Fig. 1). At times the corun-

dum crystals are carried into the tank glass

_ with the liquid silicate to form troublesome

and relatively insoluble “‘stones.’”’ Where

the liquid is retained on the refractory wall

it may sometimes crystallize to a plagio-

clase feldspar? or, more rarely, to nephelite

(NaAlSi0O,).

The reaction to form corundum and

liquid (Fig. 2) in the aluminum silicate re-

fractories exposed to the glass furnace at-

mosphere at operating temperatures takes

_ place even though the refractory block has a

' composition more highly siliceous than that

of a pure dehyrated kaolinite (Al,O;—46

percent, Si0.—54 percent) where one might

reasonably expect an aluminum silicate

~ such as mullite to form. A consideration of

2 Feldspar crystals of the composition of oligo-

: clase and labradorite have been observed.

INSLEY: CONTACT DEPOSITS IN SILICATE MAGMA

157

the solubility relations in the system,

Na,O-AleO;-SiO2 (Fig. 5°) at these tem-

peratures shows the reason for the phases

present. The boundary of the primary

phase fields of mullite (8AlO0 3: 25102) and

corundum (Al,O3), which in the AlsOs-SiOe

system lies at a SiQ2/AlOs; ratio, is 78/22

and the Na2,O percentage is about 10. This

represents a deep salient of the corundum

primary phase field into the ternary system

and in effect means that at the operating

temperatures of glass tanks corundum may

be the product of reaction between alumi-

num silicate and soda where the original

blocks were considerably higher in silica

than kaolinite and which, therefore, may

have contained originally considerable

quartz. Moreover, close to the quintuple

point albite-mullite-corundum-liquid-vapor

the isotherms (not shown on the diagram

reproduced) indicate that corundum may

be a product of crystallization from the

liquid at temperatures as low as 1,100°,

although there is a very sharp increase in

liquidus temperatures toward the AlOs;

apex of the diagram. The diagram of the

K,0—A].03;-SiO2 system* indicates the same

strong inclination of the corundum-mul-

lite boundary toward the silica apex as in

the Na,O-Al:0;-SiO2 system. In the CaO-

Al,O3-SiO2 system® the inclination of the

mullite-corundum boundary is also toward

the SiOz apex, although it is not nearly as

pronounced as in the other two diagrams.

Approximately the same reaction prod-

ucts are formed at the contact of molten

glass and aluminum silicate refractory as

are formed above the level of the molten

glass, although the relative quantities are

3 The figure shown is reproduced by the kind

permission of J. F. Schairer, of the Geophysical

Laboratory, and represents his tentative and as

yet unpublished data on this system. Although

later work may change some details of the dia-

gram, he does not believe that any changes of

significance to this discussion will be made in the

final form.

4 Reproduced in N. L. Bowen’s Petrology and

silicate technology, Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 26:

285-301. 1943.

’ As modified from RANKIN and WRIGHT,

Amer. Journ. Sci. 39: 1-79. 1915; Bowren and

Greia, Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 7: 238. 1924; and

Greic, Amer. Journ. Sci. 13: 35-41. 1927; and

summarized in Hau and INsuey, Journ. Amer.

Cer. Soc. 16: 524. 1933.

158

much different largely because of the fact

that considerably greater percentages of

silica and lime take part in the reaction in

the former case than in the latter. In the

reaction between glass and _ refractory,

moreover, both of the reaction products,

corundum and liquid, are carried away

from the reaction face, thus continually ex-

posing new material to attack. In fact, both

above and below the glass line the reaction

is a non-equilibrium process even over very

short distances. Mullite and glass are the

products produced in the manufacture of

the refractory. In refractories below the

glass level the first evidence of the reaction

of the molten glass is shown by an increase

in the amount of glass with respect to that

of mullite with the eventual appearance of

tabular rhombohedral crystals of corun-

Cristo

10 20 30 40

Na,O

Fre. 5.—Preliminary diagram by J. F. Schairer of the phase relationship in the system

Na.O-—Al,0;-SiO». Reproduced with permission from unpublished data.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ~~ VOL. 35, NO. 5 ~

dum. The outer portion of the corundum ~

layer (next to the glass) frequently con- —

tains skeleton crystals of nephelite (Fig. 3), —

sometimes associated with carnegieite. In |

the melting end of the tank the tempera- —

tures are generally far too high to permit the —

formation of the nephelite-carnegieite phase, —

and here the crystallization probably takes —

place during the cooling of the tank after a —

campaign. In the cooler portions of the —

tank operating temperatures are frequently —

within the range in which these compounds _

may crystallize. Below the glass level, as —

well as above, corundum crystals may form —

‘as a reaction product on refractories in —

which the Al,O3/SiO2 ratio is considerably —

below that of kaolinite (46/54). Even a re- —

fractory material that contains enough ex- —

cess silica for considerable free quartz may

SiO 4

Bo 90 AlOg

Na,@ Al,0,70

2050°

~ May 15, 1945

produce corundum with the molten glass.

In xenoliths of refractory material which

_ have been carried away in the magma vary-

‘

ing degrees of metamorphism and digestion

have been observed. Pieces that have bro-

ken from the refractory near the exit end

of the tank and presumably exposed to re-

action at fairly low temperatures (very ap-

proximately 1,100°C.) for a short time may

have slight evidences of solution of the

mullite crystals with a few extremely

thin corundum crystals at the contact. In

others which have undergone longer attack

~ at higher temperatures the mullite crystals

have disappeared completely, and the in-

clusion has a core composed of a mass of

small corundum crystals in a matrix of

_ nephelite with an outer zone composed of

almost pure nephelite. Where reaction has

gone still further, the corundum crystals

have. disappeared completely, and nephe-

lite is the only crystalline material remain-

ing (Fig. 4). ‘Stones’ showing all these

stages of reaction have been gathered from

a glass melting tank which has been closed

down for repairs of the badly corroded re-

fractories after a long melting period.

A partial substitution of potash for soda,

as is the case in some commercial and in

some optical glasses, produces the same

general reaction products with the refrac-

tories. The feldspathoid associated with

corundum is in this case a nephelite-kalio-

_philite solid solution. In lead-containing

optical glasses corundum also is a product

of the reaction between molten glass and

refractory even in the absence of alkalies.

The solution of the technological prob-

lem of increasing the resistance of the re-

_ fractory to corrosion by molten glass would

appear to be simple from the purely chem1-

cal point of view after the products of the

reaction have been identified. A moderate

increase in the alumina content of the re-

fractories may, however, do more harm

_ than good, because solution of the more

soluble phase in the molten glass may re-

; lease abundant, relatively insoluble corun-

dum crystals into the glass and cause the

rejection of the ware because of “‘stones.’’

If the refractory can be made out of

-homogeneous, nonporous, pure alumina,

then whatever slight solution there is will

id aaa

INSLEY: CONTACT DEPOSITS IN SILICATE MAGMA

159

be uniform and do little or no damage to

the glass. Technical difficulties in the man-

ufacture of a mechanically stable refractory

of this type are numerous, however, and so

far it has not been satisfactorily solved.

The fact of the occurrence of corundum

as a contact metamorphic deposit in an

artificial igneous magma at once brings up

the question of its pertinence to the origin

of corundum deposits in nature. It

notable that. practically all deposits whose

geological relationships are at all clear are

in, or are closely associated with, igneous

bodies and that, with one notable excep-

tion, these deposits occur sharply localized

at the contact with the country rock or in

association with partly digested xenoliths.

The exception is the group of Ontario

corundum bodies.

The deposit in nature that most nearly

approximates that in the glass tank with

respect to the composition of the intrusive

magma and the absence of pneumatolytic

or hydrothermal effects is undoubtedly that

at Nun’s Pass in the Island of Mull de-

seribed by H. H. Thomas.® Here the central

felsitic portion of the invading magma in

the sill has a composition of about 71 per-

cent SiOe, 12 AlO;, 3.5 FeO, 1.8 CaO, 4.7

K,0, and 2.5 NaeO, which is not greatly

different from that of commercial glass.

The invading rock lining the walls is of a

somewhat different character. On one wall

it is characterized by cognate, on the other

by accidental xenoliths. The accidental

xenoliths are the important ones in this

connection. In part they are buchites con-

taining mullite and cordierite in glass as-

tonishingly similar in texture to the matted

mullite needles in the glass tank refractory

in the first stages of attack by the molten

glass. The most abundant accidental xeno-

liths, however, are those containing as-

semblages of corundum, spinel, anorthite,

and a small amount of interstitial glass with

the anorthite often acting as a matrix for

the corundum and spinel. Even the rock

acting as host for the xenoliths is so con-

taminated by introduced material that

Thomas does not consider it as a truly

igneous rock. The xenoliths are thought by

Thomas to be formed by the direct fusion

6 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 78: 229. 1922.

160

of highly aluminous sediments in the

magma, although the effect of the alkalies

would be to lower markedly the Si02/Al.03

ratio at which corundum could form.

There are other corundum occurrences

that provide a somewhat less perfect”

analogy to the glass-melting tank. In the

Eifel district in Germany hornblende an-

desites contain included fragments or

streaks composed of cordierite, sillimanite,

feldspar, corundum, etc., which are con-

sidered to be crystalline schists that have

been partly digested and recrystallized. In

the Herz Mountains a biotite-plagioclase

dike intrusive into clay slates contains

cordierite, garnet, cyanite, sillimanite, and

corundum, which are not characteristic of

any purely igneous rock. A number of

other occurrences can be cited where rocks

varying from granites to andesites, diorites,

and nepheline syenites are closely associ-

ated with, or evidently intrusive into, clay-

bearing rocks with corundum in the in-

truded rock, the intrusive rock, or both.

The chemical and phase relationship pointed

out in the systems NasO—Al,O;-SiO2 and

CaO-Al,O;-SiO2 seem adequate to explain

the origin of corundum in these cases.

Whether the formation of corundum is the

result of contact metamorphism and re-

crystallization with the intervention of véry

little liquid phase, or whether the clay-

bearing rocks have been partially digested

in the igneous solution and then recrystal-

lized, appears to be of no fundamental im-

portance. The point is that localized reac-

tion has taken place with rocks that,

although, of course, aluminous, need not

have any higher Al,03/SiOe ratio than

ordinary clay, 1.e., AlsO3/2SiO2e molecu-

larly. The presence of aqueous solutions at

high temperatures and pressures need cause

only a lowering in the temperature at

which the reactions take place, and the

solubility relations expressed by the bend-

ing of the mullite-corundum boundary to-

ward the silica apex which exist in the an-

hydrous system may also exist in the pres-

ence of water.

The contact relations in some other de-

posits of corundum associated with alkaline

rocks cannot be so clearly visualized nor the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

crystallization so definitely connected with

phase relations in the alkali-alumina-silica

VOL. 35, NO. 5

systems. In the Ontario deposits where

corundum bodies are developed in syenites, —

nepheline syenites, and anorthosites. Bar-

low’ postulated that corundum crystallized —

directly from a high alumina magma and —

based his deduction on the relationships

found by Morozewicz® in some empirical

laboratory experiments on artificial melts.

No one has so far, however, proposed any

hypothetical line of petrologic descent from _

any of the conventional parent magmas

that would result in the crystallization of —

free alumina and its concentration by any ~

process of magmatic differentiation. Bar- —

low, himself, emphasizes the fact that the —

Ontario corundum deposits, although rela- —

tively large, are extremely localized and —

that the host rocks are chiefly notable for

extreme and rapid variation in composition

and mineral assemblages. These are not

characteristics of crystallization from an —

originally homogeneous magma even with

later crystal sorting. May not the Ontario

deposits represent a later stage in a process

like that which operated in the Nun’s ~

Pass rocks? Although no source of the

aluminous sediments was found in the lat-

ter case, the relationships in the final rock —

were such that this genesis could not be

doubted. In the Ontario rocks the source

of the sediments may have been further re-

moved and the progress toward homo-

geneity somewhat more advanced.

The case of the association of corundum

deposits with basic rocks like the peridotites

and norites is more difficult to explain.

Additions of neither magnesium metasili- —

cate nor magnesium orthosilicate to alu-

mino silicates of the composition of the

quadruple point (approximately 54A1,O3,

46SiO2) bring the mixtures within the re- _

gions where corundum is either a final or

intermediate product of crystallization. —

The presence of ferrous oxide in the olivines

or of alkalies in the alumino silicates may

alter the relations sufficiently to permit

7A. KE. Bartow, Canada Dept. Mines. Geol.

Survey, Memoir 57. 1915.

8 J. Morozewicz, Tschermak’s Pet. Mitt. 18:

1-90, 105-240. 1898.

May 15, 1945

corundum to crystallize. It has also been

pointed out in the case of the corundum

deposits occurring with dunite in North

Carolina that the mineral associates of the

corundum are those characteristic of hydro-

thermal metamorphism.’ It may be that

water at elevated temperatures and pres-

sures can also reverse the trend of the mul-

lite-corundum boundary in systems with

magnesia. A few preliminary high-tempera-

ture experiments with additions of ferrous

oxide, water, or both should demonstrate

whether the production of corundum is pos-

sible under these simplified composition

relationships. The rather constant associa-

tion of granitic gneiss or clay schist country

rock with the corundum that is formed at

the borders of basic magnesian rocks can

hardly be accidental, and the source of the

corundum would logically appear to be the

reaction of the intruding and intruded

rocks whether or not water vapors or other

“‘mineralizers”’ take part in this reaction.

These remarks can be summarized brief-

ly. It has been shown that corundum is

formed in a glass-melting furnace by the

action of a melt containing large amounts

of silica and alkalies and considerable lime

on an aluminum silicate wall material that

approximates dehydrated kaolin in com-

position and that the formation of corun-

dum under these conditions is explained by

® EK. S. Larsen, Econ. Geol. 23: 398-433. 1928.

BOTANY.—/rregular barley, Hordeum irregulare, sp. nov.!

ABERG AND WIEBE: IRREGULAR BARLEY

161

the phase relationships in the system

Na2O-—Al,O3-SiOe. It is pointed out that the

origin of corundum at the contact of sye-

nites and nepheline syenites with aluminum

silicate country rocks may be similar and

that whether the corundum forms by lo-

ealized digestion and crystallization from

solution or by reaction essentially between

the solids is a difference in degree and

not in kind. Moreover, the country rocks

do not have to be abnormally high in

alumina, since in the case of glass tanks, at

least, alumina-silica ratios lower than that

of kaolin are sufficient to produce corun-

dum by reaction. In the case of the reaction

of highly basic magnesian magmas (peri-

dotites and the like) with wall rock the re-

action relations are less easy to understand.

Nevertheless, the reaction relations must

not differ radically from those found in the

case of alkaline magmas even though water

becomes a necessary agent in the reaction.

Note: Since this address was delivered,

a paper by W. K. Gummer (Journ. Geol.

51: 503-530. 1943) on the system CaSiO;—

CaAl,Siz20;-NaAlSiO, shows that crystal-

line alumina (8A1.O3 in this case) can exist

at the liquidus on the join between NaAlISiO,

(nephelite) and CaAlSiexO, (anorthite) as

well as at the liquidus in the ternary system

CaSi03;-NaAlSi0,-CaAl.8i.03. The petro-

logic significance is discussed in the paper.

Ewert ABERG,

University of Wisconsin and Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul-

tural Engineering, and G. A. Winse, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and

Agricultural Engineering.

One of the types of barley endemic to

Abyssinia is best described by a single word,

1 Received February 22, 1945. Cooperative in-

vestigations between the Wisconsin Agricultural

Experiment Station and the Division of Cereal

Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry,

Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural

Research Administration,.U. S. Department of

Agriculture. Published with the approval of the

Diector of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experi-

ment Station. Supported in part by a Research

Grant from the Wisconsin Alumni Research

Foundation.

(Communicated by M. N. Pops.)

irregular. The late Dr. H. V. Harlan used

this term in 1914 (6, p. 24) when he stated:

‘“‘Aside from the observations upon estab-

lished forms, it has been the fortune of the

writer to isolate a number of which there

seem to be no published descriptions. These

all came from Abyssinian barleys, and as

the work is not yet completed, only a gen-

eral indication of the results need be given

here. .. . In barleys received from the same

region, there is a group with a curious,

162

irregular, yet heritable, habit of floret abor-

tion. In the ripened spike the spikelets are

normal at the base and for a varying dis-

tance toward the tip. The upper portion

usually reduces suddenly to a 2-rowed

form. In this case the lateral spikelets are

not merely sterile, but are reduced to only

the outer glumes and the rachilla, the floret

having disappeared entirely. The spikes are

found to present these modifications even

when the head first emerges from the boot.

The actual time of the reduction has not

been determined but it is so early that no

scar is present, indicating that the floret

never started to develop.”’

Harlan continued orally to use the term,

irregular barleys, for the type he described

in 1914, but unfortunately it never became

established in the literature nor came into

general use. This is to be regretted, as there

is a real need for this term in the barley

classification, and especially so since the

terms which have gradually come into use

instead are confusing and not at all as

descriptive as the one Harlan applied.

It appears that the irregular type of Abys-

sinian barley was.collected once by A. F. W.

Schimper in the middle of the nineteenth

century. It was grown by Al. Braun in the

Botanical Garden at Freiburg in 1848, but

at that time it was regarded only as a transi-

tion form between 6-rowed and 2-rowed

barley. This is evident from a statement in

‘“Sitzungsberichte des botanischen Vereins

der Provinz Brandenburg’”’ published in

1875 (12, p. 437). There it is stated: “Herr

Wittmack legte eine grdssere Zahl von

Schimper in Abyssinien gesammelter Ger-

stenéhren vor, die er theilweise von Herrn

Prof. Braun, theilweise von Herrn Dr.

Gronland erhalten hatte, und wies an

mehreren den Uebergang von 4-zeiliger

Gerste? in zwei-zeilige nach, ein Uebergang.

der bei unseren Culturen sich nie zeigt,

aber bei den vom Prof. Braun in Freiburg

i/Br. 1848 angestellten Aussaatversuchen

der abyssinischen Gersten widerkehrte.”’

The fact that this Abyssinian type appears

morphologically to occupy an intermediate

position between 6-rowed and 2-rowed bar-

2 The ‘‘4-zeilige Gerste”’ in the early literature

is equivalent to the 6-rowed barley of the present-

day literature.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ley later undoubtedly led to the use of the

term ‘intermediate’ and also to the Latin

name Hordeum intermedium, although the

latter never was intended for that type.

In 1882 Kornicke (8, pp. 185-186) dee

scribed as Hordeum vulgare L. subsp. inter-

medium a barley type with awned central

florets and awnless lateral ones. The lateral

seeds are markedly smaller than the cen-

tral ones but germinate when seeded. In

1885 Kornicke (9, pp. 172-174) gives the

same description, only adding that in one

of the varieties of the subspecies, var.

Hazxtont Keke., not all lateral florets are

fertile. The florets are, however, fully de-

veloped. In 1916 Carleton (3, p. 124) and

in 1918 Harlan (7, p. 12) used the same

description for the species Hordeum inter-

medium Keke. Harlan’s description of Hor-

deum intermedium in 1918 does not include

the irregular type of Abyssinian barley that

he discussed in 1914. The first time this type

is again mentioned in the literature is by

Engledow in 1924. Previous to that date it

was discussed in correspondence between

Harlan and Engledow.’ Judged from a let-

ter to Harlan on January 29, 1921, Engle-

dow had found the irregular type among

Abyssinian barleys in 1920. From Harlan’s

reply on February 23, 1921, it is clear that

Harlan, at that time, knew about the varia-

tions in irregular barleys from the type

with occasional lateral seeds to those with

practically all lateral seeds fully developed,

but he did not classify them with any other — i

group of barleys. Engledow's description in

1924 places the irregular barleys as excep-

tional forms of Hordeum hexastichum or

Hordeum decipiens. He placed them with a

Hordeum hexastichum, when an occasional

lateral floret was missing, and with Hor-

deum decipiens, when many of the lateral

florets were missing. In regard to the stabil- — a

ity of the character he points out (4, p. 58),

that ‘‘in three successive seasons this pecu-

liarity has been maintained and it is, there-

fore, to be regarded as a constant and

heritable attribute.”

Kornicke’s description of Hordeum vul-

gare L. subsp. intermedium remained valid

and was applied only to the type of barley

3 Correspondence between Harlan and Engle-

dow filed in National Archives, Washington, D.C,

VOL. 39, NO. 5 Ge

Lee

Fig. 1.—Spikes of irregular barley, Hordeum irregulare E. Aberg and Wiebe, of Abyssinian origin

showing the variation found in number of missing lateral florets. A, Many lateral kernels missing

(C, I. 5843); B, some lateral kernels missing (C. I. 3210-5); C, occasional lateral kernels missing (C, I,

1238).

| May 15, 1945

for which it was intended, even during the

| period when Harlan and Engledow worked

) with irregular Abyssinian barleys. In 1929,

' when Orlov gave a description of barleys

from Abyssinia and Eritrea, he brought the

irregular barleys in under the subsp, znter-

medium Keke. (10, pp. 317-333, 344-345),

‘thereby causing considerable confusion. Ac-

cording to his description of subsp. inter-

dium Keke., the lateral spikelets may be

fertile or sterile, in the latter case consisting

of glumes, lemma and palea, or they also

“may be completely reduced so that only the

| glumes are developed. Considerable varia-

tion occurs in the number of fertile and

‘sterile spikelets on the spike, which is useful

as a means of classifying varieties. No men-

_ tion is made of the type of awn on the lem-

| mas of central and lateral florets.

.. In 1936 Orlov (11, pp. 228-229) included

i he irregular barleys under subsp. znter-

edium Vay. et Orl. (subsp. nov.) and

: Rointed out that this subspecies is sharply

ic cuicted from subsp. intermedium

| Keke. The characteristics for subsp. inter-

| medium Vav. et Orl. are that a varying

Bamber of spikelets (one, two, or three)

_ with normal kernels develop at each node

| of the rachis of the spike. See also Aberg (2,

|p. 18).

| As editor of the Russian publication

a | Classification of Cereals, Flaksberger pointed

out in an editor’s note (4, p. 342) that he

| thought it would have been more nearly

correct for Orlov to have retained the use of

subsp. intermedium Keke., for the inter-

medium group of barleys:as described by

_Kornicke. Flaksberger also suggested that

_ interjectum could be used for the Abyssinian

intermediate barleys (irregular as used in

_ this paper).

Unaware of Harlan’s suggestion and con-

tinued use of the term “‘irregular,”’ for the

_ Abyssinian intermediate type, Aberg (1940)

also applied Hordeum intermedium (Kcke.)

- Carleton to barley of this type (J, pp. 102-

106).

From this review it is evident that there

is a great deal of confusion among workers

in the use of these terms. The Latin name

_ Hordeum intermedium has been applied to

two types of barleys that in reality are

distinct. The terms intermedium, interme-

.* =

ABERG AND WIEBE:

IRREGULAR BARLEY 163

diate, and Abyssinian intermediate are

used and each has a very defimite and

specific meaning. Unfortunately, however,

they sound very nearly alike and appear

very similar in print.

It seems desirable, therefore, to make

the following disposition: (1) Retain ‘“‘inter-

medium” essentially as used by Koérnicke in

Hordeum vulgare L. subsp. intermedium for

that type of 6-rowed barley in which the

lateral kernels are reduced in size and their

lemmas awnless. It is further suggested that

Kornicke’s subspecies be regarded as a

variety and used as Hordeum vulgare L.

var. intermedium Keke. (2) Use the term

‘intermediate’ in a broad sense to de-

scribe plant characters that are midway

between extremes or limits, as, for ex-

ample, leaf size may be intermediate; and

also to describe in a broad way heterozy-

gous genetic types like the F, of a 6-rowed

X 2-rowed barley cross. (3) Replace ‘‘Abys-

sinian intermediate’ with “irregular,”

which latter name was suggested by Harlan

as early as 1914. To achieve this the irregu-

lar barley, which have been erroneously

included under ‘Hordeum intermedium,”

are here segregated as distinct and described

as a new species as follows:

Hordeum irregulare, sp. nov.

Rhachi spicae dura; spiculis centralibus

fertilibus, lateralibus aliis fertilibus aliis steri-

libus, aliisque sine staminibus vel pistillis pro

parte ad rhachillas in spicam irregulariter dis-

positas reductis.

Irregular barley with tough. rachis. The

central florets fertile; lateral florets reduced to

rachilla in some cases and these distributed ir-

regularly on the spike, the rest of the lateral

florets of only one of the following types: fer-

tile, sterile, or sexless (Figure 1).

Type: No. 161999, herbarium of the U. S.

National Arboretum, grown at Plant Industry

Station, Beltsville, Md., February 1945, from

seed collected by H. V. Harlan at Lalibela

market, Abyssinia, on January 7, 1924, from

cultivated plants. (C. I.4 No. 3908-3, Division

of Cereal Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant

Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.)

4C. I. refers to accession number of the Divi-

sion of Cereal Crops and Diseases.

164

According to the above, the division of the

section Cerealia Ands. of the genus Hordeum L.

as given by Aberg (1, p. 119) is revised as fol-

lows:

. agriocrithon E. Aberg

. spontaneum C. Koch

by hoy Soy BB

vulgare L. emend. Lam.

. trreguiare EK. Aberg and Wiebe

. distichum LL. emend. Lam.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Aperc, E. The taxonomy and phylogeny

of Hordeum L. sect. Cerealia Ands.

Symb. Bot. Upsalienses 4: 156 pp.,

illus. 1940.

. The classification of subspecies and

varieties of Hordeum sativum Jessen.

(Extracts from the paper on barley by

A. A. Orlov, published-in Russian in

Flora of Cultivated Plants II, Moscow-

Leningrad, 1936.) Fedde Repertorium

50:18. 1941.

(3) Caruteton, M. A. The small grains, 699

pp., illus. New York, 1916.

(4) Eneiepow, F. L. Inheritance in barley.

III. Journ. Genetics 14: 57-58, 60-

* 62, illus. 1924.

(5) FLAKSBERGER, K. A. FEdttor’s note in:

(2)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES |

VOL. 35, No. 5

Bakhteyev, F. Kh., Hordeum L. Bar-

ley. Classification of Cereals, ed. 4, illus.

Moscow-Leningrad. 1939.

(6) Haran, H. V. Some distinctions in our

cultivated barleys with reference to their

use in plant breeding. U. 8S. Dept.

Agr. Bull. 137, 38 pp., illus. 1914.

. The identification of varieties of

barley. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 622, 32

pp., illus. 1918.

(8) KOrnickE, Fr. Die Saatgerste. Zeitschr.

Gesam. Brauw. Neue Folge, V Jahrg.,

pp. 125, 185-186, illus. 1882.

_ Die Arten und Varietdten des

Getreides. In Kérnicke und Werner:

Handbuch des Getreidebaues 1, 470 pp.,

illus. Berlin, 1885.

(10) Ortov, A. A. The barleys of Abyssinia

and Eritrea. Bull. Appl. Bot. 20: 283-

345, illus. (English summary pp. 343-

345). 1929.

. Hordeum L. Barley (In Russian.

Parts of it in translation by Aberg,

1941). Flora of Cultivated Plants. II.

447 pp., illus. Moscow-Leningrad,

(7)

(9)

(11)

(12) Sitzwngsberichte des botanischen Vereins

der Provinz Brandenburg. Bot. Zeit.,

1875: 437-438.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

“NEW MEMBERS

There follows a list of persons elected to

membership in the AcapEMy by vote of its

Board of Managers, during the ACADEMY year

1943, who have since qualified as members in

accordance with the bylaws of the AcapEmy.

The bases for election are stated with the names

of the new members.

RESIDENT

WILLIAM SIDNEY BENEDICT, physical chem-

ist, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institu-

tion of Washington, Washington, D. C,, in

recognition of researches in the spectroscopy of

polyatomic molecules and application of spec-

troscopy to kinetic studies of mixtures of iso-

topes.

MERRILL BERNARD, supervising hydrologist,

U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of original researches in hydrology.

CLIFFORD ALLEN Betts, engineer, U.S. For-

est Service, Washington, D. C., in recognition

of contributions to the development of hy-

draulic structures, including research on the

generation of heat in concrete and the design

of water tunnels.

CHARLES Louis CRITCHFIELD, mathematical

physicist, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C.,

in recognition of contributions to the theory of

nuclear forces in atoms.

Lioyp GrorGr HENBEST, associate geolo-

gist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of work on micropaleon-

tology, particularly the fossil Protozoa, and on

stratigraphy.

JOSEPH OAKLAND HIRSCHFELDER, assistant

professor of chemistry, University of Wiscon-

sin; consultant, National Defense Research

Committee, Geophysical Laboratory, Car-

negie Institution of Washington, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of work on the equations

of state of gases and liquids, reaction kinetics,

and molecular quantum mechanics.

Emery CLARENCE LEONARD, botanist, U.S.

National Museum, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of work on the flora of Haiti and

on the mosses and Acanthaceae.

GLENN LANE Parker, chief hydraulic engi-

May 15, 1945 PROCEEDINGS

neer, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of services in the field of

water supply engineering, and in particular the

development of techniques for making water

supply, storage power, and irrigation analyses.

CHARLES ELMER REsseER, curator of inverte-

brate paleontology and paleobotany, U. S.

National Museum, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of work in Cambrian stratigraphy

- and paleontology.

Roger Gorpon Bares, associate chemist,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of contributions to the

physical chemistry of electrolytes, and in par-

ticular researches on the thermodynamics of

bi-univalent electrolytes and the pH values of

standard buffer solutions.

_ SamMuEL WuHITTEMORE Boags, geographer,

United States Department of State, Washing-

ton, D. C., in recognition of contributions to

political geography and cartography.

DoNALD CLARKE BoUGHTON, zoologist, Bu-

reau of Animal Industry, Beltsville Research

Center, Beltsville, Md., in recognition of con-

tributions to our knowledge of coccidia and

coccidiosis of birds and livestock.

EvBertT LuTHEeR LITTLE, Jr., senior den-

drologist. U. 8. Forest Service, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of distinguished services

in the biological sciences, especially in the

fields of forest ecology and dendrology.

GEORGE C. MaAnovy, assistant chemist, Na-

tional Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.,

in recognition of contributions to physical

chemistry, and in particlar work in thermody-

namics and in the determination of pH values

of standard buffer solutions.

HENRY STEVENS, principal biochemist, Bu-

reau of Agricultural Chemistry and Engineer-

ing, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash-

ington, D. C., in recognition of fundamental

and pioneering application of methods of im-

munochemistry to agricultural problems with

particular reference to gossy pol and other prob-

lems of sensitiveness connected with cotton.

Howarp Bancrorr ANDERVONT, principal

biologist, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda,

Md., in recognition of original investigations in

the fields of filterable viruses and experimental

cancer.

Hueco Bauer, chemist, National Institute of

Health, Bethesda, Md., in recognition of chem-

ical advances in chemotherapy.

: THE ACADEMY

165

Haroutp WILLIAM CHALKLEY, senior physi-

ologist, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda,

Md., in recognition of services to the science of

biology, particularly work on the physiology

and chemistry of cell divisions.

HELEN M. Dyer, research fellow, National

Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Md., in recogni-

tion of contributions to research in chemo-

therapy, metabolism of sulphur-containing

amino acids, and cancer studies.

WILTon RoBINSON EARLE, senior cytologist,

National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Md., in

recognition of outstanding researches in the

technique and study of tissue culture, in par-

ticular studies of the production of malignant

cells from normal fibroblasts by the action of

a chemical carcinogenic agent.

JOHN FEE EMsREE, senior archivist, War Re-

location Authority, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of studies of village communities

in Hawaii, which led to important work for the

Office of Strategic Services, and for the War

Relocations Authority on the Japanese in

America.

Emity Waucotr EmMart, associate cytolo-

gist, National Institute of Health, Bethesda,

Md., in recognition of the publication of the

Badianus Manuscript, and especially for ac-

complishments in research (1) in the applica-

tion of tissue culture techniques to the study of

cancer and (2) in the culture of the tubercle

bacillus on animal membranes, the latter mak-

ing possible a rapid and effective method for

studying drug therapy.

MarGareET Dorotuy Foster, associate

chemist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of work on the geochemi-

cal relations of ground waters in the Coastal

Plain and improvements in methods for the

analysis of minerals.

MIcHAEL FLEISCHER, geochemist, U. 8. Geo-

logical Survey, Washington, D. C., in recog-

nition of work in inorganic and mineralogical

chemistry.

Maurice THEODORE JAMES, associate en-

tomologist, Bureau of Entomology and Plant

Quarantine, Washington, D. C., in recognition

of contributions to the taxonomy of insects.

Sotomon Ku.ipack, cryptanalyst, Signal

Corps, U. S. Army, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of contributions to mathematical

statistics.

Davin GoopMAN MANDELBAUM, Division of

166

Special Information, Office of Strategic Serv-

ices, Washington, D. C., in recognition of con-

tributions to the Ethnology of the Cree Indi-

ans of Canada; the Social Organization of

South India tribes; and important work for the

Office of Strategic Services.

Monroe HarnisH Mart, associate profes-

sor of mathematics, University of Maryland,

College Park, Md., in recognition of contribu-

tions to mathematics, in particular to the -

“three body problem”’ in Celestial Mechanics.

ALBERT NELSON SAYRE, senior geologist,

U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of investigations in geology and

hydrology, especially in regard to the occur-

rence of ground water in Texas.

FLORENCE Marte: Maars, associate profes-

sor of mathematics, George Washington Uni-

versity; Washington, D. C., in recognition of

contributions to the theory of infinite series,

wherein research of recognized merit has been

done.

Murray J. SHEAR, principal biochemist,

National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Md., in

recognition of investigations on physico-chem-

ical mechanisms of bone formation; carcino-

genesis by chemical compounds; and chemical

treatment of tumors.

Drmitri Boris SHIMKIN, Major, U. S.

Army, Military Intelligence Service, East

European Division, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of contributions to the ethnology of

the Wind River Shoshone Indians, theoretical

works on problems of interaction of culture

and personality; and important research on

Siberia for Military Intelligence Service.

HERBERT CECcIL SPIcHR, associate geophysi-

cist, U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of work in geophysics and

geophysical methods of investigation.

Ro.tuin ELBERT STEVENS, chemist, U. S.

Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of work in mineralogical and geo-

logical chemistry.

JosEPH MANSON VALENTINE, associate en-

tomologist, U. S. Bureau of Entomology and

Plant Quarantine, Washington, D. C.;in recog-

nition of basic work on the classification of

Coleoptera, and more especially contributions

on speciation and raciation in insects.

CuEsTER BuRLEIGH WatTTs, principal as-

tronomer, U. 8. Naval Observatory, Washing-

ton, D. C., in recognition of the invention of

various devices for increasing the precision of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 35, NO. 5

observation of star positions; development of

accurate methods for transmitting time sig-

nals with especial application to longitude de-

terminations; and determinations of precise

positions of comets, planets, and the moon.

FRANCIS JoSEPH Weiss, consultant, Board

of Economic Warfare, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of work in the fields of chemical

economics; world crop insurance; utilization of

waste products; economic development and

planned utilization of Alaskan resources; chem-

ical utilization of peat and seaweed.

MaxwrEL_t McMicHart KNECHTEL, geolo-

gist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of work on the geology of

(1) mineral fuels in Angola, Venezuela, Mon-

tana, and Oklahoma; (2) ground water in

southeastern Arizona; (3) Pleistocene glacial

phenomena in northcentral Montana; and

(4) manganese deposits in Augusta County, Va.

MicHAEL GOLDBERG, engineer, Bureau of

Ordnance, Navy Department, Washington,

D.C., in recognition of contributions to mathe-

matics.

RonaLpD BAMFORD, professor, University of

Maryland, College Park, Md., in recognition of

outstanding contributions in the field of bot-

any, particularly with reference to cytology.

RIcHARD STEVENS BURINGTON, associate

professor of mathematics, Case School of Ap-

plied Science (on leave), consulting mathe-

matician and mathematical physicist, U. S.

Navy, Washington, D. C., in recognition of

contributions to pure and applied mathe-

matics, in particular to electric circuit theory.

Grorce Tosias Faust, associate mineralo-

gist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of work in mineralogy and

petrology.

NONRESIDENT

Epwarp C. Raney, instructor in zoélogy,

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., in recogni-

tion of contributions to our knowledge of the

fresh-water fishes of eastern North America.

ABRAHAM SINKOv, cryptanalyst, Signal

Corps, U. S. Army, in recognition of contribu-

tions to algebra, in particular to the theory of

finite groups.

Rosert BieHaM Brops, professor of phys-

ics, University of California, Berkeley, Calif.,

in recognition of work on electronic phenomena

in gases and metal vapors, and on cosmic rays.

Rosert 8S. CAMPBELL, assistant chief, Divi-

sion of Range Research, U. 8. Forest Service,

Se)

May 15, 1945

New Orleans, La., in recognition of contribu-

tions in the field of range research, and in par-

ticular for pioneering work in the development

of range utilization standards.

me F. G. BricKweppe, Secretary

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

The meetings for 1944 (except the banquet)

were held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos

Club, President J. R. Maaness or Vice-Presi-

' dent Ecpert H. Waker presiding. Attend-

ance ranged from about 60 to 100 persons.

Other officers for the year were: GLENN GREAT-

HOUSE, Treasurer; Miss Mary G. VAN METER,

Corresponding Secretary; Mrs. ANNIE May

Karrer, Recording Secretary; F. V. Ranp and

R. K. Bearrir, counsellors; L. E. Yocum,

representative to the Washington Academy.

Nine new members were elected during the

vear: JoHN R. Bowman, Lt. Haroup C. Bo.p,

JEAN TurRPIN, Oscar R. MatTuews, Miss JANE

Router, Froyp A. McCuiurer, HERBERT F.

BrereGMan, Mrs. HELEN WuitTEe WILLIAMS, and

Curtis May.

Two members died during the year: Lt.

Col. Grorcre E. Hauumay, formerly assistant

biochemist in the U. 8. Department of Agri-

culture, killed in action in Italy on July 25; and

Lyster H. Dewey, in charge of fiber crop in-

vestigations of the U. 8. Department of Agri-

culture from 1890 to 1935, on November 27.

The formal programs were prefaced by book

reviews and comments on observations of

botanical interest and were followed by a social

hour with refreshments. A list of the papers

presented is given herewith. Brief résumés of

these papers are included in the minutes.

334TH MEETING, JANUARY 4

The botany of the-flat-rocks of the Southeast.

Rocers McVavueu, Bureau of Plant Industry.

A botanical trip through North Carolina. D.S8.

CorRELL, Bureau of Plant Industry.

335TH MEETING, FEBRUARY 1

Some current research objectives and field ob-

‘servations on cinchona in Central and South

America. W. C. Davis, Office of Foreign Agri-

cultural Relations.

Pasture and forage crops and their utilization

on tropical American farms. RaLtpH E. Hopc-

son, Bureau of Dairy Industry.

336TH MreTInG, Marcu 7

Invitation to study of Western Hemisphere

PROCEEDINGS: BOTANICAL SOCIETY 167

bamboos. ¥. A. McCuureg, Smithsonian Institu-

tion.

The Pan American Highway in Central A mer-

ica and its botanical aspects. ARTHUR BEVAN

and W. A. Dayton, U.S. Forest Service.

337TH MEBTING, APRIL 4

Our native orchids. P. L. Ricker, Bureau of

Plant Industry.

Developing American Easter lilies to replace

stocks formerly received from Japan. 3S. M.

EMSWELLER, Bureau of Plant Industry.

BANQUET MEBTING, APRIL 25

The annual banquet was served at All Souls

Unitarian Church with 188 persons present,

including five honor guests: . D. MeErriLu,

JosEPH F. Rock, C. R. Bau, H. L. SHANTz,

and H. B. Humpurey. The last three were

honored in accordance with the Society’s cus-

tom of so recognizing the retirement of its

members from active professional life. The

group enjoyed a talk by Liberty Hyde Bailey,

author and horticulturalist, formerly of Cor-

nell University, on his botanical experiences of

the past half century.

338TH MEETING, JUNE 6

Preservation of plant specimens in as nearly a

natural condition as possible. G. R. FESSENDEN,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

Strawberry breeding. G. M. Darrow, Bureau

of Plant Industry.

339TH MEETING, OCTOBER 3

Two years in China advising on potato im-

provement. THEODORE Dykstra, Bureau of

Plant Industry and Division of Cultural Rela-

tions, State Department.

340TH MEETING, NOVEMBER 7

Exploring for rotenone in Colombia. F. J.

HERMANN, Bureau of Plant Industry and For-

eign Economic Administration.

Phloem necrosis disease of elm. Curtis May,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

341st MEETING, DECEMBER 5

Botanist abroad; or A philosophy for the ‘Good

Neighbor.” W. A. ArcueEr, Office of Foreign

Agricultural Relations.

Climatic analogues for plant introduction pur-

poses. MicHAaEL Nutronzon, United Nations

Relief and Rehabilitation Administration.

168

447TH ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 5

After the reports of the Executive Com-

mittee and the Treasurer were read, that of the

Nominating Committee for officers for 1945

was presented. There being no additional nom-

inations, the Society voted to instruct the Re-

cording Secretary to cast a unanimous ballot

for the following nominees: President, AARON

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 35, No. 5

G. JoHnson; Vice-President, FREDERICK V.

Ranp; Recording Secretary, Nei, W. STUART;

Corresponding Secretary, Miss JAnicE S&S.

Brown; Treasurer, Ross W. Davipson;

Counsellors, SAMUEL L. EMSWELLER @fi'd Ros-

ERT L. WEINTRAUB; Representative to the

Washington Academy, F. P. CuLLiInan.

ANNIE May Karrer, Recording Secretary

Obituary

JOHN FRANKLIN MEYER, retired member of

the Washington Academy of Sciences, died on

October 30, 1944, after an illness which had

confined him to his home for more than four

years. Dr. Meyer was born in central Pennsyl-

vania on March 11, 1875. He came of ‘‘Penn-

sylvania Dutch” stock and was a good example

of that stable and dependable element of our

population.

Meyer graduated from Franklin and Mar-

shall College at the age of 19. For 15 years

thereafter he alternated between teaching and

further study. He received a master’s degree

from Franklin and Marshall in 1897, attended

Johns Hopkins University for 3 years, and

completed his work for the doctorate in 1904

at the University of Pennsylvania. After five

years of teaching (1902-1907) at that institu-

tion he went to Pennsylvania State College as

professor of physics.

The year 1909 brought two notable changes

in his life. He married Ella Jane Mather and

left academic work to become director of

physical research at the Bloomfield, N. J.,

works of the* Westinghouse Lamp Company.

The following four years were a period of rapid

development in the lamp industry, bringing an

almost complete change from carbon to metal

filaments, and Dr. Meyer’s industrial experi-

ence during this transition was of great value in

his later work for the Government.

In 1913, Dr. Meyer came to the National

Bureau of Standards as one of a group formed

to study technical problems arising in the

governmental regulation of public-utility serv-

ices. He compiled. the most complete collection

of information on state and city regulations

regarding electric service, and this was pub-

lished by the Bureau of Standards in two edi-

tions (1916 and 1923) under the title Standards

for electric service. In 1923 he was put in charge

of the Bureau’s section on photometry and

illumination and was also made assistant chief

of the Division of Electricity. He filled those

positions until his retirement and was also given

many other responsibilities, particularly in

committee work. He had previously been

assigned to the staff of the Congressional Com-

mission on Reclassification and took an impor-

tant part in the surveys of governmental and

industrial employment which led to the re-

classification of the departmental Civil Service

in 1924. He became secretary of the Confer-

ence of State Public Utilities Commission Engi-

neers in 1929 and held that office until his re-

tirement. He suffered a stroke during one of the

sessions of the Conference in May 1940 and

was never able to return to full-time duty

thereafter. His retirement took effect on Janu-

ary 31, 194t.

Dr. Meyer belonged to many organizations

and was an effective worker in them because of

his modesty, good judgment, and sincere inter-

est in furthering any good cause. He served the

Academy as an editor of the JourRNAL from

1918 to 1921. He was a member of the Philo-

sophical Society of Washington, American

Institute of Electrical Engineers, Illuminating

Engineering Society, Optical Society of Amer-

ica, the Masonic Order, Acacia fraternity, Phi

Gamma Delta, Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi, and

the Cosmos Club. Besides his technical activ-

ities he maintained a lively interest in religious

and social questions and in educational work,

being a member of the Advisory Council of

Franklin and Marshall College, a trustee of

Catawba College, and an officer of the Evan-

gelical and Reformed Church. While holding

administrative positions Dr. Meyer never for-

got the interests and the feelings of his fellow

workers, and any associate whether of high

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VouuME 35

JUNE 15, 1945

No. 6

ETHNOLOGY .—The mutual-aid and volunteer company of the eastern Cherokee:

as recorded in a book of minutes in the Sequoyah syllabary, compared with

mutual-aid societies of the northern Iroquois.'

F. G. Speck, University of

Pennsylvania, and C. E. ScHAEFFER, Pennsylvania Historical Commission.

(Communicated by W. N. FenTovn.)

In the progress of field research in the

Southeast during the past decade, a growing

mass of data describing the institutions and

social life of the Cherokee has come into

our hands. The Cherokee constitute an im-

portant study group of North America

whose way of life became strongly and

strangely modified more than a century ago

by deliberate movement toward accultura-

tion; they took up learning and its institu-

tions through association with Europeans.

The Cherokee became literate in about the

first quarter of the nineteenth century, by

which time one of their intellectual leaders,

Sequoyah, the Cherokee Cadmus, had given

his people a system of quasi-syllabic sym-

bols, enabling them to record in writing

their own cultural properties. Scribes re-

placed oral transmitters of knowledge. Not

only this, but the acquisition of innovations

in the whole gamut of their economic

life transformed the group from moun-

tain-dwelling hunters and mountain-valley

maize-growers into mountainside crop-

farmers, husbandmen, artificers, traders,

and sedentary villagers in a space of time

so short and phenomenally progressive as to

arouse the envy and jealousy of the frontier

settlers who first brought these changes

across the horizon of the ‘‘savages.”’

The aforementioned changes in the cul-

tural trend of the Cherokee are too well

known to need reviewing. Such causes

furnished the social and political back-

ground out of which the Removal Event

evolved in 1836. The works of Adair, Tim-

1 Received January 18, 1945.

berlake, Royce, and Mooney abound in

treatment of this epoch in southern history.

Forman, Debo, and Milling, among others,

have ably narrated the historical episodes.

And the transition from former conditions

of life to those of the post-Contact period

has engaged the attention of modernly

trained anthropologists, such as Olbrechts,

Bloom, Gilbert, and Kelly, whose publica-

tions have already appeared. The latter

group have cross-sectioned and analyzed,

through extensive field work among the

conservative members of the Eastern Band

in North Carolina, the manifold aspects of

the physical, spiritual, social, economic, and

political elements under historic changes of

cultural life.

THE LITERATURE ON COOPERATIVE

ENDEAVORS

But now leaving this review we come to a

consideration of one characteristic of native

life which is increasingly stressed by stu-

dents in discussions of the structure and

functioning of Cherokee society. Reference

is thus made by Olbrechts,? Bloom,’ and

more exhaustively by Gilbert* to the im-

portance of cooperative endeavor and the

various Cherokee social forms, both formal

2 JamES Mooney and Frans M. OLBREcHTs.

The Swimmer manuscript: Cherokee sacred formu-

las and medicinal prescriptions. Bur. Amer. Ethn.

Bull. 99: 1-319. 1932.

3 LEONARD Bioom. The acculturation of the

eastern Cherokee: Historical aspects. North Caro-

lina Hist. Rev. 19 (4): 323-358. 1942.

4 WILLIAM HARLEN GILBERT, JR. The eastern

Cherokees. Bur. Amer. Ethn. Bull. 133 (23): 169—

414, 1943.

169

j ea a ‘ae

170

and informal, through which it derives ex-

pression. Our primary concern in this paper

is with certain of the more formal coopera-

tive units representing voluntary, associa-

tive ““companies” of men organized for the

purpose of mutual aid and charity. In addi-

tion to placing on record heretofore unpub-

lished but specifically literal data, we pro-

pose to examine these institutions from the

standpoint of their wider, historical rela-

tionships. Thus the authorities cited above

describe in greater or lesser detail the func-

tions of these cooperative bodies, the scope

of their activities, and the nature of their

formation. In no case, however, has an at-

tempt been made to scrutinize the associa-

tions themselves from the viewpoint of the

wider background of aboriginal social sys-

tems of the Atlantic slope area.

The fact that recent writers on the

Cherokee welfare company have refrained

from searching farther afield for genetically

related institutions obscures its significance

as a societal trait shared by the northern

Iroquoian linguistic relatives of the Chero-

kee. Can the mutual-aid agency of the

Cherokee be shown to have a historic con-

nection with the similarly associated com-

pany reported among the Iroquois (Seneca)

by Fenton? If so, does it represent one of

the fundamentals of Iroquoian culture pre-

dating the separation into northern and

southern divisions? Beyond the unques-

tioned relationship of speech between the

two, ethnologists and archeologists have

still to define the fundamentals of Iroquoian

social ideology as well as correspondence in

material culture. Having called attention to

the bearing of these thoughts upon the

wider aspects of community life in the East-

ern woodlands, we may postpone for the

present further examination of their latent

possibilities.

Reverting to the published accounts of

the Cherokee cooperative agencies, the

principal facts on record may be briefly

summarized as follows: Economic coopera-

tion in Cherokee society, according to Gil-

bert (p. 307), is manifested both above and

below the institutionalized level, in a vari-

ety of forms. As representative of the less

formal types, he mentions the simple ex-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 35, NO. 6

change of services and goods between

husband and wife, and between neighboring

farmers, and certain spontaneous communal

activities, 1.e., construction of a foot bridge

for the common good. The voluntary, or-

ganized, associative forms, on the other

hand, are represented, among others, by (1)

the poor-aid companies and (2) the gadugi

or mutual-aid associations.

Gadugi.—The Cherokee gadugi,> or Mu-

tual Aid association, is defined by Gilbert

(p. 307) as a “company organized for the

purpose of mutual exchange of services and

earnings of money.’ The following data,

paraphrased from the same observers’ de-

scription (p. 212), provide us with an out-

line of its structure and activities. The

gadugi is a group of 12 men organized as a

corporation. Its services are hired out to

white farmers at nominal rates of pay, or

allocated, in rotation, to members’ farms

for four days of the week. The tasks per-

formed include ordinary agricultural activi-

ties, such as hoeing corn, “‘topping’’ corn

for fodder, and clearing land for cultivation.

Cash returns derive from an annual division

of the corporation’s profits or, when de-

sired, through a loan on the common treas-

ury secured by a mortgage on the member’s

livestock, land, or dwelling. Officials of the

gadugt include the chief, treasurer, secre-

tary, sheriff or money-collector, and warner,

each of whom is elected annually by the

members. Of these, the most important are

the chief, who hires out the company, and

the warner, who is in charge of actual labor

supervision. Often two or three women,

serving as cook-laborers, are members of the

society.

Poor Aid company.—The Poor Aid com-

pany differs from the gadugi largely in the

nature and orientation of its activities. The

former is characterized by Gilbert (p. 307)

5 Bloom (p. 326) notes in passing that “a

cooperative, the gadugh, was a distinctive feature

of Cherokee society. Gatherings for community

work were occasions for social diversions and had

much the same motivation and aspect as the

‘bees’ of colonial and rural America’’’ Olbrechts

omits any mention of the gadugi.

The Cherokee term is gddugz’, translated as ©

‘“‘welfare society”? in modern usage, denoting the

Red Cross and other organizations operating for

public benefit.

JuNE 15, 1945 sPECK AND SCHAEFFER: MUTUAL-AID COMPANY OF THE CHEROKEE

as a “form of mutual aid among neighbors

when sickness or death disables one of the

families.” The officials of the poor-aid

agency, according to Gilbert (p. 213), con-

sist of a chief, undertaker, secretary, grave-

digger, coffin-maker, and two warners.® Of

these, the chief serves as director of poor

aid while the warners act as his assistants.

The association, which is apparently made

up of all the able-bodied members of the

community, comes together once a year to

hold a meeting and elect officers. In the

Raven district, where Gilbert carried on his

investigation, the annual meeting is held

regularly in the community cemetery on

August 10.7 The election is quite informal

and usually consists in nomination of popu-

lar individuals, by two or three of their

friends, and oral assent of the remainder.

Following the meeting the assembly cleans

up the graveyard and straightens up the

tombstones.

The functions of the Poor Aid association

consist largely in lending assistance to fami-

lies in need. For example, if the head of a

family falls ill and is unable to provide care

for his family, the chief requests the two

warners to go around and collect the neigh-

bors. In such an emergency the chief can

command the services of the community on

three days’ notice during the growing sea-

son, and at other times immediately. All

the able-bodied people turn out to provide

firewood and to plow the family’s fields,

plant and hoe the corn, and, finally, to

gather the harvest. In case a family’s house

burns down, the association also assists in

rebuilding and refurnishing it. It is impor-

tant to note the reciprocal aspect involved,

for, as Gilbert (p. 307) points out, ‘‘pay-

ment for these services is, of course, ex-

pected either in kind [chickens or livestock]

or in return services.”

As suggested by the list of officials previ-

6 The officials, as given by Olbrechts (p. 80),

are the chief and an assistant whose duty it is to

call out the members. The former is said to be

regarded pretty much as the chief of the com-

munity. Farther on in his account (pp. 135-38),

he mentions other officers who carry out certain

duties in connection with burial.

7 Olbrechts (p. 80) states that the annual meet-

ing usually takes place “‘at corn planting time

when members have to meet anyway to work for

some sick neighbor.”

171

ously cited, important cooperative functions

were carried out by the Poor Aid associa-

tion in connection with death and burial.

Olbrechts’ discussion (pp. 135-38) of its

activities on such an occasion follows:

As soon as it is known that some one has died,

the head man of the “grave-digging company”’ is

notified; he, in turn, gives notice to his helpers,

and the same day or the next a grave is dug.

The grave-diggers are a company of six volun-

teers acting under a chief; the latter office at the

time of my stay being held by one Gula-’ci. They

also are appointed for one year, and are elected

in the same manner as the coffin makers. . .

The coffin is made by two men acting under a

foreman. This “company” is elected for the term

of one year, at the same time as the “grave-

digging company” and the chief of the settle-

ment.®

Upon the close of the mourning rites at the

home of the deceased, the corpse is borne to

the burial place under the supervision of an

aid company official. According to Olbrechts

(pp. 187-38) :°

At a sign of the chief of the coffin makers, four

men will start hunting around for two stout poles

or strong boards on which the coffin is put to be

carried, and the funeral procession starts. : .

Every 200 yards or so the chief of the coffin

makers who now acts as a kind of “master of

ceremonies,”’ shouts out aniso’i’ no-"Gw5" (“other

ones now’’), and four other men, not necessarily

belonging to this company, come out of the crowd

and take the places of the coffin carriers...

When the cemetery is reached, the coffin is put

down near the grave which has been dug in the

meanwhile by the grave-digging company .. .

So much for the guise in which the Chero-

kee welfare agencies have come down to us

of recent years. That they existed in the

tribal society of the Southeast in general is

satisfactorily acceptable in view of the

testimony in the narratives of writers who

knew the Creeks and Cherokees in the

latter part of the eighteenth century.!° In

§ Olbrechts goes on to state, “The election is a

very unofficial affair, the members generally being

volunteers. The foreman, and if necessary one of

the two members, if there are no volunteers. are

nominated and usually, ipso facto, elected.”

® Gilbert’s data (pp. 213, 256) follow closely

those of Olbrechts on this subject. In another

place the former (p. 347) states that formerly

every Cherokee town had its undertaker who not

only buried the dead but assisted the deceased’s

family in carrying out certain post-mortem

mourning rites.

10 Gilbert (p. 306) characterizes both agencies

(1932) as “aboriginally remnantal organizations

172

the case of the Poor Aid association, we

may refer to William Bartram and his

recorded observations on the above-named

tribes. He states that “the citizens, as one

family, prepare the ground and begin to

plant ...as convenience may direct for

general good. The work is directed by an

overseer elected or appointed annually, I

suppose, in rotation throughout all the fam-

ilies of the town. Thus when a family’s

private stores fall short, in case of accident

or otherwise, they are entitled to assistance

and supply from the public granary by ap-

plying to the king...”

The Poor Aid company, however, under-

went progressive disintegration within the

last century as the result of influences aris-

ing from European contact. We are in-

debted to Gilbert (pp. 362-63) for a résumé

of the events leading to the decline of the

cooperative at Yellow Hill, one of the com-

munities on the Cherokee reservation:

In the late 19th century the American Govern-

ment took over the work of the Quakers in the

education of the Cherokees, and began an active

program of bringing the younger generation into

the Government day schools. In Yellow Hill a

manual-training course was set up for the boys,

and the latter were taught to make various handi-

craft objects. Among other things coffins began

to be made at this school, and soon the whole

town was supplied from this source and the coffin-

maker lost his job. The office of undertaker was

hich function feebly today and seem to be des-

fied to soon disappear.’”’ He has collected data

to show the presence of the gadugi as a coopera-

tive agency among the Cherokee during the early

19th century. The company persisted relatively

unchanged until 1890 after which it underwent

rapid modifications. It then began, to quote

Gilbert (p. 362), to “‘hire out its services to white

people at fixed rates by the day and became in

effect an ordinary labor gang. This change in

function led to dependence on white people for

wages and subsistence instead of a reliance on

their own unaided cultivation of the soil by

mutual aid. Consequently the association came

under the North Carolina regulations as a cor-

poration and became subject to taxation. Unable

to meet the taxes from their earnings, the gadugi

soon declined and mostly disappeared in the open-

ing years of the twentieth century.”

Reference is made to this gadugz"’, or society,

in one of the handwritten journals obtained for

the University Museum from West Long himself.

Some details of the action of the society are given

by one of its members Kétogisti’, from whom

West Long had obtained the records about 1906.

It is still untranslated (MS. Book III, p. 67).

1 Quoted by Bloom, p. 329.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 6

also made less useful and the whole of the funeral

functions of the Poor Aid Society vanished. Soon

the effects of the native health» and welfare

service of the American Government made itself

felt and the rest of the functions of the Poor Aid

Society vanished also. So it has come about that

the cooperative and mutual aid among neighbors

in sickness and death have disappeared in favor

of direct Government aid in Yellow Hill.

Having surveyed the published material

on record for the Cherokee cooperative or-

ganizations, we may now set forth addi-

tional information on the Poor Aid company

as acquired recently from native sources

among the Cherokee. These data are taken

from a record written in 1932 by Will West

Long in the Cherokee syllabary script, and

obtained from him in 1944 with a collection

of manuscript records in the famous syl-

labary.””

TRANSLATION OF SYLLABARY

Introduction.—In making a translation of

the text of the syllabary several difficulties

have had to be considered. One of these was

the selection of English terms from the vo-

cabulary of West Long to coincide with the

sense of the Cherokee original. Such terms

as ‘elected,’ ‘‘votes,” “unanimous,” “‘chair-

man,” and “‘secretary,’’ and others taken

from the diction of parliamentary proced-

ure, must impress one as obviously of

modern structure and not a part of the basic

Cherokee vocabulary of pre-Contact times.

The tone of the whole record, in fact, be-

trays the effect of a far-reaching influence

from European sources. There is nothing in

such a conclusion to surprise one who recalls

that the Cherokee, by the middle of the

previous century, had well earned their title

22 The notebook in which the text was written

is a small composition tablet in which West Long,

as an officer of the Poor Aid company, wrote

down in full the acts, minutes, and proceedings

of a meeting held by its members at the Big Cove

settlement of the Cherokee in one of its final ses-

S1ONS.

Within the past few years a collection of hand-

written books in the Cherokee syllabary, known

as the Sequoyah alphabet, has been made and

placed in the archives of the University Museum,

University of Pennsylvania. The paper submitted

is based upon one of these documents. Acknowl-

edgements are due to the Faculty Research Fund

of the University, and to Robert Riggs, for sup-

port of the initial field work in the area which

resulted in securing the manuscripts for the Uni-

versity Museum.

JuNE 15, 1945 sPECK AND SCHAEFFER: MUTUAL-AID COMPANY OF THE CHEROKEE

as one of the Five Civilized Tribes of the

South. That the cooperative-work units of

earlier times should have become organized

after the pattern of colonial American town-

meetings, is as much to be expected in

Cherokee social policies after 1850, let us

say, as their progress in literacy,™ or their

change of governmental policy from village

to tribal chieftainship and confederacy, and

finally, to an elective system with chief

executive and house of representatives or

councilmen.‘ The data pertaining to ac-

culturative processes at work in the social

and political history of the Cherokee have

been too well overhauled in the monographs

of Bloom and Gilbert, already mentioned,

to require more than casual reference in

this connection. The proclivity of the Cher-

okee for progressive acculturation need not

surprise one, even under an accelerating

momentum between 1720 and 1830, when

Bloom’s statement is weighed. He asserts,

in comparing white frontier and native

Cherokee culture, that by 1800 ‘‘the fron-

tier presents the intruding culture in a

cruder and simpler, perhaps a more elemen-

tary form.”’

In presenting the translation of Will West

Long’s minute book, we have used paren-

theses to inclose words not appearing in the

original text. The punctuation is that of the

present writers, since the syllabary has

none. The native terms are transcribed

phonetically following the system, with

some simplifications, employed by Dr. Ol-

brechts. Will West Long is responsible for

the translation and for the transcriptions

and renderings of the personal names listed.

It must be remarked that West Long is a

purist in Cherokee pronunciation, diction,

and style; hence his renderings and etymol-

ogies will often vary from those of other

speakers who act as informants on Chero-

kee topics.

Organization and procedure.— Without go-

ing into matters that are only indirectly

concerned with the functional aspects of the

mutual-aid unit, we offer some observations

13 In 1848 “about three-fourths can read in

their own language,’”’ meaning the Sequoyah

syllabary (Bloom, p. 355, quoting Lanman).

4 The last a ‘“‘political instrument modeled on

that of the United States’? (Bloom, p. 349).

173

on the procedures of the company during

the final meetings held at Big Cove.

West Long remembers that each village

settlement community of the Nation, be-

fore the era of its political dismemberment

in 1836, the time of the Removal to Indian

Territory, had what he calls a “lead-chief”

or “‘little chief,” wste’"yu ukawi'yuhi’. Each

settlement managed its own affairs of a

public, legislative, and social nature as a

small independent community unit or tribe.

The community chief or “lead-chief’? was

the social factor in organizing the group’s

activities and formulating policies. He ad-

ministered his control through a body of 12

men, known as anv’ tawiskagei’’, ‘smooth

men,’’ whom he appointed. They served as

police or sheriffs, having official authority

to arrest and punish, according to tribal

mores, men and women guilty of misde-

meanor. They reserved the right to decide

the degree of punishment for minor offenses

by whipping with sticks (four to twelve

lashes), or they could even pronounce

acquittal. The mutual-aid cooperative, of

which we treat, was a branch of this arm of

community organization; its officers were

appointed by the company itself, and au-

thorized by the community lead-chief. Since

it may not find elsewhere a niche in the

records of the Eastern Cherokee, it is inter-

esting to note here a fact of band history:

West Long remembered that the last lead-

chief of the Big Cove Settlement was

Tsiltao’ski-, ‘Falling corn-tassel.”’* The

office fell into disuse about 1875, according

to his recollection. But the aid company at

Big Cove continued to function as a work

group until shortly after 1932, the date

when the text of the last meeting minutes

was written. A decade later, as we write,

the company still functions in part, al-

though the Agency staff has taken over

some of its tasks as a phase of paternalistic

policy.

The native designation of the cooperative

association, as given by West Long at the

time of translating the text, is wyo’z-yun

dahnde'gi:’, literally ‘‘poor people needy

(company). The meeting referred to in the

15 The Anglicized form Chiltoski is still current

as a personal name in the band.

‘ZE6l ‘AreqeiAs yefonbog oy} Ur U944zII AA

‘QOYOIOYO OY} JO JUSUIO]}}0S 9AOD Big ‘Auvdu0yg pry 100g jo Zuryo0w jo seqnuru s SuoT S90, TI! M Jo F pus “Z ‘T soseq—'| ‘DIq

June 15, 1945 SPECK AND SCHAEFFER: MUTUAL-AID COMPANY OF THE CHEROKEE

minutes took place at the graveyard at Big

Cove as the opening phrase of the text indi-

cates. West Long explained that the out-

door gathering on the occasion was held to

clean up the burying ground while the

people were assembled for the meeting.

(The community has since discovered that

the labor of cleaning the graveyard can be

saved by pasturing their cattle there to eat

off the weeds: Acculturation accelerating

economic progress.) The meetings of the

organization are now usually held in some-

one’s home. The place is determined by ap-

pointment each year and tends to follow aro-

tation among the families of the settlement.

The tasks of the benefit program of the

company fall upon the whole community as

ordered by the appointed officers, as West

Long, the secretary, explained. This means

that, then as now, 20 to 30 persons would

constitute the work party. He estimated

that about 40 families made up the Big

Cove settlement, including those of remote

Cherokee descent. Most of them attended

the meeting covered in the minutes re-

corded, and the votes, numbering 27 (page 4

of the text), represent the highest number of

males voting on any office of the society,

namely, that of notifier.

With this brief review of the occasion, we

now turn to the record of the meeting itself.

MINUTES OF A MEETING OF THE MU-

TUAL AID SOCIETY HELD AT BIG

COVE SETTLEMENT, CHEROKEE RES-

ERVATION, N. GC. (TRANSLATION OF A

DIARY RECORD OF WILL WEST

LONG, 1932)

Page 1

Raven’s old grave yard, August 10, 1932,

held meeting and organized to make as a com-

pany, renew it and reelect its officers for as

long as one year.

First, motioned it and seconded it, chosen as

temporary chairman, Tciskwq’na?j‘.16 Next

motioned and seconded, chosen Will Westi!’ as

secretary for one year. Third, motioned and

seconded, chief head to make speech (explain-

ing) what he has done, also other officers.

16 Literally “bird going,’? commonly known in

Big Cove as Going Bird.

17 Cherokee form of Will West (Long).

175

Page 2

Again motioned and seconded: to person

who has had any trouble or sickness, to sup-

port and help them; Tcikilili:’!* will be the head

as long as one year.

Then, the volunteer (candidate) to run

against (Tcikilili’), Lloyd Wahi‘ya’.!9

Ordered and given them to vote, voted first

Lloyd, then last Tcikilili’’.

Lloyd—S8 votes.

Tcikilili’—5 votes.

Lloyd was elected for one year.

Next, assistant chosen, Djdni Es‘i‘*® re-

elected. Chairman allowed him a vote, ran

against him, for one year.

Page 3

Next, dead person’s coffin-maker, there

should be elected again. Chairman allowed

them to vote. Diyelido’#! should be reelected.

They all voted unanimously.

Next, graveyard-digger, motioned and sec-

onded, should be reelected Gwoala’dzi'”

Next motioned, Kotagwa/ski",” foreman, ap-

pointed against Gwola’dzi’.

Gwola’dzi-—5 votes.

Kotagwa’ski-—10 votes.

Kotagwa’ski’ elected for one year.

Page 4

Notifier, motioned and seconded, Mason

Driver, next Djunu’lahaski’’.4

Next motioned Lasil‘a’‘,2> motioned elected,

reelected Djo’na Amatzona’‘.?6 |

Djunu’lahaski:’—4 votes.

Mason—11 votes.

Lasil'a’‘—8 votes, elected.

Djo’na—4 votes.

Mason, Lasil‘a’* elected for one year.

’ Page 5

Motioned and seconded, Djo’sa Wahiy’g?’

reelected coffin-maker—elected.

Next, second assistant coffin-maker, mo-

18 Literally ‘‘chickadee,” locally known as

Chikilili Driver.

19 Literally ‘“‘wolf.’’

20 Cherokee equivalent of John Jesse (Lawson).

21 Literally ‘‘driver,’’ known as Will Driver.

22 Literally ‘‘echo,’”’ known as Gwolidge Wati.

23 Literally ‘‘all day long’ (Sunday).

*% Literally ‘‘failer.”’

28 Cherokee form of Russel.

26 Literally “Jonah back in the water ”

27 Equivalent of Joe ‘“‘Wolf.”

176

tioned and seconded, let it be reelected Djani

Diyelido’hi*.28

Motioned and seconded Ma’ka Tsotatsj‘’2®

assistant.

Djani DiyelidShi-—2 votes.

Maka Tsotatsj:/—11 votes, elected.

Page 6

Motioned and seconded: if superintendent*®

has an interruption, half-time assistant has to

take authority; right to give order to notifier,

to help them (people), but first he has to go to

find out if it is necessary to help them.

Motioned and seconded: if anyone is an old

man, very old and helpless, also some old

woman, cannot help herself and is living by

herself, he (or she) in anything can be helped;

seconded.

Page 7

Foreman or superintendent, to give order

must give advance notice three days before, but

if it is hoeing corn or cutting wood, then just

at any time he has right to give orders to work.

COMPARABLE SOCIETIES AMONG

NORTHERN IROQUOIS

Turning now to the northern Iroquoian

peoples, or Iroquois proper, we see that the

recorded data reveal that patterns of mu-

tual aid and assistance were as characteris-

tic of their economic life as that of their

southern congeners. We are indebted to

Fenton (p. 43) for information on the type

of mutual-aid association existing at the

present time among the Seneca of New

York State.*! The Seneca unit is organized

not only for joint economic benefit but also

incorporates the added function of group-

singing for pleasure. Both men and women

are members; but the former comprise the

singers. The officials of the association differ

apparently in number and in scope of duties

on the various Seneca reservations. At a

28 Hquivalent of Johnny ‘‘Driver.”

29 Literal equivalent of Mark ‘‘Panther.”’

30 Referring to Chikilili Driver.

31 WILLIAM N. Fenton. Some social customs of

the modern Seneca. Social Welfare Bull. 7 (1-2):

4—7. New York State Department of Social Wel-

fare, Albany, N. Y., 1935. Also reprinted in

Indians at Work 3 (21): 10-14; 4 (6): 41-42. Office

of Indian Affairs, Washington, D. C., 1936. Pres-

ent page references are to the latter source.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 6

recent meeting (1935) on the Tonawanda

Reservation, one of these companies, the

Salt Creek Mutual Aid and Singing So-

ciety, was organized, and a chairman, secre-

tary, treasurer, and two poormasters were

elected by the members to serve for one

year. The activities of the group include

cutting wood for families with sickness,

“raising”? houses for members, and lending

aid to indigent old people. Anyone may ap-

proach either of the poormasters and re-

quest assistance. When help is thus re-

quested, a ‘‘bee’”’ is organized, and, after

the day’s work, the company sits down to a

meal provided by the family in receipt of

aid. Parenthetically, it may be pointed out

that the reciprocal aspect noted previously

for the Cherokee is also present here. After

the meal the evening is given over to singing

and dancing among the members present.

“Similar mutual aid and singing societies

prevail at Allegany Reservation, where

there were two in 1933-1934, at Cat-

taraugus, and at Six Nations Reserve”

(Fenton, p.c.).

It is worth pointing out that upon two

occasions the Salt Creek Singers volun-

teered to manage funerals in the community

(Fenton, p. 42). The cost of lumber having

been provided by a state welfare agency, the

company delegated to one of its members

the task of making the coffin. Thereafter

the duties of preparing the body of the

deceased, conducting the wake, digging the

grave, and preaching the funeral sermon

were assigned by the aid association to

members of the deceased’s opposite moiety.

The modern mutual-aid companies of the

Seneca undoubtedly represent a develop-

ment from native cooperative work groups

of the Colonial period. In tracing their

antecedents, Fenton (p. 13) notes that,

according to current native tradition, “the

Singing Societies grew out of groups of men

who helped the women... Anciently the

Chiefs were responsible for the welfare of

the people. They could go to a society and

ask it to assist a family.’’ Later, the same

authority notes, the societies assumed the

proportion of singing companies with defi-

nite organizations, because of the tradi-

tional tendency for Indians to sing and

JUNE 15, 1945 sPECK AND SCHAEFFER: MUTUAL-AID COMPANY OF THE CHEROKEE 177

dance when gathered in social groupings:

the family, the clan, the locality or the na-

tion. ‘But their original purpose—charity

and mutual aid—still obtains.”’

Another type of mutual-aid association

common to the Five Nations of the earlier

period is presented to us in a report by

Parker.® This form differs largely from that

described by Fenton in the composition of

its membership. Before outlining the data

on this second agency, it is necessary first

to sketch in the general economic back-

ground of the northern Iroquoians. The Five

Nations, a group of sedentary agricultural-

ists like the Cherokee, based their subsist-

ence upon maize-growing. In contrast to

the latter, however, Iroquois maize produc-

tion—planting, cultivation, harvesting, stor-

ing, and final processing as food—was car-

ried on almost exclusively by women. Men

assisted in clearing the fields, older men oc-

casionally aided the women in cultivation,

but the predominant male pursuits were

warfare and hunting. Even the chase, at

times, was carried on in an intermittent and

desultory fashion. Since the burden of eco-

nomic responsibility was thus borne by

women, it is no surprise to learn that co-

operative work groups among the Five Na-

tions of the Colonial period were primarily

female organizations.

The mutual-aid company that functioned

in all agricultural activities was usually

composed of women from the entire village.

Each year, according to Parker (p. 24), they

elected a chief matron to direct their work

in the communal fields. These were plots of

ground associated with the matrilineal fam-

ily (clan) or the village as a whole. The

produce from the village fields was em-

ployed for the preparation of food required

in the tribal festivals, the excess frequently

being distributed among needy families of

the village. The aid-company leader, usu-

ally a matron from the dominating family,

ordered all the details of planting, cultivat-

ing, and harvesting. She was assisted by

several lieutenants, matrons selected by her

32 AnTHUR C. PARKER. Jroquois uses of maize

and other food plants. New York State Mus. Bull.

144: 21-32. 1910. Also see ALEXANDER A.

GOLDENWEISER. Early civilization: An introduc-

tion to anthropology: 72-73. New York, 1922.

from other family lines. The fields con-

nected with the village were cultivated,

one by one, in this way. Early in fall the

work company came together to harvest the

crops. This was an occasion for festivity,

the men attending to take part in the sing-

ing and dancing. It is interesting to note

Parker’s statement (p. 32) that the aid com-

pany also tended the crops of sick and

injured members, @ service considered as a

right and never as a charity (italics ours). It

may be inferred from the above writer that

the women’s aid association continued to

function among the Five Nations down to

the last century, by which time male reluc-

tance to participation in agricultural work,

under the stimulus of state and federal

government and missionaries, had begun

to wane.

The existence of still another variety of

the cooperative work association is also

noted for the Five Nations by Parker. This

type functioned in connection with the

utilization of certain fields near the village,

the use of which was regarded as the prop-

erty of individual families. According to

Parker (pp. 29-30), the women of the com-

munity in whom such rights were vested

and their husbands or male friends might

form a mutual-aid company. Like the ex-

clusive women’s work-group previously dis-

cussed, the activities of this association

were directed by a matron selected from

among the members. As long as members’

obligations toward cultivation of the com-

munal fields were maintained, they were

privileged to carry on the necessary work

in their own plots. Few data are afforded us,

however, as to the particular role played by

male members of the agency except that

they helped at husking, knowing that a full

pail of corn soup awaited them whether

they worked or not. ‘Often the ‘bee’ would

be enlivened by a marching dance, and

for this emergency the men brought their

water drums and horn rattles and cleared

their throats for singing”’ (Parker, p. 32).

The dual-membership cooperative group is,

perhaps, best regarded as a variant of the

women’s aid-company.

In summary, then, we have presented

data describing certain cooperative associ-

178

ations present among the modern Seneca

and Cherokee. Further, we have reviewed

the more accessible sources for information

upon antecedent and coexisting forms in the

same cultures for the earlier historical

period. Both the recent and earlier types of

Iroquoian economic agencies reveal pro-

nounced similarities as well as differences.

Despite the dissimilarities, it is the writers’

opinion that the two sets of tribal institu-

tions are genetically related, and reflect, in

turn, an old, fundamental pattern of insti-

tutionalized cooperation and _ poor-relief

characteristic of and deeply embedded in

Iroquoian culture. The reasons for so think-

ing are set forth in subsequent paragraphs.

In delineating the form and function of

the economic institutions antecedent to

contemporary Iroquoian mutual-aid com-

panies, it is first necessary to set aside those

accretions that have attached themselves

to the base pattern during the course of

recent centuries. Thus, if the Cherokee

gadugt be screened of such alien elements as

the corporate and parliamentary frame-

work of organization, services for hire, loans

to members, etc., the simpler form charac-

teristic of the Colonial period remains as a

residuum. The primary function of the

Cherokee agency is then revealed as mutual

exchange of services for economic ends. It

is probable that the association during this

earlier period was organized on a com-

munity-wide basis and operated under the

direction of a leader and several assistants.

As thus depicted, the parent mutual-aid

institution, except for its sexually mixed

composition, equates essentially with the

women’s mutual-aid company of the Sen-

eca. This divergence in membership com-

position, however, is of relatively minor

significance when we recall the peculiar

matriarchal trend of northern Iroquoian

economy, and contrast it with joint par-

ticipation of both sexes in agricultural

‘pursuits among the Cherokee.

Similarly the poor-aid company of the

Cherokee resembles its Seneca counterpart,

the Singing Society, in functioning to allevi-

ate economic distress. Fenton is of the opin-

ion that the contemporary Seneca 2id com-

pany is the lineal descendant of the sexu-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 6

ally mixed cooperative agency described by

Parker. In his opinion the latter can be

regarded as the parent institution of the

Singing Society in the earlier period. A clear

line of development, in the light of our pres-

ent knowledge, can not be traced between

the cooperative agency discussed by Parker,

and a postulated, dual-composition work-

group believed by Quain (p. 249) to function

in the onerous activities of land-clearing

during the aboriginal period.® It is entirely

possible that Fenton’s ‘‘groups of men who

helped the women” stemmed from some

such aboriginal land-clearing agency. In

this case, the dual-composition work-group

merely represents the application of the

basic pattern of institutionalized coopera-

tion to the smallest, land-using unit in

Seneca economy. The mutual-aid element

may have become attached to what was

once a _ predominately economic relief

agency as the result of the decline in

women’s agricultural cooperatives and the

increasing attention paid by Seneca men:

to farming.

To return to our comparison of the Seneca

Singing Society and the Cherokee poor-aid

company, it is clear that both agencies

functioned to alleviate distress within the

community, whether resulting from life-

crisis situations or from ordinary economic

need. Upon sifting out the parliamentary

elements of organization shared by both,

an earlier pattern of supervision, that of a

leader and several aides, is revealed. Simi-

larly, the native traits of reciprocity and

formalized social diversion are common to

the economic cooperatives of both tribes.

Further, both Seneca and Cherokee aid

companies are characterized by mixed mem-

bership since both men and women are

members. If we again recall the sexual orien-

tation of Five Nations economy, thesociety

of males who aid the women during the

earlier period appears complementary to

the coexisting women’s farming cooperative,

both functioning toward common coopera-

tive and charitable goals. A point of differ-

33 B. H. Quain, chapter on “The Iroquois” in

Cooperation and competition among primitive

peoples: 240-281. Edited by Margaret Mead.

New York, 1937.

JUNE 15, 1945 sPECK AND SCHAEFFER: MUTUAL-AID COMPANY OF THE CHEROKEE

~ ence between northern and southern Iro-

quoians is the role assigned to members of

the Cherokee poor-aid company in execu-

tion of certain mortuary rites. These respon-

sibilities accrue to the southern aid-group,

apparently, as the result of the widespread

Southeastern pattern of individuals other

than relatives carrying on the rites leading

to inhumation of the deceased. In the

northern area, a similar attitude is not lack-

ing in that the deceased’s opposite moiety

fulfills these obligations. Even here the

Seneca poor-aid agency functions in an

intermediary capacity. The Seneca aid

companies also meet to clean graveyards.

As a result of the preceding analysis, the

fundamental pattern of the organized, eco-

nomic cooperative common to both Five

Nations and Cherokee cultures comes to

assume proper proportions. If the recon-

struction of a prototype institution char-

acteristic of archaic Iroquoian peoples in

- general be in order, it is to be defined as a

voluntary association of individuals, probably

community-wide, organized under the super-

_ vision of a leader and several assistants to

carry on mutual aid or relief activities within

the locality on a reciprocal basis. The lack of

homogeneity in the tribal economic coopera-

tives of the recent period is assignable to (1)

superficial accretions derived from Euro-

pean sources and (2) more fundamental

modifications effected by varying streams of

influence impinging upon the Seneca and

the Cherokee, respectively, subsequent to

their separation and dispersion.

As a result of tracing the economic agen-

cies described to earlier levels of Iroquoian

history, a fundamental trait characteristic

179

of the cultures of this linguistic family is

brought to light. We refer to the pattern of

institutionalization, which so thoroughly

pervades without relaxation the social

forms of [roquoian-speaking peoples in both

northern and southern areas. Certainly one

would search in vain among the Algonkians

of the northern forests for indications of

that capacity for economic, political, and

social organization which so characterizes

the life of their neighbors to the south, the

Five Nations. Economic mutual aid is not

entirely absent, it is true, among these less

complex, hunting-gathering societies. How-

ever, it is never manifested through these

organized agencies attributable to the Iro-

quoians but rather through the media of

informal work-parties.

In evaluating the observations recorded

in this paper, it must be borne in mind that

institutionalization appears convincingly to

have been an Jroquoian cultural property

from the period of discovery down to the

present day. We shall have to presume that

such a statement is acceptable to students

of the group. It is only by means of such a

predisposing factor that the rapid assimila-

tion, for example, of Europeans patterns of

organization by Seneca and Cherokee alike

during recent centuries, is most satisfac-

torily explained. The common basis thus pro-

vided for the mutual aid groups in both areas

affords increased evidence of cultural linkage

in the past between two Iroquoian-speaking

peoples who differ otherwise in most respects

as to their cultural profiles. This substratum

of social conformation in Iroquoian cultures

represents a field of inquiry about which

further information is desired.

180

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 6

PALEONTOLOGY.—Gaulocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid genus from the Mis-

sissipptan.. Epwin Kirk, U. 8. Geological Survey.

In the lower Mississippian of Kentucky

and Tennessee is a small group of anoma-

lous crinoids. In the main the species have

been referred to the Pennsylvanian genus

Stemmatocrinus, though one has been de-

scribed as Mespilocrinus. Material showing

the arm structures has been prepared, and

the crinoids prove to represent a new

genus.

Gaulocrinus, n. gen.

Genotype.—Stemmatocrinus trautscholdt Wachs-

muth and Springer. ,

Crown. Low, massive, compact.

Dorsal cup. The dorsal cups range from cupuli-

form (type species) with flattened base

and J BB not visible in lateral view through

cyathiform to crateriform. In the deeper

cups the BB are plainly visible in lateral

view. In most of the species the plates are

very thick. In the holotype of the type spe-

cies the RR have a maximum thickness of

8 mm. The BB and JBB have approxi-

mately the same thickness. This thickness

is still greater in larger specimens. The spe-

cies found in the New Providence of But-

ton Mould Knob is a relatively small one

and represented only by dissociated plates

and one crushed dorsal cup. Here the

maximum thickness of a radial is some-

what less than 4.5 mm. Owing to the great

thickness of the plates in most of the spe-

cies, the cavity of the dorsal cup is rela-

tively small. The plates themselves are

pyramidal in form, their dimensions on

the inside of the cup being but approxi-

mately one-half those on the outside.

IBB. In most of the specimens the JBB appear

to be fused into a solid disk. The greater

part of the specimens, however, are silici-

fied, which militates against accurate ob-

servations of sutures in the case of closely

united plates. Several specimens seem

clearly to show a single suture. In at least

two specimens two sutures outlining a

single infrabasal can be seen. As the cup is

symmetrical there is no way of orienting

1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S.

Geological Survey. Received March 16, 1945.

BB.

dele.

the sutures as seen. The stellate outline of

the infrabasal element in many of the

specimens gives good reason to doubt

anchylosis of the /BB. In all cases known

to me where there is anchylosis in the

proximal circlet of plates the resultant ele-

ment has a symmetrical outline without

reentrant angles. When two, three, or four

elements result from fusion, reentrants are

found only where sutures are shown, and

even here they are usually not deep. In

earlier days a great deal of stress was laid

on the number and position of the elements

in the proximal circlet. With greater

knowledge we have found that such struc-

tures may be fairly stable and character-

istic in some evolutionary lines and vari-

able in others. Again, sutures may appear

in individuals through what Wilson has

styled delayed anchylosis. In the case of

Gaulocrinus, with our present knowledge,

the status of the JBB may be given as

anchylosed with sporadic appearance of

sutures. There is a distinct pit for the re-

ception of the column. It is circular, deep,

and has vertical walls. The pit is usually

submedian in position, but in one unde-

scribed species it seems to be consistently

excentric in varying degrees.

Large, usually extending to about one-

half the height of the cup wall. An inter-

esting feature in older specimens is the

sinuous course of the basal-radial suture.

Large. The radial facet extends nearly the

full width of the radial. As seen in lateral

view the R-IBr articulation ranges from

linear to deeply lunate. The straight or

slightly excavate contact is shown chiefly

in young individuals or in what are as-

sumed to be stratigraphically older spe-

cies. It may appear, however, within a spe-

cies in specimens of the same size as those

showing decidedly lunate outlines. The

distal face of the radial forms a broad plat-

form. There is a well-defined fulcral ridge.

The dorsal ligament fossa is relatively

narrow but sharply defined. There is also

a well-marked ligament pit. The muscular

fossae vary with age. In younger speci-

JUNE 15, 1945

mens they are relatively shallow and have

a papillose surface. In the largest individ-

uals the fossae are deep and sharply de-

fined. At the lateral ventral margins of the

articulating face are triangular facets.

Each of these combined with that of the

adjacent radial forms a triangular depres-

sion that broadens and becomes shallower

ventrad. At times, a low ridge delimits the

inner margin of the depression. It seems

possible that those areas represent inter-

articular ligament fossae.

Arms. The arms are heavy and short. In the

two species where they are preserved, their

length is less than the height of the dorsal

cup. The /Brr are broad, low, and two in

number in the two species in which they

have been seen. In G. trautscholdi the rami

do not seem to divide again. In one half-

ray there are six secundibrachs preserved.

Judging by the rapidity of taper, one

would hardly expect another division. In

G. bordeni there is a second division on the

seventh secundibrach.

Tegmen. No part of the tegmen has been found

in any instance. In at least one specimen

the cup is partially filled with dissociated

brachials without recognizable plates that

could have been derived from the tegmen.

It would appear that the tegmen was an

incompetent structure made up of many

small plates.

Column. The column is known only in one

specimen, where five of the proximal

columnals are preserved. The column has

a diameter of 5.0 mm and is circular in sec-

tion. The columnals are of medium height

and, as seen, all of approximately the same

height. The sides are somewhat rounded.

The face of the columnal is marked by

fairly strong, radiating ridges. It is not

possible to tell the shape of the lumen in

the column itself. As shown somewhat in-

distinctly in the JBB it is pentalobate to

pentagonal in outline.

Distribution.—Gaulocrinus to date has been

found in place only in the New Providence of

Kentucky and Indiana and an equivalent ho-

rizon in Tennessee. Most of the specimens from

the White Creek Springs area of Tennessee

were found on slopes and bottom lands as

KIRK: A NEW INADUNATE CRINOID GENUS

181

float, and their stratigraphic horizon is uncer-

tain. It has been assumed generally that they

are derived from the limestones overlying the

New Providence equivalent and of approxi-

mately Keokuk age, but this is doubtful.

Relationships.—The placement and the dif-

ferentiation of crinoids with relatively simple

structure are difficult. The separation of

Gaulocrinus from Stemmatocrinus is, however,

an easy matter on the basis of arm structure

alone. Stemmatocrinus has long biserial arms.

To point out differences between Gaulocrinus

and species referred to the Permian genus

Calycocrinus is more difficult, however. Typical

Calycocrinus has a turbinate cup. The arms are

similar to those of Gaulocrinus, as for that

matter are those of Edriocrinus and other

widely dissimilar genera. In Calycocrinus the

articulating face of the radial is narrow, with

an indistinct transverse fulcral ridge and a

small dorsal ligament pit. There is no platform

ventrad and there are no well-defined muscular

fossae. The structure is somewhat like that

found in such a genus as Lecanocrinus and af-

fords some justification for the assignment of

Calycocrinus to the Flexibilia as now con-

ceived. In Gaulocrinus the articulating face is

of the type characteristic of many of the heavy-

bodied Inadunata. Of what systematic value

the articulating faces of the radials may prove

to be is a moot point. For our present purposes

the striking structural differences shown by the

two genera seem sufficient to substantiate the

inherently probable wide biologic separation of

the two genera.

Species referred to the genus.—

Gaulocrinus bordeni (Springer),

n. comb.

Mespilocrinus bordeni Springer, 1920, p. 197, pl. 5,

figs. 23a—c: ‘“‘Knobstone group; Clark County,

Indiana” (New Providence).

Gaulocrinus robustus (Troost),

n. comb.

Cyathocrinites robustus Troost, 1849, p. 419, nom.

nud. ; 1850, p. 61, nom. nud. ; 1909, p. 98, pl. 7

figs. 12-14: ‘‘Keokuk horizon of the Tullahoma

formation. Harpeth River and White’s Creek

Springs, Davidson County, Tennessee’”’ (Wood).

“Harpeth Ridge, Davidson County, Tennes-

see” (Troost’s manuscript locality).

Stemmatocrinus trautscholdi Wachsmuth and

Springer (pars), Wood, 1909, p. 98.

182

Gaulocrinus trautscholdi (Wachsmuth

and Springer), n. comb.

Stemmatocrinus trautscholdi Wachsmuth ‘ ‘Sind

Springer, 1885, pl. 9, figs. 7, 8; 1886, p. 256

(180): “Keokuk limestone near Nashville

(White’s Creek), Tenn.”

Gaulocrinus veryi (Rowley),

n. comb.

Stemmatocrinus? veryi Rowley, 1903, p. 133, pl.

38, figs. 7, 8: “‘. . . probably Keokuk group, of

Cumberland County, Kentucky.”

LITERATURE CITED

Row ey, R. R., in Greene, G. K. Contribu-

tion to Indiana paleontology 1, pt: 213:

Privately published, New Albany, Ind.,

August 27, 1903. |

SPRINGER, Franx. The Crinoidea Flexibilia.

Smithsonian Inst. Publ. 2501, pp. vi, 1-

A86, pls. A-C, 1-76. 1920.

'FROOST, GERARD. Communication. Amer.

BOTAN Y.—WNotes on four eastern species of Gymnosporangium.!

Albuquerque, N. Mex.

This paper reports investigations con-

ducted in 1912 and 1913 in the District of

Columbia and vicinity, while the author

was in the employ of the U.S. Division of

Forest Pathology, on the occurrence of four

species of Gymnosporangium, G. clavipes

Cke. & Pk., G. nidus-avis Thaxt., G. effusum

Kern, and G. quniperi- SO TOR Schw.; on

the lesions produced by them on the eed

red cedar (Juniperus virginiana L.); and on

inoculations made with G. effusum.

The purpose of these studies was to de-

termine what species of Gymnosporangium

occurred in the District of Columbia and

adjacent areas, their prevalence and distri-

bution, their action on the host, and to

ascertain, if possible, the aecial stage of G.

effusum.

More than 3,000 red cedars were ex-

amined for the presence of Gymnosporangza,

and a record was made of the distribution on

each tree of the species found. Data were

taken on the extent and character of the

lesions produced. Record for each tree was

maintained on an individual card showing

size and condition of tree, number of lesions

on trunk and branches for each species of

1 Received March 9, 1945.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 6

Journ. Sci. and Arts (ser. 2) 8

420. November 1849.

. A lost of the fossil crinoids of Tennessee.

Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1849: 59-64.

1850

. A critical summary of Troost’s unpub-

lished manuscript on the crinoids of Tennes-

see. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 64, pp. i-xi,

1-150, pls. 1-15. 1909. (Edited by El-

vira Wood.)

WACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK.

Revision of the Paleocrinoidea, pt. a sec. 2,

pp. 1389-302. (One unnumbered page in-

serted after p. 302. One inserted page

“Note to page 255.”’ The latter appeared in

two different forms.) Index to pts. 1-8,

pp. 303-334. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila-

delphia 1886: 64-226. 1886.

Woop, Exvira, in Troost, Gerard. A critical

summary of Troost’s unpublished manu-

script on the crinoids of Tennessee. U.S.

Nat. Mus. Bull. 64, pp. i-xi, 1-150, pls. 1—

15. 1909. (Edited by Elvira Wood.)

(24): 419-

W. H. Lone,

(Communicated by JoHN A. STEVENSON.)

rust, nature and size of each lesion, and any

other pertinent data, such as nearness to

aecial hosts if any, for each locality studied.

Table 1 gives a summation of these data,

showing number of trees examined, number

infected, and number of trunk and branch

lesions found for each of the four species of

Gymnosporangium.

The investigations were made during the

months of April and May, as the lesions are

most conspicuous during these months be-

cause of the swelling and gelatinization of

the telia. April was very rainy in 1912, with

intermittent showers and often with mists

and fogs making ideal conditions for the

maturation and gelatinization of the telia.

Three of these species of Gymnosporan-

gium are perennial in the red cedar while

the fourth is biennial. The prevalence of

each species for any given area can be

determined from the telial stage more ac-

curately than from the aecial since the

former is not dependent for its appearance

on the climatic factors for each season. A

dry year would reduce very materially the .

aecial stage for that year, but would not

affect to any great extent the perennial le-

sions in the telial hosts.

JUNE 15, 1945

A study of the table shows that 3,040 red

cedars were examined, of which 1,206 were

attacked by Gymnosporangium clavipes, 382

by G. nidus-avis, 165 by G. effusum, and 76

by G. juniperi-virginianae. G. clavipes

headed the list with 17,030 lesions, G.

nidus-avis had 1,650, G. effusum 408, and

G. juniperi-virginianae 897, making a total

of 19,985 lesions for the four species.

Gymnosporangium clavipes

This species was widely distributed over the

areas investigated and was the most abundant

as to number of cedars infected and lesions

produced. The older and larger cedars were the

most heavily infected (see Table 1 for Arling-

ton Cemetery and Catholic University). None

of the areas examined was free of this rust, but

in some localities it was rare. .

G. clavipes was rarely abundant on trees with

open tops or with the lower limbs removed for

one-half of the distance up the tree, or, strange

to say, on solitary trees in the open with many

small branches down to the ground. The trees

of the last group have a close, dense growth,

and this was especially true for trees 2 to 6

inches in diameter. When G. clavipes was spar-

ingly present, G. nidus-avis and G. effusum were

usually absent. Cedars that did not have trunk

lesions of G. clavipes were often so situated that

their trunks were not shaded much and had

very open foliage. Apparently most of the trunk

lesions originated directly on the trunk and

did not start on a small branch or twig and

thence work down along the trunk.

This rust traveled more rapidly laterally

than longitudinally and did not kill the living

bark even in the center of the oldest and largest

lesions on trunks and large branches, but killed

small branches and twigs by girdling and sap-

ping them of their vitality. The yellowish-red

telia were small and inconspicuous under the

old dead bark of the trunk and were irregularly

scattered over the surface of the lesions. All

these were well-marked characters of this rust.

No lesions were found on very young twigs, but

all were on those with well-developed wood and

without needles.

Many trunk lesions were found which ap-

parently originated in the enlarged wood at the

base of a branch protected by the loose bark at

that point. Such lesions did not originate on

LONG: NOTES ON GYMNOSPORANGIUM

183

the branch proper but at its juncture with the

trunk and spread from there to the trunk. One

of the largest trunk lesions found was 90 em

wide by 40 cm long, with the outer bark very

thick, rough, and blackish over the lesion,

which was alive throughout. There were nu-

merous trunk lesions on this tree, but there was

no evidence that any of them started from

branches and then spread to the trunk.

Gymnosporangium clavipes is well recognized

as a serious rust on certain varieties of apples,

and the abundance of this species over the areas

here reported indicates that it would become a

serious menace to apple culture during favor-

able years in these regions.

Gymnosporangium nidus-avis

This Gymnosporangium was also found

widely distributed over the areas investigated,

coming next to G. clavipes in number of cedars,

infected and lesions produced. Only one area,

Park Lane, Va., was free from this species, pos-

sibly owing to the small size and youth of the

cedars, which were only half an inch to 2 inches

in diameter. |

Arlington Cemetery and Great Falls, Va.,

were the most heavily infected areas both in

number of trees attacked (301) and lesions

(1,418) produced. This heavy infection prob-

ably was due to the size of the cedars involved

(2 to 45 inches in diameter) and the extreme

age of many of them. This rust produces three

types of lesions—trunk, branch, and broom.

One hundred out of 1,108 branch lesions and

186 of 483 brooms were dead.

The open type of broom with normal needles

found about Washington was quite different in

aspect and much larger than the dense brooms

with juvenile needles found on Juniperus vir-

giniana L. var. crebra Fernald & Griscom from

Massachusetts. In the material examined from

Washington and vicinity no telia or lesions were

found on young twigs or among the needles, but

they were confined to the limbs and branches

with heartwood. The living bark down to the

sapwood under and adjacent to the telia was

stained a golden-yellow during the maturation

and gelatinization period. This was a very

marked character by means of which the in-

fected area could often be determined even be-

fore the telia were formed. This yellow color

was due to small yellowish globules in the rust

Fig. 1.—A, A typical branch lesion of Gymnosporangium effusum with its ridgelike galls extending

in parallel lines on the diseased area; B, a row of red cedars on the grounds of the Catholic University

of America at Washington, D. C., dying from the attacks of three species of Gymnosporangium, espe-

cially G. effusum. Note how many lower branches have died and been removed, and the large black

trunk lesions due to G. effusum; C, closeup view showing more clearly the lesions. Through the kindness

of the University authorities, the writer learned that all the trees shown in this figure were dead by

1927, except one which, though still alive, has much dead wood on it.

JunE 15, 1945 LONG: NOTES ON GYMNOSPORANGIUM 185

Fig. 2.—A, A row of living expanded telia of G. effusum; B, cross section of a living gall of G. effusum

with expanded telia, showing the deep seated character of the lesion; C, cross section of a red cedar

with three major trunk lesions of G. effusum, which have practically killed the tree.

186

hyphae, which occur in the subhymenial layers

beneath the telia. In addition to these yellow

globules, many suppressed but apparently ma-

ture golden-yellow spores were present, but

these were not the main cause of the yellow

color. In the Sharon, Mass., material of G.

nidus-avis no yellow color was found in the

substratum beneath the telia.

Some of the brooms around Washington,

D. C., were very large, being 58 cm long by 77

em wide, while trunk lesions ranged from 70 cm

long by 9 ecm wide to 175 cm long by 42 cm

wide. One large branch lesion was 350 em long

on a branch 9 cm in diameter, entirely girdling

the dying branch for most of its length.

The material of the dense juvenile-needle

brooms studied was obtained from Sharon,

Mass., through the kindness of the late Dr.

Farlow, while the open type of brooms here

discussed was found in the District of Colum-

bia and vicinity.

Gymnosporangium effusum

This species was described by Kern (4, pp.

459-460) from material collected by him on the

Santee Canal in South Carolina in 1909, but

sinee then very little of importance has ap-

peared in print concerning this Gymnosporan-

gium.

Lesions of this rust formed deep-seated,

woody-corky, truncate, ridgelike galls, which

ran longitudinally in parallel rows on branches

and trunks of the red cedar. These galls were

2 to 6 mm tall by 3 to 12 mm wide, with

“roots’’ penetrating to the sapwood of the host

(Fig. 2B). These ridgelike galls when alive were

composed of rather firm cheeselike tissue filled

with rich foodstuffs for the development of the

telia. After the teliospores matured the galls

became brown, more or less suberized, and

covered with a corky callus. After one or pos-

sibly two years of fruiting these galls died but

persisted for years on the old dead_areas of the

lesions. These ridgelike galls usually checked

transversely into pieces 2 to 15 mm long (Fig.

PA):

The infection spread very slowly transversely

on the branches and trunks and the new galls

developed at irregular intervals next to and on

the outside of the old ones and parallel with

them. The telia appeared longitudinally in the

ridgelike galls, breaking through the surface

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 6

callus in slits with only one row of flattened

telia to each gall. When expanded the telia

were wedge-shaped (Fig. 2A), 10 to 12 mm tall

by 2 to 6 mm thick at the top by 10 to 30 mm

long, often with ends of the telia confluent for

4 to 6 cm, rugose to dentate on top, sometimes

tongue-shaped to cristate, as thick atithe bot-

tom as at the top or even thicker, rather firm.

when fully expanded and often falling away in

a body leaving a yellowish sear. The fallen telia

had a longitudinal slit extending up into their

bases for 1 to 2 mm. Telia when expanded

were a light watery brown and about one-

third to one-half taller than before gelatiniza-

tion.

Successive years of fruiting on twigs and

branches finally killed the lesions by the com-

plete destruction of the cortex, phloem, and

cambium. The old galls became dark brown to

blackish with age. The surface of the old lesion

on the trunk was usually in a depression

covered with the corky ridges of the dead le-

sions. Very old dead lesions had a charred look

like a fire scar (Figs. 1B and 1C) caused by

the transverse cracking of the corky ridges and

the darkening and partial falling out of the

cubes of the diseased dead tissue from weather-

ing.

The trunk lesions gradually killed the live

wood, and as these lesions extended very slowly

transversely the fungus formed a depression in

the trunk, which widened as the tree grew until

often only a small amount of live wood tissue

was left to nourish the tree (Fig. 2C). The tree

was finally killed.

Fig. 2C is a fine example of the action of this

Gymnosporangium on the tree trunk. This cross

section shows three large lesions, which through

the years gradually killed nearly all the living

tissue of the trunk. One of these lesions was 80

years old, the fungus having entered when the

tree was 33 years old. The cross section of

another trunk showed a 108-year-old lesion

that started when the tree was 20 years old.

The fungus at the edges of the lesion, by pro-

gressive growth in the adjacent wood, pre-

vented any wound callus from forming, thereby

keeping the wound open as shown in Fig. 2C,

where the small amount of wood still alive can

be noted. |

The longitudinal growth of the rust lesion

ranged from a maximum of 3 inches to a mini-

JuNE 15, 1945

mum of 1 inch, having an average of 1.5 inches

per year with very little appreciable increase in

width. No very young lesions were found, the

youngest being 72 em long by 3} em wide. It

apparently started on the trunk since no limb

was near. Many trunks of red cedars had le-

sions that were largest at the ground line, then

tapered upward, as if the lesion started at or

very near the ground. Many branches had been

killed by being engulfed and surrounded by

adjacent trunk lesions. These dead branches

were free of any infection above their bases;

hence they could only have been killed by being

engulfed. Branches were often flattened by le-

sions, many of which started on the underside.

This is one of the few rusts in which the

length of time the rust has been in the tree can

be determined, due to the nature of the lesions

that it produces. Trees were found that had

been infected for 108 years or longer. Trunk le-

sions ranged from 22 to 1,050 cm long and

of those studied 40 were dead. The number of

trunk lesions ranged from 0 to 6 per tree.

Branch lesions totaled 173, ranging in length

from 15 to 425 cm, and of these 37 were dead.

This is the only Gymnosporangium so far as

is known that kills the cortex, phloem, and

cambium down to the xylem. No study was

made on how this killing occurred or the meth-

od of lateral spread in the host.

Dodge (4) discusses the damage done to

Juniperus virginiana by G. nidus-avis. He di-

vides the lesions produced into two types, the

effuse and the caulicolous forms, and on page

106, figure 3, gives photographs of the two

types of lesions. His figure 3, A, is a good

representation of the caulicolous type of lesions

produced by G. nidus-avis, showing the irregu-

lar orientation of the telia on the lesion, while

figures 3, B, and 3, G, given as the effuse form

of the above species, are typical examples of the

lesions produed by G. effusum.

Crowell (3, p. 473) claims that G. effusum

and G. nidus-avis are the same species as deter-

mined from cultures and microscopic studies of

the two species. Apparently the data given and

the inoculations made by him were based on

the caulicolous form of G. nidus-avis. The

highly characteristic lesions produced by G.

effusum, so different from any other Gymno-

sporangium, should make it impossible for this

_ species to be confused with any other.

LONG: NOTES ON GYMNOSPORANGIUM

187

The alternate stage of @. effuswm has never

been positively determined. Arthur (/) re-

ported inoculations made in 1911 on Aronia

arbutifolia, Amelanchier canadensis, Pyrus com-

munis, Malus coronaria, and Malus malus.

These sowings produced pyenia on Aronia

artibutifolia but no aecia ever developed and

there was no infection on any of the other hosts

inoculated. Arthur (2, p. 371) made only one

set of cultures of this Gymnosporangium. Dur-

ing April and May 1912, the writer made sow-

ings with G. effusum from J. virginiana on the

following species of hosts:

Aronia arbutifolia—10 plants, April 19, 1912,

and 5 plants, May 8, 1912.

Aroma nigra—4 plants, April 19, 1912; 2

plants, April 29, 1912; and 2 plants, May 8, 1912.

Amelanchier canadensis—4 plants, April 19 and

29 and May 8, 1912.

Chaenomeles japonica—2 plants, April 10 and

19, 1912.

Cydonia vulgaris—2 plants, April 10 and 19,

1912.

Malus coronaria—3 plants, April 10 and 22,

1912.

Malus malus—2 plants, April 10, 1912.

Pyrus communis—2 plants, April 10 and 19,

1912.

Cerasus arbutifolia—1 plant, April 10, 1912.

No infections developed from any of these

sowings.

Recently the writer noted that there are only

two species of Gymnosporangium whose alter-

nate stages are unknown, G. effusum for the

aecial and G. hyalinum for the telial stage. The

type locality of both is South Carolina, and the

range of each is much the same along the

southern Atlantic coast. There is, therefore, a

strong probability that the aecial host of G.

effusum is one or more of the species of Cra-

taegus listed for G. hyalinum, viz., C. clara

Beadle, C. dispar Beadle, C. egens Beadle, C.

egregia Beadle, C. michauxii Pers., C. munda

Beadle, C. pera Beadle, C. quasita Beadle, C.

viridis L., and C. visenda Beadle. It is rather

strange that no one so far as known has made

sowings of G. effusum on any of these or other

species of Crataegus. G. trachysorum, a closely

related species, has its aecial stage on Crataegus,

which is another indication that this host may

contain the aecial stage of G. effusum.

Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae

This species was not very abundant over the

188

areas investigated. Only areas with young and

small cedars had any appreciable number of

trees attacked by it; on those areas where the

trees were old and large very few or none were

infected. In Arlington Cemetery three galls

_were found, and only one of these was alive. It

seems odd that so few trees of the more than

3,000 examined were infected with this Gymno-

sporangium, which is in marked contrast to the

large number attacked by G. clavipes. Dead

galls as well as living ones were counted, and

yet the number found was very small, as shown

in the table.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 6

LITERATURE CITED

(1) ArtHuR, J. C. Cultures of Uredineae in

1911. Mycologia 4: 49-65. 1912.

(2) . Manual of rusts in United States

and Canada, 438 pp. 1934.

(3) CrowELL, Ivan H. The geographical dis-

tribution of the genus Gymnosporangium.

Can. Journ. Res. (C) 18: 469-488. 1940.

(4) Dopes, B. O. A destructive red-cedar rust

disease. Journ. New York Bot. Garden

32: 101-108. 1931.

(5) Kern, F. D. A biologic and taxonomic

study of .the genus Gymnosporangium.

Bull. New York Bot. Garden 7: 392-494.

1911.

TABLE 1.—DaTa ON GYMNOSPORANGIUM LESIONS ON JUNIPERUS VIRGINIANA FOR Eacu AREA INVESTIGATED!

G. clavipes G. nidus-avis G. effusum G. juniperi-virginianae

Location and | Trees

diameter of | exam-| Trees Lesions Trees Lesions Trees | Lesions Trees Le- | Total

trees ined Ine or ee is ; i= 00g | sos + eee a sions le-

fected | Trunk! Branch| fected Trunk) Branch Brooms! fected | Trunk] Branch} fected | galls sions

Arlington Cem-

-etery, 2-45” 555 545 | 1,730; 6,580 169 33 545 | 433 97 100 89 3 3 9,513

Catholic Univ., |

4-28” 93 75 434| 1,006 12 4 12 1 33 107 56 oO | 0 1,620

Roads near

Catholic

Univ., 16-32” 76 44 40 275 15 nt 28 1 22 19 22 0 0 386

Great Falls,

Va., 2-6” 405 403 | 1,697); 4,050 132 16 356 45 7 5 2 2 iS 6,186

De Bate Milan DES ! Ce a Se SE

Park Lane, Va.,

3-2” 383 4 ie 1 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20

Fences near Park

Lane, 4-12” 388 29 32 119 10 3 33 0 0 0 0 6 63 250

Franklin Park, |

2-14” 174 14 42 70 3 0 10 0 0 0 0 36 615 737

Country Club, *

4-20” 116 30 200 464 11 il 35 0 0 0 0 1 20 720

El Nido to |

Franklin Park,

6-14” -49 40 60 115 2 0 4 0 1 0 1 6 40 220

Fence rows,

3-16” 503 7 0 33 14 0 43 4 nt 0 1 22 141 222

Scattered trees,

6-12” 298 15 3 60 14 0 42 0 4 4 2 0 0 111

Totals '8,040 |1,206 | 4, 238 12 ,792 | 382 58 | 1,108 484 165 235 173 | 76 897 19 , 985

1 Many of the cedars in Arlington Cemetery were being seriously damaged in 1912 by three other enemies in addition to the

rusts: a climbing grape vine (Vitis sp.) had overrun 75 of them, killing 38; 51 of the trees had poison-ivy (Rhus toxicodendron) on

trunks and lower branches; while 102 had a butt rot (Fomes subroseus), which was destroying the heartwood, thereby weakening

the trees.

JUNE 15, 1945

MAO: THREE NEW SPECIES OF LAMINITARSUS 189

ENTOMOLOGY .—Three new species of Laminitarsus Fullaway from Singapore

and the Philippines (Hymenoptera: Braconidae).'

sity of California.

In the course of revising the North Amer-

ican species of the hymenopterous subfam-

ily Cardiochilinae the author found three

interesting species of Laminitarsus Full-

away in the Baker collection at the U. 8.

National Museum. The genus Laminitarsus

was first established in 1919 by Fullaway

to include only one species from Los Bafios,

Luzon, Philippine Islands. He placed it in

the subfamily Cardiochilinae without fur-

ther statement.

The species of both Cardiochiles Nees and

Laminitarsus Fullaway have the third ab-

scissa of the radius arched basally, but

Laminitarsus may be easily recognized by

the extraordinarily broadened and length-

ened basitarsus of the posterior leg (Figs. 6,

7, 8) and the more or less triangular pro-

podeum.

Four species of Laminitarsus are now

known and they may be distinguished as

follows:

1. Occiput deeply excavated and temple con-

spicuously bulging posteriorly; second seg-

ment of hind tarsus joined apically to

MME iis oa PT Ae Bea dw ok TW RL 2

Occiput shallowly excavated and temple not

bulging much posteriorly; second segment of

hind tarsus joined ventrally to basitarsus.

singaporensis, Nn. sp.

2. Wings infumated.......... muirit Fullaway?

Wings hyaline, with only apical fifth of fore-

wing and tip of hind wing infumated...... 3

3. Face rugose; basitarsus of hind leg about twice

as long as remaining four tarsal segments

11S 1 il ie eae Delle ae ei tare rudis, n. sp..

Face smooth; basitarsus of hind leg about one-

third longer than remaining four tarsal seg-

ments combined... .... .......: chapini, n. sp.

Laminitarsus chapini, n. sp.

Female——Length 6.2 mm. Body yellowish

brown with the following parts black: Antenna

except scape and pedicel, vertex, frons medi-

ally, clypeus apically, mesoscutum except

anterolateral corner, mesopleuron except dor-

sally and posteriorly, pectus, base of middle

tibia, middle tarsus, two spots on outer surface

1 Received March 3, 1945.

2 Journ. Straits Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc., no. 80:

57-58, fig. 3, 9. 1919.

Yina-Tou Mao, Univer-

(Communicated by C. F. W. MursEepeck.)

of hind coxa, hind trochanters, hind femur ex-

cept apex, hind tibia basally, ventrally, and

apically, hind tibial spurs basally, hind basitar-

sus except medially, the remaining four tarsal

segments, a spot on each side of second tergite

and apical half of tergites 3 to 5. Fore tarsus

except base, spurs of middle tibia, spurs of

hind tibia apically, and ovrpositor sheath dark

brown; wings with apical fifth light fuliginous

and the rest hyaline; veins dark.

Heap: Antenna 41-segmented; scape and

pedicel with longer pubescence than the

flagellum; eye bare; ocelli slightly elevated;

vertex smooth, shining, and slightly sloping

towards frons; occiput excavated; frons

smooth, shining, impressed, and with a median

longitudinal carina; face smooth, shining, and

with a short median ridge at upper third;

clypeus plain, smooth, shining, and not notched

at the median apical margin; maxillary palpus

prominent and longer than the head; temple

narrower than the eye in dorsal view and bulg-

ing posteriorly; galea short.

THorax: Lateral face of pronotum rugose

on posterior half; median lobe of mesoscutum

plain; notaulices distinct and foveolate; meso-

pleuron smooth and shining, upper groove

weakly foveolate, lower groove foveolate and

its lower margin flattened, posterior groove

foveolate with a smooth depression at the mid-

dle anteriorly; metapleuron rugose, median

ventral part of its anterior portion smooth

and shining, and the posterior margin of its

posterior portion flaring; propodeum rugose,

pleural carina high and distinct, areola long,

flat and indistinct, spiracular area acute pos-

teriorly, spiracle long ovate. First abscissa of

radius longer and thicker than that of basal

vein; second abscissa of radius slightly less than

three times as long as first; third abscissa of

cubitus longer than fourth; second abscissa of

cubitus shorter than recurrent vein (Fig. 3);

interanal vein absent. Second and fifth seg-

ments of fore tarsus about equal; inner spur of

middle tarsus about as long as basitarsus, sec-

ond and fifth tarsal segments about equal; hind

tibia flattened and broadened apically, tibial

spur about as long as the second to fifth tarsal

190

segments combined, basitarsus long, broad, and

flattened, about two thirds as long as the tibia,

the remaining four tarsal segments combined

about three-fourths as long as the basitarsus,

second tarsal segment thickened, longer than

the fifth and apically joined to the basitarsus

(Fig. 7); hind tarsal claws pectinate basally.

ABDOMEN: First abdominal suture extending

obliquely forward from the sides of the median

elevation of first tergite; second and third ter-

gites medially of about equal length; hypo-

pygium about as long as the third tergite,

obtuse in profile; ovipositor sheath inconspicu-

ous, pubescent, about half as long as the hypo-

pygium.

Type.—Female, Iligan, Mindanao, Philip-

pine Islands, C. F. Baker, U.S.N.M. no. 57270.

This species is named in honor of Dr. E. A.

Chapin, curator of insects, U. 8. National

Museum.

Laminitarsus rudis, n. sp.

Female.—Length 6.5 mm. Yellowish brown,

the following parts black: Antenna except

scape lateroanteriorly and pedicle apically, a

transverse band taking in posterior part of

vertex and upper part of occiput, ocellar area,

frons medially, three broad longitudinal vittae

on mesoscutum, mesopleuron except dorsal

third, pectus, middle trochanters apically, mid-

dle tibia basally, middle tarsus except base,

one spot on hind coxa dorsoapically, hind tro-

chanters, hind femur basally, hind tarsus except

base, and a transverse band on each tergite

from third to seventh. Apex of hind tibia, and

hind tibial spurs infuscated; wings hyaline and

veins dark, forewing with apical fifth, and hind

wing apically, light fuliginous.

Heap: Antenna incomplete; scape and

pedicle with pubescence about as long as the

flagellum; eye bare; ocelli slightly elevated, the

distance between the posterior pair about twice

as long as that between either one of these and

the anterior ocellus; vertex punctate and shin-

ing; occiput excavated; frons punctate, shining,

with a low median longitudinal carina; face

rugose, with a short median ridge at about up-

per third; clypeus punctate, not notched medi-

ally on apical margin; temple and eye about

equal in dorsal view; maxillary palpus promi-

nent, about as long as the head; galea short.

THorRAX: Lateral face of pronotum rugose on

posterior half; mesoscutum punctate, its me-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 6

dian lobe plain; notaulices distinct, foveolate,

and flat in the posterior angle; mesoscutellum

punctate; upper groove of mesopleuron finely

rugose, lower groove broad, punctate and flat

on ventral part, and posterior groove foveolate

with a smooth groove at the middle leading an-

teriorly to the lower groove; metapleuron

rugose, its posterior margin flaring; propodeum

rugose, its pleural carina high and distinct, its

aerolar carina represented by a short stump

posteriorly, its spiracular carina not distinct,

and its spiracle long ovate. First abscissa of

radius equal to that of basal vein but thicker,

and about one-fourth as long as the second ab-

scissa of radius; third abscissa of cubitus longer

than the fourth; second abscissa of cubitus and

recurrent vein equal (Fig. 4); interanal vein ab-

sent. Second and fifth segments of fore tarsus

about equal; inner spur of middle tibia slightly

shorter than the basitarsus and second and

fifth tarsal segments about equal; hind tibia

flattened and broadened toward apex, its inner

spur longer than the second to fifth tarsal seg-

ments combined; basitarsus enormously de-

veloped, broadened, flattened, and slightly

more than two-thirds as long as the tibia; the

other four tarsal segments combined about half

as long as the basitarsus, second and fifth seg-

ments about equal; hind tarsal claws pectinate

basally.

ABDOMEN: First abdominal suture extending

obliquely forward at the sides; second and

third tergites of about equal length medially;

hypopygium about as long as the third tergite

and obtuse in profile; ovipositor sheath incon-

spicuous, about half as long as the hypopy-

gium, and pubescent.

Type.—Female, Island of Basilan, Philip-

pine Islands, C. F. Baker, U.S.N.M., no. 57271.

Laminitarsus singaporensis, n. sp.

Female-——Length 5 mm. Head and thorax

yellowish brown; antenna, occiput, vertex,

face medially, tip of mandible, lower half of

proepisternum, mesopleuron, pectus, and an-

terior portion of metapleuron black. Mesoscu-

tum black with anterolateral vitta of median

lobe, and anterior end and a narrow vitta of

lateral lobe laterad of the posterior half of the

notaulix yellowish brown. Wings hyaline, apical

fifth of forewing and tip of hind wing infu-

mated. Legs yellowish brown, middle leg with

JuNE 15, 1945 MAO: THREE NEW SPECIES OF LAMINITARSUS 191

Fig. 1.—Head of singaporensis (dorsal view). Fia. 2.—Head of chapini (dorsal view) (similar to

rudis). Fie. 3.—Part of forewing of chapini showing radius and cubitus. Fie. 4.—Part of forewing

of rudis showing radius and cubitus. Fie. 5.—Part of forewing of singaporensis showing radius and

cubitus. Fie. 6.—Left hind leg of singaporensis (ventral view). Fie. 7.—Part of hind leg of chapint

showing tibial spurs and tarsus. Fie. 8.—Part of hind leg of rudis showing tibial spurs and tarsus.

Fig. 9.—Typical propodeum of Cardiochiles Nees. Fie. 10.—Propodeum of Laminitarsus Fullaway.

Fie. 11.—Abdomen of singaporensis (dorsal view) (similar to chapini and rudis). Fie. 12.—Part of

abdomen of singaporensis showing hypopygium and ovipositor sheath (similar to chapini and rudis).

All figures are proportionally drawn. A, areola; AF, antennal foramen; B-B, basal vein; BT, basi-

tarsus; C-C, cubitus; E, eye; FR, frons; HP, hypopygium; IS, inner spur; OC, ocelli; OS, ovipositor

sheath; PC, pleural carina; RC, recurrent vein; R-R, radius; SP, spiracle; SPA, spiracular area; SPC,

spiracular carina; ST, stigma; TC, transverse carina; IAS, first abdominal suture; 1T, first tergite;

_2T, second tergite; 3T, third tergite; 8T, eighth tergite.

192

basal half of trochanter, femur apically, tibia

basally and apically, tibial spurs, and tarsus,

and hind leg with coxa medially, trochanters,

apical two-thirds of femur, tibia basally and

medially, apical oblique half of basitarsus, and

last two tarsal segments black. Abdomen black,

first tergite, the second medially and anteriorly,

the third, and venter except apex yellowish

brown.

Heap: Antenna 48-segmented; scape and

pedicel shining and with longer pubescence

than the flagellum; eye bare; ocelli elevated

slightly, arranged in a flat triangle, the anterior

member smaller than the lateral ones (Fig. 1);

vertex wrinkled, punctate, shining, and slightly

sloping towards frons; frons impressed, wrin-

kled, and with a distinct median longitudinal

elevation; face rough, with a median, narrow

triangular extension above; clypeus rugose, api-

cal margin not notched medially;. temple not

bulging, narrower than the eye in dorsal view;

galea short.

THorax: Lateral face of pronotum rather

plain; notaulices distinct, narrow, and finely

foveolate; mesoscutum punctate; median lobe

of mesoscutum plain without a longitudinal de-

pression along each side of the median line;

transverse fossa with five septa; mesopleuron

punctate, upper groove flat and indistinct,

lower groove oblique across the middle of meso-

pleuron, and posterior groove narrow and

finely foveolate; metapleuron rather plain;

propodeum flat and plain (Fig. 10), pleural car-

ina distinct, areola elongate, flat and indistinct,

transverse carina absent, spiracular carina very

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 6

low, spiracular area acute posteriorly, and

spiracle long ovate, directed obliquely in the

center of the spiracular area. Wings with thin

veins; stigma somewhat lanceolate; first ab-

scissa of radius longer than that of the basal

vein; the second abscissa about 2.5 times as

long as the first; third and fourth abscissae of

cubitus about equal; second abscissa of cubitus

longer than the recurrent vein (Fig. 5); nervu-

lus postfureal by half of its own length; inter-

anal vein absent. Tibia of middleleg thin, inner

spur about as long as basitarsus; second and

fifth tarsal segments about equal. Coxa of hind

leg prominent; femur thin; tibia flattened,

broadened toward apex, and with a smooth de-

pression at the upper apical end; inner spur of

tibia long, slightly over half as long as the

basitarsus; hind basitarsus enormously de-

veloped, flattened, about as long as the hind

tibia, and joined by the second tarsal segments

ventrally at apex (Fig. 6); second tarsal seg-

ment slightly shorter than the fifth; hind tar-

sal claws pectinate basally.

ABDOMEN (Figs. 11, 12): Shorter than

thorax; first tergite slightly longer than the

second and third combined; first abdominal

suture extending obliquely forward at the sides;

second tergite slightly longer than the third

medially; hypopygium about as long as the

fourth and fifth segments of middle tarsus com-

bined, obtuse in profile, and not nearly attain-

ing apex of abdomen; ovipositor sheath very

short, subexserted, and pubescent.

Type.—Female, Singapore, C. F. Baker,

US-N-M,, ne: bi272.

PARASITOLOGY .—Localization of radioactive antimony following multiple daily

enjections to a dog infected with Dirofilaria immitis.}

H. Lawton, A. T. Ness, FREDERICK J. BRapy, and GLEN E. OGDEN.’

municated by JoHn A. FLEMING.)

Antimony compounds have appeared to

offer the most promise in the treatment of

human filarid infections. In our studies it

was found (1) that daily injections of sev-

eral such compounds were effective in eradi-

eating microfilariae of Dirofilaria immitis

1 Received March 16, 1945.

2 From the Department of Terrestrial Mag-

netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington

and the Laboratories of Zoology, Chemistry, and

Industrial Hygiene Research, National Institute

of Health.

DEAN B. Cowig, ALFRED

(Com-

from naturally infected dogs. With regard

to the fate of antimony in the tissues, we

have reported (2) the distribution of radio-

active antimony following a single intra-

venous administration of tartar emetic,

sodium antimony] xylitol, and an aqueous

suspension of antimony trioxide. Since mul-

tiple daily injections of compounds at the

dosage level of 0.8 milligram of antimony

per kilogram of body weight were used in

the experimental treatments, a knowledge

>. + 5) tial Be

JUNE 15, 1945 COWIE ET AL.: LOCALIZATION OF RADIOACTIVE ANTIMONY

of the fate of the antimony after multiple

injections was desired. In this paper a study

with repeated injections of sodium anti-

monyl xylitol prepared from radioactive

antimony is reported.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Radioactive antimony was prepared by

the bombardment of antimony with deu-

terons in the cyclotron of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington. The radioactive

antimony was chemically separated from

the other elements of the target and was

recovered as nearly pure antimony trioxide.

This was then synthesized into sodium

antimony] xylitol by the method described

elsewhere (1). An aqueous solution of this

chemical containing 10 milligrams of anti-

mony per milliliter of solution was used

throughout the experiment.

Dog no. 148 naturally infected with

Dirofilaria immitis was given intravenously

0.8 milligram of antimony per kilogram of

body weight as sodium antimony] xylitol

solution daily, except Sunday, for two weeks

or a total of 12 injections. Blood samples

were drawn immediately before each injec-

tion, 15 minutes after each injection, and

36 hours following the last injection. To

these blood samples dry sodium citrate was

added in the proportion of 10 milligrams

per milliliter. Thirty-six hours after the

last injection the dog was sacrificed and

samples of 35 tissues were removed. The

blood samples and the tissue specimens were

weighed quickly after their removal, placed

in a desiccator containing phosphorus pent-

oxide, and kept under reduced pressure at

room temperature by means of a vacuum

pump. After 16 hours of drying, tissues were

reweighed and the amount of weight loss

was determined. The samples were then

ground in a mortar to a more or less homn-

geneous state.

Determinations of the antimony con-

tent of the blood and other tissues were

made by measuring the number of disin-

tegrations per second per unit weight of

tissue powder with a Geiger-Miiller coun-

ter and comparing this with a known stand-

ard. The standards were prepared by adding

a known amount of the radioactive anti-

mony to a sample of normal blood which

4§ MINUTES,

BEFORE INJECTION

are

oA Ste

Peee=.

BAREIS

+S)

Fig. 1.—Antimony concentration in blood of

dog no. 148, 15 minutes before and after injec-

tion.

was subsequently treated in the same man-

ner as the samples containing the unknown

quantities. An overall accuracy in these

determinations of +1 per cent was de-

monstrated.

Microfilarial counts were made daily by a

previously described method (3).

RESULTS

Figure 1 shows the blood content of

antimony before each injection and 15 min-

utes after each injection. The antimony

content is expressed in micrograms per

gram of wet weight of blood. It will be noted

that each injection causes the 15-minute

postinjection level to exceed the previous

194

15-minute level, and the residual antimony

in the blood at the end of each 24-hour

period after injection remained above the

previous residual level. An average of 0.112

microgram of antimony was cleared from

each milliliter of the blood in 24 hours.

With the cessation of treatment the anti-

mony rapidly left the blood stream.

4 6 r] ”0 172 1a r}

MICROGRAMS ANTIMONY [GRAM WET WEIGHT OF TISSUE

WUMMMMM@?7=|'™™|"|/”/7™1|]HTHMHHMHHYMVV001100 to gi

WLLL LLL, * "YP

MELD, PARATHYROID

VILL), OIROF IU ARIA (6 ADULT MALES)

VAAL) OIROFILARIA (MOSTLY MALE ADULTS)

VALI JA SPLEEN

V/A ING. LYMPH NODE

Vij 7A JEJUNUM

V/A KIONEY, CORTER

V4 ZA) AORTA

Vj4/4 EPIDERMIS

VL) OIAPHRAGM

V/A co“on

V/ij/) THIGH MUSCLE

V/A STOMACH

VIZ 4 LEFT VENTRICLE

VA RIGHT VENTRICLE

V4 KIDNEY, MEOULL A

V/A RETROPERITONEAL LYMPH NODE

V/A ADRENALS

VA TesTes

V/A LEFT AURICLE

VA RIGHT AURICLE

V/A PANCREAS

VA FEMUR

V/A CEREBRUM

V/A PITUITARY

VA BRAIN STEM

VA) CEREBELLUM

VA Ere LENS

4. CORNEA OF EVE

FEMUR, CORTEX

Hy oeRMIS

Hj 84000, 36 HOURS:

Fig. 2.—Antimony concentration in tissues of dog

no. 148, 36 hours after last injection.

The dog in question became free of micro-

filariae after nine injections given over a

10-day period. Six live adult male Dzrofilaria

ammitis were found in the right ventricle at

autopsy. No live female parasites were

recovered, but numerous fragments of re-

cently dead and degenerated worms were

removed from the pulmonary arterial tree.

No other abnormalities were observed.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 6

The antimony concentration of 35 tissues

taken from this dog (no. 148) at autopsy

36 hours after the last treatment is given in

Fig. 2 as micrograms per gram of wet

weight of tissue. A wide variation in con-

centration values was recorded for the vari-

ous tissues, ranging from 18.72 to 0.29

micrograms per gram of tissue. The thyroid

gland had the greatest concentration of

antimony. The liver also had a high anti-

mony concentration, since each gram con-

tained 13.75 micrograms. The parathyroid

glands with 4.49, the filarids with 3.28, and

the spleen with 2.60 micrograms of anti-

mony per gram of wet weight were all higher

than the highest blood level recorded in this

experiment. It may be assumed that these

tissues have a specific affinity for antimony.

The other tissues are listed in the figure in

the order of their antimony concentration.

DISCUSSION

In a previous paper (2) determination of

the antimony in the blood after a single

injection of tartar emetic and sodium anti-

monyl xylitol showed that there was an

initial rapid decrease of the element during

the first hour after injection followed by a

slow removal for the next 4 to 16 hours with

a slight secondary rise in the blood level at.

24 to 36 hours.. Of even more importance is

the fact that the present experiment demon-

strates continuous accumulation of the anti-

mony in the blood. Parallel rates of aecumu-

lation are seen both 15 minutes and 24 hours

after the injections. This shows that the

repeated injection of 0.8 milligram of an-

timony per kilogram of body weight results

in an accumulation of the element in the

blood and that this dosage exceeds the

clearance rate. Such a result adds support

to the hypothesis (1) that a certain thresh-

old of antimony must be reached before

beneficial therapeutic results can be ob-

tained. During the 24 hours preceding the

elimination of circulating microfilariae, the

highest recorded blood concentration was

0.218 microgram and the lowest was 0.096

microgram per gram of blood.

The irregularity of the curve showing the

antimony level of the blood samples 15

minutes after treatment can be explained

JUNE 15, 1945 COWIE ET AL.: LOCALIZATION OF RADIOACTIVE ANTIMONY

on the basis that the rate of change was so

rapid that an error of a minute or two in

drawing the blood was reflected in the con-

siderable change in the antimony level. In

the case of the specimens taken 24 hours

after the injection a time error of a minute

or two made little difference in the results.

After single injections of tartar emetic,

sodium antimony] xylitol, or antimony tri-

oxide, the liver contained the largest con-

centration of antimony. The thyroid and .

parathyroid tissues contained the next larg-

est concentration and the adult Dirofilaria

immitis ranked third. After 12 injections of

sodium antimonyl xylitol, at the same

dosage level as with the single injections,

the thyroid gland contained the highest

concentration of antimony, the liver was

now second in antimony concentration, and

the adult filarids remained third. A possible

explanation for this reversal of the relative

ranking of the thyroid gland and the liver

is that the thyroid may continue its specific

uptake of antimony whereas the liver may

reach a point of equilibrium more quickly

and the uptake and discharge of the anti-

mony from the hepatic tissue may become

equalized. In this way the thyroid gland

finally exceeded the liver in the amount of

antimony contained per gram of wet tissue.

There was an accumulation of antimony

in all of the tissues studied and such tissues

contained more antimony per gram of wet

weight following multiple daily injections

than they did following a single injection.

The finding of an element that is not

known to enter into normal metabolic pro-

cesses, such as antimony, in large quan-

tities, in the thyroid gland was unexpected.

These studies are being broadened so as to

determine the relationship of this finding

to the toxicology and therapeutic useful-

ness of antimony and other therapeutically

active elements. This specific activity of the

thyroid gland forms a broad basis for further

195

studies in general physiology and pharma-

cology.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Twelve intravenous injections of sodium

antimony] xylitol in the amount of 0.8 mil-

ligram of antimony per kilogram of body

weight daily, except Sunday, led to a con-

tinuous rise in the antimony level of the

blood. The tissue.levels of antimony were

higher than those recorded following a sin-

gle injection of this compound.

With the multiple injections of sodium

antimony] xylitol, the thyroid gland was

found to contain the most antimony per

unit weight and was followed in antimony

concentration by the liver and the adult

Dirofilaria immitis. Thirty-two other tis-

sues showed a relatively small concentration

of antimony, which was probably not of

significance from a therapeutic standpoint.

It is believed that the observed accumu-

lation phenomena offer evidence that a

certain threshold of antimony must be

reached before microfilariae of Dirofilaria

tmmitis disappear from the peripheral cir-

culation of infected dogs. It seems probable

that a similar conclusion may apply in other

helminth infections in which antimony is of

value.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Lawton, ALFRED H.; Brapy, FREDERICK

J.; Nuss, A. T.; and Haskins, W. T.

Tests of mercury and antumony compounds

in Dirofilaria immitis and Litomosoides

carinii infections. (In press.)

(2) Brapy, FrepErick J.; LAwron, ALFRED

H.; Cowrz, Dean B.; ANDREWS, How-

ARD L.; Ness, A. T.; and Ocpsn,

GLEN E. Localization of trivalent radio-

active antimony following intravenous

administration to dogs infected with Diro-

filaria immitis. (In press.)

(3) Brapy, Freprerick J., and Lawton, AL-

FRED H. A new method for quantitative

estimation of microfilariae in blood sam-

ples. Journ. Parasitology 30 (1): 34.

Feb. 1944.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

618TH MEETING

The 618th meeting of the Society was held

at the Cosmos Club, January 12, 1944, Presi-

dent Grorcr TUNELL presiding.

Informal communications—W. T. SCHALLER

reported the discovery of' a new mineral, a

hydrous potassium calcium silicate, which he

named miserite.

Program.—Manrts L. Linppere: Heavy min-

eral correlation of the Fox Hills, Hell Creek, and

Cannonball sediments, North Dakota. A study of

sediments along the Cannonball and Missouri

Rivers, N. Dak., was made to correlate expo-

sures of Fox Hills, Hell Creek, and Cannonball

formations. Nine heavy mineral zones were

established. In the Fox Hills formation, three

heavy mineral zones correspond to three litho-

logic units: Zone 1, a thick-bedded yellowish-

brown sandstone is characterized by an average

amphibole content of 41 percent of the non-

opaque heavy minerals; zone 2, an olive-colored

sandy, banded shale contains 22 percent amphi-

bole; zone 3, a gray-white sandstone increases

in amphibole content to 66 percent. Zone 3

extends to the base of the Breien marine mem-

ber of the Hell Creek. Zones 4 through 8 belong

to the Hell Creek formation. Along the Mis-

souri River, zone 4 is below the first bentonitic

bed; zones 6 and 7 are superimposed. In the

Cannonball River sections, zone 4, a fine-

grained, badly weathered sand, is the lowest

bed in the Breien; zone 6, a fine-grained to silty,

grey-green sand begins in the Breien and ex-

tends into continental Hell Creek. Zones 5 and

8 are local. Zone 7 extends through upper Hell

Creek to the top of the Ludlow. In zone 4, the

amphibole content is 21 percent; epidote is 38

percent; and garnet is 16 percent. In zone 6 the

amphiboles decrease to 7 percent; epidote is 40

percent; garnet is 23 percent. In zone 7 amphi-

boles are 4 percent; epidote increases to 51 per-

cent; and garnet decreases to 15 percent. There

is a marked change in heavy mineral content

at the base of the Cannonball. Amphiboles in-

crease to 55 percent in zone 9.

J. S. Wiiurams: Principal fluorspar deposits

of the United States.

J. B. Mertre: Piezoelectricity, with special

reference to quartz.

619TH MEETING

The 619th meeting of the Society was held

at the Cosmos Club, February 9, 1944, Presi-

dent GrorGE TUNELL presiding.

Program.—G. D. Rosinson: The molybde-

nite deposit at Shakan, Alaska. The molybdenite

deposit near Shakan on Kosciusko Island,

southeastern Alaska, is in a narrow, low-dip-

ping fault zone, constituting a composite vein,

in hornblende diorite. Breccia blocks of horn-

blende diorite are the principal vein filling. The

diorite fragments are separated and locally re-

placed along the margins by bands and small

irregular masses of igneous and hydrothermal

materials, introduced at various times during

repeated reopenings of the fault zone, and by

silicified gouge. Included in the introduced

matrix are granite pegmatite; quartz-adularia,

quartz, and calcite veins; lamprophyre and

aplite dikes; zeolite encrustations; and pyrite,

pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and molyb-

denite. ‘

Inconclusive evidence indicates that the dis-

tribution of molybdenite was controlled prin-

cipally by openings developed in the steeper

dipping parts of the fault zone as a consequence

of small-scale normal faulting.

Surface and underground workings expose

one ore shoot of moderate tonnage containing

about 1.5 percent MoS. Additional ore shoots

may be present in other relatively steep dip-

ping parts of the zone not now exposed.

The introduced vein materials appear to

have been deposited over a wide range of tem-

perature but at relatively low pressure. Molyb-

denite was deposited near the end of the miner-

alization sequence. The deposit does not fit

readily into the Lindgren classification; it is _

perhaps best grouped with the zenothermal

type of Buddington.

‘W.H. Hass: Conodont morphology. Spectro-

graphic and petrographic data on conodonts

obtained through a study of collections from

two Ordovician, seven Mississippian, and two

Pennsylvanian formations permitted the fol-

lowing conclusions: (a) the conodonts studied

are composed of a fluorian dahllite, a member

of the dahllite-francolite isomorphous series of

apatite minerals; (b) each lamella of a cono-

dont is composed of innumerable dahllite crys-

tals; and (c) the c-axis of each dahllite crystal

196 .

JuNE 15, 1945

is invariably oriented in the direction in which

the main ontogenetic growth occurred at the

place in the lamella where the crystal is located.

The data will be described and published in an

article entitled Orientation of the crystal units of

conodonts, by WitBert H. Hass and Marin L.

LINDBERG.

P. B. Kine: Tectonics of northeasternmost

Tennessee. The three northeasternmost Ten-

nessee counties lie in the Appalachian province.

Their rocks are strongly deformed, and the

area is outstanding for its display of large-scale

overthrusting in the pre-Cambrian, Cambrian,

and Ordovician rocks.

This paper is an outgrowth of recent investi-

gations of manganese deposits of the area. Part

of the investigation consists of mapping ex-

tensive areas, one product of which was a

reasonably comprehensive new picture of the

structural features of the region.

This newer picture resembles that presented

by Keith in folios of the Geological Survey, but

there are modifications of the details. Move-

ment along the Iron Mountain fault, which dips

northwest, was interpreted in the folios as hav-

ing been to the southeastward. However, dis-

tribution of rock facies, the nature of minor

structural features, and other evidence indi-

cates that the movement was actually north- -

westward. This implies much greater move-

ment of thrust sheets to the northwest than

was originally believed. The rocks to the north-

west and above the Iron Mountain fault are

now interpreted as belonging to the Shady Val-

ley thrust sheet, and the rocks to the southeast

and below it as belonging to the Mountain City

window. Resting on the Shady Valley thrust

sheet, as first recognized by Keith, is the still

higher Bald Mountain thrust sheet.

The pattern of the overthrust faults is com-

plicated by many tear faults, some of great

length and displacement, which had not been

recognized before the present investigation.

620TH MEETING

The 620th meeting of the Society was held

at the Cosmos Club, March 8, 1944, President

GEORGE. TUNELL presiding.

Program—L. A. WARNER: Magnetite de-

posits of Kasaan Peninsula, southeastern Alaska.

High-grade deposits of magnetite, containing

some copper, on Kasaan Peninsula, Prince of

Wales Island, southeastern Alaska, lie within

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

197

a mile of salt water at altitudes of less than

1,500 feet.

The deposits have been worked intermit-

tently since 1900, principally for their copper

content, and have yielded more than 600,000

tons of ore valued at more than $6,000,000.

The ore consists chiefly of magnetite with

pyrite and chalcopyrite. The ratio of chaleopy-

rite to magnetite ranges widely, and locally the

deposits are chiefly copper ore with minor

amounts of precious metals. The major re-

serves, however, are in iron ore and in the

bodies examined the reserves are estimated to

exceed 5,000,000 tons. The average ore tenor

is about 50 percent iron and 0.5 percent copper.

Phosphorus and titanium are virtually ab-

sent. The sulphur content ranges from a few

hundredths of a percent to about 4 percent.

-In 1942 the Geological Survey resumed a sys-

tematic study of the deposits which is still in

progress. Topographic, magnetic, and geologic

surveys have been made at most of the de-

posits which have been mined or prospected.

Some trenching, sampling, and diamond

drilling have been carried on by the Bureau of

Mines. Much of the peninsula has been only

superficially prospected and it is anticipated

that further work will reveal additional ore

bodies. .

R. H. JaAuns: The Harding beryllium-tanta-

lum-lithium pegmatites, Taos County, N. Mex.

W. T. Tuom, Jr.: The structural evolution of

the Big Horn Basin.

621sT MEETING

The 621st meeting of the Society was held

at the Cosmos Club, March 22, 1944, President

GEORGE TUNELL presiding.

Informal communications—L. HENBEST dis-

cussed the lighting of specimens for photog-

raphy.

Program.—W. M. Capy: Stratigraphy and

structure of west-central Vermont.

G. T. Faust and E. CaLtuaGHan: Mineralogy

and petrology of the Currant Creek magnesite dis-

trict, Nevada.

W. H. Brap.ey, K. E. Lonman, and A. H.

FRAzIER: A machine for obtaining true perspec-

tive diagrams from maps.

622D MEETING

The 622d meeting of the Society was held at

the Cosmos Club, April 12, 1944, President

GEORGE TUNELL presiding.

198

Program.—V. T. ALLEN: Sedimentary and

volcanic processes in the formation of high-

alumina clays. Along the Pacific coast, where

volcanic materials predominate, the impor-

tance of sedimentary processes in the formation

of high-alumina clays has not been fully appre-

ciated. At Ione, Calif., Castle Rock, Wash.,

Whiteware, Mont., Hobart Butte and Molalla,

Oreg., where the Geological Survey has been in-

vestigating clays jointly with the U. 8. Bureau

of Mines, sedimentary processes have been

more important in the formation of high-alu-

mina clays than have volcanic processes. Clays

derived directly from volcanic materials are

composed dominantly of montmorillonite; but

these clays, with the exception of the beidellite-

nontronite varieties, have relatively low per-

centages of available alumina. In contrast,

clays derived by thorough leaching of various

aluminous rocks under conditions favoring

thorough drainage are composed dominantly

of kaolinite and when sorted by sedimentary

processes form high-grade deposits; further-

more, the depositional structures of these sedi-

mentary clays have favored the derivation of

gibbsite through weathering or the formation

of dickite or kaolinite through hydrothermal

action. Kaolinite, gibbsite, and dickite all have

relatively high percentages of available alu-

mina. The iron-bearing minerals in these de-

posits, arranged in the order of their impor-

tance, include: siderite, hematite, limonite,

nontronite, pyrite, ilmenite, vivianite, celadon-

ite, and scorodite.

S. E. CiaspauGu: Paragenesis of the tungsten

ore of the Ima mine, Idaho. The Ima mine in the

Blue Wing district is the second most impor-

tant producer of tungsten in Idaho, and the

quartz veins of the district constitute the larg-

est of the known huebnerite deposits of the

Western States. Workings of the Ima mine ex-

tend from Patterson Canyon northwestward

for a distance of about half a mile, and the ex-

tent of the Ima vein system is presumably

much greater. The productive veins occupy

normal faults of small displacement in quartz-

ite and granite. The quartzite is metamor-

phosed impure sandstone considered to be part

of the Belt series. Granite is exposed onlv in the

underground workings.

Closely associated with the granite are ir-

regular bodies of pegmatite and orthoclase-

bearing veins which contain mica, pyrite, and

molybdenite. The pegmatite and feldspar-bear-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 35, NO. 6

ing veins are cut by the more persistent main

veins which contain the economically impor-

tant tungsten, silver, copper, and lead minerals.

Most of the ore shows prominent banding

which is attributed to repeated fracturing or

reopening of the veins during mineralization.

Unbanded parts of the vein material near the

granite contact contain large crystals of pyrite,

fluorite, and huebnerite. Banded ore contains

the same minerals plus rhodochrosite, tetra-

hedrite, sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite.

The general sequence of minerals is as follows:

orthoclase, quartz, and mica followed by pyrite

and molybdenite in the early veins; quartz,

fluorite, pyrite, and huebnerite in the unbanded

ore, followed by quartz, rhodochrosite, hueb-

nerite, sphalerite, and finally quartz, fluorite,

tetrahedrite, galena, and chalcopyrite in the

banded. Scheelite occurs in small seams along

fractures and replaces shattered huebnerite.

J. D. H. Donnay: Twinning, tsomorphism,

and epitaxy.

623D MEETING

The 623d meeting of the Society was held

at the Cosmos Club, November 8, 1944, Presi-

dent GrorGEe TUNELL presiding.

A memorial to E. O. ULricH was read before

the Society by J. B. Rexrsipz, Jr. (Published in

this JOURNAL 34 (5): 168. 1944.)

A memorial to ARTHUR KEITH was spoken by

N. H. Darton. (Published in this JouRNAL

34 (7): 240. 1944.)

A memorial to GrorcEr STEIGER was read

by J. J. Fanny. (Published in this JouRNAL 34 —

(10): 347. 1944.)

A memorial to Roger C. WELLS was read by

W. T. Schaller. (Published in this JouRNAL 34

(10): 348. 1944.)

Program.—H. R. Gauxt: Geology and zinc

deposits in the Groundhog and Glacier Basins,

Wrangell district, southeastern Alaska. Ground-

hog and Glacier Basins are on the mainland of

southeastern Alaska about 13 miles east of

Wrangell.

The zine deposits are in a sequence of schists

and gneisses which are part of a belt of meta-

morphic rocks bordering the west side of the

Coast Range batholith for many miles. The

schists and gneisses in Groundhog and Glacier

Basins are bounded on the west by a large sill-

like mass of quartz diorite.

Bedding and cleavage of the metamorphic

rocks are about parallel. The regional strike is

N. 25° W. and the general dip is 60° N.E.

JuNE 15, 1945

Many quartz porphyry sills and dikes cut

the metamorphic rocks and the sill-like quartz

diorite. Quartz-fluorite breccia veins occupy

many faults and fractures and are younger than

the quartz porphyry sills. Basalt sills and dikes

are widespread and are younger than the veins.

Breccias, made up of fragments of metamor-

phic rocks and quartz porphyry, occur as sills

and dikes and as large irregular masses in the

metamorphic rocks.

The zine deposits are pyroxene granulite

beds that have been replaced by sphalerite,

galena, and pyrrhotite and minor amounts of

other sulfide minerals. Two types of ore are

recognized, a solid-sulphide type and a dis-

seminated-sulphide type. Significant amounts

of ore of the solid-sulphide type crop out only

in Groundhog Basin. Ore beds containing only

disseminated ore crop out on the north slope of

Glacier Basin and at higher altitudes to the

north toward Groundhog Basin grade into and

are interbedded with barren pyroxene gneiss.

The most westerly ore bed in Glacier Basin

is correlated with the lowest bed in Groundhog

Basin.

The total known extent of zinc metallization

in the pyroxene granulite beds is about three

miles through a vertical range of about 3,000

feet. The best ore in both basins is exposed at

the lowest altitudes. In a general way the best

metallized portions in both basins also occur in

those parts of the ore beds which are nearest

the sill-like quartz diorite.

H. J. Yacopa: Localization of chemical con-

stituents by chemical patterns. A review of print-

ing methods applicable to the study of mineral

constituents in polished massive or thin sec-

tions. Among the techniques covered are in-

cluded luminescent phenomena (fluorescence,

phosphorescence, and thermoluminescence),

autoradiography, electrographic and contact

printing.

OBITUARIES

199

Material not previously published includes a

method for recording an autoluminographic

pattern by contacting the phosphorescing

specimen against color sensitive film. The use of

fine-grained alpha-ray emulsions is described

as a means of recording the distribution of

uranium and thorium minerals in the polished

surface. These emulsions provide a highly selec-

tive medium for obtaining a sharply defined

autoradiographic pattern, capable of quantita-

tive interpretation and which permits the reso-

lution of fine detail.

A modified contact printing procedure is de-

scribed which involves the etching of the sur-

face by vapors and the transfer of the corrosion

film to a transparent gelatin coating moistened

with specific reagents. The characteristic colors

serve to localize heavy metals in the polished

section.

| 624TH MEETING

The 624th meeting of the Society was held

at the Cosmos Club, December 13, 1944, Vice-

president FRANK SHAIRER presiding.

Program.—Presidential address by GEORGE

TUNELL: Some thermodynamic and leptologic

threads in the geologic tapestry.

52D ANNUAL MEETING

The 52d Annual Meeting was held immedi-

ately following the 624th regular meeting. The

reports of the secretaries, treasurer, and audit-

ing committee were read and approved. Officers

for the year 1945 were then elected as follows:

President: L. W. Currier; Vice-presidents:

A. A. Baker, W. 8S. Burpank; Secretary:

MarcareT D. Foster; Treasurer: R. E.

STEVENS; Council: C. Mitron, W. M. Capy,

J. J. Guass, E. F. Osporn, HELEN DuncaN.

The Society nominated GrorGr TUNELL to

be a Vice-president of the Washington Acad-

emy of Sciences for the year 1945.

@Pbituartes

GEORGE WHITELEY COGGESHALL, a member

of the Washington Academy of Sciences, died

on November 19, 1944. He was born at Des

Moines, Iowa, on December 21, 1867. He took

his B.S. degree at Iowa College in 1890 and a

Ph.D. degree in chemical engineering at Leip-

zig, Germany, in 1895. He attended the Har-

vard University Graduate School in 1891-92.

In 1900 he married Anna Torrey, by whom he

had three daughters. From 1895 to 1897 he

served as chemistry instructor at Harvard

University. In 1898 he organized the Eastern

Chemical Co., Boston, and was president of it

to 1910, when he moved to Washington, D. C.,

to become head of the chemical engineering di-

vision of the Institute of Industrial Research.

In 1924 he accepted a position as head of the

research laboratory with the S. D. Warren

200

Paper Co., Cumberland Mills, Maine, and was

associated with that concern until his retire-

ment.

Dr. Coggeshall was an inventor of concen-

trated fertilizers and several insecticides and

fungicides. He developed processes for produc-

ing chemical compounds of titanium from ru-

tile, processes for producing potash salts from

silicate rocks, and gasoline from heavy petro-

leum oils. He also did much special work for

clients. His publications included a thesis en-

titled The constants of calomel electrodes, and

papers on the use of titanium salts in dyeing

and mordanting, on the production of potash

salts from feldspathic rocks, and on the treat-

ment of the surfaces of concrete vessels. During

World War I he was connected with the Sec-

tion on Concrete Vessel Construction, U. S.

Shipping Board. He was a member of the

American Chemical Society, Society of Chem-

ical Industry, American Electrochemical Soci-

ety, Société de Chimie Industrielle, and other

scientific organizations. His clubs included the

St. Botolph (Boston), Harvard and Chemists’

Clubs (New York), and Cosmos and Chevy

Chase Clubs (Washington, D. C.).

H. A. GARDNER

LysTteR Hoxir Drewey, retired botanist of

the U. S. Department of Agriculture, died at

Kenmore, N. Y., on November 27, 1944, after a

long illness.

Mr. Dewey was born at Cambridge, Mich.,

on March 14, 1865, the son of Francis A. and

Harriet (Smith) Dewey. He was educated in

the public schools of Michigan, graduating from

the high school at Tecumseh in 1885 and from

the Michigan Agricultural College _(now the

Michigan State College) in 1888. He taught

botany at the Michigan Agricultural College

for two years, and in September 1890 he was

appointed an assistant botanist in the U. S.

Department of Agriculture. His earlier work

in the department was with grasses and weeds,

and from 1899 to the time of his retirement in

1935 he was in charge of investigation and re-

search relating to plant fibers other than cotton.

The regions in which Mr. Dewey worked in-

cluded many different countries. His major in-

vestigations in the United States were with

flax and hemp, and his selections of these

plants resulted in the development of improved

strains, eliminating the necessity of importing

seed of fiber flax from Europe, and hemp seed

from China. In Puerto Rico he conducted ex-

perimental work with sisal, henequén, and

other tropical fiber plants in cooperation with

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ees Nig ME =

the Federal Agricultural Experiment Station

at Mayagiiez. In 1903 and again in 1907 he

made field studies of the fiber plants of northern

and central Mexico, and in 1911 he represented

the U. S. Department of Agriculture at the

World Fiber Congress held at Sourabaia,

Java. Among the other countries which Mr.

Dewey visited and in which he made fiber

surveys were Cuba, the Bahama Islands, Al-

geria, Ceylon, the Federated Malay States,

Japan, and the Hawaiian Islands. In all his in-

vestigational activities he was devoted to. pre-

cise thinking and meticulous attention to accu-

racy. These qualities were evidenced by his

long-continued effort to establish a correct and

uniform nomenclature for the plant fibers. For

many years before his retirement from active

service Mr. Dewey was widely recognized both

in scientific and industrial circles as the leading

American authority on the plant fibers.

He was the author of numerous circulars,

bulletins, and articles on grasses, weeds, and —

plant fibers. After his retirement at the age of

70, in 1935, he prepared the section on fiber

plants published in Standardized Plant Names, .

and also a comprehensive series of articles

which were published in Spanish by the Pan

American Union in a pamphlet entitled Fibras

Vegetales y su Produccién en América, and by

the U. S. Department of Agriculture in Mis-

cellaneous Publication No. 518 entitled Fiber

Production in the Western Hemisphere.

Mr. Dewey held membership in a number of

professional organizations, including the Bo-

tanical Society of Washington, the Biological

Society of Washington, the American Genetic

Association, and the Washington Academy of

Sciences. For more than 40 years he took an ac-

tive part in the civic and religious activities of

his community, and was a member of the Pet-

worth Citizens Association. He was a member

of the Gunton-Temple Memorial Presbyterian

Church in Washington, and an elder in that

church for 42 years, including 38 years as Clerk

of Sessions.

In 1889 Mr. Dewey married Miss Etta Con-

kling, whom he survived. They had two chil-

dren, Mary Genevieve, who died at the age of

17, and Grace Marguerite, who is now Mrs.

Carl G. Frost, of Kenmore, N. Y.

Mr. Dewey will long be remembered as a

man who always rang true. His outstanding

qualities were modesty, kindness, devotion to

duty, and sterling integrity, and his entire life

was characterized by an unselfish desire to be of

service and usefulness to others.

Harry T. EDWARDS.

VoL. 35,N0.6

We re ey Are ;

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CONTENTS

Eruno.tocy.—The mutual-aid and volunteer company of the eastern

Cherokee: as recorded in a book of minutes in the Sequoyah sylla-

bary, compared with mutual-aid societies of the northern Iroquois.

BPiiGeSpack and ©. EOSCHABERER (7% i ayeiie os eee i ee

PALEONTOLOGY.—Gaulocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid genus from the

Wississippian.. (| FUD WEN FOI (4760). Ya ah ee te ae

Botany.—Notes on four eastern species of Gymnosporangium. W.H.

TSG 8) eR hee re og REG BIDS oP ob dyin) ck Maes Sa ALC Ue cn aa

Entromo.tocy.—Three new species of Laminitarsus Fullaway from Sin-

gapore and the Philippines (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Y1ne-

DOU EMO ee ee Oe ire EME NP a ine na ee ne

PaRAsITOLOGY.—Localization of radioactive antimony following mul-

tiple daily injections to a dog infected with Dirofilaria immitis.

Dean B. Cowin, ALFRED H. Lawton, A. T. Nuss, FReEpERticK J.

Brapy, and Giuen By OGDEN i ar Sik da ae eee ate

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY} ooh 2. 0 ee Oe ee a ae

This Journal! is Indexed in the Internationa) Index to Periodicals.

Page

169

180

182

189

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JOURNAL

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoLuME 35

PHYSICS.— The measurement of some thermal properties of water.

National Bureau of Standards.

At the end of the eighteenth century it

was shown that heat was not a substance

but a form of energy. In a report in 1798

Count Rumford described an experiment,

made while boring a cannon, where suffi-

cient heat was developed with a blunt tool

in two and one-half hours to raise the tem-

perature of 26.5 pounds of cold water to its

boiling point, although in doing so less than

0.6 of a pound of metal was removed. This

- evidence proved almost conclusively that

heat was a form of energy. A more conclu-

sive proof, however, was given in 1799 when

Sir Humphry Davy described an experi-

ment in which he melted ice by rubbing

two blocks of it together.

Since it was shown that heat was a form

of energy, it was rather natural that the

unit of heat energy was defined at first in

terms of the properties of water. The unit

of heat was taken as the energy necessary

to heat a unit mass of water 1°. In the

metric system the units were the energy

necessary to raise a gram, or a kilogram, of

water 1°C. and were called the gram calorie,

and kilogram calorie, respectively. In the

“English system the unit was the heat nec-

essary to raise a pound of water 1°F. and

was called the British thermal unit (BTU).

The unit of heat defined in terms of water

was very convenient because most calori-

metric measurements were made in terms of

the heat capacity of water, and also be-

cause the specific heat of water changes lit-

tle with temperature. When the precision of

measurement had increased, and it was

shown that the specific heat of water did

vary with temperature, it became necessary

1 Address of the retiring president of the Philo-

sophical Society of Washington, delivered at the

1242d meeting of the Society, January 6, 1945.

Received February 26, 1945. é

JuLy 15, 1945

No. 7

H. F. Stimson,

to define the heat unit more precisely. This

led to the use of different calories, known as

the 0° calorie, the 4°, 15°, 18°, 20° calorie

and also the mean calorie, which was the

mean between 0° and 100°C.

About 1830 Sadi Carnot had estimated

the heat unit to be equivalent to 370 kilo-

gram meters, which is about 13 percent

lower than the present accepted value.

Carnot had planned to determine the heat

unit experimentally, but his early death in

1836 stopped these experiments.

James Prescott Joule (1)? appears to be

the first to have made systematic measure-

ments of the mechanical equivalent of heat.

His experiments began about 1840 and con-

tinued up to 1878. He made these experi-

ments with different substances to show

that heat was a form of energy quite inde-

pendent of the substance which was heated.

The mechanical equivalent of heat, or

Joule’s equivalent, subsequently has been

denoted by the letter ‘J.’ As a further

tribute to Joule, all science now honors him

by the use of his name for a unit of energy.

Henry A. Rowland (2), in his painstaking

way, made experiments on the mechanical

equivalent with an apparatus similar in de-

sign to Joule’s but with Rowland’s charac-

teristic attention to detail. These experi-

ments were made in the range from 5° to

35°C. in order to study the variation of the

specific heat of water with temperature. At

the conclusion of his paper, published in

1878, he modestly stated that “‘between the

limits of 15° and 25°C., I feel almost certain

that no subsequent experiments will change

my values of the equivalent so much as two

parts in 1,000.”’ This modest claim seems to

be fullysubstantiated by recent experiments.

2 Italic numbers in parenthesis refer to litera-

ture cited at the end of this paper.

201

8 16 'S5

. ' =

202

A classical determination of the mechan-

ical equivalent of the mean thermal unit

between 0° and 100°C. was published in

1897 by Osborne Reynolds and W. H.

Moorby (3). Reynolds was the engineer,

famous for his researches on fluid motions,

with whose name is associated the dimen-

sionless numbers which describe the states

of fluid flow. These men used power from a

65 horsepower steam engine for heating a

continuous flow of water in a hydraulic

brake of Reynolds’s design.

This short list of researches on the me-

chanical equivalent of heat would be in-

complete without mention of the relatively

recent determination by Laby and Hercus

(4), published in 1927. In their ingenious

apparatus they made use of a flow calorim-

eter in which heat was produced by electric

currents induced by a rotating electromag-

net. The energy was measured mechan-

ically by determining the couple in much

the same way that Joule and Rowland

measured it. This was done by refined

methods which justify their claim to ‘‘the

highest precision attainable with the pres-

ent developments of physical technique.”

This research may well be the last classical

experiment to determine the mechanical

equivalent of heat dzrectly, because the in-

direct method of measuring energy elec-

trically not only is much more convenient

‘but is also more accurate.

At present the ratio of the electric units

of energy to the mechanical unit is known

to a considerably greater accuracy than the

ratio of the heat unit to the Joule. For this

reason, present-day experiments in calo-

rimetry are usually arranged to measure

electric energy directly, as it is added to the

calorimeter and its contents, rather than to

determine the energy by exchanging heat

with water. This development removes the

need for a heat unit different from the

mechanical unit but does not dispel interest

in the thermal properties of water.

During the period when the accuracy of

the electric units was increasing, however,

some pioneers made measurements of the

heat unit by supplying the energy to water

electrically. Notable among these pioneers

are Dieterici, Griffiths, and Schuster and

Gammon.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 39, NO. 7

These researches were followed by an-

other, reported in 1902 by Callendar (5) and

by Barnes (6), on measurements made with

a continuous flow calorimeter ‘‘on the ca-

pacity for heat of water between the freez-

ing and boiling points.’’ These measure-

ments of the heat caapcity of water were

more comprehensive than any of the other

measurements up to that time. In 1899 and

1900 Dr. Barnes, on 54 days, made measure-

ments at mean temperatures ranging from

1.35° to 91.55°C. Four runs were usually

made on each day at two rates of flow, one

high rate and one low rate, in order to make

corrections for the heat losses due to radia-

tion and conduction. These rates were

varied over a ratio of nearly 2 to 1, and the

heat losses varied from a little over 1.5 per-

cent for the large flow at the lowest temper-

ature up to nearly 6 percent of the energy

input for the small flow at the highest tem-

perature. Dr. Barnes (7), in 1909, estimated

an accuracy for his determinations of 1 part

in 10,000 over the entire range, but recent

measurements suggest the possibility of

some unsuspected systematic errors in his

results.

In 1921 Jaeger and von Steinwehr (8) re-

ported on ‘‘the heat capacity of water be-

tween 5° and 50°C. in international watt

seconds.’”’ They used an electric heating

method at a time when the units and stand-

ards were much better known than when

Barnes made his measurements. An ac-

curacy of 1 part in 5,000 was claimed for the

heat capacity of water at 15°C.

A new series of researches on the proper-

ties of water was planned at a conference

(9) of engineers and physicists held in Cam-

bridge, Mass., on June 23, 1921. This con-

ference was sponsored by the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers for the

purpose of obtaining accurate data on the

properties of water, which would form the

basis of more reliable steam tables with

which the engineers could design their tur-

bines. Prof. Harvey N. Davis at Harvard

University agreed to complete measure-_

ments he had started on the Joule-Thomson

coefficient of steam. Prof. Frederick G.

Keyes at the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology (M.I.T.) undertook measure-

ments on the pressure-volume-temperature

Juty 15, 1945 STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

relations of steam. The first réquest to the

National Bureau of Standards (N.B.S.) was

to determine the mean heat unit.

The late Nathan S. Osborne accepted

this responsibility but proposed to go much

further by determining not only the heat of

the liquid but also the heat of vaporization

of water over a wide range of temperature.

It is to him that the principal part of this

discussion is dedicated. His genius and vi-

sion, coupled with his earlier experience in

calorimetry, made the successful comple-

tion of this work possible. His experience

had taught him not to go ahead blindly

with the design of a calorimeter which

would merely be a copy of previous calorim-

eters, but first to study the thermodynamics

of the experiments that could be performed

in the laboratory. This study proved to be a

master stroke for it developed the principle

of a systematic method of fluid calorimetry.

The theory of this method was first pub-

lished by Osborne (10) in April 1924 under

the title of ‘‘Calorimetry of Saturated

Fluids,” where the term saturated restricts

the calorimetry to experiments in which

both liquid and vapor are always present.

The method makes use of a single

calorimetric apparatus with which a system

of measurements may be made to deter-

mine some of the essential thermal proper-

ties of a fluid, in particular the enthalpy

H=U-++pv where U is the internal energy

of the substance, p the pressure, and v the

specific volume of the substance. The

calorimeter is provided with two outlet

tubes, one at the bottom for introducing or

withdrawing liquid and the other at the top

for withdrawing vapor. Valves are pro-

vided, on these tubes, for sealing fluid in the

calorimeter and for controlling the rate at

which fluids are withdrawn. The calorimeter

is surrounded with an envelope the temper-

ature of which is controlled to prevent any

net exchange of heat with the calorimeter.

All experiments are made with both liquid

and vapor in the calorimeter when the

properties of saturated fluids are being in-

vestigated.

‘The essentials of this method are as fol-

lows. First consider two experiments (a)

and (b) with the same calorimeter, (a) with

a large amount of liquid and some vapor to

203

maintain the saturation state and (b) with

a small amount of liquid. In these two ex-

periments the calorimeter contains the

masses of fluid M, and M,, respectively, and

the quantities of energy Q, and Q, are found

necessary to heat the calorimeter and its

contents from the same initial tempera-

ture, 4, to the same final temperature bt.

The difference of the energies, Q,—Q,, is

used to heat the difference of the masses of

the fluid contents, M,—M,, from one tem-

perature to the other. The quotient of these

differences would be equal to the change in

enthalpy, H, of the liquid, were it not for

the extra vapor in experiment (b). This re-

quires a correction term —L where L

v’—v

is the latent heat of vaporization and v and

v’ are the specific volumes of the saturated

liquid and vapor respectively. This gives the

equation:

The quantity H—L in this equation

v’—v

is a specific energy function which Osborne

called a. Notice that in getting a by the

method of differences in the fillings, not

only is the energy correction for the heat

capacity of the empty calorimeter elimi-

nated but also other energy corrections

which are the same as long as both liquid

and vapor are in the calorimeter. These a

experiments are essentially liquid heat ca-

pacity experiments.

Now consider another type of experi-

ment, which may be called a vaporization

experiment, for getting the enthalpy of the

saturated vapor. Consider a calorimeter

nearly filled with liquid and let energy be

supplied to evaporate liquid to vapor, most

of which is withdrawu through a throttle

valve at a rate so controlled as to keep the

temperature of evaporation constant. The

theory shows that the heat added, AQ, di-

vided by the mass withdrawn, AM, is equal

to the latent heat LZ plus the correction,

- This correction is the energy neces-

vy’ —v

sary to vaporize water to fill the space no

204

longer filled with liquid. This gives the

equation: |

The right-hand member of this equation is

also a specific energy function, which Os-

borne called y.

Now consider a third type of experiment

where liquid instead of vapor is withdrawn

as heat is added. Here liquid is evaporated

to fill the space which is emptied of water.

This gives the equation:

This is the same quantity that appears as a

correction term in the preceding equations

for the heat of the liquid and the heat: of

vaporization. This function he called B.

These three functions, which can be de-

termined experimentally, may be used to

calculate the more familiar functions

H=a+8

L=y—B8=H’'—-H

H'’=H+L=a+tyv.

So far these derivations use only the first

law of thermodynamics. If the second law

with the Clapeyron relation is used, the fol-

lowing equations result:

see

= =yl —

B v'—v aid bs

| Sti wiaage dp

=L+L iy = y/T —

é a y'—v vy’ —v ay

where T is the absolute temperature and p

the vapor pressure. These relations give a

way of comparing the calorimetric data

with the volumetric data such as has been

obtained at the M.I.T., provided the vapor

pressure slope and the absolute temperature

are known.

For water the a is nearly a linear function

of temperature. The @ is very small at the

freezing point but increases progressively

until the slope is infinite at the critical point.

The y is everywhere greater than the 6 by

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 7

the latent heat L. At the critical tempera-

ture when L becomes zero the 6 and y

curves meet.

Both 6 and y can be measured with the

same absolute accuracy; hence measured

values of 8 can be subtracted from meas-

ured values of y to get L without loss of ac-

curacy. The Clapeyron relation in the equa- —

tions above, however, provides a method of

computing 8 with greater accuracy when B

is small, provided v and dp/dT are known

with a moderate accuracy.

For the measurements of these properties,

a calorimeter is used for containing a sample

of water while its thermal behavior is ob-

served. The thermal behavior is determined

by three principal quantities that must be

measured, namely:

1. Mass subjected to process.

2. Energy added to system.

3. Change of state produced.

The measurement of mass is relatively sim-

ple because the samples are sealed in tight

containers with valves, and never opened to

the outside when accounting for mass. The

measurement of energy is not so simple, be-

cause no way has yet been found to make

calorimeters quite tight for heat. The meas-

urement of the change of state involves the

measurement of changes in temperature or

pressure.

The first calorimeter (11) for this work

was made of a copper-nickel alloy, and was

3 inches in diameter, 6 inches high, with

rounded ends. This calorimeter was silver-

plated on the inside, to provide protection

against contamination of the water, and on

the outside, to present a bright surface to

make radiation small. Small tubes at the

top and bottom served both as supports for

the calorimeter and as ducts for fluids. The

tube at the bottom contained a hollow shaft

for driving a centrifugal pump in the calo-

rimeter which circulated a sheet of water

over the entire inside wall for distribution of

heat. This pump also supplied a flowing film

of water over a sheathed heater which was

covered with silver gauze. Here the electric

energy was added to the calorimeter. The

casings for circulating water were made of

pure silver, the pump was made of gold-sil-

ver and silver-palladium alloy, and the

wstebndep nes

Juuty 15, 1945 sTIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

pump bearings were made with osmium-

iridium balls and races.

The calorimeter was supported inside of

a larger copper-nickel shell, called an enve-

lope, which also was silver-plated on the in-

side. The space between these shells was

evacuated during the experiments to make

negligible the heat exchange by gaseous con-

duction and convection. The envelope was

mounted in a circulating bath of oil whose

temperature was controlled to keep the

envelope temperature very close to the

calorimeter temperature.

The thermometric installation on this

calorimeter and its successors was novel and

characteristic of Osborne’s experimental

methods. Temperatures were measured and

controlled with a combination of platinum

resistance thermometers and thermoele-

ments mounted on a thick copper reference

block directly above the envelope. The

temperature of the reference block was de-

termined accurately with resistance ther-

mometers. The small temperature differ-

ences between this reference block and vital

parts of the apparatus were determined by

differential thermoelements having refer-

ence junctions on the reference block and

principal junctions distributed at chosen

places on the surface of the calorimeter and

its envelope. These elements were used in

groups to determine the small difference be-

tween the integrated surface temperature of

the calorimeter and the temperature of the

reference block. The elements on the

calorimeter were opposed to the elements on

the envelope so that the envelope tempera-

ture could be controlled close to that of the

calorimeter in order to avoid any considera-

ble heat exchange. The indications of these

differential thermoelements were observed

and recorded every minute during experi-

ments, so that proper account could be

made of the residual heat exchange with the

envelope.

The water used in these experiments was

taken from laboratory stills and then redis-

tilled in a special still, which removed all

but about 0.1 percent of the dissolved gases.

The water was then stored and weighed in

silver containers sealed with diaphragm

valves before it was introduced into the

calorimeter. These diaphragm valves were

205

made entirely of metal and had no stuffing

boxes. The masses introduced into the

calorimeter ranged from about 275 grams

up to nearly 500 grams.

The electric power, added to the calorim-

eter heater, was taken from storage bat-

teries and measured with a five dial po-

tentiometer, which determined both the

current to the calorimeter and the potential

drop across the leads. The power was then

multiplied by the time to give the electric

energy input. The circulating pump sup-

plied less than 0.1 watt of power, but

calorimetric determinations showed this

power to be somewhat uncertain, and so it

may have been one of the greater limita-

tions to accurate accounting of energy in

this calorimeter. These energies, together

with the net energy added to the calorim-

eter by conduction and radiation, inte-

grated over the period of the experiments

by means of the differential thermoelement

readings, made up the total energy input.

The a or heat-capacity experiments were

made by first measuring the temperature of

the calorimeter with the thermometers and

thermoelements when the envelope tem-

perature was adjusted and the circulating

pump running. Power input was then

started by means of a switch, which was ac-

tivated by a spring but released by the sig-

nals from a Riefler clock. At the end of a

predetermined time (usually 10 minutes),

when sufficient energy had been added to

raise the temperature of the calorimeter and

its contents by the desired amount (usually

10°), the power was switched off by the

same switch. During this heating period the

envelope temperature was kept near the

calorimeter temperature so that the net

heat transfer would be small. In general a

few minutes after the end of the period of

heating, a satisfactory temperature equi-

librium had been attained so that this tem-

perature could be determined and another

experiment started. This process was con-

tinued with both large and small masses in

the calorimeter until 8 to 18 experiments

had been made in each 10° temperature in-

terval in successive steps over the entire

range from about 1° up to 270°C. These

measurements furnished the dat& for for-

mulating a as a function of temperature.

206

The y experiments were performed at 8

nominal temperatures, from 100° up to

270°C. In these experiments the envelope

bath was thermostated to keep the tem-

perature constant. As power was supplied

by the heater, vapor was withdrawn

through a throttle valve continuously con-

trolled by the operator to maintain a con-

stant temperature on the surface of the

calorimeter. The vapor was first condensed

in one of the silver containers until proper

temperature and flow conditions were at-

tained. A series of temperature readings was

then taken, and midway in this series the

flow was shifted to another container by

opening and closing valves operated by a

spring and released by signals from the

clock. The durations of these experiments

varied from ten minutes to an hour, and

sometimes aS many as eight experiments

were made successively on one day. The

rates of flow were varied from about half a

gram per minute to 2 grams per minute for

the purpose of detecting any systematic

variation in the derived y. such as might be

caused by the withdrawal of liquid droplets

along with the vapor.

The 8 experiments were performed in a

manner somewhat similar to the y experi-

ments, except that liquid was throttled out

of the bottom of the calorimeter. Since it

was desirable to remove most of the availa-

ble liquid contents in one experiment the

flow and power input were started and

stopped, instead of being continuous as in

the y experiments.

All known corrections were applied to

these measurements, and then adjustments

were made to reduce the results to even

temperatures for ease in formulating. When

the formulation was completed a table was

made which gave values of the enthalpies

and H’, the latent heat L, and the entropy

S and S’, of both the saturated liquid and

saturated vapor at each integral 10°C.

from 0° to 270°C. This was published (11)

in 1930, and the engineers proceeded to in-

corporate these results in steam tables.

The engineers by this time were eager to

have information about the properties of

water and steam at still higher temperatures

because, in striving for higher efficiency,

turbines were being made to run at higher

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 7

pressures. The experiments up to 270°C.

had proved the great value of Osborne’s

method of calorimetry for attaining ac-

curate values of the enthalpy of saturated

liquid and saturated vapor but certain fea-

tures of the first calorimeter were inade-

quate for measurements at higher tempera-

tures and pressures. Considerable difficulty

had been experienced in maintaining con-

stant temperature control with the oil bath

at 270°C. Furthermore, the copper-nickel

calorimeter was not strong enough to with-

stand a fourfold increase in pressure at a

100° increase in temperature. In addition, it

was not considered feasible to make a pump

shaft stuffing box which would hold four

times the pressure because the erosion of

the shaft had already been excessive at the

higher pressures. Again there was a strong

suspicion that the pump power was not a

single valued function of the pump speed

*and that uncertainties in its power input

existed.

In the meantime metallurgists had been

developing new stainless steels, and so it

was decided to make a new calorimeter of a

stainless steel made of a chromium-nickel-

tungsten alloy, which had the property of

low creep at high temperatures. This

calorimeter (12) was 23 inches in J.D. and

53 inches high with hemispherical ends. The

wall was only an eighth of an inch thick, yet

it was strong enough to hold the critical

pressure of water of over 218 atmospheres.

It was machined out of a solid bar of steel

that had been compressed axially in a hy-

draulic press so as to give extra strength to

the calorimeter by circumferential work-

hardening. This calorimeter, like the first,

was supported by tubes at the top and bot-

tom for introducing and withdrawing fluid.

The heater in this calorimeter was small and

was concentrated near the bottom so that

the energy would cause bubbles of vapor to

form and rise near the axis of the calorim-

eter and hence cause some stirring to accel-

erate the distribution of heat. Heat was .

distributed also by conduction in 30 flat

plates of 0.5 mm silver, which were mounted

radially from the axis to the shell to provide

good thermal connection throughout the

calorimeter. |

It was decided not to provide for evacuat-

JuLy 15, 1945 STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

ing the space around this calorimeter,

partly because it simplified construction

when highest precision was not demanded

and partly because the proportionate saving

in heat leak was not so great at the higher

temperatures where radiation predomi-

nates. The isothermal envelope around this

calorimeter was a shell of pure silver 4

inches O.D. and a quarter of an inch thick,

with quarter-inch silver plates in the ends.

This in turn was surrounded with a 5-inch

_ O.D. pure silver shell one-eighth inch thick

with end plates. Silver was used because it is

the best conductor of heat and because it

also has the lowest emissivity for radiation.

The function of the inner silver shell was to

present a controlled isothermal surface to

the calorimeter. The function of the outer

shell was to withstand the brunt of the en-

velope heat supply and to maintain its

average temperature near the calorimeter

temperature, while losing heat to the room.

The outer silver shell was insulated with an

inch of air partitioned with two thin con-

centric aluminum radiation envelopes. This

was all contained in a heavy brass casing of

sufficient strength to hold the contents of

' the calorimeter in the event of a rupture

while in service. A heater on the outer silver

shell constantly supplied heat to keep its

temperature up to the calorimeter tempera-

ture. A heater on the inner shell was used

only when the temperature was being raised

such as in the a experiments.

The reference block in this apparatus was

located above the calorimeter inside the

heavy silver shell and was made of two

pieces of silver } by 14 by 2% inches held

together horizontally and having a vertical

hole in the center one-half inch in diameter

for the vapor outlet tube. This block held

two resistance thermometers and 31 ther-

moelement reference junctions. More junc-

tions were used on this calorimeter than on

the first calorimeter to compensate partly

for the lack of stirring in the calorimeter

and also for the lack of vacuum insulation

around it.

It was decided to use the calorimeter first

to measure the vapor pressure of water

over the range from 100°C. up to the critical

temperature. This decision was fortunate

because the results of these measurements

207

inspired Professor Keyes (13), at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, to

remeasure the vapor pressure of water.

These two determinations were then in sat-

isfactory accord with the similar determina-

tion just previously made in England by

Prof. A. C. Egerton and G. 8S. Callendar

(14), the latter being the son of the late

Prof. Hugh Callendar, mentioned in con-

nection with Barnes.

The principal accessories to the calorim-

eter that were needed for the measurements

of vapor pressure were a pressure capsule

and a precision pressure gauge. The pressure

capsule was required to transmit the pres-

sure to the outside of the calorimeter with-

out loss or pollution of its fluid contents. It

was made of a pair of stainless steel disks,

each 2 inches in diameter and over one-half

inch thick, clamping a 0.0025-inch silver

diaphragm at the edge. The pair of disks

were hollowed out to conform to the shape

of the deflected diaphragm so that it would

be supported without excessive strain when

large pressure differences were applied, yet

left free to balance small pressure differ-

ences. The total volume displacement of the

diaphragm between supports was only 0.04

cm.? Water extended from the outer side of

the diaphragm to a water-air meniscus in a

glass capillary indicator. A motion of the

meniscus of 0.6 mm indicated a change of

pressure of 0.001 atmosphere when the dia-

phragm was near the center of the cell. The

pressure was transmitted by the air to an

air-oil meniscus in another capillary and

from that through the oil to the pressure

gage.

The pressure gage was one of the rotat-

ing dead-weight precision piston gages

constructed at the N.B.S. and described by

Meyers and Jessup (15). The piston of this

gage could be loaded with weights to bal-

ance the pressure to a precision of about

0.001 atmosphere. The oil not only sup-

ported the rotating piston but lubricated it

as well.

The preparation for vapor-pressure de-

terminations consisted in maintaining a

constant temperature in the partly filled

calorimeter for a sufficiently long time to be

certain that the wall temperature of the

calorimeter represented the temperature of ©

208

the free liquid-vapor surface. The pressure

in the piston gage was then brought into

balance with the vapor pressure in the

calorimeter and simultaneous determina-

tions were made of the load on the piston,

the resistance of the platinum thermometers

in the reference block, and the e.m.f. of the

differential thermoelements leading from

the reference block to the calorimeter.

At temperatures up to 350°C. the meas-

urements were relatively simple and defi-

nite. Above 350°C. the steady state was

reached much more slowly and temperature

gradients were larger over the calorimeter

shell. Near the critical temperature, where

the specific volume of the saturated water

changes most rapidly, it was necessary to

start measurements with the calorimeter

full of water and then continue measure-

ments at successively reduced fillings so

that the liquid would be at the proper level

for some filling.

In 1934 Osborne and Meyers (16) pub-

lished ‘‘A Formula and Tables for the

Pressure of Saturated Water Vapor in the

Range 0 to 374°C.”’ For the upper range of

temperature, this formula was based on the

three recent researches mentioned above

and in the range below 100°C. upon the

classic data which were obtained at the

Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (17)

before 1909. The form of equation was one

that, in the judgment of the authors, closely

represented the data, and was suitable for

numerical calculation of the pressure and

its derivative. This formula was used to

compute tables of both the vapor pressure

and its slope at intervals of 1°C. and 1°F.

over the range. These intervals are small

enough so that linear interpolations suffice

to determine either the pressure or its de-

rivative at nonintegral temperatures.

When the measurements of the vapor

pressure had been completed, a few extra

accessory parts were installed in order to

make the calorimetric measurements.

Among these accessories (18) were two sen-

sitive throttle valves, one for throttling the

liquid, and the other for throttling the

vapor. These valves were of the diaphragm

type, which had no stuffing boxes. The mo-

tion necessary to adjust the throttling was

produced by a screw, acting on a long lever

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 7

supported on knife-edge bearings. Backlash

was eliminated by a spring, acting on an-

other similar lever which opposed the thrust

of the screw. When the levers had been ad-

justed to give approximately the correct

flow, it was thereafter controlled by varying

the tension of the springs to the backlash

levers. This control proved to be very deli-

cate and positive. It was adequate for the

control of temperature and was free from

the annoyances which had been caused by

the pivoted bearings of the throttle valves

used with the first calorimeter.

The control of the temperature of vapori-

zation was accomplished by controlling the

vapor pressure at the free surface where

evaporation was taking place. This method

of control of the temperature of vaporiza-

tion is nearest to the ideal because there is

little question that the temperature of the

free surface responds almost instantane-

ously to changes in the pressure of the vapor

above the liquid. Part of the same pressure

line that had been used for the vapor pres-

sure measurements was used for this con-

trol, but in place of the piston gauge there

was an air reservoir, which was kept im-

mersed in an ice bath to maintain a constant

reference pressure. The pressure in this

reservoir was first adjusted to balance the

pressure in the calorimeter when equilib-

rium existed, then after the power was

switched on, the flow of fluid out of the

calorimeter was continuously adjusted to

maintain this same pressure balance and

hence the same temperature at the evaporat-

ing surface.

The B experiments were performed by

starting and stopping the flow of liquid in

the same manner as was done in experi-

ments with the first calorimeter. The y ex-

periments were performed by two methods,

one by switching the flow of vapor from one

receiver to another as with the first calorim-

eter, and the other by the start and stop

method used for the 6 experiments. This

latter method of performing the y experi-

ments was made more reliable by the tem-

perature control of the free surface just de-

scribed. The resulting values of y when

compared with those obtained by the first

method and with those obtained with the

first calorimeter did not show any sig-

H, F. Stimson, President, Philosophical Society of Washington, 1944

Juuy 15, 1945

nificant systematic differences resulting

either from the method or the apparatus.

As before, the a function was derived

from repeated measurements with both

high and low fillings. These covered each

10° interval from 100° to 370°C. with the

addition of numerous measurements over

50° intervals from 100° to 350°C.

The 8 function was derived from meas-

-urements at temperatures from 200°C. up

but at more closely spaced temperatures

toward the critical temperature where the

slope of the 6 function changes most rap-

idly. The measured values of 8 were com-

pared with values calculated from the

M.1.T. (19) pressure-vclume-temperature

measurements by means of the Clapeyron

relation. At temperatures below 220°C. the

derived 8 was undoubtedly more trust-

worthy than the measured 8. Between 220°

and 330°C. the precision of the measured 6

is comparable with that of the derived

value but above 330°C. the measured values

of 6 are more reliable and therefore were

used in the formulation. Conversely, this

means that the values of the specific volume

of the liquid above 330°C. are more reliable

~ when derived from the vaporization experi-

ments than when derived from the pressure-

volume-temperature measurements.

Measurements were also made on the y

function at temperatures from 100°C. up to

and including 374°C. As the critical tem-

perature (N.B.S. estimate 374.15°C.) is ap-

proached, the specific volume of both the

liquid and the vapor approaches equality,

and the liquid and vapor tend to mix owing

to such causes as residual temperature gra-

dients and thermal agitation. It is to be ex-

pected that at some temperature near the

eritical the mixing of phases will be so great

that liquid will be withdrawn along with

vapor in the y experiments and vapor with

the liquid in 6 experiments. Provisions, such

as baffles at the upper and lower ends of the

calorimeter, were made to avoid this as far

as possible. In the experimental program, the

rates of withdrawal were varied in order to

detect mixing. It appears, however, from

the consistency of the results, that there

was no positive evidence of mixing until the

fluids were within 1° of the critical tem-

perature. At 373.5°C. both the 8 and the y

STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

209

experiments indicated indeterminate re-

sults, whereas, at 373°C. and lower, there

was little, if any, evidence of it.

In the specific volume determinations

made at M.I.T., however, isometric lines

must be extrapolated to the saturation line

from the compressed liquid or the super-

heated vapor. As the critical temperature is

approached, the curvature of these iso-

metric lines increases toward the saturation

line and the extrapolation becomes more un-

certain. For these reasons, it appears that

the thermal properties of saturated water

and water vapor can be most reliably meas-

ured with a saturation calorimeter, as the

critical temperature is approached. Very

close to the critical temperature, even

these measurements become indeterminate.

These measurements concluded the de-

termination of the properties of saturated

water and water vapor at high temperature

but left the enthalpy of the saturated vapor

below 100°C. almost untouched. In the

meantime there had arisen a request for in-

creased accuracy in the determination of

the properties of saturated liquid below

100°C. where water is most frequently used

for the exchange of energy in certain types

of calorimetric experiments. It was there-

fore decided to make a third apparatus (20)

to measure the enthalpy of saturated liquid

to an accuracy of 1 part in 5,000 and also to

use this apparatus to complete the meas-

urements of the heat of vaporization of wa-

ter over the entire range down to the freez-

ing point.

Since 100°C. was set as the upper limit of

temperature required, it was unnecessary

for the calorimeter to withstand any pres-

sure difference of more than one atmosphere

and hence the calorimeter could be larger

and of much lighter construction. This

calorimeter was made of pure copper, 0.022

inch thick, spun into two hemispherical

shells 5 inches in diameter and soldered to-

gether with a narrow cylindrical copper

band at the equatorial zone. Thesurfaces in-

side and out were gold-plated and the out-

side surfaces polished to make the emissiv-

ity low. A circulating pump consisting of

two screw propellers was provided to agi-

tate and circulate the water, and guide

vanes were provided to direct the flow. A

210

sheathed heater in a flat horizontal coil pro-

vided the power for the experiments. As

before, the calorimeter was supported by

tubes at the poles. The lower tube was small

and contained the pump shaft while the

upper one was large to conduct large vol-

umes of vapor out of the calorimeter in

those y experiments where the specific

volume was large.

The envelope was a double-walled vapor

bath, entirely surrounding the calorimeter.

This bath always contained a small quan-

tity of liquid water so that saturated vapor

bathed the entire inner wall. Heat applied

to the outside wall at the level of the water

in this bath caused vapor to be formed

which had access to all parts of the bath

without any appreciable drop in pressure.

Any portion of the entire inside surface,

which chanced to be at a temperature

lower than that corresponding to the vapor

pressure, immediately received the latent

heat from condensation on that portion.

Provision was also made to keep the inner

wall bathed with a film of liquid which

could evaporate to cause cooling wherever

necessary. The inside of the inner wall of

this envelope was gold-plated and polished

to make the emissivity low where it faced

the calorimeter. The space between the

calorimeter and the envelope was evacuated

when thermal insulation was needed, but it

was filled with helium when thermal con-

nection to the envelope was desired, such

as when refrigeration was needed to cool

the calorimeter and its contents before

starting a day’s run near 0°C. At such times

a flow of ice water in a condenser at the top

of the envelope vapor space caused con-

densed water to run down over the inner

wall where it evaporated and thus cooled

the wall.

The copper reference block for this calo-

rimeter was inclosed in a cylindrical exten-

sion of the double-walled envelope enclosure

so that its temperature would be the same

as that of the envelope around the calorim-

eter. This copper reference block had axial

sockets for the usual laboratory type of re-

sistance thermometers and had 22 thermo-

elements attached.

Since higher accuracy was sought, special

attention was directed both to the details

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 7

of the design and to the technique of meas-

urement. The greater difference in the

masses of water in the high and low fillings

was one factor toward this end. Other fac-

tors included the measurement of power

and temperature. The potentiometer cali-

bration was checked at least twice a day

against saturated standard cells kept in a

special temperature-controlled box. Many

calorimetric measurements of the pump

power showed some irregularities, as before,

but since the total pump power was less

than 0.005 watt, these irregularities were of

little consequence. The heat leak correc-

tions due to temperature differences be-

tween the calorimeter and the envelope

were taken into account although they sel-

dom made an effect of as much as 1 part

in 50,000.

No 6 experiments were made with this

calorimeter because 8 is small in this tem-

perature range and it could be computed

more accurately than it could be observed.

The y experiments were made with a throt-

tle very similar to the one in the second

calorimeter, but larger. The steam throttled

through this valve was collected in glass

reservoirs through tubes and stopcocks,

which were nowhere less than 1 cm in diam-

eter. When in use the bottom of these re-

ceivers was immersed in liquid air which

maintained the vapor pressure at a negligi-

bly low value. Vaporization experiments

were made at temperatures as low as

0.13°C. where the specific volume of the

vapor is over 200,000 cm? per gram.

The results (20) obtained with this calo-

rimeter were expressed in terms of enthalpy

in the same manner that the earlier results

had been, but in this temperature range

there is also another important property,

namely, the specific heat at constant pres-

sure denoted by the symbol C,. To derive

this quantity the values from the a@ experi-

ments were reduced to weighted means of

Aa/AT at the midtemperatures of all the

intervals of the range. These were then

sat

reduced to by means of the 6 func-

1 atm H 1 atm

» and finally to

tion, then to

which is the C’,. The weighted mean values

Juty 15, 1945 STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER 211

= |

LIB

le $

D_ aS

a Fe scias aa

SSS SZ,

“\s G . =

Fig. 1.—Schematic diagram of precision manometer, with boiler for vapor pressure measurements:

A, Base plate; B, column of Hoke gage blocks 1 inch square; C, mercury cell; D, mercury meniscus,

73 mm in diameter; E, arm of jointed tube } inch I.D. to connect mercury cells, dotted to indicate

that it is back of plane of cells; Fi, F2, F3, tube joints, shoulder, elbow, and wrist; G, valve to shut

off the mercury connection between cells; H, capacitance plate 35 mm in diameter, 0.2 mm above mer-

cury; I, electric insulation, gas tight; J, fixed capacitance, equal to plate-mercury capacitance;

K, pneumatic switch, connecting either to fixed capacitor or to plate-mercury capacitor; L, electro-

static shield; M, helium line; N, helium supply valve; O, 7-milliliter volume for pressure adjustment;

P, piston for micrometer adjustment of pressure; Q, thermometer boiler; R, thermometer well; §, heater

for boiling water; T, liquid water; U, water vapor; V, vapor condenser with cold water; W, dry-ice cell

for keeping helium line dry.

212

of C,, which may be considered as experi-

mental values, were then formulated into

an equation. All these mean experimental

values of C, fell within one part in ten thou-

sand of the formulation except for two at

temperatures below 5°C., which had a very

low weight. This accord contributes confi-

dence to the formulation but should not be

taken as an estimate of accuracy, however,

because systematic errors could well be

larger than the accidental.

The results of this investigation cor-

roborate the results of Rowland, of Laby

and Hercus, and of Jaeger and von Stein-

wehr, but differ from the results of Barnes

in the upper part of the range by an amount

somewhat greater than can be reconciled.

The results obtained in this range with the

first calorimeter, reported in 1930, were not

so accurate as the later results and were not

considered as entitled to inclusion in the

formulation of values of specific heats.

The latest determinations of the specific

heat of water are of interest in comparing

two artificially defined calories with the

calories they were originally intended to

represent. In 1929 the International Steam

Table Conference defined a calorie, now

known as the I T cal (International Table

calorie) to be 1/860 international watt hour,

which is equivalent to 4.1860 international

joules. This calorie was originally selected

to be the mean calorie, which is about equal

to the 11.5° calorie although it now appears

to be nearer to the 14° calorie. The other

artificial calorie is the thermochemical

calorie used in thermochemical research

laboratories in the United States and de-

fined equal to 4.1833 international joules.

This calorie was taken over from the Inter-

national Critical Tables where it was in-

tended to be the 15° calorie but now appears

to be nearer to the 17° calorie.

This about completes the list of researches

on water under the leadership of N. 8. Os-

borne. It leaves one gap, however, which he

had hoped to see filled, namely, the meas-

urement of the vapor pressure of water at

temperatures below 100°C. The Reichsan-

stalt values (17) are still widely used but it

is believed that more accurate values can be

obtained with the present advances in the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. ré

technique for measuring pressure and tem-

perature.

Pressure measurements can now be made

with a precision mercury manometer, con-

structed at the N.B.S. This manometer is

one of the principal elements of a constant

volume gas thermometer with which it is

intended ultimately to determine the tem-

perature of several fixed points on the abso-

lute thermodynamic scale of temperature.

The aim has been to make this manometer

capable of yielding an accuracy of one part

in a million, for the measurement of any

pressure from nearly two atmospheres down

to about a tenth of this pressure.

In order to avoid errors due to the capil-

lary depression of the two mercury menisci,

these menisci were nearly 3 inches in diame-

ter in rigid steel cells (Fig. 1). The capillary

depression at the center of each cell was

calculated to be less than a thousandth of a

micron. The cells were inter-connected by a

jointed steel tube in order to accommodate

different levels of the upper cell, from 0 up

to about 55 inches. The cells were mounted

on columns of Hoke gage blocks, 1 inch

square, set on a flat iron base plate. These

gage blocks permit adjustments of height

in steps of 0.0001 inch, the routine calibra-

tion of the longer blocks is made to 2 parts

in 1,000,000 and they may be wrung to-

gether to about a hundredth of a micron.

The height of the mercury surface in each

cell, relative to its supporting gage blocks,

is determined by measurements of the elec-

trostatic capacitance between the mercury

surface and a steel plate 35 mm in diameter

about 0.2 mm above it. This capacitance

can be compared in a few seconds with a

stable dummy capacitor in a shielded space

on top of the cell. Small ripples on the mer-

cury surface, which are caused by almost

continuous earth tremors, and which would

exclude its use as one mirror of an optical

interferometer, do not affect the capacitance

measurements. The capacitance is meas-

ured with a beat-frequency oscillator which

is sensitive to a change in the height of the

mercury surface of about a hundredth of a

micron. .

It was intended to give this manometer

its first workout in making measurements of

Juty 15, 1945 STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

the vapor pressure of water at pressures

within the capacity of the manometer. A

few preliminary measurements have been

made at 80°, 60°, 50°, and 25°C. with active

boiling of water in a specially designed ther-

mometer boiler. At the top of this boiler

there was a condenser where the stream of

water vapor condensed and transmitted its

pressure to helium extending to the lower

cell of the mercury manometer. It soon be-

came evident, however, that the vapor pres-

sure of water could be measured with a

‘much greater accuracy with this manometer

than the corresponding accuracy to which

temperature could be measured with ther-

mometers calibrated by routine methods.

For this reason further measurements were

deferred until a few more refinements could

be put on the calibration of the platinum re-

sistance thermometers.

This apparatus is suitable for providing

and maintaining a pressure very precisely

at one atmosphere for calibration of ther-

mometers at 100°C. Pressures can be main-

tained constant within one part in a million

for periods of an hour or more at will. At

100°C. this corresponds to a temperature

constancy of much better than 0.0001°C.

The determination of the steam point in a

closed system connected to this manometer

is as much superior to determinations in ap-

paratus open to the atmosphere, as deter-

minations of specific and latent heat of wa-

ter in closed calorimeters were superior to

measurements where water samples were

caught in open vessels for weighing.

It had been recognized for a long time

that individual steam-point determinations

in open boilers are subject to uncertainties

of a few thousandths of a degree, but it had

not been fully appreciated that ice-point de-

terminations, without special technique, are

also subject to uncertainties of one or more

thousandths of a degree. The ice point, or

0°C., is defined (27) as the “Temperature of

equilibrium between ice and air-saturated

water at normal atmospheric pressure.”

When this definition was set up, the ice bath,

made of finely divided pure ice and distilled

water exposed to the atmosphere, was as-

sumed to be sufficiently accurate to fix

this temperature to 0.001°C. When an ac-

213

curacy of 0.0001°C. was desired there was

some uneertainty in the precise realization

of the conditions of the definition as will be

seen. It was recognized that the tempera-

ture of pure water at the triple point was

the simpler to define precisely, but it was

considered that the apparatus for using it

was too complicated for routine testing.

Since water expands on freezing, the

temperature of equilibrium of ice and water

is lowered by pressure. Using what are

believed to be the best data now available,

this lowering has been computed to be

0.00747°C. when the water is subjected to

one atmosphere pressure. Foreign sub-

stances in solution also lower the freezing

temperature. There are uncertainties about

the exact values for the solubilities of the

constituents of air in water but computa-

tions show that normal outdoor air con-

taining 0.03 percent of CQO. lowers the

freezing temperature by about 0.00244°C.

when the ice bath is at one atmosphere

pressure. The pressure and the dissolved

air together lower the freezing temperature

by about 0.00991°C., which means that the

triple point is nearly 0.0100° above 0°C.

This difference of temperature has been

determined experimentally by four reliable

experimenters, viz., H. Moser (22) at the

Reichsanstalt, W. P. White (23) at the

Geophysical Laboratory, J. L. Thomas (24)

at the National Bureau of Standards, and

J. A. Beattie (25) at the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology. All four reported

the triple-point temperature to be 0.0098°C.

above the ice point. This temperature dif-

ference is less than the theoretical, but it

could be accounted for either by the pres-

ence of foreign matter in solution in their

triple-point cells or because the water in

their ice baths was not fully saturated with

air at the ice-water interfaces nearest their

temperature measuring instruments. It is

well known that the saturation concentra-

tion of air in ice is much less than in water.

For this reason water from newly melted

ice will not be fully saturated with air until

the necessary amount of air has had time to

diffuse into it all the way from the surface

of the ice bath. Since temperature is de-

termined by the conditions at the ice-water

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 7

Fig. 2.—Triple-point apparatus: A, triple-point cell; B, thermometer well; C, liquid water;

D, water vapor; E, ice mantle; F, ice bath; G, vacuum vessel; H, flask for redistillation.

Juty 15, 1945 STIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

interfaces, it follows that complete satura-

tion of air in water under normal atmos-

pheric pressure must extend to the inter-

faces nearest the thermometer to realize

the defined temperature of 0°C. in water

that is pure otherwise. It becomes a bit

delicate, therefore, to get the water com-

pletely polluted with air at the ice surface

but with nothing else. White and Beattie

provided means for washing the ice in the

ice baths with successive changes of dis-

tilled water saturated with air at 0°C.

Melting ice, as suggested in the publication

“The International Temperature Scale’

(21), almost certainly will prevent complete

saturation of the water with air.

After these considerations a triple-point

apparatus for precise determinations of

temperature did not seem as formidable to

make and use as a precision ice-point ap-

paratus. Several triple-point cells (Fig. 2)

were prepared and a suitable technique was

developed to use them effectively. When in

use these cells were completely immersed

in an ice bath. The cells were of Pyrex glass

about 2 inches in diameter and about 16

inches long with one-half-inch reentrant co-

axial wells for the thermometers. Each cell

also had a tube extending out through the

top of the ice bath to a spherical 1-liter

flask at the side. Each cell was filled nearly

to the top with ordinary distilled water,

which had been air-freed, repurified, and

then distilled into the cell before sealing

off. When the water was sealed in the ap-

paratus, any non-volatile contamination

such as dissolved glass could be eliminated

at will by pouring the liquid into the flask

and allowing it to redistill quietly into the

cell by keeping the cell in an ice bath for

about a day.

The cells were prepared for use by freez-

ing a mantle of ice on the thermometer well

with solid COs, commercially known as dry

ice. Dry ice was dropped into a little ethanol

in a glass tube which was like a long test

tube, fitting freely into the well. The space

between the tube and the well was filled

with ethanol and the tube agitated up and

down in order to cause the ice mantle to

form uniformly on the outside of the well.

Agitation was continued until the mantle of

215

ice was from 3 to 6 mm thick, and then the

tube was let down for a while to thicken the

mantle at the bottom. During the process

of freezing, impurities tend to be excluded

from the ice and therefore concentrate in

the water at the surface of the ice where

they exaggerate the lowering of the freezing

temperature until after these impurities

have had time to diffuse away from the sur-

face throughout the water in the cell. Most

of this lowering can be avoided by the sim-

ple expedient, suggested by W. P. White

(23), of heating the well just enough to

melt ice to give a thin film of water next to

the well, which is where the ice first was

frozen and where the purest ice exists. This

surface then surrounds the thermometer

well and provides a simple means of almost

completely enclosing the thermometer in a

surface which is isothermal except for the

small temperature gradient due to the in-

crease of pressure with increasing depth of

immersion. These cells take only a few

minutes to prepare for use and can be kept

for many hours in an ice bath. They are

probably reliable to about ten times the

precision of the usual ice bath and when

available they do not require a much longer

time to prepare for measurements.

With the triple-point cells available,

there arose the question of the precise tem-

perature of the triple point, relative to the

defined ice point. This meant that the de-

fined ice-point temperature would have to

be realized to compare it with the triple-

point temperature. To do this, an ice-point

cell (Fig. 3) was made which in principle

resembled the triple-point cell but also had

provisions for saturating the water sur-

rounding the ice mantle with air. Extra care

was taken during the distillation and

purification of the water introduced into

this cell so that it could be kept pure. Sev-

eral days were required to prepare the

water sample which was then sealed into

the cell so that it could be used first like a

triple-point cell.

To prepare for the determination of the

triple-point temperature, ice was frozen on

the thermometer well of the ice-point cell

and also on the walls of three triple-point

cells. Triple-point temperatures were ob-

216

Fig. 3.—Ice-point apparatus: A, ice-point cell;

B, thermometer well; C, liquid water; D, water

vapor and air; E, ice mantle; F, ice bath; G,

vacuum vessel; I, fritted disk; J, air bubbles; K,

air inlet tube; L, air outlet tube; M, tip broken to

admit air; N, bypass, sealed after air admission.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 7

served first in triple-point cells and then in

the ice-point cell using the exterior surface

of its ice mantle. When this had been done

the ends of the two tubes that led to and

from the cell were cut off. This admitted the

pressure of the atmosphere to the liquid sur-

face in the cell and lowered the temperature.

The temperature was then observed as soon

as possible, and temperature observations

continued for some time, so that the tem-

perature could be extrapolated back to the

time of admitting the pressure. Since air

could not diffuse immediately from the top

surface of the water down to the ice surface

surrounding the thermometer, the extra-

polated temperature difference was as-

sumed to be caused by the pressure of the

atmosphere.

Air, free of COs, was then forced into the

cell through a fritted disk beneath the

thermometer well, thus causing small bub-

bles to rise past the ice mantle and to satu-

rate the surrounding water with air. This

process was continued for a long time until

temperature equilibrium was established.

This temperature was assumed to be the

temperature of equilibrium between ice and

air-saturated water free from CO, at stand-

ard atmospheric pressure. The thermometer

was then put into the triple-point cells again

to check the thermometer and bridge for

any drift during the day.

With the observed temperature, cor-

rected to the basis of standard atmospheric

pressure and 0.03 percent of CO, in the air,

the temperature determined for the triple

point of water in this one experiment was

0.00997°C. (26), with no claim made for the

reliability of the last decimal figure. Only

one experiment was performed, however,

because immediately afterward, in 1942,

this research had to be set aside for work of

higher priority.

The result of this experiment indicates

that the temperature of the triple point of

water is near enough to 0.0100°C. for most

purposes. It is consequently suggested that

a future precise definition of the centigrade

scale of temperature might define 0°C. as

being 0.0100° below the triple point of

water, instead of refining the present defini-

tion to include a specification for the pre-

cise composition of air. Such a change would

make no significant difference in the present

Juty 15, 1945 sTIMSON: MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

temperature scale, but would make the

definition simpler, more precise, and easier

to realize when the highest precision is

demanded. Moser (22), in 1928, recom-

mended “the triple point of water as a

fixed point of the temperature scale’’ and

the experiments, described here, strengthen

this recommendation.

(1)

(2)

(4)

(5)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

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to 374°C.). Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.

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liquid water and their correlation as a

function of pressure and temperature.

Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 69: 285.

1934.

OsporneE, NaTuan S., Stimson, Haroup

F., and GiInnincs, Deror C. Meas-

urements of heat capacity and heat of

vaporization of water in the range 0° to

100°C. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 23:

197. LUSo RE 1228.

Bureess, Grorce K. The international

temperature scale. Bur. Stand. Journ.

Res. 1:2°625.- 1928.

Mossr, H. Der Tripelpunkt des Wassers

als Fixpunkt der Temperaturskala. Ann.

Physik (5) 1: 341. ‘1929.

Wuire, W. P. Freezing points and triple

points with water. Journ. Amer. Chem.

Soc. 56: 20. 1934.

Tuomas, J. L. Reproducibility of the ice

point. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res. 12:

323. 1934.

Beatriz, James A., Tzu-Cuine, Huan,

and BrnepicTt, Manson. The repro-

ductubility of the ice point and the triple-

pont of water. The temperature of the

triple-point of water. Proc. Amer.

Acad. Arts and Sci. 72: 137. 1938.

Techn. News Bull. Nat. Bur. Stand., No.

305: 71. 1942.

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 35, No.7

ARCHEOLOGY .— The significance of the fiber-tempered pottery of the St. Johns area

in Florida

States, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Any discussion of fiber-tempered ware in

the Southeast and more particularly in

Florida must begin with the observations of

Jeffries Wyman, who investigated the area

in 1860, and again in 1867, and whose

monograph on fresh-water shell mounds of

the St. Johns, published in 1875, is still a

significant contribution. He recognized that

the pottery from the St. Johns shell heaps

had little similarity to other Florida pot-

tery and that cord-marked pottery did not

‘often occur there while it did occur in the

marine shell heaps near St. Augustine and

along the Atlantic coast to the south. He

observed that the check stamp was fairly

common at the coast and river sites. Part

of the distinctiveness of the St. Johns

pottery was the ware tempered with fiber.

Wyman says (1875, pp. 55—-56)?:

In several localities, as will be seen by the table,

the natives added to the clay vegetable fibre de-

rived from the palmetto tree. This appears to

have been charred in the burning, thus making

the vessel quite porous, each fibre leaving in its

place, or around it as it shrunk from the heat, a

small canal. In finishing the vessel, however, after

it had been formed of fibre and clay, the surface

within and without were covered with a thin

layer or ‘‘skimming”’ of clay alone, thus counter-

acting in a measure the porousness resulting from

the burning of the fibre. The only places at which

this use of vegetable fibre was noticed were Old

Town, Old Enterprise, Watson’s Landing, as

given in the table, and at Silver Spring on Lake

George, and Palatka. This may, perhaps, be ex-

plained by the fact that the different communities

had their own makers, each adopting a more or

less peculiar style.

Wyman interpreted the absence of pot-

tery from some of the mounds as evidence

that they were earlier than the shell heaps

that had pottery. This viewpoint was up-

1 This paper was read before the annual meet-

ing of the Society for American Archaeology in

Washington, D. C., in May 1944. The site at

South Indian Fields was called to the attention

of Dr. Irving Rouse, of the Peabody Museum of

Yale University, who directed a field party which

partially excavated the site in July and August

1944. A series of papers on these excavations and

related Florida problems will be published by

Yale University in the near future. Received

March 5, 1945.

2 See Literature Cited at end of paper.

JAMES B. GrirFin, Ceramic Repository for the Eastern United

hold by Moore as a result of his excavations

along the St. Johns, and he added the obser-

vation that in some of the mounds pottery

was found on the surface and part of the

way toward a nonpottery basal layer.

Holmes (1894) described the pottery from

Moore’s (1892-1894) early excavations and

called one of his ceramic divisions ‘“Midden

Ware.” He subdivided the midden ware in-

to two groups. ‘One variety is charac-

_ terized by a rather fine-grained paste pre-

serving the warm gray colors of the baked

clay. The surfaces are finished with a rub-

bing tool and are plain or have been rather

carelessly embellished with patterns of

incised straight and curved lines.” The

other subunit of the midden ware was fiber-

tempered. At the time of my earlier studies

on southeastern fiber-tempered ware, I

had not seen examples from the St. Johns

sites, and this has now been happily

remedied.

While preparing a paper which inter-

prets the cultural history of the eastern

United States area, it appeared likely that

the style and design of this pottery formed

one of the component elements of the

Tchefuncte ceramic complex of Louisiana

and was hence at least as old as and prob-

ably older than the pottery from that

aspect (Griffin, n.d.). At that time (1941)

I compared the design to Alexander In-

cised of the early sand-tempered Alexander

Series in the Southeast and after examining

Wyman’s collections in the Peabody Mu-

seum in Cambridge and Moore’s collections

in the Heye Museum in December 1941, I

referred to the rectilinear design on fiber-

tempered pottery as resembling Alexander

Incised.

In March 1942 A. T. Anderson, of Mel-

bourne, Fla., came to the Ceramic Reposi-

tory for the Eastern United States at Ann

Arbor and brought with him photographs

of excavations and specimens from a site

on his land, which is located almost due

west of Melbourne on the St. Johns. From

Anderson’s account of the excavation it was

evident that he had uncovered a significant

ee |

Juty 15, 1945

site and that the lowest pottery bearing

horizon was related to the incised fiber-

tempered ware recovered by Wyman and

Moore. The following description of Orange

Incised and Orange Plain is based on An-

derson’s collection, on the earlier published

reports and my examination of material in

Cambridge, New York, and Washington.°

Type Name: Orange Incised.

PASTE:

Method of manufacture: No evidence.

Temper: Fiber-tempered. Various propor-

tions and sizes of a vegetal fiber almost en-

tirely disintegrated in firing, presenting a

vesicular appearance. There is no other

nonplastic material visible in the clay.

Texture: Honey-combed.

Hardness: At least three-fourths of the

sherds can be scratched by gypsum, while

the others are 22.5.

Color: The exterior surfaces vary from a

light cream to a dark gray. The surface

color penetrates but a short distance

(1 to 2 mm) and the core is very dark gray

to black.

Surrace Finish: Both exterior and interior

surfaces are fairly well smoothed. On some

specimens this is sufficient to have formed a

film over the fiber strands. On the majority

of sherds the fiber tracks are visible on the

outer or inner surface.

DECORATION:

Technique: Incising and punctating. The in-

cising varies from lines made with a fine

sharp point which are narrow (less than 2

mm) and medium deep, to medium wide

(2-4 mm) and medium deep to deep: in-

cisions made with a rounded point. There

is considerable variation in the skill of

execution. The punctates are small shallow

circular indentations or ovoid-shaped

gashes.

Design: The designs are all rectilinear and

are placed on the lip and outer rim or side

wall of the vessel. The following patterns

can be recognized.

1. Parallel vertical lines extending

from the lip to the base of the

wall.

2. Parallel horizontal lines extending

from the lip to the vessel base.

3 The Department of Anthropology of the

United States National Museum has kindly al-

lowed me to reproduce a series of sherds from the

Tick Island shell mound.

GRIFFIN: FIBER-TEMPERED POTTERY OF ST. JOHNS AREA

219

3. Parallel left or right oblique lines

extending from the lip to the

basal angle.

4. Left and right oblique cross-hatched

lines extending from the lip to the

basal angle.

Large triangular areas with oblique

hatching.

6. Groups of four or more oblique

lines separated by a parallel plain

band.

7. Groups of lines forming chevrons or

inverted chevrons separated by a

plain area.

8. A series of nested squares.

9. Nested squares or diamonds with

vertical oblique or horizontal in-

tersecting lines running through

the corners of the squares or

diamonds.

10. Hatched oblique bands outlined by

incised lines.

11. Hatched areas set off from plain

bands by incised lines.

12. Horizontally hatched triangles with

adjoining inverted triangle plain.

13. Circular punctates or ovoid gashes

paralleling or at right angles to

incised lines.

14. Groups of oblique lines or chevrons

on lip surface sometimes bordered

by punctates.

15. The use of horizontal lines along the

upper rim to delimit the deco-

rated zone. This is used particu-

larly with patterns 8 to 11 in-

clusive.

Form:

Rim: Vertical, to slightly insloping in the

upper segment of some specimens. There

is no differentiation between a rim frag-

ment and a side wall specimen.

Lip: Narrowed and rounded and without

decoration, or very wide and decorated

with incised lines and punctates. There

is a tendency for the first 6 decorative

patterns to occur on rims with narrowed

lips and for patterns 8 to 11 to have wide,

decorated lips. The flat lip may be hori-

zontal or slope toward the interior.

Body: Rather shallow rimmed bowls or

pans. Height from 7 to at least 15 cm.

with the diameter varying from 20 cm.

to vessels which were much larger.

Base: Flat. Some sherds presumed to be

basal fragments have incised decorations

of pattern 13 on their interior surfaces.

220 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Thickness: Considerable variation from ves-

sel to vessel. Narrow lips are 6 to 8 mm;

the wide lip from 1.5 to 2.7 em. Side walls

from 8 mm to 1.8 em and basal section

8 mm to 15 em. The basal section often

the thinnest part of the vessel.

Appendages: None. Examples of crack lacing

holes.

Usuat Rance or Typs: In the St. Johns

drainage from South Indian Field north at the

following sites of Wyman and Moore: Mul-

berry, Orange Mound, Huntingtons, Wat-

son’s Landing, Black Hammock, Enterprise,

Mound in Woods above Blue Springs, Old

Town, Mound below Lake Dexter, Tick

Island, Silver Spring, Murphys Island,

Palatka. To the west specimens were ob-

tained in Ocala National Forest by Marshall

Newman.

CHRONOLOGICAL PosITION OF TYPE IN RANGE:

The earliest pottery found along the St.

Johns. Is not found at all in some deep shell

middens, on top layers of others and on bot-

tom of still other shell middens which have

later pottery types toward the top.

The plain sherds which are quite similar

to the incised specimens can be called

Orange Plain and differ in a few particulars

from the incised specimens. The surfaces

are usually not so well smoothed and the

pieces seem somewhat less well made. Both

the narrowed lip and the wide flat lip are

found and some of the latter have incised

decorations on them. There is thus no

reason to believe that the plain specimens

are significantly older or that a similar

succession of plain to decorated is found

either at South Indian Field or farther north

in the St. Johns drainage as has been re-

ported from the Bilbo site.

According to Anderson there also oc-

curred in the lowest pottery zones an en-

tirely different ware, which is an early form

of the dominant temperless pottery along

the St. Johns, and to this might be attached

the appropriate name of St. Johns ware. A

number of types can be recognized. One of

these is incised (Fig. 1, S and T) and gives

every indication of having developed, or

evolved from the earlier Orange Incised.

On it there is a strong use of the horizontal

line just below the lip on the outer rim

forming an upper border for the incised pat-

tern. The designs include some obvious

carry-overs, but they are not so varied as

on the fiber-tempered ware. Another type

is a large check stamp, which is on thick

coarse appearing sherds. Plain sherds are,

of course, found and can be considered St.

Johns Plain. A number of interesting traits

are present on some of. these dominantly

plain sherds. One specimen has heavy scor-

ing marks on the interior surface. Five

specimens have fabric or mat impressions

on the outer surface of flat circular bases

(Fig. 1, U). The St. Johns ware forms a

minority group in the earliest or third level

at the South Indian Field site.

In Anderson’s second level St. Johns

Plain becomes the dominant ware with a

continuation of the incised type and a few

sherds of the check stamp. A newcomer is a

plain sandy or gritty ware, which is prob-

ably related to the Glades Gritty Ware of

Stirling and Goggin (1940). One specimen

may be a tubular pipe. At this level a red-

filmed type appears on a bowl shape.

Between the second level and third level

Anderson recovered most of a short and

rather wide-necked water bottle made of

St. Johns paste. St. Johns Plain continues

into the third level and there was also found

a large amount of small check stamp which

should be named St. Johns Check Stamp.

From the surface have come a few speci-

mens of an olive-green glazed ware, which

may well be the fragments of Spanish olive

jars.

The sequence of pottery wares and types

as reported by Anderson conforms very well

with that from the sites excavated by

Wyman and Moore and with other excava-

tions in the Southeast. South Indian Fields

should yield very important confirmation

of the above suggested ceramic stratigraphy

and in addition has a number of other in-

teresting prospects. From the level in which

the fiber-tempered ware was found, An-

derson obtained the jaws of the West

Indian seal (Monachus tropicalis), and he

claims that horse and mammoth bones also

occur there. An extinct beaver and ground

sloth remains were obtained from levels

below the earliest pottery horizon.

Of much more limited distribution in the

St. Johns drainage is a type found in the

central part of the St. Johns, which is

characterized by a curvilinear scroll design

VOL. 35, NO. 7 |

. 5 on

fa a le ee

JuLy 15, 1945 GRIFFIN: FIBER-TEMPERED POTTERY OF ST. JOHNS AREA 221

Fig. 1.—Sherds from the Tick Island site in the U. S. National Museum collection: A—C, Orange

Incised with U-shaped lines; D-I, Tick Island Incised; J-R, Orange Incised; S-T, St. Johns Incised;

U, mat impressed sherd on St. Johns paste; V, fragment of small bowl or ladle.

222 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

with closely spaced punctates filling in areas

between the scrolls (Fig. 1, D to H). This

punctate treatment very rarely is used with

a rectilinear design (Fig. 1, I). This type

can be called Tick Island Incised. The in-

cised lines are usually medium-wide (2-4

mm) and U-shaped in contrast to the nar-

row (less than 2 mm) and V-shaped lines,

which are more common on Orange In-

cised (Fig. 1, J to R). At the Tick Island

site the U-shaped lines are more in evidence

on the rectilinear designs of the Orange

Incised style (Fig. 1, A to C), than is true

toward the headwaters of the St. Johns.

There is a rather strong suggestion in this

Tick Island Incised type of a relationship

with part of the Weeden Island pottery

complex. It is difficult to be certain of the

exact nature of this relationship. It is pos-

sible that the St. Johns potters copied one

of the Weeden Island styles, in which case

the two groups would be roughly contem-

poraneous. Another possibility is that this

decorative technique and design appeared

first in the Southeast in the St Johns and

became one of the concepts incorporated in

the Weeden Island complex. It is known

that Weeden Island types do appear in the

St. Johns, and they are associated, not with

the Orange Series, but with the St. Johns

Series (Moore, 1896; pl. 75 is an example).

On the basis of the distributional evidence

it is suggested that the Tick Island type is

later than Orange Incised. |

The fiber-tempered ware on the St. Johns

is the third major center of this earliest

ceramic tradition in the Southeast. All the

fiber-tempered groups in the Southeast have

the use of fibrous tempering méeterial in

common as well as the bowl-shaped vessel

which is the only known shape. The appear-

ance of other shapes and vessel appendages

marks a significantly different and prob-

ably later step in the ceramic development

in the southeast.

When the Orange fiber-tempered complex

is considered in relation to the other fiber-

tempered ceramic groups in the Southeast it

is at once apparent that it is a remarkably

homogeneous product and is limited to the

area along the Florida east coast from the

mouth of the St. Johns to its headwaters. It

does not occur much farther north into the

VOL. 35, NO. 7

area occupied by the Stallings Plain or

Punctate types (Griffin, 1943), nor has it

been reported from the area to the south.

Willey failed to find evidence of the Orange

Series along the Florida northwest coast

(although some fiber-tempered sherds were

reported), and Moore would hardly have

failed to mention such specimens if he had

recovered them in his excavation in the

same area. The Wheeler Series of fiber-

tempered types in northern Alabama and

the contiguous area does not show decora-

tive influences or connections with the St.

Johns types.

There is one other early pottery complex

in the south that does show in some of its

features a definite connection to the Orange

types. In the Tchefuncte pottery complex

one finds Tchefuncte Incised, Lake Borgne

Incised, and Alexander Incised (Ford and

Quimby, 1935), all of which show some con-

nection to the incised fiber-tempered pot-

tery of the St. Johns. The first two Tche-

functe types are granular clay-tempered

pottery, while sand was used to temper the

Alexander type. Not all the designs or even

the technique of the Tchefuncte and Lake

Borgne types resemble Tick Island, but

there are a number of sherds in both groups

which are very close. The strong use of

linear punctate decoration in Tchefuncte

resembles such employment in the Stallings

Punctate pottery, but some of the designs

on the Tchefuncte sherds resemble the

Orange designs. It is reasonable to suggest

that the Tchefuncte pottery complex in

these particulars was influenced from the

two major fiber-tempered centers in the

southeast rather than the reverse. It is rec-

ognized that this is at present difficult to

demonstrate.

Tchefuncte ceramics are indeed a very

interesting agglomeration of ceramic con-

cepts from a wide area. Mandeville Stamped

has its analogue in the early dentate stamp-

ing of the rim in the Illinois Valley and

throughout the Northeast. Tchefuncte

Stamped is an inept expression of what Wil-

loughby was wont to call the “hall-mark of

the Algonquian potter.’’ The Alexander

types are found to the east in Mississippi

and Alabama and bear as one of their dis-

tinguishing features the Woodland punched

Jury 15, 1945

out boss along the upper rim. On the basis of

the present evidence Tchefuncte could

hardly be regarded as the origin of these

various pottery practices.

In my paper that will accompany the

Yale University volume on Florida a more

exhaustive comparative statement will be

compiled for the ceramic and cultural se-

quence in the East Florida area. At present

the St. Johns fiber-tempered pottery can be

recognized as one of the oldest types in the

southeast; it contributed decorative tech-

niques and designs to later ceramic levels

in the area.

LITERATURE CITED

Forp, James A., and GreorGE IJ. QuimBy, JR.

The Tchefuncte culture, an early occupation

of the Lower Mississippi Valley. Amer.

Antiq. 10 (3): pt. 2. 1945.

GoaGin, JOHN M. The distribution of pottery

ware in the Glades archaeological area of

South Florida. New Mexico Anthrop. 4

(2): 22-34. 1940.

GLASSELL: FOUR NEW SPECIES OF CRABS

223

GRIFFIN, JAMES B. An analysis and interpre-

tation of the ceramic remains from two sites

near Beaufort, South Carolina. Bur. Amer.

Ethnol. Bull. 183, Anthropol. Papers, No.

22: 155-168. 1943.

. Culture change and continuity in eastern

United States archaeology. Pap. Robert 5.

Peabody Foundation for Archaeol. 3. An-

dover, Mass., no date.

Houtmes, WituiaAM H. Earthenware pottery of

Florida: Collection of C. B. Moore. Journ.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, no. 10: 105—

129. 1894.

Moore, CuarENcE B. Certain shell heaps of

the St. John’s River, Florida, hitherto unex-

plored. Amer. Nat. 26: 912. 1892.

. (Continuation of the above.| Amer.

Nat., 27:8, 113, 605, 708. 1893.

. (Continuation of the above.] Amer.

Nat. 28:15, 26. 1894.

. Certain river mounds of Duval County,

Florida. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel-

phia (ser. 2) 10 (pt. 4): 449-502. 1896.

WYMAN, JEFFRIES. Fresh-water shellmounds of

the St. John’s River, Florida. Mem. Pea-

body Acad. Sci. 1 (4): 1-94. 1875.

ZOOLOGY .—Four new species of North American crabs of the genus Petrolisthes.!

Steve A. GLASSELL, San Diego Society of Natural History.

“by Waxpo L. Scum.)

This paper describes three new species of

Petrolisthes Stimpson from the Pacific and

one from the Atlantic Ocean. Two of the

species are new to the California coast but

are neither obscure, rare, nor hard to obtain

within their geographical limits. The new

species from Panama, however, differs in

this respect, its habitat being considerably

restricted and local.

Petrolisthes manimaculis, n. sp.

Fig. 1

Not Petrolisthes gracilis Stimpson, Schmitt, Univ.

California Publ. Zool. 23: 181, pl. 32, fig. 4.

1921.

Types.—Male, holotype, and female, allo-

type, U.S.N.M. no. 79393, collected by the

author from Morro Bay, Calif., at low tide,

February 2, 1939.

Diagnosis.—Carapace nude, or lightly pubes-

cent, lightly punctate, lateral margins rough-

ened, front triangular, postocular tooth short,

obtuse, no epibranchial spine, regions defined.

1 Received March 14, 1945.

(Communicated

Antennal flagellum smooth, blue. Carpus with

sides subparallel, upper surface nearly smooth,

or slightly roughened. Hands _subsimilar,

smooth, tuft of heavy pubescence in gape ex-

tending nearly to end on dactyl, less than half-

way on pollex. Ambulatory legs with pubes-

cence on upper margin of meri; merus of third

leg twice as long as wide. In life, palp of maxil-

lipeds blue, inner base of dactyl of cheliped

orange, a median longitudinal row of blue dots

on upper surface of palm.

Description—Carapace in male slightly

wider than long, female wider than male, de-

pressed, regions defined, surface lightly punc-

tate, punctae with microscopic pubescence,

lateral regions lightly striate, no epibranchial

spine, shoulders high, protogastric ridges di-

vided by a median sulcus which deepens ante-

riorly, front triangular, slightly depressed,

margins vertically sinuous, more than twice as

wide as high, separated from upper orbital

margin by a sulcus, upper margin roughened,

tip blunt. Upper orbital margin elevated, no

preocular tooth, postocular tooth obtuse, not

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

extending forward. First movable antennal

peduncle armed with a cylindrical, tapered

ridge, directed downward and outward, ex-

tending past distal extremity and slightly past

proximal end of the cylindrical, smooth, second

peduncle; flagellum smooth, almost nude, and

more than twice the carapace width, color in

life blue.

Chelipeds subsimilar, about three times the

width of carapace in adult males, about two

and a half times in females; merus with light

transverse striae and a blunt, distal, inner lobe,

not extending past inner margin of carpus;

carpus nearly three times longer than wide in

adult males, about two and a half times longer

than wide in small specimens and females, mar-

gins subparallel, upper surface lightly rough-

ened, a submedian, longitudinal elevation,

outer margin rugose, with a sharp-pointed dis-

tal spine, some pubescence on the posterodistal

half. Hands microscopically granular in adult

males, more distinct in juveniles and females,

inner margin an indistinct line of fine beading,

outer margin blunt, sinuous, upper surface

with a median, raised elevation, on which in

‘life is a row of turquoise-blue dots. Dactyli un-

armed, nearly as long as upper margin of palm,

curved, sinuous, tips crossing pollex; a heavy

felt of pubescence in gape which extends two-

thirds the length of the underside of dactyl, and

one-third the length of pollex; pollex unarmed.

Ambulatory legs with meri pubescent on up-

per crest, no posterodistal spine; merus of third

leg twice as long as wide, other joints sparingly

setose.

Sexual variation—Female carapace wider,

more areolate, rougher; carpus of cheliped

more granulous, shorter; second antennal pe-

duncle rough, granulated; ambulatory legs

more pubescent; females smaller than males.

Color in life-—Ground color a rich brown, al-

most a red-chocolate, with large and small blue

dots, giving the effect of blue lines, although

they are actually a series of blue dots running

together, this same effect being on the carpus

and fingers of the hand. Median longitudinal

ridge of the palm with a row of turquoise-blue

spots. Legs a tan spotted with bluish white.

Palp of maxillipeds margined with blue, inner

proximal base of dactyl orange (Kirk).

Measurements—Male holotype, carapace

length 15.3 mm, width 16 mm; orbital width

8.5 mm; rostral width 3.5 mm, height 1.5 mm;

VOL. 35, NO. 7

antennal flagellum length 35 mm; major

cheliped, length of carpus 16.5 mm, width 5.9

mm, length of hand 29 mm, width 11.5 mm;

minor cheliped, carpus length 16 mm, width

5.5 mm, length of hand 29 mm, width 10 mm;

merus of third ambulatory leg, length 8.5 mm,

width 4.2 mm. Fingers nearly the length of

palm.

Range.—San Francisco to San Diego, Calif.

Material examined.—The type series con-

sists of several hundred specimens of both

sexes, taken by the author at Morro Rock,

Morro Bay, Calif., at low tide, on February 2,

1939. A series of about 50 specimens of both

sexes, from Moss Beach, San Mateo County,

Calif., taken in the latter part of May and the

early part of June 1939 by R. Fields and E.

Benton, under the direction of Dr. S. F. Light,

of the University of California. Also a series of

30 specimens, both sexes, taken by the author

at Spindrift Beach, La Jolla, Calif., at low tide,

December 8, 1938. With the exception of dis-

tributed material all these specimens are in the

author’s collection.

Habitat.—This species occupies the lower

levels of the intertidal zone. Its vertical range

may be assumed not to exceed the mean low-

water level. It, like most members of the

genus, demands the shelter of rocks and weeds,

uninfluenced by drifting sands. North of Point

Conception, Calif., this species occupies an

ecological horizon between P. cinctipes (Ran-

dall), which is above it, and P. eriomerus

Stimpson, which is below. As neither P.

cinctipes nor P. eriomerus is found south of

Point Conception (except for the northernmost

of the Channel Islands, San Miguel, Santa

Rosa, and Santa Cruz), the southern associa-

tion is changed, and P. ertomerus is replaced by

P. rathbunae Schmitt, 1921, and P. cabrilloa

Glassell (described as new in this paper) sup-

plants P. cinctipes, although not in the same

abundance.

Remarks.—This proposed species is allied to

P. eriomerus Stimpson, 1871, but differs from

that species in the following respects: (1) car-

apace without tubercles, (2) carpus two and a

half to three times as long as wide, (3) carpus

with upper surface smooth or slightly rough-

ened,(4)inner base of dactyl of chelipeds orange

(in P. ertomerus blue).

Stimpson’s description of P. gracilis, by its

brevity, has caused considerable confusion;

Juty 15, 1945

however, in the light of all the collections I have

examined, it now appears to be a more or less

localized species, restricted to the Gulf of Cali-

fornia.

Petrolisthes cabrilloa, n. sp.

Fig. 4

Types.—Male, holotype, and female, allo-

type, U.S.N.M. no. 79391, collected by W. A.

Kirk from Anaheim Landing, Calif., at low

tide on October 11, 1939.

Diagnosis —Carapace punctate, with light

pubescence in punctae, striate on lateral mar-

gins; front triangular, obtuse, one-third as high

as wide; postocular tooth short, obtuse, right-

angled; no epibranchial spine; regions lightly

indicated. Antennal flagellum ciliated, color

ochre with purple edgings. Carpus about twice

GLASSELL: FOUR NEW SPECIES OF CRABS

225

as long as wide, a proximal, inner marginal

lobe, otherwise margins subparallel, upper sur-

face pubescent, granulated. Hands subsimilar,

granulated, a heavy tuft of pubescence in gape

extending only halfway or less on both fingers.

Ambulatory legs with pubescence and setae on

meri. In life, palp of maxillipeds a brilliant

orange, as is inner base of dactyli.

Description.—Carapace transversely flat-

tened, convex fore and aft, small punctae in

median areas and anteriorly, laterally striate,

punctae microscopically pubescent, more

prominent on front; protogastric ridges low, no

epibranchial spine, shoulders moderately high.

Posterolateral margins parallel. Front triangu-

lar, obtuse, three times as wide as high, slightly

depressed, margins granulated, median sulcus,

back to protogastric region, shallow. Upper

Fia. 1.—Petrolisthes manimaculis, n. sp., width of carapace 16 mm.

n. sp., width of carapace 11 mm. Fig. 3.—Petrolisthes robsonae, n. sp., width of carapace 8 mm.

Fig. 4.—Petrolisthes cabrilloa, n. sp., width of carapace 11 mm.

Fig. 2.—Petrolisthes tortugensis,

Inserts, fourth thoracic sternite.

226

orbital margin slightly raised, no preorbital

spine, postorbital tooth obtuse, right-angled.

First movable antennal peduncle armed with a

blunt lobe, second peduncle cylindrical, granu-

lated, flagellum compressed, ciliated, twice as

long as carapace. :

Chelipeds subsimilar, about three times the

width of carapace; merus distally armed on in-

ner side with a short, subvertical lobe, not ex-

tending forward past inner margin of carpus,

surface lightly pubescent; carpus about twice

the median width, inner proximal one-fourth

with a lamellar lobe, rest of margins subparal-

lel, upper surface granulated and pubescent, a

strong posterodistal spine; hands granulated,

but not rough, nude, inner margin not dis-

tinctly crested or beaded, outer margin smooth,

sinuous, undersurface of palm highly polished,

lightly punctate; fingers with a tuft of pubes-

cence in gape extending on both fingers for

less than half their length.

Ambulatory legs stout; merus of third leg

twice as long as wide, pubescent on upper half

of outer surface, setaceous on lower; joints of all

legs setaceous, no posterodistal spine on meri.

Sexual variation—Female carapace wider,

slope of front more distinct; carpus of cheliped

more granulated, inner proximal lobe less dis-

tinct. Juveniles with longer pubescence on cara-

pace.

Color in life-—Ground color of carapace dull

orange, with striations and numerous spots of

very pale greenish white. Margins pale laven-

der, which becomes darker toward and includ-

ing the frontal region, where it is dark dusky

purple. Antennal peduncles same color as cara-

pace, flagellum ochre with purple edges. Rasal

segments of maxilliped striated with dull

orange and brilliant green; palp brilliant

orange. Ground color of carpus green, numer-

ous granulations reddish brown, almost ob-

scuring ground color; hand and finger same

color but slightly darker, underside of finger

‘pale, bright, turquoise blue; undersurface of

hand much lighter, with green prominent.

Merus and carpus of ambulatory legs with pat-

terns and striations light tan to dark brown,

propodus with a broad center band of yellow-

ish tan; dactyl with center band of dark brown,

tip bright purple, general appearance dark

dusky green. Ventral side pale dull yellow

with darker patterns on abdomen (Petersen).

Measurements.—The measurements (in mil-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 7

limeters) are given for three specimens, respec-

tively: the holotype male, the allotype female,

and the largest female from Morro Bay. Length

of carapace 11.4—-10.1-12.1, width 11-—10.5-

13.1; orbital width 6.5-6.3-7.2; rostral width

3-3-3, height 0.9-0.6-1; length of flagellum

24-18-25; of major cheliped, length of carpus

10.2—7.7—9.6, width, proximal 4.8-3.6-5, me-

dian 4.2—3.6—4.3; length of hand 19—-14.5-17.8,

width at base of dactyl 8-6.2—7.6; of minor

cheliped, length of .carpus 9—7.1-9.5, width,

proximal 4.2—3.5—4.8, median 4—3.3-4.3; length

of hand 15.3-13-17.8, width 6.5—5.6—7.6; merus

of third ambulatory leg, length 6.2—5.2-6.1,

width 3.3-3.1-3.5.

Range.—From Point Conception, Calif., to

Punta Banda, Baja California, Mexico (ap-

proximate).

Material examined.—The type series was

taken at Anaheim Landing, Calif., and consists

of 10 males and 10 females, some ovigerous.

A single female from Morro Bay, Calif. (see

under Measurements), collected by the author

at low water, February 2, 1939. A series of 50

males and 50 females, from Corona Del Mar,

Calif., collected by the author December 9,

1938, low water. A series of 5 males and 5 fe-

males, from Malaga Cove, Palo Verde Hills,

Calif., collected by Dr. Olga Hartman, Febru-

ary 2, 1939, low water. Also a number of small

series of both sexes, taken by the author at the

following localities: Point Dume, Calif., Janu-

ary 5, 1939; Topango Canyon, Calif., February

16, 1939; Sesquit Canyon, Calif.; March 4,

1939. All the above contained more than 10

specimens of both sexes. A series of 8 males and

6 females, collected by Paul Rich from the Star

and Crescent Pier at San Diego, Calif., Febru-

ary 2, 1939. All the above material is in the

author’s collection.

Habitat.—Occupies the midtidal zone under

shelter of rocks and is more tolerant of sand and

muddy water than any of the other California

species of this genus.

Remarks.—This proposed species has an

affinity with P. cinctipes (Randall), 1839, but

differs from that species in the following re-

spects: (1) the ambulatory legs have their meri

pubescent and setose, instead of nude; (2) the

carpus of the chelipeds is twice as long as wide,

the proximal lobe small, the margins otherwise

subparallel, instead of being one and one-half

times as long as wide, margins converging dis-

Juxiy 15, 1945

tally; (3) the carapace is pubescent in juve-

niles, instead of nude.

Named for Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, a Por-

tuguese navigator in the service of the King of

Spain, who in ill-fitted boats on an uncharted

sea discovered a golden empire, and left his

bones in an unmarked grave on the wind-

swept island of San Miguel, anno 1542. Un

hombre valiente, saludes. '

Petrolisthes robsonae, n. sp.

Fig. 3

Types.—Male, holotype, and female, para-

type, U.S.N.M. no. 79396, collected by

Elinor D. Robson from Miraflores Locks, Pan-

ama Canal, Canal Zone; March 26, 1937.

Diagnosis.—Carapace lightly roughened,

lightly pubescent; front broadly triangular,

horizontal; an epibranchial spine. Chelipeds

with inner margin of carpus armed with two

spines; manus with outer margin concave,

spined. Posterodistal end of meri of first and

second ambulatories with two spines, upper

distal end of carpi with one spine.

Description.—Carapace slightly longer than

wide, sides rounding, margin behind the single,

sharp, epibranchial spine forming a sharp, in-

distinctly beaded ridge. Surface very lightly

rugose, with or without very light pubescence.

Front subhorizontal, slightly advanced, broadly

triangular, subentire, a median shallow sinus

running back onto the gastric regions dividing

the protogastric ridges. The upper ocular mar-

gin is lightly beaded, the postorbital tooth a

right-angle. First antennal peduncle with a

horizontally compressed, distal lobe armed

with a single large spine and several smaller

spines, the distal end of this lobe rounded and

extending past the articulation of the second

peduncle, which has a crested ridge, the prox-

imal end the highest. Flagellum nude, two and

a half times the length of the carapace.

Chelipeds subequal in the female, differing in

the adult male, surfaces lightly roughened with

short lines of rugae; merus with an inner distal

lobe and a single marginal spine on the upper

edge near the outer side; carpus nearly two and

a half times as long as wide, subhorizontal on

upper surface with a longitudinal median ridge,

inner margin armed with two spines, the prox-

imal the largest, the second located in a sub-

median position, the margin microscopically

serrate. In young specimens there is an indica-

GLASSELL: FOUR NEW SPECIES OF CRABS

227

tion of a third tooth near the distal end, but

this is obsolete even in half-grown specimens.

Outer margin armed with a sharp, postero-

distal spine, a single distal marginal spine, and

one or two subdistal outer marginal spines.

Manus triangular, rather flattened in the fe-

male, rounded in the male, the inner margin

revolute, the outer concave and armed with

long, sharp-pointed spines extending onto the

pollex in the female, ending before the pollex in

the male. In addition to these spines there is a

fringe of cilia and pubescence covering the

outer half of the lower surface of the palm and

a dense felt of pubescence extending half the

length of the fingers. Major hand of the male.

with the fingers gaping, blunt, tips not cross-

ing. Minor hand in the male and both hands in

the female with fingers approximated for their

length, the tips crossing.

Ambulatory legs with their meri lightly

crested with pubescence, the remaining joints

with sparse setae; a single, sharp, long, flat-

lying spine on the upper crest, one-third the

distance from the distal end; two spines, one

above the other, at the posterodistal end of the

meri of the first and second legs. A distal spine

on the upper crest of the carpus in all three legs.

Propodi in the first two pairs bent forward.

Abdomen heavily fringed between the first

four segments. Telson with seven plates, the

terminal pair distally separated by a wide V¢

shaped commissure.

Color in alcohol——In those specimens on

which the pubescence remains the color is a

dark brown; in rubbed specimens a distinct

pink tone is noted.

Measurements.—Male holotype: length of

carapace 8.6 mm, width 8 mm, length of carpus

7.4 mm, width not including teeth 2.8 mm,

length of major hand 12.6 mm, width at base

of dactyl 5 mm, length of minor hand 12.1 mm,

width 4.2 mm, length of major dactyl from

joint to tip 4.5 mm, of minor dactyl 5 mm,

length of antennal flagellum 21 mm.

Range.—Known only from type locality.

Material examined.—A series of 17 males and

20 females, some ovigerous, all collected at the

same time and locality by Mrs. Robson.

Habitat.—Mrs. Robson, after whom the spe-

cies is named, informs me that it has so far

been taken only inside the canal locks during

one of their periodic cleanings. It is amazing

to me to consider this location as suitable for

228 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Petrolisthes, as I am informed that the water

within these locks is continuously being

changed, its saline content varying from al-

most fresh to that of sea water. This change

from salt to fresh water argues for an almost

unbelievable tolerance on the part of this spe-

cies to fresh water, a substance lethal to other

species of the genus within a short period of

time, usually half an hour or more, during

which time the membranes are ruptured by

osmosis.

Exact information, however, as to the ecol-

ogy and as to the salinity of the water at the

place of capture is not yet available.

_ Remarks.—This proposed species is allied to

P. armatus (Gibbes), 1850, but differs from that

species in the following respects: (1) by having

only two carpal spines, (2) by having only one

spine on the upper crest of the meri of the am-

bulatory legs, (3) by the underside of the hands

being half covered with hair, (4) and by the

outer margin of the hands being concave and

fringed with hair.

This proposed species is dedicated to Mrs.

Elinor D. Robson, who has shown a marked

interest in the fauna of the Canal Zone.

Petrolisthes tortugensis, n. sp.

Fig. 2

Types.—Male, holotype, U.S.N.M. no.

79395, collected by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, at

Tortugas, Fla., 8.5 fathoms, July 19, 1924.

Three paratypes, 2 males and 1 female, in the

author’s collection. All other paratypes in the

U. 8. National Museum (see under Material

examined).

Diagnosis ——Carapace longer than wide,

transversely striate, an epibranchial spine, a

branchial spine, lateral margins spined, rostrum

obtusely triangular, spined, depressed. Cheli-

peds long and narrow; upper inner carpal mar-

gin 4-spined, lower inner margin with one or

two; hands narrow, with spinate outer margins;

fingers distorted, with spooned apices, gaping.

Ambulatory legs with propodi one-fifth shorter

than meri; meri spine crested, numbers 1 and 2

with two posterodistal spines, number 3 with

one. Antennal flagellum slender, nonciliate,

more than three times carapace length.

Description—Carapace longer than wide,

transversely striate, transversely convex, with

an epibranchial spine, a postocular spinule,

VOL. 35, No. 7

three lateromarginal, forward- and upward-

pointing spines and one on the carapace inside

of these and nearer to the third or proximal

marginal spine. Rostrum medially depressed,

obtusely triangular, and armed on and upon its

anterior margin with spines and spinules as fol-

lows: an ocular spine, a preocular spine, then

two marginal spines, followed by two inner

marginal spines, then an upward- and inner-

curving spine, and lastly one or two more

smaller spines and spinules at the apex. A shal-

low median sulcus running backward by the

subobliterated protogastric lobes. Eyes large

and black, their width about one-fifth the

carapace length. First movable antennal seg-

ment armed on its inner margin with a long,

vertically compressed, median spine and a

smaller distal spine, the second segment granu-

lous, the third smooth, the flagellum nude,

slender, hairlike, and over three times the

carapace length.

Chelipeds dissimilar, slender, striate both

above and below, their length about three times

that of the carapace; ischium armed on its

inner ventral margin with a row of three or

four spines, the proximal pair the largest;

merus with a prominent, sharp spine at its dis-

tal, inner, dorsal angle and another below this

on the ventral margin, the upper, transverse

margin armed with two well-spaced spines;

carpus almost three times as long as wide,

measured without the spines, its upper surface

lightly convex and lacking a longitudinal me-

dian ridge, the inner margin armed with four

large, sharp-pointed teeth and a distal spinule,

their proximal margins longer than their distal,

the ventral inner margin armed with one or

two spurlike spines on its distal two-thirds,

the upper outer margin armed with a row of

five short, upward- and forward-pointing

spines; the hands dissimilar, that of the major

one-third as wide as long, that of the minor

one-fourth, their outer margins concave and

armed with spinules, the inner margins with

light beading, terminating over the base of the

movable finger in a sharp spine, the pollices

outwardly convex, their tips longitudinally

truncate and spooned, the dactylus of the

major hand ending in a curved tip that crosses

an outer spine on the apex of the pollex,

armed on its inner proximal half with two com-

pressed, truncate teeth, which do not engage

Juuy 15, 1945

the pollex, as in both hands the fingers are

widely gaping, the minor dactylus twisted,

armed on its upper crest with a row of spinules

ending in a falcate tip which crosses the

spooned tip of its pollex, its prehensile edge

unarmed and the widely spread gape setaceous.

The spoon-shaped tips of the fingers with

pectinate margins.

Ambulatory legs relatively slender and nude

except for a few scattered setae; meri crested

with a row of short spines, the distal postero-

angle of numbers 1 and 2 are armed with two

spines, of number 3 with one spine, in length

more than twice their width; the propodi cylin-

drical, slightly bent, and one-fifth shorter than

their meri; the dactyli corneous-tipped and

one-half the length of their propodi. Telson

composed of 7 segments, in the male apparently

formed with 8, the proximal, median triangular

portion being transversely divided by a ridge,

these two parts, however, coalesced as in P.

galathinus (Bosc), with which it is associated.

Color in alcohol—Ground color cream, suf-

fused with rose-pink, especially on all striations

and squamae. Ambulatory legs rose-pink, with a

median, transverse band of cream on meri and

propodi; the distal ends of all segments tipped

with cream.

Measurements.—A male paratype, carapace

length 6.8, width 6.5; major cheliped 23.5,

carpus length 6.5, width without spines 2.4,

manus length 10.5, width at base of finger 3.8;

minor cheliped, carpus 6, width 2.3, manus 10,

width 2.6; first ambulatory leg, length 11,

merus 3.7, carpus 1.7, propodus 3.3, dactylus

2; width of eye 1.2; length of antennal flagel-

lum 24 (all measurements in millimeters).

Range.—Known only from type locality (see

under Types).

Materral examined.—A series of 23 speci-

mens: 10 males, 11 females (mostly ovigerous),

2 juveniles. All collected in and around Tortu-

gas, Fla., by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, and

mostly during the month of June 1931.

GLASSELL: FOUR NEW SPECIES OF CRABS

229

Sexual variation.—In the female the cheli-

peds are much narrower than in the male and

are more similar to each other, as in the juve-

niles of both sexes; however, the dactylus of the

major cheliped is the only one of the two which

has teeth in the gape.

Habitat—Taken from Porites clumps from

extreme low water to a depth of 11 fathoms,

mostly from 8 to 11 fathoms.

Remarks.—This proposed species resembles

in some respects those placed in the genus

Petrocheles Miers, in that the lateral margins

are spined, the chelipeds long and narrow, the

fingers gaping, and rostrum spinate; however,

it would seem that there is reason to believe

that Petrocheles should not have been elevated

to full generic standing but left as Miers in-

tended it, as a subgenus of Petrolisthes, a course

which, from lack of comparative material, I am

inclined to follow. It is not allied to many of

the American Petrolisthes, from all of which it

differs in the peculiar spoon-shaped finger

tips, reminiscent of-a number of forms among

the Galatheidae, which in addition display the

compressed, truncate teeth that arm _ the

dactylus of the major chela, a character that

few if any of the Petrolisthes possess.

It is the Atlantic analogue of P. sanfelipensis

Glassell (Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 8

(21): 281. 1936) from the upper end of the

Gulf of California. Both have slender chelipeds,

spines on the lateral margins of the carapace,

and a spinate rostrum, but the present species

differs in that (1) the fingers are spoon-tipped,

gaping, and twisted, instead of close-fitting,

faleate-tipped, and unarmed in the major

dactylus, (2) the line of the rostrum from the

ocular spine to its apex is subentire instead of

emarginate below the preocular tooth, (3) the

inner ventral margin of the carpus of the

chelipeds is armed with teeth, instead of being

unarmed, and (4) the posterodistal angle of the

merus of the third ambulatory leg is spined

instead of being unarmed.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

47TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 47th annual meeting of the Academy,

held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club,

January 18, 1945, after the 330th meeting of

the Academy, was called to order at 9:45 p.m.

by the President, Capt. CLeEmENT L. GARNER,

with 33 persons in attendance.

The minutes of the 46th annual meeting were

approved as published in the JouRNAL 34:

198-205. 1944.

The reports of several officers and of the

Committees of Auditors and Tellers were read

and accepted. These reports are recorded at

the end of the minutes.

After the acceptance of the report of the

Committee of Tellers, the President declared

the following duly elected to the given offices:

JouN E. GrarF, President

F. G. BRICK WEDDE, Secretary

Howarp 8. RApPpLeye, TJ'reasurer

Henry B. Couns, Jr., and JAMES TAYLOR,

Board of Managers to January 1948

The Secretary presented for the Affiliated

Societies their nominations for Vice-Presidents

of the Academy as follows:

Philosophical Society of Washington—GErOoRGE

R. Wait

Anthropological Society of Washington—T. DALE

STEWART

Biological Society of Washington—FRANK THONE

Chemical Society of Washington—Horace S.

ISBELL

Entomological Society of Washington—CarL

F. W. MurESEBECK

National Geographic Society ALEXANDER WET-

Geological Society of Washington—GEOoRGE TUN-

ELL

Medical Society of the District of Columbia—

FREDERICK O. CoE

Columbia Historical Society—GiLBERT Gros-

VENOR :

Botanical Society of Washington—Franx P.

CULLINAN

Archaeological Society of Washington—Not

functioning for the duration of the National

Emergency

Washington Section of the Society of American

Foresters— WILLIAM A. DayToNn

Washington Society of Engineers—FrAnx B.

SCHEETZ

Washington Section of the American Institute of

Electrical Engineers—FRancis B. SILSBEE

Washington Section of the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers—WaALTER RAMBERG

Helminthological Society of Washington— Mario

Mo.uaRI

Washington Branch of the Society of American

Bacteriologists—Haroup R. CuRRAN

Washington Post of the Society of American

Military Engineers—CLEMENT L. GARNER

Washington Section of the Institute of Radio

Engineers—HERBERT GROVE DORSEY

Washington Section of the American Society of

Civil Engineers—OweEn B. FRENCH

The Secretary was instructed by the mem-

bers present to cast a unanimous ballot for

these nominees.

The President, Capt. CLEMENT L. GARNER,

announced the recipients of the Academy’s

Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1944 as

follows:

In the Biological Sciences to Norman H.

Toppinc, National Institute of Health, in

recognition of his outstanding work in identify-

ing eastern and western types of Rocky Moun-

tain spotted fever.

In the Engineering Sciences, to GALEN B.

ScHUBAUER, National Bureau of Standards, in

recognition of his distinguished services in

aeronautical engineering, particularly for fun-

damental measurements of turbulence.

In the Physical Sciences, to GEorGcE GAMow,

George Washington University, in recognition

of his distinguished service in theoretical

physics, particularly in the pe os of

atomic nuclei and of stars.

The Retiring President, Capt. CLemEnT L.

GARNER, appointed Past Presidents Harvey L.

Curtis and LeLanp W. Parr to escort the in-

coming President, Joun E. Grar, to the Chair.

After a few brief remarks, Mr. GrarF adjourned

the meeting at 10:30 P.M.

The following reports were presented at the

meeting:

Report of the Secretary

During the Academy year 43 persons (38

resident and 4 nonresident) were elected to

membership. Of these, 25 resident and 1 non-

resident qualified for membership, 3 resident

and 1 nonresident accepted membership but

have not yet qualified by payment of dues, 1

resident and 2 nonresident have not yet re-

230

’

Juny 15, 1945 PROCEEDINGS

plied to the Secretary’s notification of election,

and 3 persons declined membership. Seven

other persons of the 43 elected during the

Academy year were elected so recently they

have not had time to reply. Seven persons

elected to resident membership in the preced-

ing Academy year qualified during the present

Academy year just ending. The new members

were distributed among the various sciences as

follows: 6 in anthropology; 4 in geophysics; 3

each in botany, chemistry and geology; 2 each

in mathematics, mechanical engineering, min-

eralogy, and physics; 1 each in bacteriology,

chemical physics, hydrography, ichthyology,

paleontology, and geography.

Eight members of the Academy (6 resident

and 2 nonresident) having retired from the ac-

tive practice of their profession were placed on

the retired list to enjoy all the privileges of ac-

tive membership without further payment of

dues. Three members (2 resident and 1 non-

resident) resigned in good standing. Eight resi-

dent members were dropped for nonpayment

of dues.

The deaths of the following 13 members (7

resident and 6 nonresident) were reported to

the Secretary:

Sorre A. Norpuorr-JuneG, Washington, D. C.,

June 6, 1943.

J. McKeen CatTreE.t, Lancaster, Pa., January 20,

1944,

Epwarp B. MarTruHews, Baitimore, Md., Febru-

ary 4, 1944.

ArtTHUR Keiru, Washington, D. C., February 7,

1944.

Epwarp O. Utricu, Washington, D. C., Febru-

ary 22, 1944.

GEORGE SreicER, Washington, D. C., April 18,

1944.

Rocer C. WELLS, Washington, D. C., April 19,

1944.

WituraM M. Corset, Washington, D. C., June 3,

1944.

Harry F. Rerp, Baltimore, Md., June 18, 1944.

J. FRANKLIN MeEyeER, Washington, D. C., Octo-

ber 29, 1944.

Harry V. Haran, Sacaton, Ariz., November 6,

1944.

GrorGeE W. CoGGESHALL,

November 19, 1944.

Lyster H. Dewey, Kenmore, N. Y., November

29, 1944.

Of these, ARTHUR KeITH and LystrerR H.

DEWEY were original members of the Acad-

emy.

On January 17, 1945, the status of member-

ship was as follows:

Cambridge, Mass.,

: THE ACADEMY

Regular Retired Honorary Patron Total

Resident. ..... 429 36 2 0 467

Nonresident. . . 142 26 16 1 185

TEtAl sedieaye 4 571 62 18 1 652

The net changes in membership during the

past year are as follows:

Regular Retired Honorary Patron Total

Resident. ..... 0 +1 0 0 +1

Nonresident. . . +7 +1 0 0 +8

otal sw «tale +7 +2 0 0 +9

During the Academy year 1944 the Board of

Managers held 7 meetings, with an average

attendance of 20 persons. The following im-

portant matters were considered by the Board:

(1) The American Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science made available to the

Academy during the year a grant of $207.50 for

assisting members of the Academy and its

Affiliated Societies with research projects in

need of funds. This added to the grant of $150

made available in the preceding year makes

a total of $357.50 now available to the Acad-

emy for assisting deserving research projects.

The actual funds remain with the A.A.A.S. un-

til these projects are selected. The Board of

Managers voted to receive applications for

grants in support of research. The Secretaries of

the Affiliated Societies were notified and an

announcement was published in the November

1944 issue of the JouRNAL. Applications will be

received until February 1, 1945. Frank H. H.

Roserts, JR., is chairman of the Committee

on A.A.A.S. Grants. Other members of the

Committee are: L. W. Parr, R. J. Srecer, and

R. P. Trrrsier.

(2) The Red Book was not published this

year because of difficulties arising out of the

present emergency. Progress, however, on the

publication of the next issue of the Red Book

is being made by the Treasurer who has initi-

ated and is preparing a continuing up-to-date

list of names with home and business addresses,

when both are available, of the members of the

Academy and its Affiliated Societies.

During the Academy year, 7 meetings of the

Academy were held as follows, beginning with

the 324th meeting and ending with the 330th

meeting:

On February 17, 1944, LeLanp W. Parr, as

retiring president, presented an address entitled

232

Aspects of epidemiology of tuberculosis. (This

JOURNAL 34: 169-181. 1944.)

On March 16, 1944, the 1943 Academy

Awards for Scientific Achievement were pre-

sented to Jason R. Swauuen, Office of the

Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, for

work in the biological sciences; to Luoyp V.

BERKNER, commander, U.S.N.R., for work in

the engineering sciences; and to LAWRENCE A.

Woop, National Bureau of Standards, for

work in the physical sciences.

On April 20, 1944, Gpratp FiITzGERALD,

lieutenant colonel, chief, Aeronautical Chart

Service, Army Air Forces, addressed the Acad-

emy on Reconnaissance mapping with trimetro-

gon.

On October 19, 1944, J. Epwarp RavtTu,

associate professor of psychology, Catholic

University of America, addressed the Academy

on The erdetic wmage.

On November 30, 1944, Ropert H. Monr-

GOMERY, economic adviser, Foreign Economic

Administration, addressed a joint meeting of

the Philosophical Society of Washington and

the Academy’ on The impact of technology on

community life.

On December 21, 1944, Scorr B. RitTcuts,

colonel, assistant chief of ordnance, U. S.

Army, addressed the Academy on New de-

velopments in ordnance.

On January 18, 1945, HERBERT FRIEDMANN,

curator, Division of Birds, U. 8. National

Museum, addressed the Academy on A sym-

bolic goldfinch, a study in medveval ornithology

as expressed in art.

All seven meetings were held in the Assem-

bly Hall of the Cosmos Club.

F. G. BRICKWEDDE, Secretary.

Report of the Treasurer

CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS

RECEIPTS

From dues 1940...... $ 5.00

From dues 1941...... 10.00

From dues 1942...... 30.00

From dues 1943...... 71.67

From dues 1944...... 2 ,692 .06

From dues 1945...... 35.00 $2,848.73

From life memberships

C2 A ee 126.85

From JOURNAL Sub-

scriptions, 1940..... 5.40

From JOURNAL, Sub-

scriptions, 1941..... 11.40

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

From JOURNAL, Sub-

scriptions, 1942.....

From JOURNAL, Sub-

scriptions, 1943.....

From JOURNAL, Sub-

scriptions, 1944.....

From JOURNAL, Sub-

scriptions, 1945.....

From JOURNAL, Sub-

scriptions, 1946.....

From sales of JOURNAL

From payments for re-

prints 194355 84.3

From payments for re-

prints 1944........

From sales of direc-

tory, prior to 1941..

From sales of direc-

tory, 32d Edition...

From interest on in-

vestments: 544). dx.

From check No. 170—

“Outlaweo a .nc0g e

From repayment of

withholding on New

York City Stock....

From refund of air-

mail postage.......

From overpayment by

Shapovalov........

Total Receipts.....

Cash balance, Jan. 1,

144 ee

To be accounted for

DISBURSEMENTS

For Secretary’s Office

TORS ee eet pee

DOA sitet obs he aa

For Custodian & Subs.

Mgr. 1944.........

For JOURNAL printing

and mailing 1943...

For JOURNAL printing

and mailing 1944...

For JOURNAL illustra-

tions: 1943-2 2 hese 'c

For Journau illustra-

tions 1944.........

22.80

46.20

353.85

468 .90

4.05 912.

2271,

122.31

528.46 650.

1.05

0.25 1

1,017.

$5,807

3,028

$8 , 836

$ 200.90

87.59 $ 288

86.

62.

231.68

2,495.86 2,727.

10.94

223 .36 234

66.75

531.71 598.

vou. 35, NO. 7

.30

.50

.60

.35

.64

.19

.49

.30

Juuy 15, 1945

For Journau office

NE ey 40.00

For JourNau office

(GR i aaa 220.00 260

For JouRNAL postage,

binding & misc. 1943 4.35

For JouRNAL postage,

binding & misc. 1944 22.60 26.

For Directory 1943.... 19.

For Meetings Committee

Ss Gon resins +n 0's Seto

For Meetings Commit-

eS Cae 232 .20 284

For two $1,000 Series

eS a 2,000

For debit memos, re-

fends, C6C)5). 2... 2.

Total disbursements $6,591.

Cash balance, Dec. 31,

i 2,244.

Ue eee $8 ,836.

RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE

Balance as per cash book, 12-31-44... $2,244.

Bank Balance, Am. Soc.

& Tr. Co. as per state-

ment 12-23-44........ $2 , 223 .86

Receipts not deposited. . 149 .67

$2 ,373 .53

Checks outstanding, not cashed

No. 1018... $ 5.41

1028... 55.20

1020... 01 .50

i0a07 72’ 16°.62 128.73 $2,244

INVESTMENTS

409 Shares stock of Washington San-

itary Improvement Co., par

value $10 per share, cost..... $4 ,090

20 Shares stock Potomac Electric

Power Co., 6% Pref., cost.... 2,247.

4 Certificates Corporate Stock of

City of New York, 1 for $500,

Pema MLO, COSG 4:0 engin ao < rlebernys 800

1 Bond of Chicago Railways Co.,

#1027; interest at 5%, due

1927, par value $1,000, less

Reape s. NS ead aed 150.

2 Real-estate notes of Yetta Kor-

mann et al., dated Oct. 5,

1938, renewed 1941 for 3 years

(#7 of 37 for $500 and #8 of 37

for S500); Costin cts Sw se eS 1,000

2 Certificates (1 for $4,500 and 1

for $500) Northwestern Fed-

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY

.00

.35

.00

.80

.00

eral Savings & Loan Assn.

Nos, 13680.and 1441... «.....

2 Certificates (1 for $4,000 and 1

for $1,000) First Federal Sav-

ings & Loan Assn. Nos. 914 &

RRB POE IR SORA

7 U. 8S. Government Series G

Bonds at $1,000 each, Nos.

M332990G M332991G

M332992G M332993G

M1808741G M2226088G .

I oe le re Ree 7,000 .00

Deposited in Savings Account,

American Sec. & Trust Co.... 46.87

$25 934.37

Cash Book balance Dec. 31,1944 2,244.80

Ota ABBOT 5 Bowe aos sha ais $28,179.17

Total Assets Dec.

$26 , 962.79

Total Assets Dec.

Pay a 2 2: ie ee 28 ASOT

Increase... 2s i. $ 1,216.38

The relatively large increase in the assets of

the Academy is not actually as large as shown.

It is impossible at the close of the fiscal year to

know exactly what bills are outstanding. We

can not even furnish an exact statement as to

the relationship between expenditures and al-

lotments, since, for example, we do not yet

know exactly what the charge-to-authors in-

crement of the JouRNAL allotment will be. The

statement concerning the status of the various

allotments will be submitted later as a supple-

mental report. It is known, however, that, at

the time this report is written, $236.77 has

been paid out since January 1, 1945, on obliga-

tions incurred in 1944 and chargeable to 1944

expenditures. Also, there are some of the

George Banta Publishing Co. bills which have

not yet been received. However, making due al-

lowance for this feature, the report shows a

healthy increase in the assets of the Academy,

which is due, to a considerable extent at least,

to the fact that various officers and officials

of the Academy have exercised care to keep

their expenditures well within their allotments.

Perhaps one of the most important single

reasons for the increase in assets shown in this

report and in the report for the previous year

is the fact that we have not issued a Red Book

since 1941. The Treasurer’s Office is at present

at work on a master list which should permit

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the resumption of the publication of the Red

Book by the latter part of this year or-the early

part of 1946. It is believed that, under the new

arrangements, which are being perfected to ex-

pedite the publication of the Red Book, future

Red Book costs will be even less than the cost

of previous issues in spite of higher printing

costs.

Howarp 8. Rapp.Leye, Treasurer.

Report of the Auditing Committee

Your committee appointed to audit the ac-

counts and records of the Treasurer for the

calendar year 1944 performed that duty on

January 11, 1945. Each item of disbursement

was found to be duly authorized and supported

by a cancelled check or debit memorandum ex-

cept for the outstanding checks listed in his

report. The Treasurer’s report, attached here-

to, was found to agree in every respect with his

records.

The securities listed in his report were

examined on January 11, 1945, and were found

to be as listed. All unmatured coupons were

found attached.

The Treasurer deserves the hearty commen-

-dation of the Academy for the careful, system-

atic, and accurate records which he has kept.

Francis A. Smitu, Chairman.

WatTeR D. LAMBERT

HARALD A. REHDER.

Report of the Archivist

The archives are stored in Room 118, Soils

Building, U. 8. Plant Industry Station, Belts-

ville, Md., in a steel safe, a metal file cabinet, a

wooden file cabinet,-and two bookcases. The

wooden file cabinet belongs to the Academy;

the other furniture is borrowed for the dura-

tion. No expense was incurred during the year

No. No.

Sciences papers pages

1944 1944

Biological cgi" Seventeen ee 40 198.2

Phy sian. ciwe sas, ooh eee ee 3 35.9

Anthropological. 2... ..... 56 12 105.6

Geologicalsiye 41s wis a 5 13.8

dus eye i Gis Lote Ma tte Sk Sena Pea AS 2 Ppt

ICONOMICH ars Gielen cose ae ae 1 2.8

Generaliscc2e 4 SS Aas — —

Obituaries and Proceedings.... —_ 33.2

Maye (ober aM er, ede Ra NE EN CE Rt ce Ae — 4.0

Rotalsak Bees site ae 63 416.0

and none is contemplated for the next year.

NaTuan R. Smiru, Archivist.

Report of the Board of Editors

Volume 34 of the JouRNAL was somewhat

larger than that of the preceding year and

showed trends in different directions from those

of previous years. Some of these trends are

probably not normal or permanent but are

connected with dislocations brought about by

the war. Volume 34 consisted of 12 issues and >

contained 416 pages distributed among the

sciences and compared with 1943 as shown in

the table below.

This volume includes the addresses of the re-

tiring presidents of the Academy and the

Philosophical Society as well as an address de-

livered before the Academy during the previous

year. A total of 63 papers was published, which

is a slight decline in the number of 65 for 1943.

This small loss is offset by the greater length

of some of the papers accepted for publication

during this year. Of the 63 papers presented

35 or 56 percent were presented by members

of the Academy. This represents a small de-

crease in papers presented by Academy mem-

bers, a condition that should be corrected.

Volume 34 shows small increases in numbers

of halftones and pages. Sixteen halftones and 36

line-cuts appear in the volume. The slight

increase in the former was made possible by

an increase in appropriation that permitted

the Editors to drop the unfortunate ban on

free halftones of the last two volumes. Volume

34 contains 28 more pages than appeared in

volume 33. This is the most satisfactory trend

shown during the year and if possible should

be encouraged to continue. The downward

trend in number of pages published in the

Percentages No. No. Percentages

by pages papers pages by pages

1944 1943 1943 1943

47.6 56 293.8 75.4

8.6 7 47.6 12.4

25.4 — — —

3.3 — —_ —

5.4 — — —

0.7 — — =

_— 2 17.8 4.6

8.0 — 25.4 6.6

1.0 — 3.4 1.0

100.0 | 65 | 388.0 100.0

VoL. 35, NO. 7 .

ee ea ae >

JuLy 15, 1945

JOURNAL at present seems to have been ar-

rested, but it is hoped that the future will see a

still more substantial increase in number of

pages published.

As would be expected in these abnormal

times the war has greatly affected the propor-

tional representation of the sciences in the

JourNAL. The Biological Sciences predominate

as they did last year, but they are proportion-

ally much less this year to the other sciences

represented. Unlike last year when botanical

papers were most numerous, zoological papers

(12) are most frequent this year. Botany takes

second place with 10 papers and entomological

articles are third with 9. Other Biological Sci-

ences represented are: Ichthyology, Mycology,

Ornithology, Mammalogy, and Ecology.

Because Chemistry and Physics are closely

linked to the war effort, it is not surprising

that these sciences are even less well repre-

sented in Volume 34 than they were in Volume

33. Inasmuch as the physical scientist’s preoc-

cupation with war problems will continue for

at least another year, no increase in papers

from these sciences can be expected.

Five papers are attributed to the Geological

Sciences but these could as well have been

placed under the Biological Sciences because

they all deal with fossils. Most of the efforts

of our geologists in Washington are now

directed along lines designed to facilitate the

war effort. Consequently the decline in geologi-

cal papers, which are usually fairly numerous,

is understandable.

During the past year an increase of consider-

able proportions occurred in papers dealing with

Man and his activities—Anthropology, Eth-

nology, Economics, and Medicine. Fifteen

papers in these fields constituted some of the

most interesting items published during the

year and occupied more than 31 percent of the

pages published. It is to be hoped that this

trend will continue to expand after the war.

Preoccupation with war and generally re-

stricted time account for a decline in published

abstracts. The Geological and Botanical Soci-

eties, both usually regular contributors, failed

to submit their proceedings and abstracts, the

latter for at least the third year. The Editors

report the publication of 18 obituaries, the

largest number to appear for several years.

The year 1944 happily saw little change in

editorial policy and what little occurred proved

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY

235

highly advantageous to the JouRNAL and its

contributors. A thoughtful increase in the ap-

propriation for the year made it possible to

offer authors a full page balftone or its equiva-

lent. Lack of adequate facilities to reproduce

illustrations proved a handicap in 1943; it dis-

couraged authors who required halftone illus-

tration. The economies instituted in 1942 con-

tinued in force except for the changes relating

to halftones and the distribution of 50 free re-

prints to authors of signed obituaries. The

Editors view with considerable satisfaction the

fact that it was possible to issue the JouRNAL

on a monthly basis, but papers are becoming

increasingly fewer and it may be necessary in

future to put the JouRNAL on a bimonthly

basis on authority voted by the Board of Man-

agers in 19438. This, the Editors believe, would

be most unfortunate and they plead with

Academy members to give their JourRNAL first

consideration in placing their shorter papers.

Why should more than 40 percent of the Jour-

NAL’s pages be used by outsiders?

The Board of Managers appropriated to the

Board of Editors for printing, illustrating, and

mailing the JouRNAL $3,000; for clerical assist-

ance $240; and for postage and incidentals

$60, a total of $3,300. Of this sum the total

amount of $240 for clerical assistance was ex-

pended; postage and incidentals (binding vol-

ume 33 of the Editors’ set of the JouRNAL) re-

quired $25.59. Printing, mailing, and illustrat-

ing the JouRNAL cost $2,981.69. Reprints cost

$592.70. Charges to authors were $746.51. This

sum combined with the original allotment of

$3,000 equals a total available sum of $3,746.51.

Subtracting from this total the $3,574.39 paid

‘out, a favorable balance of $172.12 remains.

This added to the balance of $34.41 remaining

from postage and incidentals leaves a final

favorable balance of $206.53.

It gives the Editors much pleasure to

acknowledge with thanks and appreciation the

outstanding assistance to the JouRNAL of Mr.

PauLt A. OxnsmrR, editorial assistant, whose

broad knowledge and experience in editing

scientific articles have greatly improved the

quality of the Journau. Mr. Oehser has given

much wise council and many hours of his own

time.

G. ARTHUR COOPER.

Lewis V. JuDSON.

Haraup A. REHDER.

236

Report of the Custodian and Subscription

Manager of Publications

SUBSCRIPTIONS:

Nonmember subscriptions in the United States....... 107

Nonmember subscriptions in foreign countries........ 35

Nonmember subscriptions in enemy-controlled areas

(GA SEIVE er iesthrcle BON ITE atc Peace eT ak 25

Subscriptions, Geological Society of Washington....... 12

INVENTORY OF STOCKS AS OF DECEMBER 31,

1944:

Reserve Sets of the JOURNAL:

Bound Volumes 1—29 and unbound Volumes 30—

12.¥, ar meee Pea Oe YH th AAD Ne lana, A SER re a bed ae 1 set

Mnbound Vielumesdt—34 14).cm ces cer = eo 4 sets

Wnbound Volumes l= 34 kcnecs «eke ae eee meee 6 sets

Unbound Volumes 16—34............ See att Meee eee 11 sets

Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences:

Volumes l= t3-inelusiv.e wn. ces oleae 50 sets

In 1939 the Board of Managers directed the

Custodian of Publications to set aside a spe-

cific number of volumes of the JouRNAL to be

sold only as complete sets. This order states:

Eight (8) complete sets from Vol. 1 to current

volumes (84); Six (6) additional sets from Vol.

11 to current volumes (34); Eleven (11) addi-

tional sets from Vol. 16 to current volume (34).

These volumes should constitute the reserve

sets. Since 1939 five reserve sets from Vol. 1

to the current number have been sold. Three

of these sets were sold in 1944. When disposing

of back numbers of those of deceased members,

some of our members have turned them over

to the Custodian of Publications, which en-

abled him to assemble two complete sets from

Vol. 1 to the current number. During the com-

ing year an effort will be made to obtain by

gift or purchase some of the early numbers now

missing from the miscellaneous series in order

to assemble additional reserve sets.

A miscellaneous series of volumes and sepa-

rate numbers of the JouRNAL, consisting of ap-

proximately 18,000 numbers, is maintained

for sale. Complete sets of the Proceedings of

the Academy Vols. 1-13 (1899-1911), together

with Directories, are also available.

Most of these volumes, including five reserve

sets from Vols. 1-84, are stored without cost to

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 7

the Academy in the Smithsonian Institution

and the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Some

of the volumes from Vols. 23-34 are stored by

the George Banta Publishing Co. at Menasha,

Wis. |

SALES AND EXPENDITURES:

During the year 1944 three reserve sets were

sold. These were purchased by libraries at the

following universities: Notre Dame, New

Mexico, and Mississippi. These were shipped

via express, prepaid.

SALES

S:TESEr VE: SOUS eben esa k eh Shela aoe ANAS cleo eae lee $504.00

Net sales of miscellaneous numbers................ 69.93

Totalisales scb:.s Ra Eee Ae ee ee $573 .93

EXPENDITURES

2-year supply of postage and envelopes............. $ 31.94

Express charges for shipments of 3 reserve sets of the

Journal 32626 otd., EES bene eae 20.89

liyear clerical assistance... us... cen teehee ee 10.00

POtalexPenses 2. Fi < sheets Wied chevelle clea een ee $ 62.83

1944 Budvetary allotments oj... ate ee ee ee 50.00

Excess over 1944 budget allotment (due to express

CharBes) iia. 6 kee ES De ee ee ee 12.838

Net gain for the year 19443207 puto oi) ey eee $511.10

FRANK M. SretzuEr, Custodian and

Subscription Manager of Publications.

Report of the Committee of Tellers

A total of 231 envelopes were delivered to

the Committee by the Secretary. Of these, all

bore a signature and each contained a ballot.

The count of ballots for officers of the Acad-

emy showed the following elected:

President, JoHN E. GRAF

Secretary, F. G. BRICKWEDDE

Treasurer, HowarpD S. RAPPLEYE

Board of Managers to January 1948, Henry

B. Coxiuins, JR., and JAMES H. TAYLOR.

G. R. Warrs, Chairman.

W. D. Urry

C. A. WHITTEN.

Submitted by F. G. BRicKWEDDE, Secretary.

CONTENTS oes

Puysics.—The measurement of some thermal properties of water.

H. BF: Saison. . 4. es Sy ee Le eee

ARCHEOLOGY.—The significance of the fiber-tempered pottery « - the

St. Johns area in Florida. James N. GRIFFIN............. baal»

Petrolisthes. Seas GLasseuu. ‘ate eae = AY af

PROCEEDINGS: THe ACADEMY. <.04.. . . Nee es te we eo eee

ey - Aveust 15, 1945 No. 8

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Lewis V. Jupson Harautp A. REHDER WiiuraM N, Fenton

RATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS U. 5. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF AMERICAN BTHNOLOGY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Frank C, Kracex ALAN STONE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Ira B. HANSEN Raupg W. Imuary

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGKCAL SOCIETY

ALBERT E, LONGLEY T. Date STEWART

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

James I. HorrmMan

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY

BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

450 Aunarp St,

at MEenasHA, WISCONSIN

Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis.

Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925.

Authorized January 21, 1933,

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

This Journat, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Seionces, See hoi a

(1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)

proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3)

notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JourRNAL is issued

monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years.

Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. It is urgently re-

quested that contributors consult the latest numbers of the JourNaLandconformtheir =

manuscripts to the usage found there as regards arrangement of title, subheads, syne

onymies, footnotes, tables, bibliography, legends for illustrations, and other matter.

Manuscripts should be typewritten, double-spaced, on good poper, Footnotes should |

be numbered serially in pencil and submitted on a separate sheet. The editors do not — ah

assume responsibility for the ideas expressed by the author, 2 nor can they undertake 10) ee

correct other than obvious minor errors. | ee ae

Illustrations in excess of the equivalent (in cost) of one full-page halftone are sto ae vd

be paid for by the author. Rented 5

Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication one proof will generally be sent ‘ ie Bs 5 3

to authors in or near Washington. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final Sen ea

form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. . . eon

Unusual cost of foreign, mathematical, and tabular material, as wall as alterations 3 5

made in the proof by the author, may be ‘charged to the author. oe

Author’s Reprints—Reprints will be furnished in accordance with the following i.

schedule of prices (approximate):

Copies 4 pp. 8 pp. 12 pp. 16 pp. 20 pp. Covers

50 $2.00 $3.25 $ 5.20 $ 5.45 $ 7.25 $2.00

100 2.50 4.00 6.40 6.75 8.75 ur Pe

150 3.00 4.75 7.60 8.05 10.25 3.50

200 3.50 5.50 8.80 9.35 11.75 4.25

250 ~ 4.00 6.25 10.00 10.65 13.25 5.00

Subscriptions or requests for the purchase of back numbers or volumes of the Joun- — 3

NAL or the ProcEEDINGs should be sent to Frank M. Surzier, Custodian and Sub- on

scription Manager of Publications, U.S. National Museum, Washington 26, D.C. ey

Subscription Rates for the JounwAat.—Per Yor... .csseessensesevsserss 8 6.00, Cake

Single numbers eeeeeeeeeoseeeesee eer seeese ee eeeessees ene wees eeee sees seeens e : rls

Limited number of complete sets of the J OURNAL for ale. meat

Single volumes, unbound, per volume.........cccccecccccccccccecececss 6.00

ProceEp1n@s, vols. 1-13 (1899-1911) complete.........sccecceeeceeeces 25,00

Single volumes, unbound. ....:sceces ev sccies dee conswrereseeusssecsesuane 4:00 dl

Single numbers..........eceec0. akin’ b oie bie ain Alara aetena Nee ae SOR @ eae (25

Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made to tne Ee jae

Treasurer within 30 days after date of following issue, ae

Remittances should be made payable to ‘Washington Academy of Sciences” ‘ond at oe : ia

ae a me Treasurer, H. 8S. RaPPLeYE, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wash- ge

ington “a

Bann —The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other Si at Mies

societies ieee

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY | ag

President: Joun E. Grar, Smithsonian Institution

Secretary: FERDINAND G. " BRICK WEDDE, National Bureau of Standards.

Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappueye, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Archivist: NatHan R. Smitu, Bureau of Plant Ind U8 Na Sea ees

_ Custodian of Publications: FRANK M. Serzier, U ational Museum, ia ig te

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoLuME 35

Avueust 15, 1945

No. 8

ETHNOLOGY .—The Wesorts of southern Maryland: An outcasted group... Wi1-

LIAM HARLEN GILBERT, Jr.,? Library of Congress.

The Wesorts are a people of mixed racial

origin who live in parts of southern Mary-

land (Semmes, 1944, p. 6; Speck, 1922, p.

11; Weslager, 1943, pp. 156, 158). The

origin of their name, as well as of the people

themselves, is shrouded in mystery. It

would appear that they are mainly of

white and Indian blood with an occasional

strong infusion of the Negro element. The

distribution of these people is rather

limited, being confined to Charles County

and the adjacent parts of Prince Georges

and St. Marys Counties. No accurate data

have been secured on their numbers in the

various communities and neighborhoods of

this area. Because of their location in close

proximity to Washington, D. C., a number

of them have migrated in that city. No-

where, either in Charles County or the other

counties, do the Wesorts constitute more

than a small fraction of the general popula-

tion, which is almost evenly divided in

numbers between the White and Negro

races.

The origin of the name ‘‘Wesort’”’ has

been explained in several ways. The most

simple and plausible theory attributes the

origin to the phrase ‘‘we sorts are not the

Same as you sorts,’ which was employed

by them in speaking to the Negroes of the

1 Received May 10, 1945.

2 The helpful suggestions and communications

from the following persons have been, among

others, of the greatest assistance in the com-

pilation of materials for this paper: Dr. Daniel S.

Fisher, Maryland County Health Officer for

Charles County at La Plata; H. Holland Haw-

kins, resident of La Plata; Philip S. Proctor, of the

U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue, Washington,

D. C., a Piscataway Indian and former resident

of Popes Creek in Charles County;:and the Rev.

Herman I. Storck, of St. Ignatius Church, St.

Thomas Manor, Chapel Point (Bel Alton P.O.),

Charles County.

area (White, 1939). This idea seems to ac-

cord with the dominating motif of Wesort

existence, namely, a desire to be held a dis-

tinct race from the Negro. In this connec-

tion it might be noted that the birth cer-

tificates and marriage licenses issued to

these people generally have the race indi-

cated as ‘‘Colored-Wesort.” The name

‘‘Wesort” has been employed among these

people as far back as 1900 and possibly for

10 to 20 years before that date, as we shall

see.

A second theory attributes the origin

of the name to a corruption of an Algonquin

term ‘‘witchott,’”’ which is said to mean an

oval house of bark. No source is given for

this word or any evidence for the change in-

to Wesort (Maynard, 1941, p. 76). A third

theory might be advanced with more credi-

bility that the term is derived from the

word ‘‘Wisoes,’”’ which was used to denote

the peace councillors of the early Algonquin

tribes in southern Maryland (Writers’

Program, 1940, p. 20). This view might be

reinforced by the suggestion that the

Indians who survived in this area were the

friendly or peaceful tribes, who were later

called Doeg Indians. On the other hand,

when the early date of disappearance of

Indian languages in Maryland is corgidered

along with the comparative recency of the

use of the term ‘‘Wesort,”’ it hardly seems

possible that the aboriginal name should

have survived without some notice.

Concerning the origin of the Wesorts

there are again several theories. All these

admit the presence of an Indian element

in the Wesorts, but they differ as to their

explanation of the White or Negro ele-

ments. One hypothesis attributes the White

or non-Indian blood to escaped indentured

237

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

servants who fled to the swamps and

-frontier to live with the Indians during the

earlier colonial period (communication from

Dr. Daniel 8. Fisher). Another guess at-

tributes the non-Indian blood to Spanish

sailors wrecked on the shores of early Mary-

land at an unknown date (Warner, 1939).

It is worth while to note that dark com-

plexion in several mixed groups of the east-

ern states, the Melungeons of Tennessee,

the Moors of Delaware, the Turks of South

Carolina and the Cubans of North Carolina,

is attributed by these people themselves to

Latin or Mediterranean origins which helps

to avoid what they consider the stigma

of possible Negro crossing. A similar notion

is represented in the theory that French-

Canadian traders intermarried with the

Indians of Port Tobacco in the seventeenth

century and sired the Wesorts. This theory

might explain the religion but hardly the

English family names of these people.

The origin of the Indian element in the

Wesorts is explained by the great number

of friendly Indians who were gradually con-

verted to Roman Catholicism by Father

White and his coworkers and who were

settled in reservation areas in western

Charles County during the colonial period

(Semmes, 1937, p. 303; N. Y. Times, Mar.

19, 1940; Writers’ Program, 1940, p. 21). At

the time of the earliest discovery in the

seventeenth century there were, along the

Potomac shores of Maryland, a number of

small streams and swampy tracts that

were the habitats of individual tribal groups

bearing the same names as these water

courses (Semmes, 1929, pp. 195-209). Thus

we find in St. Marys County the Chapticon

and the Wicomico (Secowocomoco) along

the Chaptico and Wicomico Rivers; in

Charles County the Zekiah (Za, Pangayo,

or Saco) along the Zekiah Swamp, the

Potopacs of Port Tobacco, the Nanjemoy

of Nanjemoy Creek, the Chicamuxen and

Pomonkey along creeks of the same name,

and the Mattawoman of the upper Matta-

woman Creek; in Prince Georges County

the Piscataway of Piscataway Creek and

the Patuxent along the middle course of the

Patuxent River; and in the District of

Columbia the Iroquoian Anacostans along

the Anacostia River. Of these the Piscata-

VOL. 35, NO. 8

ways held themselves to be the natural

leaders and somewhat above the rest. In

the course of colonial Indian wars the

Piscataways were expelled from Maryland

and only a few families survive in the State

today, at Point of Rocks south of Frederick,

and at one or two other points. The fate of

the other tribes is not yet well known.

The location of the early Indian groups in

southern Maryland was naturally con-

ditioned by the means of subsistence in

terms of local topography. Communication

was almost entirely by canoe and along the

streams or bays which led inland from the

sea. There may have been some use of the

inland higher ridges for occasional hunting

or for corn and tobacco raising. In the

main, however, Indian settlements were in

or near swamps and streams where game

was easy to find and defense from northern

marauders was more effective. Apparently

each stream and swamp- constituted the

hunting area of some particular Indian

group which excluded outsiders. The still

surviving early St. Ignatius Church at

Chapel Point well illustrates in its location

the importance of water travel in early

Maryland for both Whites and Indians.

This Church is situated on a prominent

headland on the Potomac, easy of access by

water from various parts but at a distance

of two miles from the main axis of present-

day settlement at Bel Alton.

Today the communications in southern

Maryland are primarily by land and the

chief roads tend to follow the ridges or

highest ground between streams. This in

turn has affected the distribution of both

White and Wesort farmsteads. The farms.

are located along the main north and south

highways and the branch roads from these.

The main concrete road through Charles

County today is United States Highway

No. 301, and this seems to be the main axis

of Wesort settlement from Upper Marl-

boro, the county seat for Prince Georges

County, in the north to Faulkner or Lothair

in the southern part of Charles County.

The roads of today, which mark out the

ridges between streams, would serve as the

boundaries of the ancient tribal areas which

centered in the streams themselves. It has

been said that some of the Wesorts of

Ava. 15, 1945

Allen’s Fresh at the mouth of Zekiah

Swamp still assert that they are of the Za

tribe, while those to the west along Nan-

jemoy Creek claim descent from the

Nanjemoy Tribe.

The Whites and Negroes of Charles

County have their own neighborhood and

community groups (Dodson and Woolley,

1943). The following community groups or

neighborhoods may be said to include the

chief Wesort locations in Southern Mary-

land: (1) In Prince Georges County there

are (a) ‘‘Proctorville”’ near Cedarville, (b)

the Thompsons near Brandywine, and (c)

the Swans near Croom; (2) in Charles

County there are (a) Pomfret to the north-

-west of Port Tobacco, (b) La Plata, the

county seat, (c) Port Tobacco, southwest

of La Plata, (d) Waldorf and White Plains,

north of La Plata, (e) Glymont and Indian

Head on the Potomac near the mouth of the

Mattawoman Creek, (f) Pamonkey east of

Indian Head, (g) Hill Top and Pisgah south

of Indian Head, (h) Bel Alton and Chapel

Point, south of La Plata, (i) Faulkner

(Lothair), south of Bel Alton and including

Diggs Crossing, (j) Popes Creek south of

Faulkner, and (k) Allen’s Fresh at the

mouth of Zekiah Swamp. The Wesort

neighborhoods in the Chaptico Creek area of

western St. Marys County are not yet as-

certained.

On the outskirts of the settlements such

as those immediately south of Waldorf on

Highway No. 301 one can pass both Negro

and Wesort dwellings in driving through.

In the District of Columbia one of the first

parts to be reached by migrating Wesorts

would be Anacostia where we find them

interspersed with the Negro sections. Pos-

sibly other centers of settlement are in the

Negro sections of the northwest Washing-

ton near Georgia Avenue.

The present number of Wesorts in south-

ern Maryland is open to free estimation.

The United States Census classifies them

as Negroes and makes no separate enumera-

tion. According to one source there are

several hundred members of this group,

while a second ventures the more specific

figures of anywhere between 750 to 3,000

persons (Semmes, 1937, p. 503; N. Y. Times,

Mar. 19, 1940). The St. Ignatius Church at

GILBERT: THE WESORTS OF SOUTHERN MARYLAND

District of rs

Colunbia .

ry Suitland

4 Upper Marlbo

Croom

PRINCE GEORGES COUNTY 6Ta

Croom

Piscataway Creek Nofth

5 Piscataway : Bys

Brandywine

Cedarvil

Pomfret

CHARLES COUNTY

{ Pisgah

La Plata

- Tobacco

} » Bel Alton

Chapel |Point

a Faullmer

{

Allen's Fresh f

o /

°Popes Creek

Fig. 1—Map showing the principal points in

the Wesort country of southern Maryland.

Bel Alton has a total congregation of over

850, and of these it is possible that Wesorts

number 175 to 200. Since the total popula-

tion of the Bel Alton area is around 1,000

persons, it is possible that the Wesorts may

constitute as much as 20 percent of that

number. An accurate census of the Wesort

population by a house-to-house canvass

would go far toward clearing up certain

basic problems of identity and relative

strength of numbers. It is to be hoped that

the Census Bureau, with its keen apprecia-

tion of statistical needs, will in the Census

of 1950 tackle this problem on its own

doorsteps, so to speak, as well as it has that

of enumerating the Croatans in North

Carolina. We shall have occasion to refer

to the great value of even indirect Census

data in a later connection in this paper.

The physical traits of the Wesorts, as

might be expected in a mixed group, are

240 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

quite variable. Within the same family one

can see children who are blond and blue-

eyed, children with the bronze skin and

straight black hair of the Indian, and still

darker children with the very curly or semi-

frizzled hair of the Negro (Footner, 1942,

p. 357; Graham, 1935, p. 10; Hodge, 1914,

p. 17). The prevailing theory among the

neighboring Whites is that mulatto blood

is widespread among the Wesorts. Most of

them agree, however, that for a long time

the Wesorts have been marrying among

themselves, with even first-cousin marriage

being by no means rare. This would seem to

place the introduction of Negro blood to

occasional entries in the past or to recent

mulatto or other mixed blood. At any rate,

inbreeding, in the absence of any environ-

mental or religious isolation, would seem to

emphasize the racial-purity sentiment and

demonstrate the existence of the fear of

absorption by the Negro. The fact that the

local Whites appear to be of Old American

stock and quite preponderantly blond helps

to indicate the source of mixture when it

appears among Wesorts.

It is thought by local White observers

that the Wesorts have degenerated greatly

in physical fitness because of their inbreed-

ing. Among other traits said to have de-

veloped among the Wesorts are albino skin

and hair, early deafness, palsy and nervous-

ness, epilepsy, bandy legs, near blindness,

toothlessness, and stuttering speech. Idiocy

and dull-wittedness are also said to occur

all too frequently among them. Yet we have

the contradictory observation of others

that Wesorts are quite normal in mental

faculties and even occasionally very bright.

The Wesort young women are conceded by

these observers to be very frequently rather

pretty and attractive even from their own

(i.e., the White) point of view. It is said

that Wesorts prefer to marry out into the

White group and that those who marry

Negroes are ostracized from their ranks.

Owing to the Maryland law against racial

intermarriage between Whites and Negroes

(and Negro cross breeds to the third gener-

ation) it is doubtful whether legal unions

can be contracted between Wesorts and

Whites.

Karly marriages are the rule among

VoL. 35, No. 8

Wesorts, and large families of eight to ten

children are frequent even today. In the

absence of figures on infant mortality it is

not possible to say that the population of

this group is rapidly increasing, although

it might be expected. The extent of the

migration outward to Washington, D.C.,

Baltimore, and Pennsylvania must be a

factor to be kept in mind also.

The Wesorts are practically 100 percent

Roman Catholics in religion; however, this

does not mark them off from their neigh-

bors since both the Whites and Negroes of

this part of Maryland are mainly of the same

faith.

The school question is perhaps the great-

est stumbling block for the Wesorts. II-

literacy is. widespread among the older

generation, and this is said to be due to

their having refused to attend Negro

schools in their youth. It is also said that a

few years ago some of the younger genera-

tion of Wesorts attempted to enter White

schools but upon discovery were forced out.

Some now attend the Negro schools, as for

example at Bel Alton, but it is doubtful

whether this constitutes a majority of the

Wesort children.

The local Whites assert that the older

generation of Wesorts are honest, reliable,

industrious, and good humored but that

many of the younger generation have been

ruined in their morals since the bootlegging

period under the national Prohibition Law

of 1919-1933. A number of these younger

persons are said to be outlaws and ne’er-—

do-wells.

The occupation of 90 percent of the

Wesorts is farming, farm labor, or domestic

employment. They are also accounted able

hunters, guides, and fishermen. Only a few,

however, own their own farms. The vast

majority are poor rural folk, but they are

said never to apply for public relief even

though they may be in the worst of straits.

The local Whites account them as excellent

farm tenants and farm workers but say

that they are very proud and will not hire

out where they are expected to mingle with

the Negro help. In serving meals to the

Wesort hired help separate tables must be

used so that they do not sit down with

Negroes.

Ava. 15, 1945 GILBERT: THE WESORTS OF SOUTHERN MARYLAND 241

Fic. 2.—Photographs of Wesort families and individuals showing

divergent racial types.

242

The Wesorts are distinguished by certain

family names which are more or less pecu-

liar to them in the area in which they live.

These names are Butler, Frazer, Gray,

Harley, Hensley, Hollis, Holly or Hol-

ley, Linkin or Lenkin, Marshall, Mason,

Mathews, Newman, Neale, Penny, Perry,

Proctor or Procter, Queen, Richmond,

Savoy, Simmonds, Swann or Swan, and

Thompson. As we have already stated,

these names occur in public records of mar-

riages, births, etc., with the race designa-

tion ‘‘Colored-Wesort.’”? Some of these

names may also be family names of nearby

Whites and Negroes, but none of the Wesort

families ever seem to stray from the fixed

list mentioned above. In order to dis-

tinguish the various families of the same

name the qualifying word “set”? may be

used. Thus the set of Proctors in Bel Alton

is different from the set in Prince Georges

County. There seems to be no aversion

for a man to marry a girl of the same family

name.

Documentary evidence of the growth of

the use of the term ‘‘Wesort”’ in connection

with certain family names is afforded at the

St. Ignatius Church at Bel Alton (com-

munication from the Rev. H. I. Storck).

The earliest practice during the 1880’s was

to designate the race of persons baptized in

the parish records as either ‘‘White” or

“Colored.”’? Abbreviations for Latin terms

such as ‘‘Nig.” (for Latin niger, black) and

“Alb.” (for albus, white) were also used to the

same purpose. The first occurrence of the

term which designates a third race was in

the case of a person baptized in August

1896, in which the race was designated as

‘“‘We-sort.”’? In the years 1899, 1901, and

1902 this term recurs with increasing fre-

quency and always in connection with fam-

ily names such as Butler, Harley, Linkin,

Mason, Newman, Proctor, Savoy, Swann,

and Thompson. Also in connection with

these family cognomens it might be noted

that the race of a person with a Wesort fam-

ily name baptized in November 1889 was

designated as ‘‘Yellow’’ and the same term

recurs a few years later in a baptism of

September 1896. Apparently each priest

employed his own method of indicating the

three different racial groups, as for example

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 8

in the case of one who employed the desig-

nation ‘‘(Col) Wesort”’ or another who dis-

tinguished ‘‘White,” ‘““Nig.,”’ and “‘Col.” and

by the context of the family names doubt-

less meaning Wesort by the latter term.

Thus it seems a racial entity gradually

creeps into recognition until at the present

time Wesort has become an accepted term

im the parish records for members of these

family groups.

What can be said concerning the origin

of this distinct set of English patronymics

in a mixed population? Some attempt has

been made to connect them with pre-

existing Indian names; e.g., Swann has

been linked with Wannys, a name of several

early chiefs in southern Maryland and even

with Shawnee, which tribe had early repre-

sentatives in Maryland. Probably, how-

ever, these names are simply derived from

the white men, whose union with Indian

women gave rise to this mixed group. In

addition, it is to be noted that the early

Jesuit missionaries gave English names to

their Indian converts. Each of the other

mixed groups in the eastern States, the

Croatans, Nanticokes, Cajans, etc., have

distinct sets of family names peculiar to

themselves and probably of similar manner

of origin.

In connection with their family names

we have another line of evidence regarding

the origin of the Wesorts. The first United

States Census was taken in 1790 and in-

cluded a list of the family names of heads

of families in the various states and coun-

ties together with indications as to whether

they were Whites, free Negroes, mulattoes,

or slaves (Heads of Families, 1790, Mary-

land). The data are presented by counties

and in the table for Charles County, Md.

we find the “mulatto” heads of families

bearing most of the family names which are

found among the Wesorts today with other

additional names as well. About 54 family

names are to be found in this group includ-

ing Butler, Harley, Linkin and Lenkin,

Newman, Proctor, Penny, Swann, Savoy,

and Thompson. All these family names,

with the exception of Harley, appear also

somewhat earlier among the White popula-

“tion of Charles County in the Constable’s

Census of that County of 1775-1778 (Brum-

Aue. 15, 1945

baugh, vol. 1, pp. 297-312). So it is likely

that the Wesort family names were derived

from local White names sometime during

the eighteenth century or possibly even

earlier (Charles County was first settled in

1642) and were borne first by the ‘‘mul-

atto”’ or free Negro population of Charles

County. Up to the time of the Civil War

the free Negro population of Charles

County is listed separately in the census

statistics from the White and slave groups.

It is probable, then, that in the statistics

of the growth of the free Negro group

some idea may be gained of the relative

growth of the early ancestral Wesort popu-

lation. The total number of Charles County

mulattoes listed under family name groups

in 1790 was 357, although the census of 1790

officially tabulates 404 free Negroes in that

county. The growth of the free Negro

population in relation to the other elements

of the population may be seen from the

following table compiled from the census

records.

TABLE 1.—CHARLES County, Mp., PorpuLaTIon

By Race, 1790-1860

Year Whites Nr dian Slaves | Total

egroes

1790 10,124 404 10,085 20,613

1800 9,043 571 9,558 19 ,172

1810 7,398 412 12 ,435 20 ,245

1820 6,514 567 9,419 16,500

1830 6,789 851 10,129 17 ,769

1840 6,022 819 9,182 16,923

1850 5,665 913 9 584 16,162

1860 5,796 1,068 9,653 16 ,517

The Census of 1870, owing to the freeing

of the slaves during that decade, shows a

free Negro population of 9,318 and thus can

no longer be said to include primarily the

Wesort ancestral group. It would seem that

the Civil War, by obliterating the distinc-

tion between free Negro and slave in

Charles County, stimulated the former group

to invent a term to designate themselves as a

distinct group, namely ‘‘Wesort.’’ Accord-

ing to a tradition among these people, it

was ‘“‘Aunt”’ Sallie Ann Thompson who in-

vented the term Wesort by constantly using

the expression “‘we sort of people” about

1882. This was taken up by her kinsmen

and neighbors and gradually spread to the

GILBERT: THE WESORTS OF SOUTHERN MARYLAND

243

entire county and beyond. If the rate of

growth of the numbers of the free Negroes

as indicated here continued we should

expect to find around 1,900 of these people

in Charles County by 1940. The following

table illustrates the growth of the White

and Negro population of the county since

1860.

TABLE 2.—CHARLES County, Mp., PopuLATION BY

Race, 1870-1940

Year Whites Negroes Total

1870 6,418 9,318 15,738

1880 7,700 10 ,848 18 ,548

1890 7,054 8,137 15,191

1900 8,014 9 ,648 17 ,662

1910 7,813 8,572 16 ,386

1920 9,495 8,210 17 ,705

1930 8 674 7,492 16 , 166

1940 10 ,384 7,228 17 ,612

The variability of the figures in the above

table is interesting. It would suggest the

possibility, at least, of the Wesorts being

included in some censuses as White and in

others as Negro. The large rise in Negro

population in 1880 and the rise of the

Whites in 1940 are cases in point. Only a

detailed examination of the family names

in the census schedules would indicate if

this were true or not.

Turning now to the social status of the

Wesorts we find a most interesting situa-

tion. Their own opinion, backed to a con-

siderable extent by that of the local Whites,

is that they constitute an intermediate caste

between the White and the Negro. This is so

because they refuse to be identified with

Negroes yet are unable to find acceptance

as social equals by the Whites. They do not

decry any union of members of their group

with Whites as they do those unions with

Negroes. The local Negroes are inclined to

belittle the pretensions to superiority which |

they feel are unwarranted in the Wesorts.

The Whites look more favorably upon the

Wesorts as reliable workers than they do

upon the Negroes but are inclined to dis-

like the Wesorts because of degenerate

traits which they ascribe to inbreeding.

The Wesorts would seem to indicate how

it is possible for physical traits to result in a

type of group consciousness. Keenly aware

that their racial type is not that of the typi-

244

cal Negro they attempt to avoid those

situations that classify them as Negro. ‘‘We

are the Yellow People and we are different

from the Negro” is the way H. §., of Bel

Alton, one of the older and much respected

members of the community, expresses the

idea. To cite the words of another of the

older and respected members of this group,

L. T., of White Plains ‘‘I was born a Wesort

and I am going to die a Wesort.’”’ Such a

clear and simple confession of faith can

hardly be disregarded by the social psy-

chologist- because it so well illustrates the

‘““we-group” feeling so ably defined and

discussed by such eminent sociologists as

William Graham Sumner and Charles

Horton Cooley.

The Wesorts appear to have isolated

themselves from the Negro in a variety of

ways. They will not eat with them at the

same table, or sleep at their homes, or per-

mit Negroes to attend their dances. Yet

they seem to regard it as proper to appear

at Negro recreational affairs such as picnics

and outings, participating in a kind of

standoffish way. White people, on the

other hand, may attend Wesort funerals,

weddings, and dances.

Patterns of triracial or three-way segre-

gation are well illustrated at St. Ignatius

Church at Chapel Point (Dodson and

Woolley, 19438, p. 297). Here, for many

years, the seats in the main body of the

Church are reserved for White people,

while there is a separate section in the back

for the Wesort members. In addition there

is a gallery running along the sides of the

Church which is generally occupied by

Negroes, although occasionally these people

come down and sit in the Wesort section

when it is not occupied. Negroes formerly

used a separate door from that used by the

Whites and Wesorts.

Also illustrative of the segregation prin-

ciple is the ancient cemetery located just

outside the church on a scenic knoll over-

looking the Potomac. The grave markers

around the top of the bluff near the church

and for some distance downward are those

of White people. The lower part of the hill

constitutes the Negro section of the ceme-

tery in which Wesorts and Negroes are

buried.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 8

It is said that formerly Wesorts were

accustomed to occupying seats in busses

and carriages behind the Whites but ahead

of the Negroes. The same is asserted to have

been true of seating in motion-picture

houses. One informant tells of hunting and

fishing parties made up of male members

of the three races at which the whisky jug

would be passed around first to the Whites,

then to the Wesorts, and finally to the

Negroes.

As a buffer group Geemuen the Whites and

the Negroes the Wesorts have absorbed

some of the shocks of racial conflict and

provided a cushion to soften the process of

miscegenation. One gains the impression

that we have here a basically Indian group

that has been gradually getting whiter

through greater and greater amounts of

White blood yet presenting Mendelian

segregations of physical traits that recall

the original Indian type. Into this mixture

have apparently been introduced mulatto,

quadroon, or octoroon elements.

Politically the Wesorts participate to a

greater degree than the Negro in the local

affairs. They vote freely and, like the tradi-

tional Negro voters, are mainly Republican

by party affiliation. Like the Negroes they

do not hold public office in the county. The

White people of this area are mainly

Democratic in party affiliation.

Two instances illustrative of the practical

difficulties attending the triracial situation

might be cited here. In the present World

War the local draft boards have been hard

put to it in classifying the Wesorts for

service with the armed forces. Some have

been sent into Negro battalions, while

others, have been sent into White, and it is

probable that some have not been in-

ducted at all because of the difficulties at-

tendant on their racial classification. Thus,

as a result of their racially in-between

position, the Wesorts have suffered an un-

certainty of both present and future status.

This is still further illustrated in the case

of some Wesorts who located in Washing-

ton, D. C., and in view of the housing

shortage wanted to locate in a district

from which they were barred by the owners

because of color restrictions. These Wesorts

sent back anxious inquiries to their parish

Ava. 15, 1945

priest for records to be used as proof that

they were not Negroes. We are not told

how they finally came out in this search for

status.

What happens to the Wesorts who mi-

grate to the city? The answer to this ques-

tion would be of the greatest assistance in

understanding the nature of the attitudes

and barriers that interpose themselves to

the absorption of the Wesorts into the

general population. At present the question

can not be answered but the following sug-

gestions might be made. A study of the

family names in the city directories of Bal-

timore and Washington would be one clue.

The Baltimore City Directory from 1812 to

1923 designates its Negro population sepa-

rately from the White and we find Wesort

family names beginning to occur among the

Negro classification far back in the nine-

teenth century. Similarly, the Washington,

D. C., city directory indicates the Negro

population separately from 1850 to 1873.

During this period and after, the Wesort

family names occur with increasing fre-

quency. A follow-up study of the addresses

within the cities mentioned of persons

with Wesort family names and of their

location with reference to White, Negro,

and foreign-born areas would help still

further to indicate what becomes of the

urban Wesort.

What then, for practical purposes, is a

Wesort? This may be answered in a general

definition as a person of mixed Indian and

White and possibly Negro blood who has a

Wesort family name and who lives in or

derives from Charles, Prince Georges, or

St. Marys Counties in southern Maryland.

Admittance to the Wesort category may be

by birth or, as an Indian, White, or light

mulatto outsider, by marriage to a Wesort.

Little remains today of the Indian

heritage among these people. In fact, there

seem to be no unifying cultural traits to

bind them into a common unity distinct

from Whites and Negroes. There are no

clubs or organizations peculiar to Wesorts.

They are said, however, to celebrate an

annual feast day on August 15, the day of

the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary,

which commemorates her death and mirac-

ulous ascent into heaven. This date is said

GILBERT: THE WESORTS OF SOUTHERN MARYLAND

245

to be celebrated by feasting, visits, ball

games, and dances. It is also asserted

that the local White Catholics do not cele-

brate this occasion with such emphasis.

The date and seasonal timing recall the

Green Corn Festival which is so widespread

and important to all the Southeastern

Indians and perhaps in this respect it

might constitute a survival of that rite.

Also peculiar to Wesorts were several base-

ball teams which in former years were

organized by neighborhood groups and

played games in a Wesort league.

Although nothing has been reported in

the meager literature on the Wesorts it is

quite possible that various elements of

both material and nonmaterial culture,

peculiar to themselves, may still survive.

It is said that medicine men or native

herbalists still survive at Allen’s Fresh and

Pomonkey and that these individuals still

make arrowheads and can recount Indian

traditions. Survivals in groups of this type

of fish and animal traps, basketry, gourd

cups, and carved wooden objects are not in

themselves of much significance insofar as

Indian origin is concerned. Of greater value

might be their ecological linkage with such

local features as the Zekiah Swamp and the

old hunting territories of the Algonquins.

The survival of primitive racial groups

where alien invaders have mostly displaced

their neighboring kinfolk may quite fre-

quently be attributed to isolating ecological

peculiarities such as swamp economy or

mountain habitat.

In fact the position of the Wesorts is

made much clearer if we consider them in

the perspective of Indian survival groups

generally on the Atlantic coast from New

England to Louisiana. Many of these

groups have Indian tribal names, while

some like the Wesorts do not. To the north

in the rugged Ramapo range between New

Jersey and New York are the Jackson

Whites, a mixed Indian-White-Negro group

set off by topographic factors. Farther south

in southern New Jersey and northern

Delaware are the Moors, who, like the

Wesorts, are possibly survivals of mixed

Indian and white swamp dwellers of colonial

times. Similar Coastal Plain swamp mixed

groups occur in Virginia, North and South

246

Carolina, and Florida, whose names are

numerous (Brass-ankles, Red-bones, Croa-

tans, etc.) and whose separate identities

have never yet been seriously studied. Like

the Wesorts they do not know anything of

their origin, yet hold themselves aloof from

the Negro even while repulsed by the

Whites. As in the case of the Wesorts they

are often thought of by the White as

mulattoes. Like the Wesorts again they are

often thought by the Whites to be boot-

leggers and possible outlaws as well as good

farmers and hunters. To the westward of

the Coastal Plain in the Appalachian Moun-

tains are similar groups such as the Melun-

geons of Tennessee and the nearly related

if not identical Guineas of West Virginia.

Since many of these racial islands are

occasionally visited by the western Indians

and recognized by them as their coracials it

has been proposed that the degenerative

inbreeding of such groups as the Wesorts

be compensated for by bringing in fresh

blood from the larger western groups.

The Wesorts are part of this pattern of

the partially assimilated aborigines not only

in the United States but of the world over.

In the Far East the Miao groups of south-

ern China, and in India the pariah out-

castes or untouchable groups and hill tribes

all exemplify similar cases of nonassimila-

tion and ethnic groups or minorities that

have been discriminated against. A close

study of the Wesorts as a type of the out-

casted group should go far toward ex-

plaining the factors that are part of the

world-wide impact of Europeans and their

culture upon the native colored peoples

of an alien tradition.

What practical policies have there been

on the part of the White man in dealing

with minorities of this type in the United

States? It might be noted that the trend in

recent years has been toward a recognition

of such racial minorities in the form of

separate schools and provision for cor-

porate organization and community cooper-

ation. Such triracial recognition has been

granted the Croatans of North Carolina

and to some extent to the Cajans of Ala-

bama and Nanticokes of Delaware. Appar-

ently such policies have been developed

because of the relatively high birth rates of

these groups and the localized nature of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 8

their problems and the corresponding loss

of hope in the possibility of dispersion and

absorption in the general population.

In a democracy the choice as to its future

course must be left mainly up to the in-

dividual minority. Should the Wesorts de-

sire to organize into a corporation or

association for mutual aid, such a course is

perfectly within their rights. If, on the other

hand, they should desire to continue, as

they have for decades, to raise themselves

socially as individuals and families only,

this too could only meet with the coopera-

tion and good wishes of their fellow citizens,

both White and Negro. It will be of interest

to watch the effects of future contacts of

the Wesorts with similar mixed groups in

the eastern States. )

LITERATURE CITED

Anonymous. Wesorts, strange clan in Mary-

land. New York Times, March 19, 1940.

BrRUuMBAUGH, G. M. , Maryland Records, 2 vols.

Baltimore, 1915-1928.

Dopson, LINDEN 8. .. and Woo.tey, Janu

Community organization in Charles C ounty,

Maryland. Maryland Agr. Exp. Stat.

Bull. A21. College Park, Md., Jan. 1943.

FootTneR, HutBertT. Maryland main and the

eastern shore. New York, 1942.

GRAHAM, Wiuu1AM J. The Indians of Port

Tobacco, Maryland, and their burial places.

Washington, D. C., 1935.

Hover, F. W. Thirty-fifth Annual Report of

the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1913-

1914. Washington, D. C., 1921.

MaynarpD, THEropore. The story of American

Catholicism. New York, 1941.

SemMMES, RapHaEt. Aboriginal Maryland,

1608-1689. Part 2: The western shore.

Maryland Hist. Mag. 24: 195-209. 1929.

. Review of ‘“Delaware’s Forgotten

Folk,” by C. A. Weslager. Maryland

Hist. Mag. 39:86. 1944.

. Captains and mariners of Early Mary-

land. Baltimore, 1937.

Speck, Frank G. Indians of the eastern shore

of Maryland. 1922.

UniITED STaTES BUREAU OF THE

Heads of families, 1790, Maryland.

Washington, 1907.

UNITED STaTEsS Writers’ ProGRAM, W.P.A.

Maryland, a guide to the Old Line State.

New York, 1940.

WARNER, EUGENE. Upper Marlboro ts proud

of its old charming homes. Washington

Times-Herald, August 28, 1939.

WestaGeR, C. A. Delaware’s forgotten folk.

Philadelphia, 1943.

Wuitr, Roxana. They stand alone: The We-

sorts of Charles County. Baltimore Sun,

Nov. 12, 1939.

CENSUS.

Ava. 15, 1945

HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH

247

ZOOLOGY.—The subspecies and intergrades of the Florida burrowing crayfish,

Procambarus rogersi (Hobbs)... Horron H. Hoses, Jr., University of Florida.

(Communicated by WALpDo L. ScuMIrTT.)

The first record of the presence of bur-

rowing crayfishes occurring in the State of

Florida that has come to my attention was

that of Roland M. Harper (1914, p. 248).

In discussing the Apalachicola flatwoods he

states, ““Much of the soil is too damp for

ants, gophers, and salamanders, but craw-

fish are common in some places, if one may

judge from their ‘chimneys,’ which are

usually closed at the top, instead of open

like the more familiar ones in more clayey

soils farther inland.’”’ These burrows were

probably constructed by one or more of

the following crayfishes: P. rogersi campes-

tris, P. rogersi ochlocknensis, P. rogersi inter-

grades, P. kilbyi,? P. apalachicolae,* and P.

latipleurum,‘ all of which have been found

in portions of the Apalachicola flatwoods.

The subspecies of Procambarus rogersi—

fr fogerst. Fr. campesiris, and P. r.

ochlocknensis—are characterized by the

structure of the first pleopod of the first

form male. The mesial process is well de-

veloped, spiniform, or slightly compressed;

the cephalic process is either lacking or is

present as a reduced spine on the cephalo-

distal surface; the caudal process is large

and thumblike, bent mesiad at a 15°-90°

angle with the main shaft; the central pro-

jection is large and platelike, directed across

the cephalodistal surface or obliquely distad

in a cephalomesial to caudolateral direction.

Hooks are present on the ischiopodites of

only the third pereiopods of the male.

The subspecies are distinct, though form-

ing at times unmistakable intergrades.

Their ranges cover a considerable area in

the eastern and central parts of the pan-

handle of Florida. The extreme eastern and

western limits of the ranges of this assem-

blage are almost 100 miles apart, while the

most northern and southern limits are sepa-

rated by a distance of about 50 miles.

Within these limits are portions of Bay,

Gadsden, Gulf, Calhoun, Franklin, Leon,

Liberty, and Wakulla Counties.

Contribution from Department of Biology,

University of Florida. Received February 27, 1945.

2 Hobbs, 1940, p. 410. ;

® Hobbs, 1942b, p. 55. 4 Hobbs, 1942b, p. 52.

All three are primary burrowers,°® with

presumably poor powers of dispersal. Their

ranges extend through a monotonous flat-

woods, broken only here and there by

small, scattered areas unsuitable for habi-

tation by them. If rogersi had a higher vagil-

ity, such a range would seem to favor main-

tenance of a homogeneous population over

the entire area, but instead the region is in-

habited by small, local, inbred populations.

When specimens from several of these are

compared, it becomes evident that the sub-

species of P. rogers: and their intergrades

form a very heterogeneous complex.

The zone of intergradation consists of a

large area in Franklin, Gulf, and Bay

Counties and the southern parts of Liberty

and Wakulla Counties. Toward the eastern

side of this area, in eastern Franklin and

western Wakulla Counties, specimens show

a definite approach to rogersi campestris,

which occurs in Leon and Wakulla Coun-

ties; west of the Apalachicola River, in

northern Gulf County, material is closer to

rogerst rogerst; while in the southern part of

Liberty County the intermediates in most

characters more closely resemble rogersz

ochlocknensis. In general, the nearer one ap-

proaches the ranges of each of the three

well-defined subspecies, the more nearly do

the intermediates resemble typical mate-

rial of the subspecies from that particular

part of the range. The actual situation in

respect to the intergrades is more complex

than is here indicated and will be discussed

more in detail following the descriptions of

the subspecies.

SYSTEMATIC DISCUSSION

KEYS TO THE SUBSPECIES OF

PROCAMBARUS ROGERSI®

Males

1. Caudal process of first pleopod bent but not so

much as at a right angle to the main shaft

OL TE ACURA RE are ce a 8 de che 3; 0.6.5) ohh 2

5 Primary burrowers are those crayfish that

spend practically their entire lives in their bur-

rows.

6 It is not possible to construct a key to the

intergrades of the several subspecies of P. rogersi.

These are fully discussed on page 257.

248

Caudal process of first pleopod bent at a right

angle to the main shaft of the appendage. .

Ee Intel OSS es dee Ts iey 2 hea Re rogerst rogerst

2. Central projection of first pleopod directed

laterad across the cephalic face of the

APPEMEALS a fs eee ee rogerst campestris

Central projection of first pleopod directed

obliquely caudolaterad from the cephalo-

distalsurface.< 70.4.2): rogerst ochlocknensis

Females

1. Annulus ventralis only slightly if at all

broader than long, usually longer than

broad; cephalic margin cleft, with strongly

developedtubercles..,.) 4. 3k oS. epose 2

Annulus ventralis much broader than long;

cephalic margin entire, with or without very

low, rounded tubercles....... rogerst rogerst

2. Annulus ventralis subcylindrical; caudal half

not anywhere flattened; cephalic half

STOVE DDK Oey pu alseosnn cee See rogerst campestris

Annulus ventralis much longer than broad;

caudal half flattened below with a single

large, median, dome-shaped structure; ce-

phalic half vatlike...... rogerst ochlocknensis

Procambarus rogersi rogersi (Hobbs)

Figs. 2, 14, 17, 22, 25

Cambarus rogerst Hobbs, 1938, pp. 61-65, figs.

1-11; 1940, p. 410.

Procambarus rogerst Hobbs, 1942a, p. 344.

Procambarus rogerst rogerst Hobbs, 1942b, p. 89,

pl. 5, figs. 71-75, map 5.

Diagnosis.—Hooks present on ischiopodites

of third pereiopods only; rostrum without lat-

eral spines, areola obliterated in middle, or al-

most obliterated with a single row of puncta-

tions along fusion line of branchiostegites.

First pleopod of first form male with platelike

central projection directed across cephalic sur-

face, caudal process noncorneous, thumblike,

and bent caudomesiad at a right angle to the

main shaft. Annulus ventralis broader than

long; cephalic margin entire.

Description —PARATYPIC MALE, FORM I:

Carapace subovate. Width of carapace in re-

gion of caudodorsal margin of cervical groove

greater than height (1.82-1.27 cm). Greatest

width of carapace about midway between

cervical groove and caudal margin of cephalo-

thorax (1.45 em).

Areola obliterated in middle, depressed,

more than half as long as cephalic section of

carapace (1.17—1.69 cm).

Rostrum broad-lanceolate; apex not ening

distal end of second joint of antennule peduncle;

upper surface excavate, with a row of puncta-

tions along raised margins; margins gradually

tapering to apex; no lateral spines present.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 8

Apex of rostrum directed ventrad, extreme

apex abruptly bent upward. Subrostral ridges

evident in dorsal view for over half the distance

between postorbital ridges and tip of rostrum.

Rostral ridges extending forward to apex of

rostrum. Postorbital ridges extending caudad

more than half the distance between apex of

rostrum and cervical groove. i

Surface of carapace punctate dorsad; granu-

late laterad. No lateral spines present. Subor-

bital angle lacking. Branchiostegal spines small.

Abdomen shorter and narrower than cara-

pace. Anterior section of telson with one spine

in the right and two in the left posterolateral

angles.

Epistome broadly sublanceolate with slightly

undulant margins; terminating cephalad in a

small cephalomedian tubercle.

Antennules of the usual form; no spines pres-

ent on ventral side of basal segment.

Antennae hardly reaching caudal margin of

carapace when bent caudad. Antennal scale

small; extending almost to end of second joint

of peduncle of antennule. Spine on outer mar-

gin strong.

First pereiopod very broad and flattened,

triangulate, with sharp apex. Inner margin of

-palm with a cristiform row of eight tubercles.

Both surfaces of hand as well as fingers with

setiferous punctations. Both fingers with two

distinct ridges. Palm with a prominent ridge

along articulation with movable finger. Mova-

ble finger: Dorsal surface with a prominent

submedian ridge extending from base almost to

tip. Outer margin studded with four tubercles

along proximal third; remaining distal two-

thirds with about eight setiferous punctations.

Opposable margin with excision slightly proxi-

mad of midlength; margin broken by two major

tubercles (one at point of excision, the other

near base of finger) between which are two

smaller ones; four small tubercles present distad

of distal major tubercle beyond which is a row

of minute denticles extending almost to tip of

finger. Immovable finger: Outer margin, in the

form of a distinct ridge, with deep setiferous

punctations; a few small tubercles present at

base. Dorsal surface of finger with a prominent

submedian ridge which curves inward at base

following the general curvature of opposable

margin of finger. Opposable margin inter-

rupted by five tubercles, the second from base

the largest. Carpus longer than broad; longer ©

4 =

Ave. 15, 1945

than inner margin of palm of chela; a deep

longitudinal groove above; inner surface with

three large tubercles and a few scattered

smaller ones. Two large, acute tubercles on

distal ventromesial surface. A single large, ball- .

like tubercle on distal ventrolateral margin fits

into a socket on lower surface of chela. Merus

smooth except on lower surface which has an

inner row of ten small, spikelike tubercles and

an outer row of nine rounded ones.

Ischiopodite of third pereiopod hooked; hook

strong, long.

First pleopod of male extending cephalad to

base of second pereiopod. Tip terminating in

three distinct parts. The mesial process, heavy

but terminating in a spiniform tip, is bent

caudolaterad. The cephalic process is absent.

The caudal process is noncorneous, thumblike,

and directed caudomesiad at a right angle to

the main shaft of the appendage. The central

projection is thin, corneous, and platelike and

is directed across the cephalic surface of the

appendage.

PARATYPIC MALE, FORM II: Differs from the

male of the first form chiefly in the reduction

of the sexual and secondary sexual characters,

a total absence of corneous parts in the first

pleopod, and a reduction of the hooks on the

third pereiopods.

PARATYPIC FEMALE: Differs from the male

of the first form in that the chelae are not so

heavy, and there are slight variations in posi-

tion and size of tubercles.

Annulus ventralis broader than long with

fossa disappearing below left caudal margin.

Cephalic margin entire with only very low

rounded tubercles. A deep pit present in dex-

tral half with rather steep walls except on

cephalic and sinistral sides; caudal wall defi-

nitely overhanging. Sinus cutting caudal wall

slightly sinistrad of midlength.

Measurements —PARATYPIC MALE: Carapace,

height 1.32, width 1.45, length 2.86 cm; areola,

linear, length 1.17 cm; rostrum, length 0.28,

width 0.35 cm; abdomen, length 2.40 em; right

chela, length of inner margin of palm 0.66,

width of palm 1.11, length of outer margin of

hand 1.92, length of movable finger 1.36 cm.

PARATYPIC FEMALE: Carapace, height 1.20,

width 1.27, length 2.48 ecm; areola linear,

length 0.96 cm; rostrum, length 0.33, width

0.33 em; abdomen, length 2.30 em; right

chela, length of inner margin of palm 0.51,

HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH

249

width of palm 0.88, length of outer margin of

hand 1.57, length of movable finger 1.07 em.

Type locality—‘‘Low pine flat-woods four

miles north of Blountstown on State Highway

no. 6”’ (Hobbs, 1938, p. 65).

Distribution —Calhoun County, Fla.

Procambarus rogersi rogerst is endemic to

Florida, and its range seems to be confined to

a relatively small area in the panhandle of the

State west of the Apalachicola River. Here it.

occupies a small area of flatwoods running

north and south in the eastern part of Calhoun

(and probably Gulf) County. Although no

records of rogersi rogerst have been established

in Gulf County, there are records of what I

interpret as intergrades, P. r. rogerst Xcampes-

tris, in the broad expanse of coastal flatwoods

in the southern part of the county.

The linear form of the range of this sub-

species may be explained by the distribution

of the available flatwoods and the presence of

the Apalachicola River on the east and the

elevated strip of loamy Norfolk sand that ex-

tends on the east side of the River from Liberty

County to the northern part of Franklin

County. The combination of the two latter

features certainly prevents migration east-

ward. The northern and western boundaries of

the range are determined by well-drained soils

that appear to form an efficient barrier to

migration. The western boundary extends as

far southward as the central part of Gulf

County, but the southern limit of the range

cannot be definitely set since the intergrada-

tion zone (rogerst Xcampestris X ochlocknensis)

probably occurs in Gulf County.

Variation.—Procambarus rogersi rogers

seems to show little variation. In most of the

specimens there is no spine present on the

ventral surface of the basal joint of the an-

tennule; however, occasionally there is a spine

on one or both antennules. The cephalic

process of the first pleopod of the male is gen-

erally not even present as a vestige, though oc-

casionally it is strongly developed. The areola

is sometimes not quite obliterated in middle.

The epistome varies in form from semicircular

to subtriangular.

Ecology.—Procambarus rogerst rogersi is a

primary burrowing species and has been col-

lected only in the flatwoods region around

Blountstown. A definite plant association com-

posed of pitcherplants (Sarracenia drummond1,

250 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 8

S. flava, and S. psittacina), sundews (Drosera),

club moss (Lycopodium), wiregrass, and hatpins

(EHricaulon) is characteristic of the flatwoods

flora where this crayfish has been taken. Gener-

ally in a locality in which these plants were

observed from the road, burrows of some mem-

ber of the rogerst group were found to be pres-

ent; only in a few instances have I found no

crayfish burrows in a situation of this type.

In many places the water table is only a few

inches below the surface, in others as deep as

3 feet.

The crayfish burrows are numerous in the

Blountstown region, and since the chimneys

range from 4 to 8 inches in height they are

easily observed. The soil is a mixture of sand

and clay underlain by clay, and the pellets com-

posing the chimneys retain their rounded

shape. Most of the chimneys are somewhat

carefully constructed.

P. rogersi constructs a very complex burrow,

which often extends horizontally 4 or 5 feet.

Usually there are several passages—some that

end blindly and others that open to the out-

side through chimneys. Generally, as in the

case of the advena’ burrows, there is a single

spiral passage that goes below the average

water table. In some places the water is

reached in less than a foot; in others it is about

2 feet below the surface. In any case, I have

never had to dig more than 3 feet to reach the

bottom of the passage.

In digging out a specimen from its burrow

it is best to locate the deep passage and stir

the water in it vigorously; allow it to become

still, and within a very short time the cray-

fish will usually come to the surface. Occasion-

ally it is necessary to dig to the bottom, or in

7 LeConte, 1856, p. 402.

some instances to dig out the entire burrow.

Although most of my specimens have been

taken from the deepest passage of the burrow

I havefound some clinging to the roots of wire-

_grass or of some other plant in the roof of one

of the horizontal passages.

In one locality (about 8 miles north of

Blountstown) the open, gently sloping flat-

woods are essentially a large seepage area

covering several acres. The ground is very

spongy, and in spots, were it not for the heavy

growth of grass, one would probably ‘‘bog

down.”’ In this locality the burrows are ex-

tremely numerous. As the water table is prob-

ably at the surface most of the year, the cray-

fish in their burrowing seem to expend their

energy in constructing horizontal passages. In

this locality the ground is so riddled with bur-

rows that one can scarcely dig a spadeful of soil

without exposing one of them.

In the burrows just mentioned an amphipod

(Crangonyx sp.), an albinistic isopod (Asellus

hobbst Maloney), a beetle (Bidessus rogersi

Young), and a copepod (Cyclops sp.) are

abundant. On the crayfish were found some of

the amphipods mentioned above, a branchiob-

dellid [Cambarincola philadelphica (Leidy)], and

an ostracod.

Although I have taken no other crayfish

from burrows in the same habitat with rogerst

rogerst, P. kilbyt was collected in large num-

bers from burrows and among the vegetation in

a temporary stream close by.

Material examined—CatHoun County: 4

miles north of Blountstown [State Highway 6]

(4-1335-1, 1@I, 32 ¢), (4-1737-4, 27 AI,

2% WII, 12); 8 miles north of Blountstown

[State Highway 6] (4-1737-2, 59 #1, 2¢7 AI,

32 9), (6-938-4, 27 FIT, 9 2 9); 9 miles north

of Blountstown [State Highway 6] (4-738-11

Fiaes. 1-16.—1, Caudal view of first pleopod of male, form II, Procambarus rogersi ochlocknensis;

2, annulus ventralis of P. r. rogerst from Calhoun County; 3, annulus ventralis of P. r. campestris from

Leon County; 4, caudal view of first pleopod of male, form II, P. r. campestris; 5, annulus ventralis

of an intergrade from Franklin County, west of the Apalachicola River; 6, annulus ventralis of an inte-

grade from Franklin County, near the Franklin-Wakulla County line; 7, lateral view of carapace of

P. r. campestris; 8, annulus ventralis of an intergrade from Franklin County 10 miles west of Carra-

belle; 9, annulus ventralis of an intergrade from Franklin County 7 miles west of Carrabelle; 10, caudal

view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. ochlocknensis from Liberty County; 11, annulus ventralis

of P. r. ochlocknensis from Gadsden County; 12, annulus ventralis of P. r. ochlocknensis from Liberty

County; 13, Caudal view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. ochlocknensis from Gadsden County;

14, upper surface of chela of P. r. rogerst from Calhoun County; 15, upper surface of chela of P. r.

ochlocknensis from Liberty County; 16, upper surface of chela of P. r. campestris from Leon County.

The drawings of the chelae (Figs. 14-16) were made from paratypes, and so there are some discrepan-

cies in the illustrations and text in the number and distribution of tubercles. Pubescence has been re-

moved from all structures figured.

= —-

251

THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH

HOBBS

Ava. 15, 1945

(See opposite page for legend.)

Figs. 1-16.

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

271, 19); 2.5 miles south of Blountstown

[State Highway 6] (4-738-9, 1 I); 5.5 miles

south of Blountstown [State Highway 6]

(5-341-16, 1 @I,1 9).

Procambarus rogersi ochlocknensis Hobbs

Figs. 1, 10, 11, 13, 15, 19, 20, 26

Procambarus rogerst ochlocknensts Hobbs, 1942b,

p. 89, pl. 5, figs. 76-80, map 5.

Diagnosis——Hooks present on ischiopodites

of third pereiopods only; rostrum without

lateral spines; areola obliterated in middle.

First pleopod of first form male with fanlike

central projection directed caudolaterad; cau-

dal process noncorneous (somewhat swollen

but not distinctly thumblike asin the other

subspecies of rogersi) and directed at a 15°—40°

angle to the main shaft. Annulus ventralis

ovate with the greatest length in the longitu-

dinal axis, the cephalic border deeply cleft.

Description. HoLoryPic MALE, FoRM I: Dif-

fers from P. rogersi rogersi in the following

points: Ratio of height to width of carapace

in region of caudodorsal margin of cervical

groove 1.25:1.23. Areola 42.3 per cent of entire

length of carapace; obliterated. Rostrum with

margins slightly concave, deeply excavate

above. Subrostral ridges evident in dorsal

aspect to base of acumen. Lateral surface of

carapace entirely granulate. Branchiostegal

spines absent. Anterior section of telson with

two spines in each of the posterolateral angles.

Epistome subtriangular with a single gentle

swelling on each cephalolateral margin. Inner

margin of palm of first right pereiopod with a

cristiform row of nine tubercles. Chela slightly

narrower than in other two races (i.e., propor-

tion of width of hand to length of inner margin

of palm). (See Fig. 15.) Opposable margin of

movable finger without deep excision in basal

half; outer margin with two tubercles along

proximal two-fifths. Opposable margin of im-

movable finger with five tubercles ranging in

size (numbering from base) from the largest

3, 5, 2, 4, 1; minute denticles crowded along

distal half of Same margin interrupted by the

VOL. 35, NO. 8

two more distal tubercles. Carpus with only

two spines on distal portion of inner surface.

First pleopod extending almost to base of

second pereiopod; tip ending in four distinct

parts. The mesial process, long and spiniform,

is bent caudad and laterad. The cephalic

process is a small spiculiform spine partially

hidden, particularly in caudal view, by the cen-

tral projection. It is hidden among the sub-

terminal plumose setae. The caudal process is

heavy, noncorneous, somewhat inflated, and is

directed mesiodistad. The central projection

is a corneous, thin, platelike structure directed

obliquely caudolaterad from ae cephalodistal

surface.

PARATYPIC MALE, FORM II: Differsfrom the

first form male in the usual reduction of spiny

and corneous parts. Epistome more elongate

than in the first form male. Right rostral ridge

not continuous to tip but similar to that of the

holotype of rogersi campestris.

ALLOTYPIC FEMALE: Differs only in a few —

minor points from the first form male. Spiny

portions reduced. The number of tubercles on

the inner margin of the chelae is nine and seven,

left and right, respectively. The rostrum is

similar to that of the second form male; mar-

gins not as decidedly concave.

Annulus ventralis differing from that of

rogersi rogerst in the following points: Cephalic

wall deeply cleft; opening ditchlike with high

lateral walls (in some specimens walls over-

hanging). Lateral walls with a few large

rounded tubercles. These walls are directed

caudolaterad, and just cephalad of midlength

are suddenly bent mesiad and diminish in

height to the level of the caudal part of the

organ. Across the caudal face of the fossa the

wall is somewhat pinched so that it is slightly

contorted and folded. In the sinistral caudo-

lateral portion there is an oval mound cut by

the caudal portion of the sinus. The general

outline is subovate with the greatest length in

the longitudinal rather than in the transverse

axis as in rogerst rogerst.

Figs. 17-33.—17, Mesial view of first pleopod of male, form I, Procambarus rogerst rogersi; 18, mesial

view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. campestris; 19, mesial view of first pleopod of male, form I,

P. r. ochlocknensis; 20, lateral view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. ochlocknensis; 21, lateral view

of first pleopod of ‘male, form I, P. r. campestris; 22, lateral view of first pleopod of male, form’ I, Fa

rogerst; 23, mesial view of first ‘pleopod of male, form I, P. advena; 24, caudal view of first pleopod of

male, form I, P. r. campestris; 25, caudal view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. rogersi; 26, caudal

view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. r. ochlocknensis; 27, lateral view of first pleopod of male, form I,

Procambarus advena; 28-33, caudal views of the first pleopods of males from the region of inter grada-

tion (28, Bay County; 29, Gulf County; 30-32, Franklin County; 33, 5 auee County). Pubescence

has been removed from al ‘structures figured.

Ava. 15, 1945

at ar a

phhoy sea heee

“a

74g

3 4

29 placa NA eae al alte

28.

HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH

_* 4%, .°% ‘

NET A ae Soon

ae 4%

Se.5te eR SS,

ALIS TS

Figs. 17—33.—(See opposite page for legend.)

253

254

Measurements.—Ho.ortyPe: Carapace, height

1.25, width 1.23, length 2.65 cm; areola linear,

length 1.12 cm; rostrum, length 0.30, width

0.35 em; abdomen, length 2.37 cm; right chela,

inner margin of palm 0.55, width of palm 0.88,

length of outer margin of hand 1.56, length of

movable finger 1.05 cm.

ALLOTYPE: Carapace, height 1.16, width

1.27, length 2.51 cm; areola linear, length

0.96 cm, rostrum, length 0.30, width 0.35 cm;

abdomen, length 2.31 cm; left chela, inner mar-

gin of palm 0.57, width of palm 0.95, length of

outer margin of hand 1.50, length of movable

finger 1.00 cm.

Type locality —Seven and three-tenths miles

west of Quincy on U. 8. Highway 90, Gadsden

County, Fla. In this locality a narrow strip of

grassy flatwoods borders a swampy area along

Telogia Creek, a tributary to the Ochlocknee

River. Pinus palustris, two Sarracenias (per-

haps psittacina and flava), and grasses make up

the more conspicuous vegetation of the area,

while Pogonia, Aletris, Ascyrum, and Hypert-

cum are common. Along the swamp margin are

Cerothamnus, Magnolia virginiana, Hydrangea,

and an evergreen shrub, possibly Nyssa biflora.

Disposition of types—The holotypic male,

the allotypic female, and a paratypic male,

form II, are deposited in the United States

National Museum (no. 79383). Of the remain-

ing paratypes, one male, form I, one male,

form IJ, and a female are deposited in the

Museum of Comparative Zoology; one male,

form I, five males, form II, and six females are

in my personal collection. »

Distribution—Gadsden and Liberty Coun-

ties, Fla.

This subspecies is probably confined to

Gadsden and northern Liberty Counties and is

perhaps restricted to areas adjacent to the

Telogia River, a tributary of the Ochlocknee

River. Thus to the north this subspecies is

limited in its range by well-drained areas bor-

dering Telogia Creek, which extends a little

north of U. 8. Highway 90 between Quincy

and River Junction. The eastern boundary

seems to be clearly marked by the Ochlocknee

River, while the western limit is terminated by

a strip of high, well-drained soils east of the

Apalachicola River in Liberty County. At the

south there is no sharp demarcation line be-

tween this subspecies, rogerst rogersi and

rogerst campestris,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 35, NO. 8

Variation.—Few ‘variations have been ob-

served among the specimens examined. The

annulus ventralis and the first pleopod of the

male show a few slight differences, and the

number of tubercles along the inner margin of

the palm of the chela is variable. Other slight

variations occur in the rostrum, ae and

in various spiny portions.

Ecology.—P. rogersi ochlocknensis has been

taken from two types of situations. The locali-

ties in Gadsden County are fluctuating seepage

areas along a small stream and in narrow strips

of flatwoods bordering streams. The burrows

here are typical of the rogers: group, and the

soil from which they were dug is a coarse sandy

clay in some places overlain by muck or sandy

loam; the water table ranges from the surface

to about two feet below it.

In Liberty County most of the specimens

were taken from burrows in the flatwoods.

Here for the most part the soil is a sandy

mixture, and in places clay is almost at the

surface. The water table is 6 to 18 inches be-

low the surface. The burrows are 1 to 2 feet

deep and extremely rambling, many with

several carefully built chimneys, which are of

the same type described for P. rogersi rogerst.

The plant associations in this locality are domi-

nated by pines, ti-ti (Cliftonia monophylla), and

Ascyrum linifolium; Drosera and other semi-

aquatics are common. In another area of

gently sloping pine flatwoods, the commoner

plants consist of Pinus sp., Cliftonia mono-

phylla, Ilex glaber, Pinguicula sp., Aronia arbu-

tifolia, Cyanococcus spp., Drosera sp., and wire-

grass. The soil is probably of the Plummer

series. The crayfish were taken from complex

burrows averaging 1 to 14 feet in depth. Pro-

cambarus kilbyi was taken from adjacent bur-

rows that are much simpler in structure.

Ostracods and branchiobdellids (Cambarincola

sp.) were found clinging to rogerst ochlocknen-

sis. In general the habits of this crayfish seem

to be similar to those of P. rogerst rogersv.

In the type locality in Gadsden County

Procambarus leonensis? was taken from bur-

rows adjacent to those of ochlocknensis, and in

the stream close by this same species was,

along with P. spiculifer,® and Orconectes cly-

peata.!° In Liberty County P. kilbyi was taken

8 Hobbs, 1942b, p. 114; 1942c, p. 49.

® LeConte, 1856, p. 401.

10 Hay, 1899, pp. 122-128.

Aug. 15, 1945

from burrows interspaced among the burrows

of ochlocknensis.

Material examined.—GapsDEN County: 7.3

miles west of Quincy [U. 8S. Highway 90]

(4-1437-1, 1 #I, 1 2), (3-1739-3, 19), (5-141-

la, 2¢ @1, 27 AI, 22 2); 8.3 miles south-

west of junction of State Highways 12 and 135

on Highway 135 (5-141-3, 1 @I, 1 2); 2.7 miles

southwest of junction of U. 8. Highway 90 and

State Highway 12 on Highway 12 (5-141-2,

1 #11). Liserty County: 4.5 miles north of

Hosford [State Highway 135] (5-141-5, 3 7 #Il,

392 9). The remaining specimens from follow-

ing localities are slightly atypical: Near Hosford

(12-937-la, 1 I); 1.6 miles west of the Och-

locknee River [State Highway 19] (3-1639-1a,

171, 1g, 82 2); 4 miles east of Hosford

[State Highway 19] (8-1739-la, 2¢@aI,

27 All, 72 29, 22 2 with eggs, 1@# imm.,

1 2 imm.); 9 miles west of Hosford [State High-

way 19] (3-1739-Sa, 1 9); near Hosford (8-234-

1, 1 2); 3.5 miles east of Hosford [State High-

way 19] (4-841-1, 27 II, 1 2 with eggs).

Procambarus rogersi campestris Hobbs

Figs. 3, 4, 7, 16, 18, 21, 24

Procambarus rogersi campestris Hobbs, 1942b,

_ p. 90, pl. 6, figs. 81-85, map 5.

Diagnosis—Hooks present on ischiopodites

of third pereiopods only; rostrum without

lateral spines; areola obliterated in middle.

First pleopod of first form male with fanlike

central projection directed across cephalic sur-

face; caudal process thumblike and directed at

a 45° angle to the main shaft. Annulus ventralis

subeylindrical with cephalic border open;

troughlike with high, multituberculate lateral

ridges.

Description—HoOLoTYPIc MALE, FORM I:

Differing from one or the other subspecies in

the following points: Width of carapace greater

than height (1.65:1.45 cm). Areola 40.9 per

cent of entire length of carapace. Areola oblit-

erated; no punctations in fusion line of

branchiostegites. Subrostral ridges prominent;

rostral ridges do not extend to tip of rostrum.

(See Fig. 7.) Cephalic region in lateral aspect

not evenly rounded. Lateral surfaces of cara-

pace granulate. Branchiostegal spines absent.

Anterior section of telson with two spines in

each of the posterolateral angles. Epistome

broadly subovate with an acute cephalo-

median projection. Antennules with a spine

HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH

255

present on ventral side of basal segments. Inner

margin of palm of first pereiopod with a cristi-

form row of nine tubercles. Opposable margin

of movable finger with deep excision in basal

half. Outer margin with five tubercles on

proximal half. Outer margin of immovable

finger bearing a row of tubercles along proximal

half and setiferous punctations on distal half.

The one major tubercle on opposable margin

lies somewhat distad of midway between the

two major tubercles on movable finger. Two

smaller tubercles proximad of the major tuber-

cle. A single row of minute denticles along

distal half is broken at intervals by five tu-

bercles.

First pleopod extending to base of second

pereiopod, distinctly separated at tip; tip

ending in four parts. The mesial process is

heavy and sinuate (in mesial view), tapering

to a point; bent obliquely and laterally, passing

beneath the caudal process. The cephalic

process is much reduced (can be seen only in

mesial and cephalic views), and is closely ap-

plied to the central projection at the base of

the cephalomesial face. The caudal process is

large and thumblike and extends at a 45° angle

to the main shaft in a mesiodistal direction.

The central projection forms a large corneous

fan across the cephalic side of the tip and is

also bent at about a 45° angle to the main

shaft; however, directed laterodistad.

PARATYPIC MALE, FORM II: Differs from the

first form male in only a few minor details,

chiefly in the reduction of the sexual and

secondary sexual parts (there being no corneous

parts), and the number of tubercles and spines.

The cephalic process of the first pleopod is

much more conspicuous in the second form

male than in the male of the first form. The

rostral ridges extend to the tip of the acumen.

Anterior section of telson with one spine in

each posterolateral angle.

ALLOTYPIC FEMALE: Besides the sexual and

secondary sexual characters, the female differs

from the first form male in the following points:

Spiny and tuberculate portions slightly dif-

ferent; right rostral ridge as in holotype; left

as in second form male paratype.

Annulus ventralis differing from that of

rogersi rogersi in the following points: Cephalic

wall open, troughlike, with rather high lateral

walls. Lateral walls tuberculate cephalad, and

continuous with the caudal wall which is

256

lower, decidedly lower left of the midventral

line. Whereas the annulus of rogersi rogersi is

subovate and broader than long, the annulus of

rogerst campestris is subeylindrical.

Measurements —Ho.orype: Carapace, height

1.45, width 1.65, length 3.15 cm; areola linear,

length 1.29 cm; rostrum, length 0.40, width

0.39 cm; abdomen, length 2.90 cm; right chela,

inner margin of palm 0.74, width of palm 1.28,

length of outer margin of hand 2.19, length of

movable finger 1.46 cm. ALLoTYPE: Carapace,

height 1.35, width 1.54, length 3.02 cm; areola,

linear, length 1.15 cm; rostrum, length 0.36,

width 0.39 em; abdomen, length 2.90 cm; right

chela, inner margin of palm 0.65, width of palm

1.12, length of outer margin of hand 1.97,

length of movable finger 1.34 cm.

Type locality —A low, pine flatwoods about

12 miles south of Tallahassee, Leon County,

Fla., along the east side of Horseshoe Bay (the

exact location: Sec. 16-17, T. 25, R. 2 W.).

This locality is a typical sour-gum and ti-ti

bay region. The hammock is quite low, with

very acid soil and water, and is subject to

flooding in wet weather. The soil is largely

muck and sand, and at the time of digging the

water table was about 3 feet below the surface.

Pines, wiregrass, palmetto, gallberry, and ti-ti

shrubs are characteristic of the flora, and

pitcherplants and sundews are common.

Disposition of types.—The holotypic male,

form I, the allotypic female, and a form II

male paratype are deposited in the United

States National Museum (no. 79384). Two fe-

male paratypes are in the Museum of Com-

parative Zoology. The remaining paratypes,

one male, form I, one male, form II, and 13

females are in my personal collection.

Distribution—Leon and Wakulla Counties.

The typical forms of P. rogersi campestris

are found in the southwestern part of Leon and

northwestern part of Wakulla Counties. This

subspecies is also a Florida endemic and prob-

ably occupies the greater portion of the western

half of Wakulla and the southwestern quarter

of Leon Counties.

The range of campestris is bounded on the

west by the Ochlocknee River, which, together

with the well-drained soils adjacent to it,

serves as an effective barrier in Leon and the

northern part of Wakulla Counties but is only a

partial barrier in the southern part of Wakulla

County; the eastern boundary is a region of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 35, NO. 8

high, well-drained soils extending through the

middle of Wakulla County to the Gulf. The

northern boundary lies in the southwestern

part of Leon County where the flatwoods end

in well-drained, rolling hills.

Variation.—There is no indication of in-

bred local populations among my specimens of

P. rogersi campestris; the only differences ob-

served seem to be individual ones, involving

sizes and positions of spines and tubercles.

Ecology Like the other members of this

species, rogerst campestris is a primary bur-

rower, apparently confined to flatwoods. The

flatwoods east of the Ochlocknee River are not

markedly different from those described in the

discussion of the ecology of P. rogersi rogersi,

except that the soil is underlain by hardpan

rather than clay. There are pines, wiregrass,

pitcherplants, sundews, etc., and the soil is

much the same general type—that is, most of it

is poorly drained and supports an abundant

growth of semiaquatic plants.

The burrows are very complex and often run

horizontally for several feet; many of them

reach the surface in several places. On one oc-

casion I dug into one of these burrows and

followed the spiral passage downward for 5

feet and still had not reached the bottom.

This burrow was about a hundred yards from

the border of a bayhead, and its unusual depth

was probably explained by the fact that just

prior to the time I collected here there had

been an unusually long dry season.

Several specimens of Crangonyx sp. were

taken from the burrows, some of them clinging

to the abdomens of the crayfish. Many ostra-

cods and branchiobdellid worms (Cambarin-

cola vitrea Ellis) were found clinging to the

crayfish.

In only two instances has another species

been collected with rogerst campestris. P. kilbyt

was taken from burrows adjacent to those of

campestris. The burrows of the two species,

however, are very distinct in that those of

kilbyi are generally simple, while those of

campestris are very complex. ,

Material examined.—Lron County: 12 miles

southwest of Tallahassee (11-2736-1, 2¢ HI,

27 HII, 109 9). WaxkutLta County": 28

11 Perhaps some of the locality records from

Wakulla County should be listed under the inter-

grade localities, although most of the specimens

taken here are scarcely to be distinguished from

typical campestris.

Aue. 15, 1945

miles north of Sopchoppy [State Highway 127]

(6-538-6, 1@1); 2 miles south of Sopchoppy

[U. S. Highway 319] (5-2940-8, 1@II, 42 9,

22 2 imm.);7.5 miles northwest of Sopchoppy

[State Highway 127] (6-538-8b, 19); 7 miles

north of Sopchoppy [State Highway 127]

(6-538-9, 1 #II); 16 miles southwest of Talla-

hassee (8-0436-2,6 9 9).

INTERGRADES

The characters in which the evidences of

intergradation are most clearly seen are the

structure of the first pleopod of the male and

of the annulus ventralis of the female. The

variations in these structures are gradual and

essentially quantitative rather than discon-

tinuous ones. In the male there is, from one

extremity of the range to the other, a gradual

change in the degree of bending of certain of

the terminal processes and in the relative

sizes of the various tips. (See Figs. 1, 4, 10,

13, and 17-33.) For example, the caudal

process of the first pleopod of the males from

Calhoun County (rogersi) is bent laterad at a

right angle to the main shaft of the appendage.

In specimens from Gulf and Franklin Coun-

ties, west of the Apalachicola River (inter-

grades), the process, while bent, forms less than

a right angle with the main shaft. Specimens

from Franklin County east of the Apalachi-

cola River and from southern Liberty County

(intergrades) have this process even more erect,

and finally, in material from Wakulla and Leon

Counties (campestris), and from northern

Liberty and Gadsden Counties (ochlocknensis),

the process is still more nearly straight. In the

region of intergradation occasional specimens

occur which are structurally out of place, but

considering the series as a whole the gradation

is quite evident.

Similarly the annulus ventralis shows grad-

ual changes in gross shape, in configuration of

the fossa and sinus, and in surface contour.

(See Figs. 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, and 12.) In speci-

mens from Calhoun County (rogersi) this

structure is subelliptical, with the longest axis

directed laterad and with only a few very small

tubercles on the cephalic border, which is en-

tire. In specimens from west of the Apalachi-

cola River in Bay and Gulf Counties (inter-

grades) the annulus is broader than long,

but this characteristic is not so marked as in

the Calhoun County females; the tubercles on

HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH

257

the cephalic border are also more strongly

developed. In specimens from east of the

Apalachicola in Franklin and Liberty Counties

(intergrades) the annulus ventralis is more

elongate and the tubercles decidedly higher.

The opposite extreme from the annulus ven-

tralis of the Calhoun County specimens is seen

in the females from Gadsden County (ochlock-

nensis). Here it is much longer than broad, the

cephalic margins strongly tuberculate and cleft.

The campestris population in Wakulla and

Leon Counties has the annulus ventralis more

like the Franklin County intergrades.

Additional similarly merging variations may

be noted in the figures of these structures.

While there are other differences between the

three geographic races, they do not show so

clearly the gradual blending exhibited by the

first pleopod of the male and the annulus ven-

tralis of the female.

As shown by the accompanying map, the

area inhabited by the intergrades is larger

than the combined ranges of the three defined

races, and extends considerably to the west

along the coast. That the population of this

area does not itself constitute a recognizable

race distinct from the others, as might be sus-

pected on geographical grounds, becomes evi-

dent when the variation described above is

further analyzed. In western Franklin County

the crayfish are most nearly intermediate in

characteristics between r. rogersi, r. campestris,

and r. ochlocknensis, and at the same time are

the most heterogeneous, showing the most vari-

able admixtures of the characters of the three

races. The farther east one goes in Franklin and

southern Wakulla Counties the more nearly

does the population approach campestris, while

in northern Franklin and southern Liberty

counties a similar approach occurs to typical

ochlocknensis. Just west of the Apalachicola

River the population is still highly variable,

but shows a tendency toward rogersi, and prob-

ably intergrades fully with that race in the

north-central part of Gulf County. Farther

west the population is still heterogeneous,

though closer to rogersit than to either of the

more eastern races; however, it can not even be

called atypical rogersi, since features suggest-

ing campestris and ochlocknensis, which are

never present in typical rogersi, occur in in-

dividual specimens.

Two rather startling situations involving

258

specimens from local areas in Bay County de-

serve further remarks. One of these peculiar

situations arises in the peninsula, herein desig-

nated as the San Blas Peninsula, between East

Bay and the Gulf. The first pleopods of the

males taken in this peninsula are almost typical

of rogerst rogerst from Calhoun County, while

the annulus ventralis in the females is not

nearly so typical—being similar to that of the

intergrades found in other sections of Bay

County and in Gulf County. This condition

is peculiar, since both males and females from

the mainland to the north and east are defi-

nitely of the intergrade types. Perhaps an ex-

planation for this apparently local condition

may be made by the further assumption that

rogerst rogerst had already become differen-

tiated by the end of the Pamlico submergence,

and as the land emerged to the south, this

species followed the retreating shore line,

moving out into the area now constituting the

San Blas Peninsula. Subsequent influx of the

ochlocknensis and the campestris stocks from

the east resulted in the intergradation (hybrid-

ization) of these stocks in Gulf and Bay coun-

ties, but at the same time establishing two

semi-isolated areas of rogerst rogersi—one in

Calhoun County, the range of typical rogersi,

and the other in the San Blas Peninsula, the

later perhaps being more subject to inter-

gradation than the former because of its geo-

graphical and less well isolated position.

The other region that needs further remarks

is the one seemingly isolated on the west side

of West Bay. I have only three specimens from

the West Bay region, a male, form I, taken 1.5

miles north of West Bay, and two females col-

lected about 1 mile south of it. The pleopod

of the male very closely approximates that of

rogerst campestris, but the annuli ventralis, the

rostra, and chelae are not typical of any of the

subspecies. It has been supposed that there was

a continuous area occupied by rogersi across

the northern shore of both East and West Bay,

but recently in attempting to collect this species

in this area I drove north along State Highway

52 through the flatwoods section and west from

Vicksburg to West Bay on State Highway 83

and was unable to locate.a single rogerst bur-

row. This, of course, does not indicate the

- absence of rogersi in the area, but the fact that

I did not find it there at least opens the ques-

tion as to what path of migration the stock

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 8

took to reach the western shore of West Bay.

This might lead one to wonder whether or not

the San Blas Peninsula and the adjacent

peninsula to the west were at one time con-

nected.

The coastal area of intergradation appears,

therefore, to be a zone in which tendencies

characteristic of all three races are complexly

intermingled. Whether the three named races

have arisen through isolation from this stock

of intergrades or whether the intergrading

coastal population represents later mingling of

three stocks that had earlier attained morpho-

logical separation is a question. Evidence to be

cited below suggests that the latter is the more

likely hypothesis.

There is little doubt that the rogersi stock

was derived from the primitive advena stock,

and it seems likely that r. ochlocknensis is the

most primitive form of the complex. The first

pleopod as well as the other morphological

characters of r. ochlocknensis are very similar

to those of P. advena of southwest-central

Georgia. Further evidence to support the sup-

position that the rogerst complex was derived

from an ancestral advena stock lies in the fact

that advena occurs in the region of the head-

waters of the Ochlocknee, and r. ochlocknensis

seems to be almost confined to its drainage

system in Liberty and Gadsden Counties,

Florida. From this stock the two other well-

defined races probably arose through isolation,

and the variable coastal population of inter-

grades has probably arisen through later

mingling of these once isolated groups. Such a

history of isolation followed by remingling may

be related to what is known of the geological

history of this part of Florida during the

Pleistocene.

According to C. Wythe Cooke (1939) in his

recent study of the Pleistocene terraces of

Florida, Florida was even more emergent dur-

ing the interval between the Talbot and Pam-

lico stages than it is today. At this time it

would have been possible for the ancestral

ochlocknensis stock to have entered the present

territories occupied by rogers: and campestris

by way of the flat lands bordering the Gulf.

This period was followed by the Pamlico sub-

mergence, which pushed the coastline well in-

land, and may well have been the isolating fac-

tor responsible for the differentiation of the

three races, which were then separated by well-

Aug. 15, 1945

marked barriers on all sides. The emergence of

recent times, with the reestablishment of broad

areas of coastal flatwoods suitable for occu-

pancy by the members of the rogerst complex,

would then account for the remingling of the

stocks and the production of the coastal “‘inter-

grades” discussed above.

Under present conditions it is evident that

the Ochlocknee and Apalachicola Rivers are at

least partial barriers to the dispersal of these

crayfishes, particularly where there are belts of

well-drained soils along their eastern banks.

Where such soils intervene there is no evidence

of intergradation across these barriers even

where the ranges are quite close together. To

the south, however, where suitable habitats

exist on either side of the rivers, the streams

themselves evidently still act as partial bar-

riers, since there is a definite change in the char-

acteristics of the intergrade populations at the

rivers.

Material examined.—My evidence of inter-

gradation of the three subspecies of Procam-

barus rogersit is based on approximately 220

specimens collected in Calhoun, Gulf, Bay,

Franklin, Wakulla, Gadsden, and Leon Coun-

ties, Fla. This listing constitutes a detailed

record of the distribution of the intergrades.

_ Bay County: 18 miles west of Port St. Joe

[U. S. Highway 98] (6-638-8a, 1 7II); 17 miles

west of Panama City [State Highway 10] (6-

638-9b, 1 2); 20.6 miles east of Panama City

[U. S. Highway 98] (5-3040-7a, 1 II, 22 9);

6.3 miles west of Beacon Hill [U. 8. Highway

98] (5-341-2, 27 71, 27 All, 12 with eggs);

12 miles west of Beacon Hill [U. 8. Highway 98]

(5-341-4a, 1 II); 16.8 miles west of Beacon

Hill [U. S. Highway 98] (5-341-5a, 1¢I, 19

with eggs); 5.3 miles southeast of Panama City

[U. S. Highway 98] (5-341-6, 49 9, 19 with

eggs); 0.7 miles north of Panama City [State

Highway 52] (5-341-7a, 2 9 2); 2.4 miles north

of Panama City [State Highway 52] (5-341-8,

1 9,1 2 with eggs); 3 miles east of Panama City

[State Highway 52] (5-341-12, 29 9); 7.8

miles east of Panama City [State Highway 52]

(5-341-13a, 19); 13.1 miles east of Panama

City [State Highway 52] (5-341-l4a, 2a a7I,

1 7II, 22 9); 1 mile south of West Bay [State

Highway 10] (10-1641-6a, 1I)!*; 1.5 miles

2 This was a second form male when caught on

October 16, 1941, and molted to first form on

December 20, 1941.

HOBBS: THE FLORIDA BURROWING CRAYFISH

259

north of West Bay [State Highway 10] (10-

1641-7, 19). FRANKLIN County: Franklin-

Wakulla County line [U. 8. Highway 319]

(6-538-11, 1 II, 1 9); 6.9 miles west of Car-

rabelle [U. S. Highway 319] (6-638-2a, 2 7 @IlI,

32 9,19 with young); 9.9 miles west of Car-

rabelle [U. S. Highway 319] (6-638-3, 1 @II,

19); 3.38 miles west of Apalachicola [U. S.

Highway 98] (6-638-4, 1 @II, 3 9 9,192 imma-

ture); 3.8 miles west of Apalachicola [U. S.

Highway 98] (6-638-6, 1 #II); 23.3 miles east

of Port St. Joe [U. 8. Highway 98] (5-3040-4a,

22 2);5 miles west of Carrabelle [U. 8. High-

way 319] (5-3040-1, 37 @#II, 32 2); 12 miles

west of Carrabelle [U. S. Highway 319] (5-

3040-2, 29 9); 4.2 miles west of Apalachicola

[U. S. Highway 98] (5-3040-3, 1 9); 1.9 miles

south of Sumatra [State Highway 12] (5-241-8,

30° FI, 22 9); 8.4 miles south of Sumatra

[State Highway 12] (5-241-10a, 1 9 with eggs);

15.1 miles southeast of Sumatra [State High-

way 12] (5-241-lla, 1 2); 20.9 miles southeast

of Sumatra [State Highway 12] (5-241-12,

1 II); 25.5 miles south of Sumatra [State

Highway 12] (5-241-13, 19); Intersection of

State Highway 12 and U. 8S. Highway 319 (5-

241-14a, 3771, 1AII, 3 2 2); 3 miles south-

west of intersection of State Highway 12 and

U. S. Highway 319 (5-241-15, 19); 2.3 miles

west of Apalachicola [U. 8. Highway 98] (5-

241-16, 1#I, 27 #II, 1 2); 6.9 miles west of

Apalachicola [U. S. Highway 98] (5-241-17a,

2% HII); 11.5 miles west of Apalachicola

[U. S. Highway 98] (5-241-18, 1 7imm., 19

with eggs). GuLtr County: 5.6 miles north of

Port St. Joe [State Highway 6] (4-738-4, 1 @II,

12); 0.5 mile west of Wewahitchka [State

Highway 52] (5-341-15, 1 #1); 17.6 miles west

of Apalachicola [U. 8. Highway 98] (5-241-19,

17II, 19). Liperty County: Vilas (9-

1835-1, 1 II, 29 2); 2.6 miles south of Hos-

ford [State Highway 135] (5-141-6, 27 @#Il,

19); 4.8 miles south of Telogia [State High-

way 135] (5-241-la, 1 fI, 1 @II, 1 9); 12 miles

south of Telogia [State Highway 135] (5-241-4,

2% II, 19); 2.6 miles southeast of Wilma

[State Highway 135] (5-241-5a, 1 7II, 22 9);

6.9 miles southeast of Wilma [State Highway

135] (5-241-6a, 1 @I, 1 @II); 12.1 miles south

of Wilma [State Highway 135] (5-241-7a

Pe aS)

LITERATURE CITED

Cooks, C. Wyrue. Scenery of Florida. Flor-

260

ida Geol. Surv. Bull. 17: 1-118, 58 pls.

1939.

Harper, Rotanp M. Geography and vegeta-

tion of northern Florida. 6th Ann. Rep.

Florida State Geol. Surv.: 163-437, figs.

41-90. 1914.

Hay, W. P. Description of two new species of

crayfish. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 22: 121-

123, 2 figs. 1899.

Hosss, Horton H., Jr. A new crawfish from

Florida. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci.

28: 61-65, 11 figs. 19388.

Seven new crayfishes of the genus

Cambarus from Florida, with notes on

other species. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 89:

387-423, figs. 14-22. 1940.

. A generic revision of the crayfishes of the

subfamily Cambarinae (Decapoda, Asta-

cidae) with the description of a new genus

and species. Amer. Midl. Nat. 28: 334-357,

3pls. 1942a.

. The crayfishes of Florida. Univ. Flor-

ida Publ., biol. ser., 3 (2): 1-179, 3 figs.,

11 maps, 24 pls. 1942b.

. Two new crayfishes from the Panhandle

of Florida. Proc. Florida Acad. Sci. 6: 49-

58,2 pls. 1942c.

Walton

Wt rogers! rogers!

MT rogers! campestris

== rogers! ochlocknee

es sees cees FOgerst ‘ntergrades

. WS advera

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 8

LeConteE, Joun. Descriptions of new species

of Astacus from Georgia. Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 7: 400-402. 1856.

NOTE

This paper was originally accepted for pub-

lication in the Proceedings of the United States

National Museum, and it was cited as “in

press” in my Crayfishes of Florida (Hobbs,

1942). Wartime restrictions, however, so de-

layed publication by the Museum that the

manuscript was withdrawn and submitted to

this JoURNAL in order that the full descriptions

of the two new subspecies of Procambarus

rogerst might appear more promptly.

I wish to acknowledge the invaluable aid of

the following persons who have contributed to

my work on this paper, both through help in

procuring specimens and in preparation of the

manuscript and figures: Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt,

Profs. J. S. Rogers and T. H. Hubbell, Drs.

Lewis Berner, F. N. Young, and A. M. Laessle,

and Messrs. Lewis Marchand and W. L.

Brudon. Dr. C. J. Goodnight kindly identified

the branchiobdellids for me.

Gulf of Mexico

Fig. 34.—Distribution of Procambarus rogersi in Florida. The shaded areas indicate the extent of

coastal flatwoods or low areas along streams, which seem to be available to the rogersi stock. The two

localities lying outside of these areas in Gadsden and Liberty Counties are situated along streams that

drain into the Telogia River system, thence into the Ochlocknee. The black spots represent the localities

at which specimens were collected.

Ava. 15, 1945

MOORE: TWO NEW LEECHES

261

ZOOLOGY.—Two new leeches (Hirudinea) in the collection of the United States

National Museum.

municated by Waupo L. ScHMITT.)

The two leeches herein described are

among lots submitted through the interest

and kindness of Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt from

the collections of the U. 8S. National Mu-

seum. The first, from Mexico, is of excep-

tional interest. The other species occurs in

China and Burma.

Genus Diestecostoma Vaillant

Diestecostoma magna, n. sp.

Figs. 1-3

Material examined—Type, U.S.N.M. no.

20642, Rio de los Playas, head waters of Tonala

River between Veracruz and Chiapas, March

1-8, 1944, collected by M. W. Stirling; para-

type, labeled ‘‘Tehuantepec,” collected by

F. E. Sumichrast.?

Diagnosis.—Size large and form robust with

external characters of the genus. Eyes probably

normally four pairs on somites III to VI (an-

nuli 3, 4-5, 6, and 9). Total number of annuli

(not counting prostomium) 200 or 201. Com-

plete somites 12-annulate, all annuli of nearly

equal size. I, II, III each l-annulate, IV and

V 2-annulate, VI 3-annulate, VII 4-annulate,

VIII 7 or 8-annulate, IX and X 8-annulate, XI

and XII 9-annulate, XIII 10- or 9-annulate

XIV 1il-annulate, XV-XXII 12-annulate,

XXIII probably 10-annulate but may be 12-

annulate, XXIV—XXVII together of 19 or 17

annuli. Male pore XI b4/c9 (ann. 42/43 or

43/44), female pore XIII c9/c10 (ann. 62/63),

separated by 20 or 19 annuli. Anus 194/195

followed by 5 or 6 postanal annuli. Nephropores

not seen on VIII or IX, 14 pairs on X to

XXIII, first four separated by 9 annuli, fourth

and fifth by 10, and the next nine by 12 an-

nuli; last pair (seventeenth) united in a median

1 Received March 15, 1945.

2In his day Dr. Sumichrast was one of the

most valued correspondents of the Smithsonian

Institution. For many years he occupied himself

with a close and critical study of the natural his-

tory of Mexico, and he collected there for the In-

stitution from 1868 to 1876, giving special atten-

tion to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, collecting

principally in the states of Veracruz, Oaxaca, and

Chiapas, as well as Mexico and Puebla. As Dr.

Sumichrast’s notebooks seem no longer to be

available, it is not now possible to say where the

paratype was actually collected.

J. Percy Moors, University of Pennsylvania.

(Com-

ventral pore behind ann. 195. Color uniform

dark slate above, paler below. Black in life

(M. W. Stirling).

The three known species of the genus,

namely, D. octannulata, D. mexicana, and D.

magna, have complete somites respectively of

8, 10, and 12 annuli. Customarily this would

promote generic separation, but in this case

nothing would be gained thereby.

Description of type-—A stout leech (Fig. 1) of

very firm texture and thick, muscular body

walls; cylindroid throughout, little depressed

but- with venter somewhat flattened, tapered

at the ends; in general shaped much like an

earthworm and evidently adapted for burrow-

ing. Measurements in millimeters: length 103,

to male pore 19; widths, buccal ring 3.5, male

8.5, maximum (XIII, X XI) 10.3, anus ca. 9;

depths at same points, 2.3, 7, 7, ca 5; sucker

diameter 6.7. Head region small; lip partially

retracted into mouth but when drawn out

arched and as seen from below rather wedge-

shaped; its dorsum distinctly annulated and

areolated; constituted of a prostomial apical

lobe not separated by a distinct furrow from

the first annulus which forms somite I, follow-

ing which are four annuli constituting somites

II, III, and IV. Venter of lip with margins con-

verging into the buccal chamber, divided by a

deep median sulcus and three pairs of shallower

furrows into eight flat, smooth ridges. Peri-

stomium or buccal ring formed by the union

ventrally of the two annuli (6 and 7) of V,

deeply crenate on the margin and with slightly

extended small lateral lobes which partially

embrace the lateral ends of somite IV. Eyes

(Fig. 2) small, not forming a regular arch, the

four pairs of distinct pigment cups in two

groups on somites III and IV (annuli 3 and

4-5), and V (annulus 6) and VI (annulus 9);

besides these are two minute pigment spots,

one on the right side of II cephalad of the first

definitive eye and the other on VI a2 mediad of

the last right eye. Clitellar region somewhat

thickened and at the anterior end of XIII

forming one of the widest parts of the body,

but its limits not defined externally. Male

pore a minute opening in the furrow XI 64/c9,

262

Fie. 1.—Diestecostoma magna, n. sp., right

lateral aspect of type; X13.

‘that is, between the fifth and sixth annuli of

the somite or the total number of annuli

42/43; female pore at XIII c8/c9 (annuli

62/63) or 20 annuli caudad of the male, a large

orifice cutting into c8, which is somewhat re-

duced and at this point coalesced with c7.

Anus a large opening with furrowed margins

far forward (as in the Erpobdellidae) between

annuli 194/195 (counted on left side or 192/193

on right) into which it cuts. Postanal annuli 6,

making the total 201. Caudal sucker relatively

small, directed ventrad, with a broad peduncle

as in Erpobdella; the dorsum areolated as on

the body in five irregular transverse rows;

venter slightly cupped, finely granulated, more

coarsely toward the periphery where the mar-

gin is thick and crenulate, no radiating ridges

or furrows. Nephropores, 15 pairs actually seen,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 8

the last belonging to somite XXIV carried

caudad to the ventral face of the sucker pedun-

cle, where they are united in a large median

pore behind annulus 195, the last annulus de-

veloped on the venter. Fourteen pairs are con-

spicuous pores situated on the caudal border in

the ventral intermediate line of 62 or the

equivalent c4 of every somite from X to XXIII

inclusive, that is, on annuli numbered 31, 40,

49, 58, 68, 80, 92, 104, 116, 128, 140, 152, 164

(on left, 163 right), 176 (on left, 174 on right).

On somite VIII there is no trace of neph-

ropores, and on IX, while there are small

notches at the points where they would be ex-

pected, no actual pores were detected. Proba-

bly they are transferred to the buccal ring as

in D. mexicana (Baird), but this can be defi-

nitely determined only by means of sections.

Annulation strongly developed, the furrows

deep and on complete somites usually alter-

nately deeper so that the annuli appear grouped

in couples, presumably each of two tertiary

annuli, but there is some irregularity. Each

annulus divided on its dorsal half into usu-

ally 24 (up to 28) more or less quadrate areas

which are prominently convex, resulting in a

conspicuously pebbled surface, finely rough-

ened by numerous minute sensory papillae

mostly aggregated in a central group which be-

comes more elevated on annuli toward the

caudal end. Areolae often arranged more or less

regularly in longitudinal series continuing over

several annuli but oftener staggered and inter-

locking, especially in the median field. Meta-

meric sensillae not distinguished. On the

shorter span of ventral half-annuli an equal

number of smaller, smoother, flatter areas.

With only the eyes on the head and the nephro-

pores in the middle body region to serve as

metameric criteria, the following is a tentative

determination of the probable composition of

the somites: I, which is scarcely separated from

the prostomium, II and II each uniannulate;

IV incompletely and V fully biannulate, the

latter united ventrally to form the buccal ring;

VI 3-annulate (8-10) complete both dorsally

and ventrally. Four pairs of eyes on III to VI,

a minute supplementary eye on the right side

of II and one on VI. VII 4-annulate (11-14),

al slightly >a2=6b5 =b6. VIII 7-annulate (15-

21) probably 63 =b4 =b5 slightly >b1 =b2 =c11

=c12. IX 8-annulate (22-29) b1 to b4>c9 to

c12, in four pairs, possible nephropores on b2

Ava. 15, 1945

(23). X 8-annulate (30-37), like IX but with

first certain nephropores on 62 (31). XI 9-

annulate (38—46), three larger annuli in middle

preceded by two and followed by four small

ones, 62 =b3 =b4 >cl =c2 =c9 to c12; nephro-

pore b2 (40), male pore b4/c9 (42/43). XII 9-

annulate (47-55) like XI but no male pore,

nephropore b2 (49). XIIT 10-annulate (56-65)

like XII except that b4 is apparently divided

into c? and c8 making two slightly larger pre-

ceded by two and followed by six smaller

annuli; female pore c8/c9 (62/63), nephropore

b2 (58). XIV doubtfully 11l-annulate (66-76)

all tertiaries but 62, the third annulus; nephro-

pore b2 (68). XV-XXI (77-160) each 12-an-

nulate with all tertiaries (cl-c/2) developed

and more or less distinctly arranged in pairs,

nephropores on the fourth annulus, c4 (every

12th annulus from 80 to 152). XXII 12-annu-

late (161-172) similar to foregoing except that

owing to split, spiral, and conjoined annuli,

especially in the region of a1, two large annuli

on the right side replace four small ones on the

left, resulting in asymmetry and a discrepancy

in the count on the two sides for the remainder

of the length; nephropore on left side normal,

op fourth annulus (164), on right side far for-

ward in the large third annulus (163). XXIII

probably 10-annuate (173-182 left, 171-180

right), nephropore on fourth annulus (c4 176

or 174). Caudad of XXIII, counted as 10-

annulate, are 19 annuli which constitute som-

ites XXIV to XXVII inclusive, but there are

no external criteria for determining their limits.

Some annuli in the anal region are much larger

dorsally and taper to little or behind 195 to

nothing ventrally but this is due to the strong

curvature ventrad. Color as preserved uni-

form dark slate above, paler below; according

to Mr. Stirling black in life.

Description of the paratype—The paratype

was collected by Dr. Sumichrast (see footnote,

page 261). When living it was probably almost

as large as the type, but now it is more con-

tracted and artifically more flattened and

somewhat distorted. It measures in millimeters:

length 78.2, to male pore 16; widths, buccal 2.5,

male 7.5, maximum (middle of length) 12.2,

anus 7.2, depths at same points 2.5, 6.5, 8.6,

4.5; diameter of sucker 6. Annulation and

other characters agree with the type, but the

areolation is largely smoothed out as a result

of softening and abrasion of the surface due to

MOORE: TWO NEW LEECHES

263

long preservation. There are some minor dif-

ferences. Eyes four pairs, arranged as in the

type on somites III to VI, none detected on II

and no supplementary eyes on VI. Male pore

at XI b4/c9 (annuli 43/44), the additional an-

nulus being due to an extra pregenital one, ap-

parently in VIII, which appears to have eight

instead of seven as on the type, but this is com-

pensated on XIII which is 9- instead of 10-

annulate, with female pore at 62/63 (probably

b4/c9) 19 annuli behind the male. Both genital

pores are relaxed and large. Nephropores are

Fig. 2.—D. magna: type, segmentation of

cephalic region from dorsum, semidiagrammatic;

annuli numbered on left, somites on right side;

P, prostomial lobe; <5.

Fic. 3.—D. magna, dissection of buccopharyn-

gial region of paratype, from the venter; b, buccal

chamber laid open; b7, buccal ring; 7, right lateral

jaw; l, lip; p, dorsal papilla; ph, pharynx; pr,

prostomium; v, velum; somites numbered in

Roman; X6.

spaced exactly as on the type. None found on

VIII and very doubtfully on IX but from X to

XXIII they are evident, the first four being

each separated by nine annuli, the fourth and

fifth by 10, and the remaining rine pairs by 12

annuli, the last pair belonging to XXIV being

united in a median opening at the base of the

sucker. Anus at 194/195 followed by five an-

nuli, making the total number 200. Owing to

strong contraction the annuli for the most part

are very narrow and crowded but on the dor-

sum are distinct and easily counted. In places,

however, they are unequally contracted, and

on the venter of the clitellar region are much

split and interconnected.

264

Fig. 4.—Hirudinaria javanica similis, n. subsp.,

dorsal and ventral views of type specimen; X2.

Anatomy.—Neither specimen is suitable for

complete anatomical study, and any dissection

that might result in mutilation is prohibited

because the specimens are unique. The pharyn-

gobuccal region of the cotvpe was cautiously

opened (Fig. 3), bringing to light conditions

quite like those described by Cabellero (1940)

for his Hygrobdella pelaezt = Diestecostoma mex-

icana (Baird, 1869) and in a forthcoming paper

by the writer to be published by the Bishop

Museum. The buccal chamber is spacious (Fig.

3b) and extends to the end of somite VII, where

it is bounded by the velum (v). The inner sur-

face is marked by a circular furrow, which de-

limits the buccal ring internally, and in its

cephalic part by longitudinal furrows, some of

which are continuations of those on the ventral

face of the lip. These fade out in the caudal half

where they are replaced by a few irregular,

more or less branched wrinkles. The velum (v)

is a prominent curtainlike diaphragm with

deeply scalloped border forming the boundary

between the buccal and pharyngeal chambers

at VII/VIII. Immediately cephalad of it in the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 8

dorsomedian line is a soft triangular papilla (p)

terminated by a short filiform process. The

pharynx (ph) is a muscular organ lying in so-

mite VIII and partly in 1X. The cephalic end

terminated by three lobes projects freely into

an introverted pharyngeal chamber lined by a

thin flexible membrane and obviously capable

of limited protrusion somewhat as in the

rhynchobdellid leeches but much less, although

much more than in haemadipsines which show

some approach to this condition. The three

pharyngeal lobes are median dorsal and right

and left ventral and each bears a small but

prominent toothed jaw (j). Each jaw bears on

a median ridge a series of teeth the form and

number of which were not ascertained. On the

type two ganglia of the ventral chain in com-

plete somites XVII and XVIII were exposed

through a cut that had been conveniently

made at the time of collection. Relatively to

the size of the leech they are small. As they lie

in the two annuli immediately succeeding that

on which the nephropores open they agree with

the latter in fixing the position of the primary

al and a2 components of complete somites.

This, however, while helpful, does not certainly

fix the limits of the somites which was done

for the middle body region on the additional

evidence supplied by the tendency of every

alternate furrow to be somewhat deeper, thus -

uniting the tertiary annuli in pairs. The posi-

tion of the nephropores in relation to the split

annuli on somite X XII, as well as comparison

of the 3 known species of the genus, also sup-

port the interpretation adopted herein. There

are, however, two less probable interpretations

than the one adopted in this paper. Until ma-

terial for a complete anatomical study is avail-

able the exact interpretation of the annulation

must remain uncertain.

Little is known of the life and habits of this

leech. Ina letter Mr. Stirling kindly writes that

his specimen was found along with another of

similar size in*fairly dry earth a few inches be-

neath the surface while he was excavating a

ball court in the forest. They impressed him as

being black (probably dark slate color) and

were dry and not covered with mucus, which is

obviously true of the preserved specimen. The

paratype must be at least 74 years old, as Fran-

cis Sumichrast made his collections in Tehuan-

tepec in the late 1860’s and early 1870’s.

In D. mexicana (Baird), the genotype, the

Ava. 15, 1945

first pair of nephropores, which in most leeches

open on somite VIII, are carried forward by

long ducts to open on the inner surface of the

buceal ring, thus resembling the true land

leeches (Haemadipsinae). In D. mexicana, also,

there is evidence that the first and second pairs

of nephridia are united and that the buccal out-

let serves both. A similar condition in D.

magna would explain the failure to find nephro-

pores on both VIII and IX.

Genus Hirudinaria Whitman

Hirudinaria javanica similis, n. subsp.

Fig. 4

Material examined.—Four specimens, in-

eluding the type (U.S.N.M. no. 20644). Col-

lected at Yun Hsien, Yunnan Province, China,

by W. L. Jellison, March 16, 1948. One speci-

men, labeled “‘Indian Museum, Z.E.V. 4871.

Mainma Dist., N. Burma, Chinese frontier,”

collected by T. Rennie, June 10, 1911, from

pool of water in which buffaloes wallow. This

specimen was taken with a large number of H.

javanica javanica, some of which had gonopores

in intermediate positions.

Description.—Based. upon these five speci-

mens, this form is distinguished from typical

H. javanica Wahlberg by the separation of the

gonopores by nine instead of seven annuli, the

male pore being at XI a2/b5 (ann. 30/31) and

the female at XIII 62/a2 (39/40). In size,

form, color pattern, annulation, arrangement

of areolae, and other external characters there

is complete agreement with typical H. javanica,

but in a few respects, as in the position of the

gonopores, this form seems to pass beyond the

limits of variation of typical javanica. Among

these is the number of sucker rays as counted

at the margin, which is 53 or 54 in the speci-

mens of similis, while 40 to 48 is most usual in

javanica. However, this has little significance

as some rays are entirely undivided, whereas

others bifurcate two or even three times, the

last division often appearing close to the pe-

riphery of the sucker. The sensillae appear to

MILLER: A NEW ENGRAULID FISH FROM MEXICO

265

be relatively smaller but have the same dis-

tribution, elliptical form, and angular devia-

tion from the body axis as in javanica. Two

specimens dissected differ in respect to the fe-

male organs from those of H. javanica as de-

scribed in Fauna of British India—Hirudinea

(p. 217) in having much shorter oviducts and

larger prostate glands. Other dissections of H.

javanica, however, show variations in both re-

spects partly bridging this gap. The salivary

papillae on the jaws of one specimen studied

are somewhat more numerous, there being on

each side about 19 of the smaller size, mostly

in a row close to the dentigerous ridge but a

few on the jaw peduncle, and 15 of the larger

scattered or in short irregular rows on the sides

of the jaws. The former measure 0.029 to

0.037 mm and the latter 0.05 to 0.064 in a

specimen of medium size.

The difference in the number of annuli sepa-

rating the gonopores involves not one but two

characters, as the positions of the male and

female pores vary independently. In the col-

lection of the Indian Museum are specimens of

H. javanica in which either of these is shifted

from the furrow somewhat into the bounding

annuli (Moore, 1922, p. 212), the female pore

tending to move to a more caudal, the male to

a cephalic position, resulting in intermediates

between the two subspecies.

Typical H. javanica is abundant in Assam

and Burma, and present information indicates

that in North Burma there is a tendency for the

gonopores to separate more widely and that

at the northward limit of the known distribu-

tion of the species in the Burmo-Chinese fron-

tier area there is a population in which nine

full annuli intervene.

The type of H. j.:similis is an individual of

medium size measuring, in millimeters: length

61, to male pore 13; widths, buccal ring 4.4,

male 7, maximum (ca. XV) 11, anus 3.5;

depths at same points ca. 3, 2.8, 3.5, 2.3; caudal

sucker 7.

ICHTHYOLOGY.—Anchoviella analis, a new engraulid fish from the west coast of

Mexico.

During the World’s Columbian Exposi-

tion in Chicago in 1893, the Mexican

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

a roman Institution. Received May 25,

Rosert R. Miuuer, U.S. National Museum.

Government exhibited representative fishes,

mostly from the fresh waters of central and

southern Mexico. The specimens were sub-

sequently preserved and donated to the

United States National Museum. Among

266

the many lots in this collection I found

four engraulids which, because of a com-

bination of very distinctive characters, are

described below as new. 3

Genus Anchoviella Fowler

Anchoviella analis, n. sp.

Fig. 1

Generic reference.—In technical characters

this species agrees with the genus Anchoviella

and the subgenus Anchoviella as recently de-

fined by Hildebrand.? Gill membranes narrowly

attached anteriorly; teeth in jaws small and

nearly equal in size; origin of anal fin nearly

under that of dorsal fin; more than 165 gill

rakers on lower limb of first gill arch; body deep

and strongly compressed; anal fin base long;

maxillary not reaching joint of mandible (but

extending beyond posterior rim of orbit a dis-

tance about equal to diameter of. pupil) and

broadly rounded posteriorly, rather than

pointed as in Anchovia and Anchoa. The size

and shape of the maxillary form the principle

character by which Anchoviella differs from

Anchoa. Dr. 8. F. Hildebrand has kindly ex-

amined the types and agrees that the species

should be placed in Anchoviella.

Holotype—U.S.N.M. No. 131168, a speci-

men 82 mm. in standard length, collected in

Laguna de Mexcaltitan, Nayarit (formerly

Territory of Tepic), Mexico. .

Paratypes—U.S.N.M. No. 1380857, three

specimens 60 to 74 mm. long, secured with the

holotype and bearing the same data. All the

types are somewhat shrunken.

The position of the type locality (shown on

the American Geographic Society Map NF 18,

Guadalajara, edition of 1940) is approximately

9 miles west-southwest of Tuxpan, which is

nearly 39 miles northwest of Tepic. Mexcalti-

tan is a small settlement near latitude 23° N..,

longitude 105° 30’ W., on an arm of a lagoon

which is connected to the Pacific by a mean-

dering channel about 10 miles long. In 1893

this lagoon may have been called Laguna de

Mexcaltitan; the original label with the fish

read Laguna de Mezcaltitlan.

Diagnosis.—A deep-bodied, compressed An-

choviella, with a rather long maxillary (but not

reaching to joint of mandible), and with a very

long anal fin of 31 to 35 total rays (29 to 31

* Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 8 (2): 11-12,

108-109. 1948.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 35, NO. 8

principal rays),? the origin of which is almost

directly under that of the front of the dorsal

fin.

Description—In the following description

the measurements and counts for the holotype

are given first, followed by those for the three

paratypes, in order of decreasing size. The

method of presentation is essentially the same

as that followed by Hildebrand (loc. cit.). The

measurements were stepped off with a pair of

fine dividers and are expressed as percentages

of the various parts indicated, usually esti-

mated to the nearest tenth and occasionally to

the nearest hundredth.

Standard length in mm 82 (74, 64, 60); head

in standard length 4.3 (4.1, 4.2, 4.2); width of

body in its depth (measurement approximate)

4.1 (3.9, 3.8, 4.0); depth of body in standard

length (measurement approximate) 4.1 (4.0,

4.1, 4.1); eye in head 3.3 (8.4, 3.4, 3.2); eye in

postorbital 1.6 (1.6, 1.7, 1.5); post-orbital in

standard length 8.2 (7.9, 8.0, 8.05); snout in

head 5.4 (5.3, 5.1, 5.38); mandible in standard

length 7.4 (7.2, 7.3, 6.75); mandible in head

1.75 (1.75, 1.65, 1.6); maxillary in head 1.75

(1.75, 1.65, 1.6); dorsal base in head 2.5 (3.0,

2.6, 2.8); anal base in standard length 2.6 (2.7,

2.7, 2.85); pectoral in standard length 5.6 (5.1,

5.45, 5.1); pectoral in head 1.3 (1.2, 1.3, 1.2);

pelvic in head 2.5 (2.35, 2.4, 2.3); axillary scale

of pectoral in head 2.8 (2.7, 2.65, 2.6); dorsal

rays 13 (12, 13, 12); anal rays 35 (33, 35, 31);

pectoral rays 12-13 (12-12, 13-13, 12-12);

pelvic rays invariably 7; scales (approximate)

40 (39, 40, 38); gill rakers (above and below

angle of first arch) 19+24 (19423, 18424,

19 +424). .

Body deep and strongly compressed, the

thinness exaggerated by shrinkage. Ventral

profile more curved than the dorsal. Head

rather short and deep, its depth at joint of

mandible about 1.38 to 1.4 in head length;

snout short and bluntly pointed, projecting

well beyond tip of mandible. Dorsal fin rather

high and short, the anterior (longest) rays

(broken in holotype) reaching far beyond tip

of last ray when depressed, its origin equi-

3 In the enumeration of principal dorsal and

anal fin rays, the first ray counted was the first

long, unbranched ray, followed by branched rays;

two rudimentary rays invariably precede this ray

in both fins. In order to make the counts agree

with those in the most recent review by Hilde-

brand, the total count was used.

Ava. 15, 1945

distant between caudal base and some point on

pupil; anal fin base long, its origin almost di-

rectly under that of dorsal origin and equi-

distant between caudal base and middle to

posterior of pupil; pelvics small, extending more

than halfway to anal origin, inserted about

equidistant between anal origin and pectoral

base; pectorals long, extending slightly beyond

insertion of pelvics.

Color of specimens in alcohol dark brown,

with a silvery band, which is rather wide an-

tériorly but narrow between dorsal and anal

origins and is very narrow on caudal peduncle;

its ventral margin is not clear-cut, but the

greatest width of the band is about two-thirds

to three-fourths the eye diameter. Rather fine,

dark pigment spots on tip of snout, along ridge

of back, base of dorsal, and a few along base of

anal. Sides of head silvery, with a metallic

bluish luster.

Relationships—Anchoviella analis_ differs

from any known American species of the genus

in the long, many-rayed anal fin and in the

anterior position of this fin. In number of anal

rays it is closest to nattererx (Steindachner),

described from Pard, Brazil, which has 28 or 29

(possibly 30 to 31 total rays). The new species

differs prominently from Hildebrand’s account

of natterert (condensed from Steindachner’s de-

scription) in the much more anterior insertion

of the anal fin (origin of anal about under

middle of base of dorsal in natterert), much

shorter snout (5.1 to 5.3 rather than 4.0 in

head), and in having the maxillary bluntly

pointed (rather than nearly square) posteriorly.

It is obvious that analis is not closely related to

natterert. Superficial resemblance is seen be-

MILLER: A NEW ENGRAULID FISH FROM MEXICO

267

tween analis and pallida (Starks), as figured by

Hildebrand,‘ but analis has much fewer gill

rakers (28 to 34+36 to 45 in pallida) and

more anal rays.

Anchoviella analis much more nearly re-

sembles certain species of the closely related

genus Anchoa, notably A. panamensis (Stein-

dachner), known from Mazatlan to Peru. It

agrees with panamensis in the number of anal

rays, the origin of the anal fin, the shape of the

head, the compressed body, and the length of

the pectoral fin but disagrees on the important

character of the length and shape of the maxil-

lary which, in panamensis, is slender and

pointed and is much longer, 1.2 to 1.4 rather

than 1.6 to 1.75 in the head length. The rather

remarkable resemblances between analis and

panamensis may be more real than superficial,

however, and analis might be considered an

aberrant Anchoa, with an exceptionally short,

blunt maxillary. If that view were adopted,

however, the principal generic difference be-

tween Anchoa and Anchoviella would fail and

Anchoa would become a synonym of Ancho-

viella. To base such a move on the few speci-

mens before me seems entirely unwarranted.

Differences judged to be of generic value often

lose their sharpness in borderline species.

Assoctates—The following species were found

wrapped in the same lot with the new species:

Anchovia macrolepidota (Kner and _ Stein-

dachner), Anchoa lucida (Jordan and Gilbert),

Diapterus peruvianus (Cuvier), and a species of

Gobionellus.

Etymology.—The new species is named analis

because of the very long anal fin base.

4 Loc. cit., fig. 59, p. 134.

Fic. 1.—Holotype of Anchoviella analis, n. sp., U.S.N.M. No. 131168, 82 mm in

standard length. Drawn by Nancy Patton.

Obituary

Merton Benway Waits, retired member

of the Washington Academy of Sciences, died

on June 5, 1945, after a short illness. He is sur-

vived by his wife, Elizabeth Hurdle Waite,

and his two sons, Merton and Malden, both

of whom are captains in the Army. Dr. Waite

was born near Oregon, Ill., on January 28,

1865, of sturdy pioneer stock and was himself a

pioneer in the application of botanical knowl-

edge to the art of horticulture.

Waite entered the University of Illinois, pre-

sumably to become trained as a civil engineer,

but his love and knowledge of plants and the

influence of Prof. T. J. Burrell soon turned his

major interest to botany, an interest that con-

tinued to the date of his last sickness. Follow-

ing his graduation from the University of

Illinois in 1887, he was assistant to Professor

Burrell until November 1888 when he was in-

duced to enter the old Division of Vegetable

Pathology of the U. S. Department of Agri-

culture. He continued in this Division and in

the Bureau of Plant Industry that suceeded it

until his retirement in 1935. In 1919 the Uni-

versity of Maryland conferred on him the hon-

orary degree doctor of agriculture. For many

years he was in charge of the Office, later

Division, of Fruit Disease Investigations and

was an acknowledged authority on that sub-

ject. His discovery that the bacterium causing

blight of pomaceous fruits was disseminated

by insects was epoch-making because it was

the first proof that a plant disease could be

disseminated by insects and possibly antedated

similar discoveries for animal diseases. He also

developed and put in practice methods for the

control of this disease which are still in use,

particularly in the Pacific Coast States. He also

contributed greatly to the development of con-

trol measures for many other destructive dis-

eases of fruits. He discovered and by elaborate

experiments showed conclusively that with

certain varieties of pears and other fruits cross

pollination is necessary for the setting of a full

crop of fruit. This discovery resulted in changed

planting plans of orchards throughout the

world.

He helped organize and was for 14 years a

member of the Federal Insecticide and Fungi-

cide Board that administered the Insecticide

Act of 1910. In 1924 he became a member of

the Federal Horticultural Board, continuing ~

until its quarantine functions were taken over

by another agency.

Waite belonged to many scientific societies,

but his favorite was the Botanical Society of

Washington, of which he was twice president.

He rarely missed a meeting and usually had

interesting observations, often supported by

specimens, to report. He was deeply interested

in the flora of the Washington area and in his

later years gave special attention to mosses.

He was also an enthusiastic member of the

Cosmos Club, seldom missing the Monday

“club nights’? even when living at his country

place 25 miles away.

Dr. Waite was a man of restless energy and

enthusiasm throughout his career, even to the

day of his final illness. His pleasant smile and

sociable nature endeared him to his colleagues

and he was always willing to devote his time to

the giving out of his large fund of knowledge.

He was so full of life and so interested in living

that it does not seem possible he is dead.

JoHn W. RoBERTS

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CONTENTS |

ErHNoLoGy.—The Wesorts of southern Maryland: An outcasted

group. Wi.LiaM HaruEn GILBERT, JR..... 66.21 eee eee

we,

ZooLocy.—The subspecies and intergrades of the Florida burrowing

crayfish, Procambarus rogerst (Hobbs). Horton H. Rhea at

ZooLoGy.—Two new leeches (Hirudinea) in the collection of the United |

States National Museum. J. Percy Moore.................

IcHTHYOLOGY.—Anchoviella analis, a new biggies fish from the west

coast of Mexico. RosBrert R. MIuER.................0eneee

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VoLuME 35

ETHNOLOGY.—Japanese folk belief concerning the cat.!

OpteR, Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, Calif.

WiuuiaM N. FENTON.):

In 1909, in a carefully documented paper,

M. W. de Visser brought together all

references to the cat which he could find in

Japanese chronicles and classical writings.”

His exhaustive review of the literature in-

dicated that the small domestic house cat

was imported from China during the reign

of Emperor Ichijd (986-1011) though wild

cats existed in Japan before this.* The

possession of cats was at first a luxury which

only the Imperial House and the wealthy

nobility could afford, and a great deal of

pomp and ceremony attended the crises in

the lives of these pampered animals. Mem-

bers of the court were ordered to serve

them, and the rank of court lady was be-

stowed on one female cat By the four-

teenth century, however, cats were no

longer a rarity and they were no longer

treated with deference. Instead, the belief

had grown up that cats, especially old fe-

male cats, were capable of becoming

monsters or demons (nekomata)> which

harm or even kill men, and, to use De

Visser’s words, ‘‘the Japanese nekomata

is an exceedingly dangerous demon.’’® De

Visser found first mention that old cats be-

come monsters and kill human beings in a

work written by a Buddhist monk about

1 Received June 25, 1945.

2 De Visser, The dog and cat in Japanese folk-

é.

3 A well-informed young man who has lived and

studied in Japan thinks otherwise and has as-

serted: ‘‘The cat came into Japan from Korea

during the Nara Era.”’

4 Op. cit., p. 8; BrinkLEy, A history of the

Japanese people, p. 277.

>The word nekomata literally means “cat

forked.” The ‘“‘forked”’ refers to the tail; a divided

tail is a sign that a cat is supernatural and dan-

gerous.

6 Der VISSER, p. 5.

SEPTEMBER 15, 1945

No. 9

Morris EDWARD

(Communicated by

1335.7 Unlike so many Japanese beliefs

concerning the supernatural power of ani-

mals, the basic idea of the extraordinary

power of the cat is not Chinese, though

associated elements of the complex show

Chinese influences. As De Visser has said:

“We do not read about cat-sorcery in the

former country (China)...I have not

found this anthropophagous monster with

its forked tail in Chinese books, but the

idea of old age giving it the power of chang-

ing itself into an old woman is quite Chi-

nese.’’®

From this time on, and particularly in

the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth

centuries, stories of old haunting cats are

frequently found in the literature. In the

nineteenth century, however, cats with

extraordinary powers are sometimes repre-

sented as playing a beneficent or protective

role.

Although he does not organize them into

a unified picture, the tales and references

which De Visser recovered suggest the fol-

lowing body of beliefs: Cats can speak,

that is, can become superanimal, at the age

of ten. A cat that is a cross between a cat

and a fox may have the capacity before it

reaches this age. Some cats disappear mys-

teriously immediately upon the death of

their owners, thus indicating some unusual

relation between them and their masters.

Cats which become supernatural often re-

veal themselves because they speak as

human beings, because they are discovered

acting like human beings (dancing, for ex-

7 Ibid., p. 21.

8 [bid., p. 5.

9 [bid., p. 77; Mirrorp, Tales of old Japan,

p. 243.

269

seri 4°45

270 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ample, with a towel tied around the head),

because they have split tails, or because

luminous balls or a peculiar light follows

them when they move. Cats which are pink-

ish or reddish-brown in color, “golden

flower’ cats, are very likely to become

monsters and must not be kept for any

length of time. Those who are cursed by

cats become ill, and a revengeful cat can

drive mad a person it hates or the members

of his family.

Cats which wish to prey upon human

beings often assume human guise. A favor-

ite trick is to kill a person, usually (though

not always) an old woman, and to assume

her form and take her place. Further vic-

tims are selected from this vantage point.

The cat, whether in animal form or in

‘human guise, ordinarily eats its victims,

and only the buried bones and clothes are

discovered afterward. Monster cats which

are masquerading in human form sometimes

arouse suspicion or are discovered by feline

characteristics which they thoughtlessly

exhibit, or which they find it difficult to

conceal. Sometimes they forget to display

the characteristics of the one whom they

are impersonating. Thus, a cat may ignore

religious devotions, though its victim has

been a devout Buddhist and in this way

attract attention. Or it may want to remain

in a dark corner and may plead trouble

with its eyes. In sleep, it may show the

broad mouth of the cat, and it finds it hard

to hide its large teeth and its rolling, dis-

tended eyes. It may be surprised eating on

all fours or drinking oil from a lamp. It is

always in danger of discovery despite its

human appearance because dogs recognize

its true nature. When a transformed cat is

attacked and killed, it changes back to its

original shape. Such slain cats invariably

turn out to be very large, usually five shaku

long (approximately five feet).

De Visser apparently made no attempt to

add to the published material he collated or

systematically to investigate the beliefs

centering around the cat in the Japan of his

day. The only items he adds to his summary

of the literature are that the Japanese, like

the Chinese, fear that a corpse will revive

and change into a demon if a cat walks over

it and therefore lay edged tools on the

VOL. 35, NO. 9

corpse or put a sword at its side,!° and that

a 3-colored cat (white, black, and brown)

is a favorite of sailors and is often found

aboard ships because its presence is thought

to prevent storms."

A number of other writers and scholars

have called attention to Japanese attitudes

toward the cat. On the occasion when De

Visser’s contribution was read, EK. W.

Clement made some comments which have

been published with the paper and which

yield some additional information on the

subject. According to Clement, when the

Japanese bury a dead cat, they do not look

back at the grave for fear that they will be

possessed by the spirit of the cat. Clement

had also heard of monster cats with 3-forked

tails (mztsumata).’ He gave a number of

illustrations of how fears or misgivings

about the cat were reflected in Japanese

expressions. He pointed out that the phrase

“cat’s eyes” means ‘‘fickle’’ or ‘‘change-

able,’’ that geisha girls, because of their role

of shallow flatterers, are said to have “‘cat’s

tongues,”’ and that insincerity in speech is

referred to as the ‘‘cat’s voice.’’ Clement

also pointed out that the term ‘‘cat’s tail’’

is used of something particularly useless.

This was given by him as the reason cats’

tails are cut short.

Even before De Visser wrote, A. B.

Mitford had called attention to the im-

portant place of the cat in Japanese tra-

dition with the statement: “‘Cats, foxes, and

badgers are regarded with superstitious

awe by the Japanese, who attribute to them

the power of assuming the human shape in

order to bewitch mankind.’’'4 Mitford pub-

lished a story of a monster with two tails,

“the Vampire Cat of Nabéshima,” and an-

other tale of an extraordinary but faithful

and benign cat which saved the daughter of

a household. All the elements in Mitford’s

account and stories have already been men-

tioned in our discussion of De Visser’s

paper.

Hearn, in his Glimpses of unfamiliar

Japan, has a few interesting paragraphs

10 Dr VISSER, p. 77.

TOV. ae ee

2 Thid., p. 79.

13 [bid.

14 Op. cit., p. 243.

Supt. 15, 1945

about cats. Of a cat which roamed his

grounds in Izumo he wrote: ‘Partly be-

cause of the immorality of this cat, and

partly because it happens to have a long

tail, it has the evil reputation of being

nekomata, or goblin cat. It is true that in

Izumo some kittens are born with long tails,

but it is seldom that they are suffered to

grow up with long tails. For the natural

tendency of cats is to hecome goblins; and

this tendency to metamorphosis can be

checked only by cutting off their tails in

kittenhood. Cats are magicians, tails or no

tails, and have the power of making corpses

dance. Cats are ungrateful. ‘Feed a dog for

three days,’ says a Japanese proverb, ‘and

he will remember your kindness for three

years; feed a cat for three years and she

will forget your kindness in three days.’ . . .

Cats are under a curse: only the cat and the

venomous serpent wept not at the death of

Buddha; and these shall never enter into

the bliss of Gokuraku.’”’»

Anesaki recounts some tales which in-

volve the cat, but he draws largely from the

same literary sources which De Visser

utilized and so does not add significantly to

what we already know. His discussion of

the interpretation of color in cats contains

some variant information however, and is

worth citing:

“The colours of the cat’s fur had much

to do with popular ideas about the creature.

The most dreaded cat was a red or pinkish

brown animal which was called the ‘golden

flower’ cat. Then came a cat in which the

three colours, black, white and brown were

mixed. The magical powers of black or

white cats were believed to be less remark-

able, but a totally black cat was thought to

have the power of foretelling the weather,

and sailors were always glad to have one

about their ship.’

More recent investigation has added

little to our knowledge of Japanese lore

concerning the cat. Embree, in whose study

of a Japanese village social organization

14 Pp. 368-69. Hearn apparently did not find

out that the cutting off of the tail of a kitten was

to prevent the tail from becoming forked and the

grown cat from becoming a nekomata. Note the

veiled warning in the Japanese proverb against

keeping a cat longer than three years.

16 “Japanese mythology,” p. 327.

OPLER: JAPANESE FOLK BELIEF CONCERNING THE CAT

271

rather than religion is emphasized, has this

reference to the cat: “If a man has been

bewitched, he visits a kildshi, who by

prayer will drive out the possessing spirit.

In Kuma this is mostly a dog’s spirit,

though sometimes that of ‘a cat or a fox,’’!”

Recently, while I was serving as com-

munity analyst of the War Relocation

Authority at the Manzanar, Calif., Center

for persons of Japanese ancestry evacuated

from the West Coast, I had occasion to dis-

cuss some of the Japanese folk beliefs con-

cerning animals with évacué friends and

was able to secure a number of details and

variant beliefs which, as far as I have been

able to discover, have not been published,

at least in English, before. The account

which follows, which was given to me by a

friend who wishes to remain anonymous,

contains some of these details.

“The Japanese believe that a cat should

never be kept more than three years. This

is because after three years it can change

and become anything it wants to. One of the

first signs that a cat is taking on super-

natural power is the splitting of its ears.

If you see a very old cat you will notice

that its ears are split. By the end of its

third year a cat’s ear is beginning to split.

‘“‘When a cat is brought into a Japanese

house it is told, ‘You can stay here only

three years.’ Therefore it goes away by it-

self after three years. At the end of the

third year the cat is gone.

“The Japanese believe that the cat can

bring good fortune or bad, depending upon

its characteristics. The cat most highly

prized for the house is one they call ‘‘three

hair cat’’ (mike neko), a cat of three colors.

It is a cat whose fur is black, whitish, and

brown. Usually a cat has fur of only two

colors. The cat of three colors is supposed.to

bring good fortune, though I must say that

our family never had good luck because of

such cats we had.

“Some people, mostly merchants, have a

porcelain cat which is in a sitting position

with the right paw lifted in a sort of beckon-

ing gesture. They keep this right in the

front part of their shops. It is supposed

to bring in people, to draw trade. Therefore

17 Suye Mura, a Japanese village. p. 252.

ZZ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

a pretty girl clerk who brings in a great deal

of trade is often called ‘“‘beckoning cat”

(maneki neko). Of a shop which is very busy

we often say, ‘They must have a good

maneki neko in there.’ Because of the power

of cats to draw trade many merchants have

a pet cat, especially a mzke neko. It is

believed that if the merchant has a good-

luck cat the business will prosper and the

owner will become very rich.

“But the cat is also very much feared

because it 1s revengeful. Even after death

it will do harm. This spirit of revenge of the

cat is paradoxical because the cat also brings

in trade. I will illustrate the cat’s spirit of

revenge by a story.

“There was a family that had a cat. One

day the cat stole a fish from the kitchen.

In a fit of anger the master killed the cat.

No one thought much about it. They just

thought that it was a pity and forgot about

it. The cat was buried out in the yard. The

next year the man who had killed the cat

planted pumpkins in this yard. One vine

was a fine one; it had just one pumpkin on

it but this one was an especially fine and

large one. It was the best pumpkin in the

village. People came to admire it.

‘‘After a while this man’s family ate the

pumpkin. This was a big family of seven

or eight and they all died right after that.

Because they suffered so before they died,

one of the neighbors was suspicious. He

thought it must be food poisoning. He found

out that the family had eaten this pumpkin.

So he dug up the vine. He discovered that

the seed from which the vine grew had been

planted right in the skeleton of the face of

the cat, at the place where the mouth of the

cat had been.

“There is another well-known story to

illustrate how the cat takes revenge. This

story is told about a: feudal lord named

Nabeshima.'® This happened somewhere in

18 This tale is recorded also by Mitford in Tales

of old Japan, pp. 245-52. Mitford’s version em-

phasizes the theme of the loyalty of a humble re-

tainer rather than that of a cat’s revenge. Ac-

cording to Mitford’s account, a cat kills a beauti-

ful concubine of a Daimyo and takes her place.

The Daimyo falls seriously ill. Physicians can not

discover the nature of his sickness. One hundred

of his retainers resolve to keep watch over him but

find that drowsiness overcomes them each night.

A soldier of low rank but great devotion is found

praying at a temple for the sick lord. Despite his

low station, because of his piety he is allowed to

VOL. 35, No. 9

southern Japan. It is a story about a cat

which took revenge on the feudal lord be-

cause his master was killed by Nabeshima.

‘“‘Nabeshima liked to play goh.1® He al-

ways played the game with a blind man, a

certain woman’s only son. This blind man

had a pet cat. One time the feudal lord was

in a bad humor. He lost several games to

the blind man and then, getting very angry,

decapitated him. When the news was

brought to the mother of the dead man she

told the cat, ‘Your master has been killed.

You had better do something about it.’

“The cat disappeared. That’s all the

mother knew about it. But shortly after-

ward the lord began to get sick. He couldn’t

sleep at night; he felt tortured; he was losing

weight.

‘“‘A retainer who was very devoted to

Nabeshima, who was always on guard be-

fore his door, and who even slept outside

the door of the feudal lord, noticed that

every time his wife went in to be with him

he would start moaning and groaning. This

retainer became suspicious of the wife and

of her influence on his lord. ;

“Then, shortly after this, when the wife

had just entered the room, the retainer

noticed the shadow of a huge cat outlined

against the sliding door. He struck at this

shadow with a spear. The next day the

wife didn’t come to her husband’s quarters.

The explanation was given that she had

slipped while taking a bath and had fallen

in the tub and injured herself. The retainer

began to think about it. He remembered

that this woman had not cared for fish

previously but that recently she wanted it

three times a day.

stand guard as one of the one hundred. When he

becomes sleepy, he sticks his dirk in his thigh and

turns it. He is the only one to remain awake and

thwarts the cat in human guise when she appears.

He confides his suspicion of the concubine to

officials and gets permission to kill her. During the

fight that follows she turns into a cat again and

escapes to the mountains. A great hunt follows

in which she is killed. In Suye Mura, pp. 276-

277, Embree gives two versions of this tale in

outline.

19 Goh is a game played with white and black

‘“‘stones’”’ or counters on a board of 361 squares.

Each player tries to control as much space as

possible by surrounding the counters of his op-

ponent with his own. The game ends when the

whole board is in use, and the winner is the one

who controls the greatest area of the playing

surface,

Serr. 15,1945 oOpLeR: JAPANESE FOLK BELIEF CONCERNING THE CAT

“‘He decided to keep an eye on the feudal

lord’s wife. This was hard to do because

she had female retainers to take care of her

and no men were allowed in her quarters.

But one night he stole in these quarters and

managed to get close to her without being

discovered. He saw that she was licking the

oil from the lamp. A cat’s favorite drink is

mustard seed oil. When he saw this the re-

tainer knew that she was not a human

being and struck at her. She escaped in the

form of a cat. Then they dug under the

quarters of the women and found the body

of the wife. The cat had killed her and had

taken her place. The retainer and others

pursued the cat. The cat ran into an old

abandoned temple. The cat mewed and

other cats came. The place was alive with

cats, for this one was a leader of the cats

and had called for help. But finally this cat

was cornered and killed, and after this the

feudal lord got well again.”

A second general account of the place of

the cat in Japanese thought which was

given to me helps to fill in our information

and adds explanatory detail to points al-

ready mentioned.?°

“They say a cat has great mental power

(jintsuryoku). The way I have heard it,

when a female cat becomes old, it can do

evil things against man. Cats sometimes

come out disguised as human beings. Since

they have mental power equal to man’s

they can talk and act like a human being.

“These old cats seem to live in Buddhist

temples. When they come out in disguised

form it is always at night, according to the

stories I have heard. When they are in a

temple they don’t want anyone to take the

temple away from them. If anyone tries to

open and use the temple again, the cats will

disguise themselves as ghosts or monsters

and scare him away. They take over the

temple then. Such a temple, though de-

serted, is always kept clean. That is one way

to tell a temple which has been taken over

by cats.

“The Japanese word for monster is

bakemono. Literally this means ‘‘what has

20 This account was contributed by Robert

Seido Hashima, who lived and studied in Japan

for many years. Mr. Hashima has also been good

enough to read this paper, to check the Japanese

terms, and to make a number of helpful sugges-

tions.

273

come out.” The Japanese word bakeru

means ‘‘to turn into a monster.’’ You can

use this word of a badger or a fox, but then

it implies that the badger or fox has

changed form to play tricks or to do mis-

chief. It is not very serious. But when you

say a cat changes to a monster (neko ga

bakeru), that is really dangerous.

“When the cat turns to a monster it may

come out in the shape of a cat, but it is a

huge cat. It has long nails and is fierce look-

ing. It is ready to eat human beings. The

ears of the monster cat are split.

“Ordinary people believe it is dangerous

to kiJl a cat. They wouldn’t take cats out

and drown them as is done in this country.

There is a saying, ‘A cat which is killed re-

appears as a monster’ (neko o korosuto

bakeru). When a mother sees a child abusing

a cat, a little child of six who doesn’t know

any better, she would say, ‘If you kill that

cat it will come out and annoy you at

night.’

“There are stories to show what happens

when you kill a cat. According to one story,

a cat did something and the man of the

house killed the cat. The cat came out as a

bakemono. It began to persecute the man

who had killed it. The man would always

hear the crying of the cat and this made him

restless. He became a sick man and had a

nervous breakdown. He went on like this

for several years and then passed away.

The cat’s spirit revenged itself on this man.

Because of the man’s death, his family went

through great hardship.

“There are beliefs about cats of different

colors. They say that the cat of three colors,

white, black, and brown (mzke neko), is the

tame cat. A cat of that color is always going

to be a family cat. The stories about cats

which bother people are always about white

or black ones. They leave the mike out of

these. White cats are supposed to be old and

wise. A monster cat is usually described as

white. They don’t like black cats in Japan

either. They are considered evil and are said

to bring bad luck.

“The Japanese have a feeling that the

cat is greedy. It wants more and more. That

is why they don’t want it around after the

third year. It tries to become a member of

the house. There is a saying that goes some-

thing like this, ‘After three years even a cat

274

becomes a member of the family.’ I don’t

remember the exact words.

“In Japan I saw a moving picture which

brought in some of these beliefs about the

cat. It had to do with an old lady who kept

a black cat more than three years. This

woman was a heartless, grasping person, a

neko baba. She didn’t trust anyone but the

cat. The way the cat cried would give the

woman warning when she was in danger.

The woman could understand the cat. The

neighbors knew this woman was evil and

hated the cat. They stayed away from the

cat when they saw it; they were afraid

something would happen if they went near

it. This woman collected a great deal of

money from the people by selling them

things at high prices. They didn’t dare to

refuse to buy.

‘“‘One time the cat cried. It was trying to

tell her something. But the old lady mis-

interpreted it. She struck the cat and didn’t

feed it for a while. The cat went away. The

old lady got into trouble at once. She lost

her fortune and got killed. The people

never saw the cat again. They did not know

where it went. This cat had brought her

good fortune. Then when she didn’t take

care of it, it abandoned her and. faded

away.

“T have heard stories that tell how the

farmers were harmed by cats. The cats

would go out to farms and destroy vege-

tables or would come to the farmhouse and,

while in the form of a human being, take

food. Sometimes they took small children

away with them. Usually these cats were

living in some temple. The farmers then

appealed to some samurai and asked him to

kill the monster living in the temple. He

would go out there and kill the cat, but he

would have a hard time doing it because the

cat would have a mental power as great as

that of the samurai. When the cat was dead

it was usually seen to be white.

“It is said that a person can be possessed

by a cat. In such a case what happens seems

to be tied up with the mental power of the

cat. They say that the cat’s mental power

is stronger than that of the person. The cat

doesn’t get inside a person when it pos-

sesses him as the fox does. It influences

him from outside.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 9

‘There are many beliefs about the cat in

Kyoto and the area around Kyoto. I think

this is because Kyoto is one of the oldest

Japanese cities and has many temples con-

nected with it. In ancient times Tokyo

was one of the places that believed in cats

strongly too. And there are other places

where belief in cats is strong.

“Certain types of merchants and busi-

nessmen, I’m not sure what type, used to

treat the cat well because they thought the

eat brought them good luck in their busi-

nesses. Also I have heard that if you dream

of a cat it will bring you good fortune.

“During the middle Tokugawas the dog

was highly esteemed. Laws were even

passed that anyone who killed a dog would

be sentenced to prison for life. This kind-

ness to domestic animals extended to the

cat too. After this the cat became popular.

But the treatment of the cat was not carried

to extremes as in the case of the dog.”

About this time the cat became the model

of the woodcarvers. If a woodcarver carved

a good cat he would be accepted as a real

artist. It was a test. Any woodcarver who

carried on his work would carve a cat.

Skill in carving cats of wood was highly

esteemed and a good example of this kind of

carving brought a good price.”? Such carv-

ings were bought by rich people. There is

not much carving of cats out of wood now,

but there is a good deal of photographing of

cats recently.

“One other thing about the cat. It is sup-

posed to be very fierce in protecting its

young. The Japanese say that a mother cat

will eat her own kittens if she cannot pro-

tect them any longer, rather than to let

them fall into the hands of an enemy.

‘There are a number of common expres-

sions which show how the cat is regarded.

A wheedling, whining voice is called neko

nade goe which literally means ‘cat brush

against voice.’ An old lady who misuses or

21 For an account of these laws and the ‘‘dog

mania” of the Shogun Tsunayoshi who began his

term of office in 1680, see BRINKLEY, A history

of the Japanese people, pp. 602-03.

2 The “sleeping cat” in the mortuary chapel of

Ieyasu at Nikko by the Japanese artist Hidari

Jingord is the most famous example of its kind.

See CHAMBERLAIN, Things Japanese, pp. 63—64,

262, and Rein, The industries of Japan, p. 420.

Sepr. 15, 1945

makes a profit on young people or who is in

general unscrupulous and grasping is called

‘old lady cat’ (neko baba).** Of a person who

is quiet and polite but who does evil behind

people’s backs (a hypocrite), it is said,

‘he wears a cat’ (neko wo kaburu). ‘He’s like

a cat’ (neko noydna hito) is said of a person

who is not trusted. ‘To change like a cat’s

eye’ (neko no me noydni kawaru) is to be

fickle and untrustworthy and to change a

thing to one’s own advantage.

“T haven’t heard of cats doing harm to

people in recent times. Most of these

stories are told about former times.”’

On the basis of the research carried on at

Manzanar and since, a number of elements

have been found which may be added to

what we already know concerning Japanese

beliefs and folklore concerning the cat.

These may be summarized briefly as fol-

lows: Cats are in general greedy and over-

reaching. They try to win their way into

the family circle and dominate it. It is

dangerous to keep a cat longer than three

years. Even if a cat does no noticeable

harm, after this period it will be so inde-

pendent that it will render no service.*4

When a cat’s ears begin to split, it is a sign

that it is beginning to take on supernatural

characteristics.“ Supernatural cats tend to

frequent and utilize abandoned temples.

They are difficult to oust and are capable

of possessing and deceiving man because

of their unusual mental power. Though

cats appear in human guise, their shadows,

when seen through a sliding door, are al-

ways feline. White color of the fur is a sign

of age, power, and wisdom in a cat, and

monster cats, when slain, are often found to

be white.2° Concepts of hypocrisy, greed,

23 The proprietress of a house of ill fame is often

called by this term. According to Clement,

neko baba means “anything concealed,”’ literally

“cat’s dung.”

% On this point I was told, ‘‘You usually keep

a cat to catch mice or rats. But after the third

year a cat won’t catch any more mice. So from a

practical point of view it is useless to keep it.”’

25 This is probably a variation on the “forked

tail” theme and may have only local distribution

in Japan.

The persistence of the belief concerning the

animal form of the shadow and the associations of

the color white are also found in connection with

OPLER: JAPANESE FOLK BELIEF CONCERNING THE CAT

275

and fickleness are often expressed in the

Japanese language through references to the

cat or to cat-like qualities. There is evi-

dently some difference of opinion or local

variation concerning the color of the cat

which is the favorite and helper of sailors.

The attributes of the 3-colored or ‘‘calico”’

cat have been variously explained also. In

spite of the fear that it has aroused, the cat

is a benefactor of merchants, has had a

prominent place in art, and has been pic-

tured as a fearless defender of its young,

even to the point of destroying them when

it is unable to safeguard them longer.

If this limited inquiry, carried on under

unfavorable conditions and in spare time,

has yielded so many additional details, it

may be assumed that systematic and sus-

tained research would contribute much

more to our knowledge of Japanese folklore

and folk belief concerning the cat. Prob-

lems of local variation, according to ken or

district, evidently require much more at-

tention than has hitherto been given them.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANESAKI, Masauarvu. “Japanese Mythology,”

The Mythology of All Races, 8: 205-387.

1928

BRINKLEY, FRANK. A history of the Japanese

people. New York and London: The

Encyclopedia Co., 1915.

CHAMBERLAIN, Basi HALL.

nese. London: Kegan Paul,

Trubner and Co., Ltd., 1890.

EMBREE, JoHN F. Suye Mura, a Japanese

village. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 1939.

Hearn, Larcapio. Glimpses of unfamiliar

Japan. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1901.

Mitrorp, A. B. Tales of Old Japan.

don: Maemillan and Co., 1876.

OpLter, Morris Epwarp. Japanese folk be-

lief concerning the snake. Southwestern

Journ. Anthrop. (in press).

and Hasuima, Rospert Srrpo. The

rice goddess and the fox in Japanese re-

ligion and folk practice. Amer. Anthrop.

(in press).

Rein, J. J. The industries of Japan. New

York: A. C. Armstrong and Son, 1889.

VisseR, M. W. pve. The dog and cat in

Japanese Folklore. Transactions of the

Asiatic Society of Japan 37 (pt. 1): 1-84.

1909.

other animals which are feared. Compare the data

in other papers by Opler cited in the bibliography.

Things Japa-

Trench,

Lon-

276

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 35, No. 9

BOTANY.—The vegetative characters of the bamboo genus Phyllostachys and de-

scriptions of eight new species introduced from China.'

F. A. McCuure. |

Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations and Smithsonian Institution.

INTRODUCTION

This paper represents a portion of the re-

sults of accumulated observations that were

being correlated (under a Fellowship granted

by the John Simon Guggenheim Founda-

tion) in a comprehensive treatment of

Phyllostachys and other Chinese bamboo

genera. That study was interrupted shortly

after the outbreak of hostilities in the Pa-

cific area, and attention was turned to more

urgent work on Western Hemisphere bam-

boos on behalf of the United States Govern-

ment.

The occasion for hastening the publica-

tion of this part of the study is the special

emphasis that the present emergency has

given to the importance and industrial

promise of this genus for Western Hemi-

sphere economy. The genus Phyllostachys

supplies the bulk of all the industrial bam-

boo culms and the edible bamboo shoots

utilized in China and Japan and also prac-

tically all the bamboo culms exported by

Japan to this country in pre-war times.

The young shoots of the bamboos of this

genus are, without exception, edible. More-

over, their full-grown culms are known to

be an excellent source of paper pulp. It is

estimated that 80 percent of all the paper

consumed in China comes from this genus.

Recent special experimental studies car-

ried out in the United States indicate that

bamboos of this genus are entirely suit-

able, technologically, for the manufacture

of Western types of paper by modern

methods.

Bamboos of this genus thrive in well-

watered, warm-temperate areas such as

comprise much of our west coast, our east

coast south of Washington, D. C., and the

Gulf States (excluding parts of Florida),

and similar areas in Latin America, where

bamboos of the more cold-sensitive tropical

genera cannot be grown.

Living plants of the principal species of

Phyllostachys used in China and Japan are

~ already available in this country. Some of

1 Received April 10, 1945.

these have been growing here for nearly 40

years without having been given a compre-

hensive trial or special study. The U. 8S.

Department of Agriculture has living plants

of 21 species and 4 recognized forms or

varieties in this genus. Of these, appar-

ently only 11 species and 3 varieties have

been formally described and given scien-

tific names. It is assumed that making

available a knowledge of the distinctive

characters of the individual kinds for pur-

poses of identification, and providing valid,

documented names where these are lacking,

will help to focus interest on the species of

this genus, encourage experiments in their

cultivation, and stimulate scientific investi-

gations of their technological properties.

Eight of the ten aforementioned species

_ presumed to be new are here described. The

available plants of the other two are as yet

too young to show fully their distinctive

characters. A more comprehensive treat-

ment of the genus, embracing all the spe-

cies under cultivation in this country,with

keys for use in field identifications, is under

preparation.

The descriptions are based on field ob-

servations of the living plants, and the

characters used are drawn from the vegeta-

tive organs. The characters of these struc-

tures, particularly those of the nodes and

internodes of the culm itself, and the culm

sheaths, are quite as distinctive as the

characters of the traditionally used repro-

ductive organs (flowers and fruits) and

have the advantage of being available for

purposes of field identification. |

The measurements of the parts of the

culm sheath and the leaves are based on

dry material. The Roman numerals appear-

ing in the descriptions refer to the serial

number (within the respective series) of the

culm node, internode or sheath (as the case

may be), counting as “‘T”’ the first one above

the ground level in the series of a given

structure.

The P.I. number, under which the pedi-

gree of each introduction is published in the

Plant Inventory of the Division of Plant

Sept. 15, 1945

Exploration and Introduction, is given for

each species. The reader is enjoined to

caution, however, in the use of these num-

bers as means of identifying bamboos in the

field. In the course of time labels often be-

come inadvertently transferred. Identifica-

tions should always be verified by reference

to published descriptions giving vegetative

characters, or by having specimens (par-

ticularly representative culm sheaths) com-

pared with the types or authentically

named reference specimens.

The bamboos here described were all

introduced into this country from China.

They have been established and propagated

at the field stations of the Division of Plant

Exploration and Introduction, Bureau of

Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural En-

gineering, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Most of them have also been grown by

E. A. Mcllhenny in his bamboo garden at

Avery Island, La.

Much of the preliminary study of this

genus was done in the Bamboo Garden

established by the writer in 1925 at Ling-

nan University, Canton, China. Invaluable

assistance has been given through the years

by R. A. Young, assistant horticulturist,

Division of Plant Exploration and Intro-

duction, and by David Bisset, chief scien-

tific aid in charge of the Barbour Lathrop

Plant Introduction Garden, Savannah, Ga..,

in making the permanent plantings at the

Garden available for study. Through the

courtesy of Dr. W. R. Maxon, curator of

the U. S. National Herbarium, and Mrs.

Agnes Chase, custodian of grasses, the

writer has had not only the necessary stor-

age and laboratory facilities but also access

to the types and type collections of bam-

boos preserved there. The types of the spe-

cies here described will be deposited in the

U.S. National Herbarium.

The illustrations show inner and outer

aspects of the apex and blade of repre-

sentative culm sheaths from lower, middle,

and upper levels of mature-sized culms.

The scale is X1. My pencil sketches were

inked by Agnes Chase.

No effort has been spared to make the

descriptions accurate and adequate, but it

will not be surprising if, in describing such

MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS

277

extremely variable and inadequately known

plants as these, some omissions have oc-

curred or errors in detail have escaped de-

tection. Notices of needed corrections will

be gratefully received.

The bamboo plant is a complex organism

that, like most woody perennials, takes a:

number of years to reach mature stature.

During this developmental period the

vegetative structures, particularly the culm

sheaths, usually assume a more or less

generalized form, and in most species it is

only as the plant approaches mature sta-

ture that these structures exhibit the char-

acters by which the different kinds may be

distinguished with confidence.

The descriptions and figures here pre-

sented are based on plants presumed to

have reached their approximate mature

stature. The reader is cautioned against

trying to use them to identify plants of

immature stature. It must be remembered,

too, that there is a certain degree of varia-

tion in any array of examples of a given

structure, even where these are all taken

from a single plant. Moreover, the inter-

nodes, nodes, branch complements, and

culm sheaths, from the different levels in

the culm, show different forms. It should

not be surprising, then, if it should prove

difficult to identify specifically a single ex-

ample taken at random from the series.

Foliage specimens alone are usually of little

or no value for purposes of specific identi-

fication.

The most useful single organ is the culm

sheath. But an adequate specimen should

include examples (from the same culm if

possible) representing the basal, middle, ~

and upper part of the series, and so labelled.

Next in importance for purposes of identi-

fication (when used in conjunction with the

culm sheaths) are specimens of the lower

one or two meters of the mature culm itself.

The branch complement, and internodes

within the branched part of the culm, are

principally useful for generic identifica-

tions. Finally, the more completely the

specimen represents the plant, and the

more adequate the supplementary notes,

the more reliable the identification may

be.

278

VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS OF PHYLLOSTACHYS

Clump habit dumetose (thicketlike), actively

spreading, open to more or less densely

crowded; rhizomes indeterminate (advancing

indefinitely underground), slender, with short

internodes and more or less ‘swollen nodes,

every node gemmiferous (bearing a bud);

culms arising from buds on the rhizome usually

more or less distantly spaced, erect or sub-

erect, never climbing; internodes of the culms

hollow, cylindrical or nearly so above, the

lower nodes, when these have no buds or

branches, sulcate (with a broad groove) from

base to tip above gemmiferous or branching

nodes, usually with a narrow, more or less

copiously farinose zone just below each node;

the nodes of the culm all bearing branches in

culms of very young plants (i.e., of juvenile

stature), those in the lower half or so of the

culm typically without buds or branches in

culms arising from plants of mature stature,

the nodes (at least the branch- or bud-bearing

ones) double, i.e., with a distinct ridge encir-

cling the culm just above the more or less promi-

nent sheath scar; culm sheaths promptly

deciduous, the ligules and blades progressively

longer in sheaths at higher nodes of the culm;

branch buds usually present at all of the nodes

in small culms, especially those from young

plants, lacking at the lower nodes (often half or

more of the complete series) of culms of mature

size from mature plants, but always present at

all of the upper nodes, all usually developing

very promptly, but one to several of the lower

in the series very rarely (as, for example, in Phyl-

lostachys propinqua) remaining dormant after

the culm sheaths have fallen; branches often

solitary in the lower part of the series, other-

wise typically two at each node, the two

usually more or less strongly unequal, with a

third, usually very much smaller, sometimes

developing between the two (atypically, and

rarely, in exceptional culms, the branches clear-

ly ternate, with the strongest one in the

middle); leaf blades lanceolate to linear-lanceo-

late, with clearly tessellate venation, i.e., with

transverse veinlets clearly visible at least on

the lower surface, the lower surface usually

manifestly paler than the upper surface and

often definitely glaucous.

Phyllostachys angusta, sp. nov.

Species staturae inferioris internodiis culmi

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 9

comparate elongatis, auriculis et setis oralibus

in vaginis culmi haud evolutis, vaginis culmi

et in apice et in ligula et in lamina angustissi-

mis insignis. Species in notis nonnullis simu-

lans Ph. flecuosam Riv. sed in characteribus

saltem sequentibus distinguenda: culmorum in-

ternodiis primo vix (dempta zona angusta in-

fra nodos) farinosis, ligula vaginarum culmi

longe fimbriata haud purpurata, auriculis

setisque oralibus in vaginis foliorum saepe

haud evolutis.

Culmi usque ad 3.5 m alti et (int. V) 13 mm

diametro, omnino glabri; internodia primo

viridia nitidaque, deinde sensim levissime fari-

nosa, usque (no. IX) ad 191 mm (V: 163 mm)

longa, ligno circ. 3 mm crasso; nodi prominuli;

vaginae culmi oblongae vel lineares, apicem

versus leniter angustatae, dorso vulgo omnino

glabrae, saepe (demptis plantis immaturis)

sparsim fusco-maculatae, omnes siccitate pal-

lide stramineae, conferte nervosae et coriaceae;

auriculae et setae orales haud evolutae; ligula

longe exserta (haud decurrens) angusta, dorso

subtiliter strigosa, apice (interdum plus min-

usve oblique) truncata, margine vulgo un-

dulata (in vaginis superioribus saepe lacerata)

in vaginis inferioribus ciliata, in superioribus

cum processibus scabris fimbriata, fragilis et

vulgo mox diffracta; lamina anguste linearis,

plerumque plus minusve patens (infimis raro

valde reflexis), plana vel siccitate saltem plus

minusve alveata, utrinque subtiliter scabra,

secus margines antrorse scabra. Rami ramu-

lique plerique 3-, raro 4-foliati, dempto inter-

nodio ultimo glabri, vaginis ramorum ramu-

lorumque saepe plus minusve valde scabris.

Foltorum vaginae pleraeque hispidulae, infimae

glabrescentes; auriculae et setae orales et in

ramis primariis culmorum hornotinorum et in

culmis humilibus vel praesertim robustis inter-

dum plus minusve valde evolutae, alioquin

saepe haud evolutae; ligula longe exserta, dorso

subtiliter hispidula, apice arcuata, margine

valde undulata, in ramis ramulisque culmorum

hornotinorum vulgo dense ciliolata, alioquin

vulgo vix vel haud ciliolata; petiolus in ramis

ramulisque culmorum hornotinorum vulgo

utrinque glaber vel supra subtiliter puberulus;

laminae foliorum usque ad 1380 mm longae et

usque ad 18 mm latae, lineari-lanceolatae,

supra semper glabrae et nitidae, subtus vulgo

ima basi hirsutae, alioquin secundum aetatem

plantae pervariabiliter pubescentes, margini-

Supt. 15, 1945 MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 279

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Fic. 1.—New species of Phyllostachys.

280

bus vel utrisque spinulosis vel altero ab initio

glabro. Inflorescentva ignota.

This rather small species is distinguished by

the following characters: Unusual length of

internodes in relation to the diameter of the

culm, their almost complete lack of white

powder, the very narrow apex, ligule, and blade

of the culm sheath, the fimbriate margin of the

ligule in the upper culm sheaths, and the lack

of auricles and oral setae in the culm sheath.

Species resembling Phyllostachys flexuosa

Riv. in some characters but distinguished by

the very narrow apex, ligule, and blade of the

culm sheath, by the prominently fimbriate

margin of the ligule in the upper-culm sheaths,

and by the almost complete lack of white

powder on the internodes of the culm.

Culms up to 3.5 m tall and (int. V) 13 mm in

diameter, glabrous throughout; znternodes

bright green and shining at first, then very

lightly, almost imperceptibly, farinose, up to

(no. IX) 191 mm (V: 163 mm) long, the wood

about 3 mm thick; nodes moderately promi-

nent; culm sheaths oblong or linear, gently

narrowed toward the apex, usually entirely

glabrous on the back, sparsely maculate (ex-

cept in very young plants), pale stramineous,

thin, tough and rather prominently ribbed

when dry; auricles and oral setae lacking; ligule

long-exserted, not at all decurrent, very nar-

row, obscurely strigose on the back, the apex

(often more or less obliquely) truncate, the

margin irregularly undulate (in the upper

sheaths often lacerate), ciliate in the lower

sheaths, fringed with scabrous processes in the

upper ones, fragile and commonly soon broken;

sheath blade narrow, linear, ascending (the

lower ones rarely strongly reflexed), flat or, at

least when dry, more or less trough-shaped, ob-

scurely scabrous on both surfaces, scabrous

along both margins. Branches and twigs usually

3-, rarely 4-foliate, glabrous with the excep-

tion of the uppermast internode, the branch

sheaths and twig sheaths often more or less

scabrous to the touch. Leaf sheaths mostly

hispidulous, the lower ones glabrescent; auricles

and oral setae more or less well developed in

culms of the current year or in small or es-

pecially robust plants, otherwise often not

developed at all; ligule long-exserted, obscurely

hispidulous on the back, the apex arched, the

margin strongly irregular, in leaves of branches

and twigs of the current year usually densely

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 9

ciliolate, otherwise scarcely or not at all cilio-

late; petiole in leaves of branches and twigs

of the current year, usually densely puberulent

on both the upper and the lower surface,

otherwise glabrous on both surfaces or ob-

scurely.puberulent on the upper surface; leaf

blades up to 130 mm long and up to 18 mm

broad, linear-lanceolate, always glabrous on

the upper surface, commonly hirsute at the

base, otherwise of variable pubescence on the

upper surface, according to the age of the plant,

both margins spinulose or one glabrous from

the first. Inflorescence unknown.

Type: McClure 21023, collected May 30—-

August 3, 1942, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant

Introduction Garden near Savannah, Ga.,

from permanent plot no. 11 (section C).

This bamboo was originally introduced into

this country from China by Frank N. Meyer:

It appears in the Plant Inventory of the Di-

vision of Plant Exploration and Introduction

under P.J. 23237, where the following facts

concerning it are recorded from the original

field notes: The propagating material was se-

cured in the autumn of 1907 from the vicinity

of Tangsi, Chekiang Province, where the plant

is known by the name Sah Chu (Mandarin),

i.e., Stone Bamboo, on account of the hardness

of the stems. These are described as being used

in China principally for the manufacture of fine

furniture.

The specific epithet alludes to the relatively

narrow apex, ligule, and blade of the culm

sheath.

Phyllostachys arcana, sp. nov.

Species insignis culmis omnino copiose

farinosis glabrisque, nodis prominentibus, auri-

culis et setis oralibus in vaginis culmi haud

evolutis, ligula vaginarum culmi longa et

valde arcuata, saepe longe et anguste decur-

rens, lamina vaginarum culmi haud vel vix

crispa. Species valde affinis Ph. nudae McClure

sed ligula vaginarum culmi valde arcuata et in

vaginis saltem inferioribus longe et anguste

decurrente clare distinguenda.

Culmi usque ad 7.5 m alti et (int. V) 29x31

mm diametro, omnino copiose farinosi, glabri;

internodia tactu striata, usque (no. XVI) ad

305 mm (V: 265 mm) longa, ligno (int. V) 4

mm crasso; nodt valde prominentes; vaginae

culmi apicem versus sensim angustatae, in

plantis staturae maturae vulgo cum maculis

“Sepr. 15, 1945

fuscis sparse obsitae, superioribus interdum

fere immaculatis, saepe tactu omnino laeves

sed interdum (saltem in parte superiore, in

culmis humilibus fere omnino) inter nervos

validos cum papillis vel unguellis antrorsis

asperae, interdum in medio culmi apicem versus

(circa basin laminae) pilis mollibus plus min-

usve dense pubescentes; auriculae et setae

orales haud evolutae; ligula dorso antrorse

scabra (saepe dense et minute puberula) apice

valde arcuata, secus marginem undulatam

ciliolata fragilissima mox diffracta, alioquin

pervariabilis: in vaginis inferioribus et in

medianis, saepe infra basin et anguste et longe

decurrens, in superioribus valde exserta; lam-

ina patens, plus minusve alveata undu-

lansque, in superficie abaxiale scabra, in

adaxiale glabra vel subglabra, secus margines

subtiliter scabra vel subscabra, eis in vaginis

infimis brevibus plerisque subcordatis vel

lanceolatis, interdum valde reflexis, superiori-

bus lanceolata-linearibus, patentibus, glabris.

Rami ramulique glabri, plerique 2-3-foliati.

Foliorum vaginae (dempto ultimo pubescente)

glabrae vel glabrescentes; auriculae et setae

orales haud evolutae nisi forsitan in plantis

juvenilibus; ligula longe exserta, dorso scabra,

apice arcuata, margine fere glabra vel subtiliter

ciliolata; petiolus supra versus basin vulgo

puberulus, alioquin omnino glaber; foliorum

laminae lanceolatae vei lineari-lanceolatae,

usque ad 154 mm longae et usque ad 20 mm

latae, plerumque multo breviores angustiores-

que, utrinsecus glabrae (in culmis humilibus vel

senescentibus interdum subtus setulosae) secus

marginem alterem omnino glabrae, secus al-

terem scabrae. Inflorescentia ignota.

Species distinguished by the following char-

acters: Culms glabrous throughout and copi-

ously farinose, the nodes prominent, the long,

strongly arched ligule of the culm sheath often

long and narrowly decurrent in the lower

sheaths and not at all or scarcely so in the

upper ones. Species closely resembling Phyl-

lostachys nuda McClure, from which it may be

distinguished by its strongly convex culm

sheath ligule which, in the lower sheaths, is

often narrowly decurrent far below the base of

the sheath blade.

Culms up to 7.5 m tall and (int. V) about

29 X31 mm in diameter, entirely glabrous, con-

spicuously farinose with loose white powder,

especially immediately below the nodes; inter-

MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS

281

nodes up to (no. XVI) 305 mm (V: 265 mm)

long, the surface perceptibly ribbed, the wood

about 4 mm thick; nodes rather prominent;

culm sheaths oblong to linear, gently rounded

toward the apex, the lower ones commonly

bearing some small dark spots, the upper ones

often entirely immaculate, glabrous to the

touch or often (at least in the upper part)

scabrous between the crowded veins, those

in the middle of the culm often pubescent at

and near the base of the sheath blade, tough

and husklike though easily split when dry, the

veins then very prominent and close together;

auricles and oral setae not at all developed;

ligule scabrous on the back (often densely and

finely pubescent) the apex strongly convex,

ciliolate along the undulate margin, very fra-

gile and soon more or less broken, otherwise

quite variable: in the sheaths at the lower and

median levels of the culm often narrowly de-

current far below the base of the sheath blade,

at the upper levels strongly exserted and usu-

ally not markedly decurrent; sheath blade

more or less patent, trough-shaped and un-

dulate, scabrous on the abaxial surface, gla-

brous or subglabrous on the adaxial surface,

obscurely scabrous or subglabrous along the

margins, those on the lower sheaths very short,

cordate or lanceolate, sometimes strongly re-

flexed, those on the upper sheaths lanceolate-

linear. Branches and twigs glabrous, usually

2-3-foliate. Leaf sheaths (excepting the upper-

most which is more or less pubescent) glabrous

or glabrescent; auricles and oral setae not at all

developed; ligule long exserted, scabrous on the

back, convex at the apex, glabrous or obscurely

ciliolate along the margin, very fragile and

soon more or less broken; petiole puberulent on

the upper surface near the base only, other-

wise entirely glabrous; leaf blade up to 154 mm

long and up to 20 mm broad, usually glabrous

on both surfaces (sometimes setulose on the

lower surface in old culms) entirely glabrous

along one margin, scabrous on the other.

Inflorescence unknown.

Type: McClure 20980, collected April 29,

1941, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduc-

tion Garden near Savannah, Ga., from perma-

nent plot no. 32 (section C).

This bamboo was originally introduced into

this country from China in 1926 by the writer

while acting as agricultural explorer for the

U. S. Department of Agriculture. It appears

282

in the Plant Inventory of the Division of Plant

Exploration and Introduction under P.I. no.

77007, where the following facts concerning it

are recorded from the original field notes:

Propagating material, in the form of rhizomes

with culms attached, was secured November 3,

1926, under the name Lao Chu (Mandarin) or

Lo Chuk (Cantonese) at (Pe Ssz Kung) Chih-

washan, Anhwei Province, where it was ob-

served both in the wild and under cultivation.

A height of 4-6 m and a diameter of 2—2.5 cm

were recorded for the culms. The shoots are

said to be edible, and the culms are used in

weaving (for matting) and for making lan-

terns.

The specific epithet alludes to the obscurity

of reliable characters which made it difficult at

first to distinguish this from P. nuda.

Phyllostachys aureosulcata, sp. nov.

Species insignis internodiis culmi et ramorum

hornotinorum (in plantis staturae maturae) ab

initio scabris, sulcis cum colore aut lutea aut

viridi-aureo omnino in striis tinctis; vaginis

novellis culmi saepissime cum striis albidis,

luteis, viridibus et vinaceis notatis, eisdem

etiam in statu siccato ut striis dilute- et fusco-

stramineis permanentibus; auriculis vaginarum

culmi vulgo validissume evolutis excurrentibus,

ligula ampla apice valide arcuata, lamina latius-

cula vix crispa. Species in notis nonnullis

simulans Ph. nidularcam Murro sed in charac-

teribus sequentibus distinguenda: internodiis

culmi ramique in sulco cum colore lutea vel

viridiaureo tinctis; internodiis culmorum horno-

tinorum (saltem staturae maturae) scabris;

vaginis culmi vulgo omnino glabris, texturae

tenuioris; ligulis vaginarum culmi longioribus;

cicatricibus in nodis culmorum minus _ pro-

minentibus et semper omnino glabris; inter-

nodiis comparate brevioribus et nodis minus

prominentibus.

Culmi usque ad 7.8 m alti et (int. V) 29 mm

_ diametro; internodia usque (no. XIII) ad 356

mm (V: 196 mm) longa, primo (praesertim in

parte culmi inferiore} plus minusve copiose

farinosa et retrorse scabra, in sulco colore aut

lutea aut viridi-aureo (vel omnino vel in striis)

tincta, alioquin primo viridia deinde sensim

olivacea vel (saltem culmis valde insolatis)

aurescentia; nod? glabri, prominuli; zona fari-

nosa vulgo cicatricem superans; vaginae culmi

oblongae, versus apicem plus minusve late

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 9

rotundatae, texturae tenuis lentaeque, colore

variabilis, semper cum striis albidis, luteis et

(praesertim versus basin culmi) vinaceis et

(praesertim in parte culmi superiore) viridibus,

(his et porro etiam in statu siccato cum striis

et dilute- et fuscostramineis permanentibus)

plus minusve valide notatae, primo copiose et

laxe (in plantis staturae immaturae leviter)

farinosae, infimis basi interdum (rarissime)

retrorse scabris, alioquin omnibus omnino

glabris; auriculae interdum in eodem culmo

pervariabiles, in vaginis 4—5 infimis vulgo haud

evolutae, alioquin vulgo valde evolutae, fal-

catae vel ovatae, raro omnino debiliter vel

haud evolutae, vulgo e basi laminae decur-

rentes, interdum e basi laminae distinctae,

saepissime plus minusve excurrentes, inter-

dum reflexae, interdum novellis vinaceotinctis,

in sicco tenues, fragiles, stramineae, plus min-

usve crispae; setae orales paucae vel plures vel

quum auriculis nullis tum haud evolutae,

vulgo in margine exteriore auricularum con-

fertae; ligula usque (in V) ad 3-4 mm longa,

superioribus gradatim longioribus, dorso sub-

glabra, apice valde convexa, margine undulata

cum ciliolis minutis et setis crassis scabris

fimbriata; lamina erecta vel (in vaginis in-

fimis) interdum reflexa, anguste triangulata,

ima basi utrinque latescens, plana vel revoluta,

haud crispa superficie adaxiali subtiliter sca-

bra, abaxiali valde scabra, marginibus spinu-

losa. Rami omnino glabri vel in internodiis

infimis plus minusve asperi, interdum plus

minusve farinosi, 3—5-foliati, in culmis horno-

tinis omnino glabri, in culmis annorum plurium

internodiis supremis interdum in sulco puberuli.

Foliorum vaginae glabrae vel raro sparsim

setosae; auriculae et setae orales pervariabiles,

in ramulis parce foliatis debiliter evolutae, in

ramis ramulisque plurifoliatis vulgo valde

evolutae; ligula usque ad 1.5 mm longa, dorso

basin versus sparse puberula, apice valde

arcuata, margine undulante sparse ciliolata;

petiolus utrinque glaber vel subglaber; foliorwm

laminae usque ad 155 mm longae et usque ad

19 mm latae, vulgo multo breviores et angus-

tiores, supra glabrae, subtus ima basi dense

pilosae vel hirsutae, in medio sparse pilosae,

apicem versus obscure scabrae, spinulis mar-

ginalibus eximie remotis et patentibus. Jn-

florescentia ignota. |

Species marked by the following conspicuous

characters: The sulcus of the internodes of the

Sepr. 15, 1945 MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS 283

culms and branches at first tinted or striped

more or less conspicuously (some would say

obscurely) with yellow or greenish golden, es-

pecially during the first year; the culm sheath

always more or less conspicuously color-striate

LOWER INNER

LOWER OUTER

da TAN

UPPER INNER

UPPER OUTER MIDDLE INNER.

PH. NUDA

MIDDLE OUTER

PH. DULCIS

in varying degrees of intensity at various levels

of the culm, with white, cream, green, and wine,

while fresh, and retaining visible variegation in

light and dark tints of straw when dry. In the

shape and coloration of the culm sheaths and

| ' UPPER OUTER

pl wu

; ere “hg

MIDDLE INNER

P.l. 73452

LOWER INNER

MIDDLE OUTER

LOWER OUTER

103938

Fic. 2.—New species of Phyllostachys.

284

the relation of the auricles to the culm sheath

blade, this species shows some resemblance to

- Phyllostachys nidularia Munro, from which it

differs clearly, however, in the yellowish or

greenish-golden sulcus of the internodes of the

young culms and branches; the thinner, more

flexible, entirely glabrous culm sheaths, the

longer ligules of the culm sheath, the scabrous-

ness of the internodes in young culms of mature

stature, and the glabrous, less prominent culm

sheath scars, and the less prominent culm

nodes.

Culms up to 7.8 m tall and (int. V) 29 mm in

- diameter; internodes up to (no. XIII) 356 mm

(V: 196 mm) long, in culms of mature stature

more or less copiously farinose, retrorsely

scabrous, and tinted or striped with yellow or

greenish golden on the sulcus, especially in the ©

first year; nodes glabrous, rather prominent but

narrow; farinose zone usually extending both

above and below the sheath scar; culm sheath

oblong, rounded toward the apex, thin and

flexible in texture, variable in color, always

more or less conspicuously striped with white,

yellow and (especially toward the base of the

culm) wine and (especially toward the apex of

the culm) green, and retaining, even in the dry

state the variegation in the form of lighter and

darker tints of straw, at first copiously and

loosely (in plants of immature stature lightly)

farinose, glabrous throughout, or the lower

ones very rarely retrorse scabrous basally;

auricles commonly not developed in the lower-

most 4 or 5 sheaths, otherwise usually well

developed, rarely all weak or lacking entirely,

sometimes extremely variable in the same.

culm, commonly decurrent from the base of the

blade, sometimes entirely distinct from the

base of the blade, usually falcate or ovate,

more or less excurrent, sometimes reflexed,

when dry very thin and fragile and moreor

less crinkled; oral setae slender, flexuous, few to

many, or (when the auricles are lacking) not at

all developed, commonly crowded along the ex-

terior (upper) margin of the auricles and fewer

or none on the lower margin; ligule (in V) up

to 3-4 mm long, progressively longer in the

upper sheaths, subglabrous on the back, the

apex strongly arched, the undulate margin

ciliolate or fimbriate with coarse, scabrous

processes; sheath blade erect or (in the lower

sheaths) sometimes strongly reflexed, broadly

to narrowly triangular, broadening abruptly

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 9

at the very base, flat or sometimes revolute,

not at all crinkled, obscurely scabrous on the

adaxial surface, strongly so on the abaxial, both

margins spinulose. Branches 3—5-foliate, gla-

brous throughout or the lower internodes more

or less scabrous, sometimes somewhat farinose,

the twigs commonly 1-2-leaved, glabrous

throughout on culms of the current year, the

uppermost internodes often puberulent in older

culms. Leaf sheaths glabrous or rarely sparsely

setose; auricles and oral setae extremely vari-

able, weakly developed in few-leaved twigs,

commonly more strongly developed in twigs

and branches with more leaves; ligule up to 1.5

mm long, sparsely puberulent, the apex strong-

ly arched, the uneven margin sparsely cilio-

late; petiole glabrous or subglabrous on both

surfaces; leaf blades up to 155 mm long and up

to 19 mm broad, usually much shorter and nar-

rower, glabrous on the upper surface, densely

pilose or hirsute at the very base, sparsely

pilose in the middle and scabrous toward the

tip on the lower surface, the marginal spinules

usually distant from each other and more or

less spreading. Inflorescence unknown.

Type: McClure 20971, collected April 29,

1941, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduc-

tion Garden near Savannah, Ga., from perma-

nent plot no. 31 (section C).

This bamboo was originally introduced into

the United States from China by Frank N.

Meyer in 1908. It appears in the Plant Inven-

tory of the Division of Plant Exploration and

Introduction under P.I. 55713. It was carried

for some years under the name of Phyllostachys

nevinit Hance. Circumstantial evidence, how-

ever, led to the suspicion that this name was

not properly applied to the present species. The

type specimen of P. nevinii, which is deposited

at Kew, was examined by the writer in 1935,

and later by C. E. Hubbard, with a view to

determining whether any close resemblance

could be detected between it and the present

plant. The concurrence of opinion is that the

two represent entirely distinct species. Signifi-

cant support is given to this view by the fact

that this species has not come to light in, or

anywhere near, the type locality of P. nevinii |

Hance, during the course of many years, dili-

gent search. ; .

An interesting characteristic of the species

(at least of the plants grown in the United

States)—one that detracts somewhat from the

Sept. 15, 1945

value of many of the culms—is the rather fre-

quent, but irregular, occurrence of one to

several strongly geniculate nodes within the

first meter from the ground. An experimental

selection (P.I. 70741) was made by R. A.

Young some years ago to ascertain if the oc-

currence of this character could be made more

regular or more frequent by such selection, but

no difference in its subsequent incidence has

been noted.

The specific epithet alludes to the distinctive

coloration of the sulcus of young culms and

their branches.

Phyllostachys dulcis, sp. nov.

Species insignis culmis basin versus vulgo

plus minusve curvatis, omnino glabris; inter-

nodiis copiose farinosis, tactu plus minusve

valide striatis, interdum cum striis aureis lineari-

bus obscure notatis; nodis infimis plerisque plus

minusve valde gibbose incrassatis; vaginis

culmi omnino glabris, fuscomaculatis, sicca-

tate pallidissime stramineis; auriculis valde

evolutis crassis, saepe plus minusve excur-

rentibus, novellis viridibus; lamina vaginarum

culmi latiuscula, valde crispa. Species inter-

nodiis culmi glabris et plus minusve valde

elevato-striatis Phyllostachys vivacem McClure

simulans, e qua tamen differt habitu culmorum

frondisque, auriculis vaginae culmi valde evo-

lutis, vaginis culmi texturae tenuioris et

(novellis) plus minusve colorato-striatis, et

forma ligulae vaginarum culmi.

Culmi usque ad vel ultra 10 m alti et usque

(int. V) ad 57X60 mm diametro, ab initio

omnino glabri farinosique; internodia usque

(no. XVIII) ad 255 mm (V: 210 mm) longa,

tactu plus minusve valde striata et saepe striis

tenuibus albidis vel pallido-luteis variegata,

ligno 5-6 mm crasso; nodi prominuli, inferiori-

bus saepe supra cicatricem gibbose incrassatis;

zona farinosa angusta, caplose farinosa; vaginae

culm oblongae, versus apicem late rotundatae,

texturae tenuis lentaeque, facile fissae, omnino

glabrae, sparse floccoso-farinosae, novellis (in

plantis staturae maturae) tum striis latiusculis

albidis vel pallido-luteis variegatis et maculis

fuscis sparsim maculatis, siccatis pallidissime

stramineis maculatisque sed haud colorato

striatis; awriculae ovatae vel angusto-oblongae

excurrentes, crassae, dense pubescentes; setae

orales valide evolutae, auriculis et setis oralibus

primo viridibus deinde fusco-stramineis; ligula

MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS

285

brevis, in vaginis superioribus vix vel paullum

longior, dorso scabra, apice late arcuata, mar-

gine subtiliter ciliolata; lamina vaginaruwm

anguste triangulata vel linearis, valde alveata

crispaque, vulgo adscendens raro reflexa, super-

ficie adaxiale basin versus hispidula, alioquin

glabra vel subglabra. Rami comparate breves

subaequales, glabri, primo plus minusve fari-

nosi, ramis ramulisque plerisque 2-—3-foliatis,

ramis in surculis ex culmis decapitatis orienti-

bus saepe 4—5-foliatis. Vaginae foliorum primo

(dem pto supremo valde pubescente) glabrae vel

glabrescentes; auriculae et setae orales per-

variabiles, saepissime haud evolutae, interdum

(praesertim in surculis ex culmis decapitatis

orientibus) valde evolutae; ligula valde exserta,

mox fissa, dorso basin versus plus minusve his-

pidula, alioquin glabra, apice arcuata, mar-

gine undulata glabra vel subtiliter ciliolata;

petiolus utrinque omnino glaber vel supra basin

versus scaberulus; laminae foliorum, usque ad

100 mm longae et usque ad 16 mm latae, supra

glabrae, subtus variabiliter pubescentes, vulgo

saltem versus basin pilosae. IJnflorescentia

ignota.

Species distinguished by the following com-

bination of characters: Culms commonly more

or less strongly curved at the base, glabrous

throughout; the internodes copiously farinose,

more or less striate to the touch, often visibly

striped with narrow cream or pale yellow

lines, the lower nodes usually more or less

strongly thickened asymmetrically, culm

sheaths glabrous throughout, maculate with

dark spots, very pale straw colored when dry,

auricles thick, often more or less excurrent,

green when fresh, culm sheath blade very

strongly crisped. In its entirely glabrous culms,

ribbed internodes, and asymmetrically thick-

ened culm nodes, this bamboo somewhat re-

sembles Phyllostachys vivax McClure but is

readily distinguishable from the latter by the

sparser maculation of the culm sheaths, the

well-developed auricles and oral setae, the dif-

ferent shape of the culm sheath ligules, and

the very pale straw color of the culm sheaths

when dry.

Culms up to or exceeding 10 m tall and (int.

V) up to 57 X60 mm in diameter, glabrous and

farinose throughout from the beginning; inter-

nodes up to (no. XVIII) 255 mm (V: 210 mm)

long, more or less strongly ribbed (in the lower

part of the culm at least) and very often verti-

286

cally striped with a few whitish or cream lines,

the wood 5-6 mm thick; nodes somewhat

prominent, the lower ones often asymmetrically

thickened above the sheath scar; farinose

zone relatively narrow, copiously farinose; culm

sheaths oblong, rounded toward the apex, thin

and tough, easily split, glabrous throughout,

sparsely floccose-farinose, sparsely maculate

(in plants of mature stature at least) with dark

spots and (in fresh shoots) variegated with

stripes of white or cream and, when dry, very

pale straw in color with sparse persistent dark

maculations but devoid of all color striation;

auricles narrowly oblong, excurrent; oral setae

well developed (the auricles and oral setae

bright green when fresh, turning dark straw

when dry); ligule short, scarcely or slightly

longer in the upper sheaths, scabrous on the

back, the apex arcuate, the undulate margin

obscurely ciliolate; sheath blade narrowly tri-

angular or linear, strongly alveate and crinkled,

commonly ascending, rarely reflexed, hispidu-

lous basally on the adaxial surface, otherwise

glabrous or subglabrous. Branches relatively

short, subequal, glabrous, at first more or less

visibly farinose, branches and twigs usually

2-3-foliate, branches from shoots originating at

the base of decapitated culms often 4-5-

foliate. Leaf sheaths at first glabrous or gla-

brescent, excepting the uppermost persistently

pubescent one; auricles and oral setae quite

variable, often not at all developed, sometimes

(particularly in shoots from decapitated culms)

strongly developed; ligule strongly exserted,

soon split, more or less hispidulous toward the

base, otherwise glabrous, the apex convex, the

undulate margin glabrous or obscurely cilio-

late; petiole entirely glabrous on both sides or

scaberulous basally on the upper surface; leaf

blades up to 100mm long and up to 16 mm broad,

mostly much shorter and narrower, glabrous

on the upper surface, of variable vesture on the

lower surface, commonly pilose toward the ais

at least. Inflorescence unknown.)

Type: McClure 20974, collected April 29,

1941, at the Barbour Tatheop Plant Tnieedne

tion Garden near Savannah, Ga., from perma-

nent plot no. 70 (section C).

This bamboo appears in the Plant Inventory

of the Division of Plant Exploration and In-

troduction under P.I. 73452, where it is de-

scribed as “the edible bamboo of central

China.” The material under this number was

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 9

presented to the U. 8. Department of Agri-

culture in April 1927 by E. A. MclIlhenny from

plants cultivated in the bamboo garden at

Avery Island, La. It represents one of the

introductions of Frank N. Meyer that Mr.

Mcllhenny had received from the Department

some years earlier.

The culms of this species, being generally

rather strongly curved, with prominent, often

asymmetrical thickened nodes, and culm walls

of uneven thickness, are of little industrial

promise. The shoots, however, have been pro-

nounced, by both Dr. David Fairchild and Mr.

Mcllhenny, as the best-flavored of any of the

kinds that they have tested. Concerning this

species, Mr. MclIlhenny says it is, in his

opinion, the most rapid-growing and most pro-

lific of the bamboos in his garden.

This species has been carried in the records

of the Division of Plant Exploration and In-

troduction for many years under the name

Phyllostachys henryi Rendle. There is no dis-

cernible basis for this identification, however,

and it seems desirable to give the plant a

clearly documented scientific name based on

the vegetative characters by which it is so well

distinguished. P. henryz Rendle was based on

flowering material only, collected by A. Henry

(no. 6338) at Nanto, Hupeh. The leaf sheath is

described as having a short, truncate ligule, a

character clearly shown by the type. The leaf

sheath in our plant has a long-exserted ligule

with a rounded apex. In view of the very slight

variability in the shape and dimensions of this

structure in the 20-odd other species of the

genus, living plants of which have been care-

fully studied, it is considered sufficient to sepa-

rate the two plants in question.

The specific epithet alludes to the superior

palatability of the young shoots.

Phyllostachys meyeri, sp. nov.

Species insignis culmis (demptis cicatricibus

puberulis, vaginarum) glabris, modice farinosis,

vaginis culmi ima basi in zona angustissima

puberulis, alioquin glabris, auriculis et setis

oralibus in vaginis culmi haud evolutis, ligula

longitudinis mediocris, apice late arcuata,

margine haud crasse fimbriata, lamina lineari,

plana vulgo haud vel vix crispa. Species simu-

lans Ph. auream (Carr.) Riv. sed in notis se-

quentibus distinguenda: internodiis culmi ab-

nomiter abbreviatis nullis; ligulis vaginarum

Sept. 15, 1945

infimarum culmi longioribus et angustioribus;

ligulis vaginarum superiorum culmi cum fim-

briis marginalibus haud valde evolutis; ligula

vaginarum foliorum valde exserta.

Culmi usque ad 9.4 m alti et usque (int. V)

45x47 mm diametro; internodia usque (no.

XIX) ad 352 mm (V: 185 mm) longo, moderate

farinosa, omnino glabra, ligno (int. V) 6-6.5

mm crasso; modi prominuli, latiusculi, cica-

trice primo pilis pallidis confertis in zona

angustissima circumdata, mox glabrescente;

zona farinosa angusta lente accrescens mox

sordescens; vaginae culmi oblongae apice ro-

tundatae, omnino glabrae vel raro marginibus

sparsissime ciliatae, vix farinosae sed tactu

ceratae, pleraque praecipue apicem versus cum

maculis fuscis maculatae, in statu siccato len-

tae, subrigide coriaceae cum nervis crassis

moderate prominentibus; auriculae et setae -

orales haud evolutae vel in culmis humilibus

raro modice evolutae; ligula comparate brevis,

haud valde exserta, dense hispidula, apice late

arcuata, margine obscure ciliolata; lamina

linearis vel sublinearis haud vel vix ad basin

angustata, in vaginis inferioribus alveata, inter-

dum plus minusve crispa, erecta, in vaginis

saltem superioribus plana et plus minusve

recurvata, utrinque obscure scabra, secus mar-

gines scabra. Rami 3-5-foliati, ramulis 2-3-

foliatis, omnibus in internodiis superioribus

secus sulcum pilis retrorse uncinatis dense pu-

bescentibus alioquin omnino glabris, eorum

vaginis glabris. Vaginae foliorum vestitu per-

variabiles—in plantis humilis vulgo plus min-

usve pubescentes, sed in plantis staturae ma-

turae saepissime omnino glabrae vel pro parte

tantum sparse pubescentes; auriculae et setae

orales in plantis humilibus valde evolutae sed in

plantis staturae maturae haud vel vix evolutae;

ligula valde exserta, fragilissima saepissime

fissa, ima basi hispidula alioquin glabra, apice

valde convexa, margine glabra vel sparsissime

ciliolata; petiolus supra ima basi tantum

pubescens, alioquin omnino glaber in plantis

staturae maturae, sed in plantis humilibus

utrinque praesertim in superficie inferiore

dense pubescens; laminae foliorum lanceolatae

vel oblongo-lanceolatae, usque ad 162 mm

longae et 29 mm latae, supra glabrae, subtus

ima basi dense pilosa apicem versus vel pilosae

vel scabrae. Inflorescentia ignota.

Species distinct in the following combina-

tion of characters: Culms glabrous except the

MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS

287

sheath scars, moderately farinose, the culm

sheaths with a very narrow puberulent band

along the lower margin, otherwise entirely

glabrous, lacking auricles and oral setae, the

ligule of moderate length, the apex broadly

arched, the margin not coarsely fimbriate, the

sheath blade narrow, linear, usually not at all

crinkled. Species closely resembling Phyl-

lostachys aurea (Carr.) Riv. in superficial ap-

pearance but differing in the following charac-

ters: the complete lack of abnormally shortened

internodes appearing so commonly in the culms

of the latter species; the (vertically) longer

and (transversely) narrower ligules of the

lower culm sheaths; the not at all prominently

fimbriate ligules of the upper culm sheaths; the

strongly exserted ligule of the leaf sheaths.

Culms up to 9.4 m tall and (int. V) 45 x47

mm in diameter; internodes up to (no. XIX)

352 mm (V: 185 mm) long, the surface moder-

ately farinose, entirely glabrous, the wood

(int. V) 6-6.5 mm thick; nodes only moder-

ately prominent, rather broad, the sheath scar

fringed at first with a dense, narrow band of

very short, pale hairs, soon glabrescent, the

farinose zone narrow, developing slowly and

soon becoming gray to black; culm sheaths

oblong, rather abruptly rounded at the apex,

entirely glabrous or rarely with a few cilia

along the margins, not noticeably farinose, but

somewhat waxy to the touch, mostly somewhat

maculate with smallish, smoky spots, especially

toward the apex, tough, stiffly leathery, and

with the coarse veins only moderately salient,

when dry; auricles and oral setae not at all

developed except rarely in very small culms

where, in the upper sheaths a few slightly de-

veloped ones may occasionally be found; ligule

relatively short, only slightly wider than the

base of the sheath blade, not conspicuously

exserted, only slightly longer in the upper

sheaths than in the lower, hispidulous on the

back, the apex usually broadly arcuate, the

margin slightly undulate, obscurely ciliolate;

sheath blade sublinear to linear, erect or, in the

upper part of the culm more or less drooping,

alveate and often more or less crinkled in

sheaths from the lower part of the culm when

dry, flat in the upper ones, obscurely scabrous

on both margins and on both surfaces, more

strongly so toward the apex; branches 3-foliate,

twigs 2-3 leaved, puberulent with minute

retrorsely hooked hairs along the sulcus of the

288

uppermost internodes, otherwise glabrous

throughout, the branch sheaths glabrous; leaf

sheaths of variable vesture, in small plants

typically more or less densely pubescent, in

large plants often glabrous or sparsely pubes-

cent in part only; auricles and oral setae appar-

ently developed in inverse proportion to the

size of the plant—well developed in small

plants and not at all or only weakly so in large

ones; ligule prominently exserted, delicate and

very frequently split longitudinally, hispidulous

basally, otherwise glabrous, the apex strongly

convex, the margin glabrous or sparsely cilio-

late; petiole puberulent at the base on the upper

surface, otherwise glabrous throughout in all

leaves on large plants, but pubescent on both

surfaces (more densely so on the lower sur-

face) in small plants; leaf blades up to 162 mm

on the upper surface, densely pilose basally

and decreasingly so toward the apex on the

lower surface, more densely so in small, young

plants, more weakly so in the first leaves of

large plants. Inflorescence unknown.

Type: McClure 20984, collected April 29,

1941, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduc-

tion Garden, near Savannah, Ga., from per-

manent plot no. 32 (section C).

This bamboo was introduced into the United

States from China by Frank N. Meyer. It

appears in the Plant Inventory of the Division

of Plant Exploration and Introduction under

P.I. 116768. The original records pertaining

to this bamboo apparently were confused in

the beginning with those belonging to other

introductions, so that it is not possible to give

any information as to the precise origin of this

bamboo or the part it plays in the local Chinese

economy. Some propagating material of this

species has been distributed in this country.

A thriving colony an acre or more in extent

is to be found on the experimental farm of the

Florida State Agricultural College at Gaines-

ville, Fla.

Phyllostachys nuda, sp. nov.

Species insignis culmis glabris, tactu striatis,

plus minusve copiose farinosis; vaginis culmi

laxe farinosis, vulgo tactu glabris vel plerisque

(pro parte saltem) inter nervos valde pro-

minentes vel scabris vel cum unguellis an-

trorsis munitis, manifeste fusco-maculatis, sic-

catate conferte et crasse nervosis, fusco-stra-

mineis; auriculis et setis oralibus haud evolutis,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 9

ligula valde exserta, apice truncata margine

plus minus valde ciliolata, lamina vaginae

lanceolato-lineari, plus minus patente, plerum-

que haud valde reflexa, auriculis et setis orali-

bus in vaginis foliorum haud evolutis. Species

valde simulans Phyllostachys flecuosam Riv.

sed distinguenda vaginis culmae inter nervos

prominentes scabris, vaginis foliorum sine

auriculis et setis oralibus. Species valde affinis

Phyllostachys arcanae McClure sed conforma-

tione apicis ligulae sat distincta.

Culmi usque ad 5.5 m alti et (int. V) 30 mm

diametro, omnino glabri; internodia primo

(praecipue sub nodis) plus minusve copiose

farinosa, tactu striata, usque (no. XIV) 310

mm (V: 170 mm) longo, ligno 4 mm crasso;

nodi prominuli; vagina oblonga, apice versus

leniter angustata, saltem infimis fusco-macula-

tis, tactu raro omnino glabra sed vulgo (saltem

in parte superiore) inter nervos valde pro-

minentes cum unguellis antrorsis aspera, in

statu siccato subcoriacea fissilis; auriculae et

setae orales:- haud evolutae; ligula longe ex-

serta, dorso scabra, apice truncata, margine

ciliata; lamina fere erecta, rare valde reflexa,

infimis lanceolatis alveatis plus minusve un-

dulantibus, superioribus lineari-lanceolatis pla-

niusculis, omnibus utrinque et in marginibus

antrorse scabris. Rami glabri, 3-4-foliati,

ramulis vulgo 2-foliatis. Vaginae foliorum gla;

brae vel suprema setis retrorsis setulosae-

auriculae et. setae orales haud evolutae; ligula

longe exserta, dorso scabra, apice convexa,

margine primo ciliolata demum sensim dif-

fracta; petiolus subtus glaber, supra versus

basin hispidulus; laminae foliorum lanceolatae

vel lineari-lanceolatae, usque ad 150 mm

longae et 22 mm latae, supra glabrae et nitidae,

secus marginem alteram omnino glabrae, secus

alteram scabrae. Inflorescentia ignota.

Species distinguished by the following com-

bination of characters: Culms glabrous, striate

to the touch, more or less copiously farinose;

culm sheaths loosely farinose, sometimes

glabrous to the touch but usually provided, in

part at least, with minute antrorse hooks se-

cluded between the coarse veins; irregularly

maculate or stained with dark spots, dark

straw in color and densely and coarsely nervose

when dry; the auricles and oral setae not de-

veloped; the ligule strongly exserted, truncate

at the apex, ciliate along the margin; sheath

blades lanceolate-linear, more or less spreading,

usually not strongly reflexed; auricles and oral

Sept. 15, 1945

setae not developed in leaf sheaths. Species

strongly resembling Phyllostachys flexuosa Riv.

from which it is readily distinguished by the

scabrousness between the veins of the culm

sheaths, and the complete lack of auricles and

oral setae in the leaf sheaths. Closely related

to Phyllostachys arcana McClure, from which it

may be readily distinguished by the truncate

ligule of its culm sheath.

Culms up to 5.5 m tall and (int. V) 30 mm in

diameter, entirely glabrous; internodes more

or less copiously farinose at first, especially im-

mediately below the nodes, the surface per-

eeptibly ribbed, entirely glabrous, up to (no.

XIV) 320 mm (V: 170 mm) long, the wood

about 4 mm thick; nodes rather prominent;

culm sheath oblong, gently narrowed toward

the apex, the lower ones, especially, usually

more or less conspicuously marked by diffuse

_ purplish splotches of variable size and intensity

of color, often copiously and loosely farinose

at first, sometimes entirely smooth to the

touch or, more commonly, perceptibly scabrous

with antrorse prickles disposed in variable

density between the veins, especially in the

upper part, tough and husk-like, though easily

split, when dry, the veins then very prominent

and close together; auricles and oral setae not

at all developed; ligule prominently exserted,

scabrous on the back, the apex truncate, the

margin irregular and ciliate; sheath blade usu-

ally erect or strongly ascending, rarely more or

less strongly reflexed in the lower sheaths,

lanceolate, alveate and more or less perceptibly

crinkled in the lower sheaths, to linear, lanceo-

late and flat or nearly so in the upper ones,

obscurely antrorse-scabrous on both surfaces

and on both margins. Branches entirely gla-

brous, usually 3—4-foliate, the twigs commonly

2-foliate. Leaf sheaths glabrous or the upper-

most sometimes setulose with retrorse hairs;

auricles and oral setae not developed; ligule in

the lower sheath rather prominently exserted

(that in the upper sheath obscure), scabrous on

the back, the apex strongly convex, the margin

minutely ciliolate at first, fragile, soon be-

coming more or less broken; petiole glabrous on

the lower surface, hispidulous basally on the

upper surface; blades up to 150 mm long and 22

mm broad, glabrous and shining on the upper

surface, paler and antrorsely scabrous through-

out the lower surface and sparsely hirsute

basally with pale antrorse hairs, glabrous from

base to tip on one margin, scabrous on the

MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS

289

other. Inflorescence unknown.

Tyre: McClure 20992, collected May 19,

1941, at the old Van Fleet residence, later the

residence of P. H. Dorsett, near Glenn Dale,

Md.

According to the records, this bamboo was

originally introduced into this country from

China by Frank N. Meyer. It appears in the

Plant Inventory of the Division of Plant Ex-

ploration and Introduction under P.I. 103938,

which represents material secured by the De-

partment of Agriculture from Mr. Dorsett’s

place.

A large and flourishing colony of this bamboo

is under cultivation in the garden of the resi-

dence of Dr. George M. Darrow, near the Plant

Introduction Garden at Bell, Md. The culms

have been variously employed by Dr. Darrow

about the premises for temporary structures

such as arbors, trellises, fences, garden stakes,

etc., while the shoots harvested to hold the

colony in check find a welcome place in the

family menu. From personal experience I know

that the shoots of this bamboo, when small

(4 to 6 inches long) are very palatable, among

the best I ever ate. This species appears to be

very hardy at this latitude, having been seri-

ously injured by cold only a few times during

the last fifteen years at the Darrow place. It de-

serves to be more widely cultivated as a source

of poles and shoots for home use.

The specific epithet alludes to the absence -

of auricles and oral setae in both the culm

sheaths and the leaf sheaths.

Phyllostachys propinqua, sp. nov.

Species insignis culmis omnino glabris ad

primo (dempto zona angusta infra nodos) fere

haud farinosis, vaginis culmi omnino glabris

cum lamina anguste lineari, auriculis et setis

oralibus vaginis culmi haud evolutis, ligula

vaginarum culmi in apice valde arcuata, in

margine haud crasse fimbriata insignis. Species

praesertim quoad surculos novellos arcte simu-

lans Phyllostachys meyert McClure sed in notis

saltem sequentibus distinguenda: cicatricibus

in nodis culmorum glabris; lamina vaginarum

culmi angustiore brevioreque; ligula praecipue

in vaginis superioribus culmi valde arcuata;

foliorum laminis plerumque (dempto basi

hirsuto) subtus glabris.

Culmi usque ad 7 m alti et (int. V) 30X31

mm diametro, omnino glabri; internodia primo

fere haud farinosa, usque (no. XI) ad 258 mm

290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(V: 171 mm) longa, ligno (int. V) cire. 5 mm

crasso; nodi in cicatrice modice prominentes;

zona farinosa angusta sed cicatricem superante,

primo exiguua deinde sensim valida; vaginae

culmz anguste oblongae vel lineares, apice

leniter rotundatae, omnino glabrae, haud vel

subtilissime farinosae, in siccitate tenuiter sub-

coriaceae, plus minusve valde nervosae; auri-

culae et setae orales haud evolutae; ligula dorso

obscure scabra, apice plus minusve valde ar-

cuata, margine minute ciliolata; lamina patens

(infimis reflexis), angusta, linearis, haud vel vix

crispa, in superficie adaxiali scabriuscula, in

abaxiali subglabra, siccata plus minusve valde

alveata. Rami 3-5-foliati, eis et vaginis suis

glabris, ramulis plerisque 3—4-foliatis. Vaginae

foliorum glabrae; auriculae et setae orales per-

variabiles, interdum haud evolutae, interdum

nonnullae modice evolutae, interdum etiam

praecipue in culmis vel humilibus juvenilibus

vel depauperatis vel senescentibus valde evo-

lutae; ligula valde exserta, dorso hispidula,

apice arcuata, margine undulante subtiliter

ciliolata; petiolus vulgo supra basin versus his-

pidulus, alioquin glaber; lamina vulgo usque

ad 135 mm longa et usque ad 16 mm lata, sub-

tus semper basin versus secus costam hirsuta,

interdum in partibus vicinis pilosa, secus al-

teram marginem spinosula, alteram glabra.

Inflorescentia ignota.

Species distinct in this combination of char-

_ acters: Culms glabrous throughout and (ex-

cepting the narrow zone just below the nodes)

almost not at all farinose, the culm sheaths

glabrous and without auricles and oral setae,

the ligule strongly arched, especially in the

upper sheaths, and not coarsely fimbriate, the

sheath blade very narrow and not or scarcely

crinkled. This bamboo is very similar to

Phyllostachys meyert McClure in general ap-

pearance—especially that of the young shoots

—but is distinct in at least the following char-

acters: the glabrousness of the culm sheath scar,

the narrower culm sheath blades, the strongly

convex apex of the ligule of the culm sheath,

the leaf blades normally not pubescent on the

lower surface except along the midrib at the

base. A further difference, hardly to be desig-

nated as more than a tendency, is the frequent

occurrence, in P. propinqua, of culms with

two or three more or less strongly geniculate

nodes, usually within less than a meter of the

base. In addition to the strong general re-

VOL. 35, No. 9

semblance of the two species in their “‘normal”

expression, they have in common this expres-

sion which, under the circumstances described

tends to obliterate differences normally shown

in the pubescence of the leaf blades: In low,

shrubby growth originating from decapitated

or otherwise thwarted or stunted culms of both

species, the leaf sheaths, petioles and lower

surface of the leaf blades are densely pubescent,

and the upper surface of the leaf blades is

strongly scabrous throughout. Furthermore, in

such plants there are often more leaves per

twig than in the larger ones, and both the

auricles and oral setae are more prominently

developed on the leaf sheaths thereof.

Culms up to 7 m tall and (int. V) 30 X31 mm

in diameter, glabrous throughout; internodes

up to (no. XI) 258 mm (V: 161 mm) long, the

farinose zone rather narrow but extending

slightly above the sheath scar, thin and indis-

tinct at first, then gradually becoming distinct

and more densely farinose (branch buds lack-

ing at nodes 1-11 in the largest culm measured,

the lower several in the series sometimes re-

maining undeveloped, but viable, for more than

a year, an occurrence very rare in the genus);

culm sheaths narrowly oblong or linear, gently

rounded above to a narrow apex, entirely

glabrous throughout, more or less prominently

ribbed, tough and thinly coriaceous when dry

(the basal ones distinctly thicker and stiffer,

with less prominent nerves than the upper

ones), lightly and irregularly maculate with

small dark spots; auricles and oral setae not

at all developed; ligule obscurely scabrous on the

back, the apex more or less strongly convex,

the margin minutely ciliolate; sheath blade very

narrow, linear, often more or less perceptibly

crinkled, slightly scabrous on the adaxial sur-

face, subglabrous on the abaxial, those on the

lower sheaths reflexed, those on the upper ones

recurved, and flat or nearly so, all becoming ~

more or less strongly alveate upon drying.

Branches 3-5-foliate. Leaf sheath glabrous;

auricles and oral setae of variable occurrence

and development, sometimes lacking entirely,

sometimes moderately well developed and

sometimes, especially in the leaf sheaths of low

shrubby growth originating from decapitated

or otherwise thwarted or stunted culms, or

from old culms, the auricles and oral setae

very strongly developed; ligule strongly ex-

serted, hispidulous on the back, the apex

——— a a

Swpr. 15, 1945

strongly arched, the margin irregular, minutely

ciliolate; petiole usually hispidulous basally on

the upper surface, otherwise glabrous; leaf

blades commonly up to 135 mm long and up to

16 mm broad, always hirsute along the midrib

basally on the lower surface, and often more or

less pilose nearby, otherwise glabrous through-

out. Inflorescence unknown.

VAN

ay re s

UPPER OUTER

WY LOWER OUTER

PH. VIVAX

MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS

291

Type: McClure 20976, collected April 29,

1941, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduc-

tion Garden, near Savannah, Ga., from perma-

nent plot no. 10 (section C).

This bamboo was introduced into the United

States from China by the writer in 1926. It

appears in the Plant Inventory of the Division

of Plant Exploration and Introduction under

MIDDLE OUTER

UPPER INNER

PH. AUREOSULCATA RI. 55713

e -

\ WY

% i" ve

Yyy |! WN

Vy \

" %

LOWER INNER

Pl. 82047

Fic. 3.—New species of Phyllostachys.

292

P.I. 76649. In the notes given there, the com-

parison between this species and P.I. 67398

(Phyllostachys rubromarginata McClure)

quoted from a Chinese informant, does not

apply, as the culm sheaths of both species are

entirely glabrous.

The specific epithet alludes to the close re-

semblance between this species and P. meyert.

Phyllostachys vivax, sp. nov.

Species aspectu nobilis frondibus eleganti-

bus subpendulis, culmis altis omnino glabris,

internodiis copiose farinosis, tactu striatis,

vaginis culmi omnino glabris fusco-macu-

latisque, ligula vaginarum culmi_perbrevl,

valde arcuata, latissima, longe utrinsecus de-

currente, auriculis et setis oralibus (vaginarum

culmi staturae maturae) haud evolutis in-

signis.

Species internodiis culmi glabris et tactu

striatis, nodis saepe gibbose incrassatis simu-

lans Phyllostachys dulcem McClure sed auricu-

lis in vaginis culmi (plantae staturae maturae)

numquam evolutis, earumdem ligula perbrevi

utrinsecus longe decurrente distinguenda. Spe-

cies notis nonnullis vaginae culmi simulans

Phyllostachys sulphureae var. viridem Young et

praeterea P. bambusoides Sieb. & Zuce. ex qui-

bus distat characteribus saltem sequentibus

inter alias: internodiis culmi tactu valde

striatis, nodis plerisque supra cicatricem gib-

bose incrassatis, vaginis culmi tenuioribus,

ligula perbrevi, praesertim in vaginis inferiori-

bus utrinsecus longe decurrente, habitu sub-

pendula laminarum foliorum.

Culmi usque ad 11.8 m alti et (int. V) 70 X75

mm diametro, omnino glabri; internodia usque

(no. XIX) ad 327 mm (V: 243 mm) longa,

tactu. striata, ab initio copiose farinosa,

supra nodos saepissime plus minusve gibbose

incrassata, ligno 7-8 mm crasso; nodi in

cicatrice crassa subito prominentes et supra

cicatricem aperte incrassati; zona farinosa

latiuscula copiose farinosa; culmi vaginae

oblongae versus apicem convexum rotundatae,

dorso marginibusque omnino glabrae, ab

initio farinosae, maculis fuscis conferte macu-

ulatae, siccatae crasse nervosae, tenuiter cori-

aceae; auriculae et setae orales (demptis plantis

juvenilibus) numquam evolutae; ligula per-

brevis valde arcuata, utrinsecus longe decur-

rens, dorso subglabra, margine ciliolata vel

subglabra. Lamina vaginarum anguste tri-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 9

angulata vel sublinearis, valde alveata crista-

que, erecta vel reflexa, utrinsecus subglabra.

Rami comparate breves, internodiis glaucis vel

supremis in sulco puberulis deinde sensim

glabrescentibus, ramis ramulisque plerisque

2—4-foliatis. Foliorum vaginae dorso glabrae

marginibus ciliolatae; auriculae in vaginis

supremis saepe haud evolutae, alioquin de-

biliter vel modice evolutae, ovatae, fragiles

~ vulgo sensim fugantes; setae orales saepe mox

fugantes, in vaginis superioribus saepe paucae

adpressaeque, in inferioribus plures radia-

taeque; ligula brevis, dorso subtiliter scabra,

apice arcuata mox fissa, margine undulata sub-

tiliter ciliolata; petiolus supra basin versus

vulgo puberulus vel scaber, subtus apicem ver-

sus interdum pilosus, alioquin utrinque glaber;

foliorum laminae usque ad 175 mm longae et

usque ad 25 mm latae, supra glabrae nitidaeque,

basin versus secus costam pilosae, alioquin

subtilissime scabrae. Inflorescentia ignota.

Species of striking appearance with elegant

subpendent foliage, readily distinguishable

from the other species by the following charac-

ters: The glabrous culms, with copiously fari-

nose, rather prominently ribbed or striate

internodes, the culm sheaths thinnish, gla-

brous, densely maculate with smoky spots, the

ligule of the culm sheath very short, strongly

arcuate, long decurrent on each side of the

apex of the sheath especially in the lower

sheaths, the sheath blade narrow and very

much crinkled, the auricles and oral setae

never developed in the sheaths of culms of

mature stature.

This species is perhaps at first sight most

likely to be confused with Phyllostachys sul-

phurea var. viridis Young, or P. bambusoides

Sieb. & Zuce. From both of these, however, it

may readily be distinguished by the striate

internodes and peculiarly shaped nodes of the

culms, the entire lack of any vestige of auricles

on the culm sheaths (at least in plants of ma-

ture stature) and the very short, decurrent

culm sheath ligule. Once familiar, the habit of

the foliage is sufficient to distinguish this spe-

cies from the others even at a distance. In

the ribbed surface and glaucousness of the

internodes and the complete glabrousness of

the culms, mature plants of this species re-

semble those of P. dulcis McClure, but the

latter is distinguishable by the well developed

green auricles and oral setae on its more or less

Swpr. 15, 1945

conspicuously color-striate fresh culm sheaths,

and the less decurrent ligule of the lower culm

sheaths.

Culms up to 11.8 m tall and (int. V) 70 x75

mm in diameter; internodes up to (no. XIX)

327 mm (V: 243 mm) long, strongly striate to

the touch, glabrous throughout, copiously

farinose from the first, the part above the node

commonly perceptibly larger in diameter than

the part below the node and somewhat gib-

bous, the wood 7-8 mm thick; nodes flaring

rather abruptly at the sheath scar and thick-

ened somewhat asymmetrically above it;

farinose zone broadish, copiously farinose; culm

sheaths entirely glabrous, farinose, densely

maculate with dark spots, coarsely nervose

and thinly coriaceous when dry; auricles and

oral setae lacking entirely in plants of mature

stature (more or less well developed in small

plants); ligule short, subglabrous, the apex

strongly arcuate, the margin ciliolate or sub-

glabrous; sheath blade narrowly, triangular

to sublinear, strongly crinkled, erect or re-

flexed, subglabrous on both surfaces. Branches

relatively short, glaucous, glabrous or several

of the uppermost internodes pubescent at first

then glabrescent, the branches and twigs 2—4-

foliate. Leaf sheaths glabrous, the margins

ciliolate; auricles sometimes slightly to moder-

ately developed, ovate, all fragile and gradu-

ally disappearing; oral setae fragile, fugaceous,

few and appressed in the upper sheaths, more

numerous and radiate in the lower sheaths;

ligule short, usually splitting in the middle,

dorsally obscurely scabrous, the apex arcuate,

often more or less concave in the middle, the

undulate margin obscurely ciliolate; petiole

commonly puberulent at the base on the upper

surface and often pilose toward the base of the

leaf blade on the lower surface, otherwise

glabrous on both surfaces; leaf blades up to 175

mm long and up to 25 mm broad, glabrous and

shining above, the lower surface usually some-

what pilose along the midrib at the base,

otherwise obscurely scabrous. Inflorescence un-

known.

Type: McClure 21044, collected May-

August 1942, at the Barbour Lathrop Plant

MCCLURE: THE BAMBOO GENUS PHYLLOSTACHYS

293

Introduction Garden near Savannah, Ga., from

permanent plot no. 72 (section C).

This is one of Frank N. Meyer’s introduc-

tions from China, but its precise origin is un-

known. It appears in the Plant Inventory of

the Division of Plant Exploration and Intro-

duction under P.I. 82047, where the following

information is given: “This bamboo, according

to a statement of Nov. 19, 1929, from Mr. E. A.

Mcllhenny, is one of two introductions sent

to him from Chico, Calif., by the Department

of Agriculture, April 3, 1914, under nos. 23242

and 23243.”

Although he was at first of the opinion that

it represented Phyllostachys mitis of authors

(P. sulphurea var. viridis Young) the plant was

later recognized by Mr. Mellhenny, in the

course of his long experience in its cultivation,

as distinct from that and all the other bamboos

in his collection.

The writer, upon seeing only smallish culm

shoots of the plant for the first time in 1935

took them to represent P. bambusoides or some-

thing very near to it. Mr. Mcllhenny rightly

disagreed firmly, and later communicated his

reasons for his view. The relevant statements in

a letter of June 4, 1941, from Mr. Mcllhenny to

Mr. R. A. Young, may be paraphrased as follows:

“The new growth of P.I. 82047 averages ten

days or two weeks earlier than that of P. bam-

busoides. The plant is much more vigorous,

reaches maturity much more quickly, and the

culms have much thinner walls than those of

P. bambusoides. The lower internodes of this

plant are longer than those in P. bambusoides,

and the sheath blade is not fluted or crinkled

in the same manner as in P. bambusoides. The

culms reach a much greater size in the same

period of time when planted side by side with

P. bambusoides. When the two were planted

side by side P.I. 82047 completely shaded and

killed the growth of P. bambusoides. I believe

P.I. 82047 is distinct from P. bambusoides and

much more valuable for culture in the United

States.”

The specific epithet alludes to the vigorous

vegetative growth so vividly described by Mr.

Mellhenny.

294

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 9

ZOOLOGY.—Two new lungworms, Protostrongylus gracilis and Varestrongylus

sinicus (Nematoda: Protostrongylinae), from sheep and goats in China.

G. Dixmans, U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry.

The nematodes described below were

collected from sheep in China and sent to

the United States by Drs. P. L. Liand F. J.

Kwong, of the Northwest Epidemic Preven-

tion Bureau, Lanchow, China. They were

submitted to the Zoological Laboratory of

the National Institute of Health. Dr. E. B.

Cram, of that laboratory, subsequently re-

ferred them to the Zoological Division of

the Bureau of Animal Industry.

Protostrongylus gracilis, n. sp.

Description——Male (one entire specimen

available) 8.5 mm long and 0.065 to 0.07 mm

wide in region immediately anterior to bursa.

Bursal rays arranged in pattern characteristic

of the genus, namely, ventral rays originating

from a common stem, separated in their distal

portions, ventroventral somewhat shorter than

lateroventral. Anterolateral or externolateral

ray, shortest of the bursal rays, separated from

both ventral and other lateral rays. Medio-

lateral and posterolateral rays close together,

the former reaching the margin of the bursa.

Externodorsal separate. Dorsal ray short,

rounded, apparently provided with small papil-

lae on the ventral surface as in other members

of the genus. It is, however, impossible to de-

termine their size and location in the material

available for study. The usual chitinous are

and telamon are present. Spicules 0.8325 mm

long. Gubernaculum? consists of the usual three

parts, capitulum, corpus and crura, or head,

body, and legs. Capitulum or head is a light

refracting, colorless body, consisting of three

parts, two boat-shaped structures with keels

directed dorsolaterally and a third part ventral

to them with arms extended at right angles.

Corpus or body supported distally by two

laterally placed, sclerotized rods extending

anteriorly from the crura or legs for a distance

of 0.050 mm. Remainder of corpus is, like the

head or capitulum, colorless. Crura or legs

0.030 to 0.035 mm long, moderately sclerotized,

light brown; they are slightly curved ventrally

1 Received June 1, 1945.

* For the purpose of describing this structure,

the terminology of Schulz, Orlow, and Kutass

(Zool. Anz. 102(11/12). 1933) has been adopted.

in their distal portions and end in more or less

blunt points.

Female.—Length unknown (no entire speci-

mens being available for study), width about

0.040 mm. Vagina about 0.450 mm long. Vulva

located on rather prominent protruberance

about 0.150 mm from tip of tail. Anus 0.050

mm from tail end. Tail bluntly rounded. Eggs

in utero 0.090 mm long by 0.035 to 0.040 mm

wide. Provagina absent.

Hosts.—Sender (Dr. P. L. Li) reports nema-

tode commonly present in sheep and goats in

Lanchow, China. Specific identity of sheep and

goats not stated. °

Location.—Terminal bronchioles and lung

tissue.

Distribution.—Lanchow, China.

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm.

45104.

Remarks.—Protostrongylus gracilis resembles

P. skrjabini as described by Boev (1937), but

that author presented no figures with his de-

scription. It is, therefore, impossible, at the

present time, to compare the two nematodes,

especially with reference to those structures

upon which species differentiation in the genus

is based.

Coll.” Neo.

Varestrongylus sinicus, n. sp.

Description—Male 12 to 15 mm long and

0.150 mm wide in region anterior to bursa.

Tail sharply bent and rigidly supported so that

it is almost impossible to flatten out the pos-

terior part of the body in the ventrodorsal

position. The ventral parts of both lobes of the

bursa are folded inward so that the course and

disposition of the terminal portions of the

ventral rays are difficult to follow. The arrange-

ment of the bursal rays is similar to that of

other members of the subfamily Protostrongy-

linae. The ventral rays arise from a common

stem and are separated only in their distal por-

tions. The ventroventral ray is much larger and

longer than the ventrolateral. It follows the

fold of the bursal lobe and reaches the margin

of the bursa. At its termination there is a slight

indentation or notch in the bursal margin.

The ventrolateral ray is comparatively small.

The anterolateral or externolateral ray is, as

Sepr. 15, 1945

in other members of this group of nematodes,

rather widely separated from both the ventral

rays and from the other lateral rays. The

mediolateral and externodorsal rays present no

distinctive features, but the posterolateral is

very small. The morphology of the dorsal ray,

especially its termination, is difficult to de-

termine because of its position in the sharply

bent, rigid posterior end of the body. It has a

fairly long stalk and appears to terminate in

two or perhaps three processes. Spicules 0.350

mm long provided with the usual sclerotized

combs or rods beginning about 0.2 mm from

Fie. 1.—Protostrongylus gracilis, n. sp.: a, Pos-

terior end of male, showing spicules; b, posterior

end of male, showing gubernaculum and bursal

rays; c, gubernaculum; d, parts of head of guber-

naculum; e, telamon, diagrammatic; f, posterior

end of female; g, posterior end of female, showing

length of vagina; h, eggs.

DIKMANS: TWO NEW LUNGWORMS FROM CHINA

295

Fig. 2.—Varestrongylus sinicus, n. sp.: a, Bursa

of male, lateral view; b, posterior end of male,

showing length of spicules; c, gubernaculum;

d, ventral part of telamon, lateral view; e, dorsal

ray; f, terminal part of gubernaculum, diagram-

matic; g, distal end of spicule; h, posterior end of

female.

the proximal ends. Distal ends split for a dis-

tance of 0.05 mm. Gubernaculum, 0.140—0.150

mm long, consists of proximal and terminal

portions divided by a constriction located

about 0.1-0.110 mm from the proximal end,

terminal portion ending in a sharp point. On

each side of the terminal portion, originating

at about the level or slightly below the con-

striction, is a more or less rectangular shaped

sclerotized structure, its dorsally directed edge

serrated. As in many other members of the

subfamily there is a rather complicated telamon

present. One of the striking features of this

telemon is that it has two sharply pointed

296

prongs projecting into the dorsal parts of the

lateral lobes of the bursa. On first view these

prongs appear to originate from and to be part

of the terminal portions of the dorsal ray, but

closer study shows that they have no connec-

tion with the dorsal ray but are a part of the

telamon.

Female.—22 to 24 mm long and 0.175 mm

wide. Vagina 1.150 mm long. Lips of vulva

swollen and prominent. Vulva about 0.125

mm from tip of tail. Body narrows abruptly

immediately posterior to vulva. Anus 0.045-

0.050 mm from tip of tail. Well-developed

provagina present.

Hosts.—Sheep and goats. Specific identity of

sheep and goats unknown.

Location.—Small bronchioles and lung tis-

sue.

ZOOLOGY .—Unusual abnormalities in sea-stars.

Marine Station, Pacific Grove, Calif.

SCHMITT.)

The following notes concern two species,

Linckia columbiae Gray and Pisaster och-

raceus segnis Fisher, which are characteris-

tic of the fauna of southern California.

Although I have examined sea-stars in al-

most galactic numbers, I have never before

encountered these deviations from the

normal.”

Linckia columbiae Gray®

Figs. 1, 2.

This species, which ranges from southern

California to the Galapagos Islands, is

characteristically asymmetrical. Most speci-

mens have one or more rays in the process

of regeneration, and it is possible for an

autotomized ray to grow a new disk and

four new rays. Such are known as comet

forms. In the specimen under discussion

(U.S.N.M. No. E. 6606) a new individual

is being budded off from the dorsal surface

of the shortest ray, to which it is attached

1 Received April 22, 1945.

2T am indebted to Mrs. Edward H. Anderson,

formerly Miss A. E. Blagg of the Hopkins Marine

Station staff, who found these specimens among

miscellanea zoologica at the Compton, Calif.,

Junior College. They were probably taken not

far from San Pedro, Calif.

3 W. K. Fisher, Asteroidea of the North Pacific

and adjacent waters. U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 76,

pt. 1: 242, pl. 48, figs. 1-7. 1911.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 9

Distribution.—Lanchow, China.

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. No.

45105, 45106.

Remarks.—Varestrongylus sinicus differs

from Varestrongylus pneumonicus Bhalerao,

1932, the only other member of the genus,

principally in the shape of the gubernaculum

and its appendages.

LITERATURE CITED

BHALERAO, G. On some nematode parasites

of goats and sheep at Muktesar. Ind.

Journ. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Husb. 2 (3):

242-254. 1982.

Bory, S. N. Sintetokauliusy legkikh ovets

Alma-Atinskow oblasti Kazakhstana [The

nematodes of the genus Synthetocaulus para-

sitic 1n Alma-Ata Territory, Kasakhstan].

Rabot. Gel’mintol. (Skrjabin) [Papers on

Helminthology (Skrjabin)], 1937: 55-62.

W. K. FisHer, Hopkins

(Communicated by Watpo L.

by a very short peduncle about 4 mm

thick. The dorsal plates of the parent are

in complete continuity with the plates of

the young one, but in the latter all the

normal categories of plates are perfectly

differentiated. The young has two unequal

madreporites, with a third in the process of

separation from the larger. The parent has

three madreporites. They vary from three

to five in the species. The young has one

papula to an area on the four rays but none

on disk; the parent has a maximum of 10

or 11. There are four ambulacral furrows

with their bordering granules Owing to

dessication it is not possible to determine

whether mouth and anus are present.

Pisaster ochraceus segnis Fisher*

Fig. 3.

In the specimen shown in Fig. 3 (U.S.N.M.

No. E 6607) the rays have fused nearly to

tip along the lateral part of the abactinal

surface. The dorsal surface of the fused

rays has two series of carinal spines, the

space between which is equal to about half

width of the two other dorsolateral areas.

The superomarginal plates of the fused

halves as well as the inferomarginal, are —

4 Idem, pt. 3: 171, pl. 73, figs. 4, 8; pl. 75, fig. 6;

pl. 84. 1930.

Sept. 15, 1945

on the ventral surface and are in somewhat

less regular alignment than normally. While

on the outer halves of the fused rays there

are three series of actinal plates, on the

inner halves there are but two. Along the

middle of the ventral surface between the

two series of superomarginals is a narrow

FISHER: UNUSUAL ABNORMALITIES IN SEA-STARS

297

area of irregular plates, carrying spines very

similar to the superomarginal spines, which

must be reckoned as a part of the abactinal

system.

The coelomic cavity of the two rays is in

perfect continuity, and there is only one

pair of hepatic caeca.

Fig. 1.—Linckia columbiae Gray,

X1.3, showing position of

young. Fic. 2.—Same, 4, actinal surface of the bud. U.S.N.M. No. E. 6660.

adventitious

298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 9

Fig. 3.—Pisaster ochraceus segnis Fisher, slightly larger than natural size.

Actinal surface showing coalesced rays. U.S.N.M. No. E. 6607.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

NEW MEMBERS

There follows a list of persons elected to

membership in the Academy by vote of its

Board of Managers, during the Academy year

1944, who have since qualified as members in

accordance with the bylaws of the Academy.

The bases for election are stated with the

names of the new members.

RESIDENT

WILLIAM RicHarDs Buarr, technical ad-

viser, Automatic Electric Co., Washington,

D. C., in recognition of work in meteorology,

especially in the field of upper-air observations

and research, for having devised the radio-

meteograph, and for numerous improvements

in rapid communication equipment and tech-

nique.

AUBREY KerITH BREWER, physicist, Na-

tional Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.;}

in recognition of contributions to chemical

physics and in particular researches on the

photoelectric properties of catalytic surfaces,

chemical action in the electric discharge, mass

spectrographic analysis, and isotopes.

CHARLES NILES Cuarre, U. 8. Coast and

—— +

ne ee a

—— 2

Sept. 15, 1945

Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C., in recog-

nition of contributions to geodesy and espe-

cially researches in cooperation with Dr. Oscar

S. Adams connected with the establishment of

State plane coordinate systems and with spe-

cial map projections.

Louris WADE CurRIkgR, geologist, U. 8. Geo-

logical Survey, Washington, D. C., in recogni-

tion of services in the science of geology.

JEWELL JEANETTE Guass, U. 8. Geological

Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of

contributions to mineralogy.

CHARLES KeirH GREEN, chief, Division of

Tides and Currents, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic

Survey, Washington, D. C., in recognition of

contributions to physical hydrography, chart

construction, and tide and current phenomena.

MarTIN GREENSPAN, materials engineer,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of work on stress dis-

tribution in engineering structures.

Sam RutTHeRFoRD Hatt, histologist, Bureau

of Dairy Industry, Beltsville, Md., in recogni-

tion of work on the physiology of lactation and

reproduction.

JoHN PrAaBopy HarrineTon, ethnologist,

Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of discoveries in lin-

guistics.

GeorGE WiLi1aAM Hunter, III, parasitolo-

gist, U. S. Army Medical School, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of extensive researches on

parasites of game fishes, including a monograph

on the North American Caryophyllaeidae.

Puitie Burke Kin«, geologist, U. 8. Geo-

logical Survey, Washington, D. C., in recog-

nition of work in stratigraphy and structural

geology in west Texas, New Mexico, Virginia,

and Tennessee.

SAMUEL Levy, physicist, National Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D. C., in recognition of

contributions to mechanics, with particular

reference to the analysis of aircraft structures.

Fioyp Atonzo McCuurg, research associ-

ate, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of botanical explorations

in China and contributions to our taxonomic

knowledge of the bamboos of the Orient and of

South America.

Harotrp Hatt McKinney, pathologist,

Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul-

tural Engineering, Beltsville, Md., in recogni-

tion of contributions to botany and plant

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY

299

pathology and in particular for investigations

with plant viruses.

ALVIN GREENE McNisu, physicist and mag-

netician, Department of Terrestrial Mag-

netism, Carnegie Institution of Washington,

Washington, D. C., in recognition of contribu-

tions to geophysics, in particular to researches

on the earth’s magnetic field and its variations.

ATHERTON H. Mears, engineer, U. §S.

Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C., in recog-

nition of work in developing new instruments,

particularly meteorological instruments.

ALFRED Métrravux, anthropologist, Bu-

reau of American Ethnology, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of contributions to the

ethnology of South America and Polynesia.

Rogsert RusH MItLieER, assistant curator of

fishes, U. S. National Museum, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of original research made

known in several scientific contributions on the

ichthyological fauna of the western desert re-

gions of North America.

Maurice ALuison Mook, assistant profes-

sor of sociology and anthropology, American

University, Washington, D. C., in recognition

of contributions to the historical ethnology of

the southeastern Algonquin tribes of Tide-

water Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas.

Wiuii1am Warp Picman, chemist, National

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of studies on the mechanism of ac-

tion and specificity of the glycoside-hydrolyz-

ing enzymes.

MarGarReET Pitrrman, bacteriologist, Na-

tional Institute of Health, Bethesda, Md., in

recognition of contributions to the serological

typing of Hemophilus influenzae which stimu-

lated the use of type specific antiserum, and

other studies of Hemophilus influenzae.

LESLIE ADRIAN SANDHOLZER, bacteriologist,

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and lecturer,

University of Maryland, in recognition of con-

tributions to bacteriology especially in regard

to bacteriophage and enteric bacteria; also,

contributions to knowledge in the field of en-

vironmental sanitation and public-health as-

pects of the fishery industry.

KENNETH LEE SHERMAN, physicist, Depart-

ment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie In-

stitution of Washington, Washington, D. C.,

in recognition of contributions to atmospheric

electricity, in particular to the design and de-

velopment of instruments.

Leo ALLEN SHINN, chemist, Bureau of

300

Dairy Industry, Beltsville, Md., in recognition

of contributions to biochemistry and especially

work on amino acids and proteins.

Francis ALBERT SMITH, chemist, National

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of contributions to the physical

chemistry of gases and flames and to knowledge

of the properties of substances dissolved in

liquid ammonia.

Otis WILLIAM SwAINsON, chief, Division of

Geomagnetism and Seismology, U. 8. Coast

and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of contributions to the determina-

tion of the velocity and ray paths of sound

waves in sea water and to topographic survey-

ing. :

T. Ivan Taytor, chemist, National Bureau

of Standards, Washington, D. C., in recogni-

tion of contributions to physical chemistry and

in particular work on the separation of isotopes

and their application to chemical research.

Ernest Harry VESTINE, physicist, Depart-

ment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie In-

stitution of Washington, Washington, D. C.,in

recognition of contributions to geomagnetism

with particular reference to the analysis of

magnetic disturbances.

Harotp ERNEST VoKEs, geologist, U. S.

Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of work on the Cretaceous and

early Tertiary molluscan paleontology.

Henry We tc, chief, Microanalytical Divi-

sion, Food and Drug Administration, Wash-

ington, D. C., in recognition of services to the

science of biology, especially in immunology

and in studying the effects of antiseptics,

sulfonamides, irradiation, and penicillin on bac-

terial infections.

Harry WARREN WELLS, physicist, Depart-

ment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie In-

stitution of Washington, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of contributions to ionospheric re-

search; development of apparatus for multifre-

quency ionospheric exploration extending our

knowledge of worldwide characteristics and

applying this information to theoretical analy-

sis of the earth’s magnetic field, together with

its practical applications to radio wave-propa-

gation.

CHARLES ARTHUR WHITTEN, mathematician,

U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 35, No. 9

D. C., in recognition of contributions to the

science of geodesy and to practical astronomy.

Wiuii1amM A. WILDHACK, physicist, National

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of work on aircraft instruments

and in particular on research and development

of corrugated diaphragms and on aircraft oxy-

gen instruments.

GORDON RANDOLPH WILLEY, anthropologist,

Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington,

D. C., in recognition of contributions to the

prehistory of the southeastern United States

and of Peru.

WiuuiaAM Empry WRraTHER, director, U. S.

Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., in

recognition of his stimulating influence in ge-

ology and the other sciences.

NONRESIDENT

JoHn Scotr ANDREWS, parasitologist,

Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton, Ga.,

in recognition of contributions to our knowl-

edge of the injurious effects of nematode para-

sites on sheep and cattle.

James BENNETT GRIFFIN, curator, Museum

of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann

Arbor, Mich., in recognition of research and

publications on the ceramics of the aborigines

of eastern America.

Tuomas ForsytH McILuwraituH, professor

of anthropology, University of Toronto and

keeper of ethnological collections, Royal On-

tario Museum of Archeology, Toronto, Can-

ada, in recognition of studies of the ethnology

of the Indians of the northwest coast of Can-

ada, studies in the material culture of Ca-

nadian Indians, annual lists of publications in

anthropology of Canada, and of position as an

outstanding Canadian anthropologist.

Rozpert L. PIEMEISEL, plant physiologist,

Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul-

tural Engineering, Twin Falls, Idaho, in recog-

nition of outstanding research in plant ecology,

especially ecology of desert and range areas of

western United States.

Curron ALFRED WESLAGER, DuPont Cor-

poration, Wilmington, Del., in recognition of

contributions to Delaware prehistory and folk-

lore.

F. G. BrRIcKWEDDE, Secretary

Yas

bey

a e

ha »

Botany.—The vegetative characters of the ‘ae 5 eae ; | ll

stachys and descriptions of eight new species ‘introduced from

% oa + ae

China. FL A‘ MoCiamm: 32. 7 ase ~ 1 iden ose eee

ZooLoGy.—Two new lungworms, Protostrongylus gracilis ; and’ vy are- Ve

strongylus sinicus (Nematoda: Protostrongylinae), from sheep

and goats in China. G. DERMARE : te ee de

j at ‘ ein ee

a * 3

$ : ae ™

» sy 2 eu ~

Zootocy.—Unusual abnormalities in sea-stars. W. K. Fs HER

‘

PROCEEDINGS: Das Aeon coy: rae ol

7 o. es

onl

_ BOARD or EDITORS

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| U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM

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ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

OcToBER 15, 1945

VoLuME 35

No. 10

ETHNOLOGY.—Some mnemonic pictographs relating to the Iroquois condolence

council.: 2

J. N. B. Hewirrt, late ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology,

and WituiAM N. Fenton, Bureau of American Ethnology.

The use of mnemonic pictographs by the

Iroquois and cognate tribes has long been

recognized by various writers, but hitherto

the subject has not received the attention

that its cultural importance merits. A

thorough study, if properly done, should

reveal the technique employed by the na-

tives in adapting means to ends, showing

how the Iroquois sought to obtain their

needs by the readiest available methods.

That the latter would change with time

and place is obvious to anyone who con-

siders even momentarily the long history of

the Iroquois and their relations with Euro-

peans. One might hope that such picto-

graphs were drawn on bark or buckskin; he

should not be disappointed to find them on

paper. What is remarkable is that certain

ideas persist, and they are expressed in

changing media. Beyond brief references to

1 Published by permission of the Secretary,

Smithsonian Institution. Received May 28, 1945.

2 This is the second of Mr. Hewitt’s manu-

scripts relating to the Condolence Council of the

Iroquois League to appear posthumously. The

first, the Requickening Address of the Iroquois

Condolence Council (this JoURNAL 34 (3): 65-85,

1944), introduces the subject and carries explana-

tory notes on the Iroquois Confederacy and its

social organization that need not be repeated. Mr.

Hewitt’s original manuscript entitled ‘‘ Mnemonic

Pictographs of the Iroquois,’’ much too broad a

title for its contents, was never completed for pub-

lication. The unfinished paper, with notes for the

balance comprising MS. No. 3502 in the Bureau

of American Ethnology Catalogue of Manu-

scripts, has been entirely rewritten by the junior

author, who began the work with the help of

Simeon Gibson in the autumn of 1943 and com-

pleted it in May 1945 at Ohsweken, Six Nations

Reserve, with the assistance of Cayuga Chief

Alex General and Howard Skye. The former field

work derived support from a grant in aid from

the American Council of Learned Societies, the

latter from the Viking Fund and the Smithsonian

Institution.

its casual use in the works of early writers,

very little of a descriptive or interpretive

nature exists in printed sources accessible

to the student concerning the picture writ-

ing of the Iroquois Indians; its extent and

the purposes it was made to serve are there-

fore but little known.

In the present brief study we do not aim

to cover the entire subject of Iroquois

pictography. Rather, this paper attempts

to learn how the Iroquois adapted pictorial

designs to form mnemonic records of what

they deemed the distinctive features of two

component rituals in the Condolence Coun-

cil, which is a convocation of the confeder-

ated Iroquois tribes for the purpose of

condoling the relatives of deceased federal

chieftains and filling the ranks with chosen

candidates; the visiting unscathed tribes

of the League conduct the ceremony, re-

storing the minds of the mourning tribes.

When the League was founded the law-

givers decreed that no seat around the

great council fire should remain vacant.

Accordingly, the Condolence Council com-

prises five rituals of condolence and instal-

lation, among which the Roll Call of the

Founders and the Requickening Address

were remembered by the symbols that are

discussed below.

On one of his many field trips to the Six

Nations of Grand River in Ontario, Canada,

Mr. Hewitt in 1920? fortunately acquired a

$ Since this paper is written from the viewpoint

of the junior author, the third person denominates

the senior author, who died in 1937, and the first

person is reserved for the present writer. Opinions

of the senior author I have labeled “J.N.B.H.,”

interpretations of Simeon Gibson appear as “S

Gibson,”’ those of Howard Skye as “H. Skye,”’

and comments of my own are initialed. “W. N. F.”

Mr. Hewitt was in the field annually from 1916

301 :

302

small well-worn memorandum book of

about a dozen pages, of a kind that country

grocery stores commonly furnished gratis to

customers as advertising. On previous oc-

casions Mr. Hewitt had observed this note-

book in the possession of old Chief Abram

Charles. Chief Charles, then an emeritus

chief of the Cayuga tribe, consulted it fre-

quently while he was engaged in reciting

either the Roll Call of the chiefs or the Re-

quickening Address during sessions of the

Condolence Council. The first of these

rituals, the Roll Call of the Founders, is

chanted; the other, the Requickening Ad-

dress, is spoken, preferably in a rhythm

which reminded Hewitt of blank verse.

Chief Charles drew these arduous assign-

ments because his contemporaries recog-

nized that he knew the contents of these

two rites and performed them accurately.

Because the rites directly concern the dead

and the living and because the origins of

the League have acquired a holy aura, the

Iroquois regard them as sacred, and per-

forming the rituals publicly demands strict

accuracy, since ancient custom enjoins that

the celebrant must not err during the recita-

tion; should he hesitate or stumble, another

performer must be ready to continue; an

error of this nature is construed as boding

ill to all the people. Not only is it impera-

tive to adhere strictly to the ordered se-

quence, but not to follow the established

sequence confuses and confounds well-

known political relationships that are basic

to the functioning of the League and its in-

stitutions. It was thought that failure to

follow the roll call of official titles, their

grouping into classes, tribes, and moieties,

and the political relationships of these

groups as kin would vitiate the purposes of

the chants.

Well aware that Abram Charles had

ereat difficulty to read or write the simplest

matter in English, Mr.. Hewitt naturally

was curious to know the contents of this

small notebook to which Chief Charles

constantly referred. So when a favoring op-

to 1920, but he stayed in Washington throughout

the fiscal year ended June 30, 1921. A letter en-

velope containing the pages from Chief Charles’s

notebook bears the legend: “‘Chief Abram Charles/

Books, /Ohsweken,/Ontario, Canada/1920.”’

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 10

portunity presented itself Chief Charles was

‘ consulted about the matter. Hewitt was no

little amazed to learn that this unpreten-

tious notebook contained sets of mnemonic

symbols or characters which had been de-

_vised ingeniously to indicate the number,

the correct sequence of topics, and the roll

call of federal titles comprising these two

important chants.

There are eight pages of drawings. The

envelope, in which Hewitt kept the pages

mounted on larger sheets of paper (see foot-

note 3), contains pages from what appear

to have been two notebooks. There are five

pages on buff-lined paper measuring 8 by

14.5 cm and three pages on narrower coated

stock, measuring 6.6 by 13.8 cm and bear-

ing double pink lines at the top, of which

one page (List No. 1) is dated “Srmpr—l_

1913.’’ Apparently the latter drawings are

of more recent date, to judge by the condi-

tion of the paper, but they are possibly

copies of older drawings. The eight pages

are occupied by 13 sets of drawings, which

largely depict the upper portion of the

human body. Clearly, some of the 13 sets

are merely revisions duplicating some one

of the other sets. Nevertheless, the entire

group of drawings constitutes notes or

memoranda for two of the main chants in

the Condolence Council.

The first of the two chants or rituals in-

volved here bears two titles since it has two

aspects which the terms describe: Its first

use is during the journey of the condolers

from their home country toward the settle-

ment of the tribe which mourns for its of-

ficial dead; on the long journey representa-

tives of the several condoling tribes intone

the ritual as they slowly follow the path to

the home of the stricken tribe, repeating

the song day after day on the trail. This

aspect of the ritual, therefore, in Onondaga

was called atahinén’ge, ‘‘While journeying,”

or, in modern reservation parlance, ‘“‘Going

on the road.”’ Its second aspect derives from

repeating the ritual on arrival inside the

meeting place, the longhouse of the mourn-

ing tribe, where the Condolence Council

convenes. The term for the second aspect is

ne’ ondathnonhsen’deddkhkwa’, ‘‘that by

which one passes through the house’’ (i.e.,

through the institution of the League).

of — ae , i. : .

eS SS ae a a en eee

F Ms this

ee a. ee Pa

Oct. 15, 1945 HEWITT AND FENTON: IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS

Simeon Gibson rendered this term, ‘‘What

a nation employs in calling at another

nation’s house.’ In this part of the cere-

mony the visiting singer leads the column

of condoling chiefs into the longhouse of the

mourning tribe, and then the singer alone

paces to and fro reciting the Eulogy or Roll

Call of the Founders of the League, which

is the aspect of ‘Calling at the other tribe’s

house.’”’ The Roll Call is the roster of the

49(50) founders of the League,‘ their blood

ties, and their political relationships; hence

its English title. Hewitt adopted the de-

scriptive caption “The Eulogy of the

Founders of the League” as being more ex-

pressive of a ritual that lists the official

names of its founders, with pertinent lauda-

tory and historical comments interspersed

after each of the names.

The second ritual involved in the draw-

ings is the Requickening Address, which

has been published in this JouRNAL. One

set of pictographs, therefore, comprises

memoranda for the Fourteen (or Fifteen)

Matters constituting the condolences. Each

one of the 14 symbolic human figures in this

set (Fig. 6) represents one of the 15 topical

sections, except one, of the great requiem

address for elevating the minds of the

stricken federal chiefs who are addressed as

an individual. The Fourteen Matters re-

spectively describe the 14 hurts or wounds

inflicted on mortals by ‘‘that demonic

Being that is faceless, Death—the Great

Destroyer.” Stricken in body and mind are

the kindred who mourn. In the second place,

with the 14 sections of the address the un-

scathed phratry of tribes performs vicarious-

ly acts of symbolic restoration to the facul-

ties and bodies of the mourning phratry

through the voice of their speaker. Since

this part of the ceremony prescribes for the

bodily and mental effects of death, it deals

with affected organs and faculties. The

Iroquois believe that bitter grief induced by

death of kindred sets up in the mourner a

4 Hewitt contended with the Cayugas that

there were but 13 titles on the Onondaga list, the

last person, Skana’wati, having two names cor-

relative with peace and war functions. Instead of

14 Onondaga chiefships, since one man occupied

two statuses and performed two roles, this left

but 49 chiefs on the federal roster, not 50 as the

Onondagas contend and as there were in later

times.

303

blood deficiency that debilitates the organs

and enfeebles the mind. So by the loss of a

chief his kindred are depressed in mind and

their vitality is lowered.

Before attempting to interpret the draw-

ings of Chief Charles, one must understand

some basic principles operative in the politi-

cal structure of the League. One must also

understand that the code of Condolence

Law compels inflexible adherence to set

forms in the two rites under discussion.

Rather than repeat the exposition of these

two sets of principles here, the reader is re-

ferred to the 1944 edition of Mr. Hewitt’s

paper on ‘The Requickening Address of

the Iroquois Condolence Council,” to which

are appended notes on the Iroquois Con- .

federacy and its social organization. For the

benefit of those who do not have access to

that paper, we may state briefly that the

principles of blood kindred, duality (with

mutual service between reciprocating units

of society), relative age, and sex, as they

operated in society as it was lived by the

village band, were projected beyond the

local group to the level of the tribe, and

from the tribe to the confederacy. Thus

what individuals do in the band, whole

tribes perform in the confederacy. Tribes

apply kinship terms to other tribes: they

are related as mothers or little mothers (i.e.,

mother’s sisters), daughters and sons, older

sisters and younger sisters, elder brothers

and younger brothers, and mother’s

brothers (uncles), father and little father

(i.e., father’s brother), father’s sister, in

some tribes, and mother or little mother,

in others.®

Relations of consanguinity and affinity

which the founders of the League ascribed

to chiefs of the several tribes must be con-

stantly kept in mind when reciting the

chants. In performing the Eulogy or Roll

Call the celebrant must remember three

things: the song, the list of names, and the

relationships between the names that fill

out the verses of the chant. Therefore, the

5 The terms for aunt and uncle are found only

among the Seneca and Tuscarora and do not

occur in Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, and Onon-

daga dialects; the reason for this is not known.

—J.N.B.H. It is my impression that these findings

do not accord with Goldenweiser’s data for the

kinship of the Six Nations.—W.N.F.

304

chanter must observe carefully the correct

sequence of terms in the ritual, Evidently

the task was not an easy one for an unas-

sisted memory, and gradually mnemonic

aids like the pictographs which are the

subject of this paper came into use.

Chief Charles’s drawings are of the same

order as the symbols in wampum belts,

although the latter are perforce geometric;

the practice of using drawings is like hold-

ing a series of twigs or marked counters or

sticking tallies upright in the ground; the

drawings serve a similar purpose to tally

sticks notched to indicate a period of days

or points to be enumerated in speaking; and

we are reminded of the series of wampum

strings of graduated arrangement and dis-

tinct color patterns that accompany bur-

dens of the Requickening Address. More-

over, the old chiefs carried canes. Some-

times the chiefs carved memoranda on

canes as on other sticks to remind them of

stations in a long address involving a dozen

or more points. Again, the chiefs commis-

sioned craftsmen to make canes and adorn

the surfaces with symbols appropriate to

reminding celebrants of the significant sta-

tions in a ritual. Thus, among the extant

examples of such record canes, the Cayugas

formerly had a Roll Call Cane, now in the

Cranbrook Institute of Science, that the

appointed Eulogy singer carried in the same

ceremony as these drawings to denominate

the 50 titles of the chiefs who founded the

League.®

With the sole exception of the one page

of illustrative drawings as symbols for the

Fourteen Matters of Requickening (Fig. 6),

the remaining notebook pages of picto-

graphs refer to the Roll Call of chiefs. Four

sets of these (Figs. 1-3 and one set not il-

lustrated), however, stand for the Mohawk

and Oneida rosters of chiefs. The Onondaga

roster appears clearly once on the same page

as the Seneca roster (Fig. 4); the latter is not

represented again in recognizable form; but

the Onondaga characters appear again on

List No. 2 (Fig. 5),7 but out of order. The

6 W. N. Fenton, A Cayuga condolence cane with

pictographs denominating the founders of the

Iroquois League (MS.).

7 List numbers derive from the original paper.

To avoid confusion a correlation of List numbers

and Figure numbers follows:

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 10

Cayuga chiefs are not illustrated except by

a series of dots (Fig. 5), to which we return

in a moment; Abram Charles, being a

Cayuga chief, could remember the roster of

his own tribal council.

In some respects the grouping of chiefs

and their relationships to one another is

more fundamental than their titles. At

least the Iroquois ritualists have isolated the

patterns of spatial arrangement which they

illustrate in a number of ways. One page of

Chief Charles’s notebook contains a series

of dots, .. ... ...... (Fig. 5), spaced in the

sequence 2-3-3-2, which is the grouping of

Cayuga chiefs in council. Another page

carries out similar sequences for all of Five

Nations.

On the latter sheet, Mohawk and Oneida

appear at the right, one over the other in

sequences of threes. On the left at the top

are the Cayuga chiefs. Beneath them on a

slant are the Seneca, four groups of two.

The Onondaga list runs across the bottom

of the page to the left of the Oneida, reading

from right to left.

(Cayuga) (Mohawk)

fete Ta OS SAR

(Seneca)

he Ray) eat) Oo

(Onondaga) (Oneida)

Se Tee ee

Knowing in part the sequence of chiefs

from the Roll Call, and using these data, we

can reconstruct the grouping of chiefs and

their relationships, which, if Chief Charles’s

notes are read from right to left, work out

as follows:

List No. 1. Mohawk and Oneida titles (Fig. 1).

Older buff paper.

List No. 1. Onondaga and Seneca titles (Fig. 4).

Newer coated stock, and dated ‘“Srpr—l, 1913.”

List No. 2. Onondaga titles (5-14; 1-6), and

Cayuga groupings (Fig. 5). Older buff paper.

List No. 2 ohawk and Oneida titles, with

Seneca titles poorly drawn at bottom (not illus-

trated). Newer coated stock.

List No. 3. Mohawk and Oneida titles (Fig. 3).

Newer coated stock.

List No. 4. Mohawk and Oneida titles (Fig. 2).

Older buff paper.

Groupings of chiefs in five tribes (not illus-

trated). Older buff paper.

Ocr. 15, 1945

Mohawk: 3-3-3

Oneida: 3-3-3

Cayuga: 2-3-3-2

Seneca: 2-2-2-2

Onondaga: 6-1-2-3-2*

* (Hewitt gives 1, making 13.)

We find, therefore, 19 groups (classes) or

committees of chiefs in the Conferederate

Council. The arrangement of dots to repre-

sent these groups in Chief Charles’s note-

book, moreover, follows a design for laying

down kernels of corn that he and other

Iroquois ritualists employed when instruct-

ing Eulogy singers in the Roll Call of chiefs

and in teaching their relationships. Pre-

cisely the same pattern is found in the

grouping of pegs on the Cayuga Condolence

Cane in Cranbrook Institute.

Evidently when the ritual of Journeying

on the path to visit the longhouse of the

mourning chiefs took final form, the Roll

Call contained 50 titles, represented by 49

chiefs, according to Hewitt and the Cayu-

gas. Of these 50 titles, 9 belonged to the

Mohawk, 8 to the Seneca, 14 to the

Onondaga (represented by 13 chiefs), tribes

on the Male or Father side (the Three

Brothers side); and 9 to the Oneida and 10

to the Cayuga, tribes of the Female or

Mother side (the Four Brothers side, later,

including Tuscarora, Tutelo, and Delaware)

of the council fire of the League. This means

that one tribal phratry or moiety of the

League council, that of the Father side

(also called Elder Brothers), claimed 31

titles, represented by 30 federal chiefs; and

only 19 titles belonged to the Mother side

(also called Offspring, or Younger Brothers).

Besides these two larger tribal moieties

the great body of chiefs comprised 19

smaller, intratribal groupings (above), ex-

pressing similar blood and political rela-

tionships within the several tribes. At once

these lesser groupings furnished the timber

and the plan with which the founders

erected the confederate structure. Within

these lesser groupings no unit is larger than

three; oftener the group includes two; one

large committee of six comprises three

units of two. Thus the tripartite grouping

and the basic pattern of duality intersect in

the social and political organization of the

League of the Iroquois tribes as the warp

HEWITT AND FENTON: IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS

305

and the woof of the Great White Mat of

the Law, which spreads out beneath their

political structure. Two men sit across the

symbolic council fire from each other as

cousins, or they sit together on the same

side of the fire as brothers opposite a third

who is their cousin. From the fireside

council of the Mohawk Turtle clan, to the

tribal council of the Mohawk Nation, to

the confederate council of the League, the

same patterns of tripartite grouping and

reciprocity between moieties prevailed.

By way of illustration Hewitt sum-

marized the social and political organization

of the Mohawk and Oneida tribes. Each

tribe had three clans: Turtle, Wolf, and

Bear. With the Oneida, the order was Wolf,

Turtle, and Bear. With the Mohawk

Turtle and Wolf are political brothers,

forming a moiety, one side of the tribal

duality, and Bear sits alone. But among the

Oneida, Wolf and Turtle are _ political

brothers, forming one moiety, and Bear the

other.

The Mohawk Turtle clan chiefs and the

Oneida Wolf clan chiefs, in the councils of

their respective tribes, functioned as chair-

man or presiding officer, and as such they

took no part in deliberations of the council

beyond hearing and determining whether

the proceedings of the session were legal

and conformed to established custom; if so

they confirmed the decision; otherwise they

referred the matter back to the council for

further deliberation and action, perhaps

with pertinent corrective comment. Tribal

councils, organized on this pattern and

functioning as described, resemble, Hewitt

thought, an American court composed of

judges and jury.

In confederating to form the federal

council the founders of the League adopted

this tripartite form of the dual tribal

council, but they rearranged constructively

the internal political structure of the

Onondaga, whose duty it was to preside at

the sessions of the federal council. From

among the 14 Onondaga chief statuses the

founders of the League appointed an

executive committee of five who were called

the Firekeepers. It was the function of the

Firekeepers to decide what disposition

should be made of the resolutions and de-

306 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

cisions arising out of the deliberations of the

36 chiefs representing the four other tribes

of the League, and accordingly to advise

the presiding chief, Dehadoddho, leading

Onondaga chief, what action he should take.

In possessing the Firekeepers, theoretically

the Onondagas as presiding tribe of the

League council in no way controlled the

deliberations of the body, no more than

did the presiding clans in the tribal councils

of the Mohawk and Oneida, on which the

confederate structure was modeled. The re-

port of the committee called Firekeepers

constituted a judgment, and when the pre-

siding chief Dehadodého pronounced a

judgment the case was closed.

The following diagrams illustrate spatial

arrangement of clans and the functions of

the chiefs in relation to the symbolic council

fire. It will be seen at a glance that the

same pattern obtains at the level of the

tribe and of the League. We give the num-

ber of chiefs for each grouping in the Mo-

hawk and Oneida tribal councils. At the

left is the Male of Father Side of the council

fire, and the right is the Female of Mother

Side.

MonaAawk TRIBAL CoUNCIL

Turtle Clan

Three Chiefs

Judge

Wolf Clan Tribal Bear Clan

Three Chiefs Council | Three Chiefs

Legislative Fire Legislative

These are Cousins to

Turtles and Wolves

across the fire.

These are Brothers to

Turtles above.

ONEIDA TRIBAL COUNCIL

Wolf Clan

Three Chiefs

Judge

Turtle Clan Tribal Bear Clan

Three Chiefs Council | Three Chiefs

Legislative Fire Legislative

These are Cousins to

Wolves and Turtles

across the fire.

These are Brothers to

olves.

FEDERAL COUNCIL OF THE

Troquois LEAGUE

The Onondaga Tribe

Fourteen Chiefships,

held by 13 chiefs

Firekeepers

Judge

The Mohawk pee The Oneida

: ouncil :

Tribe Fire Tribe

Nine Chiefs Nine Chiefs

Legislative Legislative

The Seneca The Cayuga

Tribe Tribe

Eight Chiefs Ten Chiefs

Doorkeepers Legislative

Legislative

The Mohawk and Sen- The Oneida and Cay-

VOL. 35, No. 10°

eca tribes are Broth-

ers to the Onondaga

tribe. These three

call the Oneida and

Cayuga tribes ‘‘Off-

spring’ or ‘‘Neph-

ews.”’

uga tribes are Cous-

ins to the _ three

tribes across the fire.

They are “Off-

spring,”’ being on the

Mother Side of the

council fire. Includ-

ing adopted tribes in

later times they be-

came the ‘Four

Brothers Side.’”’ They

call the three other

tribes of the Three

Brothers Side,

“Fathers’ clansmen’’

or ‘‘Uncles.”’

In the old council of life chiefs on the

Grand River, which held court until 1924 at

Ohsweken on Six Nations Reserve, the

above diagram would have been reversed,

with Mohawk and Seneca sitting east of the

‘fire,’ the Onondaga as Firekeepers in the

center, His Majesty’s agent to the north,

and the Oneida and Cayuga with appended

tribes sitting west of the fire:

ONEIDA H.M.S. MovHAwk

ONONDAGA

CAYUGA SENECA

Tuscarora

Delaware and Tutelo

Under the latter arrangement, which is

the same as the first only turned about

for true orientation, Onondaga-Mohawk-

Seneca constituted the Three Brothers Side,

“4

Ocr. 15, 1945

and the Four Brothers Side comprised On-

ondaga-Cayuga-Tuscarora-Delaware (and

Tutelo). The latter three, being dependent

tribes, adopted by the Cayuga and the

Oneida, had no voice in the federal council.

The remnants of the Nanticoke were in-

cluded among the Delaware.

Now let us take up the lists of chiefs

which Chief Charles illustrated with his

notebook drawings.

THE MOHAWK PICTOGRAPHS

Four sets of drawings may be ascribed to this

tribe: List No. 1 (Fig. 1), List No. 2 (not

shown), List No. 3 (Fig. 3), and List No. 4

Fig. 2). Hewitt is responsible for numbering

the lists (see footnote 7)—W.N.F.

1. Tekarthhékenh, “It separates or divides

the matter.”

The first name on the Roll Call, and the first

name on the Mohawk tribal roster, is repre-

sented on List No. 1 by a forked stick; on

Lists Nos. 2 and 3 by a man’s head with a

forked tongue protruding from the mouth, as if

to illustrate the interpretation now current at

Six Nations, “Of two opinions.’”’ Apparently,

the symbol for this name is lacking on List

No. 4.

2. Hayenhhwénhtha’’, ‘He sifts with a bark

sieve.” —J.N.B.H., or “Early riser’? (S. Gib-

son).

On the Mohawk List No. 1, this chief is

represented by three dots vertically arranged

(Fig. 1), on List No. 3 by a man’s head and

torso having five dots on the body to represent

“the sieve” (J.N.B.H.) (Fig. 3); List No. 2 has

a bisected oval figure, probably an error, taking

the place of the third name; and the second

Mohawk title appears first on List No. 3 as an

irregular figure with dots “to depict the sieve”’

(Fig. 2).

3. Sha’tekarithhwdate’, ‘‘Matters of equal

height, words of equal length.”

Three vertical lines topped by a horizontal

line depict this chief on Mohawk List No. 1

8 Hewitt did not comment on this new inter-

pretation, which differs from that in his article

Hiawatha (Handbook of American Indians, 1912

ed.). From Onondaga Chief John Buck of Six

Nations Reserve, Mr. Hewitt had in 1931, ‘‘He

who sifts with a woven bark sieve”’ in the following

dialectical forms: HayenhhwAth’ha’ (Oa.), Ha-

yénwathha’ (Hayewathha’) (S.), Hayenh’wathha’

(third syllable whispered) (C.), Rayénhwathha’

M.), La—(Oe.).

HEWITT AND FENTON: [IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS

307

(Fig. 1), showing that the three items are of

equal import. List No. 2 has a similar symbol of

but two vertical lines with a horizontal line

across the top. A man’s head topped by a heavy

horizontal line represents this chief on List

No. 3 (Fig. 3). List No. 4 is less clear; the

drupe-shaped symbol is capped by a heavy

horizontal line, defining a limit to its height

(Fig. 2).

A hiatus occurs here in all the lists, indicating

that these three, the Turtle clan chiefs, stand

together apart from the next three.

4. Sharenhhéowane’, “He the great tree

trunk.”

A tall trunk of a tree having three long roots

stands for this name on List No. 1 (Fig. 1), and

Fig. 1.—List No. 1: Mohawk

and Oneida titles.

in the same manner on the remaining lists,

but with four roots.

5. Teyonhhéhkonh, “It lives by two life-

givers,” or ‘‘Double Life.”

The name of this title is represented by two

V-shaped characterters on List No. 1 (Fig. 1),

the one set above the other, enclosing two dots.

The remaining lists show the head and torso of

a man having two heart-shaped devices on the

breast. ‘‘Double life’? was the idea that Chief

Charles evidently intended.

6. Ohenhhe’géonah (Oa.) or Orenhre’koowah

(M.), ‘‘Great White Eagle,” or, possibly,

“Great Canada Goose.”

On all four lists of pictographs, this chief is

depicted by the figure of a bird, facing to the

left. On these lists the character of the bird

resembles a fowl; on the Cayuga Condolence

Cane at Cranbrook Institute, however, its as-

pect is that of a dove or hawk, facing the other

way.

Here a hiatus of vertical dots on all lists

signifies completing the roll of the Wolf Clan

chiefs, who are cousins to the next three.

308

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 10

Fig. 2.—List No. 4: Mohawk and Oneida titles.

7. Tehenn@wkariine’, ‘‘His two horns are

moving along,” or ‘Dragging Antlers.”’

The antlers figure prominently in the sym-

bols of all four lists: on List No. 1 (Fig. 1) a

human head with antlers over its forehead; on

List No. 2, merely a small round object bearing

deer’s antlers; on List No. 4, a poorly drawn

human head with deer antlers. Chief Charles

intended apparently to delineate a chief carry-

ing his two antlers, the horns of office.

8. Hahstawen’seréntha’, ‘He attaches rattles

to 1b.”

This title is represented on List No. 1 by

what appears to be an outline of a turtle shell

rattle, held upright; the same is crudely drawn

on List No. 2; on List No. 3, an outline of a

rattle bears two dots on the shell; and on List

No. 4 the attempt to draw such a rattle is

crude, to say the least. The rattle is the key to

this name.

9. Sosgohharéowane’, ‘He the great branch.”

(Hewitt’s MS. gives ‘“‘He the great quantity of

drift-wood”’ or, just as meaningful, ‘‘He has a

large cadaver,’ but these interpretations make

no sense.— W.N.F.)

The outline of a tree branch appears clearly

on all the lists. Surely this is what Chief Charles

had in mind.

This is the number of Mohawk chiefs,

marked on all lists by a series of vertical dots.

THE ONEIDA PICTOGRAPHS

The following chiefs are the ‘‘Offspring”’ of

the first. (The Roll Call continues, but we

enumerate the chiefs of each succeeding tribe

separately, e.g., 10/1, 19/1, 33/1, and 43/1.)

10/1. Ho’datchéhde’, ‘‘He bears a quiver (by

a forehead strap)” or, with a slight change in

pronunciation, ‘‘He bears a fawn (buckskin

pouch) by a burden strap—J.N.B.H.° “He car-

ries a quiver on his shoulder,’ or, simply,

“Carries a quiver’ is the usual meaning—

W.N.F.

In all the drawings the quiver idea is promi-

nent. What is possibly intended for a quiver

with attachment for carrying appears on List

No. 1 (Fig. 1). A human head and bust bearing

a quiver on the shoulder occurs on List No. 2

(not illustrated); the same appears on Lists

Nos. 3 (Fig. 3) and 4 (Fig. 2).

11/2. Kanonhkwen’yéoton’, ‘‘One has set up-

right several ears of corn,’”’ ‘Standing ears of

corn,” or ‘Standing corncobs.”’

The second Oneida title is depicted on the

first three lists by a straight line inclined at its

top to the left; on List No. 41s a drawing of an

ear of corn, also inclined to the left at the

top.

12/3. Teyohhd’kwente’, “It has a gullet” or

“Difficult swallower.” “Between the openings

(of the forest)’ —S. Gibson. In the Deganawii-

dah legend, this chief passes without leaving

an opening in the forest.

On List No: 1 this title is depicted simply by

a crude drawing representing the profile of a

human face; a pronounced double chin appears

on a head and torso of List No. 2; several dots

9 Quiver (gahéskaa’) gdd@’tthe’, buckskin

pouch); but a new born deer is owiiye’, and deer

(skenéndon’); ‘‘he carries the body’’ would be

hoya’ dagéhde’. The quiver that this old Oneida

chief carried was made evidently of buck or fawn

skin—S. Gibson.

Ocr. 15, 1945

direct attention to the neck, probably to de-

note its opening, on the drawing of a head and

body in List No. 3; and the double chin appears

again on List No. 4.

A hiatus occurs here in all the lists. This is

the number of Wolf Clan chiefs.

13/4. Shonénhsese’, ‘His lodge is very long.”

A drawing of a house with or without a door-

Way appears on all four sets of drawings: a

house (Fig. 1), a tall gable marked with a line

for the doorway (List 2), two lines indicating

doorway in gable (Fig. 3), and merely a house

gable in List No. 4 (Fig. 2).

14/5. Tehone’okén’ah or Daona’rokén’ah, ‘He

the small forked root.”

In all four sets of drawings this chief is de-

picted by a drawing of a fork. In Onondaga and

Cayuga this name changes to “Two words

(voices) meet,”’ (dwennaigén’a (Oa.), dodwen-

naigén’ah(C.).—S. Gibson.

15/6. Hatya’tonnénhtha’, ‘He swallows an

object (body)” or “He drugs his body.” The

name is probably corrupted.

In all the sets of drawings this chief is de-

picted as swallowing an object: a small cross,

an uprecognizable object protruding from the

mouth of the figure (List No. 2), a 3-pronged

object protruding from the mouth (Fig. 3), and

List No. 4 (Fig. 2) shows the full figure of a

man, and protruding from his mouth is an ob-

ject which ends in a small loop.

This ends the second group of Oneida chiefs,

the chiefs of the Turtle clan, and a line or series

of dots indicates the hiatus.

16/7. Tewatahonhténnyonk, “Pairs of ears

hanging,” or ‘‘Pendulous vibrating ears (as if

= =

HEWITT AND FENTON: IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS

309

slit)’’ Dewatahenhdénnyonk (Oa.).—S. Gibson.

The ear is the prominent feature in all four

sets of drawings. An enormous ear appears on

List No. 1; the remaining sets show a human

head and neck, with a very large ear. Simeon

Gibson, citing the Deganawfidah Legend of the

founding of the League, referred to the first

appearance of this chief as having enormous

ears that were probably slit for insertion of

feathers, leaves, and other decorations, which,

once removed, left the helix and lope to hang

vibrating. ‘‘Moving his ears” is the current

interpretation.

17/8. Kaniya’taashdayen’, or Ronya’dashda-

yonk (M.), Ganiya’dashdayen’ (Oa.), “A pouch

(or bag) lying (resting),”’ or possibly a “fawn

skin” (J.N.B.H.). In Onondaga, ga’dashd'yen’

is a “lying pouch.’’ But Simeon Gibson and a

Mohawk matron independently gave “Slow

swallower’ for their respective dialectical vari-

ants of this name.

The pouch or bag theory is supported by

Chief Charles’s drawings. List No. 1 (Fig. 1)

depicts the name by a lozenge-shaped object

that Hewitt interpreted as a hanging pouch or

skin; on List No. 2 the object resembles a

quiver and is banded across the middle; List

No. 3 (Fig. 3) has a similar design; and the

character is a hanging pouch on List No.

4 (Fig. 2).

18/9. Honwatsaténhhonh, ‘‘One has covered

him with fog.” Honwahtcadénhwi (Oa.), ‘‘He is

covered with mist.’”’—S. Gibson.

The head of a man shrouded in mist appears

on all four lists. On List No. 4 it is a pot-bellied

man.

Y te ino

avg

Fiac. 3.—List No. 3: Mohawk and Oneida titles.

310

2 Big

&( F

Be.

Bee

This group were the Bear clan chiefs. This

was the roll of Oneida chiefs.

[For some reason Hewitt omitted an analysis

of the Onondaga and Cayuga lists of drawings,

and his notes for this manuscript (B.A.E. No.

3502) do not contain the rosters of chiefs’

names for these two nations. However, Hewitt

obtained from Chief Charles in 1917 a com-

plete text in Onondaga for the Eulogy or Roll

Call of the Founders of the League, together

with independent lists of chiefs whose clan

eponyms are differentiated (B.A.E. MS. No.

128la, 54 pp. 63X94 inches, 15 pp., 8X10

inches). Also, we find a typed, revised list

(No. 3558, 3 pp. 8X10 inches—Charles, 1917)

of ‘Federal Chiefships and their kinship

eponyms.” From the latter sources, this paper

has been completed.—W.N.F.]

19/1. Dehadoddhho’ (Oa.) or Thadoddahho’,

‘“‘Ensnarled.”’

Only one set of drawings depicts the Onon-

daga chiefships (Fig. 4). Ragged lines cross

over the head of a man to represent the leading

Onondaga chief.

20/2. One’saéh'henh (Oa.) or Gane’sdéh’henh,

‘“‘A tied bundle.’”—S. Gibson; ‘‘In the center

of a coil, circle,” or possibly of a ‘stretched

hide’; but Onondaga opinion holds that the

name means “on the middle of a field,

gane’sdé hen.” —H. Skye.

The character for this name is a circle with a

dot at the center. Possibly it represents a

Fic. 4.—List No. 1:

Onondaga and Seneca titles.

bundle. On the Condolence Cane of the Cayu-

gas the symbol suggested to Howard Skye a

hide stretched on a hoop.

21/3. Dehatgdéhdons (Oa.) or Thaatgdéhdons.

‘“‘He looks both ways (or around); On watch.”

A drawing of a head in which the eye is

prominent stands for this chief.

22/4. Honya’dadji'wak (Oa.) or Hoya’ dadjit’-

wak, ‘‘His throat is sour (or black)’; or “His

sour body.’’—H. Skye.

Again we find the drawing of a chief’s head;

four dots direct attention to his throat which

apparently is inflamed or soured by gall.

23/5. Awe’génhhyat (Oa.), “On the surface

of the water.”

A line with a knob on top perhaps represents

a plant.

24/6. Dehayatgwdae’ (Oa.), or Thayad-

gwdae’, ‘‘On one side of its leaning body” (?);

‘“‘Both his wings are outspread.’’—H. Skye.

A ladderlike figure leans to the right.

This title is the last of the Firekeepers, and a

line with dots along its left margin indicates a

separation of this group from the next name.

25/7. Hononwiéhdth (Oa.), ‘“He conceals it’

or “Covers it’; “He causes it to sink.’”’—

H. Skye.

This chief has special responsibilities. He is

keeper of the wampums for the confederacy,

and since he is also called ne’ hogwaho’géonah,

“He the Great Wolf,’’ he is represented by a

miserable drawing of his eponym. This chief

Oct. 15, 1945

stands alone; a line with a margin of dots sepa-

rates him from the remaining Onondaga chiefs.

26/8. Gowennen’shéndonk (Oa.) or Gawanne’-

séndonh, ‘“‘Her voice is hanging,”’ or ‘“‘Hanging

strings.’’—S. Gibson.

Whatever this title means, and it is impossi-

ble to know what about one-quarter of the

titles meant four centuries ago, it is depicted

by a stepped character that leans to the right,

composed of two leaning lines enclosing four

oblique lines.

27/9. Hahhithhon’ (Oa.), “He spills it’ or

‘He tips it.”’

This name is also obscure and the character

for it is not clear. The drawing is possibly in-

tended for a vessel spilling over.

The latter two names are grouped together

separated by dots and a line from the next four.

They belong to the Deer clan.

28/10. Hoyonnyénnith (Oa.), ‘“He was made

to do it.””—H. Skye.

The next four characters are crowded into a

corner of the notebook page and one can not be

certain in what order to read them. On the

assumption that the top two and the first

character at the bottom are meant to be fol-

lowed by three dots to segregate them as a

class apart from the last, then a man’s head

atop an object drawn across the base of the

neck may stand for this title.

29/11. Shodegwdasen’ (Oa.) or Shodegwdah-

shon’, ‘‘He the bruiser,” or “He smashes it

again.”—S. Gibson; ‘Bruised repeatedly.”—

H. Skye.

At the lower left there is a full-size figure of a

man of gigantic proportions, but the figure at

the upper right does not help.

30/12. Shagogénhhe’ (Oa.) or Shagogénhhee’,

‘“‘He saw the people.’’—S. Gibson; ‘‘He sees her

(them) occasionally.’’—H. Skye.

These three chiefs of the Eel clan comprise

a group to themselves.

31/13. Ho’séhhéahwih (Oa.) or Ho’séhéh-

hwth, ‘“‘He bears a aloft a torch.’’—S. Gibson;

but possibly just a name, although the Onon-

dagas sometimes discuss the possibility of

Hoda skwishihwih, ‘“He bears a tomahawk in

his belt.’”-—H. Skye.

This is the name that determines whether

there are 49 or 50 chiefs in the League. The

name appears in the first writing of the Abram

Charles text for the Eulogy (p. 16), but at the

bottom of the same page occurs, “1923 He

HEWITT AND FENTON: IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS

311

says again Ho’si'ha’‘hwi‘ is not a title of a

Federal Chief.’’ Nevertheless, this name was

recounted as part of the Roll Call, an Onon-

daga chief was installed in this title, but in

recent times a controversy arose between the

Cayugas and the Onondagas as to whether this

title belonged to a separate individual or to

the next chief.!°

The last character, a male head, must stand

for two titles.

32/14. Sganawdadih, “Across the swamp,”’

“Over the river,” or ‘‘Across the rapid.”

The text implies that the last two names

were additions to the roster in later times. One

was a great war chief whose body was riven in

twain, being both ‘a warrior and a councilor;

hence the argument that one man occupied

both offices. The first is of the Turtle clan.

Hale says that Skanawati was the divided per-

sonality (p. 161). The Turtle clan claimed this

name.

THE CAYUGA PICTOGRAPHS

33/1. Degawényonh (Oa.)

(C.), ‘“‘Wonderer.”’

Possibly because he was a Cayuga chief him-

self, Abram Charles evidently did not feel the

need to provide himself with a set of drawings

for remembering the Cayuga list. His notebook

contains merely a design of spaced dots to in-

dicate the number and groupings of the Cayuga

chiefs: .. 2... (2-3-3-2). The charac-

ters across the top of the same notebook page

(Fig. 5) are of the Onondaga titles, but out of

order. Simeon Gibson held this opinion, which

or Haga ényonh

10 On the question of the number of chiefs in

the League, Mr. Hewitt left this note:

“With the final amendment to the constitution

of the Iroquois League, admitting and installing

the last two chief warriors of the Seneca as federal

chiefs, the final number of Rodiydnehr, Federal

Chiefs, became 49, which is the only number

recognized by the ritual of the Eulogy of the

Founders. This number was never increased, not-

withstanding the adoption of the Tuscarora, the

Nanticoke, and the Tutelo with their chiefs with

sittings in the Federal Council Chamber. The most

probable reason for this failure to add these of-

ficial titles to the said ritual seems to be because

the newly adopted chiefships had nothing what-

ever to do with the founding and institution of

the League.

“Every one of these 49 Federal officials be-

longed to some one ohwachira or uterine family,

which probably had its own peculiar tutelary

name taken from some bird or animal. One or

more of these ohwachira was organized into a

higher unit—the clan. The three Oneida and the

a Mohawk clans have three of these ohwa-

CRT OE aia.

312

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 10

Fig. 5.—List No. 2: Onondaga titles (5-14; 1-6) and Cayuga groupings.

can be substantiated by comparing this set

with the other Onondaga pictographs (Fig. 4).

Taking the Onondaga list above, the order is:

5 6/7 /8 9/10 11 12/13* 14//1 2 3 4. Some

difficulty is encountered in adjusting the char-

acters to the first and the last titles. Further, it

is evident that when Chief Charles made this

set of drawings he then regarded the thirteenth

title, that of the disputed Ho’sdéhdahwih as a

separate office. Therefore, it may be that the

list that we described in enumerating the

Onondaga titles was of later composition.

34/2. Gadji’nondawéheh (Oa.), Gadjinon’da-

wéhheh (C.), or Dji’nondawéeyah. The interpre-

tation of this name is uncertain. ‘‘Coming on its

knees”? (Hale), “Calls a summons’ (?).—S.

Gibson, and ‘“‘Manipulating bugs.” —H. Skye.

This and the previous title belong to the two

leading chiefs of the Cayuga tribe, who are as

father and son to each other. They preside as

judges in the Cayuga council. The first is of the

Bear clan, the second of the Hawk or ‘‘Ball’”’

clan.

35/3. Gadagwdaadjih (Oa.) or Gadagwédase’

(C.), “Mashed,” or ‘‘Softened.’’—S. Gibson.

This title and the next two belong in a group

who are related as “‘brothers.”’

36/4. Shoyénwees (Oa.) or Shonydnwes (C.),

“His guts are long.” “He has a long wampum

belt’’ (Hale).

37/5. Hadya’sénhne’ (Oa.) or Hadydsénne’,

‘“‘He repeats (or rehearses) it.”’ “He puts one on

another, piles it on’’ (Hale).

These are a group to themselves. The first

two belong to the Bear clan; the third to the

Turtle clan.

38/6. Deyoenhhyéngoh (Oa.) or Thowenh-

hyongoh or Deyoronhhydongoh (C.), “Reaches the

sky.”

39/7. Deyothhowéhgwth (Oa.), “Doubly cold.”

40/8. Deyawenhethhon’ (Oa.), “Two things

happen,” ‘Double event.’”? Thaonhweéthon’,

‘‘Mossy place”’ (Hale).

This is the number of colleagues in this

group, but the next one belongs in the same

phratry, although they are called cousins to

each other. Six and Seven are Wolf clan chiefs;

Eight is of the Killdee, Small Plover, or Snipe

clan. Hale ascribes it to Wolf.

41/9. Hadonhdahhéhha’, ‘“‘He shoulders a

log (?).”"—H. Skye; ‘‘Crowding himself in”

(Hale).

This title belonging to the Large Plover

lineage is in the same phratry as the preceding

group, and his cousin across the fire is his col-

league who follows. Hewitt’s notes say that the

latter two are brothers, but the text declares

them “‘Cousins.”’ The last chief isof the Bearclan.

42/10. Desgdahe’ (Oa.) or Desgdhhe’ (C.),

‘“‘He does something (?).”’

It is not clear what this chief does. The

present holder of the title, Chief Alex General

of the Upper Cayuga band at Sour Springs, Six

Nations Reserve, holds that the name means

‘“‘More than Eleven.”’

This ends the Cayuga roster.

THE SENECA PICTOGRAPHS

[In turning to the last tribe of the League we

once more return to Hewitt’s manuscript.]

43/1. Skanyaddiyo’ or Sganyaddiiyo’, “It is

a beautiful lake (Handsome Lake)”’ or, literally,

“Tt is a very large lake.” [As given these names

are Onondaga or Cayuga, not Seneca forms.]

ee here

a: |

Oct. 15, 1945 HEWITT AND FENTON: IROQUOIS MNEMONIC PICTOGRAPHS

There are two sets of Seneca pictographs.

On Seneca List No. 1. (Fig. 4), this title is de-

picted by a circular design having radial lines

from its center to the perimeter. On List No. 2

the character is merely a circle.

The Seneca councillors are linked in pairs of

opposite moieties. As such they are cousins to

each other. The first title belongs to the Turtle

clan, the next to the Great Plover or Snipe.

44/2. Sha’tekdonhyes, or Tca’degaénhyes,

“Two skies of equal length.”

On both lists this title is represented by a

character resembling the letter D; it is some-

times represented by two arcs of the celestial

sphere. A line having dots along its left margin

appears on one list, a line on the other, to

separate the first pair of titles from the second.

45/3. Shagen’djoowanenh or Shagen’djéo-

wane’, ‘‘He of the large forehead.”’

This chief is depicted on both lists by a full

face that accentuates the brow region over the

eyes.

This title belongs to the Hawk clan, being in

the same moiety as the second title, and his

colleague, who sits across the fire as cousin of

the first two, is of the Bear clan.

46/4. Satyénowaht or Sadyénawat, ‘‘Do thou

take hold of it’’; ““He grasps it.’”’-—S. Gibson.

Hewitt placed this name fourth on the list,

although it is sixth on the Seneca roster in the

Eulogy or Roll Call text by Chief Abram

313

Charles and in a combined list of the same date

(1917) attributed to Chief Charles and to the

Mohawk chief Seth Newhouse.

On List No. 1 (Fig. 4) the fourth title is

represented by a character that neither Hewitt

nor I could interpret. On the strength that the

character stands for the name listed by Hewitt

for it, Simeon Gibson ventured that the vertical

line was a pole grasped by two hands. This idea

gains some strength from List No. 2. An arrow,

however, appears at this same place on the

Cayuga Condolence Cane of Andrew Spragg,

and the same object was possibly intended by

Chief Charles. Since these two old Cayugas

lived as neighbors on the Six Nations Reserve

and used to collaborate in teaching the roll

call to younger men, we may assume that they

agreed on the order of Seneca chiefs. Moreover,

Chief Charles was also a poor draftsman. In

view of the texts, the verbal lists of the Chiefs,

and the Cayuga Condolence Cane, we find also:

46/4. Ga’néogar’, a title for which neither

of us has discovered a satisfactory translation.

The title suggests the homophonie word gd’non

(S.), “arrow,’’ which possibly helped the chiefs

of recent years to remember the name. In

Seneca the title is gd’nogav’, in contrast to the

Onondaga above, which they translate as

‘““chewer, biter, or killer.””’ At least the name

has this meaning to the Tonawanda Senecas.

This title belongs to the Turtle clan.

Fic. 6.—The Fourteen Matters of Requickening,

314

A line on both lists separates the second and

third pair of Seneca chiefs.

47/5. Onishayenén’ ha’ or Nishaanyénen’t (?).

Simeon Gibson interpreted the former as

meaning, ‘‘A man leaning nearly over,’’ the

latter as ‘‘Falling day,’”’ which it means to the

Tonawanda Senecas. Small Plover or Snipe

clan claims it.

On the first list a long object inclines to the

right; on the second set of drawings a simple

line inclines to the right. In either case the verb

in this name denotes something falling from

an upright position.

48/6. Ka’néokai’ (J.N.B.H.). (Cf. 46/4).

To Hewitt this character, the fifth on the

Seneca List No. 1 (Fig. 4), suggested a stump

having sprouts and two roots, but the design

on the second set of drawings he found still less

recognizable. The forty-eighth symbol on the

Cayuga Condolence Cane of Andrew Spragg is

similar in appearance to the character on Chief

Charles first set of drawings (Fig. 4). It is a

hand or bear paw or turtle foot having five

claws or fingers. Both the Charles text for the

Eulogy or Roll Call and a combined list of

chiefs by Charles and Seth Newhouse would at-

tribute this character to the name Sadyénawat

(46/4), which we repeat here:

48/6. Sadyénawat, ‘‘Grasps it,’’ which is

consistent with the drawing as interpreted.

Bear clan.

Another line segregates the latter pair of

titles from the last two, which belong to the

Doorkeepers of the Longhouse of the League.

49/7. Kanonhkarv’déhhwi’ or Ganonhger’

déawi’, “Its hair is singed,” or ‘It broils.”’

Snipe clan.

Hewitt interpreted the drawings on both

lists as representing a bed of live coals.

50/8. Teyoninhhokd’wenh, Deyoninhhogda’-

wenh, “It keeps the doorway open’’; literally,

“It holds up the door-flap,” referring to the

ancient bark or skin door hinged at its top in

the longhouse of the League. ‘“‘Open Door’ is the

simpler rendering of Hale, and of Howard Skye.

This official is symbolized by characters

representing an open doorway.

‘‘This is the roll of the founders of the Great

Peace; Hail Grandsires.”’

THE SYMBOLS OF THE FOURTEEN MATTERS

There remains to describe, only the set of

symbols for remembering the 14 Matters of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 10

Requickening, which are perhaps the most in-

teresting of the lot (Fig. 6). The Requickening

Address is already in print, so the task of col- -

lating the drawings and the burdens of the

address is not difficult. The list of burdens as

given by Chief Charles faces a plate of the

wampum strings that accompany the messages

of condolence on pp. 78-79 of our previous

article (this JourNaL 34). Chief Charles

covered one page of his notebook with 14

drawings, mostly crude outlines of the human

form in the same style as his drawings of the

chiefs’ titles. Each of the drawings (Fig. 6)

stands for one of the sections of the great

requiem address for Condolence and Installa-

tion of Chiefs in the League. Only one symbol

is lacking. There is none to represent death

of a chief by murder.

Through the awful devastation of Death the

phratry of the deceased chief have lost their

faculties and their organs have been damaged;

these are restored to them in the following

stages:

1. Ogdhthri, ‘‘One’s eyes’—drawing of a

man pointing to his eyes.

2. Hahondagéronde’, His ear openings: Hear-

ing—drawing of a stoop-kneed man with large

ear.

3. Dehanya’déogen, ‘‘Where is throat forks,”

his throat is full: Speaking—drawing of a man

with round object in his throat.

Here three vertical lines indicate a hiatus;

so many matters are recounted At the Wood’s

Edge where the mourners meet the condoling

phratry.

4. Kya’ dagénwah, ‘‘within his breast (body)”’

—drawing of a man with sketchy internal or-

gans pointing to his mouth.

5. Ondyenddékkhwa’, ‘“‘One’s customary rest-

ing place’’: The bloody husk mat bed—drawing

of rectangular object.

6. Dayé’gaah, ‘“‘The deep darkness of grief”’

—drawing of man mu deep halo around his

head.

70 Wa’ hodronhyéhdon’, ‘“‘He has lost sight of

the Sky’”’: Loss of the Sky—drawing of long-

necked man seeking the sky.

8. Wa hodrahgwéhdon’, ‘‘He has lost sight of

the Sun’’—moon-faced figure seeking the Sun.

9. Heyo’dadgwdinda’, ‘At the Grave, at the

mound of fresh earth’—drawing at lower left

to represent dirt piled on grave.

10. or 11. Dewdhshen niyéihwaks, ‘Twenty

Oct. 15, 1945

matters,’ the cost for homicide or (11), de-

yonshdjisdadénhkwa’h, “Around the fire place,”

at the hearth of the home: the Council Fire—

an &-shaped character with what may be in-

tended for 20 in the loop and three marks fol-

lowing. [Double numbering arises if No. 10,

Murder is omitted. |

12. Onthonwi' sas; hohsken’engéhda’, ‘Woman

and Warrior.’”’ These are grouped together in

the Requickening Address, but apparently the

third figure with long hair in the lower set of

drawings is the Matron; the next wearing a hat

is Warrior.

13. Hoydaneh,

latter, possibly.

14. Hydhden de’ aonhwendjana’géwas, ‘‘Any-

thing can happen on earth’’—even suicide or in-

“The Federal Chief’’—the

MILLER: FOSSIL CYPRINODONT FISHES

315

sanity: the Mind’s loss of reason—the next to

the last drawing seems to have been intended to

represent dementia.

15. Gahashrahee’, “The Torch’’—the last

figure may be intended for a torch of hickory

rind such as was formerly used to illuminate

night councils. But it may also be intended to

represent a “‘short string.’”’ The name of the

last string in Requickening is also gahdshee’,

‘light,’ being the short string at the end of

the set. According to Howard Skye, at the end

of the ceremony the short string is put over

the pole for both tribal phratries to take up if

any danger arises, when they say of it, ‘‘de-

wakdd’a henganonhsékden’, very quickly the

news of it passes through the house (League).”’

So ends the Condolence Council.

PALEONTOLOGY.—Four new species of fossil cyprinodont fishes from eastern

California.!

The fossil fish fauna of the desert region

of eastern California has hitherto received

no serious attention. During my detailed

studies of the living fishes of this area

(Miller, 1943a, b; 1944) fossils were avail-

able for comparison with the Recent forms.

Although the material is rather fragmentary

it contains at least three distinctive species

and one other that, though incompletely

preserved, is apparently without a living

representative. A careful survey for fossil

fish remains is needed and would no doubt

reward the investigator with important

finds.

The material described below was lent

by the Department of Paleontology of the

California Institute of Technology, the

Museum of Paleontology of the University

of California, and the University of Michi-

gan Museum of Paleontology. I am grate-

ful to the authorities of these institutions

for allowing me to examine and report

upon their specimens. Dr. Carl L. Hubbs

aided in the identifications and read the

manuscript. J. R. Alcorn, of Fallon, Nev.,

kindly obtained comparative material of

Fundulus nevadensis (Eastman) from the

1 Excerpt from a dissertation submitted in par-

tial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

of doctor of philosophy in the University of

Michigan. Published by permission of the Secre-

tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received

April 20, 1945.

RoBERT R. MIuueEr, U.

S. National Museum.

Lahontan beds in the vicinity of Hazen,

Churchill County, Nev. Curtis J. Hesse,

late curator of the Museum of the Agricul-

tural and Mechanical College of Texas,

kindly supplied advance information on the

nature and disposition of the Death Valley

material, on which he had done some pre-

liminary work.

Family CyprINoDONTIDAE: Killifishes

This group is best represented by ma-

terial from Death Valley. I also had for

comparison good specimens of the cyprino-

dont described as Parafundulus nevadensis

from the Lahontan basin by Eastman

(1917, p. 291, pl. 16, fig. 2; pl. 17; pl.-18,

fig. 3), herein regarded as a species of

Fundulus.

Genus Fundulus Lacépéde

Fundulus curryi, n. sp.

Types.—The holotype (Fig. 1), a specimen

approximately 44 mm in standard length,

California Inst. Tech. no. 10239, Loc. 335, was

collected by H. Donald Curry. It is a nearly

perfect specimen except for the fact that the

head end is crushed and represented chiefly by

impression. Enough of the details are clear,

however, to allow definite statements to be

made concerning the size of the jaws, eye, etc.

Nos. 10240, 10247 (smaller slab), and 10249,

all from locality 335, are designated as para-

316

types. Nos. 10242 and 10246, from the same

place, are also referred to curryt.

Horizon and type locality.— Reportedly lower

Oligocene beds of the Tertiary Titus Canyon

formation; 3 miles southeast of Chloride Cliffs

in the Funeral Mountains, T. 15 8., R. 1 E.

(Furnace Creek quadrangle), on the east side

of Death Valley National Monument, Inyo

County, Calif. The assignment of these beds to

the lower Oligocene is very questionable. Pre-

served with the Fundulus is a single specimen

referrable to Cyprinodon, a genus of recent

origin previously unknown in fossil form.? This

specimen is described in detail on following

pages. The presence of a Cyprinodon in these

beds strongly suggests that they are no earlier

than Late Pliocene. In a letter dated Decem-

ber 18, 1942, Edwin C. Alberts, naturalist of

Death Valley National Monument, stated that

the type locality of the Titus Canyon formation

is definitely Oligocene. This determination is

based on the skeletal remains of a titanothe-

rium. However, Mr. Alberts wrote that the

place where the fish remains were discovered is

several miles distant from Titus Canyon

proper and ‘“‘the dating of this site as Titus

Canyon Formation was on purely lithologic

grounds.”

Diagnosis—A Fundulus with the dorsal fin

inserted very slightly in advance of the anal

and with both of these fins posterior in posi-

tion, the dorsal with 14 to 15 rays, the anal

with 15 to 16 rays. The body and caudal

peduncle are short and deep. There are about

30 to 31 vertebrae including the hypural.

Description.—The holotype has the dorsal

inserted slightly in advance of the origin of the

anal fin, with 14 or possibly 15 rays. A line

connecting the point of origin of dorsal and

anal fins makes an angle of about 85° with the

body axis. The anal fin, with 16 rays, is rather

long and rounded. Both of these fins are lo-

cated far back on the body, well behind its

midpoint. The small pelvics lie about midway

between the tip of the snout and the caudal

base, and consist of 6 (?) rays. The pectoral

fins, both crushed, have at least 14 and prob-

2 Cyprinodon (?) primulus, based on scales

only, was recently described by Cockerell (1936,

pp. 3-4, fig. 1) from the Tertiary of northern

Argentina. It seems unlikely that the scale

figured by Cockerell even belonged to a cyprino-

dont fish, and it very definitely is not to be re-

ferred to Cyprinodon.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 10

ably 15 or 16 rays. The end of the caudal fin is

missing, but enough of the rays are present to

indicate a count of at least 19 and probably 20

principal rays (the branched rays plus 2). The

length of the head enters the standard length

about 3.6 times, and the body depth, over the

origin of the dorsal fin, enters this distance 3.5

times. There are 10 or 11 precaudal and 20

caudal vertebrae, making a total of 30 to 31

vertebrae. The length of the base of the anal

fin is about equal to the depth of the caudal

peduncle, and enters the length of the peduncle

about 1.5 times. The anal base is almost as

long as the distance from the anal to the pelvic

origin. The depth of the peduncle enters its

length about 1.4 times. The lower jaw is strong

and projecting, the eye large.

No. 10240, a paratype of curry, has the

posterior half of the body missing and the head

crushed. The standard length, estimated by

multiplying the head length by 3.5 (the ratio

of head length to standard length in the holo-

type), was about 65 mm. The dorsal fin is in-

serted very slightly in advance of the anal, the

line connecting the origins of these fins making

an angle of about 87° with the body axis. The

dorsal fin has 14 or 15 rays; the anal fin has

approximately 16 rays; the pelvics are defi-

nitely 6-rayed. The pectorals are badly crushed

but probably have 15 or 16 rays. The body

depth is 3.0 in the estimated standard length.

This fish is very deep-bodied forward, like big

males of Crenichthys, a living cyprinodont of

eastern Nevada (Hubbs, 1932, pl. 1; Hubbs and

Miller, 1941).

No. 10249, also a paratype, has the dorsal,

anal, and pelvic fins irtact. The standard

length of this specimen is estimated to have

been approximately 66 mm (distance from anal

to pelvic origins, 11 mm, times 5.5). The dorsal

has 14 or 15 rays, the anal 15 or 16. A line

connecting the origins of these two fins makes

an angle of 85° or 86° with the body axis, as in

other specimens of curry. The pelvics are 6-

rayed. The depth of the body at the dorsal

origin enters the estimated standard length 3.1

times.

A few scale imprints, most prominent about

the base of the dorsal fin in this specimen give

information concerning the size, shape, and

structure of the scales in curryi, and the age of

this individual. This is the only specimen of

curryt on which I was able to find any trace of

Fig. 1.—Holotype of Fundulus curryi, California Inst. Tech. no. 10239, about 44 mm in standard

length. Fie. 2—Holotype of Fundulus eulepis, United States National Museum no. 16883, estimated

length 93 mm. Fic. 3.—Left half of holotype of Cyprinodon breviradius, California Inst. Tech. no.

10245, estimated length 33 mm., lying at an oblique angle on the matrix, the anterior end pointing

downward toward the right lower corner and the posterior part terminating near the middle left cen-

ter. Above the type are two well defined, partial specimens referred to Fundulus eulepis (see text) and.

parts of others which may belong to that species. Fic. 4.—Right half of holotype of Cyprinodon

breviradius, representing the mirrored image of the opposite half shown in Fig. 3.

318

squamation, and this was made possible only

by the use of very bright light. These scales

have 10 to 11 radii, are imbricated, and have

numerous circuli—as in eulepis. The focus is

near the scale center. One scale near the pos-

terior end of the incomplete specimen has a

single year mark, indicating that this fish was

in its second year and that there were marked

seasonal differences in temperature. The scales

are similar in size to those of eulepis and

davidae, described below.

No. 10247 (smaller slab) is also designated a

paratype of curryi. The pelvics, anal, and

caudal are largely intact and enough of the

body in the region of these fins is present to

indicate that the specimen was deep-bodied.

There are about 16 rays in the anal fin and six

in each pelvic fin. The length of the anal fin

base is a little difficult to discern but it appears

to enter the length of the peduncle about 1.5

times, as in the holotype of curryi. The caudal

vertebrae number 20 to 21.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 35, No. 10

The diagnostic differences between curry?

and closely related fossil species of Fundulus

in the West are given in Table 1. It differs from

all of these in the greater number of anal fin

rays and the correspondingly greater length of

the anal fin base.

Compared with the only living species of

Fundulus on the Pacific coast, F. parvipinnis

Girard, ranging from Morro Bay, Calif., to

Magdalena Bay, Lower California, and F. lima

Vaillant, inhabiting springs at San Ignacio,

Lower California, the fossil species is seen to

differ greatly in the position of the fins. Both

the dorsal and anal fins are more posterior in

curryt, particularly the anal, whereas the pelvic

fins are located midway between the caudal

base and the tip of the lower jaw, as in the

living species. This posterior shift in the un-

paired fins but not in the pelvics stands out

very clearly in the fossil for the pelvic fins lie

well in advance of the anal, whereas in parvi-

pinnis and lama the pelvics reach or nearly

TABLE 1.—D1AGnostTic DIFFERENCES BETWEEN Four SPECIES OF FossILu

FUNDULUS FROM CALIFORNIA AND NEVADA

nevadensis

Character (Lahontan Basin)

| ee

Well in advance of a~al;

nearly midway be-

tween origins of pelvic

and anal fins.

Position of dorsal fin. .

Dorsalehininays. - = 1 to 12

Anal fin rays......... 10 to 13

Amiel): fin vrei tere seca Lobate

Base of anal into length

of peduncle........ 1.7 to 1.9

Long and slender, its

depth about 2.5 in its

length.

Caudal peduncle.....

Long and slender its

depth 6.5 to 8.0 in

standard length.

Very large and heavy,

about 3.0 in standard

length.

Very small, circular, non-

imbricated; about 4

radii and 5 circuli on

largest; 65 or more in

lateral series.

eulepis

(Death Valley)

In advance of anal;

about 4 distance from

anal to pelvic origins.

13 to 14

Posterior rays elongated.

Ea to-19

Moderately long and

slender, its length

about twice its depth.

Moderately long andslen-

der, its depth about

4.5 to 5.0 in standard

length.

Probably similar to cur-

Ty.

Moderately large, rec-

tangular, rounded at

apex, inbricated, with

focus behind scale cen-

ter; 8 to 12 radii, often

exposed; many circu-

li; probably about 45

to 50 in lateral series.

curryt

(Death Valley)

Only slightly in ad-

vance of anal fin;

very much nearer

analthan pelvie fins.

14 to 15

15 to 16

Broadly rounded.

1.4 to 1.5

Short and deep, its

depth about 1.5 in its

length.

Short and deep, its

depth 3.0 to 3.5 in

standard length.

Shorter, about 3.5 in

standard length.

Similar to ewlepis.

davidae

(Mohave Desert)

Slightly behind anal fin.

11 or 12

It or 12

Broadly rounded.

2.3

Short and deep as in

curryt.

Rather deep, its depth

4.0 in standard length.

As incurryt.

Similar to eulepis.

Ocr. 15, 1945

reach the base of the anal fin. Ff. curryi also

differs from these Recent forms in having more

rays in the-anal fin (10 to 13, usually 11 or 12,

in parvipinnis and lima), and it appears to have

been deeper-bodied than F. p. parvipinnis

Girard, the northern subspecies of Fundulus

parvipinnis. The southern subspecies, F. p.

brevis Osburn and Nichols, and F. lima are

about as deep-bodied as the fossil. In the

several specimens at hand, there is nothing to

indicate that the anal fin is elongated as it is in

the males of F. parvipinnis (but not in F.

lima).

Etymology.—lIt is a pleasure to name this

new species in honor of H. Donald Curry,

former park naturalist of Death Valley

National Monument, who was actively en-

gaged in studying the geology and paleontology

of Death Valley.

Fundulus eulepis, n. sp.

Types.—The holotype (Fig. 2), estimated to

have been about 93 mm long, is U.S.N.M.

No. 16883, found by H. Donald Curry on

December 5, 1935. It is more than half missing,

but the body is intact between the pelvic fins

and the middle of the caudal peduncle.

Horizon and type locality—Furnace Creek

Tertiary section; approximately 6 miles south-

east of Furnace Creek Ranch in the Black

Mountains (Furnace Creek quadrangle), on

the east side of Death Valley National Monu-

ment, Inyo County, Calif. The original (U. S.

Geological Survey) label reads, ‘“‘Fossils are

from beds interstratified with the Furnace

Creek Tertiary Section.”

Diagnosis.—A large Fundulus with the dor-

sal fin inserted well in advance of the anal,

about one-third of the distance from the anal

to pelvic origins, the dorsal and anal fins with

the same number of rays (13 to 14), with a

long, slender body, and with the anal rays

elongated posteriorly.

Description.—The dorsal fin of this species,

unlike that of curryi, is well in advance of the

anal. In the holotype a line connecting the

origins of the dorsal and anal fins makes an

angle of approximately 79° with the body axis.

The estimated length of about 93 mm was

derived by multiplying the distance between

the origins of anal and pelvic fins by 5.5, as the

standard length is 5.5 times this distance in

curryt. On the assumption that the pelvics lie

MILLER: FOSSIL CYPRINODONT FISHES

eee eer

319

about midway between the snout and caudal

base, and estimating the position of the end of

the hypural, a value of 90 mm is attained.

Presumably this is a rougher estimate than

that of 93 mm, because it is based on two

(rather than one) assumptions. The close

agreement indicates that the fish was probably

not less than 90 mm in standard length. The

dorsal fin has 13 or 14 rays, the anal fin, ele-

vated and pointed posteriorly, has about 13

rays. The length of the last anal ray is two-

thirds or more the length of the anal base.

The pelvic fins, one of which is complete, have

6 rays. The pectorals and caudal are missing.

The body depth enters the standard length

about 4.7 times, indicating a slender body. The

length of the anal base is approximately 1.9 in

the length of the peduncle and 1.5 in the depth

of the peduncle. The specimen is covered with

scales, which are moderately large, possess 8 to

10 radii and many circuli, and have the focus

behind the scale center. The radii are com-

monly exposed but the scales are imbricated,

not separated by actual gaps as in nevadensis.

A paratype (U.S.N.M. No. 16884) is repre-

sented almost wholly by the head. There are

strong teeth on the upper and lower jaws

which, along with the broad, strong maxillary,

massive mandible, and large size of the species,

indicate a predatory type. These teeth are coni-

eal, rather thick, and nearly straight or slightly

curved toward their tips. The largest tooth in

the upper jaw measured 0.9 mm in length, that

of the lower jaw 1.0 mm. If the head length

(here about 30 mm) was approximately one-

third the standard length, this specimen was

very similar to the holotype in size.

A third specimen (U.S.N.M. No. 16885),

designated as a paratype of eulepis, is repre-

sented almost wholly by beautifully preserved

scales. These are rectangular, rounded at the

apex, with 8 to 12 radii and with the focus be-

hind the scale center. The circuli are fine and

numerous, 23 to 25 or more. At least one sharp

annulus is clear, suggesting that winters were

cold when eulepis lived. On several particu-

larly well-preserved scales, two annuli are

visible, much closer together than the distance

from the focus to the first annulus. This indi-

cates that growth was rapid in the first year,

and suggests that the decreased growth rate at

the end of the first year was correlated with the

attainment of maturity.

320

Other specimens contained on two pieces,

Calif. Inst. Tech. No. 10245, from the type

locality of F. curryi, are referred to eulepis.

These fish, of which half are on the one piece

and half on the other (Figs. 3 and 4), are too

slender to be assigned to curryi. The largest one

has the dorsal fin well in advance of the anal,

with about 13 rays; the anal has 13 or 14 rays,

of which the posteriormost are elongated. The

anal base is 1.7 in the length of the peduncle;

the peduncle is slightly more than twice as

long as deep. The depth of the body at the

dorsal fin is only 1.7 in the length of the

peduncle. In curryi, the depth of the body at

this point is much greater than the length of the

peduncle. It is not known whether the forma-

tion containing this species and curry? is con-

temporaneous with that containing eulepis, but

since the slender form coexistent with curry

appears to be indistinguishable from ewlepis, it

seems best to tentatively refer it to ewlepis.

Ktymology.—The name eulepis, meaning

well-scaled, refers to the close-set, numerous

scales found on the holotype.

Fundulus davidae, n. sp.

Types.—The holotype is the specimen repre-

sented by the right and left halves of the two

pieces of matrix marked California Inst. Tech.

no. 10276. It was received by Dr. Lore David

from a wildcat oil driller.

Type locality—Mohave Desert near Black

Mountain (U.8.G.8. Searles Lake quadrangle),

about 40 miles northwest of Barstow and 25

miles southeast of Johannesburg, northwestern

San Bernardino County, Calif. The horizon has

not been determined, but the appearance of

the matrix suggests that it may be of Pliocene

or early Pleistocene age.

Description.—The holotype, and only known

specimen, is about 35 mm long. Its two halves

represent a nearly complete fish. The dorsal fin

is inserted slightly behind the origin of the anal,

and has about 11 or 12 rays. The anal fin

has 11 or 12 rays. Both of these fins are well

behind the midpoint of the body. The pelvics,

probably 6-rayed, reach about halfway to the

anal origin and are more posterior in position

than in the other fossil species. They definitely

lie much nearer the caudal base than the tip

of the snout. The pectorals are crushed, with

15 or 16 rays. The caudal fin is represented

chiefly by impression and probably had as

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 10

many principal rays (20) as in the previously

described fossil species.

The length of the head is about 2.9 in the

standard length, and the body depth at the

dorsal origin is about 4.0 in this distance. The

depth of the caudal peduncle approximately

equals its length. The length of the anal base

enters the peduncle length 2.3 times and is

about 1.3 in the distance forward from anal to

pelvic origins. There are approximately 30

vertebrae, 11 precaudal and 19 caudal.

The scales are moderately large and im-

bricated as in eulepis and curryi, with a few

of the radii occasionally exposed. The circuli

are much more numerous than in nevadensis but

appear to be fewer than in eulepis. The scales

on the opercle are large, as in many cyprino-

donts, numbering about 15 in all. I estimate

that there were 45 to 50 in the lateral series, as

there probably were in curryi and eulepis. This

is a greater number than in the living species

of the Pacific slope (about 30 to 37), but much

fewer than in the fine-scaled fossil species,

Fundulus nevadensis. ?

A cyprinodont described by Jordan (1924,

pp. 45-47, pls. I-J) as Parafundulus erdisi

from northern Los Angeles County* appears,

from the figures, to resemble Fundulus parvi-

pinnis more closely than it does any of the

known fossil species of Fundulus except davidae.

F. davidae has a somewhat deeper body and

more posterior dorsal and anal fins. The dis-

tance from the end of the hypural to the origin

of the dorsal fin enters the standard length

at least 3.5 times, rather than 2.8 to 3.1 times

as measured from the figures of erdisz. The base

of the anal fin in davidae enters the caudal

peduncle about 2.3 rather than 1.3 to 1.6 times

as in erdist. In that species the dorsal lies in ad-

vance of the anal whereas in davidae it is be-

hind the anal origin. This difference is not

great, however, and may be related to sexual

dimorphism. The larger specimen figured by

Jordan may be a male, for the anterior rays

of the anal fin appear to be elongated as in

males of parvipinnis.

Jordan (1925, p. 43) pointed out that Para-

fundulus is probably not distinct from Fun-

dulus and it is regarded herein as a synonym of

Fundulus.

3 No definite age was assigned to these beds in

the original account, but Jordan later wrote

(1925, p. 43) that the genus Parafundulus was

probably Pleistocene.

nal

Ocr. 15, 1945

Etymology.—This species is named after Dr.

Lore R. David, an eminent student of the fossil

fish faunas of California, who recognized it as

an undescribed form of Fundulus.

Genus Cyprinodon Lacépéde

Cyprinodon breviradius, n. sp.

Types.—The holotype (Fig. 3) and only

known specimen of this species is the individual

represented by the right and left halves of the

two pieces of matrix labeled No. 10245, Loe.

335, Calif. Inst. Tech. It was collected by H.

Donald Curry and is nearly complete except

that the head end is missing. However, the

shape of the body, the position of the fins, the

number of fin rays, and the small size of the

hypural all strongly suggest that the fossil is a

member of the genus Cyprinodon. Unfortu-

nately it cannot be stated whether the teeth

were tricuspid.

Horizon and type locality—The horizon and

type locality of C. breviradius have been de-

seribed under the discussion of Fundulus curry.

Description.—The holotype is estimated to

have been about 33 mm long. The small fins

suggest that it is a female. The dorsal fin, with

10 or 11 rays, is anterior in position as it is in

C. macularius Baird and Girard, the species

now living in the lower Colorado River Basin

(Miller, 1943a, pp. 12-138, table I, pls. 1, 2).

The origin of the dorsal fin lies almost over the

origin of the pelvic fins. The anal fin has 10 or

11 rays and originates almost directly below

the end of the second third of the base of the

dorsal fin. The pelvics, composed of 6 or 7 rays,

apparently do not reach more than half the

distance to the origin of the anal fin. The pec-

toral fins are missing, and only the basal part

of the caudal fin is present.

The depth of the body at the dorsal origin

enters the distance between the insertion of the

pelvic fins and the caudal base about 1.5 times.

The distance between the last dorsal ray and

the end of the hypural approximately equals

the body depth. Both the dorsal and anal fins,

particularly the anal, appear to have been

small, even smaller than in Cyprinodon salinus

MILLER: FOSSIL CYPRINODONT FISHES

321

Miller, the Recent species of Salt Creek, Death

Valley (Miller, 19430, pl. 1).

There are about 20 caudal vertebrae, which

is a greater number than in most of the living

species of the region.

Cyprinodon breviradius resembles C. macu-

larius in the position of the dorsal and pelvic

fins, but is more slender-bodied. In that feature

it is similar to C. salinus.

Etymology.—The name breviradius, meaning

short-rayed, refers to the short rays of the

dorsal and anal fins.

LITERATURE CITED

CockERELL, T. D. A. The fauna of the Sun-

chal (or Margas Verdes) formation, nor-

thern Argentina. Amer. Mus. Novit., no.

886: 1-9, figs. 1-19. 1936.

EASTMAN, CHARLES R. Fossil fishes in the col-

lection of the United States National Mu-

seum. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 52: 235-

304, figs. 1-9, pls. 1-23. 1917.

Husss, Cart L. Studies of the fishes of the

order Cyprinodontes. XII. A new genus

related to Empetrichthys. Occ. Pap. Mus.

Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 252: 1-5, pl. 1.

1932.

Husss, Cart L., and Miuuer, Roser R.

Studies of the fishes of the order Cyprino-

dontes. XVII. Genera and species of the

Colorado River system. Occ. Pap. Mus.

Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 433: 1-9.

1941.

JORDAN, Davip Starr. Miocene fishes from

southern California. Bull. Southern Cali-

fornia Acad. Sci. 23: 42-50, pls. F-L.

1924.

The fossil fishes of the Miocene of

southern California. Stanford Univ. Publ.

Biol. Sei. 4(1): 1-51, pls. 1-21. 1925.

Miter, RospertR. The status of Cyprinodon

macularius and Cyprinodon nevadensis,

two desert fishes of western North America.

Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan,

no. 473: 1-25, 1 fig., pls. 1-7. 1943a.

. Cyprinodon salinus, a new species of

fish from Death Valley, California. Copeia,

1943 (2): 69-78, fig. 1, pl. 1. 19430.

. The fishes of the relict waters of the

Pleistocene Death Valley stream system.

Doctorate dissertation (typewritten), Uni-

versity of Michigan, pp. 1-326, figs. 1-33,

pls. 1-22, maps1-6. 1944.

322

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 10

BOTAN Y.—Two new species of Scleria from the Upper Amazon Valley Earu L.

CoreE, West Virginia University.

Among specimens of Scleria recently col-

lected by J. T. Baldwin in the state of Ama-

zonas, Brazil, and by José Cuatrecasas in

the commissaries of Vaupés and Caqueta,

Colombia, were the following two new spe-

cies. Types are in the U. S. National

Herbarium.

Scleria scandens, n. sp.

Culmo alto scandente, acute triquetro,

retrorsim scaberrimo, 5 mm crasso; foliis 5-8

mm latis, rigidis, glabris, costa subtus et mar-

ginibus retrorsim scabris; vaginis exalatis,

pilosis, ligula brevissima, rigida; paniculis

numerosis, purpurascentibus, pedunculis gra-

cilibus; spiculis numerosis; squamis glabris;

hypogynio stipitiforme, 1 mm longo, quam

achenio angustiore, apice trilobo, lobis rotun-

datis; achenio albo vel purpureo-maculato, 1

mm longo, 2 mm lato, glabro, apice truncato

umbonato.

Rhizome not seen; culms climbing, several

feet long, 5 mm thick, sharply triquetrous,

retrorsely scabrous, leaves numerous, 5-8 mm

wide, rigid, glabrous, the midrib beneath and

the margins very retrorsely scabrous; sheaths

wingless, pilose; ligule short, rigid; panicles

numerous, axillary and terminal, purplish, the

peduncles slender, flattened; spikelets numer-

ous in each group; scales purple, glabrous or

nearly so; hypogynium stipelike, 1 mm long,

narrower than the achene, 3-lobed at the apex,

the lobes rounded; achene white, purplish

black where exposed, 1 mm high, 2 mm broad,

essentially glabrous, the apex truncate, um-

bonate.

Braziu: Ilha Nova Vida, upper Rio Negro,

Amazonas, February 12, 1944. Baldwin 3285,

Type in U. 8. National Herbarium.

This species is closely related to S. splitger-

beriana Henrard, of Surinam, but differs in its

more robust habit, larger panicles, and smaller,

glabrous achenes.

Scleria grandis, n. sp.

Rhizomate ligneo, squamis atro-rubris in-

tecto; culmo 1-2 m alto, triquetro; foliis 5 dm

longis, 18-45 mm latis, in marginibus scabris;

vaginis ampliatis, alatis; ligula abbreviata, ro-

1 Contribution No. 34 from the Herbarium of

West Virginia University. Received July 5, 1945.

(Communicated by E. P. Kiu.ip.)

tundata, rigida; panicula terminali, solitaria,

densa, conica, straminea, 5-15 cm longa; brac-

teis foliaceis, 20 cm longis; spiculis masculis

longe pedicellatis, numerosis; spiculis foemineis

paucis, in ramorum basi subsessilibus; squamis

masculis anguste mucronatis; squamis foemi-

neis ovato-lanceolatis; hypogynio trilobo, lobis

ovatis; achenio 3 mm longo laevi triangulari,

albo vel interdum griseo, hirtello. Scleriae

cypertnae proxime affinis.

Rhizome thick, hard, covered with red-

brown scales; culms 1-2 meters tall, robust,

sharply triangular; leaves about 5 dm long,

18-45 mm wide, somewhat scabrous on the

margins and midrib beneath; sheaths winged,

often conspicuously so, the wing-margins

slightly scabrous; ligule rotund, the margins

rigid, without an appendage; inflorescence soli-

tary, terminal, conic, dense, straw-colored, 5—

15 cm long; bracts foliaceous, mostly 3, 20 em

long or longer, 18-35 mm wide; bractlets fili-

form, minute; staminate spikelets long-pedi-

celled, linear, very numerous; pistillate spike-

lets subsessile, few; staminate scales narrow,

straw-colored or purplish-tinged, the upper

long-mucronate, the lower acute; pistillate

scales ovate-lanceolate, glabrous, stramineous

or purplish-tinged, hypogynium 3-lobed, the

lobes ovate; achene 3 mm long, shorter than

the scales, not tuberculate or rugulose, ovoid,

sharply trigonous, white or discolored, mi-

nutely white-pubescent.

Co.ompsia: Selva del Tui-Igarape, 200 m alt.,

cerca de Mitu, Vaupés, September 17, 1939,

Cuatrecasas 6870. Type in U. 8. National Her-

barium, nos. 1795819, 1795820. Cerro de La

Sardina, 500 malt., bosque, Florencia, Caquetd,

March 30, 1940, Cwatrecasas 8890.

Braziu: Santa Isabel, Rio Negro, Amazonas,

February 15-16, 1944, Baldwin 3421.

This very distinctive species, a member of

the section Hymenolytrum, is clearly distin-

guished from its nearest relative, S. cyperina,

by its more robust habit, its much broader

leaves, and its smooth achenes. S. grandis and

S. cyperina are the only known members of the

section lacking the large, conspicuous, scarious

appendage to the ligule found in S. st¢pularis,

S. ramosa, S. violacea, S. macrogyne, S. comosa,

and S. cyperinoides.

Oct. 15, 1945

BLAKE: SIX NEW SPECIES OF WEST INDIAN BEETLES

323

ENTOMOLOGY .—Six new species of beetles of a eumolpid genus new to the West

Indies! Doris H. BLAKE.

The genus Alethaxius (Coleoptera: Eu-

molpidae), under which I herein tentatively

place six new West Indian species, was

originally described by Chapuis? as Aletes,

a preoccupied name later changed by

Lefévre® to Alethaxrius. These West Indian

species do not entirely correspond with

Chapuis’s description drawn up from a

single species from Colombia but seem

closer to four species later described by

Lefévre,* also from Colombia. According to

Chapuis, Aletes (=Alethaxius) is closely

related to Colaspis, but in Aletes the an-

tennae are somewhat more compressed

(in the West Indian group the distal joints

are shorter and thicker), the eyes are more

developed (in the West Indian species the

eyes are very prominent), and the form of

the pronotum is different (in the West

Indian group the prothorax is large, the

sides varying from undulate and even

prominently toothed to simply arcuate-and

entire). Moreover, in both West Indian

species and those described by Lefévre

there is a marked difference between the

sexes, the females having a peculiar elytral

development in the form of nodules or

ridges below the humeri. In another respect

some of the West Indian species resemble

two species later described by Lefévre,

i.e., the femora are toothed. In Lefévre’s

species the posterior femora alone are de-

scribed as toothed. This character appears

to be a variable one, since while the teeth

are prominent on all femora in three of the

West Indian species, in one they are only

weakly developed and in another appear

only in the posterior femora. In one species

the teeth are entirely lacking. Since

Lefévre, Jacoby has contributed most of

the remaining species to the genus, describ-

ing numerous Central and South American

species that more or less doubtfully he has

assigned to Alethaxius. Bowditch has added

1 Received April 30, 1945.

2 Genera des coléoptéres . . . 10: 250-251. 1874.

3 Eumolpidarum ...Catalogus. Mem. Soc.

Liege, ser. 2, 11(16): 42. 1885.

ee Miinchener Ent. Ver. 2: 124-126.

(Communicated by 8. F. BLAKn.)

three from South America. The present

group may eventually prove too distinct to

be included in this genus. It appears to be

common to the West Indies, occurring so

far as is already known in Cuba, Puerto

Rico, and Hispaniola, and is singularly

constant in general characteristics. In fact,

the males of a species collected on the sum-

mit of Pico Turquino in eastern Cuba are

not readily distinguishable from the males

of two species found in the mountains of

central Dominican Republic except by

their quite different genitalia. The females,

on the other hand, have distinctly different

elytral nodulation. The females are so un-

like the males in this group that it is prob-

able that future entomologists may describe

each as specifically distinct unless the sexes

are collected together.

Alethaxius hispaniolae, n. sp.

Fig. 1

Female about 4 mm long, robust, dark

bronze shining with aeneous or coppery lights,

legs, mouthparts, and undersurface reddish

brown, basal joints of antennae pale, apices of

last five joints dark; densely punctate; pro-

thorax with undulate or obtusely toothed mar-

gin; elytra with small raised tubercles below

the humeri; femora sharply toothed.

Male about 3.3 mm long, above bright shin-

ing green, elytra entirely lacking tubercles.

Head with prominent, widely separated

eyes; a tumidity about base of antennal

sockets; median area on vertex polished and

with a slightly impressed line, from this area

radiating lines of punctures producing a

wrinkled effect over occiput and about eyes.

Antennae extending below humeri, first two

joints swollen, 3-6 slender, 7-11 thickened and

with dark apices. Prothorax a third wider than

long, densely punctate except in middle along

the anterior margin, the punctures appearing

coarser and more crowded on sides, lateral

margin obtusely bitoothed, in some specimens

almost undulate, an acute tooth at anterior and

posterior angles, and a slight depression across

the anterior part of disk over the occiput of

head. Elytra in female densely and along sides

324

in basal half even rugosely punctate, with a

group of raised warts or tubercles extending

down from the humerus, gradually diminishing

toward the middle, these rugosities varying in

degree in various individuals. Humeri capped

with an additional swelling. Punctures in basal

half of elytra dense and confused, in apical

half the punctures at first with a suggestion of

geminate arrangement gradually straightening

out into striate, single-lined punctation, finer

and not so dense as in basal half. In the male

the rugosities and tubercles entirely lacking

and the punctation more regular. Body be-

neath reddish brown, finely pubescent, coxae

well separated, anterior coxal cavities closed;

prosternum not produced to conceal lower part

of head but concave; legs with all the femora

prominently and sharply toothed, punctate

towards the apex; claws appendiculate. Length

3.9-4.8 mm in female: 3.3-3.4 mm in male;

width 2—2.2 mm in female; 1.6 mm in male.

Type material—Type male and 9 para-

types (7 female, 2 male), Museum of Com-

parative Zoology No. 27330; a pair in the U. S.

National Museum, No. 57298.

Type locality —Loma Vieja, ca. 6,000 feet

altitude, south of Constanza, Dominican Re-

public, collected in August 1938 by P. J.

Darlington, Jr.

Alethaxius darlingtoni, n. sp.

Fig. 6

Female 3-4 mm in length, elongate oblong,

shining bronze with greenish luster above and

with reddish brown antennae having the apices

of distal joints darker, pale mouthparts, legs,

and undersurface; densely punctate, prothorax

with a smooth area in lower corner and with

undulate margin; elytra with numerous tuber-

cles on sides and more finely punctate toward

apex; all femora with a prominent tooth.

Male 2.8-3.5 mm long, more greenish in

luster, elytra without tubercles.

Head with prominent, nearly entire, widely

separated eyes, interocular space more than

half width of head, area about antennal sockets

swollen, otherwise the front flat and broad, the

central part being smoothly polished with ra-

diating lines of punctures going up occiput and

about eyes; mouthparts paler and _ heavy.

Antennae at least half the length of body,

longer in male, first two joints swollen, 3-6

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 10

slender and entirely pale, 7-11 thickened, the

apices usually darker. Prothorax not twice as

wide as long, with lateral margin undulate, an

acute tooth at anterior and posterior angles,

disk with a depression anteriorly, densely and

coarsely punctate except near middle of an-

terior margin and near the sides at base, the

punctures coarser and more crowded on sides.

Elytra in female with many nodules along the

sides, extending from the humeri to apical

narrowing; at base punctures coarse, dense and

confused; from the middle, striate, at first

geminate, then in a single line to the apex and

much finer. In male, no trace of tubercles, but

as in female the humeri conspicuously swollen,

the basal punctation coarse but not so dense as

in female, and finely striate in apical half; not

so costate toward apex as in other species.

Body beneath deep reddish brown, legs paler,

finely pubescent, all femora conspicuously

toothed; tibiae grooved, first tarsal joint not

much longer than second. Length of female

3.2-4.2 mm, width 1.6-1.9 mm. Length of male

2.8-3.5 mm, width 1.4-1.7 mm.

Type material.—Type male and 16 male and

17 female paratypes, Museum of Comparative

Zoology No. 27331; a pair in the U. 8. National

Museum, No. 57299.

Type locality —Loma Rucilla and mountains

north, 5,000-8,000 feet altitude, Dominican

Republic, collected in June 1938 by P. J. Dar-

lington, Jr.

Remarks.—This species bears a close re-

semblance to A. hispaniolae. There are, how-

ever, on the elytra more nodules which extend

farther down on the sides, and the prothorax

has a smooth impunctate area on the sides.

The male genitalia are quite unlike those of

A. hispaniolae.

Alethaxius integer, n. sp.

Fig. 3

No females examined. Male 3 mm in length,

oblong-oval, shining a2neous with pale yellow-

brown antennae, legs, and undersurface, dense-

ly punctate, prothorax with rounded sides, all

femora toothed.

Head with interocular space more than half

width of head, polished, rather finely and not so

densely punctate as in other species, a double

row of punctures above the swollen areas

around antennal sockets, a short median line

on vertex, lower front mostly impunctate, and

Ps)

TLE

SIX NEW SPECIES OF WEST INDIAN BEE

BLAKE

Ocr. 15, 1945

20h F

Zz. A. meliae

Os 1. Alethaxius h ispaniolae

4. A. puertoricensis

Seah ISS

i . SN

eereet 4

5. A. turduinensi

Fics. 1-6.—New species of Alethazius from the West Indies.

326

losing its aeneous luster; eyes nearly entire and

prominent. Antennae yellow-brown, not more

than half the length of body, first two joints

swollen, 3-6 slender, 7—11 thickened. Prothorax

not twice as wide as long, moderately densely

punctate, the punctures on sides becoming

coarser, explanate margin not undulate or

angulate with no suggestion of median tooth-

ing, but rounded, a tooth at the basal angle.

Elytra more coarsely punctate than pronotum,

punctures very dense in basal half and some-

what coarser below humeri, in apical half be-

coming striate. Body beneath paler with light

pubescence; femora all toothed, tibiae chan-

neled, first tarsal joint not much longer than

second, claws appendiculate. Length 3 mm;

width 1.6 mm.

Type.—Male, Museum of Comparative Zool-

ogy No. 2738382.

Type locality—Mount Diego de Ocampo,

Dominican Republic, 3,000—4,000 feet altitude,

collected in July 1938 by P. J. Darlington, Jr.

Remarks.—I have examined only one speci-

men, a male, but have little doubt that the

female will prove to be larger and probably

with nodules or ridges along the sides. These

are indicated in the male by the coarser, denser

punctures in that area. Unlike any of the rest

of the species here described, the prothorax has

no sign of toothing or angularity but is simply

arcuate. This exception to the general rule so

far observed in the genus is proof that the

toothing of the thorax as well as of the femora

is a variable character. Otherwise the species

is closely related to the two already described

from the Dominican Republic. The aedeagus

bears a strong resemblance to that of A. his-

paniolae.

Alethaxius turquinensis, n. sp.

Fig. 5

Female 3.5-4 mm in length, bronzy or cop-

pery with faint green or purple luster, mouth-

parts, antennae, legs, and undersurface pale

reddish or yellowish brown; densely punctate,

margin of prothorax undulate, elytra rugose,

usually with raised tubercles along sides and

at the apex costae between the striate puncta-

tion.

Male 3-4 mm in length, more brightly

aeneous or purplish, elytra less rugose, lacking

tubercles.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 10

Head with interocular space half the width

of head, eyes prominent, almost entire, area

about antennal sockets swollen, front otherwise

flat and broad with fewer punctures than on top

and sides, the punctures becoming. striate.

Antennae at least half the length of body, basal

joints paler, apices of distal joints tending to be

dark, distal joints thickened. Prothorax about a

third wider than long with undulate and some-

times angulate lateral margin, usually with two

undulations and an acute tooth at anterior and

posterior angle; punctation fine and very dense

except along anterior and posterior margins.

Elytra in female rugose with irregular trans-

verse ridges, on outer half below the humeri

elevated to form warty tubercles in many

specimens, punctation denser and coarser than

on pronotum, and toward apex becoming

striate, the intervals between somewhat cos-

tate; humeri polished and prominent; in the

male the elytra not so rugose but still with a

suggestion of transverse ridging. Body beneath

yellowish or reddish brown, lightly pubescent,

a small but distinct tooth on all femora.

Length, female, 3.6-4.8 mm; width 1.8-2.1

mm. Length, male, 2.9-4.1 mm; width 1.6—2

mm.

Type material.—Type male and 19 paratypes

(12 male and 7 female), Museum of Compara-

tive Zoology No. 27333; a pair in U.S. National

Museum, No. 57300.

Type localityi—Pico Turquino, 5,000—6,000

feet altitude, collected by P. J. Darlington,

Jr., in June 1936.

Remarks.—If we do not consider the tuber-

cles in the females, this species is the most

rugose of any of the West Indian group; like-

wise it is the dullest, the specimens showing

little of the shining aeneous-green of the

others, even in the males which are only slightly

more lustrous. The punctures on the prothorax

are the densest and finest found in any of the

species.

Alethaxius meliae, n. sp.

Fig. 2

Female about 3.5 mm in length, elongate

oblong, shining green or coppery, legs, some of

undersurface, and six basal antennal joints

pale yellow-brown, distal joints dark; densely

punctate above; prothorax with two distinct

median teeth on margin; elytra with a short

——

Oct. 15, 1945

ridging or nodules below humeri and swollen

costae at apex. Hind femora weakly toothed.

Male 3-3.5 mm in length, lacking ridges or

nodules below humeri, the apical costation not

so developed.

Head with prominent, widely separated eyes,

interocular space a little more than half the

width of head, eyes very little emarginate; area

about antennal sockets swollen, otherwise the

front flat, a short median line on vertex, this

median space less punctate than about eyes

and on occiput, the punctation becoming some-

what striate about eyes. Mouthparts pale

brownish. Antennae at least half length of body

in male, shorter in female; distal joints thick-

ened and dark. Prothorax a third or less wider

than long, densely punctate, the punctures on

the sides becoming coarser, a little depression

below anterior margin; sides with two acute

teeth between the acute tooth on anterior and

posterior angles. Elytra densely punctate in

basal half, and finer and less densely in apical

half, towards apex becoming striate with the

interstices costate at apex, particularly swollen

at the tip in the female and forming an apical

tumidity; in the single female specimen ex-

amined a broken ridge or series of nodules

running down below the humerus a short dis-

tance, this nodulation entirely lacking in male.

Body beneath reddish or yellowish brown, with

the sides of the prosternum and metasternum

aeneous, the latter punctate; legs pale with

punctures on femora becoming coarser and

more apparent at apex; a distinct tooth on

posterior femora; tibiae grooved. Length, fe-

male 3.6 mm; width 1.7 mm; length, male 3-3.5

mm; width 1.3-1.4 mm.

Type material—Type male and 11 male and

1 female paratypes, U. S. National Museum

No. 57301; 2 male paratypes in Museum of

Comparative Zoology.

Type locality Villalba, Puerto Rico, col-

lected on Melia sp. by R. G. Oakley, June 18,

1934.

Remarks.—This is the slenderest and the

most densely punctate of the group from the

West Indies. It is the only one with sharply

produced teeth on the prothorax. The single

female examined had only a short broken

ridge or tubercles, not very conspicuous, on

the elytra. Only the posterior femora are

toothed. It is the most golden-green of the

species here described and very lustrous.

BLAKE: SIX NEW SPECIES OF WEST INDIAN BEETLES 327

Alethaxius puertoricensis, n. sp.

Fig. 4

Female between 2.5-3 mm in length, oval,

shining, yellow-brown, the distal joints of

antennae and undersurface deep reddish brown;

densely and coarsely punctate, the punctures

of the elytra more or less striate, the inter-

stices being somewhat costate, and on the sides

several rows of warty elevations along costae,

the humeri unusually prominent; thorax

acutely angulate; femora not toothed.

Male unknown.

Head polished with numerous but not dense

punctures, a line of them slightly above anten-

nal sockets; interantennal area smooth, broad;

front with a faint median vertical line; eyes

widely separate, interocular space half width

of head. Antennae reaching the middle of the

elytra, first two joints swollen, 3-6 slender,

7-11 thickened and with darkened apices.

Prothorax not twice as broad as long, de-

pressed below the middle, margin with almost

toothed angles near the middle, and a distinct

basal tooth; disk densely and coarsely punc-

tate. Elytra tending to be costate between the

rows of punctures, the punctures at base some-

what confused, possibly geminate, becoming

single striae at middle, on the sides the costae

becoming warty, 4 or 5 rows of warts, and an

enlarged hump on the humerus. Body beneath

deep reddish brown, shining, lightly pubescent.

Legs paler, femora not toothed, tibiae grooved

on one side; first tarsal joint not much longer

than second, claws appendiculate. Length 2.6—

2.9 mm.; width 1.4 mm.

Type material—Type female, Museum of

Comparative Zoology No. 27334; 1 paratype, a

female, in U. 8S. National Museum, No. 57302.

Type locality—El Yunque, ca. 3,000 feet

altitude, Puerto Rico, collected in May 1938

by P. J. Darlington, Jr.

Remarks.—This species is unlike the others

described in this paper in coloration, being

simply yellow-brown without any metallic

luster, in being much smaller in size, and in lack-

ing altogether any toothing of the femora. The

general aspect of the head is unlike the rest.

There are no swollen areas about the antennal

sockets; the front of the face is smoother and

not so punctate. Furthermore, the antennae are

longer. In the pattern of its elytral punctation

and wartiness it is very similar to the rest.

Unfortunately, no male has been examined.

328

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 10

ENTOMOLOGY .—A new larvaevorid parasite of the social butterfly EKucheira so-

cialis Westwood (Diptera).

and Plant Quarantine.

The larvaevorid described in this paper

was submitted to me for identification by

A. C. Baker, of the Mexico City laboratory

of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant

Quarantine. Being unable to place it as to

genus, I requested that specimens be sent

to H. J. Reinhard, of the Texas Agricul-

tural Experiment Station, who, in turn,

referred one of them to A. R. Brooks of the

Department of Agriculture of Canada.

Neither of these workers could do more

than to place it in the Ernestiini, near

Mesembrierigone ‘Townsend, the genus to

which it traces in Townsend’s keys.” Since

a name is desired for a report of its host re-

lationships, I am referring it to a new genus

and species of Ernestiini.

Eucheirophaga, n. gen.

Head slightly wider than high, its length at

base of antennae approximately equal to that

at oral margin and about three-fifths head

height. Front flat in lateral profile, equal to

face in length; vertex one-sixth head width in

male, almost one-quarter in female. Face in

lateral profile concave, the epistoma being

rather strongly though gradually warped for-

ward; clypeus transversely convex, its sides but

slightly sunken, its middle distinctly elevated

over facials; no facial carina; epistoma trans-

versely convex, fully as broad and half as long

as clypeus. Parafacials bare; each facial with

several bristles and a few short hairs near

vibrissa, otherwise bare. Cheek about one-half

to three-fifths eye height. Eyes thickly and uni-

formly long-pilose. Antenna reaching to upper

margin of epistoma; first segment short, por-

rect; second moderately long; third 14 length of

second and rather broad; arista bare, its first

two segments each twice as long as thick, its

third segment thickened on basal half, thence

tapering to a sharp point. Palpi well developed,

clavate, reaching to or beyond epistoma; pro-

1 Received June 20, 1945.

2 TOWNSEND, C. H. T., Manual of myiology, pt.

3: 8-15, 20-27, 205-206, 1936, Itaquaquecetuba,

Sao Paulo, Brazil. In order to make this genus

(and Mesembrierigone as well) run through the

tribal key, pp. 20-27, the word “‘or’’ must be in-

serted between the two parts of the second alter-

native of couplet 4.

Maurice T. JAMEs, U.S. Bureau of Entomology

boscis short, labella fleshy. Outer verticals well

differentiated in female, poorly so or not at all

in male; inner verticals strong, cruciate; post-

verticals small; ocellars small, weaker than

frontals, proclinate; frontals strong, extending

3 to 5 on each side below antennal base but not

extending below base of arista; frontoorbitals 2

strong proclinate and 2 strong reclinate in fe-

male, none in male; gnathoorbitals 3 to 4 on

each side.

Transverse suture distinct, dividing mesono-

tum into two approximately equal parts.

Prosternum fine-haired laterally; propleura

bare; no infrasquamal setulae. Acrosticals 3-3,

hind presutural pair very close to suture; dorso-

centrals 3-3; intraalars 1-3; supraalars 1-3;

sternopleurals 3, almost in a row; pteropleural

1, strong, reaching practically to apex of

squama; lateroscutellars 3, strong; no apico-

scutellar; discoscutellars 1 strong pair and 2 or

3 weaker pairs. Legs not elongated; tarsi sub-

equal in length to tibiae. Wings slender, rather

pointed, especially in male; apical cell open and

ending a distance equal to length of r-m before

wing tip; cubitulus rectangular, with a very

short stump; last section of vein Cu; about one- —

fifth previous section; veins R; and Cu, bare;

vein R, with about 3 to 5 setulae at its base.

Squamae bare above.

Abdomen ovate, nearly as deep as wide, with

four pregenital segments; genitalia apicoven-

tral, not concealed in a slit. Marginals lacking

on segment 1; a strong median pair, extended

laterally into a weak row, on segment 2; strong

marginal rows each on segments 3 and 4; seg-

ments 2 to 4 each with 2 median discal pairs

arranged one in front of the other, and with

several unpaired weaker bristles or strong bris-

tlelike setulae at each side of the median series;

on segment 4, because of the narrowness of the

segment, these bristles may appear to be ar-

ranged in rather a haphazard fashion. Sternates

of pregenital segments almost wholly concealed.

Genotype, Euchetrophaga lugubris, n. sp.

In Curran’s key ,* Euchetrophaga will trace to

Hineomyia Townsend, couplet 208 (p. 444),

but in that genus, among other differences, the

3 CurRAN, C. H. The families and genera of North

American Diptera, 512 pp. New York, 1934.

Oct. 15, 1945

face is distinctly receding, the epistoma is

short, the third antennal segment is sharply

truncated apically, only two presutural acros-

ticals, the hind one remote from the suture,

are present, vein Mz is continued far beyond

the cubitulus, and the sternites (at least in the

female) are broadly exposed and bristled. The

closest relationship of Huchetrophaga to any

known genus is probably to Mesembrierigone,

but in that genus, among other differences, the

basal two aristal segments are each but little

longer than wide, the third antennal segment is

twice as long as the second, the ocellars are

strong, cruciate apicoscutellars are present, the

second and third abdominal segments have

each but one pair of median discals, and the

cubitulus is bent to an acute angle without a

stump.

Eucheirophaga lugubris, n. sp.

Male.—Predominantly black and_ black-

haired, with a yellow face and with cinereous-

pollinose areas on the abdomen. Relative head

measurements in micrometer units (from holo-

type): Head width, 65; head height, 62; vertex,

11; length of head at base of antenna, 36, at

oral margin, 35; length of front, 37, of face, 37;

cheek width, 20; eye height, 40; minimum

width of parafacial, 8; maximum width of fa-

cial, 6; width of epistoma at vibrissa, 16; maxi-

mum width of clypeus, 17; length of first, sec-

ond, and third antennal segments and arista, 3,

11, 16, 24, respectively. Corneous part of haus-

tellum about one-third head height.

Frontalia brown; parafrontals and occiput

black; face yellow; antenna black, extreme apex

of second and base of third segment reddish;

arista blackish, tending to become brownish on

the thickened part; proboscis brown; palpi

black. Head covered with yellowish pollen,

thickly so on lower parts of occiput and face,

thinly so on parafrontals. Pile of occiput and

lower parts of cheeks bushy yellow; that of

eyes yellow; that of head otherwise black.

Thorax and legs, including all hairs and bris-

tles, black; mesonotum lightly cinereous-polli-

nose, with four longitudinal vittae of brownish

pollen; scutellum with brownish pollen which

becomes cinereous apically. Pleura with scant

cinereous pollen. Squamae infuscated. Wings

grayish subhyaline, the veins except on the

apex and posterior third of the wing broadly

bordered with fuscous, the clouding tending to

JAMES: A NEW LARVAEVORID PARASITE 329

run together so that a large part of the anterior

basal half or more of the wing is infuscated.

Abdomen, including its hairs and bristles, black;

dorsal surface of tergites thinly brownish-pol-

linose with a prominent transverse lateral

cinereous marking on each side of the second,

Fie. 1.—Eucheirophaga lugubris, n. sp., male:

a, Genitalia; b, side view of head. Drawings by

Arthur Cushman.

third, and fourth segments, these markings ap-

pearing conspicuous from a posterior view;

sides and ventral surface of fourth segment

largely cinereous-pollinose.

Genitalia blackish dorsally, becoming red-

dish ventrally. Anal forceps united, beaklike,

rather small, broad basally and tapering to a

blunt point; outer clasper twice as long as wide,

parallel-sided for most of its length, the apical

margin oblique and ending in an angle of about

330 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

60°; inner clasper slender, bladelike, arcuate

with a small hook at the apex; penis simple,

tubular.

Female.—Differs in sexual characters and in

those indicated in the generic description.

Holotype-—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 57286, 63

km from Mexico City in the State of Morelos,

January 1944 (J. G. Shaw), from Kucheira

VOL. 35, NO. 10

socialis Westwood, on Arbutussp., Shawno. 5047.

Described also from the allotype, female, and

paratypes, 1 male and 1 female, same data, and

from a series of specimens, mostly in poor con-

dition, only 1 male and 1 female being consid-

ered paratypes, from Morelos, Mexico, Febru-

ary 1944 (J. G. Shaw), from Eucheira socialis

on Arbutus sp., Shaw no. 5049.

ICHTHYOLOGY .—The leatherjackets, carangid fishes of the genus Oligoplites

Gill, inhabiting American waters.)

tional Museum.

This study was undertaken in an attempt

to determine the valid scientific name for

the leatherjacket, or palometa, inhabiting

the brackish and fresh waters of Lago de

Maracaibo, Venezuela, and also to try to

straighten out some of the confusion center-

ing around the other species of the Western

Atlantic Ocean. I have examined nearly all

the specimens of this genus in the U. 8. Na-

tional Museum, and they form the basis for

my conclusions. Although not all the rec-

ords in the literature are included in the

synonymy for each species, most of the im-

portant ones are listed except for saurus

along the Atlantic coast of the United

States, where it is not confused with any

related species. I do not see how one is jus-

tified in recognizing the subgenus Lepto-

oligoplites Fowler (Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-

delphia Monogr. 6: 223. 1944; genotype,

Oligoplites refulgens Gilbert and Starks) on

the basis of a few more gill rakers and elon-

gate form. The differences in dental struc-

tures would be a much better characteristic

on which to establish subgenera if such were

needed, but I do not think it necessary in

this otherwise distinct group.

Dr. T. Gill (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-

delphia, 1863: 166) proposed the genus

Oligoplites with Oligoplites inornatus Gill

as genotype, thus separating the Eastern

Atlantic and African species with a few

more dorsal spines from related species in

American waters. The genus is easily recog-

nized by the ‘‘mackerel form” of the com-

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

on Smithsonian Institution. Received July 16,

45.

LEONARD P. ScHuuttTz, United States Na-

pressed body; the two free anal spines at the

front of the anal fin; lunate-shaped caudal

fin; long anal and dorsal fin with all of the

soft rays connected by membrane so that

no free finlets occur; skin without external

scales, although covered with fine ridges,

representing minute embedded scales that

extend at slightly different angles; lateral

line unarmed, running along the middle or

lengthwise axis of the body, and a little

arched over the pectoral fin; dorsal profile

anteriorly with alow keel; head short, com-

pressed, somewhat pointed; the greatest

depth of body near origin of second dorsal;

mouth oblique, large, the lower jaw pro-

jecting slightly; premaxillaries not protrac-

tile, the premaxillary groove not continuous

across tip of snout; maxillary narrow, long,

reaching to under rear of orbit or past it,

without supplemental bone; teeth present

on premaxillaries, vomer, palatines, dentary

and tongue; those on dentary in the young

and half grown with an outer row that flares

outward, curving dorsally so that the band

of teeth in the upper jaw fits into the trough

made by these numerous curved teeth, but

these appear to be lost so that the adult has

a row of much less closely spaced teeth that

are less curved and coarser; gill rakers long;

dorsal spines usually IV or V, rarely III or

VI, connected at base by a low membrane;

anterior rays of soft dorsal and anal fins

somewhat elevated anteriorly, but with

deep notches between the rays posteriorly;

pectoral fins short; gill membranes extend-

ing far forward with a small delicate mem-

brane connecting across the isthmus an-

teriorly; pelvics fitting into a groove, in-.

a | enn meet cece

Ocr. 15, 1945 SCHULTZ: THE LEATHERNECKS INHABITING AMERICAN WATERS 331

serted under the pectoral fin bases.

Numerous counts were made on the vari-

ous species studied and these are recorded

in Table 1.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF OLIGOPLITES

la. Number of gill rakers, including rudiments,

on first gill arch, 5 to 7-+1+16 to 21; dorsal

surface of head without a network of tubes

opening through numerous pores on surface

of skin; mucous pores however, appear to

develop more numerously on adults with

increase in size.

2a. Premaxillary with a single row of short

conical teeth along its entire length, ex-

cept in young about 85 mm and shorter

this row irregular or nearly in 2 rows an-

teriorly at front of snout; toothed portion

of vomer a patch, usually a trifle longer

than wide and somewhat bluntly pointed

posteriorly; teeth on dentary in 2 dis-

tinct rows; dorsal rays IV—I, 20 or 21;

depth 3 to 3.4; head 1.3 in young, 1.4 to

1.6 in adults; posterior margin of maxil-

lary more or less truncate; Central Amer-

ica and West Indies to Montevideo, Uru-

ae Oligoplites saliens (Bloch)

2b. Premaxillary teeth (65 mm in standard

length and shorter) in 1 or 2 rows pos-

teriorly, becoming a narrow band an-

teriorly; toothed portion of vomer much

longer than wide, with a short, somewhat

pointed, posterior projection; teeth on

dentary in 2 rows; dorsal rays usually

V-I, 19 to 21, rarely IV spines; depth 3.9

to 4.6; head 0.85 to 1.0; posterior part of

maxillary angularly rounded; Pacific

Ocean from Panama Bay to Guayaquil,

Ecuador.

Oligoplites refulgens Gilbert and Starks

1b. Number of gill rakers, including rudiments,

on first gill arch 3 to6+1-+410 to 15.

3a. Dorsal surface of head without an underly-

ing network of tubes, opening to surface

through numerous pores.

4a. Premaxillary with a band of villiform

teeth along its entire length, poste-

riorly narrow, but anteriorly wide,

consisting of several rows; toothed

portion of vomer usually a little longer

than wide, more or less pointed pos-

teriorly; teeth on dentary becoming a

band anteriorly; dorsal rays IV-I, 19

to 21, rarely V free spines; depth 3.4 to

3.8; head in greatest depth 1.2 to 1.4;

posterior tip of maxillary rounded,

reaching past orbits in adults; Nica-

ragua to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in

Lake Yzabal, Guatemala, and in Lake

4b. Premaxillary teeth essentially in 2 dis-

tinct rows along its entire length ex-

cept far posteriorly where it may be-

come an irregular row, and far ante-

riorly near tip of snout where a minute

row of teeth may occur between the

two distinct rows; toothed portions of

vomer on half-grown and adults much

longer than wide, posterior projection

more or less tapering to a point behind;

teeth on dentary in 2 rows; dorsal rays

V-I, 18 to 21, rarely IV or VI free

spines; depth 3.4 to 4.1; head in great-

est depth 1.0 to 1.6; posterior edge of

maxillary rounded, usually not reach-

ing past orbit.

5a. Premaxillary with 2 distinct rows of

teeth, seldom with a few minute ones

between them far anteriorly; gill

rakers on lower limb of first arch

usually 13 or 14 (11 to 14), counting

rudiments; Woods Hole, Mass.,

southward in Gulf of Mexico and

West Indies to Montevideo, Uru-

guay.

Oligoplites saurus saurus (Bloch)

56. Premaxillary with 2 distinct rows of

teeth and usually with some minute

teeth between them anteriorly; gill

rakers on lower limb of first arch

usually 14 or 15 (138 to 16), counting

rudiments; southern California and

Gulf of California to Bay of Sta.

Elena, Ecuador.

Oligoplites saurus inornatus Gill

3b. Dorsal surface of head with a network of

tubes in skin opening to surface through

numerous pores, these best developed in

adults, scarcely so in young; premaxil-

lary with a band of teeth, wider ante-

riorly, outer and inner rows a little en-

larged; dentary with some teeth ante-

riorly between two outer rows; gill rakers

3 to 5+1+10 to 12; anal rays II-I, 19 to

21; greatest depth 2.7 to 3.2 in standard

length.

6a. Tip of snout to rear edge of maxillary

1.7 to 1.8 in head, the latter 4.2 to

4.3 in standard length; length of pec-

toral fin a little longer than length

of maxillaries; Panama to Guayaquil,

Ecuador . . . Oligoplites altus (Gunther)

6b. Tip of snout to rear edge of maxillary 1.4

to 1.6 in head, the latter 3.7 to 4.0 in

standard length; pectoral fin a little

shorter than length of maxillaries;

Gulf of California to Callao, Peru.

Oligoplites mundus Jordan and Starks

Oligoplites saliens (Bloch)

Maracaibo, Venezuela. Scomber saliens Bloch, Ichthyologie, Histoire na-

Oligoplites palometa turelle des poissons 10: 41, pl. 335. 1792 (An-

(Cuvier and Valenciennes) tilles)—Cuvier and Valenciennes, Histoire

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Ocr. 15, 1945

naturelle des poissons 8: 389. 1831 (Martinique;

Cayenne; Brazil).

Scombroides saliens Regan, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon-

don, 1903, 2: 66 (Rio de Janeiro).

Scomberoides saltator Lacepéde, Histoire naturelle

des poissons 2: pl. 19 (opposite p. 596) upper

fig., 1800; text, 3: 55. 1802.

Chorinemus saliens (var. saliens) Giinther, Cata-

logue of the fishes in the British Museum 2:

475. 1860.

Oligoplites saliens Jordan and Evermann, U. 8.

Nat. Mus. Bull. 47: 899. 1896 (West Indies).—

Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,

1905: 60, fig. 2 (Rio de Janeiro).—Starks, The

fishes of the Stanford Expedition to Brazil: 43.

1913 (Pard).—Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philadelphia, 1915: 532 (Trinidad); 1919: 129

(Rio de Janeiro).—Ribeiro, Arch. Mus. Nac.

Rio de Janeiro 17: (Carang.) 8. 1915 (Antilles

to Rio de Janeiro; Bahia) —Meek and Hilde-

brand, Marine fishes of Panama, pt. 2: 390.

1925 (West Indies and Brazil).—Jordan, Ever-

mann, and Clark, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish.

1928, pt. 2: 277. 1930 (West Indies).—Dev-

incenzi, Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Montevideo 4

(13): 24, fig. 9. 1939 (Rio de la Plata; Punta

Gorda, Montevideo).—Devincenzi and Le-

grand, Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Montevideo, 1940:

pl. 5, fig. 2.—Fowler, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.

82 (5): 764. 1940 (Rio de Janeiro); Arq. Zool.

Est. Sao Paulo 3(6): 152. 1941 (Para, Brazil).

Bloch’s description of salzens indicates that

his specimen had a single row of teeth in the

upper jaw (also shown in his figure 335) along

with four spines in the first dorsal. On the basis

of these two characters I am referring speci-

mens with such a combination of characters to

Oligoplites saliens (Bloch). In addition, the gill

rakers on the lower limb of the first arch of this

species are more numerous than on the other

species of Oligoplites from the Western At-

lantic Ocean. They are 16 to 20 instead of 12

to 14.

This is one of the most distinctive species

among all those in the genus and can be identi-

fied at once by the single row of conical teeth

along the premaxillary. The maxillaries in the

adults extend past the orbit and form an angle

of 40° with the longitudinal axis of the body.

The dorsal part of the body is darkish in pre-

served specimens.

The material examined consists of 7 speci-

mens, all from U. 8. National Museum collec-

tions, as follows: no. 44701, 1 specimen from

the Atlantic coast of Central America; nos. .

123073 to 123075, 3 specimens from Gulf of

Venezuela; nos. 100824 and 100825, 2 speci-

SCHULTZ: THE LEATHERNECKS INHABITING AMERICAN WATERS

333

mens from Porto Inhauma, Brazil; no. 76330, 1

specimen from Rio de Janeiro.

This Atlantic species ranges from Central

America, Gulf of Venezuela, and the West In-

dies southward to Montevideo, Uruguay.

Oligoplites refulgens Gilbert and Starks

Oligoplites refulgens Gilbert and Starks, Mem.

California Acad. Sci. 4: 73, pl. 11, fig. 19. 1904

(Panama Bay).—Meek and Hildebrand, The

marine fishes of Panama, pt. 2; 392, pl. 39, fig.

2. 1925 (Pacific coast of Panama to Guaya-

quil).—Jordan, Evermann, and Clark, Rept.

U.S. Comm. Fish. 1928, pt. 2: 278. 1930 (Pan-

ama).—Fowler, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia

Monogr. 6: 223, fig. 156. 1944 (Playa Muerto,

Panama).

Leptooligoplites Fowler, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel-

phia Monogr. 6: 223, fig. 156. 1944.(Genotype

—Oligoplites refulgens Gilbert and Starks.)

This species may be recognized by its more

slender body and numerous gill rakers on the

lower limb of the first arch, 17 to 21 instead of

15 or fewer in the other Pacific species. The

maxillaries form an angle of about 32° with the

longitudinal axis of the body. I have examined

large series of specimens, 75 mm and shorter,

from Chame Point, Panama, in U.S.N.M. nos.

81986, 82024, and 82025; also 3 small speci-

mens in U.S.N.M. no. 101745, and 1 specimen,

U.S.N.M. no. 101744, both from Colombia.

This Pacific species ranges from Panama Bay

to Guayaquil, Ecuador.

Oligoplites palometa (Cuvier and

Valenciennes)

Chorinemus palometa Cuvier and Valenciennes,

Histoire naturelle des poissons 8: 392. 1831

(Lake Maracaibo).

? Chorinemus guaribira Cuvier and Valenciennes,

Histoire naturelle des poissons 8: 393. 1831

(Brazil).—Giinther, Catalogue of the fishes in

the British Museum 2: 475. 1860 (coast of Bra-

zil).

Chorinemus saliens (var. palometa) Giinther, Cat-

alogue of the fishes in the British Museum 2:

475. 1860 (Lake Maracaibo).

Oligoplites saliens palometa Jordan and Ever-

mann, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47: 899. 1896

(Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela).—? Gilbert, Proc.

Washington Acad. Sci. 2: 166. 1900 (Maceio,

Brazil).

Oligoplites palometa Jordan, Evermann, and Clark,

Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1928, pt. 2: 278. 1930

(Lake Maracaibo).

Scombroides palometa Regan, Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, 1903, 2: 66 (Lake Yzabal); Biologia

334

Centrali-Americana, Pisces: 15. 1908 (Guate-

mala, Lake Yzabal; Lago de Maracaibo).

Oligoplites saurus Fowler, Proc. Amer. Philos.

Soc. 82(5): 764. 1940 (? Rio de Janeiro).

This species is the only one known from the

Western Atlantic that has a wide band of villi-

form teeth on each premaxillary. From O. sau-

rus saurus of the Atlantic it differs in having IV

spines in the first dorsal instead of V. The max-

illaries form an angle of about 40° with the lon-

gitudinal axis of the body. The dorsal part of

its back is blackish. The anterior portion of the

second dorsal fin is blackish and the proximal

portion of the anterior soft rays of the anal are

blackish. The tips of the rays of the caudal fin

are tinged with blackish pigment so as to form

a narrow darkish posterior border.

This study was based on U,S,N.M. no. 44205

and nos. 44373 to 44875, 6 specimens from

Nicaragua; U.S.N.M. no. 123083, 1 specimen

from the Atlantic side of Central America; an-

other small specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 83796,

from ‘Trinidad; and 1 specimen each for

U.S.N.M. nos. 100817, 100847, and 100851, all

from Brazil. Also U.S.N.M. no. 83130, without

locality, was collected by the Wilkes Exploring

Expedition; 8 specimens from Lago Maracaibo,

U.S.N.M. nos. 121803 to 121806, collected by

me in 1942, and U.S.N.M. no. 123072, 1 speci-

men from the Gulf of Venezuela.

This Atlantic species ranges from Nicaragua

and Lake Yzabal, Guatemala, and Lake Mara-

caibo, Venezuela, southward to Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil.

Oligoplites saurus saurus (Bloch and

Schneider)

Scomber saurus Bloch and Schneider,

ichthyologiae: 32. 1801 (Jamaica).

? Centronotus argenteus Lacepéde, Histoire na-

turelle des poissons 3: 316. 1802 (Equatorial

America).

? Lichia quiebra Quoy and Gaimard, in Freycinet,

Voyage ... Uranie and Physicienne, Zool.: 365.

1824 (Equatorial America) (ref. copied).

Chorinemus saltans Cuvier and Valenciennes, His-

toire naturelle des poissons 8: 393. 1831 (Mar-

tinique).

Chorinemus quiebra Cuvier and Valenciennes,

Histoire naturelle des poissons 8: 396. 1831

(Brazil; Martinique; Havana).

Chorinemus occidentalis Giinther (not of Linn-

aeus, as Gasterosteus occidentalis Linnaeus is not

an Oligoplites), Catalogue of the fishes in the

British Museum 3: 475. 1860 (Jamaica; San

Domingo; Trinidad; Puerto Cabello; Bahia).

Systema

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 10

Oligoplites occidentalis Goode and Bean, Proce.

U.S. Nat. Mus. 5: 237. 1882 (Gulf of Mexico).

—Jordan and Gilbert, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5:

270. 1882 (Pensacola, Fla.).

Scombroides occidentalis (in part) Jordan and Gil-

bert, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 16: 447, 913, 978.

1882 (Central America, West Indies to New

York). (On p. 973 the name is corrected to O.

saurus.)

Oligoplites rathbuni Ribeiro, Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio

de Janeiro 17: (Carang.) 8. 1915 (Bahia).—

Fowler, Arq. Zool. Est. Sao Paulo 3(6): 152.

1941 (Bahia).

Oligoplites saurus Berg. Ann. Mus. Nac. Buenos

Aires 4: 38, 1895 (Montevideo).—(in part) Jor-

dan and Evermann, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47:

898, pl. 138, fig. 378, 1896. 1900 (Tropical

America; New York to Florida; West Indies).

—Evermann and Marsh, Bull. U. S. Fish

Comm. 20, pt. 1: 127, pl. 7. 1902 (Puerto

Rico).—(in part) Gilbert and Starks, Mem.

California Acad. Sci. 4: 70. 1904 (Florida; Ja-

maica).—Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-

delphia, 1905: 59 (Fort Macon, N. C.; Key

West, Fla.).—Jordan and Thompson, Bull.

U. S. Bur. Fish. 24: 237. 1905 (Garden Key,

Fla.).—Smith, The fishes of North Carolina:

200, fig. 81. 1907 (Beaufort, N. C.).—Starks,

The fishes of the Stanford Expedition to Brazil:

43. 1913 (Natal).—Ribeiro, Arch. Mus. Nac.

Rio de Janeiro 17: (Carang.) 7. 1915 (Tropical

Pacific and Atlantic from New York to Rio de

Janeiro; Bahia).—Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philadelphia, 1915: 532 (Trinidad); 1919: 147

(Jamaica).—Devincenzi, Ann. Mus. Nac. Mon-

tevideo, ser. 2, pt. 5: 217. 1924 (Montevideo).—

(in part) Meek and Hildebrand, The marine

fishes of Panama, pt. 2: 390, pl. 39, fig. 1. 1925

(Tropical America).—Devincenzi and Barat-

tini, Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Montevideo 2: pl. 24,

fig. 1, 1928.—Beebe and TeeVan, Zoologica

10(1): 112, fig., 1928 (Port-au-Prince Bay).

—Hildebrand and Schroeder, Bull. U. S.

Bur. Fish. 43: 219, fig. 128. 1928 (Lynn-

haven Roads, Va.)—(in part) Jordan, Ever-

mann, and Clark, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish.

1928, pt. 2: 277, 1930 (Central America, West

Indies to New York).—Nichols, Sci. Surv.,

Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands, New York

Acad. Sci., 10(2): 232, fig. 86. 1929 (Puerto

Rico).—Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-

delphia, 1931: 398 (Trinidad).—Hubbs, Carne-

gie Inst. Washington Publ. 457: 253. 1936

(Champoton, Campeche; mouth Rio Champo-

ton).—Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel-

phia, 1937: 310 (Haiti).—Carvalho and Ramos,

Bol. Ind. Animal Brazil 4: 24. 1941 (Rio Ri-

beira de Iguape).—Longley and Hildebrand,

Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ.: 535: 83.

1941 (Tortugas).—Carvalho, Bol. Ind. Anim.

Sao Paulo 4 (3, 4): 53. 1941 (Brazil; Uruguay).

—Fowler, Arq. Zool. Est. SAo Paulo 3(6): 153.

1941 (Bahia).—R6hl, Fauna descriptiva de

Oct. 15, 1945

Venezuela: 399, fig. 213. 1942 (coast of Venc-

zuela).

My observations and comparisons of speci-

mens from both the Atlantic and Pacific sides

of Central America indicate that the two popu-

lations are slightly different structurally but

perhaps no more so than those populations

along the coasts from Massachusetts to Rhode

Island as compared with that in the Gulf of

Mexico to Venezuela. By reference to Table |

it may be noted that a decrease in the number of

gill rakers appears to occur northward on both

coasts. However, the series are so small that

these differences may disappear when several

hundred more counts are made. The only other

difference observed by me was the more fully

developed middle row of minute teeth in those

specimens from the Pacific waters. Other differ-

ences may be observed when an extensive sta-

tistical study is made but I am unable to de-

vote that much time to this problem at present.

Tentatively, I am recognizing them as subspe-

cifically different, but not on very good and

substantial facts.

The following material, all in the U. 8. Na-

tional Museum, has been examined by me: no.

16354, 1 specimen from Woods Hole, Mass.; no.

14015, 1 specimen from Long Island, N. Y.;

no. 50952, 1 specimen from New Jersey; nos.

20726, 25566, 38277, and 39651, 4 specimens

from Rhode Island; nos. 5962, 12690, 21486,

26576, 26598, 26607, 30695, 30858, 31922,

"38728, 39869, 44649, 47345, 57285, 68555, 80013,

80014, 83797, and 125691, consisting of a large

series of specimens from Florida; no. 127479, 3

small specimens from Alabama; nos. 710,

46291, 73575, 118601 to 118603, and 120074, a

small series from Texas; nos. 80036, 80057,

80061, and 80062, a small series from Panama;

nos. 4733, 9784, 12556, 82409 to 82413, and 82414,

: a small series from Cuba; nos. 63053, 73832, 8

specimens from Puerto Rico; nos. 30039 and

30040, 2 specimens from Jamaica; no. 94762, 2

specimens from Puerto Colombia, Colombia;

nos. 123076 to 123078, 5 specimens from the

Gulf of Venezuela; no. 83434, a specimen, lo-

cality uncertain, but probably from Rio de

Janeiro.

This Atlantic subspecies has a known range

from Woods Hole, Mass., to Florida, the West

Indies, the Gulf of Mexico, and Central Amer-

ica southward to Montevideo, Uruguay.

SCHULTZ: THE LEATHERNECKS INHABITING AMERICAN WATERS

335

Oligoplites saurus inornatus Gill

Oligoplites inornatus Gill, Proce. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philadelphia, 1863: 166 (U.S.N.M. no. 30959

from west coast of Panama).—Jordan, Ever-

mann, and Clark, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish.

1928, pt. 2: 277. 1930 (Panama).

Chorinemus inornatus Giinther, Trans. Zool. Soc.

London 6, pt. 7: 4383. 1868 (Pacifie coast of

Central America).

Chorinemus occidentalis Boulenger, Bol. Mus,

Zool. Anat. Comp. Univ. Torino 14(335): 7.

1899 (Bay of Sta. Elena, Ecuador).

Oligoplites saurus Jordan and Gilbert, Proc. U. §.

Nat. Mus. 5: 625. 1883 (Panama).—Jordan,

Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 8: 375. 1885 (Mazatlan;

Panama).—(in part) Jordan and Evermann,

U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47: 898. 1896 (Tropical

America to Baja California).—(in part) Gilbert

and Starks, Mem. California Acad. Sei. 4: 70.

1904 (Panama Bay; Mazatlin, Mexico).—Hil-

debrand, Bull. U. 8. Bur. Fish. 41: 285. 1925

(El Salvador).—(in part) Meek and Hilde-

brand, The marine fishes of Panama) pt.

2: 390, pl. 39, fig. 1, 1925 (Panama).—(in

part) Jordan, Evermann, and Clark, Rept.

U.S. Comm. Fish. 1928, pt. 2: 277. 1930 (Cen-

tral America to Lower California).—Breder,

Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll., 1(3): 17. 1936

(Conception Bay, Baja California).

Oligoplites occidentalis Jordan and Gilbert, Proc.

U.S. Nat. Mus. 5: 374: 1882 (U.S.N.M. no.

30959, type of O. tnornatus); Bull. U. S. Fish

Comm. 1882, 2: 110. 1882 (Panama).

This species is scarcely distinct from saurus

of the Western Atlantic, and I separate them

subspecifically on the doubtful bases of a little

higher average number of gill rakers in the

specimens from the Pacific, along with an extra

“middle” row of minute villiform teeth on the

premaxillary, scarcely developed in saurus of

the Atlantic.

The following specimens, all in the U. 8. Na-

tional Museum, were examined: no. 131403, off

southern California; nos. 41258 and 54571, 9

specimens from Guaymas, Mexico; nos. 28359

and 29208, 4 specimens from Mazatlan, Mex-

ico; no. 87339, 1 specimen from El Salvador;

nos. 50450, 79939, 79963, 79966, 80030, 80048,

80056, 80058 to 80060, 81993, and 123082, nu-

merous specimens from Panama.

This Pacific subspecies ranges from south-

ern California southward to Panama and the

Bay of Sta. Elena, Ecuador.

Oligoplites altus (Giinther)

Chorinemus altus Giinther, Trans. Zool. Soc. Lon-

don 6: 433, fig. 1868 (west coast of Panama).—

336

? Boulenger, Bol. Mus. Zool. Anat. Comp.

Univ. Torino 14(335): 7. 1899 (Guayaquil).

Oligoplites altus (in part) Jordan and Evermann,

U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47: 899. 1896 (Panama).

—Gilbert and Starks, Mem. California Acad.

Sci. 4: 72, pl. 11, fig. 20. 1904 (Panama mar-

ket).—Meek and Hildebrand, The marine

fishes of Panama 2: 388, pl. 38, fig. 1. 1925

(Panama).—Jordan, Evermann, and Clark,

Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1928, pt. 2: 278. 1930

(Panama).

Two specimens from Panama, U.S.N.M. nos.

80063 and 82043, form the basis on which this

study was made.

This Pacific species has been reported from

Panama and from Guayaquil, Ecuador.

Oligoplites mundus Jordan and Starks

Oligoplites mundus Jordan and Starks, in Jordan

and Evermann, Rept. U. S. Fish Comm. 21:

344. 1896 (Mazatlan) (name only); U. S. Nat.

Mus. Bull. 47: 2844. 1898 (San Juan and AIl-

godones Lagoons, Mexico).—Gilbert and Starks,

Mem. California Acad. Sci. 4: 72, pl. 12, fig. 21.

1904 (Panama; Algodones Lagoon and Mazat-

l4n, Mexico).—Starks, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus.

30: 784. 1906 (Guayaquil).—Meek and Hilde-

brand, The marine fishes of Panama, pt. 2: pl.

38, fig. 2. 1925 (Gulf of California to Ecua.-

dor).—Hildebrand, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 41:

285. 1925 (El Salvador).—Jordan, Ever-

mann, and Clark, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 10

1928, pt. 2: 278. 1930 (Mazatlain).—Tor-

tonese, Bol. Mus. Zool. Anat. Comp. Univ.

Torino 47: 162. 1939 (Callao).

Chorinemus saliens ? Boulenger, Bol. Mus. Zool.

Anat. Comp. Univ. Torino 14(335): 7. 1899

(Bay of Sta. Elena).—? Steindachner, Denk-

schr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 72: 126. 1902 (Guay-

aquil). ;

Oligoplites altus Jordan and Gilbert, Bull. U. S.

Fish Comm., 1882, 2: 106, 110. 1882 (Mazatlan

and Panama); Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 5: 374.

1882 (on U.S.N.M. no. 30969 from Panama).—

Jordan, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 8: 375. 1885

(Panama).—Jordan and Evermann, U.S. Nat.

Mus. Bull. 47, pt. 1: 899. 1896 (Panama).

The following specimens were studied:

U.S.N.M. nos. 28188, 28354, 28274, 29558,

41257, and 46496, a small series from Mazatlan

and the west coast of Mexico; U.S.N.M. no.

87338, a specimen from El Salvador; U.S.N.M.

nos. 30738, 30969, 76795, 79936, 79938, 79960,

80027, 80028, and 80051 to 80055, a large se-

ries of specimens from Panama; U.S.N.M.

nos. 53483 and 88698, 5specimens from Ecuador.

The entire account by Jordan and Evermann

on page 899 in U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47 for O.

altus appears to have been based on specimens

of mundus.

This Pacific species ranges from the Gulf of

California to Callao, Peru.

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condolence council. J. N. B. Hewirr and Wii N. FEntT

PALEONTOLOGY. —Four new species of Fak eyprinodont, fishes fro

eastern California. se pishaioly R. Minter. SS OR se i ? en Chg 7

Botany.—Two new species of Scleria from the er Amazon V Valle

Fany'L. Compe 2, ig i0 0. at art ak tema vile ae ea tet

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EnTomMoLogy.—Six new species : beetles of a eumolpid gen | ae

the West Indies. Doris H.Buake...:2.............5: ie 3

IcHTHYOLOGY. —The leatherj OE hia fahed er he ne

plates Gill, inhabiting 4 American ity / Lonarp ae Sou

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NovEeMBrr 15, 1945 No. 11 “a

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JOURNAL

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- WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

NovEMBER 15, 1945

VoLuME 35

No. 11

BIOLOGY .—Suggested terms for the interpretation of speciation phenomena.

S. Ditton Riprtey, U. 8. National Museum.

FRIEDMANN.)

In the present state of systematic usage,

there is a well-established tendency to re-

vise nomenclature in order to fit in with the

new concepts emanating from the labora-

tory and the field. However, the multitude

of speciation phenomena emerging from

these studies makes a simple trinomial sys-

tem seem totally inadequate. Huxley’s sug-

gestion (1942, p. 410) about subsidiary

terminologies which can be introduced to

define “‘the cytogenetic and ecological data

of systematics, and the facts concerning ac-

tual or potential interfertility,’’ while still

not interfering with the taxonomic con-

venience of the main terminology, seems a

very wise one. A brief discussion of some of

these terms follows here, with particular

reference to current usage in ornithology. I

am grateful to Dr. Herbert Friedmann for

several valuable suggestions.

GENUS

The genus as a taxonomic term still lacks

reality in genetic expression. We accept it

as a valid category, however, realizing that

it has reality in nature. The genus is being

affected at the present time by speciation

work on species problems. Wherever possi-

ble species are being combined and reduced

in number. As a reflection of this, genera

tend to follow suit. Generic names are being

used nowadays to express degrees of rela-

tionship, a reversion to the Linnaean con-

cept, rather than to express degrees of dif-

_ ference. The introduction of subspecies en-

ables the species category to absorb part of

the function previously held by the genus.

As wellas this the better understanding of the

1 Received June 5, 1945.

(Communicated by HERBERT

genetic basis for morphological differences

tends to reduce the degree of importance

formerly attached to obvious structural

characters. As species become polytypic, so

genera become increasingly polytypic in

taxonomic usage, in order to maintain

proportion. In ornithology the process

of “tidying up” the arrangement of the

genera of birds is now proceeding apace.

A definition of the genus as presently un-

derstood by speciation-minded ornitholo-

gists might read somewhat as follows: a

‘natural catch basket which can be deter-

mined on morphological criteria but which

so far eludes precise genetic analysis. This

catch basket includes a group of species oc-

cupying different stages of relationship each

to the other, but still apparently akin.

SUBGENUS

In the increasing cases where genera con-

tain a large number of species some effort is

usually made, by systematists of every hue,

to provide subdivisions, higher than the spe-

cies level, to define groups of species. Many

systematists favor the use of a subgenus

category. This is an orthodox category and

should be adhered to if possible for conven-

ience’s sake. But what does it mean? Ridg-

way (1886) defines a subgenus as ‘‘a sub-

division of a genus, of indefinite value, and

frequently not recognized by name except

in the grouping of species.”’ In other words a

subgenus can mean pretty much anything

at all. If an author then is to use the term he

should specifically define his use of it.

Mayr (1942, p. 290) suggests that sub-

genus if used in combination with genus, spe-

cies, and subspecies amounts practically to

337

WOV:30 %.

308

a quadrinomial system as well as burdening

the memory with an extra name to be re-

membered. He adds that the subgenus is

used in ornithology either when an author

does not quite dare to create a new genus in

the face of growing opposition to such a pro-

cedure, or when he does not quite dare to

sink an old well-established and well-known

generic name. Another comment by Dunn

(1943) is that since subgeneric names are in-

distinguishable from generic ones, there is a

tendency for later authors to elevate them

to generic rank. These remarks are possi-

bly somewhat facetious, but they emphasize

one aspect of the problem, that of the dif-

ficulty of the personal equation in authors.

It is certainly true that the grouping of

species into subgenera with their attendant

lists of morphologic criteria, often irrelevant

in plastic groups, seems a somewhat static

way to list cognate species which are under-

going a dynamic process. I would urge then

that plain subgenera not be used unless

the particular category to which they be-

long is strictly defined.

OTHER TERMS

Several terms have arisen recently, some

as a result of earlier theoretical work, for

example, Kleinschmidt’s ‘‘Formenkreis”

carried further by Rensch, others in re-

sponse to experimental evidence. Most of

these terms are concerned with defining a

natural monophyletic group lying some-

where between a species and a genus. Start-

ing with that category most closely ap-

proaching the genus and listing them in de-

scending order toward a straight species, we

have the following:

(1) Cenospecies. Clausen, Keck, and Hie-

sey (1939) have tried hybridizing many

plants belonging to the Compositae. They

define cenospecies as those groups of species

in which there is an absolute genetic barrier,

although the ranges are similar or overlap-

ping. This condition has not been well ex-

amined in animals except in Drosophila and

may not be particularly common. Most

closely related animal species seem to be

able to produce viable and presumably re-

producing hybrids, at least under artificial

conditions.

(2) Interspecies.2 I propose the use of the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. ll

term interspecies to define a species group or

sympatric subgenus, containing a closely

related group of geographically overlapping

species which have attained physiological iso-

lation in nature. Such species may be mono-

typic or not. It does not affect the definition

whether the species overlap only on the

margins. of their respective ranges, or

whether one species is contained wholly

within the range of another, i.e., double

invasions of islands. This condition has pre-

viously been designated informally as a

species group (Dice, 1940) for the deer

mice, Peromyscus, where two species leu-

copus and gossypinus live side by side in

part of their range without interbreeding

although interfertile in the laboratory.

Birckhead and myself (1942) used the term

to describe the fruit pigeons of the Ptzlino-

pus purpuratus assemblage on the Pacific

islands. Similarly Mayr and myself (1941)

used species group in discussing the Poly-

nesian triller, Lalage, wherein two cases oc-

curred of sympatric species obviously most

closely related to each other. Diver (1940)

discusses several such cases among plants,

invertebrates, and insects. In the great ma-

jority of cases, it is at present impossible

to prove whether two closely related animal

species may be cenospecies or interspecies

but this in no way invalidates the theory

behind the terms. I can not think of two

closely related bird species ever having

been proved intersterile.

(3) Superspecies. Mayr (1931, p. 2) has

proposed the term superspecies (instead of

Rensch’s ‘‘Artenkreis’) for a systematic

unit containing geographically representa-

tive species that have developed characters

too distinct to permit the birds to be re-

garded as subspecies. This term symbolizes

the next step but one above a simple poly-

typic species, containing units which have

attained a degree of morphological differ-

ence implying reproductive isolation. I feel

that Huxley (1942, pp. 179, 407) has con-

fused the terminology somewhat by defin-

ing ‘‘Artenkreis” as equal to a geographical

subgenus and restricting the use of super-

species (or supraspecies as it is sometimes

mistakenly called) to intermediate situa-

tions in which the majority of forms of a

2 Inter-species, species living among each other.

4 Nov. 15, 1945 RIPLEY: SUGGESTED TERMS FOR SPECIATION PHENOMENA

wT oA wee ee

a ee ee Se ee ee ee eS! LL LULU

a” Pe eee Oe ae ee ee ee pe eee

;

“Kreis” of allopatric groups are clearly

subspecies of a polytypic species; “‘but a

few have diverged further until they are

probably or certainly regarded as separate

monotypic species.’’ This all seems to be an

unnecessary complication, the necessity

for which is eliminated by Mayr’s amplifi-

eation of his superspecies definition (1942,

p. 169), to include both monotypic and

polytypic members which are allopatric and

are members of a monophyletic group. Thus

- geographical subgenus, allopatric subgenus,

supraspecies, and the two terms of Clausen,

Keck, and Hiesey (l.c.) for examples in

plants, namely ecospecies and_ species

complex, may be considered as names for

a similar phenomenon as that expressed by

superspecies. In the case of the last two

terms, the difference between them is

whether the species concerned show rela-

tive or absolute intersterility. As in the case

of cenospecies this is a criterion which has

not been proved to apply in the majority

of closely related animal species.

Possible mechanisms for the successful

maintenance of interspecies in contrast to

simple geographical isolation in the case of

superspecies have been suggested by several

authors. Lack (1941) points out that habi-

tat preferences may serve as a barrier once

forms have remet after speciation has oc-

curred. Diver (l.c.) concludes that as

complete overlap in an ecological sense

is presumably hardly ever present, ‘‘drift”’

or random differentiation in small par-

tially isolated populations may be respon-

sible. Actual psychological or physiological

mating barriers are discussed by Dice

(l.c.) and Diver (l.c., p. 326). Their rela-

tive importance in order to produce drift

phenomena is probably great. Muller

(1940) indicates the importance of isola-

tion, even in partial degree, in producing

effects of reduced fertility and viability

after crossing.

The development of such a process is sug-

gested by Huxley (l.c., p. 251) to be oc-

curring among the grackles (Quiscalus)

where a zone of hybridization between

two subspecies increases steadily in area

from southwest to northeast. This has

a parallel in time, for the original hybridi-

zation must have occurred in the southwest

339

and has spread to the northeast. Huxley

suggests that the restriction of the hybrid

zone at the original point of contact indi-

cates a developing stabilization of the con-

dition of selective disadvantage of the hy-

brid form. This may eventually be carried

to the final stage of elimination of inter-

breeding, leading to the formation of an in-

terspecies.

With the greater degree of speciation

study now being applied in systematic

groups, it seems likely that there will be an

increasing discovery of cases of partially

sympatric or even totally sympatric forms

which for one reason or another have suc-

ceeded in evolving in spite of being most

closely related to each other. It is likely also

that in the world of the future with the

breaking down, principally by the agency

of man, of ecological barriers, more and

more species will be thrown in direct con-

tact with each other which previously were

spatially isolated. An example of this occurs

today -on the island of Ceylon, where the

extensive foresting and the wide spread of

tea plantations with the development of

new biotic conditions have disrupted the

ranges of many species. Two closely related

forms of the genera Dicrurus and Gracula,

which Whistler (1944) calls in each case

subspecies believing that they occur in

separate ecological zones, have been found

by me to occur in the same area without

evidence of interbreeding. This is appar-

ently a recent development as Whistler was

depending on the early literature for his

evidence rather than on newly collected

material.

As classification and arrangement of

forms in check lists, generic revisions, etc.,

proceed, it seems important to attain some

method of indicating relationships. Some

recent authors in ornithology (e.g., Mayr,

1941, and Delacour and Mayr, 1945) have

introduced the superspecies concept into

formal taxonomic lists. I feel that this pro-

cedure is welcome, but that in view of the

present state of our knowledge it does not

go far enough. It is obvious that geo-

graphical isolation is the cornerstone of

much of the speciation process, but it is

also obvious that physiological isolation as

postulated by Dobzhansky (1940) is in

340

many cases a subsequent development

which can result in allowing closely related

species to live side by side. Thus to list

only superspecies is to fail to give the com-

plete picture of relationship. As an example,

Mayr (1941, pp. 91-92) lists several species

of kingfisher, including Tanysiptera hy-

drocharis and T. galatea. T. galatea is com-

bined with several other species into a su-

perspecies, but 7. hydrocharis is left out

because its range overlaps with T. galatea

in southern New Guinea. Actually T. hy-

drocharis is most closely related to the lat-

ter species but has succeeded in attaining

physiological isolation allowing it to live in

the same area without hybridizing. Another

example is the group of kingfisher species,

Halcyon chloris, sancta, cinnamomina, sau-

rophaga, veneratus, etc., figured by Mayr

(1942, p. 181). Several examples in Delacour

and Mayyr’s revision of the duck family

(l.c., pp. 37-42) are also pertinent. Thus in

the large genus Dendrocygna, javanica, bi-

color, and arcuata are all intimately related,

but bicolor and arcuata alone are bracketed

as a superspecies. In the genus Anas,

berniert and gibberifrons are listed as one

superspecies, castanea and aucklandica as

another. And yet castanea and gibberifrons

are so closely related from the morphologi-

cal and distributional evidence available

that were it not for an apparent overlap in

their ranges they would be included as

races of the same species. These two forms

hybridize easily in captivity but apparently

not in nature. Finally, in the genus Aythya

the three species valisneria, ferina, and

americana are all obviously of close relation-

ship. However, geographical overlap pre-

vents their being bracketed as a superspe-

cies. In these cases I would include all the

species in one interpsecies.

(4) Emergent interspecies. By this term I

would define a species group containing a

closely related group of geographically

overlapping species with a marginal fringe

of hybridization. Such a species group

would normally include forms, one member

of which at least tends to break up into

geographical subspecies. Examples of this

condition in birds are the woodpeckers

Colaptes auratus and cafer (Huxley, l.c., p.

250), the crows Corvus corone and cornix

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 11

(Meise, 1928), and the kingfishers Ceyzx

erithacus and rufidorsus (Ripley, 1942). Sim-

ilar phenomena have been indicated among

mammals (Banks, 1929, and Dice, l.c.), rep-

tiles (Stull, 1940), fishes (Hubbs e¢ al.,

1943), and insects (Carothers, 1941; Swead-

ner, 1937).

A special group of emergent interspecies

are the cases where the terminal links in a

chain of species or subspecies meet. A classic

case is that of the gulls, Larus argentatus

and ‘‘fuscus’ figured by Mayr (1942, p.

180). Apparently there is a certain amount

of interbreeding between the terminal links

(vide Huxley l.c., p. 244). Another variation

occurs in the creepers Certhia familiaris and

brachydactyla, which behave like an inter-

species except in the Caucasus where hy-

bridization occurs. A further case of this

sort occurs in the tits Parus major and

minor as described by Rensch (1933),

where hybridization occurs at certain zones

of overlap, not at others.

Possibly the term semispecies of Mayr

(1940) could be used to characterize cases

such as those listed above. However, as de-

fined by Mayr hybridization was not a cri-

terion. Rather he used it to denote forms

which ‘‘can be deduced to be geographical

representatives of some other species, but

have during isolation developed morpho-

logical differences of the order of magnitude

to be seen between undoubted species.” I

believe that it would have been far more

satisfactory to have defined semispecies

with regard to the degree of interfertility

rather than with regard to morphological

difference by degree. Every taxonomist will

have his own standard of degrees of mor-

phological difference as between the cate-

gory species or subspecies. Semispecies has

thus been defined on the basis of a sliding

scale.

SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES

Below these categories are species and

subspecies which have been frequently and

well defined in recent times. However,

round the margins of species and subspecies

hover cases which seem to be in statu nas- -

cend:. An example of a species in which two

waves have met and hybridized so com-

pletely in nature that only one species can

Nov. 15, 1945 RIPLEY: SUGGESTED TERMS FOR SPECIATION PHENOMENA

be considered is Pachycephala pectoralis in

the Solomon and Fiji Islands (Mayr, Amer.

Mus. Novit. nos. 522, 531. 1932). This spe-

cies contains two color forms: (a) with yel-

low underparts and (b) with white throat,

which apparently represent two closely re-

lated waves of immigrants. If these waves

had not been coextensive, but had remained

representative, they would have been con-

sidered two well-marked species forming a

superspecies. If, on the other hand, some of

these forms had been discovered on the

same islands without (due to the vagaries of

field collecting) any evidence of hybridiza-

tion, then there would have been no re-

course but to consider them an interspecies.

A small degree of interbreeding on the fringe

of their ranges would have indicated a ter-

minal condition serving to define the forms

as an emergent interspecies. In this case,

however, hybrizidation is too complete.

Hybrid populations have been named and

the apparent phenotypic differences have

been proved to have little if any genotypic

parallel. A somewhat similar example is

found in the juncos (Miller, 1941).

It is to be hoped that all cases of this sort

will in the future be fully discussed by biolo-

gists in order to emphasize the importance

of studying these phenomena, both by

laboratory and field workers. Only in this

way will it be possible to define the specia-

tion process.

SUMMARY

A number of terms are discussed by

which various types of speciation may be

described. It is suggested that these terms

-be used as an auxiliary to the main nomen-

clature of genus, species, and subspecies. It

is further suggested that all evidence of un-

usual cases of speciation phenomena be

pointed out and described by scientific writ-

ers in order to widen and extend the litera-

ture, and thus promote further study.

LITERATURE CITED

Banks, E. Interbreeding among some Bornean

leaf-monkeys of the genus Pithecus. Proc.

Zool. Soc. Loncon 1929: 693.

CaroTHers, E. E. Interspecific grasshopper

hybrids. Proc. VII Int. Genet. Congr.

(Edinburgh, 1939): 84. 1941.

CiausEen, Jens, Kecx, D. D., and Hissry,

W.-M. The concept of species based on ex-

341

periment. Amer. Journ. Bot. 26: 103. 1939.

Dextacour, J., and Mayr, E. The family

Anatidae. Wilson Bull. 57 (1):3. March

1945.

Dict, Lee R. Speciation in Peromyscus.

Amer. Nat. 74: 289. 1940.

Diver, C. The problem of closely related spe-

cies living in the same area. ‘“‘The New

Systematics’: 303. Oxford, 1940.

DoszHANSKY, T. Speciation as a stage in

evolutionary divergence. Amer. Nat. 74:

312. 1940.

Dunn, E. R. Lower categories in herpetology.

Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 44:131. 1943.

Husss, C. L., Huspss, L. C., and JoHNnson,

R. E. Hybridization in nature between

species of catostomid fishes. Contr. Lab.

Vert. Biol. Univ. Michigan no. 22. July,

1943.

Huxuey, J. Evolution, the modern synthesis.

New York, 1942.

Lack, D. Some aspects of instinctive behavior

and display in birds. Ibis 1941: 407.

Mayr, EK. Notes on Halcyon chloris and some

of its subspecies. Amer. Mus. Novit. no.

469. 1931.

. Speciation phenomena in birds. Amer.

Nat. 74: 249. 1940.

. List of New Guinea birds. American

Museum of Natural History, New York.

1941.

. Systematics and the origin of species.

Columbia Univ. Press. 1942.

Mayr, EK., and Riptrey, 8. D. Notes on the

genus Lalage Bote. Amer. Mus. Novit.

no. 1116. 1941.

Meise, W. Die Verbreitung der Aaskrahe

(Formenkreis Corvus corone L.). Journ.

fir Orn. 76. 1928.

Miuuer, A. H. Speciation in the genus Junco.

Univ. California Publ. Zool. 44, no. 3, 1941.

Mutuer, H. J. Bearings of the Drosophila

work on systematics. ‘The New System-

atics’”: 185. Oxford, 1940.

Renscu, B. . Zoologische Systematik und Art-

bildungsproblem. Verh. Deutsch. Zool.

Ges. 1933: 19.

Ripeway, R. A nomenclature of colors for

naturalists, and compendium of useful

knowledge for ornithologists. Boston, 1886.

Riptey, 8. D. A revision of the kingfishers,

Ceyx erithacus and rufidorsus. Zoologica

27 (2): 55. 1942.

Riptey, 8. D., and BirckHEeap, H. On the

fruit pigeons of the Ptilinopus purpuratus

group. Amer. Mus. Novit. no. 1192. 1942.

Stutut, O. G. Variations and relationships in

the snakes of the genus Pituophis. U.S

Nat. Mus. Bull. 175. 1940.

SWEADNER, W. R. AHybridization and the

phylogeny of the genus Platysamia. Ann.

Carnegie Mus. 25: 163. 1937.

Wuistuier, H. The avifaunal survey of Ceylon.

Spolia Zeylanica 23 (pts. 3 and 4): 119.

1944.

342

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 11

ETHNOLOGY .—Notes from Six Nations on the hunting and trapping of wild turkeys

and passenger pigeons.}

ErRNEst S. Dopar, Peabody Museum of Salem.

(Communicated by WitL1AM N. FENTON.)

During the course of a field trip to Six

Nations Reserve on Grand River, Ontario,

in October 1944, most of the time was de-

voted to ethnozoological inquiries.2 The

following notes collected on the taking of

wild turkeys [Meleagris gallopavo silvestris

Vieillot] and passenger pigeons [Ectopistes

migratoritus (Linnaeus)] may be of some

value, as the turkeys have been extirpated

from the area for many years, and the

pigeons, of course, are extinct. The data on

- the pigeons also supplement in a small way

the recent study by Fenton and Deardorff.

There are few persons living on the reserve

old enough to remember the turkeys and

pigeons. Because of lack of time and op-

portunity, inquiry could be made only

among the Cayuga and the Munsee-Dela-

ware, also residing on the reserve. This,

however, resulted in some interesting con-

trasts between Iroquois and Algonkian

hunting and trapping techniques.

Jerry Aaron, whose Cayuga name is

Sadego’hes, ‘Tall like the Trees,” 78 years

old, remembered that wild turkeys were

hunted with the bow and arrow. Another

Cayuga, Chief Alexander General or

Desga’‘heh, ‘‘More than Eleven,”’ corrobo-

rated this statement and said also that the

Cayuga hunted them to the westward of the

reserve before his parents’ time.

Sadegg’hes told us of a hunting medicine

used for approaching turkeys and other

game. This medicine was made from a root

of a plant, about as long as a man’s finger,

which the Cayuga call wutunda’st, but he

could not remember the English name. The

end of the root was burned and the resulting

smut rubbed on the eyebrows, upper: lip,

inside of mouth, and on the palms of the

hands of the hunter. The huntsman, thus

equipped, could approach the turkeys close-

ly as the powerful medicine caused them to

stand still.

1 Received May 28, 1945.

2>T am indebted to the Peabody Museum of

Salem for supporting me on this field trip and to

Dr. Frank G. Speck, whom I accompanied, and

who has aided me in many ways.

It is significant that neither of the Cayuga

informants had ever heard of using any

kind of a trap for catching turkeys.

Quite different from the Cayuga hunting

was the Delaware trapping method recalled

by Old Jessie Moses, about 80 years of age.

He related that in the old days turkeys,

called pele’u in Munsee, were caught in a

trap made of poles driven into the ground

with other poles fastened across the top and

sides. It formed an enclosure or pen about

3 feet high and 6 or more feet square. The

top was disguised with a sprinkling of dry

leaves. One end had a low opening beneath

the poles into which a trench led, excavated

for a distance of about a rod, and sloping

sufficiently to allow the birds to enter the

pen beneath the lowest pole above the

opening. The trench was made like a ramp.

Leaves were spread bountifully in the run-

way and inside the pen. A small sprinkling

of corn was put out leading from the woods

to the ramp into the trap, and plenty of

corn was put among the leaves inside the

trap. The turkeys would come along feeding

with their heads down and feed right into

the trap. When they were through eating

they would put their heads up and were

imprisoned because they did not know

enough to put them down again and find

their way out at the place where they

entered. Inevitably, in scratching for the

corn among the leaves inside the pen, a deep

litter of leaves would be backed around the

palings and walls and cover the entrance.®

Young Jessie Moses, nephew of Old

Jessie, said they also caught them with a

pole at night when they were roosting. As

the birds slept on the limb of a tree, the

hunter with the end of a pole kept poking

their feet. The disturbed birds would even-

tually step onto the pole and they could

then be lowered to the ground and caught.

The spurs of the old gobblers, he had heard,

3 Dr. Speck found the knowledge of a similar

pen type of trap surviving among the Delawares

of Oklahoma, among the Cherokee of North Caro-

lina, and the Powhatan (Rappahannock) bands

of Tidewater Virginia.

eT Te -

Nov. 15, 1945

were used for arrow points by the Dela-

wares.

Additional Algonkian data from a dif-

ferent area were furnished by Chief Abe

Spencer, age 81, a Chippewa, residing at

the adjacent Missisauga Reserve. Like the

Cayuga, he said that turkeys were shot

with bows and arrows and later with guns,

but he did not remember hearing of pen

traps being used.

Few memories of pigeon hunting exist at

Six Nations. The name for the bird, how-

ever, was readily recalled by the Cayuga as

tcahko'wa, and by the Mohawk as orz’’te.

Desga’heh* had vivid memories of stories

heard from his grandmother about Cayuga

passenger pigeon hunts. In his grand-

mother’s time there was a district, about 10

miles west of the Reserve in the vicinity of

the present Newtown (Kana’tase) (Ca.),

where the pigeons nested in great numbers.

At that time the district was covered with

pines and white cedars, but it has long since

been converted to farmland.

According to Desga’heh the Cayuga took

the pigeons at night by climbing the trees

and removing the young from the nests.

Adults were never taken and the white

man’s method of netting was never used.®

After each night of hunting the squabs

collected were split and hung in the sun to

dry. Thus cured, they were taken back to

the reserve where they made superior eat-

ing, sometimes well into the winter months.

These dried birds were always cooked, be-

fore being eaten, in one of several different

4 Mitchell (1935, p. 62) writing on the pigeon

in Ontario, gives the Potawatomi, Chippewa, and

Cree names for the pigeon but does not refer to

the Iroquois names in the Province.

5 Fenton and Deardorff (19438, p. 290) cite a

Cayuga netting device from Grand River re-

corded by Waugh in 1918, but it was unknown to

the informants we questioned.

DODGE: NOTES FROM SIX NATIONS

343

ways—fried, roasted, or made into soup—

and were considered excellent.

The Cayuga did not salt birds and pack

them in barrels until shown how by the

whites, after which time they began to take

the adult birds as well as the nestlings, and

market them in barrels, but despite these

changes the white man’s custom of netting

was never adopted. It was thought that

they were sometimes salted down in elm

bark containers for the Indians own use.

The hunts were conducted by large

parties and during the evenings there were

social times and dances, but Desga’'heh

could not remember any of the details

about these; nor gould he recall hearing

that Pigeon Dance was performed.

Among the Munsee-Delaware there was

but little remembrance of the wild pigeon.

Old Jessie Moses could give no details of

hunting methods but recalled that only the

young were taken and remembered catching

a wild pigeon once himself at the age of

eight.

Chief Abe Spencer, of the Missisauga

Reserve, remembered that the Chippewa

shot adult wild pigeons with bows and

arrows, and also took the young from the

nests. He also remembered seeing and hunt-

ing pigeons as a boy but could not recall the

details. °®

LITERATURE CITED

FrentTon, WILiIAM N., and DrEarporrr, MERLE

H. The last passenger pigeon hunts of

the Cornplanter Senecas. Journ. Washing-

ton Acad. Sei. 33 (10): 289-315. 1943.

MitcHEett, Marcaret H. The _ passenger

pigeon in Ontario. Contr. Royal Ontario

Mus. Zool. No. 7. Toronto, 1945.

§ Mitchell (1935, p. 113) cites a correspondent

to Forest and Stream who described New York

State Indians shooting pigeons with bows and

arrows rather than guns in 1823. (This reference

reprinted from the original by Fenton and Dear-

dorff. 1943, pp. 293-294. )

344

BOTANY.—Scab of Cinchona in South America caused 'by Elsinoé.!

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 11

ANNA E.

JENKINS, U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering.

The U. 8S. Board of Economic Warfare,

later the Foreign Economic Administra-

tion, in charge of collecting strategic mate-

rials for the war effort, sent a group of

botanists to Central and South America to

examine existent stands of Cinchona and to

determine which species would be suitable

for harvest. Herbarium specimens were

preserved as vouchers for bark samples

analyzed and for future botanical work. On

a survey in Colombia, obviously diseased

fruits of C. pubescens Vahl were found on

February 11, 19438, at Lavaderos, near San

Agustin, Dept. de Huila, by Dr. F. R.

Fosberg. The same capsule deformation

was again observed in the Department of

Narifo in October 1943. On this occasion

Fosberg was accompanied by W. C. Davis,

plant pathologist, then on an official mission

of the Office of Foreign Agricultural Rela-

tions to Colombia. Representative speci-

mens from three different trees (Davis 28,

29, and 30, corresponding to Fosberg 21255,

21283, and 21281), were referred to the

writer for examination upon Davis’s return

to the United States late in 1948. Labora-

tory study revealed that capsules, leaves,

and young stems were abundantly infected

by a fungus of the genus Elsinoé. Following

Fosberg’s recent return to the United States

and the receipt of his specimens here, he

placed his ample gathering from the tree at

Lavaderos (Fosberg 20065) at the writer’s

disposal for study and also permitted her to

select part of it for mycological herbarium

record (Fosberg 20065a).

The symptoms of the disease herein de-

scribed.and the diagnosis of the pathogen

as a new species of Elsinoé are based par-

ticularly on the Davis and Fosberg dry

herbarium specimens just mentioned.

Based on his observations during botani-

cal surveys for Cinchona in Colombia,

Ecuador, and Peru, Fosberg has furnished

a general statement relative to the range

of the scab in this part of South America, as

follows:

“The disease is distributed practically

throughout the range of C. pubescens in

1 Received August 29, 1945.

Colombia, i.e., throughout the three Cor-

dilleras of the western half of the country;

moreover, a collection of C. pubescens and

one of C. delessertiana Standley from Peru

show the same symptoms. Although symp-

toms of the scab have been looked for on

C. officinalis L., they have been noticed

only on trees of this species in the Coro-

moro area, east of Charal& and near

Florian, both in the Department of San-

tander, Colombia. In the nursery at Po-

payan, Cauca, situated among trees af-

fected with the disease, seedlings of the

succirubra form of C. pubescens were un-

affected. In Ecuador the disease was not

noted on wild plants of this variety, nor on

half a million seedlings growing under

nursery conditions.”

Typical lesions of the disease are present

on botanial specimens collected by Pennell

and Killip in the Department of Cauca,

Colombia, in 1922 (cf. ‘‘Specimens exam-

ined,” p. 350).

The disease under discussion, being hy-

perplastic in nature, is here termed ‘“‘scab

of Cinchona.” This is in accordance with

the nomenclature suggested elsewhere (12)

for diseases of this type caused by Elsznoé,

or by Sphaceloma De Bary (1, 17) in which

form genus they are classified when only

the conidial stage is known (ef. 16, p. 307,

and 17). :

It is impossible at this time to make a

statement relative to the actual or potential

economic importance of scab of Cinchona.

Since leaves and young stems are affected

(Fig. 2), it is possible that the disease might

prove destructive if it were present in the

nursery under conditions favorable for its

development.

Leaf spot.—On leaves the spots are com-

paratively few to extremely numerous and

may be scattered over a greater or less area

of the blade or concentrated on or near the

veins; occasionally they are aggregated

near the leaf margin (Fig. 1, A; Fig. 2,

A, HE, and F). They are often circular to

subcircular but may be elliptical to oblong

or irregular, particularly when involving

the veins (Fig. 2, B and G; Fig. 3, D).

= Soe ae

Nov. 15, 1945

Lesions are raised, dome-shaped, or flat-

tened (Fig. 2, A and B); in some cases the

central part of the spot is marked by an

apiculus (Fig. 2, B, b, and C). Where spots

are closely grouped, a few may coalesce

(Fig. 3, D). Abundant infection on veins

and midrib results in crowded or extensive

coalesced lesions along these structures (Fig.

2, HE, F, and G). In general the spots are

0.5 to 1.5 mm, rarely 2 mm, in diameter.

Lesions prominent on the upper leaf sur-

face are often ‘‘cinnamon-drab.’? Where

mostly covered by fructifications of the

fungus as in Fig. 2, A, a, they are ‘dark

vinaceous-brown.” The coloration of the

particular lesion shown in Fig. 2, A, b, en-

larged in B, b, and C, is as follows: Light

area around the central apiculus “ecru

drab,” this surrounded by a “blackish

brown” zone constituting a palisade of

conidiophores of the pathogen (Elsinoé),

rim of the platformlike spot where not

fungus covered “light brownish drab’;

finally, narrow discolored zone surrounding

the elevation ‘dark vinaceous-brown.”’

Where lesions are almost too small to be

detected without magnification, the dark

surrounding zone assists in marking their

position (Fig. 1, A). Spots originating on

the upper leaf surface are apparent on the

pubescent lower side of the blade chiefly as

faint vinaceous discolorations. Lesions orig-

inating below often are ‘‘vinaceous to

brown.” In this case the lesions form short

conical to flattened elevations not uncom-

monly apiculate; on the upper side of the

blade they appear merely as pocklike de-

pressions. Occasionally spots fall away leav-

ing the leaf perforated or with only a trans-

parent network of tissue. The pathological

histology of the lesion, which is hyper-

plastic in nature (see Fig. 3, E), corre-

sponds closely to that of sour orange scab,

caused by Elsinoé fawcetts Bitancourt and

Jenkins (4) as carefully depicted by Cun-

ningham (9).

Stem cankers.—Cankers on young stems,

- as well as on rachis and branches of the in-

florescence, may be present in greater or

less numbers over a given area, being dis-

2 Names of colors in quotation marks are

from ‘Color Standards and Color Nomenclature,”

by Robert Ridgway (1912).

JENKINS: SCAB OF CINCHONA IN SOUTH AMERICA

345

tributed over all or only part of the circum-

ference. On Davis 28 stem cankers are

mostly elliptical, or irregularly so, reaching

4 by 5 mm in diameter. Those in close

proximity may coalesce, although ordinar-

ily the outline of the original lesion may be

followed. Cankers are raised, with rounded

to flattened surfaces usually accented by a

small central apiculus, smooth as though

polished. The main surface of the canker

may be longitudinally or concentrically

roughened; also, there may be fissures, par-

ticularly at the upper and lower margins.

The cankers just described (Fig. 2, D) are

“cinnamon-drab”’ as compared with the

“dark vinaceous-brown”’ of the stem. Scale-

like cankers on a rachis of Fosberg 20065

(Fig. 3, A, a, and B) are concolorous with

the healthy stem.

Capsule lestons.—Practically all the many

fruits on a single inflorescence may be af-

fected by the scab as exemplified by the

several complete inflorescences of Fosberg

20065 (Fig. 1, A-C; Fig. 3, A) and by the

Pennell and Killip botanical specimens al-

ready mentioned. As alluded to previously,

it was during the gathering of his no. 20065

that Fosberg’s attention was attracted to

the diseased condition of the capsules. The

striking symptom noted in the field was

that, instead of being straight or nearly so,

capsules were abnormally curved, at times

forming a crescent or practically a circle

(Fig. 1, B, a, and C, a; Fig. 3, A,a and b) or

were otherwise bent and distorted. Such

severely affected fruit also may be dwarfed

as the specimens show. It is probable that

young capsules severely attacked fail to de-

velop or soon fall away.

On capsules, lesions are often particu-

larly numerous as well as generally more

conspicuous than on leaves and stems. They

are circular to elliptical, ranging from 1 mm

or less to 3 mm in diameter, or elongate.

Because of their large numbers or extensive

‘coalescence they may occupy much of the

capsule surface (Fig. 1, A-C; Fig. 3, A, a

and b). On this substrate the spots are, as

usual, raised, short conic or flattened; the

apiculation already described in the case of

leaf and stem lesions may be present. On the

dry capsules of Fosberg 20065, spots appear

as “‘wood brown” encrustations contrasting

Fie. 1.—Seab on Cinchona pubescens, Lavaderos, Colombia, February 11, 1943, F. R. Fosberg

20065a: A, Part of panicle with numerous cankers on capsules; also leaf with many spots, the greater

number clustered on or near midrib and veins and practically all too small to be viewed adequately

without magnification, 1; B, C, terminal parts of another inflorescence showing abundantly infected

fruits; a, capsules curved out of normal position; b, open capsules showing healthy endocarp; c, pericarp

of open capsule roughened by the numerous small, in part confluent, lesions covering most of the sur-

face; X1. Photograph by R. L. Taylor.

Fic. 2.—Leaf spots and stem cankers of the scab on Cinchona pubescens, A—E, vic. Chachagui, Co-

lombia, October 16, 1943, W. C. Davis 28; F and G, La Unién, Colombia, October 21, 1943, W. C. Davis

29; A, a, b, Spotting prominent on upper side of the leaf; c, on lower surface of another blade, <1; B,

several raised spots from A, a, mostly darkened by the palisade of conidiophores of the pathogen

(Elsinoé) over their surfaces (cf. Fig. 3, Z), only outer zone covered inaand b, X9; C, still greater detail

of A, b, X14; D, prominent cankers on young stem, X1; EZ, F, continual vein infection on (2) lower

surface of a comparatively young leaf, and (Ff) on upper surface of an older leaf, both X1; G, detail of

F, in the region of a; in the original specimen, dark, punctate masses, fructifications of the pathogen, scat-

tered over the surface of the lesion, are best seen in the region of G,a, X6. Photographs by M. L. F. Fou-

bert (A—E£) and by Taylor (F and G).

348

sharply with the “sorghum brown” of the

smooth unaffected surface. In some cases

capsule lesions are not distinguished by

their color and, where of small size, would

ordinarily be overlooked.

Prominent signs of the scab, visible as

seen through a hand lens, are the dark

more or less even covering over the entire

or outer zone (see Fig. 2, A and B) of leaf

spots, composed of a palisade layer of

conidiophores of the pathogen (Elsinoé)

(Fig. 2, B and C; Fig. 3, H and F) and dark

pulvinate masses often occupying the cen-

tral area of the leaf spot, these being as-

comata of the pathogen (Fig. 3, D, and in-

set). Less conspicuous signs are smaller

dark pulvinate masses, fructifications of the

pathogen, on midrib lesions (cf. Fig. 2, G,

legend for a), on stem cankers (Fig. 3, B,

a), and on capsule lesions (Fig. 3, C, a).

Etiology.—On the basis of its morphology

the pathogen of Cinchona scab belongs to the

genus LHlsinoé Raciborski (17, 20) of the my-

riangiaceous family Elsinoaceae. Historical

sketches of this genus and family are avail-

able elsewhere (for example, cf. 10, pp. 5-

8; 16, pp. 306-308). So far as can be deter-

mined at present the species on Cinchona

has not been described hitherto; a diagnosis

under a new name is therefore here pre-

sented as follows:

Elsinoé cinchonae, n. sp.

Producing few to numerous spots scattered

over leaves, stems, and fruit; leaf spots occur-

ring singly or in small groups, sometimes con-

fluent, particularly along veins circular to

subcircular, sometimes elliptical to oblong or

irregular, raised with rounded or flattened sur-

face, occasionally with a central apiculus, mi-

nute to 1.5 mm, rarely 2 mm, in diameter, those

originating on the upper leaf surface often ‘‘cin-

namon-drab”’ and not uncommonly surrounded

by a narrow or comparatively broad ‘‘dark

vinaceous-brown”’ zone, those originating on

the lower side of the leaf often ‘‘vinaceous-

brown’; stem cankers mostly elliptical or

nearly so, reaching 4 by 5 mm in diameter,

sometimes crowded or coalescent, raised with

rounded to flattened often roughened surfaces,

at times with a central smooth apiculus, occa-

sionally fissured, particularly at upper and

lower margins, ‘“‘cinnamon-drab,” or concolor-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 35, No. 11

ous with the stem; spots on capsules circular to

elliptical or elongate, up to 3 mm or so in di-

ameter, or elongate, sometimes confluent over

large areas, raised, short conical or flattened,

“wood brown” or sometimes concolorous with

the healthy capsule surface; entire fruit may be

variously deformed, often circular or crescent-

shaped; ascomata scattered over the lesions as

small raised dark to black punctate areas, most

conspicuous as grouped on central area or mar-

gin of the leaf spot, round to elliptical, pulvi-

nate, reaching as many as 300y in diameter by

754 in thickness, although usually much

smaller, erumpent superficial, stroma light

colored, dark epithecium, which may become

ruptured as the ascoma develops, up to 10 in

thickness, fructification crowded with asci; asci

spherical to ellipsoid, 18 to 28u, with character-

istically thickened wall, in upper part reaching

Su in thickness; ascospores hyaline, 1- to 3-sep-

tate, reaching 15 by 15u; conidial stage (Sphace-

loma) well developed on leaf spot, there con-

sisting of a more or less continuous layer of dark

conidiophores arising from a light-colored

stroma covering all or only the bordering zone

of the lesion, at the margin raised to form a

sporodochium, up to 50y thick, marginal

sporodochium sometimes tilted owing to the

development of an ascoma beneath; conidio-

phores dark, cyclindrical, apex pointed, often

l-septate, 3.5-5 by 8-15; the few conidia seen,

brown, elliptical or spiculate at one end, 4-5 by

8-10p.

Maculae plerumque numerosissimae, con-

spersae, circulares, subcirculares, usque ellip-

ticae, interdum elongatae, elevatae, centro

saepe plus minusve apiculiformi, interdum ag-

gregatae vel confluentes, in foliis amphigenae,

interdum nervisequentibus, usque 1.5 mm, rare

2 mm, superne conspicuores et saepe cinna-

monea-griseae, margine nigro-vinaceo-brunneo

circumdatae, inferne vinaceo-brunneae; cancri

in caulibus generaliter elliptici, usque 4X5

mm, avellanei, vel discolores, in capsulis usque

3 mm diameter, avellanei vel discolores; as-

comata plus minusve numerosa, in maculis

foliorum epigena conspicuoria, rotunda usque

elliptica, pulvinata, exposita, usque 300 di-

ameter, 75u crassa, superficialiter nigro-brun-

nea; epithecium fuscum, 10u crassum; asci

numerosi, sub-epithecio in regione stromatica

hyaline distributi, globosi usque ellipsoidei,

apice incrassati, 18—20u diameter; ascosporae

Fig. 3.—A-D, additional illustrations of the scab from Fosberg 20065 and 20065a: A, a, part of an

inflorescence, with scalelike cankers on rachis; b, capsule abnormally crescent-shape, surface mostly

covered with confluent lesions; c, leaf spots grouped near midrib, 1; B, rachis cankers from A, a,

fructifications of the EHlsinoé on them barely visible as minute dark punctate masses (a); C, a, dark

fructifications of the pathogen clearly distinguishable on lesions from capsule shown in A, b; D (ex-

clusive of inset), leaf spots from A, c, with dark ascomata prominent on their surfaces; individual as-

comata distinguishable on a. B—D, X1; D (inset), photomicrograph showing part of an ascoma pro-

duced on margin of a lesion from D; b, epithecium; c, two asci with clear, thickened walls, ascospores,

dark in photograph, stained red with erythrosin, d, epidermis of leaf. HZ, tangential section (unstained)

through a leaf spot from Fig. 2, A, a, showing disorganized hyperplastic tissue of lesion and (a to b)

conidiophore palisade over surface (cf. Fig. 2, B and C), K125; F, a, sporodochium from another sec-

tion,in comparable position to E, b, individual conidiophores distinguishable at right, X 225. Photographs

by Taylor (A—D), Lilian Guernsey (D, inset), and by Foubert (# and F).

300

immaturae, 1—3-septatae, hyalinae, 15—5y; sta-

tus conidiophorus (Sphaceloma) in maculis

foliorum epigenus prominens; condiophora in

palum compactum, expositum superficialiter

nigro-brunneum, plus minusve continuum, ex

stromate hyaline oriundum, fructificatione

tota 30u crassa, vel marginem maculae versus

usque 50u; conidiophora cylindrica apice acu-

minato, generaliter continua vel uniseptata,

3.5-5 by 5-15u; conidia rare visa, brunnea, el-

liptica, 4-5 by 8-10un.

Distribution.—Producing the disease ‘‘scab

of Cinchona’”’ on leaves, stems, and fruits of

Cinchona pubescens Vahl, rarely on C. officinalis

L., in Colombia, Peru, and possibly Ecuador

and on C. delessertiana in Peru. Cinchona is a

genus of the family Rubiaceae.

Specimens examined:'

ON CINCHONA PUBESCENS VAHL

Cuatro Esquinas to Rio Piendamo, Cauca

Valley, Dept. de Cauca, Colombia, from tree in

thicket growth (‘‘machimbi’’), alt. 1,700—1,900

meters, June 6, 1922, F. W. Pennell and E. P.

Killip 6380 (US). Infection on capsules.

“El Ramal” to Rfo Sucio, west of Popaydn,

Dept. de Cauca, Colombia, woodland, alt.

2,000—2,200 meters. July 3, 1922, F. W. Pennell

and £. P. Killip 8088 (US; also in NY).

Abundant infection on the many capsules.

Barbosa, 22 km south, on road to Chiquin-

quira, Dept. de Santander, Colombia, road-

side tree 6 meters high, January 4, 1943, W. C.

Steere 7066 (US). Typical spotting on leaves,

inflorescence branches, and on capsules.

Lavaderos, on ridge between Rio Naranjo

and Rio Granadilla, 15 km south of San Agus-

tin, Dept. de Huila, Colombia, in clearing be-

tween patches of moist woods, alt. 2,000 meters,

February 11, 1943, F. R. Fosberg 20065a. Type

(USM 90159, IB). This specimen is part of

Fosberg 20065 (USNA). It was through his

3 The herbaria in which are filed the specimens

examined during this study are indicated by sym-

bols as follows: IB, Secc4o de Fitopatologia, In-

stituto Biologico de Sao Paulo, Brazil; NY, New

York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, New York,

N. Y.; US, United States National Herbarium,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.;

USM, Mycological Collections of the Bureau of

Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineer-

ing, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.;

USNA, United States National Arboretum,

United States Department of Agriculture, Plant

Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. The US, NY,

and USNA specimens were collected as phanero-

gamic material and are so deposited.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

observation of the strikingly deformed fruits

on this specimen that Fosberg discovered the

disease ‘‘scab of Cinchona’’ in Colombia.

Vic. Chachagui, 18 km north of Pasto, Dept.

de Narifio, Colombia, steep slope, alt. 2,100

meters, October 16, 1943, W. C. Davis 28 (U

SM, IB). -

La Unién, about 6 km above, toward Pasto,

along road, Dept. de Narifio, Colombia, alt.

2,010 meters, October 21, 1943, W. C. Davis 29

(USM).

San Bernardo, on trail to La Cruz, alt. about

2,200 meters, Dept. de Narifio, Colombia, Oc-

tober 21, 19438, W. C. Davis 30 (USM).

(The Davis labels indicate that his nos. 28,

29, and 30 were collected in company with Fos-

berg whose corresponding botanical numbers

are 21255, 21283, and 21281 (USNA).

Urubamba River, near the beginning of trail,

up to Machu Picchu, Prov. de Quillabamha,

Augusto (Hodge 6201) (USNA).

ON CINCHONA DELESSERTIANA STANDLEY

Quebrada Pajonal, above Tabaconas, Prov.

de Jaen, Dept. de Cajamarca, Peru, November

14, 1943, Earl Rogers s.n. (USNA).

ON CINCHONA OFFICINALIS L.

La Belleza, 10 km north of Florian, Dept. de

Santander, Colombia, September 20, 1944,

N.C. Fassett 25773 (USM). Fassett’s regular

botanical specimen from the tree bears his num-

ber 25772 (USNA).

Discussion.—Elsinoé species character-

istically infect young growth of their

suscepts. From the four species originally

described (20), the group has grown, es-

pecially in recent years, until it is now

admittedly large (cf. 3, pp. 512-513; 8,

pp. 150-151; 16, table 1; 18, pp. 165-166),

with suscepts ranging from the ferns to the

composites. So far as has been determined

by inoculation tests, a particular species of

Elsinoé does not infect unrelated plants

(for example, cf. 14); instead, individual

species are limited in their pathogenicity

to closely related plants or even to a single

species in a genus (for example, cf. 13). The

example just cited describes inoculation

tests on species of different legume genera

with a culture of EH. phaseoli Jenkins (13)

from Phaseolus lunatus var. macrocarpus

Benth. Three of the legume genera of the

VOL. 35, No. 11 >

Ea ae ek Te a ee ieee a alltel Alaa -”

' ’ “

i a fi A = =

Nov. 15, 1945

experiment, other than Phaseolus, were

known suscepts of other species of Elsinoé.

In this series of inoculations, which in-

cluded several commercial varieties of

P. vulgaris L., only P. lunatus var. macro-

carpus became infected.

Parallel cultural comparisons may serve

to demonstrate a close genetic relationship

among species of Hlsznoé from suscept gen-

era within the same family. An example of

this is afforded by two species from rosa-

ceous suscepts, i.e., H. veneta (Burk.) Jenkins

on Rubus and Sphaceloma rosarum (Pass.).

Jenkins on Rosa. It is here inferred, of

course, that the perfect stage of S. rosarum,

when and if found, will be referable to El-

sinoé. As described and illustrated (11, p.

332, pl. 7, A and C), these two organisms

were strikingly similar when cultured under

like conditions, although they were also

separable. In inoculation experiments on

the same set of plants of Rosa, S. rosarum

gave positive results, E. veneta negative (11,

p. 334).

With such results as these as a back-

ground, it would seem that E. cinchonae

may be limited to genera within the tribe to

which Cinchona belongs, or even to the

genus alone.

Among the Rubiaceae we find Sphaceloma

gentpae Bitancourt (2) described on Genipa

americana L. and Elsinoé puertoricensis

Jenkins and Bitancourt (19) on Randia spp.

including R. mitis L. Both Genipa and

Randia belong to another tribe of this fam-

ily than does Cinchona. E. cinchonae in its

conidial stage is probably to be distin-

guished morphologically from S. genipae.

To compare the two critically, however,

would require strictly comparable growth of

each. For example, small hyaline conidia,

such as are described for S. genipae, should

be compared with similar hyaline conidia of

E. cinchonae; these latter doubtless exist,

although they were not seen during the

present study. Conidia from cultures may

be required for such a comparison, and after

cultures are available still further special

culturing (ef. 15, pp. 25-28, figs. 1-9) may

be necessary to obtain conidia. It must be

borne in mind also that conidia of Elsinoé

may begin to swell as soon as formed and

that this feature presents a real hazard in

JENKINS: SCAB OF CINCHONA IN SOUTH AMERICA

351

making species comparisons on the basis of

conidial measurements. The diversity of

characters in species referable to the form

genus Sphaceloma has led to difficulties in

their taxonomy, as has already been dis-

cussed (16, p. 307; 17). The general similar-

ity of growth of these fungi in culture, to-

gether with the possibility of separating

them by this means, has proved a valuable

asset. Colored plates illustrating parallel

cultural comparisons of this group are avail-

able elsewhere (6, pl. 22; 7, pl. 15; 15, pl. 3);

a method of making original isolations by

means of microtechnique also has been de-

lineated in another connection (5, p. 134, pl.

18, H-M),.

Fructifications of the perfect stage of spe-

cies of Elstnoé may be sufficiently distinc-

tive to differentiate them, although care

must be exercised in making comparisons. It

is not rare, for example, to find only imma-

ture ascospores, as in the case of the speci-

mens of H. conchonae examined. Naturally,

under all the circumstances, the descrip-

tion of a newly discovered fungus of the

genus Hlsinoé as new, or its identification as

a Species previously described, may be more

or less provisional. In this way it is possible

to record taxonomically more of the new

suscepts of Elsinoé and Sphaceloma that are

constantly being discovered in various parts

of the world than would otherwise be the

case. As additional pertinent data are ob-

tained appropriate revisions may be made.

As at present described, EL. cinchonae and

E. puertoricensis appear to be distinct spe-

cies. EL. puertoricensis has pulvinate as well

as applanate ascomata, with an indefinite

epithecium. Asci, not particularly crowded

in the fertile stroma, are often distributed in

one horizontal plane. In E. cinchonae only

pulvinate or practically hemispherical as-

comata have been seen; this more regular

form may be accounted for by the better-de-

veloped epithecium, which in one instance

had ruptured, exposing the underlying hy-

aline ascigerous stroma. In this species on

Cinchona the fertile stroma is extremely

crowded with asci, which are oriented in dif-

ferent planes.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Bary, A. pg. Ueber den sogenannten

302

Brenner (Pech) der Reben. Ann. Aenol.

4: 165-167. 1874.

(2) Brrancourt, A. A. Novas especies de

Sphaceloma sobre Terminalia e Genipa.

Arq. Inst. Biol. (Sao Paulo) 8: 197-200.

1937.

(3) Variations in fructifications of

Elsinoé, including descriptions of new

species. In Report of Proceedings, 3d

International Congress for Microbiol-

ogy, New York, Sept. 2-9, 1939, 883

pp. 1940.

, and JENKINS, ANNA E. Elsinoé

fawcetti, the perfect stage of the citrus

scab fungus. Phytopathology 26: 393-

396. 1936.

(5) ———————... Ciclo evolutivo de Elsinoé

australis Bitancourt e Jenkins, agente da

verrugose da laranja doce. Arq. Inst.

Biol. (Sao Paulo) 10: 129-146. 1939.

(6) ———————. Novas especies de Elsinoé

e Sphaceloma sobre hospedes de impor-

tancia economica. Arq. Inst. Biol.

(Sao Paulo) 11: 44-58. 1940.

(7) ——_—_—_—.. Treze novas especies de

Elsinoé do Brasil. Arq. Inst. Biol.

(Sao Paulo) 12: 1-20. 1941.

(8) ———————_. New discoveries of My-

riangiales in the Americas. Proc. 8th

Amer. Sci. Congress, Washington, 1940,

3: 149-172. 1942.

(9) CunntincHAM, H. 8. The histology of le-

sions produced by Sphaceloma faweettii

Jenkins on leaves of Citrus. Phytopa-

thology 18: 539-545. 1928.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 11

(10) Jenkins, A. E. Scab of Canavalia caused

by Elinsoé canavaliae. Journ. Agr.

Res. 42: 1-12. 1931. ;

Rose anthracnose

Sphaceloma. Journ. Agr.

321-337. 19382.

Application of the terms “an-

thracnose’’ and ‘‘scab”’ to diseases caused

by Sphaceloma and Gloeosporium. Phy-

topathology 23: 389-395. 1933.

Identity and host relations of the

Elsinoé of lima bean. Journ. Agr. Res.

47: 783-789. 1933.

Sphaceloma perseae, the cause

of avocado scab. Journ. Agr. Res. 49:

859-869. 1934.

Comparacées culturaes e inocu-

locdes em videira com os fungos Elsinoé

fawcetti e E. ampelina e E. veneta.

Arq. Inst. Biol. (Sao Paulo) 7: 23-32.

1936.

caused by

(11)

Res. 45:

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

das plantas causadas por fungos das

generos Elsinoé e Sphaceloma. Rod-

riguésia 2 (num. esp.): 305-313. 1936.

—__—___———.. Fevised descrzvptions “of

the genera Elinsoé and Sphaceloma.

Mycologia 33: 338-340. 1941.

——— —. Myriangiales select. ex-

siccatt. Bol. Soc. Bras. Agr. 7: 153-166.

1944.

Elsinoé on Randia. My-

cologia (in press).

(20) Racrporsk1, M. Parasitische Algen und

Pilze Java's. 1: 39 pp. Batavia, 1900.

(19)

BOTANY.—Accessory vascular bundles in Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng.

(Rutaceae: Aurantiordeae).}

FRANK D. VENNING, University of Miami.

(Communicated by WALTER T. SWINGLE.)

From time to time plant anatomists have

reported the presence of ‘‘accessory,”’ ‘‘free”’

or ‘‘unattached”’ vascular bundles in vari-

ous floral parts of several plant families.

Varying amounts of significance have been

given them by investigators. Unattached

bundles, which are amphiphloic, or con-

centric, are described by Arber (1) as oc-

curring in the genera Lunaria, Sisymbrium,

and Raphanus and are figured in petals of

Lunaria, stamens of Sisymbrium, and ovule

of Raphanus. These bundles are described

as passing through an amphiphloic stage,

finally becoming collateral by the time the

petals are free.

1 Received October 1, 1945. Grateful acknowl-

edgment is made to Dr. Walter T. Swingle for

his suggestions in preparing this paper and to the

Science Research Council of the University of

Miami, Coral Gables, Fla., under whose sponsor-

ship the work was conducted.

Considerable study has been given the

various members of the subfamily Auran-

tioideae in regard to the vascular systems of

their flowers. Tillson and Bamford (2) stud-

ied the floral vascular anatomy of 94 spe-

cies belonging to 29 genera of the Auranti-

oideae. They make no mention of accessory

bundles in any of the genera or species they

studied. Their observations showed that in

the genus Murraya, including M. koenzgii,

the vascular bundles supplying the various

floral parts arose individually from the cen-

tral cylinder of vascular tissue in the pedi-

cel and that there was no exchange of lateral

branch bundles between floral parts.

Accessory bundles were mentioned as oc-

curring in the flowers of the Eureka Lemon,

a cultivated variety of Citrus limon, by Ford

(3), and are described as several groups of

small vascular traces below the sepals.

, and Brrancourt, A. A. Doencas ~

rar) od

Nov. 15, 1945

“Some of these are not attached below, but

others diverge from the vascular cylinder

about 3 mm below the bases of the sepals.”

Ford found that all these bundles extended

into the lateral part of the sepals and called

them accessory sepal traces. He noted that

the provascular elements for these accessory

traces are present as early in ontogeny as

those of the other bundles of the receptacle

and that those attached to the main dorsal

sepal traces diverge from them while they

are yet a part of the stele.

In connection with an anatomical study

of the two commonly cultivated species of

Murraya, M. koenigii and M. paniculata, it

was found that one of the species, M. panic-

ulata, had no accessory bundles, but both

loose and attached accessory bundles were

found in M. koenigii, as shown in this paper.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The flowers of M. koenigii are small and

white and are borne in terminal corymbs;

sepals free, five in number, about 1 mm

long; petals 4-6 mm long, five in number;

ten stamens, the alternate ones shorter; the

ovary, borne on a short cylindrical disk, is

2- or 3-celled. Flower buds, flowers, and

young and mature fruits were collected

principally from a large heavily flowering

tree growing in Dr. David Fairchild’s

Kampong in Coconut Grove, Fla. This tree

is described and figured by Swingle (4). The

material was fixed in Formalin-Aceto-Alco-

hol and imbedded in paraffin. Cross and

longitudinal serial sections were cut 10 mi-

crons thick and stained with a safranine and

fast green staining combination.

OBSERVATIONS

In the pedicel below the base of the

sepals, the vascular elements form a con-

tinuous cylinder of tissue enclosing the

pith. As is the case with many woody stems,

the xylem borders the pith on the inside of

the stele, and the phloem elements are on

the outside; these two tissues are separated

by the vascular cambium. On the outside

of the phloem a cylinder of elongated

parenchyma cells, several cells in thickness,

makes up the pericycle. Before and during

flowering no lignification of the pericycle

occurs, but during the development of the

fruit many of these cells become sclerenchy-

matous fibers,

VENNING: VASCULAR BUNDLES IN MURRAYA KOENIGII

353

In the receptacle, bundles of vascular tis-

sue diverge from the stele to supply the var-

ious floral parts. The five sepal bundles are

the first of such bundles to diverge. These

gradually ascend upward and outward away

from the stele across the receptacle and

then follow a lateral course at the base of

the sepals, eventually forming the sepal

midribs. As these five relatively large midrib

bundles diverge, five bundle trace gaps

are apparent in the stele. Just above the

point where the sepal midribs begin to sepa-

rate from the stele, and outside of the peri-

cycle in the cortical parenchyma, the basal

limits of loose accessory bundles may ap-

pear (Fig. 1), usually as one or two vertical

annular vessels in the cortical parenchyma.

These vessels are much smaller in diameter

than the surrounding cortical parenchyma

cells and are spaced approximately halfway

between any two diverging sepal midrib

bundles. When present their basal ends are

always in this relative position in the re-

ceptacle.

The course of the unattached bundles is

parallel to that of the main sepal bundles

across the receptacle, extending upward and

gradually outward about halfway across the

cortex until on a level with the sepal base.

Here they show a lateral course, and extend

out into the sepal after branching one or

more times. Some branches terminate in the

receptacle near the sepal base; others ex-

tend to the lower outer edge of the sepal,

these usually terminate near an oil gland

(Fig. 2).

In mature flowers the largest number of

xylem elements occurs in the bundles just

as they begin to extend laterally from near

the center of the cortex to the sepals. The

elements at this point consist of two to four

annular vessels and eight to ten spiral ves-

sels, which are identical in appearance with

the annular and spiral vessels of the pri-

mary xylem in the stele. From here down-

ward the number diminishes rather rapidly,

until at the lower end only one or two ves-

sels can be observed; these are always an-

nular in nature, spiral vessels appear

higher up in the bundle. Directly below

the lowest xylem a few elongated parenchy-

ma cells are sometimes present; these ex-

tend downward directly beneath the last

lignified vessel for 10 or 20 microns. Under-

354 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. II

neath these there are no evidences of pro- In the portion of the bundle extending

vascular parenchyma, only the large, iso- laterally the width in every case gradually

diametric cortical parenchyma cells. diminished as the sepal base was ap-

Fig. 1.—Diagram of cross section of the base of a flower at the point of origin of the accessory bun-

dles: aa, attached accessory bundle; s, sepal midrib bundle; Ja, loose accessory bundle. Fie. 2.—Dia-

grammatic longitudinal view of base of a flower, showing position of a loose accessory bundle in relation

to the main vascular system and floral parts: s, sepal midrib bundle; 0, oil gland; la, loose accessory

bundle. Fie. 3.—Arrangement of parenchyma cells 10u beneath the lower limit of the loose accessory

bundle shown in Fig. 4; cells A and B are elongated parenchyma cells beneath the two xylem elements

shown in Fig. 4. Fias. 4-6.—Three successive sections 10y apart of the basal portion of a loose acces-

sory bundle. Figs. 7-12.—Six successive sections 10u apart of the basal portion of a loose accessory

bundle, showing the progressive increase in the number of xylem elements as the bundle ascends.

(Fig. 1, X30; Fig. 2, X12; Figs. 3-12, X550. Fuias. 4-6 are from slides S. & V. 57 B, Figs. 7-12 from

slides S. & V. 57 I, in Univ. Miami Tropical Botany Histological Research Collection.)

oe oes” oe —s

we ang oe oy

Nov. 15, 1945

proached. At this extremity not all the cells

composing the bundles had become ligni-

fied, but these proxylem cells were easily

distinguished from those of the cortical

parenchyma, as they had very small diame-

ters, dense cytoplasm, and were more elon-

gate. The average length of 23 such bundles

from their first appearance in the cortex to

their ultimate termination was 0.475 mm.

Although xylem was well differentiated

in the loose accessory bundles, no phloem

or phloem parenchyma was observed in con-

nection with them in Murraya koenigit. It is

true that a few small parenchyma cells often

exist in conjunction with the xylem in the

large portion of the loose bundles, but near

the basal portion of the bundles these cells

were often lacking, and they were never

numerous. Although smaller than most cells

of the cortical parenchyma, they do not

show the cell shape or elongation of the

protophloem and metaphloem parenchyma

of the stele, and of course they have no sieve

plates. Rather, they seem to be small, ir-

regularly isodiametric cortical parenchyma

cells. ,

In addition to the loose accessory bundles

some flowers have accessory bundles at-

tached to the main vascular system. These

appear in the receptacle at the same level as

the lower limits of the loose bundles, but

are connected with the vascular elements of

the stele which form the petal midribs

higher up in the receptacle. These attached

bundles extend laterally across the cortex

to the sepal bases, but describe a much

shorter, flatter arc than the loose bundles,

their average length being only 0.220 mm,

or about half that of the loose bundles.

Structurally they are similar to the loose

accessory bundles, being composed of annu-

lar and spiral vessels, and apparently also

lack phloem. The greatest number of ele-

ments in any one bundle occurs at a point

about equidistant from the ends, and dimin-

ishes to only a few xylem elements at each

end. At the base only three or four xylem

elements are attached to the petal midrib.

Attached accessory bundles are not al-

ways present in any given flower, and no

more than two attached accessory bundles

were observed in any one of 22 flowers stud-

ied. Data concerning these flowers are listed

VENNING: VASCULAR BUNDLES IN MURRAYA KOENIGII

355

in Table 1. It has not been determined

whether the attached accessory bundles are

branches of the petal midrib or bundles that

arise independently and later continue to

differentiate downward, ultimately con-

necting with the xylem of the stele. Studies

of these bundles in young flower buds sug-

gest this latter concept.

TABLE 1.—OccURRENCE OF ACCESSORY BUNDLES IN 22

FLoweprs OF MuURRAYA KOENIGII

Number of attached

accessory

Number of loose

accessory

Total accessory

bundles per

flower bundles bundles

0 oo me

0 at eet

1 1 ee

1 1 a

1 1 Es

2 —— 2

2 1 1

2 2 —

ee 2 ‘al

2 2 —

2 7 -

2 ay “=

3 z 1

3 a its --

3 3 -—

4 | 3 1

4 4 —

5 | 5 oo

The calyx is persistent after abscission of

the petals and stamens and remains fresh

and green during the development of the

fruit. The calyx has reached its maturity

when the petals and stamens are abscissed

from the flower, as sections of the basal por-

tions of mature fruits show its dimensions

are no larger than they were in mature flow-

ers. The loose and attached accessory bun-

dles were no larger in these sections than in

those of mature flowers; evidently they

reach their maximum growth at the same

time as the calyx. -

The irregular occurrence of both the loose

and attached accessory bundles in any given

flower can not as yet be explained. It seems

to have no relation to the position of the

flower on the large much-branched terminal

corymb, and no other features of the floral

anatomy seem to be correlated with their

occurrence or nonoccurrence.

306

Preliminary studies of serial microtome

sections of flowers of other species of the

Aurantioideae have shown that loose or

attached accessory bundles or both occur in

16 species in both of the tribes 4 of the 6

subtribes, and 8 genera. These bundles show

great diversity in structure, course, and

branching from those described for M.

koenigit. On the other hand, a very thor-

ough study of several other species of the

Aurantioideae has not disclosed a single

accessory bundle.

SUMMARY

Although the vascular anatomy of the or-

ange subfamily has been under study for

over three-quarters of a century, Ford (3)

was the first person to mention the presence

of accessory bundles, which he described in

the lemon. The present paper describes

loose and attached accessory bundles which

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 11

occur in the receptacle and calyx of Mur-

raya koentgit and discusses their histology

and relation to the main vascular system.

It is pointed out that accessory vascular

bundles are of widespread occurrence in the

flowers of many other members of the sub-

family Aurantioideae.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) ArBer, A. Studies in floral morphology I:

On some structural features of the cruciferous

flower. New Phytologist 30 (1): 1-41,

figs. 1-10. 1930.

(2) Tittson, A. H., and Bamrorp, R. The

floral anatomy of the Aurantioideae. Amer.

Journ. Bot. 25 (10): 780-798. 1938.

(3) Forp, E. 8. Anatomy and histology of the

Eureka Lemon. Bot. Gaz. 104 (2): 288-

305. , 1942.

(4) Swincte, Water T. The botany of

Citrus and its wild relatives of the orange

subfamily. The Citrus Industry 1: Chap.

4, pp. 200-201, fig. 30. Univ. California

Press, 1943. ~

ENTOMOLOGY.—Concerning Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemiptera). C. J.

DRAKE and E. J. HAMBLETON.

The present paper contains notes on 57

species of Neotropical Tingitidae, including

the descriptions of two new genera and 22

new species. The types are in the Drake

collection. The collections were made by

E. J. Hambleton.

Family PIESMIDAE

Piesma cinerea (Say)

Los Cerritos, Guatemala, 18 specimens,

taken on Amaranthus, July 5, 1944. This

species is widely distributed, ranging from

Canada south into Argentina.

Family TINGITIDAE

Subfamily CANTACADERINAE

Phatnoma annulipes Champion

Turrialba, Costa Rica, 2 specimens, on

Vernonia sp., August 138, 1944.

Subfamily TINGITINAE

Monanthia c-nigrum Champion

Kl Porvenir, Guatemala, 7 specimens, July

9, 1944,

Monanthia loricata Distant

Villavicencio, Colombia, 50 specimens, No-

vember 3, 1944.

1 Received May 15, 1945.

Monanthia berryi Drake

Machala, Ecuador, 14 specimens, Sept. 27,

1944. Recorded in the literature from Peru.

Monanthia monotropidia Stal

Tingo Maria, Peru, 3 specimens, September

14, 1944. Villavicencio, Colombia, 5 specimens,

November 3, 1944, and San Andrés, El

Salvador, 1 specimen, July 21, 1944.

Monanthia senta Drake and

Hambleton

Salinas, Ecuador, 12 specimens, October 14,

1944; Machala, Ecuador, 6 specimens, Septem-

ber 27, 1944.

Monanthia pucallpana, n. sp.

Head black, shining, with five rather short,

forward-directed, testaceous spines; eyes black.

Antennae moderately long, indistinctly pilose;

segment I short, slightly thickened, reddish

brown; II slightly slenderer, reddish; III very

slender, testaceous, about two and one-half

times as long as IV; IV clavate, hairy. Bucculae

broad, reticulated, closed in front. Rostrum

moderately long, yellowish brown, extending

to middle coxae. Legs moderately long, ferru-

gineous, the tibiae testaceous, the tarsi dark.

Body beneath black.

a 3

oe a

Nov. 15, 1945 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON

Pronotum dark ferrugineous, moderately

convex, coarsely pitted, tricarinate, lateral

earinae short, present only on triangular proc-

ess, slightly divaricating posteriorly; median

carina more elevated, uniseriate, except pos-

teriorly on triangular process; paranota moder-

ately broad, completely reflexed, testaceous,

not touching median carina, with three raised

nervures; collar raised, reticulated, testaceous.

Elytra ferrugineous, costal area mostly uni-

seriate, biseriate in widest part, testaceous,

with some of the nervures infuscate, the

areolae large and hyaline; discoidal area mod-

erately large, with the posterior part of nervure

separating it from subcostal strongly curved

so as to form a C-shaped expansion in sub-

costal area, there with an oblique, raised line

closing opening.

Length, 3.85 mm; width, 1.25 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 14 para-

types, Pucallpa, Peru, September 5, 1944. This

species is most closely related to M. c-nigrum

Champion and M. loricata Distant but is easily

separated from them by the wider paranota

(roughened with raised, longitudinal lines) and

the much wider costal area (biseriate in widest

part).

Teleonemia quechua Monte

Aguaytia, Peru, September 10, 1944, 10

examples. Numerous other specimens are also

at hand from Satipo, Cafiete, Tingo Marfa,

Callauga, and Vilcanota, Peru. The many speci-

mens exhibit some variation in size and color,

and the male tends to be a little smaller than

the female.

Teleonemia lanceolata (Walker)

Tingo Maria, Peru, 1 male, September 10,

1944. T. albomarginata Champion is a synonym

of this species. It is widely distributed in

Central and South America.

Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal

Villavicencio, Colombia, 1 male, November

3, 1944. The lantana lace bug is common in

tropical America.

Teleonemia prolixa Stal

Pichilingue, Ecuador, 1 example, October 1-

2, 1944.

Nyctotingis osborni Drake

Tingo Maria, Peru, 2 examples, from bam-

boo, September 10, 1944. These specimens are

: NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE

357

larger than the type and other specimens from

Brazil, but there seems to be no structural

differences.

Tingis abundans, n. sp.

Head brown, convex, with five testaceous

spines; median spine moderately long, porrect;

hind pair adpressed, long, the tips extending

nearly to the base of antennae; front pair

moderately long, directed forward; eyes large,

black. Antennae very long, moderately slender,

indistinctly pilose, testaceous, the terminal

segment mostly black; segment I rather stout,

moderately long, about three times as long as

II; II slenderer, short; III very long, slender,

straight, nearly three times as long as IV; IV

moderately long, slightly thickened. Rostrum

extending to intermediate coxae, the laminae

more widely separated and convex within on

metasternum. Body beneath brown. Legs

moderately slender, testaceous. Bucculae broad,

closed in front. Orifice present.

Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, yel-

lowish brown, tricarinate, each carina com-

posed of one row of tiny areolae; median carina

more elevated on collar; lateral carinae almost

parallel; paranota narrow, uniseriate, the

margin finely serrate, calli distinct, brown.

Elytra yellowish brown, a transverse band in

front of middle fuscous, the nervures of sutural

area more or less infuscate; costal area moder-

ately broad, mostly uniseriate, in the widest

part irregularly biseriate; subcostal area finely

reticulated, mostly triseriate, quadriseriate in

widest part; discoidal area narrow, extending

to middle of elytra, widest behind middle,

there four areolae deep. Wings longer than

abdomen.

Length, 2.90 mm; width, 1.00 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 11 para-

types, Pucallpa, Peru, September 5, 1944. Simi-

lar to 7. oliveirai Drake and Hambleton and

T. sauert Drake and Hambleton and separated

from them by the higher carinae, longer

cephalic spines, and more distinctly serrate

margins of elytra.

Tingis gamboana, n. sp.

Differs from T. abundans, n. sp., by the bi-

seriate costal area and narrower paranota.

Pronotum brownish, becoming lighter poste-

riorly, finely pitted, tricarinate, moderately,

transversely convex; lateral carinae low, dis-

398

tinct, nonareolated, median carina more raised,

indistinctly reticulated; collar distinct, areo-.

lated; paranota very narrow, slightly wider in

front. Head reddish fuscous, with five testa-

ceous spines; median spine very short; front

pair longer, directed forward, their tips touch-

ing; hind pair much longer, adpressed, extend-

ing a little beyond anterior margins of eyes.

Antennae testaceous, indistinctly pilose, mod-

erately long; segment I moderately thick, short,

about twice as long as II; II slenderer, very

short; III straight, about two and one-half

times as long as IV; IV moderately long, most-

ly black.

Elytra testaceous, with a moderately broad,

transverse, fuscous band near base; costal

area rather broad, regularly biseriate; subcostal

area wide, mostly quadriseriate; discoidal area

reaching middle of elytra, widest a little before

apex, there four areolae deep; sutural area

with a spot (veinlet) near base and another

before apex fuscous. Legs testaceous, the tips

of tarsi dark. Rostrum extending a little be-

yond mesosternum. Wings almost as long as

elytra. Body beneath black, shiny.

Length, 2.90 mm; width, 1.10 mm.

Type (female) and allotype (male), Gamboa,

Canal Zone, Panama, on elm, November 16,

1944. The more strongly convex pronotum,

much narrower paranota, and the distinct,

transverse band of elytra separate this species

from TJ. sauert Drake and Hambleton and T.

oliveirat Drake and Hambleton. The lateral

carinae are also lower and the margins of

elytra and paranota indistinctly serrate.

Amblystira fuscitarsis Champion

Guatemala City, Guatemala, November 23,

1944, 85 specimens, from Derris_ elliptica.

Known also from Panama, Colombia, Cuba,

Haiti, and Brazil.

Amblystira pallipes Stal

Tingo Maria, Peru, September 7, 1944, 1

specimen, taken sweeping vegetation. Speci-

mens are also at hand from Brazil, Colombia,

and Venezuela.

Sphaerocysta nosella, n. sp.

Small, testaceous, the cysts dark fuscous,

the pronotum dark ferrugineous. Pronotum

moderately convex, finely pitted, tricarinate;

carinae distinct, low, the lateral pair parallel,

the median terminating behind in a small sub-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 11

conal cyst. Hood moderately large, narrowed

anteriorly, wider than high, its greatest width

and length about equal, some of the areolae

subhyaline, paranota moderately wide, uni-

seriate, the areolae hyaline.

Elytra widest at base, thence moderately

narrowed posteriorly. The outer margin broad-

ly rounded; costal area wide, biseriate, the

areolae clear, large, not arranged in very regu-

lar rows; sutural area with moderately large,

clear areolae; cyst moderately large, inflated, —

very dark. Body beneath brown. Legs testa-

ceous, rather slender, the tarsi dark. Rostrum

extending on metasternum. Antennae testa-

ceous, the terminal segment mostly brownish

black; segment I moderately swollen, nearly

twice as long as II, the latter short; III long.

slender, indistinctly pilose, three times as long

as IV, the latter thickened apically.

Length, 2.10 mm; width, 1.00 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 9 para-

types, Vinces, Ecuador, October 14, 1944. It

resembles S. inflata Drake but is much smaller

with narrower and uniseriate paranota, black-

ish cysts, and slenderer legs and antennae. This

is the smallest member of the genus, and the

nervures are much more delicate.

Phaeochila, n. gen.

Pronotum moderately convex, narrowed an-

teriorly, clothed with fine, long hairs, pitted,

tricarinate; collar distinct, raised at middle so

as to form a small hood, there slightly project-

ing in front; paranota narrow, uniseriate; head

smooth, with spines absent or greatly atro-

phied. Bucculae short, reticulated, contiguous

in front. Rostral channel wide; rostrum moder-

ately long. Orifice present. Hypocostal ridge

uniseriate. Antennae rather long, moderately

stout, pilose; segment I rather short, stouter

and longer than II; III longest; IV slightly

thicker than III, moderately long. Legs mod-

erately long. Elytra divided in the usual di-

visions, with a distinct, inflated area a little

behind middle of nervure separating discoidal

and subcostal areas, indistinctly clothed with

fine, very short hairs; discoidal area not reach-

ing middle of elytra.

Type of genus, Phaeochila hirta (Monte)

= Amblystira hirta Monte.

This genus is allied to the genus Acantho-

cheila Stal and may be separated from it by

the tricarinate pronotum, absence of spines on

Nel eee a os

Beisce r) erry: fee! Le ee —s ee eS ee

7 ’ q

;

Nov. 15, 1945 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON

the margins of paranota and elytra. Separated

from Amblystira Stal by the hood and tumid

elevation of elytra; from Sphaerocysta Stal by

the lack of pronotal cysts and shorter lateral

carinae.

Phaeochila hirta (Monte)

Amblystira hirta Monte, Arq. Inst. Biol. 2: 284,

fig. 5. 1940.

Pucallpa, Peru, 7 specimens, September 5,

1944. This is the first record of this interesting

species in Peru.

Leptocysta sexnebulosa Stal

Villavicencio, Colombia, 1 female, November

3, 1944.

Acanthocheila dira, n. sp.

Similar to A. armigera Stal in size and gen-

eral appearance. Head black, with a long,

median, erect, testaceous spine; hind pair of

spines long, testaceous, adpressed; extending

beyond eyes; segment I brown, thick, narrowed

at base, three times as long as II, II short,

brownish, slender; III long, testaceous, slightly

bent, three times as long as IV; IV moderately

thickened, blackish, testaceous at base. Legs

rather slender, pale stramineous, moderately

hairy, the tips of tarsi dark. Rostrum brownish,

dark at tip, reaching hind margin of meso-

sternum.

Body beneath black, shiny; abdomen in

female wide, broadly expanded, wings a little

longer than abdomen. Hemelytra much more

sharply expanded near base than in A. armi-

gera, testaceous, considerably embrowned at

base; costal area mostly biseriate, with brown-

ish band near base; discoidal area short, mostly

four areolae deep; subcostal area broad, closely

reticulated within opposite discoidal area.

Pronotum unicarinate, transversely convex,

pitted, brown; paranota very narrow, uniseri-

ate, the outer margin armed with much longer

spines than in A. armigera, the second, third

and fourth spines sharply reflexed. Apex of

hind triangular projection truncate.

Length, 3.25 mm; width, 1.75 mm.

Type (female), E] Porvenir, Guatemala, July

9, 1944. Separated from A. armigera Stal by the

very long, erect, median spine of head, very

long marginal spines of paranota and the more

sharply widened basal portion of elytra.

Acanthocheila armigera Stal

Many specimens, the commonest member of

: NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE 359

the genus; Tingo Marfa, Peru, September 14,

1944, and Machala, Ecuador, September 27,

1944; Villavicencio, Colombia, November 3,

1944; El Porvenir, Guatemala, July 9, 1944.

Leptopharsa dapsilis, n. sp.

Elongate, rather broad, testaceous, the head

and pronotum (except hind process) black.

Head short, the spines greatly reduced; median

and anterior pair represented by small tuber-

cules; hind pair very slender, adpressed, testa-

ceous. Antennae long, brown-fuscous, distinctly

hairy; segment I moderately long, moderately

thick, not quite three times as long as II; II

short, slenderer; III straight, very slender,

clothed with moderately long hairs, slightly

more than three times as long as IV; IV moder-

ately long, clothed with longer hairs, slightly

thickened, black. Legs long, slender, dark

brown; rostrum yellowish brown, dark at apex,

extending a little beyond end of sulcus; rostral

channel very wide, the laminae low. Bucculae

testaeeous, closed in front.

Pronotum moderately convex, pitted, tri-

carinate; median carina testaceous foliaceous,

uniserlate, distinctly higher than lateral, the

areolae moderately large; lateral carinae testa-

ceous, rather short, terminating anteriorly at

middle of disc, subparallel, uniseriate, the aero-

lae small. Hood subglobose, moderately large,

testaceous, slightly projecting in front. Para-

nota testaceous, moderately large, moderately

reflexed, the outer margin rounded, mostly

biseriate, the areolae moderately large. Elytra

moderately broad, testaceous; costal area

broad, biseriate along basal portion, triseriate

‘in widest part, the areolae large and hyaline;

subcostal area narrow, mostly triseriate, the

areolae small; discoidal area small, not reaching

middle of elytra, considerably embrowned, nar-

rowed at base and apex, widest behind middle,

there four areolae deep; sutural area closely

reticulated at base, there considerably em-

browned. Wings extending a little beyond apex

of abdomen.

Length, 3.95 mm; width, 1.55 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 86 para-

types, from Olmediella betschleriana (Goepp.),

Guatemala City, Guatemala, July 9, 1944. The

shorter lateral carinae separate this species

from all other members of the genus.

Leptopharsa deca, n. sp.

Differs from L. usingert Drake in the biseri-

360

ate paranota, low carinae, differently formed

hood, and fuscous apical portion of elytra. An-

tennae moderately long, slender, testaceous;

segment I strongly incrassate, brownish, short,

twice as long as IJ; II slender, slightly thicker

than III, testaceous; III slenderest, about three

times as long as IV; IV mostly brownish black,

slightly thickened. Bucculae broad, meeting in

front, testaceous, becoming brownish above.

Rostrum extending beyond middle of meso-

sternum. Rostral laminae strongly foliaceous

on mesosternum, narrowed posteriorly, the

ends meeting behind; laminae lower on meta-

sternum, cordate. Legs slender, testaceous, the

tarsi darker. Head with moderately long, tes-

-taceous spines.

Hood rather large, a little longer in female

than male, covering most of head, inflated,

highest (crest) in front of center, slightly

longer than high, higher than broad, the

nervures embrowned. Paranota testaceous, bi-

seriate, the areolae rather large, hyaline. Pro-

notum moderately convex, brown; carinae dis-

tinct, uniseriate, the areolae small, the lateral

carinae slightly divaricating anteriorly. Elytra

moderately broad, slightly constricted beyond

middle, widest before apex, the tips separated

in repose; costal area broad, mostly triseriate,

quadriseriate in widest part, testaceous, the

areolae large, clear; subcostal area finely areo-

lated, brown, five areolae deep; discoidal area

brown, not quite reaching middle of elytra;

widest beyond middle, there five areolae deep,

with a black-fuscous mark near middle of outer

boundary; sutural area mostly clouded with

fuscous, some of the apical areolae partly hya-

line.

Length, 3.10 mm; width, 1.40 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 3 para-

types, Pichilingue, Ecuador, October 1-2,

1944. The hood is much smaller, the first an-

tennal segment much shorter and thicker, and

the carinae much lower than in L. praestantis

Drake. The meeting of the tips of the meso-

sternal laminae closes the rostral channel, but

in a much different way structurally than in the

genus Gargaphia Stal.

Leptopharsa ovantis, n. sp.

Differs from L. furculata (Champion) in hav-

ing biseriate paranota, black-fuscous first an-

tennal segment and slightly smaller hood. Color

marking very similar to L. furculata. Antennae

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

voL. 35, No. 11

rather long, indistinctly pilose; segment I mod-

erately long, moderately incrassate; three

times as long as II; II short, slenderer, tes-

taceous; III long, straight, testaceous, slightly

more than twice as long as IV; IV rather long,

mostly black, beset with long hairs. Legs

slender, testaceous, other characters very sim-

ilar to L. furculata.

Length, 3.75 mm; width, 1.75 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 3 para-

types, Tingo Marfa, Peru, September 7, 1944.

Leptopharsa angustata (Champion)

Barcena, Guatemala, many specimens, Nov-

ember 28, 1944.

Leptopharsa tenuis (Champion)

Barcena, Guatemala, many specimens, on

Ichthyomethia grandtfolia (Donn. Smith), No-

vember 28, 1944.

Leptopharsa laureata, n. sp.

Small, moderately elongate; body beneath

brown to black. Rostrum long, extending to

end of sulcus, testaceous, black at tip; rostral

laminae testaceous, concave within on meta-

sternum. Antennae rather long, slender, indis-

tinctly pilose; segment I black-fuscous, moder-

ately thick, about three times as long as II; II

short, testaceous, slightly enlarged; III long,

slender, testaceous, about two and one-half

times as long as IV; IV mostly dark fuscous,

moderately long. Legs long, slender, testaceous.

Eyes black. Head black, with five moderately

long spines; hind pair testaceous, adpressed;

median spine brownish to black, turned down-

ward. |

Pronotum black, moderately, transversely

convex, pitted; carinae testaceous, low indis-

tinctly areolate, the lateral carinae slightly con-

cave within on disc; paranota testaceous, bi-

seriate, the outer margin rounded; hood small,

inflated, slightly projecting in front. Elytra

moderately broad, indistinctly serrate along

outer margins; costal area testaceous, moder-

ately wide, mostly biseriate, triseriate in widest

part, the areolae clear and moderately large;

subcostal area narrow, biseriate, the veins

black-fuscous; discoidal area extending to mid-

dle of elytra, narrow, narrowed at base and

apex, four areolae deep in widest part, the veins

fuscous-black; sutural area more widely reticu-

lated; the veins infuscate. ~

Length, 2.20 mm; width, 1.00 mm.

Nov. 15, 1945 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON

Type (male), allotype (female) and 11 para-

types, Pucallpa, Peru, September 5, 1944.

Allied to ZL. bondari Drake and Poor from

Brazil but separated from it by the longer ros-

trum, triseriate costal area in widest part and

lower carinae, especially median. The lateral

margins of the elytra also are more rounded.

Leptopharsa jubaris, n. sp.

Small, ovate, testaceous, the pronotum

brownish. Head black, with rather short, tes-

taceous spines; hind pair adpressed, the three

frontal spines shorter, directed forward, some-

times adpressed. Rostrum brownish, extending

to metasternum; metasternal laminae cordate.

Orifice distinct. Bucculae infuscate, closed in

front. Antennae moderately long, slender, tes-

taceous; segment I short, moderately thick,

twice as long as II; III very slender, straight,

indistinctly pilose, nearly three times as long

as IV; IV brownish, moderately thickened, be-

set with longer hairs.

Pronotum moderately transversely convex,

finely pitted, truncate in front, tricarinate;

median carina uniseriate, the areolae tiny;

lateral carinae less elevated, subparallel; collar

raised, with tiny hood; paranota moderately

broad, reflexed, testaceous, biseriate in front,

uniseriate behind, the outer margin rounded;

triangular process testaceous, reticulated. Ely-

tra with tips only slightly separated in repose;

costal area rather broad, testaceous, mostly bi-

seriate, triseriate in widest part, the areolae

rather small; subcostal area narrow, brownish,

mostly biseriate; discoidal area grayish brown

to brown, extending to middle of elytra, widest

beyond middle, there five areolae deep; sutural

area more widely reticulated, the nervures con-

siderably embrowned; wings fumose, longer

than abdomen. Body beneath black.

Length, 2.70e«mm; width, 1.00 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 12 para-

types, Pichilingue, Ecuador, October 1-2,

1944; 1 paratype, El Topo, Ecuador, October 5,

1944. Separated from L. distantis Drake in

having the costal area triseriate in widest part,

narrower subcostal area, and discoidal area

narrower apically.

Leptopharsa lauta, n. sp.

Small, whitish testaceous, the veins in su-

tural area considerably embrowned, the areo-

lae hyaline, iridescent. Head black, with five

long, slender, testaceous spines. Rostrum

>: NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE

361

brown, black at tip, extending beyond middle

of mesosternum; laminae low, whitish, tes-

taceous, uniseriate. Antennae moderately long,

slender; indistinctly pilose; segment I brown-

ish black, moderately long, moderately thick,

nearly three times as long as IJ; II slenderer,

short, brown; III long, very slender, about

three times as long as IV; IV moderately

thickened, brown, clothed with pale hairs.

Body beneath black. Legs very slender, long,

yellowish brown, the tarsi dark.

Pronotum moderately convex, black, finely

pitted, tricarinate; median carina foliaceous,

distinctly more elevated than lateral, composed

of one row of high, rectangular areolae; lateral

carinae low, each composed of one row of elon-

gate areolae. Hood rather small, slightly com-

pressed laterally, subequal in height and length.

Paranota moderately broad, distinctly reflexed,

biseriate, the areolae moderately large, the

outer margin rounded, beset with moderately

long, bristly hairs. Triangular process of pro-

notum reticulated, whitish testaceous. Elytra

distinctly constricted slightly beyond middle,

the outer margins armed with rather long, very

slender spines; costal area wide, biseriate along

basal half, triseriate in widest part, the areolae

rather large and not arranged in definite rows;

subcostal area moderately wide, biseriate; dis-

coidal area rather short, not reaching middle of

elytra, the boundary raised, highest a little be-

hind middle.

Length, 2.30 mm; width, 0.90 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 11 para-

types, Vinces, Ecuador, October 14, 1944. This

species may be separated from L. setigera

(Champion) by its smaller size, narrower para-

nota and smaller hood. L. fimbriata (Champion)

is a distinctly larger species.

Leptopharsa luxa, n. sp.

Very small, testaceous, the pronotum, collar,

carinae, and discoidal, subcostal, and sutural

areas brown; areolae hyaline, the areolae in

sutural area infuscate with clear centers. An-

tennae moderately long, indistinctly pilose,

testaceous; segment I brown, short, about twice

as long as II; III long, about three times as long

as IV; IV mostly black, slightly thickened.

Head black; posterior spines testaceous, rather

long, adpressed, median spine brown, shorter,

directed obliquely upward. Rostrum brownish,

black at tip, not quite reaching base of meso-

362

sternum; laminae widely separated, low, tes-

taceous. Legs slender, testaceous, the tarsi

dark. Abdomen beneath black, the sternum

brown.

Pronotum moderately convex, finely pitted,

tricarinate; carinae sharply raised, uniseriate,

the areolae tiny; lateral carinae slightly di-

varicating anteriorly; collar raised anteriorly,

finely areolate; paranota long, narrow, sub-

angularly projecting in front, testaceous, bi-

seriate, the areolae moderately large, hyaline.

Elytra widening at base, widest a little beyond

base, thence moderately narrowing posteriorly,

slightly constricted beyond middle, the apices

not overlapping in repose; costal area wide,

mostly biseriate, triseriate in widest part, the

areolae moderately large; subcostal area nar-

row, mostly biseriate; discoidal area very nar-

row, pointed at base and apex, biseriate or tri-

seriate in widest part, not reaching middle of

elytra, the areolae small, with whitish opaque

centers; areolae of sutural area larger.

Length, 2.00 mm; width, 0.80 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 1 para-

type, Vinces, Ecuador, October 14, 1944.

This tiny species is not easily confused with

other species of the genus. The size, color pat-

tern of elytra, and rectangular paranota are

distinguished characters. In general aspect it

resembles somewhat members of the genus

Atheas Champion.

Leptopharsa divisa (Champion)

Barcena, Guatemala, 1 specimen, November

22, 1944.

Phymacysta tumida (Champion)

Tingo Maria, Peru, 4 specimens, September

10, 1944; Machala, Ecuador, 2 specimens,

September 27, 1944. These specimens tend to

be a little larger than most specimens before us

from Venezuela, Panama, Trinidad, Haiti, and

Brazil. L. malpighae Drake from Cuba belongs

to the genus Phymacysta Monte. Leptopharsa

cubana Drake is a synonym of L. malpighae

Drake.

Leptodictya bambusae Drake

Many examples taken on _ sugarcane,

Machala, Ecuador, September 27, 1944; on

Bambusa vulgaris, San Andrés, El Salvador,

July 21, 1944, and El Porvenir, Guatemala,

July 9, 1944. This species ranges from Texas to

Peru and is recorded from the West Indies. It is

also recorded as a pest of maize.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 11

Leptodictya fraterna Monte

San José, Costa Rica, many specimens from

bamboo, August 20, 1944. This species is closely _

related to L. cretata Champion from which it

differs largely in having the basal antennal seg-

ment slightly longer and fuscous-black. The

second segment is concolorous with the first.

Leptodictya ecuadoris, n. sp.

Small, black-fuscous, the antennae, paranota

and legs testaceous, the pronotum, discoidal

and subcostal areas brownish, the areolae of

costal area within, the centers of marginal areo-

lae, some of the areolae of subcostal area and

paranota hyaline. Head with five, testaceous,

very long, slender, porrect spines. The median

spine longest. Antennae long, slender, indis-

tinctly pilose; segment I short, a little stouter

and about twice as long as II; III slightly more

than three times as long as IV; IV slightly

thickened, light fuscous, moderately long. Legs

long, slender, testaceous. Rostrum extending on

metasternum, yellowish brown; laminae tes-

taceous, not widely separated.

Pronotum moderately, transversely convex,

distinctly pitted, sharply tricarinate; carinae

testaceous, each uniseriate, the lateral carinae

parallel; hood sharply raised, highest in front,

low behind, compressed laterally; paranota bi-

seriate above (overlapping part). Elytra broad,

the tips separated in repose; outer margins

broadly rounded, widest before apex; costal

area wide, six areolae deep in widest part, the

areolae large; subcostal area uniseriate; dis-

coidal area elongate, extending to middle of

elytra, narrowed at base and apex, widest near

middle, there four areolae deep. Male tending

to be a little smaller than female.

Length, 3.00 mm; width, 1.75 mm—-1.95 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 35 para-

types, from bamboo, Vinces, Ecuador, October

14, 1944.

Differs from L. nota Drake in having elytra

much broader at base and of different color

pattern. In L. nota the elytra are gradually

widened posteriorly.

Leptodictya laidis, n. sp.

Head dark reddish brown, convex above,

with five long, slender spines; anterior pair

shortest, fuscous, not quite reaching apex of

first antennal segments; median spine longest,

fuscous, pale at base, extending beyond middle

of second segment; hind pair long, ‘a little

Nov. 15, 1945 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON

shorter than median, fuscous, pale at base, di-

rected forward, slightly divaricating ante-

riorly. Antennae rather long, indistinctly pi-

lose; segment I moderately swollen, dark fus-

cous, about two and one-half times as long as

II; II slightly slenderer, short, dark fuscous;

III yellowish brown, long, slightly more than

twice as long as IV; IV blackish, long, slightly

thickened, slightly bowed. Bucculae wide,

blackish; rostral channel deep, rather wide, the

laminae brown; rostrum brown, black at tip,

reaching middle of mesosternum. Abdomen

brown beneath. Legs yellowish brown, the tarsi

dark.

Pronotum slightly, transversely convex,

coarsely pitted, tricarinate, each carina finely

uniseriate, the lateral pair parallel, the median

slightly more raised in front. Hood low, slightly

produced in front, the areolae small, whitish,

the nervelets infuscate. Paranota white-tes-

taceous, uniseriate behind, biseriate in front.

Elytra broad, roundly expanded at base, the

tips separated; costal area very wide, rather

widely reticulated, five or six areolae deep in

widest part, the nervures mostly dark fuscous,

the areolae at base and a transverse band (three

areolae deep) clear, the rest of the areolae

largely infuscate; discoidal area elongate, ex-

_ tending beyond middle of elytra, narrowed at

base and apex, the areolae clear, the veins dark

fuscous; sutural area, widely reticulated, the

nervures dark fuscous, some of the areolae

clear or not entirely infuscate. Wings smoky,

nearly as long as abdomen.

Length, 3.80 mm; width, 2.10 mm—2.25 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 40 para-

types, from bamboo, Villavicencio, Colombia,

November 3, 1944. This species is very pretty,

and the color of the elytra is difficult to de-

scribe because of the variation in fuscous color

of areolae.

Leptodictya nigrosis, n. sp.

Broad, closely reticulated, dark fuscous, with

a large pale spot in costal area opposite apex of

discoidal area, the areolae of paranota clear.

Head black, with five rather long, brownish

spines. Legs slender, brownish. Rostrum brown-

ish, reaching beyond mesosternum. Antennae

moderately long, indistinctly pilose; segment I

short, dark fuscous, nearly twice as long as IT;

II slender, yellowish brown; III long, yellow-

ish brown, three times as long as IV; IV black-

: NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE

363

ish, slightly enlarged, clothed with long hair.

Pronotum moderately, transversely convex,

closely pitted; carinae foliaceous, each uniseri-

ate, the areolae small; lateral carinae slightly

convex within in front, the median a little more

elevated. Hood rather small, scarcely produced

in front, tentiform, the areolae whitish opaque.

Paranota moderately broad, the reflexed part

biseriate. Elytra very broad, rounded at base;

costal area very wide, with four or five trans-

verse nervures slightly enlarged, the areolae

small, whitish or fuscous opaque; subcostal area

narrow, biseriate; discoidal area large, extend-

ing beyond middle of elytra, narrowed at base

and apex, widest near middle, the areolae con-

fused in arrangement and several deep in wid-

est part; sutural area more widely reticulated,

the areolae subopaque. Body beneath blackish.

Length, 4.15 mm; width, 2.10 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 4 para-

types, from bamboo, Tingo Maria, Peru,

September 7, 1944. This species is longer than

the other dark-colored members of the genus,

and more closely reticulated.

Leptodictya parilis, n. sp.

Moderately large, grayish to dark-fuscous,

the areolae hyaline. Head black, with five

moderately long, brown spines. The median

and front pair erect. Eyes large, dark reddish.

Rostrum extending beyond middle of meta-

sternum. Antennae rather long, indistinctly

pilose; segment I black-fuscous, moderately

long, thicker and three times as long as IJ; II

brown, short; III very long, brown; IV dark.

Pronotum moderately, longly transversely

convex, grayish fuscous, tricarinate, the carinae

indistinctly areolate, moderately large, inflated,

slightly produced in front. Elytra moderately

wide, becoming slightly wider posteriorly. The

outer margin distinctly, finely serrate; costal

area moderately broad, rather closely reticu-

lated, with three, transverse, slightly thickened

nervures, the areolae not arranged in definite

rows, ranging from five deep at base to seven

or eight in widest part; subcostal area narrow,

biseriate; discoidal area elongate, narrowed at

base and apex, widest near middle, there five

areolae deep; sutural area large, becoming

more widely reticulated posteriorly. Wings not

reaching apex of abdomen, smoky.

Length, 3.40 mm; width, 1.60 mm.

Type (male), from bamboo, San Andrés, El

364 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Salvador, July 21-26, 1944. This species with

dark fuscous nervures and clear areolae is

probably most closely akin to L. olyrae Drake

but readily separated by the longer hood, longer

first antennal segment, lower carinae, more

longly convex pronotum and differently shaped

elytra. In addition to other characters, the

hyaline areolae separate it from other dark-

colored species with more or less clouded areo-

lae.

Leptodictya lucida, n. sp.

Large, stramineous, the paranota pale, the

areolae hyaline, iridescent. Head brown, with

five long spines; anterior pair shortest, directed

forward, extending a little beyond middle of

first antennal segments; median spine very

long, extending to tip of first antennal seg-

ments; hind pair long, divaricating toward tips.

Antennae indistinctly pilose, moderately long;

segment I moderately long, thick, about two

and one-half times as long as II; III long, slen-

der, slightly more than twice as long as IV, the

latter dark fuscous. Legs slender, yellowish

brown, the tarsi dark. Rostrum reaching a lit-

tle beyond mesosternum. Body beneath brown.

Pronotum moderately, transversely convex,

tricarinate, the carinae indistinctly areolate,

the median slightly more elevated in front;

lateral carinae slightly divaricating anteriorly;

paranota moderately wide, wider in front,

mostly biseriate. Elytra very broad, divaricat-

ing posteriorly, the tips separated in repose, the

outer margin broadly rounded; costal area very

wide, with three, transverse, slightly thickened

nervures, the areolae not arranged in definite

rows, about eight or nine deep in widest part,

those within along discoidal area smaller; sub-

costal area very narrow, uniseriate; discoidal

area long, narrow, widest near middle, there

five areolae deep.

Length, 3.55 mm; width, 2.20 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 1 para-

type; from bamboo, Tingo Maria, Peru, Sep-

tember 7, 1944. Separated from L. sodalatis

Drake by the shortly pilose antennae, much

narrower paranota, differently shaped elytra

with smooth lateral margins.

Leptodictya decoris, n. sp.

Moderately large, broad, rather widely re-

ticulated. Head black, convex above, with five

brownish spines; front pair extending a little

VOL. 35, No. 11

beyond middle of first antennal segments; me-

dian and hind pair extremely long, directed

obliquely forward. Antennae testaceous, indis-

tinctly pilose, the last segment dark fuscous;

segment I rather short, thicker and about twice

as long as IV; IV slightly thickened, long,

clothed with longer hairs. Rostrum brownish,

dark at tip, extending between intermediate

coxae. Legs slender, testaceous, the tarsi

dark. Body beneath brown to black. Orifice

distinct.

Pronotum moderately, transversely convex,

closely pitted, polished, the paranota, carinae,

collar and hood whitish, the hind triangular

process of pronotum testaceous to whitish;

paranota moderately wide, with single row of

transverse, rectangular areolae; hood small,

narrow, slightly projecting anteriorly; carinae

low, indistinctly areolate, the median slightly

higher in front; lateral carinae faintly diverg-

ing anteriorly. Elytra broad, broadly rounded

at base white-testaceous, the outer nervure

thickened and infuscate, the areolae clear, the

veinlets along the outer margins sometimes

partly infuscate; costal area broad, with six to

seven irregular rows of areolae in greater part;

subcostal area narrow, biseriate; discoidal area

elongate, narrowed at base and apex, widest

near middle, there four areolae deep; sutural

area widely areolated.

Length, 3.85 mm; width, 2.00 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 14 para-

types, from bamboo, Tingo Marfa, Peru, Sep-

tember 7, 1944. This very pretty species may be

separated from congeners by color, low carinae

and broad elytra. The tips of the elytra are

moderately separated in repose, the outer mar-

gins finely serrate and the areolae somewhat

iridescent. :

Ulocysta, n. gen.

Distinctly lacy, the areolae large and hyaline.

Hood very large, covering base of head and ex-

tending posteriorly so as to conceal most of

hind process of pronotum, united beneath on

triangular process with median carina; median

carina foliaceous, arising behind disc and ex-

tending a little beyond hind margin of hood.

Lateral carinae absent. Paranota moderately

wide, foliaceous, moderately reflexed. Head

short, armed with five spines. Antennae long,

slender; segment I very long, stoutest; II very

short; III longest, slenderest; IV very long,

half the length of III, slightly thickened. Buc-

Nov. 15, 1945 DRAKE AND HAMBLETON

culae rather short, reticulated, closed in front.

Rostral channel wide; laminal low; rostrum

long. Legs slender, rather long. Orifice atro-

phied. Elytra long, divaricating posteriorly,

apices widely separated in repose; discoidal

area short, not extending to apex of abdomen.

Marginal nervure of elytra and median longi-

tudinal nervure of hood thickened.

Genotype, Ulocysta praestabilis, n. sp.

This genus may be separated from Amby-

cysta Drake and Hurd by the much larger hood,

unicarinate pronotum, long first and fourth

antennal segments and short discoidal area of

elytra; and from Megalocysta Champion by the

long first and fourth antennal segments, raised

posterior portion of hood, slender legs and an-

tennae, thinner nervures of reticulations and

short discoidal area. The genus Alloithucha

Drake has much shorter antennal segments and

differently formed hood and triangular process

of pronotum.

Ulocysta praestabilis, n. sp.

Moderately large, the areolae hyaline, the

elytra strongly divaricating posteriorly, yellow-

ish brown, some of the veins darker, head black,

the spines testaceous, the median distinctly

longer than others. Rostrum brown, extending

beyond middle of mesosternum. Body beneath

brown. Legs long, very slender, brownish. An-

tennae long, very slender; segment I brown,

about twice as long as the width of head across

eyes; II short, brown, slenderer; III yellowish

brown, indistinctly pilose, less than twice the

length of IV; IV very long, slightly thicker,

clothed with longer hairs, distinctly longer than

I, becoming black apically. Hood extremely

large, somewhat pyriform, twice as long as

high, inflated, widely reticulated, testaceous,

the areolae hyaline, the median nervure

straight, thick and dark; median carina clouded

behind, there two areolae high; two very elon-

gate areolae beneath hood. Paranota biseriate,

the areolae moderately large, elytra strongly

divaricating posteriorly, with marginal and

some of the oblique nervures somewhat dark-

ened, the areolae large and hyaline; discoidal

area scarcely extending beyond apex of hind

pronotal process, mostly biseriate, widest a

little in front of apex; costal area mostly biseri-

ate, triseriate in widest part; subcostal area

narrower, mostly biseriate; sutural area widely

reticulated.

: NEOTROPICAL TINGITIDAE

365

Length, 3.20 mm; width (behind hood), 1.90

mm.

Type (female) and allotype (male), San José,

Colombia, November 11, 1944.

Dicysta hollandi Drake

Pucallpa, Peru, 17 specimens, September 5,

1944.

Dicysta vitrea Champion

Tingo Marfa, Peru, 10 specimens, Septem-

ber 10, 1944.

Gargaphia nigrinervis Stal

Tingo Marfa, Peru, 19 specimens, September

10, 1944; San José, and Villavicencio, Colom-

bia, many specimens, November 1944.

Gargaphia seorsa, n. sp.

Very similar in size, color marking and ap-

pearance to G. serjaniae Drake and Hambleton

and differs in having longer spines on head, the

elytra broadly ovate, and the paranota ex-

panded laterally at anterior end, there two or

three areolae deep. Rostrum reaching beyond

middle of mesosternum. Head with five very

long, slender spines, the median spines reach-

ing beyond apex of first antennal segment, the

front pair a little shorter, the hind pair very

long. Paranota rather broad, mostly triseriate,

the outer margin rounded, the front margin ob-

liquely expanded. Hood moderately large,

slightly smaller than in G. serjaniae. Body. be-

neath brown. Elytra broad, the outer margin

broadly rounded, widest in front of middle;

costal area broad, mostly triseriate, quadriseri-

ate in widest part. Margins of paranota and

elytra finely serrate. Other characters very

similar to G. serjantae.

Length, 4.25 mm; width, 1.65 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female) and 18 para-

types, Aguaytia, Peru, Sept. 6, 1944, and 13

paratypes, Pucallpa, Peru, Sept. 6, 1944. The

paranota are roundly expanded and without

distinct anterior margin; the elytra are widest a

little before the apices in repose.

Gargaphia neivai Drake and Poor

Pichilingue, Ecuador, 6 specimens, October

15, 1944. Known heretofore from Paraguay.

Gargaphia opima Drake

Numerous examples, Aguaytia and Tingo

Maria, Peru, taken on Canavalia ensiformis; 1

366

specimen, Villavicencio, Colombia, November

3, 1944. Gargaphia inca Monte, Rev. Brazil.

Biol. 3 (1): 105, fig. 1, 1943, is suppressed as a

synonym of M. opima.

Gargaphia paula Drake and Hambleton

Tingo Maria, Peru, 18 specimens, September

10, 1944. Known heretofore pul from the

Canal Zone, Panama.

Gargaphia acmonis, n. sp.

Moderately elongate, distinctly widening

posteriorly. Head black, with five long, testa-

ceous spines, the anterior pair shortest. An-

tennae long, indistinctly pilose; segment I mod-

erately long, rather stout, fuscous-black, three

times as long as II; II short, testaceous,

slenderer; III slender, testaceous, approx-

imately three times as long as IV; IV largely

fuscous-black, moderately long, clothed with

longer hairs. Rostrum extending to middle of

mesosternum. Bucculae closed in front. Ori-

fice prominent. Legs long, slender, testaceous,

the tarsi dark.

Elytra gradually widening posteriorly, the

tips somewhat separated in repose; costal area

moderately wide, gradually widening poste-

riorly, testaceous, uniseriate along basal half,

biseriate in widest part, the areolae clear and

moderately large. Other characters of elytra

and pronotum very similar to G. lunulata

(Mayr).

Length, 3.30 mm; width, 1.30 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 10 para-

types, Tingo Maria, Peru, September 10, 1944;

also 5 paratypes, San José, Colombia, Novem-

ber 11, 1944; and 1 paratype, Rio Rimac, Peru.

The shape of the elytra and uniseriate basal

half of costal area separate this species from G.

lunulata (Mayr), its nearest relative.

Corythaica costata Gibson

Many examples, Salinas and Machala, Ecua-

dor, September and October 1944; several

specimens, Villavicencio, Colombia, November

13, 1944.

Corythaica cyanthicollis (Costa)

Tingis cyanthicollis Costa, Ann. Mus. Zool. Nap.

1864 (2): 146, fig. 2.

Leptopharsa passiflorae Berg, Hemip. Arg. Add.

Emend. 1884: 102.

Corythaica cyanthicollis Drake and Poor, Inst.

Mus. Univ. La Plata 3: 108. 1938.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 35, No. 11

Corythaica passifloriae Monte,

Sao Paulo 1942: 110.

San José, Colombia, many specimens, No-

vember 11, 1944. This species is one of the

commonest and most widely distributed tingi-

tids in Neotropical America and one of the

most confused species in the literature. Monte,

loc. cit., has greatly added to this confusion,

and most of his remarks are inept because he

has failed to study carefully Costa’s figure of

Tingis cyanthicollis.

Papeis Avulsos

Corythucha gossypii (Fabricius)

Barcena, Guatemala, many examples, No-

vember 22, 1944; also many specimens from

San Andrés, El Salvador, July 21-26, 1944;

Pichilingue, Ecuador, October 1-2, 1944; and

Managua, Nicaragua, August 1944. This insect

is a pest of the cotton plant, eggplant, and

pigeon pea.

Corythucha decens Stal

Los Cerritos, Guatemala; many specimens,

July 5, 1944.

Corythucha nocentis Drake and

Hambleton

Machala, Ecuador,

tember 27, 1944.

many specimens, Sep-

Corythucha deceptiva Drake

Santa Maria de Jests, Guatemala, many

specimens, November 14, 1944.

Corythucha seguyi Drake

Tingo Maria, Peru, 5 specimens, September

7, 1944.

Corythucha serta, n. sp.

Moderately large, testaceous, some spots on

paranota, hood, tumid elevation of elytra and

a transverse band near base of costal area

brown to black-fuscous, the areolae hyaline.

Hood moderately large, constricted near the

middle, narrowed in front, inflated behind, the

hind portion about as high as wide. Median

carina foliaceous, slightly higher in front,

mostly uniseriate; lateral carinae not very

high, gradually elevated anteriorly, terminat-

ing some distance from hood. Paranota moder-

ately large, the outer margin and some of the

veinlets beset with short spines. Elytra slightly

constricted beyond middle, with rather large

tumid elevation; costal area wide, with three

rows of rather large areolae, the areolae in

transverse band much smaller (except outer

ND ae a)

NO ee ee ee ean oa eee

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_.-

Nov. 15, 1945

row) and more numerous. Antennae testaceous,

moderately long, beset with very long, stiff

hairs, the fourth segment embrowned. Buc-

culae, rostral laminae and body beneath black.

Rostrum brown, extending to middle of meso-

sternum. Legs brownish, the tibiae testaceous.

Length, 3.85 mm; width, 2.25 mm.

Type (male), allotype (female), and 40 para-

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

367

types, from an unidentified ornamental tree,

Lake Atitlén, Guatemala, July 9, 1944. Re-

lated to C. decepta Drake and C. setosa Cham-

pion but with larger tumid area of elytra and

with hood fully twice as large. The hood is

much smaller than in C. globigera Breddin or

C. untfasciata Champion. In general aspect C.

serta resembles more closely wnifasciata.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1236TH MEETING

The 1236th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, October 14, 1944, President

STIMSON presiding.

Program: GrEorGE A. Gamow, George Wash-

ington University: Weizsacker’s planetary theory.

—lIt was pointed out that, although this theory

had been published in Germany, the speaker’s

copy was one of few that had probably been

received in this country because of the war.

Although the published theory was incomplete

in details and possibly open to certain criti-

cisms, the speaker considered it worthy of con-

sideration and perhaps of further development.

(Secretary’s abstract.)

Mr. A. J. ScHNEIDEROV presented an in-

formal communication on his planetary theory.

1237TH MEETING

The 1237th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, October 28, 1944, President

STIMSON presiding.

Program: J. BARKLEY Rosser, Cornell Uni-

versity: Many-valued logics —The ‘‘Law of the

Excluded Middle” to the effect that every

exact statement is necessarily either true or

false is not an absolute law of nature which

cannot be transgressed. On the contrary, it is

merely a habit of thought of the human race.

There exist orderly systems of reasoning which

flatly deny this principle. Such a system was

discussed with some illustrative examples. Al-

though this system is violently contradictory

to accepted tenets of logic, it is quite consistent

in itself, and could presumably be used as a

basis for scientific thought. It appears to con-

tain a mathematics of a most unfamiliar sort,

which nevertheless contains certain of the

standard features of the familiar mathematics.

In a certain sense, one can say that this new

mathematics lacks the “sharp edges’ of the

old, and this suggests the possibility that, when

more is known of the new mathematics, it may

be a useful instrument for the treatment of

quantum mechanics, which seems to be a sort

of physics without “sharp edges.’ (Author’s

abstract.)

J. ALLEN HYneEk, Perkins Observatory, Ohio

Wesleyan University: The ‘‘science’’ of astrol-

ogy.—From an astronomer’s viewpoint, the

relatively widespread recognition of popular

acceptance of belief in astrological precepts is

disturbing and out of keeping with the scientific

enlightenment characteristic of the present

day. Recognizing the possible need for an ob-

jective demonstration of the fallacy of certain

concepts held by a large part of the astrological-

ly inclined, the writer has in his paper presented

a statistical analysis of several thousand cases

taken from the ‘“‘American Men of Science.”

An analysis of the birth date frequency and the

“‘aspects’’ of the planet Mercury to all other

planets demonstrates by standard statistical

techniques that the probability of favorable

zodiacal positions of Mercury (astrologically

denotes superior mental abilities) in the horo-

scopes of ‘‘Men of Science”’ is that given by the

ordinary laws of chance. It is hoped that such

an objective test might be useful as a classroom

example. (Author’s abstract.)

1238TH MEETING

The 1238th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, November 11, 1944, Presi-

dent STIMSON presiding.

Program: H. A. Marner, U. 8. Coast and

Geodetic Survey: Mean sea level——The level

of the sea at any point is subject to the dis-

turbing influence of various agencies, but

368

principally of tide, wind, and weather. Since

the rise and fall of the tide is periodic, with a

period of approximately 24 hours, the effect of

the tide is practically eliminated by averaging

the hourly heights of sea level throughout a

day. When this is done, it is found that sea

level varies from day to day, month to month,

and year to year. Roughly it may be said that

from day to day the variations are measured in

feet, from month to month in tenths of a foot,

and from year to year in hundredths of a foot.

From theoretical considerations, sea level

should show a periodic variation dependent on

the longitude of the moon’s node which has a

period of 18.6 years. Hence a determination of

mean sea level as the average of the hourly

measurements over a period of 19 years may

be taken as constituting mean sea level. But

for precision it is necessary to specify the period

of 19 years, for the observations show a slow

secular change. Along the Atlantic coast of the

United States, for example, sea level for the

past 20 years has been rising at the rate of

about one one-hundredth of a foot per year.

(Author’s abstract.)

1239TH MEETING

The 1239th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, November 25, 1944, Vice-

President Walt presiding.

Program: E. O. Hutsert, Naval Research

Laboratory: Optics of distilled water and sea

water—By means of a spherical scattering

flask and a 12-foot absorption tube the scatter-

ing and absorption coefficients throughout the

visible spectrum were measured in the labora-

tory of samples of distilled water, of Chesa-

peake Bay, and of the Atlantic Ocean.

Subtracting the absorption of pure water

from that of the Bay water left a residual

blue absorption due to the plankton content of

the Bay. The plankton color would therefore

be termed ‘‘yellow”’ or ‘“‘amber.”’ This com-

bined with the red absorption of pure water

caused the Bay to be green, as observed. The

result supported the conclusion that the deep

blue of tropical ocean areas far from land and

the dark gray or green gray of high latitude

sea areas far from land are due to the known

scarcity and abundance of pelagic planktonic

material in the respective areas.

The laboratory optical coefficients were in-

troduced into the theoretical equations of a

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 11

former paper (Journ. Optical Soc. Amer. 33:

42-45. 1943) and the amount of daylight

emerging upward from the Bay and the sea

were calculated for various states of the sky

ranging from clear to overcast. The theoretical

values of the reflectivity of a calm surface of

the sea and the Bay increased from about

0.025 to 0.055 as the cloudiness increased from

zero to completely overcast. In approximate

agreement with theory, values of the reflec-

tivity of the sea and the Bay, observed in

moderate weather from a boat and an airplane,

were 0.02 to 0.03 for a cloudless sky and 0.05

to 0.06 for a cloudy sky. (Author’s abstract.) —

1240TH MEETING

- The 1240th meeting, a joint meeting with the

Washington Academy of Sciences, was held in

the Cosmos Club Auditorium, November 30,

1944.

Program: Rosert H. Monteomery, Foreign

Economic Administration: The impact of tech-

nology on community life.

1241st MEETING

The 1241st meeting, constituting the 74th

annual meeting, was held in the Cosmos Club

Auditorium, December 9, 1944, President

STIMSON presiding.

The Treasurer reported that the income

from dues and interest on investments was

$1,483.90 and that the expenditures exclusive

of investments was $1,126.88, leaving a net

surplus of $357.02 on ordinary expenses. The

ordinary expenses were at the rate of $3.30 per

member. The total estimated assets of the So-

ciety as of December 1, 1944, were $15,721.21.

The Secretaries’ joint report showed an ac-

tive membership as of December 1, 1944, of

339, of whom the following 29 were new mem-

bers: Haroutp V. Arco, Mary Frances ArGo,

Pau F. Bartunex, E. H. BRAMHALL, JOSEPH

S. Brocx, Epwin Louis Crow, GiLBerT H.

CurL, HaskeLu B. Curry, Norman Davips,

CHarLes A. Dovuauas, Jacques DvuTKA,

RussELL H. Gorr, Laurence B. HEILPRIN,

Frep Ke.uer, Jr., E. H. Kennarp, Myron

Kirstein, Lours LANDWEBER, SAMUEL LEvy,

Jean SytvE Menpovusse, Maruin L. Miter,

Martua G. Morrow, Franz H. RaTHMANN,

EpGar O. Seaquist, WILLIAM J. SETTE, ALAN

H. SHaptey, RaupH R. SHaw, BENJAMIN

Nov. 15, 1945

SussHoutz, CHARLES A. WHITTEN, and M. L.

ZIMMER.

The Secretaries reported the deaths of

J. FRANKLIN MEYER and JESSE PAWLING.

Following the report of the Committee on

Elections, the following officers were declared

elected for the year 1945: President, GrorGE R.

Wait; Vice-Presidents, C. L. GARNER and

Francis M. Deranporr; Treasurer, FRANCIS

E. Jonnston; Recording Secretary, KENNETH L.

SHERMAN; Members-at-Large of the General

Committee, Wa.tTER L. CHENEY, JOHN W.

McBurney, and G. B. ScHuUBAUER.

Program: NicHouas P. SeTcukKin, National

Bureau of Standards: The ignition temperature

of liquids—The self-ignition temperature of a

combustible mixture can be defined as the low-

est initial temperature from which, under

given conditions, the exothermic~ reaction

within the mixture will raise the temperature

to a point where ignition, evidenced by flame

or explosion, will occur. In our tests made at

atmospheric pressure, an optimum charge of

the liquid, as determined by trial, was injected

into a flask raised to a constant uniform tem-

perature, the course of the reaction being in-

dicated by temperature changes within the re-

sulting gas-air mixture. Depending on whether

ignition was obtained, tests were made at

higher or lower initial temperatures until the

lowest ignition threshold was determined.

The lag between the introduction of the

charge and moment of ignition increased with

decrease in initial temperature and, at the

level of the self-ignition temperature, varied

as between different liquids from a few seconds

to 20 minutes.

Ignition flasks of 15,000, 1,000, and 200 ml

capacity were applied in the tests with varia-

tions in details of heating and insulation. Most

of the tests were made in the 1,000 ml equip-

ment with which temperature uniformity with-

in 1°C. was attained. Sharp distinction between

ignition and non-ignition within a few degrees

C. difference in initial flask temperature was

observed for most liquids. Being that only the

part of the heat from the ignition reaction not

lost to the flask wall and surroundings is

available for raising the temperature of the

reacting mixture, there should be expected an

increase in ignition temperature with decrease

in size of ignition chamber, but this effect was

not indicated as very marked for the range in

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

369

size indicated above. Thus, for a sample of

motor gasoline, respective self-ignition tem-

peratures of 240°, 243°, and 248°C. were ob-

tained in these chambers, having corresponding

surface-to-volume ratios of 0.20, 0.48, and

0.83. (Author’s abstract.)

1242p MEETING

The 1242d meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, January 6, 1945, President

WalT presiding.

The retiring President, H. F. Stimson, of the

National Bureau of Standards, delivered his

presidential address on the subject The meas-

urement of some thermal properties of water. This

address was published in this JourNaAL (35:

201-217. 1945).

1243p MEETING

The 1243d meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, January 20, 1945, President

Walt presiding.

Program: JonHN K. Boosaupa, Naval Ord-

nance Laboratory: Plastics—today and tomor-

row.—A general survey of the plastics industry

was presented. A brief discussion of its growth,

of types of materials available, and of the

methods of processing was followed by a mo-

tion picture on molding. The most prolific

period in the commercial development oc-

curred in the last decade although the first

commercial application of a plastics material

dates back 75 years. Plastics were discussed

under two main types, depending on the nature

of the change undergone when exposed to

heat: the thermosetting which undergo a

chemical change and the thermoplastic which

undergo a physical change. Thermosetting

resins include the phenolics, the aminoplasts,

and the more recent polyesters. The thermo-

plastic resins include the cellulosics, the vinyls,

acrylics, polystyrene, and polyamides. The

former are amenable to compression and trans-

fer molding and to laminating and casting;

the latter may be continuously molded by in-

jection and extrusion. Owing to the intense

development in recent years, tomorrow will

bring many materials for wide use. A very

interesting exhibit of plastics materials and

products and an informal discussion period

followed adjournment. (Secretary’s abstract.)

370

1244TH MEETING

The 1244th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, February 3, 1945, President

WalIT presiding.

Program: E. H. Vestine, Department of

Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution

of Washington: The geographical distribution of

aurora.—A new derivation of the frequency of

aurora in days per year in various geographic

positions was described, as found on the basis of

a revision of earlier data of Fritz, and inclusion

of subsequent data of the past 70 years, for the

Northern Hemisphere. Isochasms for the

Southern Hemisphere were also estimated.

Maps showing lines of average equal hourly

frequency of aurora were found in good general

correspondence with expectations indicated for

average current-lines in the atmosphere during

geomagnetic bays. (Author’s abstract.)

Mr. A. J. SCHNEIDEROV presented an in-

formal communication on the gravitational

constant.

1245TH MEETING

The 1245th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, February 17, 1945, President

Walt presiding.

Program: Donatp H. ANDREws, Johns

Hopkins University: Explorations near absolute

zero.—Recent developments in the technique

of adiabatic cooling through demagnetization,

as first applied by Giaque, have pushed the

limit of attainable temperature to within 0.005°

of absolute zero. The thermodynamic signifi-

cance of the low temperature region is illus-

trated in the fact that the calculated vapor

pressures of all known substances drop far be-

low the negative hundredth power of ten

atmospheres. One might expect this to be a

region where no equilibrium of any kind could

be attained, a graveyard of thwarted free

energy. Paradoxically, in the region within a

few degrees of absolute zero, there have been

discovered two of the most mobile phenomena

ever found, superconductivity and the super-

fluidity of helium. In superconductivity and

its resultant persistent currents, we have one

of the nearest approaches to ordered macro-

scopic perpetual motion, occurring, strangely

enough, in what might have been expected to

be the region of perpetual rest. In superfluidity,

we have an example of almost a hundredfold

abnormally large thermal-conductivity and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, No. 11

small viscosity in a fluid which appears to have

the ordered structure of a solid. These effects

appear to be related to the quantization of

energy and the resultant enhancing of phe-

nomena especially dependent on the character

of the statistics controlling the behavior of the

particles. The possible use of these phenomena

to provide supersensitive instrumental analy-

sis of other phenomena at both low and high

temperatures has been illustrated by the con-

struction of a bolometer employing a super-

conducting filament as the radiation receiver.

By using radiation sources at temperatures in

the neighborhood of 25° K, it has been shown

that such a bolometer will detect increments of

energy of the order of 5X10~ ergs per second

and evidence has been obtained for the validity

of the fourth power radiation law for wave

lengths in the neighborhood of 100 microns.

(Author’s abstract.)

Mr. MicuarL GoLpBERG presented an in-

formal communication concerning the diameter |

of cylinders and spheres, using models in a

demonstration.

1246TH MEETING

The 1246th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, March 3, 1945, President

Walt presiding.

Program: Douauas F. WinnEx, The Winnek

Laboratories, Mount Vernon: Trivision—a

direct-vision color stereograph.—The method

being developed in this laboratory uses stand-

ard photographic film, the back of which is

processed, in effect forming many small cylin-

drical lenses. For exposure the emulsion side

of the film is turned away from the camera lens.

The problems and progress of development

were outlined and some of the possibilities and |

probable uses were indicated. Sample photo-

graphs of various subjects created considerable

interest and indicated real accomplishment.

(Secretary’s abstract.)

12477TH MEETING

The 1247th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, March 17, 1945, President

WAIT presiding.

Program: A. G. McNisx, Department of

Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of

Washington: The odograph.—The vehicular

odograph is an instrument for automatically

making a map of the course followed by a

~~ a

Nov. 15, 1945

vehicle. It was developed in its experimental

stages at the Department of Terrestrial Mag-

netism of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-

ton under a contract with the Office of Scien-

tific Research and Development in accordance

with a directive from the Office of Chief of

Engineers. Engineering the device for produc-

tion was accomplished by the Monroe Calcu-

lating Machine Co. and by the International

Business Machines Co., which companies later

manufactured it for the Army.

The device consists of a magnetic compass,

which is “‘followed”’ by a photoelectric system,

and an integrating unit. Information regarding

heading of the vehicle and information regard-

ing distance traveled are fed into the integrat-

ing unit from the compass and the speedometer

cable, respectively. Motion of the vehicle is

mechanically resolved into north-south and

east-west components by the integrator. Move-

ments proportional to the distance travelled in

each of these directions is brought up to a pair

of perpendicular lead screws which drive a

stylus on a map paper. In this way the course

followed by the vehicle is accurately portrayed.

Experimental tests show that under normal

conditions an accuracy of from one to two per

cent can be expected from the device, better

results not being infrequent, and even under

severe operating conditions the errors remain

small enough that the instrument serves many

useful functions. (Author’s abstract.)

1248TH MEETING

The 1248th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, March 31, 1945, President

Walt presiding.

Program: A. H. Stons, Geophysical Labora-

tory, Carnegie Institution of Washington: Elec-

trical networks and “squaring the square.’’—This

talk summarized a paper by R. L. Brooks,

C. A. B. Smirn, A. H. Srone, and W. T.

Tutte (‘‘On the dissection of rectangles into

squares’), which appeared in the Duke Mathe-

matical Journal, vol. 7, 1940. The problem

considered is this: Can a square be dissected

into a finite number of smaller square pieces,

no two of which are equal? More generally,

what kinds of rectangles can be dissected into

unequal squares (‘‘squared’’)? Rather unex-

pectedly, the complete solution follows from

- considerations of classical applied mathematics.

Any “squaring” ofa rectangle can be repre-

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

371

sented by a steady flow of electricity in a net-

work, the currents being proportional to the

sides of the squares. Considerations of sym-

metry in the network enable one to construct

different ‘‘squarings’’ of the same rectangle,

and thus to “‘square’’ a square in infinitely

many different ways. It follows that a rectangle

can be “squared”’ if and only if its sides are

commensurable. ‘Squared’ rectangles can

have as few as 9 square pieces, but no fewer. A

square can be dissected into 26 unequal squares,

possibly fewer. (Author’s abstract.)

Mr. L. B. TuckerRMAN presented an informal

communication on adding strength to struc-

tural parts by cutting away material.

1249TH MEETING

The 1249th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, April 14, 1945, President

WalrT presiding.

Mr. SiusBex, Chairman of the Joseph Henry

Lecture Committee, introduced JOHN VON

NEUMANN, of the Institute for Advanced

Study, Princeton, who delivered the fourteenth

Joseph Henry lecture, Causality, statistics, and

quantum mechanics. It is expected that this

lecture will be published in this JourNAL.

1250TH MEETING

The 1250th meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, April 28, 1945, President

Walt presiding.

Program: Wiuu1amM F. Brown, JR., Naval

Ordnance Laboratory: Ferromagnetic domains.

—The Weiss “‘molecular field’”’ theory explained

the large magnetization of ferromagnetic ma-

terials but predicted spontaneous magnetiza-

tion even in zero field. To overcome this

difficulty, Weiss postulated that the material

really is spontaneously magnetized over micro-

scopic regions or ‘‘domains,’’ which in zero

field are magnetized in different directions.

Despite quantum-theory improvements on

Weiss’s theory, domains must still be postu-

lated.

At small fields, the domains are magnetized

along “‘directions of easy magnetization’ de-

termined by crystalline anisotropy; the field

causes a larger volume to be magnetized in

some of these directions and a smaller volume

in others. At large fields, the spontaneous mag-

netization rotates toward the field direction.

The second stage is reversible and therefore

372

easily handled theoretically. The first stage is

more difficult to interpret. Experiments on the

Barkhausen effect, powder patterns, and alloys

under tension suggest that one domain grows

at the expense of another by displacement of

the ‘‘wall’’ between them. A theoretical study

of the ‘‘wall” supports this idea. Walls undergo

small displacements reversibly, but ultimately

they reach unstable positions and move ir-

reversibly through finite distances; this is the

mechanism of the Barkhausen effect and

hysteresis. (Author’s abstract.)

Mr. A. H. Mears presented an informal

communication on an instrument developed

for obtaining data for statistical study and its

use in connection with a wind turbine for

generating power.

1251st MEETING

The 1251st meeting was held in the Cosmos

Club Auditorium, May 12, 1945, President

WalIT presiding.

Program: STERLING B. HeNpRIcKs, Bureau

of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural

Engineering: Photoperiodic flowering response

of plants —Floral development in plants as in-

fluenced by length of day was discussed in de-

tail and illustrated by examples within the

experience of the audience. Results recently

obtained by H. A. Bortuwick, M. W. ParKeEr,

N. J. Scuuiy, and the speaker were presented.

Spectroscopic equipment used to determine the

action spectrum for floral initiation in Biloxi

soybean was described.

The following theory consistent with past

observations was advanced: A material form-

ing in the chloroplasts during the dark period

diffuses from the leaf to the growing point and,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

between certain concentration limits, causes

floral development. Light absorbed by chloro-—

phyll partially destroys this material at its

source by sensitized oxidation. At high concen-

trations, such as produced in long-day plants

under short-day conditions, the material in-

hibits flowering. Continuous illumination of a

long-day plant reduces the concentration of the

material to the critical range. This range is at-

tained in short-day plants only when the night _

is adequately long. (Author’s abstract.)

1252p MEETING

The 1252d meeting was held in the Cosmos —

Club Auditorium, May 26, 1945, President

WalIT presiding.

Program: WILLIAM B. KoUWENHAVEN, Johns

Hopkins University: Electric shock—physiologi-

cal manifestations and treatment.—The speaker

outlined the problems relating to electric shock,

discussed the effects of electric currents passing

through the body, and described methods of

resuscitation. The importance of immediate ap-

plication of artificial respiration methods and

their uninterrupted and continued use was

stressed. The method of applying artificial.

respiration atop the poles of power lines was

given and illustrated in some detail. Results

were given of comparisons between this method

VOL. 35, No. 11

bia

“<=

and the normal method by which the patient |

is first brought down the pole and placed prone

on the ground. (Secretary’s abstract.) .

Mr. L. B. TucKkerRMaN presented an informal

communication relating to the equation of a

curve like that at the seams of the cover of a

baseball.

KENNETH L. SHERMAN,

Recording Secretary. \

LAV Se

ae BACK ISSUES OF JOURNAL WANTED .

During the past several years the Cus-

todian and Subscription Manager of Pub-

lications has received from various members

of the Academy many numbers of the

JOURNAL that were no longer needed by

them. These contributions have made it

possible to assemble several complete sets.

At the present time there is urgent need for

those issues of the JourRNaL in Volumes 1 to

10, inclusive. Accordingly, members who

may have any such numbers that they no

longer wish to keep are urged to send them

to Frank M. Serrzuer, Custodian and

Subscription Manager, U.S. National Mu-

seum, Washington 25, D.C.

CONTENTS

BroLtocy.—Suggested terms for the interpretation of speciation phe-

nomena: : S. DmLON RIPLEY. £0) SoC POR ae ee |

ErHNoLocy.—Notes from Six Nations on the hunting and trapping of

wild turkeysand passenger pigeons. ERnrestS. Dopan.........

Botany.—Scab of Cinchona in South America caused by Elsinoé.

Anwa E, JENKINS. 3050 od be oh ee

Botrany.—Accessory vascular bundles in Murraya koenigii (Linn.)

Spreng. (Rutaceae: Aurantioideae). FRANK D. VENNING.......

EntromoLoey.—Concerning Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemiptera). C.

J. Draxe and. E. J. HaMBunron..”. 602), 0.0 ee Cok ee ce

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY... ......... ccc ewevccunces

Bacx Issurs oF JOURNAL WANTED...) 2.203. 320777. 42 ee

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

337

342

344

356

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DECEMBER 15, 1945 ' No, 12

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JOURNAL :

Bia. ACADEMY

SCIENCES ae

“s

BOARD OF EDITORS ” ) }

iE BSc Haraxp A, Retper Wittram N, Fenton i

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aae9 / : ; 4 a

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

PHICAL SOCIETY oy ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ght Tating

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BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY =~ . : 4 alae tle

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amide ee

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_ PUBLISHED MONTHLY ra . te

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Son This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Borcaabe cibhiohon: ne

(1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the ne emy; (2)

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- ‘ f poke

JOURNAL

OF THE

VouLuME 35

LINGUISTICS.—Siz common Navajo nouns accounted for

“WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

DrcEMBER 15, 1945

No. 12

JOHN P. HARRING-

TON, Bureau of American Ethnology.

The Navajo Indians are North America’s

largest tribe and occupy the biggest Indian

reservation in the United States, which is

situated in the States of Arizona and New

Mexico. A half dozen of some of the very

most widely known words of the Navajo

language, each with a new derivation or

connection, are here presented.

The Navajo word for bean of any kind,

Phaseolus vulgaris L. and other spp., is

naa’oli. To one conversant with the far-

swung forms of Spanish frijoles, beans,

singular frijol, bean, in several Indian

- languages, the source of this Navajo word

as Spanish frijoles seems likely. If we accept

this postulation, another word for bean

must have obtained in Navajo in pre-

Spanish times. The name of bean in all the

languages surrounding the Navajo has been

looked into.

The common Navajo term for blanket is

_ péeltléi, sometimes pronounced péeltlati.

This term not only is used by the Navajo

for blanket but is the common term for the

famous Navajo blanket, which in English

is sometimes called a blanket and sometimes

a rug, and for the making of which the

Navajo Indian tribe is known all over the

world. This word is nothing short of Span-

ish fresada, blanket, which is the ordinary

Spanish word for blanket, in corrupted

form, péeltlati even retaining the three syl-

lables of the Spanish. This brings out the

interesting fact that not only is the Navajo

blanket largely due to Spanish accultura-

tion but also that its name is derivative to

Spanish.

The Navajo call a white man Pilik4ana.

This is from Spanish Americano, American,

-- with a twist in meaning. United States

American is mostly meant, a Mexican

being termed apart. Several other terms for

1 Received September 21, 1945.

United States American based on soldier

dubbings are still more or less in use, while

calling United States American by the word

meaning enemy, as is done in several

Apache languages, is not the practice in

the Navajo language of today and may

never have been.

The center of Navajo craftsmanship is

the blanket; the supply for this center is

tipé, sheep. Codescendant languages show

clearly that this is in origin the name of the

wild sheep now extended in meaning to

apply to the tame one. The original mean-

ing was Clearly the bleater.

Navajo kat, juniper, Juniperus mono-

sperma (Engelm.) Sarg., is also a very com-

mon word as regards its designation. All the

Navajo country of lower levels is dotted

with kat, juniper trees, and occasionally

one sees a juniper tree which has been

struck by lightning. This Navajo word is

‘patently the same as the neighboring La-

> R

guna Keresan k’a’ni, juniper. Since the

Navajo are well known to have come from

the north, the transmission of the name

may well have been in the direction from

the Lagunefio to the Navajo. One should

distinguish Navajo k’at, now, also of grave

intonation, which has the same start as

the Laguna Keresan word. In Navajo

ka’niJii, white spruce, literally pull-out

juniper (referring to the needles being easy

to pull out), an earlier *katnijii has had its

¢t smothered, turned into alif.

Navajo xd6oGan refers to the native-

style house, hogan, while khin means a

rectangular house. Sometimes one hears

what might be written x¥O60Gan. The word

x0oGan means in etymology a dwelling-

place, being composed of x6o-, referring to

area, and -Gan, a stereotyped verb meaning

to dwell. Chiricahua khooGa, native house,

is absolutely the same word with the same

meaning as the Navajo has.

373

374

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 12

BOTAN Y.—Kokonoria, a new genus of Plantaginaceae from Tsinghar Province,

China.'

Chungking, China.

In the summer of 1944 the authors had

an opportunity to undertake an expedition

to the northwestern part of China. They

went to Lake Kokonor in Tsinghai Prov-

ince and to Labrang in Kansu Province

with a view to investigating the grazing

lands and the forage plants of these regions

for the National Research Bureau of Ani-

mal Industry, China. During this survey

they collected nearly a thousand numbers

of botanical specimens, which are now de-

posited in the herbarium of the National

Central University. Naturally there were

many novelties found in these two botani-

cally very little known regions. One of these

specimens represents a new genus of Planta-

ginaceae, described herewith. Although the

study of the whole collection is far from

complete, it seems desirable to publish this

new genus at the present time.

The authors wish to express here their

gratitude to Dr. Vougi Tsai and Prof.

Tieh-tsai Chang, the director and vice-di-

rector, respectively, of the Bureau, through

whose zealous recommendation, kind as-

sistance, and financial maintenance the

authors were able to conduct the expedition

successfully.

Kokonoria? Keng & Keng f., gen. nov.

Flores hermaphroditi, zygomorphi, trimeres,

receptaculo brevissime cupulari, juventate

tenuiusculo; calyx gamosepalus, persistens,

bilobatus, lobis membranaceis, lateraliter po-

sitis, saepissime antice vix conjunctis; corolla

sympetala, ad maturitatum subcoriacea sed

decidua, breviter trilobata, lobis deorsum im-

bricatus, duobus anticis minoribus, tubo quam

limbo multo longiore, interdum ad fauces con-

stricto, arcte ad marginem receptaculi cu-

pularis affixo; stamina 2 (tertium anticum

absens), inclusa vel vix exposita, ad vel infra

incisiones duas laterales inter corollae lobis in-

serta; antherae ad maturitatem inversum V-

formae, subsessiles vel a filamentis brevissimis

fultae, thecis duabus divergentibus, longitu-

1 Received October 26, 1945.

2 From ‘‘Kokonor,” which means in Mongolian

the “‘blue sea.”

Yi-t1 Kene and Kwan-Hovu Kene, National Central University,

(Communicated by Ecprrt H. WALKER.)

dinaliter dehiscentibus, distinctis vel apice

confluentibus; pollen ellipsoideum, longitu-

dinaliter 3-suleatum; discus perigynus, an-

nularis sed serius utrimque lobis duobus

elevatis accrescentibus appendiculatus; ovari-

um liberum, breviter stipitatum, biloculare,

loculis 1-ovulatis; stylus unicus, terminalis, di-

morphus, aut brevis inclususque aut longior

exsertusque, stigmate terminali, paulum bi-

lobulato; ovula linearis, anatropa, ex apice

loculi ovarii pendula; fructus drupaceus, brac-

tea atque lobis duobus calycis subtentus, bi-

seminalis, mesocarpio textura spongiusculo;

semina dorsaliter compressa, anguste oblongi-

lanceolata, exalbuminosa, in sectione semicir-

cularia, testa tenui, laevi; embryo rectus, ra-

dicula brevissima, superiore, cotyledonibus ob-

longis, subcarnosis. Herbae perennes, humiles,

stoloniferae; rhizomata crassa, foliorum basibus

emarcidis fibrillosis vestita; folia radicalia, al-

ternata, simplicia, integra, inferne attenuata

sed basi in structuras membranaceas vaginis

similes dilatata; flores parvi, bracteati, desic-

catione nigri, in scapis axillaribus quam foliis

brevioribus spicati, bracteis magnis, in anthesi

praeter eas margines liberas lateri antico re-

ceptaculi cupularis inferne plus minusve ad-

natis. Species unica, provinciam ‘Tsinghail,

prope mare conclusum Kokonoris habitans.

Flowers hermaphrodite (always so?), zygo-

morphic, trimerous, the receptacle shortly

cupular, rather thin in texture when young (as

also the calyx); calyx gamosepalous but usually

much less united in front, persistent, laterally

2-lobed, the anterior lobe entirely wanting but

replaced in the corresponding position by a

large bract adnate below to the cupular recep-

tacle but with free margins; corolla sympetal-

ous, thickened in anthesis but deciduous in

fruit, shortly 3-lobed, the posterior lobe larger,

descending-imbricate, the tube much longer

than the limb, firmly attached to the margin

of the receptacle, sometimes constricted at the

throat; stamens 2 (the anterior stamen want-

ing), included or scarcely exposed, inserted at

or just below the two lateral notches between

the corolla lobes; anthers inverted V-shaped

at maturity, subsessile or with short filaments,

Dec. 15, 1945

the two cells divergent, dehiscing lengthwise,

distinct or confluent at apex; pollen grains el-

lipsoidal, longitudinally 3-furrowed; disk perig-

ynous (its attachment seen in a young flower

a little below that of the corolla tube), annular

but later appendaged on both sides with two

prominent elevated lobes; ovary superior,

shortly stipitate, bilocular, each locule 1-

ovuled; style 1, terminal, dimorphic (either

short and included or slender and exserted)

with a terminal slightly 2-lobed stigma; ovule

linear, anatropous, pendulous from the apex

of the ovary cell; fruit drupaceous, subtended

by a bract and two calyx lobes, 2-seeded, the

mesocarp somewhat spongy in texture; seeds

dorsally compressed, narrowly oblong, exal-

buminous, semicircular in section; testa thin,

smooth; embryo straight, with a short superior

radicle and two somewhat fleshy cotyledons.

Perennial stoloniferous low herbs with simple

stout rhizomes, which are covered with emarcid

fibrillose leaf bases; leaves radical, alternate,

simple, entire, attenuate below but broadened

at base into membranous sheathlike struc-

tures; flowers small, bracteate, spicate on axil-

lary scapes shorter than the leaves. One species

endemic near Lake Kokonor, Tsinghai Prov-

ince, China.

Heretofore only three not closely related gen-

era, Plantago, Littorella, and Bougueria, were

known in the Plantaginaceae, all acaulescent

herbs with radical leaves and axillary scapes.

The genus here described is an isolated one,

differing from the others in having (1) perigy-

nous flowers with an annular disk giving off two

lateral accrescent lobes, (2) subsessile anthers

with divergent anther sacs, (3) solitary linear

ovules pendulous from the tip of the ovary cells,

(4) drupaceous fruits with a 2-celled pyrene,

and (5) dorsally compressed but not peltate

seeds without endosperm. Comparatively it

shows an affinity to the génus Bougueria,

which is polygamous, monotypic, and endemic

on the high Andes. The 3-merous corolla and

the 2-membered androecium of Kokonoria is

also found in Bougueria, but Kokonoria differs

from that in the 2-lobed calyx, bilocular ovary,

and the straight embryo, Bougueria having a

calyx of four linear sepals, an ovary unilocular,

and an embryo curved around the albumen.

According to Dr. 8. Ting, professor of ge-

ography at National Central University and a

specialist on pollen grains, the ellipsoid, 3-

KENG AND KENG: A NEW GENUS OF PLANTAGINACEAE

375

furrowed pollen of this genus is of a common

type found in several families, such as Scro-

phulariaceae and Umbelliferae. He says it is

quite different from that of Plantago, which has

rounded many-pored pollen grains. It seems

also very worth while to compare the pollen of

Kokonoria with that of Littorella and Bougueria,

but, unfortunately, the material and literature

now available here are inadequate for study of

this kind.

It seems very probable that the 4-merous

flower of the cosmopolitan genus Plantago is

formed through the reduction of the posterior

odd sepal and the union of the posterior two

corolla lobes from a 5-merous sympetalous type

such as the Scrophulariaceae. A comparison of

the floral structure of Plantago with that of

Veronica indicates this conception to be cor-

rect. As a result of this reduction, the four

sepals are placed diagonally and the four corolla

lobes crosswise. When the anterior two sepals

of this 4-merous flower are further completely

united and the anterior petal suppressed, a 3-

merous flower is evolved such as is found in

Kokonoria. There is, however, in Kokonoria a

tendency toward reduction to a 2-merous struc-

ture, for the anterior sepal and anterior stamen

are entirely reduced. A further reduction in the

union of its anterior two corolla lobes into a

single segment would bring the flower to a

complete dimerous state. Hence, the genus

Kokonoria is evidently much more advanced

than Plantago is the reduction of its floral

structure. Furthermore, the development of a

perigynous flower, annular disk, and exalbumi-

nous seeds also shows an advancement of

Kokonoria over the other three genera of Pla-

taginaceae in the evolutionary scale. But the

evolutionary development of Plantaginaceae

apparently culminates in the production of a

dimerous flower with inferior or half-inferior

ovary. A plant with such a floral structure has

been found in Circaea, which reaches the cli-

max of development in Onagraceae, but it is

still to be discovered in the plantain family.

Kokonoria stolonifera Keng & Keng f., sp. nov.

Herbae perennes, glabrae; rhizomata erecta,

1.5-3 cm alta, 1 cm crassa (foliorum basibus

persistentibus fibrillosis includentibus); stol-

ones axillares, graciles, cire. 20-30 cm longi,

foliis squameis reductis instructi, in plantas

juveniles parvas terminantes; folia rosulata,

‘SIQMOP, IOUUTY} WoT ole ,g pus G “7 ‘s1amoy redun{d wo UMBIP ore g pure “G “F “UTeIS uaT[od B JO SMOTA OMY ‘QT /9U04S B JO SMOTA (MOTO) BDBI pus

(aA0q®e) OpIs ‘J ] ‘WBISVIP [VIO] ‘QT -UdUIe4S JO SMOIA ro1zeysod pue 1o1eqyue ‘CT {[4std Jo UOTZ0VS [VUIPNyISUOT pue sso1o ‘FT ‘1eMOoy reduinjd woz yn04s

J9Y}O OY} ‘LaMOP IOUUTY} B VIO IopUdTS ou oY} ‘s[IysId OM} “ET ‘SUOPa[A}OD OMY PUB oOIPCI Io1oedns yuoys Sutmoys OAIQUIO ‘ZI ‘pods JO SMOIA IOTIOJUV

pue szo1seysod ‘{] !4imaj JO UOTZOOS ssoro pure [vUIPNysuo] ‘OT “6 :yUBUUTEI-9[AYs puB ‘xATBo “Qoviq JUO4STSIOd YALM yINIy ‘g SefoyM & sv opovydeoor epndno

UO PoPOSUI BI[oIOD SuLMOYS ‘poaoures xA[Bo puB youl YIM Jomoy soduinyd “7, ‘gjoeydooos rvjndno 0} Sulsuojeq out] paz30p MoTeq yaed ‘saBepuodde s4t

Y{IM YsIp Ivjnuu pUB SUSTIGIS SUIMOYS S¥I[OI0D popuBdxo JO SMOIA IOII04UT “9 ‘g ‘a]o110 poqyjgop Mojeq opoeydeoor rvpndno yy sedATBO ‘,G¢ ‘Gg’ Saqny

xAjeo pue opovydooos repndno 04 sdue1eype jo voldop Zurmoys yred popeysuN IOMO] ‘sy0B1q JO SMOIA IOTIOJUI ‘fF ‘Ff SIOMOP JOUUTYY B JO MOTIA [BV194R] “E

‘qures JO MOTIA [e104R] ‘g ‘1oMoy r9duinjd v Jo MorA sOl1aysod ‘Z ‘y1qey ‘T :edé} ory UMBIP “J SUSY P Susy Diaf1UW070)1s D1LOUOYOY.—"[-| “SDA

VOL. 35, NO. 12

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

376

ak ier

Dec. 15, 1945

obscure viridula, plus minusve carnosa, an-

guste lanceolata, 15-55 mm longa, 5-6 mm lata,

inferne attenuata et petiolis similia, costa media

infra prominenti, supra depressa; pedunculi

compressiusculi, circ. 1.5 em longi, 1 mm lati

sed sursum versus apicem paulum dilatati;

spicae pauci- vel pluri-florae, 1-2 em longae,

circ. 1 em crassae, erectae vel ad maturitatem

pendulae; bractea straminea, membranacea

sed dorso firmula, oblongi-lanceolata, 7-8 mm

longa, 2-3 mm lata, integra, acutiuscula vel

obtusa; flores subsessiles, conferti vel inferiores

remoti; calycis tubus saepissime altitudine in-

aequalis, in latere antico cire. 1.5 mm altus et

in postico 2.5 mm, lobis ovatis, in anthesi late

patentibus, 3-3.5 mm longis, 3 mm latis, mar-

gine late scariosis sed costa media viridulis,

prope apicem crispe ciliolatis; corolla juvenilis

membranacea albidaque, aetate subcoriacea

puniceaque, tubo circ. 5 mm longo, 3 mm in

diametro, extus glabro sed intus ad fauces

puberulenti, desiccatione nigro, irregulariter

_ rugoso, posteriore plus minusve inflato, lobis

erectis, obtusis, ovatis vel subrotundis, colore

quam tubo siccano clarioribus, uno postico

quam duobus anticis longiore sed multo lati-

ore, interdum emarginato, 1-1.5 mm longo, 1.5

mm lato; disci lobi oblongi, cuneati, vel quad-

rangulares, 1.5-3 mm longi, 1-2 mm lati, ad

maturitatem subcoriacei, irregulariter divisi vel

erosi, fusci-brunnei, super ovarii stipitem in-

cumbentes; staminis filamentum brevissimum,

usque ad 1 mm longum; antherae flavidi-brun-

neae, thecis circ. 1 mm longis; pollen 30—40u

longum, 13—23u latum, sulcis 3 profundis longi-

tudinalibus pervagatum, tenuissime sed_ir-

regulariter granulare; ovarium juvenile late-

raliter compressum, ellipticum glabrumque,

serius lineari-oblongum vel fusiforme, circ. 3.5

mm longum (stipite glabro includente), 1-2

mm crassum, superne puberulum et irregula-

riter rugosum; stylus sive crassus cire. 0.5

mm sive gracilis usque ad 5 mm longus, stig-

mate capitulato, laevi, minute bilobulato;

fructus globularis, 5-7 mm longus, 3-5 mm in

diametro, glaber, fusci-brunneus, stylo vel eius

residuo persistente superatus, pericarpio sic-

cano, circ. 1.5 mm crasso, pyrena lignosa, ni-

grescente, tereti sed leviterlateraliter compressa,

4-5 mm longa, 2 mm lata (in latere latiore),

basi breviter constricta, apice crescente (in

aspectu laterali), in margine antero-posteriore

fibris erectis lignosis fimbriata; semen albidem,

~ KENG AND KENG: A NEW GENUS OF PLANTAGINACEAE

377

4mm longum, | mm latum, extrinsecus canali-

culo tenui longitudinali medio suleatum; em-

bryo semine paulum brevior, cotyledonibus

plano-convexis, ultra 3 mm longis.

Perennial glabrous herbs; rhizomes upright,

1.5-3 em tall, about 1 em thick ineluding the

straw-colored fibrillose leaf bases; stolons slen-

der with scalelike leaves, about 20-30 cm long,

terminating in small plantlets; leaves several in

a rosette, dark green, more or less fleshy, nar-

rowly lanceolate, 1.5—-5.5 em long, 0.5-0.6 em

wide, acute, attenuate and petiolelike below,

the midrib prominent beneath, depressed

above; peduncle 2-edged, about 1.5 em long,

1 mm wide but somewhat broadened toward

the apex; spikes several- to many-flowered, 1—2

em long, about 1 cm. thick, erect or pendulous

at maturity; bract stramineous, membranous

but somewhat firm dorsally, oblong-lanceolate,

7-8 mm long, 2-3 mm wide, entire, acutish or

obtuse; flowers subsessile, crowded or the lower

ones somewhat remote; calyx tube (including

the cuplike receptacle) usually asymmetric,

about 1.5 mm on the anterior and 2.5 mm long

on the posterior side, the lobes ovate, wide open

in anthesis, 3-3.5 mm long, 3 mm _ wide,

broadly scarious with prominent green mid-

ribs, crinkled-ciliolate near the apex; corolla

membranous and whitish when young, sub-

coriaceous and pinkish when mature, the tube

about 5 mm long, 3 mm across, glabrous out-

side, puberulent at the throat within, irregu-

larly wrinkled when dry, dorsally more or less

inflated, the lobes erect, obtuse, ovate or some-

what rounded, lighter in color than the tube

(seen in dry specimens), the anterior two

slightly shorter but much narrower than the

posterior one, which is sometimes emarginate,

1-1.5 mm long, 1.5 mm wide; disk lobes ob-

long, cuneate or quadrangular, 1.5-3 mm long,

1-2 mm wide, irregularly cleft, subcoriaceous

at maturity, dark brown, pressed against the

stipe of the ovary; filaments from very short

to 1 mm long; anthers yellowish brown, with

sacs about 1 mm long; pollen 30—40y long, 13-

23u wide, longitudinally traversed with three

deep furrows, the exine finely but irregularly

granular; ovary laterally compressed, ellip-

tic and glabrous when young, later becom-

ing linear-oblong to fusiform, about 3.5 mm

long (including the glabrous stipe), 1-2 mm

thick, puberulent and irregularly wrinkled;

style either stout, about 0.5 mm long, or slender

378

and up to 5 mm long; stigma capitulate,

smooth, bilobed; fruit globular, 5-7 mm long,

3-5 mm across, glabrous, dark brown, sur-

mounted by the persistent style or its remnant,

the pericarp dry, about 1.5 mm thick; stone

(pyrene) woody, nigrescent, terete but some-

what compressed laterally, 4-5 mm long, 2

mm wide (the broader side), shortly constricted

at base, crescent at apex (in side view) with

erect wood fibers on the anterior-posterior mar-

gins; seed whitish, 4 mm long, 1 mm wide, out-

wardly sulcate with a fine longitudinal median

groove; embryo slightly shorter than the seed,

with planoconvex Gotyledons over 3 mm long.

Type in the Herbarium of the Department

of Biology, National Central University,

Chungking, China, collected on the exposed

bare ground of the steppe, near the ruined city

Ch’a-han-chéng, (#€7F4K), about 30 miles east

of Lake Kokonor, Huan-yiian-hsien ({2 A #¥),

formerly known as Tan-ké-erh (F}3 ff),

Tsinghai Province, August 10, 1944, by Y. L.

Keng and son (no. 5286).

There are two kinds of flowers (see Figs. 3

and 3’) in this species, one near the base of the

spike having plumper corollas, subsessile an-

thers, and short included styles, the other on

the upper part with rather slender corollas

constricted at the throat, very short but dis-

tinct stamen filaments, and longer exserted

styles. Though each flower form possesses two

well-developed stamens and a pistil, all the

fruits seen are found to have a rather long style

or its remnant at the apex. Therefore, further

examination is needed to decide whether the

flower with a short included style is fertile. It

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 12

is quite certain, however, that the flowers are

all entomophilous, since the anthers never ex-

ceed the erect corolla-lobes which would be

necessary for wind pollination. The zygomor-

phy of the flower is shown not only by the corol-

la with three unequal lobes ‘but also by the

calyx, which usually has an unequal union of

the two laterally placed sepals.

The bract of a rather young flower is dor-

sally more or less adherent below to the ante-

rior side of the very short cupular receptacle

including the calyx tube. But the short calyx

tube is sometimes also found to be distinctly

exposed in front beyond the adnate portion of

the bract. No matter how much the adherence

of the bract, the margins are always quite free

from either the receptacle or the calyx. If there

were no such free margins present, the bract

would be easily mistaken in morphology for an

anterior lobe of the calyx, which, like the an-

terior stamen, is entirely suppressed in this

species. The corolla is at first distinctly perig-

yhous and very thin in texture but becomes

much thicker or even coriaceous at maturity

and appears to have increased its size and

thickness downward so much that it seems

thenceforth to be hypogynous. The deciduous-

ness of the corolla is perhaps caused by the

protrusion of the enlarged fruit, which ruptures

the corolla and causes it eventually to fall off.

Another peculiarity is that the annular disk,

which is also perigynous with an attachment a

little below the corolla, gives off on both sides

two large thick and variously shaped append-

ages during its development from youth to

maturity.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the

subfamily Dynastinae, No. 1: Tribe Cyclocephalini.}

LAWRENCE W. SAYLor,

Research Associate, California Academy of Sciences.

The important subfamily Dynastinae has

for some time been relatively neglected,

taxonomically speaking, and only in the

past few years have new species been de-

scribed or the larval characters of many

species better characterized. In all collec-

tions I have seen, numerous United States

Species are grossly misidentified, and it is

hoped that the present papers will help to

rectify this condition.

1 Received August 13, 1945.

Ritcher’s paper (1944) is an excellent

contribution to the immature stages of these

insects. His title, however, Dynastinae of the

United States, is very misleading, because

this paper includes only a small proportion

of the described United States species, and

only those adults are mentioned of which

he had larvae; thus, of the 18 described

genera and 119 United States species listed

as valid in Arrow’s latest catalogue (1937),

Ritcher treats the larvae and adults of but

12 genera and 20 species. Even though a

Dec. 15, 1945

number of these 119 names are not valid,

many of them are important and _ well-

known species and must be considered. Also,

two generic and three specific names that

Ritcher uses have been changed; regardless

of these taxonomic errors, the paper is very

important from an economic standpoint.

Casey’s studies in this group have greatly

enlarged our synonymy because of his prac-

tice of naming trifling variants, but at the

same time his Memoirs (1915) gave more

detailed information and pointed out more

new characters and relationships than had

any of his predecessors or contemporaries,

including Horn and LeConte; it is indeed

too bad that Colonel Casey’s idea of a

“‘species’’ was not exactly that of the vast

majority of coleopterists; otherwise his

work in this family would have stood for

some time. I have had the privilege of

studying and dissecting all of Casey’s

scarab types through the courtesy of Dr.

A. Wetmore and Dr. E. A. Chapin, of the

U.S. National Museum, to both of whom I

am indebted for many favors in the past.

The Dynastinae in most instances possess

well-chitinized genitalia, and the characters

of those of the male are very helpful in

specific determination, and wider use should

be made of them. Indeed, in such difficult

genera as Cyclocephala, it is necessary to

dissect and compare the male genitalia in

order properly to place many of the trouble-

some variants.

Dynastine bibliography is now so long

and detailed in most genera that very little

is to be gained by citing every unimportant

reference, as this has already been donein

Arrow’s catalogue of world Dynastinae.

Thus, in the present series of papers, of

which this is the first of four, only the im-

portant bibliographical references have

been selected and a list of those cited is

given at the end of each paper. Keys to all

tribes and genera will be given in the last

paper of the series.

KEY TO THE GENERA

1. Ligula strongly convex, apex very deeply in-

cised and declivous; clypeus long and para-

bolic, without front angles, and very ob-

tusely angulate at midapex; mandibles very

long and slender and exposed beyond clypeal

apex; male front claw enlarged.

Ancognatha Erichson

SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE

379

Ligula variable, but never more than slightly

emarginate, never incised; clypeus of differ-

ent shape; claws variable............... 2

2. Color black, mandibles broad, rounded ex-

ternally and either exposed beyond or hidden

beneath clypeus; clypeus either trapezoidal

and short with apex not reflexed or clypeus

longer and strongly reflexed, with clypeal

suture entirely obsolete and front coarsely

GRIDEALG ANG CORWER «4:45 ala sp'e Sie Hodes 3

Color testaceous, often mottled with brown

cloudings (only very rarely blackish);

clypeal suture always strongly indicated;

mandibles extended beyond clypeal apex and

MOT VORPORGE Heke li is'wl FOUN hale Bae, Bien 4

3. Clypeus very strongly reflexed apically and

faintly emarginate; clypeal suture entirely

lacking; base of ligula very deeply and tri-

angularly emarginate, apex very narrow; all

claws both sexes simple; first segment of

hind tarsus longer than next two combined;

Pamir bn ESR ig Gi Ei": Coscinocephalus Prell

Clypeus faintly emarginate apically and not

reflexed; clypeal suture strong; ligula flat-

tened at base, apex very broad; front claws

of male enlarged; first segment of hind tarsus

a little longer than second.

Dyscinetus Harold

4. Head very broad, nearly three-fourths width

of thorax, clypeus very long and flat, sides

parallel and apex subrounded; Central

America and ?Texas..... Aspidolea Bates

Head definitely less than half as wide as

thorax; clypeus variable but never exactly

as above (if long, no longer than front).

Cyclocephala Latreille

Genus Ancognatha Erichson

Ancognatha Erichson, 1847, p. 97; Lacordaire,

1856, p. 398; Bates, 1888, p. 297; Casey, 1915,

p. 124.

Only a single species occurs in the United

States, but it is quite variable in color, especial-

ly the Mexican examples.

Ancognatha manca LeConte

A. manca LeConte, 1866, p. 382; Bates, 1888, p.

335; Arrow, 1911, p. 169; Casey, 1915, p. 127.

A. aequata Bates, 1888, p. 297, pl. 17, fig. 12.

A. perspicua Casey, 1915, p. 126.

A. zuniella Casey, 1915, p. 127.

A. durangoana Casey, 1915, p. 125. (New syn.)

A. laevigata Bates, 1888, p. 297. (New synonymy.)

I have examined specimens from central

Mexico to Arizona and New Mexico. Varies in

color from deepest black, to black with rufo-

castaneous elytra and legs, to castaneopiceous

with testaceous legs, scutellum, and thoracic

margins; most Arizona specimens are the last

phase. The length varies from 15 to 19 mm. The

very tumid, deeply cleft ligula will readily

place the species.

380

Genus Coscinocephalus Prell

Coscinocephalus Prell, 1936, p. 145.

Anoplocephalus Schaeffer, 1906, p. 259. (Preocc.)

Our single species from Arizona is the sole

representative of this genus.

Coscinocephalus cribrifons (Schaeffer)

Anoplocephalus cribrifons Schaeffer, 1906, p. 260;

Casey, 1915, p. 124.

The maxilla of this uncommon species is en-

tirely unarmed (no teeth), and the mentum

(ligula) is very strongly acuminate apically as

in Cyclocephala hirta, but differs in the base in

Coscinocephalus being deeply and triangularly

depressed at base. The long and coarsely

cribrate clypeus, which is strongly reflexed and

faintly emarginate apically, also distinguishes

the genus.

Genus Dyscinetus Harold

Dyscinetus Harold, 1869, p. 123; Casey, 1915, p.

165; Prell, 1936, p. 147.

Chalepus Macleay, 1819, p. 149; Lacordaire, 1856,

p. 408.

Palechus Casey, 1915, p. 174.

Arrow lists 20 species of this purely American

genus, which ranges throughout the Americas

and the West Indies, and many of them are of

considerable economic importance.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Pygidium entirely and coarsely cribrate; clypeus

finely punctured and smooth; eastern United

States, west to Texas....morator (Fabricius)

Pygidium coarsely to somewhat coarsely but not

densely punctured; spaces between punctures

highly polished and smooth; clypeus coarsely

and transversely rugose; California and east to

New Mexico and south to Mexico and West

icles Byes ga ty ne Nas picipes (Burmeister)

Dyscinetus morator (Fabricius)

Scarabaeus morator Fabricius, 1799, p. 24; Arrow,

1937, p. 17. (Dyscinetus.)

Dyscinetus trachypygus Burmeister, 1847, p. 79;

Bates, 1888, p. 312; Casey, 1915, p. 171;

Ritcher, 1944, p. 21 (larva).

Dyscinetus discedens Casey, 1915, p. 171.

Dyscinetus borealis Casey, 1915, p. 171.

This is the common rice beetle which ranges

through the mid-eastern States and southern

States west to Texas and Kansas. The larvae

feed beneath the sod and occur also in compost

heaps or near pigpens (Phillips and Fox).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 12

Dyscinetus picipes (Burmeister)

Chalepus picipes Burmeister, 1847, p. 79.

Chalepus obsoletus LeConte, 1854, p. 222. (New

synonymy.)

Chalepus geminatus Jacquelin du Val, 1856, p.

127:

Dyscinetus ebeninus Casey, 1915, p. 169.

D. subquadratus Casey, 1915, p. 166.

D. gilianus Casey, 1915, p. 168.

D. laevissitmus Casey, 1915, p. 167.

D. puncticauda Casey, 1909, p. 282; Casey, 1915,

p. 169. (New synonymy.)

D. punctipes Bates, 1888, p. 312.

Specimens have been examined from Cali-

fornia, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and

Kansas, as well as from Mexico and the West

Indies (Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guadeloupe, and

Dominican Republic). The pygidial punctura-

tion is highly variable and is usually coarser

and sparser in the male, with the female often

rather finely and sparsely punctured. In some

New Mexican males the pygidium is very

cribrately and contiguously punctured at the

sides, as is similar in some Mexican males where

the pygidium is entirely, coarsely, cribrately,

and contiguously punctate over the entire disc;

the male genitalia and all other specific char-

acters are identical, thus showing how unre-

liable the pygidial puncturation (on which many

species have been based in the past) really is.

The pygidial disc is usually glabrous with long

hairs along the apical margin.

Genus Cyclocephala Latreille

Cyclocephala Latreille, 1829, p. 552; Lacordaire,

1856, p. 398; Bates, 1888, p. 299; Casey, 1915,

p. 112, 134; Arrow, 1937, p. 7 (lists additional

subgenera).

Spilosota Casey, 1915, p. 112.

Ochrosidia Casey, 1915, p. 112.

Dichromina Casey, 1915, p. 112.

This truly American genus contains over 200

described species, as well as many undescribed

forms. The species are very difficult to separate

by means of the older descriptions, and even

present-day descriptions must be very long and

exceptionally detailed properly to place the

species. Many species feed on pollen in the

flowers of Arums and become imbedded in the

viscous pollen at the bottoms of the spathes;

so far as I know, C. dimidiata Burmeister is our

only species possessing this habit, and it occurs

commonly in the flowers of the jimsonweed

(Datura) in California (Van Dyke and Saylor).

One Central American species (prolongata

Dec. 15, 1945

Arrow) has the head and thorax very long and

exceptionally narrowed anteriorly, apparently

an adaptation for feeding in the blossoms of a

narrow flower.

Our American (United States) species have

been worked over by Casey in great detail, who

described many variants, so that we have 39

names for what I consider to be only 10 valid

species. In this study I have examined nearly

3,000 specimens in many collections during the

past eight years.

The male tarsi are always enlarged in this

genus and the female claws are small and sim-

ple. The male genital characters are good, if

carefully studied and compared.

KEY TO THE MALES

(Check male genitalia in doubtful specimens)

1. Front tibia unidentate (smooth behind apical

tooth); dorsally with fine sparse hairs;

clypeus parabolic and angles not indicated;

Peete. 22 UP. knobelae (Brown)

Front tibia always bidentate or tridentate or if

apparently unidentate then the head black

and clypeus narrow and nearly impunctate

re an yc ae ox wove oo bins act 2

2. Front tibia peculiarly bisinuate externally

(Fig. 1, n); head black; clypeus very narrow

and rather long, apical half smooth and im-

punctate, apex strongly reflexed and sub-

rounded, angles narrowly rounded; appar-

ently glabrous above; thorax with two large

piceous spots before midapex and a small

piceous spot each side of disc; Alabama,

Mississippi, and Georgia. .settdiosa LeConte

Front tibia bidentate or tridentate; other char-

BGUS NOL AS ADOVEs ... «6 .cbeeccnneis, tp se ee 3

3. Clypeus trapezoidal, apex subrounded and re-

flexed, angles very broadly rounded; disc

very smooth and very sparsely and exceed-

ingly finely punctured, to nearly impunctate;

thorax and elytra with sparse erect hair,

that of pygidium much longer; upper tooth

of front tibia obsolete; Georgia, Alabama,

ti ae eg ie eel aa puberula LeConte

Clypeus variable but always strongly sculp-

RS Oe ert FE Fe ko a)

4, Large claw front tarsus very strongly and

widely cleft and upper tooth nearly as wide

as apical one but much shorter in most

cases (Fig. 1, 1); tarsi subequal to or shorter

than tibia; head black and elytra testaceous,

otherwise rufous; antennal club ovate, only

as long as segments 3-7 of stem; Mississippi

west to California, south to South America.

dimidiata Burmeister

Large claw always much more narrowly cleft

ar chy emu, 22 Pe US. ORS ONe: FBI 5

SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 381

5. Clypeus very strongly narrowed apically, apex

narrowly reflexed; clypeal suture’ very

strongly bisinuate, entire disc very grossly

scabrose and entirely punctured; antennal

club shorter than stem; fresh specimens with

moderate to dense dorsal hairs; ligula

strongly narrowed apically and apex pointed

(Fig. 1, w); California to Texas.

hirta LeConte

Clypeus not as above; ligula variable but never

actually pointed apically.............6+.- 6

6. Clypeus fairly long, sides often nearly straight

behind and only faintly convergent apically,

apex subtruncate and very strongly and

highly reflexed; dise very coarsely and trans-

versely, rugosely wrinkled; antennal club

large and longer than the stem; California,

Lower California, and Arizona.

longula LeConte

Clypeus not as above and dise never coarsely

and transversely’wrinkled............... 7

7. Color usually dark castaneopiceous, the thorax

lighter; above densely hairy; clypeus long

and flat, hardly narrowed at front, apex only

faintly reflexed; thorax with a broad, longi-

tudinal impunctate band at middle; scutel-

lum entirely and densely hairy; Louisiana,

Arkansas, and Texas..... robusta LeConte

Color usually testaceous or rufocastaneous,

often with castaneous cloudings; clypeus

definitely narrowed apically; thorax without

road impunetate Dand.4)5 =. Sea a ects. o's 8

8. Scutellum strongly punctate; pygidium finely

and entirely scabrous in basal two-thirds or

more (and rarely even to apex), apical area

usually densely punctate but polished and

smooth between punctures; common Cali-

fornia and Arizona, rare New Mexico and

Peas. SUPT. MOA pasadenae (Casey)

Scutellum punctate or not; pygidium usually

not alutaceous or cribrose in more than basal

third or fourth; eastern species, rarely west

COAPORRS IO A LO SAR Ut et. 9

9. Pygidium very sparsely and finely punctate

the punctures of center disc hard to see, disc

usually surface smooth and hairy (frequently

hairs nearly entirely worn off); scutellum

coarsely and usually densely and setiger-

ously punctate (genitalia Fig. 1, ¢g through

u); Arkansas and eastern United States.

borealis Arrow

Pygidium minutely cribrate at least near base

the punctures of center disc coarse and ob-

vious; disc denser punctured than borealis;

scutellum impunctate or very sparsely punc-

tured with apical half usually smooth

(genitalia Fig. 1, y and z); North Carolina

and Georgia, west to Kansas and Texas.

immaculata Oliver

KEY TO THE FEMALES

(Females of knobelae and setidiosa not included)

1. Hind tarsus much shorter than tibia, or at

least definitely shorter; head with the front

382

coarsely, moderately densely punctured, not

rugose; clypeus long and subtruncate, apex

reflexed, disc coarsely transversely cribrate;

pygidium entirely and cribrately punctate. 2

Hind tarsus subequal to or longer than tibia. .3

2. Antennal club ovate and short, length of club

2-3 times as long as width through middle of

leaves; elytra testaceous and thorax almost

always red (very rarely black); western

United States and Central America.

dimidiata Burmeister

Antennal club long and slender, length of club

4—5 times as long as width through middle of

leaves; color always testaceous with thorax

a little rufous; Arizona, California, Lower

California. 3h) 200 ore longula LeConte

3. Clypeus highly polished and smooth, hardly

punctate or very finely punctured; front

tibia bidentate with an obsolete upper tooth;

pygidium very finely and sparsely punctured

and polished; Georgia, Alabama, and Flor-

WC sdcers «Ca eage es mee puberula LeConte

Clypeus always densely punctured......... 4

4. Body very robust; clypeal disc uneven, sud-

denly depressed at and on the strongly bi-

sinuate suture, the disc very coarsely and

entirely rugosely punctate; clypeus strongly

narrowed in apical entirely rugosely punc-

tate; clypeus strongly narrowed in apical

half; ligula narrowed to a broad but sharp

point; California and Nevada east to Texas.

hirta LeConte

Body smaller and much less robust; clypeus

and head not as above; ligula never exactly

Pontes * aj AMeX. ceo. ke ea ie ee eit 5

5. Elytra at middle of lateral margin with a slight

to strong, but very discernible, explanate

and lobate callus, especially noticeable,

when not well developed, in ventral-lateral

view, and here the sudden widening of mar-

Pins distinels cnkiees covey oe Hiebece 6

Elytra without a lateral callus or enlargement.

6. Lateral swelling of elytra usually rather large

and quite noticeable; sides and basal corners

of pygidium very coarsely cribrate; mentum

usually definitely flat; eastern States west to

Wexas (Ara? > SU Sas emmaculata Oliver

Lateral swelling of elytra usually narrow

though obvious if looked for; mentum and

part of ligula usually rather strongly convex

or at least noticeably convex; Arkansas and

eastern United States...... borealis Arrow

7. Color dark castaneous, thorax rufous, usually

strongly pilose above, especially the elytra

(hairs often abraded); clypeus strongly nar-

rowed from the base; uncommon in Louisi-

ana and Arkansas........ robusta LeConte

Color testaceous to rufotestaceous, with cas-

taneous cloudings; glabrous above; clypeus

narrowed from about the middle; common in

California, Lower California, and Arizona,

east to’ Texas :. si7sucis pasadenae (Casey)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 12

Cyclocephala knobelae (Brown)

Ochrosidia knobelae Brown, p. 23; Sanderson,

1940, p. 380.

I have not seen this species, and the notes

are taken from Sanderson. Described from

Hope, Ark., and not taken since to my knowl-

edge. The small size (9 mm) and the singly

toothed (apical tooth only present) front male

tibia should readily separate the species. The

genitalia as pictured by Sanderson are allied

to those of hirta, but the paramere base is nar-

rower here and the sides are evenly rounded

near base.

Cyclocephala dimidiata Burmeister

Cyclocephala dimidiata Burmeister, 1847, p. 57;

Sanderson, 1940, p. 379; Casey, 1915, p. 161

(Dichromina); Saylor, 1937, p. 70 (Dichromina).

Ochrosidia ocularis Casey, 1915, p. 162. (New

synonymy.)

Cyclocephala elegans Horn, 1871, p. 337; Casey,

1915, p. 162 (Dichromina). (New synonymy.)

This common species ranges from Arkansas

and through the southwestern United States,

to Mexico and Central America and South

America. Damages green fruits and leaves of

fruit trees; roses and walnuts in California are

frequently damaged or defoliated. The grass

roots of lawns or golf greens are commonly at-

tacked. Closely related to longula in the male

genitalia (a little longer parameres there), this

species differs mainly in the constant coloration

as well as the ovate antennal club, the same

being very well developed in longula.

Cyclocephala puberula LeConte

Cyclocephala puberula LeConte, 18638, p. 80;

Casey, 1915, p. 147 (Ochrosidia).

I have seen specimens of this relatively un-

common species from Georgia, Alabama, and

Florida. The male genitalia are near those of

hirta, but externally the species are very dif-

ferent.

Cyclocephala setidiosa LeConte

Cyclocephala settdiosa LeConte, 1856, p. 79;

Casey, 1915, p. 158 (Ochrosidia).

An uncommon species from Mississippi, Ala-

bama, and Georgia. The male genitalia are ex-

actly the same as longula, but externally the

species are quite different: in longula the mid-

apical thoracic margin is definitely but ob-

Dec. 15, 1945 SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 383

q T S t u

v Ww x ? rd

Fig. 1.—a, Male genitalia of Cyclocephala hirta; b, ligula of Coscinocephalus cribrifons; c, ligula of

Ancognatha manca; d, maxilla of Coscinocephalus cribrifons; e, male genitalia of Cyclocephala pasa-

denae ; f, male genitalia of C. robusta; g, male genitalia of C. longula; h, male genitalia of C. dimidiata;

t,male genitalia of Ancognatha manca; j, male genitalia of Cyclocephala puberula; k, male genitalia of

Dyscinetus morator; l, front male claw of Cyclocephala dimidiata; m, head and clypeus of male C.

longula; n, front tibia of male C. setidiosa; o, front claw of male C. longula; p, male genitalia of Coscino-

cephalus cribrifons; q, male genitalia of Cyclocephala borealis (typical form, from Pennsylvania); 7,

same, from Malcolm, Nebr.;s, same, from Egypt, Ga.; t, same from Egypt, Ga.; u, same, from Orlando,

Fla.; v, male genitalia of Dyscinetus picipes; w, male ligula of Cyclocephala hirta; x, male lingula of

Ancognatha manca; y, male genitalia of Cyclocephala immaculata (commonest form, from Georgia),

z, same, from Texas.

384

tusely prolonged anteriorly, the clypeal disc

is coarsely and entirely punctate, and the fore

tibia is tridentate; in setzdiosa the fore thoracic

margin is not prolonged, the clypeal disc is im-

punctate in apical half, and the fore tibia is

different (Fig. 1, n).

Cyclocephala hirta LeConte

Cyclocephala hirta LeConte, 1861, p. 346; Casey,

1915, p. 1382 (Spilosota); Saylor, 1937, p. 69.

Spilosota palidissima Casey, 1815, p. 1383; Saylor,

1937, p. 69.

S. magister Casey, 1915, p. 132.

S. anconspicua Casey, 1915, p. 133.

S. nubeculina Casey, 1915, p. 131. (New synon-

ymy.)

S. lurida Bland, 1863, p. 354. (New Synonymy.)

Subspecies: Cyc. (Spilosota) hirta pilosicollis Say-

lor, 1936, p. 2; Saylor, 1937, p. 69.

The mentum is very strongly acuminate and

pointed, with the maxilla emerging from the

sides of the point. The maxilla have only three

minute, hardly discernible teeth. A widely dis-

tributed species, and I have seen very large

series from California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona

Texas, and Lower California. The species is

usually testaceous, with castaneous and irregu-

lar cloudings on thorax and elytra; most of the

Arizona and Texas forms are entirely testa-

ceous.

The subspecies pilosicollis Saylor ranges from

Sacramento and Davis in central California to

Burbank and Pasadena in California. It is dis-

tinguished from the typical form by the light

testaceous color and the very long hairs over

the front, thorax, elytra, and pygidium.

Cyclocephala longula LeConte

Cyclocephala longula LeConte, 1863, p. 79; Casey,

1915, p. 158 (Ochrosidia); Saylor, 1937, p. 69.

Cyclocephala californica Arrow, 1937, p. 9 (n. n.

for rustica). (New synonymy.)

Ochrosidia abrupta Casey, 1915, p. 152; Saylor,

1937, p. 69. (New synonymy.)

. phasma Casey, 1815, p. 153.

. obesula Casey, 1915, p. 156.

. oblongula Casey, 1915, p. 156.

. rustica Casey, 1915, p. 157 (not Ol. 1789).

. reflexa Casey, 1915, p. 1538.

. marcida Casey, 1915, p. 155. (New synonymy.)

. rugultfrons Casey, 1915, p. 154. (New synon-

ymy.)

O. prona Casey, 1915, p. 157. (New synonymy.)

O. ambiens Casey, 1915, p. 155. (New synonymy.)

O. modulata Casey, 1915, p. 154. (New synon-

SSeS 0S

ymy.)

Cyclocephala abrupta Casey, Ritcher, 1944, p. 17,

(larva).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 35, NO. 12

This widely distributed species, known from

Oregon, Arizona, Lower California, Utah, and

all parts of California is extremely common in

the last state during most of the summer nights

and is commonly attracted to light. The color

varies very little, and the elongate form and

sharply reflexed clypeus will readily place the

species. I expressed the opinion in 1937 that

abrupta Casey would probably prove to be the

same as the earlier-described longula LeConte

and the recent study of long series from the

Ross and Michelbacher trip to all parts of

Lower California has proved the two synony-

mous. Very close to dimidiata in male genital

and most other characters but especially dif-

ferent in the much longer antennal club of both

sexes, and the forked front claw in the male of

dimidiata being here at most finely cleft, or

entire.

Cyclocephala robusta LeConte

Cyclocephala robusta LeConte, 1863, p. 79; San-

derson, 1940, p. 380.

C. nigricollis Burmeister, 1847, p. 54; Horn, 1871,

p. 336.

Ochrosidia nigricollis Burmeister; Buchanan,

1927, p. 167.

O. subvittata Brown, 1930, p. 5; Sanderson, 1940,

p. 380.

Sanderson (1940) has pointed out his belief

that robusta and nigrocollis were not the same

species, basing his opinion on the examination

of the female type of Burmeister’s. Horn in

1871 examined the types of both species and

considered them identical and Buchanan did

likewise in 1927, following Horn. Sanderson

separates the two on the shape of the front

thoracic angles, length and shape of hind spurs,

distance apart of the front tibial teeth, and the

presence or absence of a dilation at middle of

lateral elytral margin; considering these char-

acters, all are highly variable in this large genus,

with the exception of the last one, namely the

swollen margin of the elytra, and so far as I

have experienced this varies but little; therefore

the two species may be different, but it will be

necessary to secure series and males to be really

sure. The species is known from Louisiana,

Arkansas, and Texas. A single male recently

collected on cotton at Lavaca, Tex., is this

species, although appearing quite different in

color: entirely testaceorufous above with a

broad castaneous stripe adjoining the elytral

suture, and also coloring the apical eighth of

Dec. 15, 1945

the elytra, and with a small dark posthumeral

umbo spot.

Cyclocephala pasadenae (Casey)

Ochrosidia pasadenae Casey, 1915, p. 148; Say-

lor, 1937, p. 70 (Cyclocephala).

O. arizonica Casey, 1915, p. 149 (New synon-

ymy.)

O. melina Casey, 1915, p. 149. (New synonymy.)

O. pusilla Casey, 1915, p. 150. (New synonymy.)

O. facilis Casey, 1915, p. 150. (New synonymy.)

O. validiceps Casey, 1915, p. 148. (New synon-

ymy.)

O. ovatula Casey, 1915, p. 151. (New synonymy.)

I have examined great series of this common

species, which ranges from Lower Calfornia,

throughout California, and west through Ari-

zona, New Mexico, and Texas. It is not very

variable.

Cyclocephala borealis Arrow

Cyclocephala borealis Arrow, 1937, p. 172 (n. n. for

villosa Burmeister).

Cyclocephala villosa Burmeister, 1847, p. 54 (non

Blanchard, 1846); LeConte, 1863, p. 79; Saylor,

1937, p. 69; Sanderson, 1940, p. 382.

Ochrosidia villosa Burmeister, Casey, 1915, p.

147; Hayes, 1918, p. 135 (biology); Ritcher,

1944, p. 18 (larva).

O. parallela Casey, 1915, p. 144. (New synonymy.)

Distributed from Arkansas and east, rather

common along the eastern coast. The pygidium

and apical areas of the elytra are usually cov-

ered with long and erect hair, but this is very

frequently entirely abraded. The male genitalia

appear to be more variable in this species than

in any other United States species; the Nebras-

ka specimen figured (Fig. 1, r) has the male

genitalia somewhat similar to those of immacu-

lata, but the small lateral toothlike angulation

is not sinuate apically at its base, as is the lat-

eral tooth in immaculata. The male genitalia

of parallela specimens from Georgia and Florida

look superficially a little different owing to the

more rounded lateral process of the para-

meres, but the slight variations as shown in the

two figures of the Georgia specimens (Fig. 1

sand), plus the figure of the Florida specimens

(Fig. 1, uw) show how the small notch between

the small submedian tooth (or toothlike dila-

tion) and the more basal dilation is filled in,

and how the resulting rounder and less-incised

genitalia is that of an entirely different-appear-

‘ing species.

SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE

385

Cyclocephala immaculata Olivier

Cyclocephala immaculata Olivier, 1789, p. 29;

Bates, 1888, p. 334; Sanderson, 1940, p. 384:

Saylor, 1937, p. 70.

C. frontalis Sturm, 1843, p. 116.

Ochrosidia rufifrons Casey, 1915, p. 145.

O. tenuicutis Casey, 1915, p. 146. (New synon-

ymy.)

O. pagana Casey, 1915, p. 148. (New synonymy.)

O. protenta Casey, 1915, p. 144. (New synonymy.)

A common species in the eastern United

States; I have seen specimens from Missouri,

Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Arkansas, and

from North Carolina, South Carolina, and

Georgia in the southeast. Recorded in litera-

ture from New Mexico and Guadeloupe, but

possibly these may refer to other species. The

larvae were described by Forbes in 1894 and

Ritcher in 1944. I have seen a male specimen

from Thomasville, Ga., that is entirely black

above, with the legs and abdomen testaceo-

rufous to castaneous; the male genitalia are ex-

actly similar with the typical form. As the fig-

ures indicate (Fig. 1, y and z), the small lateral

tooth of the male genitalia varies in position

and is more apical in position in the more east-

ern specimens, but this is an individual varia-

tion and all intermediates occur so that it is

not of even varietal import.

Aspidolea texana Hohne

Aspidolea texana Hohne, 1912, p. 84.

This is very probably based on a wrongly-

labeled specimen from Texas, as I do not be-

lieve that the genus occurs here: if it should,

the key characters to the genus, plus the ex-

tremely broad and very flat ligula and men-

tum (which is wider at apex than at base)

should readily place the species. All other 13

described species of this genus occur in Central

America and South America. Male front claws

are enlarged and the maxilla is unarmed. A.

texana was described from San Antonio, Tex.,

and was a unique female 15 mm long and red-

dish brown, with the forehead and vertex black.

LITERATURE CITED

Arrow, G. J. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 8:

169. 1911.

. Coleopterorum catalogus, pars 156, 21:

5-18. 1937.

Bates, H. W. Biologia Centrali-Americana,

386

Coleoptera, 2 (2): 297, pl. 17, fig. 12. 1888.

BLACKWELDER, R. E. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull.

185, pt. 2: 250-253. 1944.

Buanp, J. H. B. Proc. Ent. Soc. Philadelphia

1: 354. 1963.

Brown, W.J. Can. Ent. 66:23. 1934.

Bucuanan, L. L. Ent. News 38: 167. 1927.

BurRMEISTER, H. Handbuch der Entomologie

5: 54-57, 79. 1847.

Casny, T. L. Can. Ent. 41: 282. 1909.

. Memoirs on the Coleoptera 6: 109-

176, 229-232. 1915.

Ericuson, W. F. Arch. fiir Naturg. 13 (pt.

1): 97. 1847.

Fazsricius, J. C. Entomologia systematica,

Suppl.: 24. 1798.

Haroutp, E. von. Coleopterologische Hefte

5: E239) 18 69!

Hayes, W. P. Journ. Econ. Ent. 21: 135.

1918.

Houne, W. Deutsch. Ent. Zeitschr. 1922: 84.

Horn, \G.. He. Trans, “Amer, Bi... 0c. .3.:

336-337. 1871.

JACQUELIN DU VAL, P. N. C. Coleoptera.

In Sagra’s Historie...de Cuba 7: 127.

1856.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 12

LacorpDairR&, J. T. Genera des coléoptéres 3:

398, 403. 1856.

LeConte, J. L. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-

delphia 1854: 222.

. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia

1856: 79.

. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia _

1861: 346.

. New species of Coleoptera 1: 79-80.

1863.

Macuteay, W. S. Horae entomologicae 1:

149. 1819.

Oxivier, G. A. Entomologie 1 (pars 5): 29.

1789.

Pret, H. Ent. Blatter 32: 145-147. 19386.

Ritcuer, P. O. Kentucky Exp. Stat. Bull.

147: 17-21. 1944.

SANDERSON, M. W. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer.

33: 379-384. 1940.

Sartor, L. W. Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool.

38:2. March 1936.

. Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool. 39:

69-70. September 1937.

ScHAEFFER, C. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 1906:

259-260.

Sturm, J. Deutschlande Fauna: 116. 1848.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Scheloribates chauhani, a new species of oribatid mite from

India (Acarina: Ceratozetidae).'

ment of Agriculture.

The discovery that Zetes emarginatus

(Banks),? family Galumnidae, is an inter-

mediate host of the sheep tapeworm,

Moniezia expansa (Rudolphi), has aroused

much interest in the oribatid mites during

the past few years. This species, which lives

on grass in sheep pastures, was found to be

infected with the cysticercoidal stage of the

parasite.

B. 8. Chauhan, of the Zoological Survey

of India, while conducting studies on the

sheep tapeworm, has collected oribatid

mites from grass. However, these mites

belong to the genus Scheloribates, family

Ceratozetidae, and appear to represent a

new species.

Scheloribates chauhani, n. sp.

Female——Abdomen round-oval; all cephalo-

thoracic bristles barbed, the interlamellar

setae inserted nearer to edge of notogaster than

to lamellae and longer than others; lamellae

1 Received October 9, 1945.

2H. W. StunKarp, Science 86: 312. 1937;

W. H. Kruut, Proc. Helminth. Soc. Washington

6.@)) 10). 11,1939:

Epwarp W. Baker, United States Depart-

(Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.)

tapering distally, not undulate externally, and

sides of cephalothorax not or barely visible

from above; translamellar lines short; lamello-

rostral ridge well developed and embracing

base of rostral bristle; each pseudostigma with

rim usually slightly surpassing edge of ptero-

morpha, pseudostigmatic organs with head

equal to length of pedicel, ‘‘oil globules”

present, barbs small but distinct. Abdomen

with anterior edge of notogaster mildly bowed,

its sides merging into pteromorphae; dorsum

of abdomen equally arched when viewed from

side; pteromorphae with a bristle on antero-

dorsal area, and with radial combings or fine

corrugations on shoulders; dorsal setal pits as

figured (body setae apparently knocked off);

anal plates wider than long, sides almost paral-

lel, posterior cover bristles closer to inner edge

than are anterior bristles, and bristles sub-

equally spaced from anterior and posterior

edges; genital plates slightly wider than long,

broadly rounded anteriorly, and only slightly

concave posteriorly, setae arranged as figured,

lateral margins longer than anterior margins.

Tarsus I with ventral ciliate setae, dorsal sim-

ple setae, and a short rodlike dorsal setae as

Dec. 15, 1945

figured; femur II as figured, all setae barbed,

the posterior dorsal seta barely reaching past

base of median seta; the dorsal posterior angle

of femur rather abrupt; tectopodium III

notched but not strongly so; sides of tecto-

podia II mildly converging toward rostrum.

Length of body 533u, width 393y.

BAKER: A NEW SPECIES OF ORIBATID MITE

387

Scheloribater chauhani differs from S. indica

Oudemans, which is from Ceylon, in having

pectinate cephalothoracic setae and in having

an elongate pseudostigmatic organ that is dis-

tinctly barbed. It differs from S. mwiri Jacot,

a Hawaiian species, in having all cephalo-

thoracic setae pectinate, in having a rounded

= xS60

Fias. 1-6.—Scheloribates chauhani, adult female: 1, Dorsal view of body; 2, pseudostigmatic

organ, 3, genital plates; 4, anal plates, 5, tarsus and tibia I; 6, femur II.

——

388

rather than a pointed genital opening, in hav-

ing the lateral margins of the genital plate

longer than the anterior margins, in the setal

arrangement of the anal plates, in that the

posterior dorsal setae of femur II does not reach

the base of the anterior seta, and in femur II

ZOOLOGY.—The West Pacific species

BartscuH, U. 8. National Museum.

In the preparation of a monograph on the

East Pacific mollusks, recent and fossil, of

the family Turridae, it became necessary to

examine the congeneric elements dwelling in

the western Bering Sea and the cold inshore

waters of the Asiatic side of the Pacific. In

the case of the genus Aforza I find that a

much greater degree of specialization and

differentiation has taken place in the Asiatic

fauna than in American waters, as demon-

strated by the present little monograph.

Genus Aforia Dall

1889. Aforia, Dall, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 18:

99.

1908. Aforza, Dall, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 43:

251 «

Shell large, turreted, covered by a thin perios-

tracum when perfect. Last whorl longer than

the spire preceding it. Nucleus slender, multi-

spiral, with the surface worn in all our speci-

mens. A strong median keel is present on the

middle of the postnuclear whorls. The deep

anal notch falls halfway between the keel and

the summit of the turns. The surface is marked

by spiral lirations and fine incremental lines.

Part of the adult shells bear a second fold,

which begins on the middle of the last turn and

gradually develops into a clawlike channel pos-

terior to the anterior termination of the base.

This is probably a sexual character. Columella

long, attenuated, concave on the left side.

Aperture large, elongate pear-shaped with the

anterior half narrowed into a moderately wide

channel; outer lip thin; inner lip sigmoid, form-

ing a thin callus on the columella and parietal

wall. Operculum narrow, thin, corneous, claw-

like with lateral subapical nucleus marked by

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution. Received September

17, 1945.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 12

having an abrupt rather than a gentle posterior

dorsal angle.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 1515, and 10 para-

types, which were sent in by B.S. Chauhan and

named for him, were collected from grass,

Izatnagar (Bareilly), U. P., India.

of the molluscan genus Aforia.t PAuL

low, concentric threads. Radula with rather

large rachidian and Y-shaped marginals.

On the Asiatic side we find Aforta insignis

(Jeffreys) south of St. Lawrence Island; from

there the genus extends southward along the ~

coast of Sakhalin Island in the Okhotsk Sea

to the outside of Hokkaido and Honshu, and

one species has been taken off the coast of

Chosen.

KEY TO THE WEST PACIFIC SPECIES OF OOFRIA

Spiral cords on columella more than 50. .japonica

Spiral cords on columella less than 35.

Spiral cords on columella more than 30.

diomedea

Spiral cords on columella less than 20.

Spiral cords of penultimate whorl anterior to

keel 18.

Spiral cords on keel very strong. hondoana

Spiral cords on keel not very strong.

insignis

Spiral cords of penultimate whorl anterior to

keel, less than 16.

Adult shell large, more than 60 mm.

Base with 4 strong spiral cords.

okhotsensis

Base with 9 weak spiral cords.

— sakhalinensis

Adult shell small, less than 46 mm.

chosensis

Aforia japonica (Dall)

Figs. 5, 6

1925. Turricula japonica Dall, Proc. U. S. Nat.

Mus. 66: 29, pl. 26, fig. 11.

Shell of medium size, covered with a thin

pale gray periostracum. The whorls bear a

strong, slightly upturned, median keel, which

is frequently split. Posterior to the keel the

shell bears mere indications of microscopic

spiral striations. Anterior to the keel, on all but

the last whorl, there is no indication of spiral

sculpture. On the last whorl, however, anterior

=e i

Dec. 15, 1945

to the keel, numerous, feebly incised, spiral

lines are present, of which about 24 appear on

the base and more than 50 on the columella.

On the anterior fourth of the columella they

disappear altogether. In addition to this, the

base and columella are marked by strong incre-

mental lines, which give to the surface a some-

what clothlike texture. Aperture extremely

elongate-pyriform. Outer lip with a deeply

incised sinus, having its greatest depth a little

anterior to the middle between the keel and

the summit. Anterior to the sinus the outer lip

is protracted. Inner lip very elongate-sigmoid.

The columella and parietal wall rendered

smooth by resorption at the inner lip. The left

outline of the base and columella is concavely

slightly sigmoid.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 205041, was dredged

by the Albatross at station 5088 off Joka Sima

Light in Sagami Bay, Honshu, Japan, in 369

fathoms; bottom temperature, 41.8°F., on

green mud bottom. It has 8 whorls and meas-

ures: Height, 53 mm; greater diameter, 18.1

mm; length of last whorl, 34.3 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 205038 contains a young speci-

men dredged by the Albatross at station 5093

off Joka Sima Light in 302 fathoms; bottom

temperature, 43.9°F., on black sand and broken

shell bottom.

This species can readily be distinguished

from all the others by its extremely feeble

sculpture of the base and columella.

Aforia diomedea, n. sp.

Figs. 11, 12

Shell very large, rather narrow, elongate-

turreted, covered with a pale gray, putty-

colored periostracum. The whorls are encircled

by a strong, up turned median keel. Posterior

to the keel are 2 spiral threads and more micro-

scopic spiral lines. The keel itself bears closely

spaced spiral threads. Anterior to the keel 7

strong, rounded spiral cords are present be-

tween the summit of the last turn and the keel.

These are a little broader than the spaces that

separate them. Anterior to this the rest of the

base and columella are marked by 40 incised

grooves which separate rather flattened spaces

of about the same width or a little wider than

the grooves. Some of these bear one to three

fine incised lines. In addition to this the entire

base and columella are marked by incremental

lines. Aperture elongate pear-shaped. Outer lip

BARTSCH: WEST PACIFIC AFORIA

389

with a deep sinus a little anterior to the middle

between the summit and keel, protracted

anteriorly to the keel. The inner lip is decidedly

sinuous and by resorption causes the columella

and parietal wall to appear as a glazed surface.

The left side of the base and columella is de-

cidedly concave.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 205039, was dredged

by the Albatross at station 5044 off Yerimo

Zaki, southeast Hokkaido, in 309 fathoms;

bottom temperature, 32.1°F., on gray sand,

coral and sand bottom. It has 8.5 whorls re-

maining and measures: Height, 92 mm; greater

diameter, 30.6 mm; length of last whorl, 51.1

mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 205036 contains 2 specimens

dredged by the Albatross at station 5050 off

Kinka San Light east of Sakhalin Island, in

266 fathoms; bottom temperature, 37.9°F., on

dark gray sand and broken shell and Foramini-

fera bottom.

U.S.N.M. no. 205040 contains 1 specimen

dredged by the Albatross at station 5045 off

Yerimo Zaki southeast Hokkaido, in 359

fathoms; bottom temperature, 38°F., on brown

mud and fine broken shell and coral sand bot-

tom.

U.S.N.M. no. 205037 contains 1 specimen

dredged by the Albatross at station 5051 off

Kinka San Light, east of Sakhalin Island, in

399 fathoms; bottom temperature, 38.1°F., on

dark gray sand and broken shell and Foraminif-

era bottom.

U.S.N.M. no. 342737 contains 1 specimen

from the Hirasé collection (1402) taken at

Rikuzen northeast of Honshu, Japan.

This species can readily be distinguished

from all the others by its large size, gray colora-

tion, and perfection of sculpture.

Aforia hondoana (Dall)

Figs. 7, 8

1925. Turricula (Surcula) hondoana Dall, Proc.

U.S. Nat. Mus. 66: 29-30, pl. 31, fig. 6.

Shell of medium size, turreted, covered by a

gray periostracum. Interior of the aperture

yellowish white. Nuclear whorls decollated.

The postnuclear whorls bear a strong median

keel, anterior to which the whorls are slopingly

shouldered and marked by obsolete micro-

scopic spiral striations. The keel bears 3 rather

strong spiral threads. Anterior to the keel the

whorls are marked by 6 very strong spiral

Figs. 1-14.—West Pacific species of the genus Aforza. 1, 2, A. okhotskensis, n. sp.; 3, 4, A. sak-

halinensis, n. sp.; 5, 6, A. japonica (Dall); 7, 8, A. hondoana (Dall); 9, 10, A. chosenensis, n. sp.; 11,

12, A. diomedea, n. sp.; 13, 14, A, insignis (Jeffreys). All about X14.

Dec. 15, 1945

cords which are separated by deep grooves not

quite as wide as the cords. The base is well

rounded and bears 7 very strong spiral cords

also separated by deeply incised grooves. The

columella is moderately long and bears 18

spiral cords which become progressively finer

anteriorly. Aperture pear-shaped. The posterior

sinus falls on the shoulder and is deep, broad,

and rounded at base. Anterior to the keel the

outer lip is protracted and rendered sinuous by

the external sculpture. The inner lip is covered

with a thick callus which somewhat covers the

parietal wall.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 111052, was dredged

by the Albatross at station 5087 in Sagami Bay

off Hondo, Japan, in 614 fathoms on mud bot-

tom; bottom temperature 37.5°F. It has 6.5

whorls remaining and measures: Height, 56.2

mm; greater diameter, 21.5 mm; length of last

whorl, 31.4 mm.

This species in general shape and sculpture

most nearly resembles A. insignis from which

its much smaller size and much stronger spiral

sculpture will readily distinguish it.

Aforia insignis (Jeffreys)

Figs. 13, 14

1883. Pleurotoma insignis Jeffreys, Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist. 1883: 119-120.

Shell large, turreted..The patches of perios-

tracum remaining show this to have been

reddish brown. The interior of the aperture is

ochre yellow. Nuclear whorls decollated. The

postnuclear whorls are marked by a strong

median keel which bears 5 fine spiral threads.

Anterior to this keel the whorls are well

rounded and marked by decidedly sinuous in-

cremental lines which show that the posterior

sinus is deep and broad. Anterior to the keel

are 2 slender spiral threads equaling those on

. the keel in strength. This area is impressed and

forms a slight groove. Anterior to this the

whorls are marked by 7 spiral cords which are

of somewhat varying strength and which are

separated by deeply impressed narrow grooves.

The base is well rounded and also bears 7 spiral

cords equaling those of the spire in strength.

Some of these are marked medially by a fine

incised spiral line. The columella is long and

bears 18 spiral cords which are of subequal

strength. The axial sculpture consists of incre-

mental lines only which are rendered decidedly

sigmoid due to the deep posterior sinus. In the

BARTSCH: WEST PACIFIC AFORIA

391

specimen described, the last portion of the

last whorl embracing the anterior 4 spiral

cords, becomes somewhat folded and projects

at the peristome as a slight claw. Aperture

pear-shaped. Outer lip with a deep broad sinus

on the shoulder, protracted anterior to the keel,

and rendered somewhat sinuous by the external

sculpture. The inner lip is covered with a thick

callus, which extends over the parietal wall.

The specimen described and figured, U.S.

N.M. no. 190815, comes from the Jeffreys

collection and is one of 10 collected on the Vega

Expedition in the Icy Sea of Siberia. It was

used as the basis for Jeffreys’ description and

may therefore be considered the type of the

species. It has 7.5 whorls remaining and meas-

ures: Height, 72.4 mm; greater diameter, 27.8

mm; length of last whorl, 41.5 mm.

In the elements of sculpture it most nearly

resembles A. hondoana, from which, however,

its larger size and less strong spiral sculpture

will readily distinguish it.

Aforia okhotskensis, n. sp.

Figs. 1, 2

Shell large, turreted, interior pale buff, ex-

terior covered by a thin gray periostracum,

which is eroded in most part. A strong median

spiral keel almost midway between summit and

suture is present. Posterior to this keel the

surface is marked by incremental lines and

spiral lirations about as strong as the incre-

mental lines. The anal sinus falls a little nearer

the keel than the summit. Anterior to the keel

the last whorl is rough and marked by deeply

incised grooves which leave broad, rather

rough, flattened spaces between them. Of these

grooves, 8 are present between the keel and the

insertion of the columella, the one bordering

the keel being the deepest. On some of the

spaces between these deep grooves there are

indications of a median, secondary, less strong

groove, while the keel itself is marked by finer

spiral threads. The rather protracted columella

is marked by 8 deeply impressed, spiral grooves

which separate spaces about as wide as those

on the base. In the anterior portion of the

columella they seem to disappear. In addition

to this, the columella and base are marked by

strong incremental lines. In the type there is a

secondary spiral ridge about as far anterior to

the keel as that is from the summit, which cor-

responds to a secondary notch in the outer lip.

392

Aperture very elongate pear-shaped with the

anal sinus deeply incised. Anterior to this the

outer lip is protracted; the inner lip is decidedly

sigmoid, while the left outline of the base and

columella is decidedly concave.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 205042, was dredged

by the Albatross at station 5020 off the east

coast of Sakhalin Island near Cape Patience,

Okhotsk Sea, in 73 fathoms; bottom tempera-

ture, 30.9°F., on green mud, sand, and pebbly

bottom. It has 7.5 whorls remaining and meas-

ures: Height, 73.8 mm; greater diameter, 28.5

mm; length of last whorl, 43 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 205044 contains a young speci-

men dredged by the Albatross at station 5005

in Aniwa Bay on the east side of Sakhalin

Island, Okhotsk Sea, in 42 fathoms; bottom

temperature, 42°F., on green mud and fine gray

sand bottom.

This species most nearly resembles A. in-

signis from which it can be distinguished by its

much coarser spiral sculpture.

Aforia sakhalinensis, n. sp.

Figs. 3, 4

Shell turreted, covered with a thin pale buff

periostracum. Interior of aperture with an ochre

flush. The whorls bear a strong median keel,

anterior to which they are covered by fine

microscopic hair lines and strongly sigmoid in-

cremental lines of about the same strength,

which follow the outline of the ana! sinus. The

anterior termination of the keel consists of a

deeply impressed groove. The keel itself is

crossed by fine spiral lines. Anterior to this

groove the whorls are crossed by 14 incised

grooves, which vary from mere lines to rather

broad flat channels. The grooves and flattened

spaces between them are crossed by rather

strong incremental lines, which in the broad

grooves assume the strength of hair lines. The

columella is also marked by spiral grooves, of

which 15 are present. The spaces enclosed by

these are more rounded than those on the base,

the axial incremental lines being of the same

strength. On the extreme tip of the columella

the spiral sculpture gradually fades out. Aper-

ture elongate-pyriform; outer lip with a deep

sinus whose greatest depth is a little nearer the

keel than the summit of the whorls. The outer

lip is protracted anteriorly to the keel. The

inner lip is decidedly sinuous and covers the

columella and parietal wall as a smooth re-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 12

sorption area. The left outline of the base and

columella is decidedly concave.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 573613, was dredged

by the Albatross at station 5051 off Kinka San

Light east of Sakhalin Island in 399 fathoms;

bottom temperature, 38.1°F., on dark gray

sand and broken shell and Foraminifera bottom.

It has 7.5 whorls remaining and measures:

Height, 63.8 mm; greater diameter, 24 mm; _

length of last whorl, 36.3 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 573614 contains a young speci-

men dredged by the Albatross at station 5050

off Kinka San Light east of Sakhalin Island,

in 266 fathoms; bottom temperature, 37.9°F.,

on dark gray sand and broken shell and Fora-

minifera bottom.

This species most nearly resembles A.

chosenensis but can readily be distinguished

from that by its less strong basal sculpture and

larger size.

Aforia chosenensis, n. sp.

Figs. 9, 10

Shell small, turreted, the exterior covered

with a grayish buff, thin periostracum. Interior

of the aperture pale buff. The whorls bear a

strong, decidedly elevated, median keel, pos-

terior to which the slightly concave surface is

marked by decidedly sigmoid lines of growth

and microscopic spiral striations. Anterior to

the keel the shell and the base and columella

are marked by deeply incised, rather broad

grooves which are a little more distantly

spaced immediately below the keel than on the

rest of the shell. These grooves enclose almost

flattened areas which are a little narrower near

the keel than on the rest of the surface. Eleven

of these are present between the keel and the

insertion of the columella, and 12 more on the

columella where they gradually grow weaker

anteriorly. In addition to this, the entire sur-

face is marked by fine microscopic spiral stria-

tions and lines of growth. The latter appear

almost as hair lines in the deep grooves. The

keel itself is marked by fine spiral threads. The

base of the last whorl and columella are de-

cidedly concave on the left side. Aperture

rather narrow, very elongate pear-shaped with

a deep sinus a little anterior to the middle

above the shoulder. The outer lip is protracted

anterior to the keel and rendered somewhat

sinuous by the external sculpture. The inner

ae SD ee

Dec. 15, 1945

lip is elongate-sigmoid. The columella is exca-

vated into a smooth surface which also extends

over the parietal wall.

The type, U.S.N.M. 205043, was col-

lected by the Albatross at station 4860 off Cape

Clonard, southeast coast of Chosen, Japan Sea,

in 122 fathoms on gray mud bottom; bottom

GATES: THE OLIGOCHAETE GENUS SYNGENODRILUS

393

temperature 34.1°F. It has 6 whorls remaining

and measures: Height, 45.5 mm; greater diame-

ter, 18 mm; length of last whorl, 27.8 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 573615 contains another speci-

men from the same station.

The small size will readily distinguish this

from the other Japanese members.

ZOOLOGY .—On the oligochaete genus Syngenodrilus and its taxonomic relation-

ships.’

by Wa.po L. ScuMIrTT.)

The oligochaete Syngenodrilus lamuensis

Smith and Green, 1919, from Mkonumbi

near Lamu on the coast of British East

Africa, is known only from the original

description of a single specimen. This “‘re-

markable’”’ species is of especial interest

because of a peculiar combination of char-

acteristics: septa 9/10-10/11 combined,

11/12 united either with 9/10-10/11 or

12/13; pregonadic gizzards, intestinal origin

in region of xii—xiii; paired testis sacs (con-

taining hearts and nephridia) in x-xi,

numerous small seminal vesicles, one pair of

larger, elongated seminal vesicles extending

posteriorly within the ovisacs to xx, three

pairs of prostates none of which are as-

sociated with the male genital ducts.

Syngenodrilus was placed by its authors in

the Asiatic family Moniligastridae pri-

marily ‘‘because of the various important

characteristics in which it is allied with

Desmogaster’’ but probably as much because

of the one-cell-layered clitellum and yolky

ova supposedly characteristic of the Monili-

gastridae alone among Megadrili. Differ-

ences from other Moniligastridae were

1In the collections of the U. S. National

Museum is the unique type of an earthworm col-

lected near Lamu on the eastern coast of British

East Africa by William Astor Chanler in 1892 and

described by Frank Smith and Bessie R. Green

in the Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum,

vol. 55, pp. 145-153, 1919, as a new genus and

new species. Its taxonomic relationships have long

intrigued students of the oligochaetes and as a

result the type material has been critically re-

examined in recent years by two specialists. The

results of their observations are set forth in two

papers, this one by Dr. G. E. Gates of Judson

College, Rangoon, Burma, and the one immedi-

ately following by Dr. Grace E. Pickford, of the

Osborn Zoological and Bingham Oceanographic

Laboratories, Yale University.—W. L. Scumirt.

Received October 24, 1945.

G. E. Garss, Judson College, Rangoon, Burma.

(Communicated

recognized as sufficient to require division

of the family into two subfamilies, the

Moniligastrinae and Syngenodrilinae, the

latter containing only Syngenodrilus. This

and Stephenson, apparently without really

critical examination. The necessity for such

examination was recognized several years

ago and a discussion of the problem was

prepared for publication. There was, how-

ever, so much uncertainty with regard to a

number of structures of taxonomic impor-

tance that it seemed advisable to postpone

consideration of the problem until the type

material could be studied. Although a sab-

batical leave has permitted study of the

original material, a considerable proportion

of the uncertainty can not yet be resolved

except as regards moniligastrid relation-

ships.

The author’s thanks are due to Prof.

R. C. Osburn and the authorities of the

Ohio State University for the courtesies of

the Department of Zoology during the

winter of 1940-41, and also to Dr. Waldo L.

Schmitt, of the United States National

Museum, for the opportunity afforded of

examining the type material of Syngeno-

drilus.

Syngenodrilus lamuensis Smith and Green

1919. Syngenodrilus lamuensis F. Smith and B. R.

Green, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 55: 145-

153, figs. 1-8.

1930. Syngenodrilus lamuensis, J. Stephenson,

The Oligochaeta, p. 813 (vide also pp.

339, 671, 688, 696-697, 716, and 808-

811).

2 Michaelsen (1928) placed Syngenodrilus in a

separate family, the Syngenodrilidae, distinct

from but supposedly closely related to the Moni-

ligastridae.

394

Material examined.—The type material com-

prises a single specimen from which the right

half of the anterior end to the region of seg-

ment xxlll was removed and serial sections of

the right half, cut sagittally, on 10 slides.

Observations on the type specimen.—EXTER-

NAL CHARACTERISTICS: The prostomium appears

to be protruded, but it and the first segment

are softened and damaged. Because of the pro-

trusion, recognition of a characteristic monili-

gastrid prolobous condition is impossible. Pig-

mentation and clitellar coloration as well as

clitellar thickening are unrecognizable. Setae

of segments xi, xii, and xiii are in part or

wholly lacking. Close to approximate sites of

ventral setae there is on each of segments xi—

xill a porelike marking that might be the aper- |

ture of a setal follicle but possibly is the open-

ing of a prostate. Spermathecal apertures are

minute, apparently immediately in front of

7/8 and 8/9, in region of cd. There is a minute,

porelike marking on 12/13, about on cd, which

may be the male pore, but a similar marking is

present farther laterally on the anterior margin

of xill (nephropore or another male pore?).

The female pore is a transversely placed slit

on a, midway vetween the setal are of xiv and

13/14.

INTERNAL ANATOMY: In the left half of the

anterior portion remaining on the type is in-

cluded the ventral nerve cord, all of one ovisac

and most of another, two spermathecae, and

(probably) two male funnels. Most of the di-

gestive system behind 7/8 is lacking and blood

vessels are broken. The gizzards and portions

of the vascular system have been lost.

Behind the posteriormost prostate and about

at level of 13/14 is a bit of membrane that

presumably is 12/13. Coelomic cavity of xiii

reduced to an ovarian chamber (?). Segment of

intestinal origin not determinable. No typhlo-

sole. Structures that look somewhat like monili-

gastrid enterosegmental organs are present on

the intestine but may be only branches of ves-

sels to the dorsal trunk from the intestine.

“Hearts” of vi and vii connect the dorsal and

ventral trunks to a longitudinal vessel that ap-

pears to be an extra-esophageal. Location of

last heart not determinable.

The intact ovisac bends upward in the region

of the prostate of xiii and in the upper half of

the coelomic cavity bears at its anterior end a

rosette-shaped, iridescent mass, presumably a

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 12

male funnel. This funnel looks more like a

megascolecid funnel than that of a monili-

gastrid worm. Sticky coagulum such as is al-

ways present in a moniligastrid testis sac

around the male funnel is entirely lacking here.

The anterior (?) male funnel is attached to

a membrane that presumably represents the

posterior wall of a testis sac. Both (?) testis

sacs are open as a result of removal of median

portions in halving. Testes, vasa deferentia,

and seminal vesicles are unrecognizable. Strings

of round bodies, presumably eggs, are in front

of the anterior male funnel and are continuous,

beneath and around the posterior face of the

membrane bearing the funnel, with other egg

strings. A small female funnel is present on

the anterior face of 13/14 ventrally and a cord

representing or containing the female duct

passes from the posterior face of 138/14 into the

parietes of xiv. Ovisacs are firm and apparently

shrunken but at the posterior ends are several

small, reddish to yellowish knobs or lobes. In a

moniligastrid worm a similar collapsed condi-

tion of the ovisac, with but little yellowish

material is evidence for a late postsexual condi-

tion. Spermathecal ampullae are shrunken and

irregular, widest entally, not attached to the

posterior faces of their septa as in the Monili-

gastridae. A short ectal portion of each sperma-

theca (duct) appears to be circular in cross sec-

tion, with a thicker wall than the ampulla.

There are no atria or diverticula recognizable.

The prostates appear to be short tubular

glands, shortly looped, with the loops pressed

into contact, the glands bent posteriorly. The

duct is probably confined almost entirely to the

parietes.

The sections.—Portions of sections figured by

Smith and Green are readily recognizable

However, critical parts of the most important

sections are lacking, and in remaining portions

of these, as well as in other sections, delicate

septa (or portions of septa) have been broken

or lost. Accordingly any attempt at reconstruc-

tion scarcely seems feasible. A 4-day study of

this portion of the material warrants only a few

miscellaneous observations and suggestions.

Slight tension on delicate septa, in certain

earthworms at least, is sufficient to rupture

the membranes so that they are unrecognizable

in dissections even when made with consider-

able care. It is quite possible then, even if

if there had been no damage or loss during

Dec. 15, 1945

sectioning, that strains incident to halving the

type and washing dirt out from the gut might

have been sufficient to disrupt if not destroy

delicate membranes including some of the most

important septa. Delicate septa might also

have been ruptured in a process of sudden

killing. In the moniligastrid genus Drawida,

septal herniations permit one or both testis

sacs to have an apparent location behind the

ovarian segment, occasionally with a longi-

tudinal deformation of a testis sac. Whether a

similar sort of herniation is responsible for some

of the peculiar appearances in sections of

S. lamuensis, including that of seminal vesicles

within the ovisacs, can not be determined from

the material available. In any case, location of

most of the right ovisac as well as one gizzard

and part of another in the left half of the type,

shows that some organs at least are distorted

and not in a normally symmetrical condition.

Just how extensive the distortion is can not be

determined until normal specimens are avail-

able for comparison.

In view of admitted possibilities of “im-

perfectly developed” septa, of damage to sec-

tions, and the obvious presence of ‘‘evidence

of more septa among the organs”’ it is difficult

to imagine the reasons for an assumption of

septal fusions by Smith and Green, and es-

pecially of the extensive type mentioned above.

Presence of hearts and nephridia in x and xi

would have prevented complete fusion, even in

case of apposition of peripheral portions of

certain septa. For a peripheral apposition of

septa, as for instance in Drawida or Hoplo-

chaetella, no evidence was recognized in the

sections.

Determination of segmental location of the

posterior hearts appears to be impossible. In

some sections at least hearts appear to be

present in xi and xii but lacking in x (as in

certain species of Pheretima).

Intrasegmental location of testes and rela-

tionship of the male gonads to the anterior

walls of the testis sacs, according to Smith

and Green and so far as is determinable from

the sections, appear to be of the sort normal to

most Microdrili and Megadrili® and certainly

3 The terms Microdrili and Megadrili are used

in this article in a loose sense, merely to refer col-

lectively to the families Aeolosomatidiae to Hap-

lotaxidae or Alluroididae and Moniligastridae to

Lumbricidae respectively. (Vide Stephenson,

1930, p. 721.)

GATES: THE OLIGOCHAETE GENUS SYNGENODRILUS

395

are not of the moniligastrid type. (Note attach-

ment of testes to anterior walls of testis sacs

some distance in front of the male funnels and

above the floors of the sacs, in fig. 3, Smith and

Green, 1919, p. 149.) The position of the pos-

terior male funnel in the sections is most

peculiar. The ental-most portion of the as-

sociated male duct is dorsal to the funnel and

runs posteriorly. The male funnel is horizon-

tally elongated and faces ventrally with the

back (closed face) of the funnel and duct at-

tached dorsally. In most Megadrili the back of

the funnel is directed posteriorly, while in the

Moniligastridae the back is directed ventrally.

In certain sections the posterior male funnel

appears to be in xii. A definite statement as to

paired or unpaired characterization of the

testis sacs appears to be impossible though ap-

pearances seem to indicate that sacs are un-

paired, i.e., there are only two sacs, one belong-

ing to x and one to xi. Attention is also directed

to the fact that in some species of Pheretima

gonad septa may be herniated in such a way

that testis sacs at first appear to bein xi and xii

rather than x and xi. Essential portions of

sacs of S. lamuensis, those containing male

funnels and testes (or perhaps whole sacs?), are

certainly subesophageal. In view of the condi-

tion of the sections little of value can be said

regarding the segmental location of the testis

sacs, except that no reason for questioning the

location given by Smith and Green was recog-

nized. If the posterior testes belong to xii (ex-

tremely improbable) as suggested by Stephen-

son, it would seem to be necessary to refer the

anterior gonads to xi. The numerous small

seminal vesicles probably are nothing more

than aggregations of spermatozoa between

folds of the male funnel. Seminal vesicles, if

present, are of the posteriorly elongated,

microdrilid type* as figured by Stephenson,

1930, pp. 728 and 741), rather than the verti-

cally elongated megadrilid type (Stephenson,

1930, p. 329).

Remarks on the relationships of Syngenodrilus.

—Comparison of Syngenodrilus with the Moni-

ligastridae shows a number of similarities, but

nearly all these are shared with other families

or even larger groups: lumbricine setae (Kudri-

lidae, Lumbricidae, Ocnerodrilidae, Alluroidi-

4 Not to be confused with a secondary type of

posterior elongation in certain megascolecid

species.

396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 12

dae, Haplotaxidae), meganephric excretory

system (Eudrilidae, Lumbricidae, Ocnerodrili-

dae, Glossoscolecidae, Microdrili), location of

last hearts two segments in front of ovarian

metamere (Ocnerodrilidae®), lateral hearts

(Lumbricidae), location of male pores in front

of female pores, elongate, posteriorly directed

seminal vesicles and ovisacs, yolky ova and a

one-cell-layered clitellum (Microdrili). Dis-

similarities, on the contrary, are significant and

as important as those which mark off Asiatic

moniligastrids from other earthworms. In

these circumstances common location of extra-

esophageal trunks lateral to the hearts and the

presence of a relatively thick layer of non-

fibrous material between circular and longi-

tudinal muscles, can scarcely be regarded as

evidence for any close relationships to Asiatic

moniligastrids. Resemblances to Desmogaster,

in location of spermathecal, male, and female

pores, are superficial and of no significance.

What then are the affinities of Syngenodrilus?

Yolky ova, a one-cell-layered clitellum, and

posteriorly elongated seminal vesicles neces-

sitate consideration of relationships with the

Microdrili. Evidence from distribution and

morphology (note especially segmental loca-

tion of male and female pores and of sperma-

thecae in vill and 1x) point to the Alluroididae

as deserving of most consideration. This family

1s Mmonogeneric and hence recognition of family

characteristics (apart from those merely of

generic significance) is difficult. There is, how-

ever, no necessity for regarding absence of

nephridia in a few anterior segments and

presence of a gizzard as of sufficient importance

to warrant exclusion of Syngenodrilus. Similar-

ly proandry need not be regarded as of more

than (if even of) generic value. After inclusion

of Syngenodrilus the Alluroididae can still be

defined as follows: Setae lumbricine. Male pores

on or just behind 12/138, female pores on xiv,

spermathecal pores on or close to 7/8 and (or)

8/9. Digestive system without appendages (or

typhlosole?). Meganephric. Metagynous,® ma-

5 Other similarities to the Ocnerodrilidae, ab-

sence of typhlosole, dorsal pores (?) and sperma-

thecal diverticula, an anterior intestinal origin

in xii (?), and possibly tubular prostates. .

6 Stephenson, 1930, p. 806, locates the female

pores on xiv but the ovaries in xii. Possibly the

latter is a misprint for xiii, since length of ovi-

ture ova large and yolky, clitellum one-cell-

layered. Spermathecae simple, without divertic-

ula. A decision as to the necessity for retention

of the subfamily Syngenodrilinae, of course,

must be left to the future although some justi-

fication for recognition of two subfamilies at

present appears to be provided by the male

genital terminalia and possibly gizzards; Al-

luroidinae, male ducts opening to exterior

through atria, no gizzards; Syngenodrilinae,

male ducts opening to exterior independent of

prostates, gizzards present. The author, be-

cause of lack of literature and material, is not

in a position to determine whether similarities

between Syngenodrilus and Alluroides are as

unimportant as those between Syngenodrilus

and Desmogaster and the suggestions advanced

above must be left for consideration by those

who are not so handicapped.

When further syngenodrilin material be-

comes available the histology of the ‘“‘prostates”’

should be investigated. Superficially these

structures resemble the tubular prostates of

certain megascolecid genera. It should be

noted that the ‘‘prostates’’ of Syngenodrilus

are not united with the male deferent ducts as

in Plutellus and other megascolecids, are not

closely associated with the male deferent ducts

as in certain diplotremids, acanthodrilids, and

ocnerodrilids, nor do they open into seminal

grooves as in other acanthodrilids and ocnero-

drilids. Similarity appears to be rather with

the ‘‘prostatelike’’ glands of Sparganophilus

where the glands may be present in some

species and not in others, with even some

intraspecific variation as to presence and

absence. Presence in Syngenodrilus of struc-

tures similar to the prostatelike glands of

Sparganophilus need not then be an argument

against inclusion of Syngenodrilus in the Al-

luroididae. More important seems to be the

question as to whether absence of the alluroidid

type of ‘‘atrial prostate’’ (apparently more like

the capsular prostates of the Moniligastridae

and the euprostates of the Eudrilidae) is suf-

ficient reason for exclusion of the genus. This

type of prostate has been regarded as an en-

larged and modified ectal portion of the vas

deferens.

ducts, as a rule, is less than that of a single seg-

ment.

Dec. 15, 1945

PICKFORD: THE OLIGOCHAETE GENUS SYNGENODRILUS

397

ZOOLOGY.—Additional observations on the oligochaete genus Syngenodrilus.'

GracE E. Pickrorp, Osborn Zoological Laboratory and Bingham Oceano-

graphic Laboratory, Yale University.

ScHMITT. )

In the spring of 1945, in ignorance of the

fact that Dr. G. E. Gates had included

observations on the type of Syngenodrilus

in an unpublished article entitled On the

Moniligastridae and phylogeny of the Oligo-

chaeta, the present author made an inde-

pendent study of the specimen. Meanwhile,

through correspondence with Dr. Gates, it

was discovered that his article had been pre-

pared for publication and that a carbon

copy was available in the United States,

although the original had been lost at the

time of the Japanese invasion of Burma.

After consultation with Dr. Waldo L.

Schmitt, to whom my best thanks are due

for his cooperation, and with the permission

-of Dr. Gates, it was decided to arrange for

immediate publication of the first part of

his article, that dealing with Syngenodrilus,

in slightly condensed form together with

some additional observations. The latter

are presented herewith, in the form of a

separate article, since there are certain dis-

crepancies between the two accounts and

the author did not feel that it would be

right to introduce qualifications or cor-

rections, based on his own opinion, into the

text of Dr. Gates’s account.

ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS

(1) The sections. The sections are mounted

on 10 slides, labeled a to 7, and except on four

of these (g to 7), where the gizzard region caused

trouble, the series is reasonably complete and

in good condition. The original description of

Smith and Green, based largely on these sec-

tions, is remarkably accurate. Several of the

original drawings- are composite, but it is

always possible to identify the actual sections

from which they were made. No mistakes were

discovered. On the other hand, as Gates has

pointed out, no further light could be obtained

regarding some of the points that were left

unsettled in the original description; in particu-

lar, the relations of the septa in the region of

1 Received October 24, 1945. See note to Dr.

Gates’s companion paper herein, p. 393.

(Communicated by Watpo L.

the testis sacs must remain obscure until new

material can be examined. The relationships of

the genital pores to the setae can be recon-

structed without difficulty, and there is no

doubt that the original account is essentially

correct. The male pore appears on slide a, on

the sixteenth and seventeenth sections from

the beginning; the spermathecal pores are on

the second row on slide b; the prostates are on

slide d; the female pore is on slide e.

The gizzard has a cuticular lining which

ceases in the dilated, thin-walled, croplike re-

gion which follows. The position of the first

intestinal segment cannot be determined.

(2) The specumen. Dorsal pores could not

be seen either on the specimen or on the sec-

tions. The clitellum does not include the ante-

rior third of segment xi but extends from 2/3

xi to xvi inclusive and is ring-shaped, as stated

by Smith and Green. The male pore is clearly

visible with good illumination and is situated in

intersegmental furrow 12/13, about 3/5 bc lat-

eral to setal line b; this observation conflicts

with that of Gates but is in accordance with the

evidence of the sections. The female pore is

less conspicuous but can be seen lateral to seta

b of segment xiv; this statement is not in agree-

ment with that of Gates who found the female

pores in front of seta a; on the sections, the ovi-

duct is seen to open lateral to the b seta. The

prostatic pores cannot be identified with cer-

tainty on the specimen, although clearly visi-

ble on the sections. Gates has described the

position of the spermathecal pores, also very

difficult to see, and their location is in agree-

ment with that expected from a study of the

sections.

A rectangular area resembling a copulatory

band, which was not observed by Smith and

Green or by Gates, occupies a region of the cli-

tellum that is bounded above and below by

setal lines cd and ab, respectively; this area is

delimited anteriorly by intersegmental furrow

11/12 and posteriorly by the ab setae of seg-

ment xiv. The setae of the clitellar segments,

difficult to see on the specimen, can readily be

identified on the sections.

398

Several attempts were made to obtain a sig-

moid seta for examination, but unfortunately

all that were removed proved to be broken at

the distal extremity, no doubt as the result of

much handling of the specimen. On the sections

the ventral setae of segments xiv, xv, and xvi

are preserved unbroken and in a favorable

position for study; however, examination, even

with an oil immersion apochromat, failed to

reveal any definite evidence of ornamentation,

although some faint surface markings of an

obscure nature were observed. The refractive

index of damar is unsuitable for the study of

delicate setal ornamentation and the matter

cannot be considered settled.

Confirming statements of Gates, the giz-

zards, shown in Smith and Green’s fig. 2, have

dropped out of the specimen and could not be

found; there is no trace of calciferous glands

either on the specimen or on the sections, and

the intestine is without typhlosole. Syngeno-

drilus is holonephric; nephridia from segments

xlii and xliii were removed and mounted, the

terminal duct has a pear-shaped dilation at its

ectal end.

DISCUSSION

Gates’s observations are, with minor excep-

tions, in close agreement with those of the

present author, and there is no doubt that the

general pattern of his conclusions must be sup-

ported. Two points may be added to his discus-

sion of the problem: On the one hand, the

nephridia are quite unlike those of the monili-

gastrid genus Drawida, in which there is a re-

markable blind sac extending dorsally from the

ectal duct. On the other hand, the suspicions

raised in his footnote 6 regarding the position

of the ovaries in Allurozvdes are fully justified.

In the original description of A. pordagei Bed-

dard? stated that the ovaries were in segment

xiii but later in the same article, in the formal

diagnosis of the new genus, the ovaries are

said to be in segment xii. Evidently subsequent

diagnoses by Michaelsen** and Stephenson’

have perpetrated this error, which stemmed

from a misprint in the original article, although

2 F. Bepparp, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 36:

244-252. 1894.

a a MICHAELSEN, Das Tverretch, Oligochaeta.

4, W. MIcHAELSEN, Oligochaeta, in Kiikenthal

and Krumbach’s ‘‘Handbuch der Zoologie.”’ 1928.

5 J, STEPHENSON, The Oligochaeta. Oxford, 1930.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, NO. 12

Beddard® himself corrected the generic descrip-

tion. Stephenson attempted an interpretation

of the Syngenodrilus testis sacs as condensed

segments and obtained, by a process of theo-

retical expansion, the following arrangement of

the gonads: testes in x and xii, ovaries in xiv.

Gates has pointed out that this interpreta-

tion is very improbable and reexamination

of the material gives no support to such a

theory.

Syngenodrilus can not be included in the

Moniligastridae, and it is clear that it has

strong affinities with the Alluroididae. Gates

has suggested that it might even be placed

within the latter family, but there are impor-

tant differences that would appear to necessi-

tate the recognition of two distinct subfamilies,

Alluroidinae and Syngenodrilinae. In view of

the inadequacy of our present knowledge of

the Alluroididae,’ a family whose characters

will probably be clarified by the discovery of

new species and genera, it seems preferable to

retain the family Syngenodrilidae, while recog-

nizing that future discoveries may bridge the

gap that appears to exist at the present time.

Michaelsen* proposed that the families Phre-

oryctidae, Alluroididae, Syngenodrilidae, and

Moniligastridae should be placed together in

the family-group Phreoryctina. It seems to the

writer that there is much to be said in favor of

such an arrangement; however, the Alluroididae

and Syngenodrilidae differ from Haplotaxidae

(= Phreoryctidae) on the one hand, and from

Moniligastridae on the other hand, in a num-

ber of important respects, of which the most

significant is the backward migration of the

male duct which opens to the exterior.at 12/13

or on segment xiii. As Gates has pointed out,

the Syngenodrilidae differ from the Alluroi-

didae in the possession of a well-developed,

double, esophageal gizzard, in having simple

Sparganophilus-like prostatic glands which

are not related to the male opening, and in the

absence of a moniligastrid-like atrium at the

ectal end of the vas deferens.

6 F. Bepparp, A monograph of the order Oli-

gochaeta. Oxford, 1895.

7 The Alluroididae have hitherto been consid-

ered to be a purely African family, but the exist-

ence of an undescribed species in the Argentine

was noted by L. Cernosvitov (Mem. Soc. Zool.

Tchecoslovaque Prague 3, 1936). Dr. Cernosvitov

informs me, 7n litt., that this form is very close to

the already known species but has enormous

penial setae.

a ae rf

¥ é

Dec. 15, 1945

A formal redefinition of the family follows;

of necessity it includes some characters which

may, with the discovery of new forms, prove

to be of less than family significance.

Family SYNGENODRILIDAE Michaelsen

(1928)

Sigmoid setae single-pointed, eight per seg-

ment, in two ventral and two lateral bundles.

Dorsal pores wanting. Clitellum in a single

layer of cells, in the region of the male and fe-

male pores. One pair of male pores at 12/13;

one pair of female pores on xiv; two pairs of

spermathecal pores in 7/8 and 8/9. Two

esophageal gizzards in viii and ix; no calcifer-

ous glands; intestine without typhlosole. Six

HERRE: NEW FISHES FROM CHINA AND INDIA

399

pairs of lateral hearts in vi to xi (?), those of vi

and vii communicating with lateral “‘extra-

esophageal”’ vessels. One pair of holonephridia

per segment; ectal nephridial duct with a di-

lated vesicle. Holandric, two pairs of testes and

spermiducal funnels in x and xi, respectively,

enclosed in testis sacs; paired seminal vesicles

depending backward from 10/11, enclosed

within the ovisacs. One pair of ovaries in xiii;

ovisacs depending backwards from 13/14 into

xx; eggs yolky. Three pairs of simple prostatic

glands opening on xi, xii, and xiii just lateral to

the b setae, not associated with the male pores.

Penial and genital setae lacking. Spermathecae

without diverticula. One genus: Syngenodrilus;

monotypic, S. lamuensis Smith and Green.

ICHTHYOLOGY .—WNotes on fishes in the Zoological Museum of Stanford Univer-

sity: XX, New fishes from China and India, a new genus, and a new Indian

record.)

by HeRBERT FRIEDMANN.)

This paper terminates a series begun in

1934. The first paper was a brief account of

the fishes of my 1931 Philippine expedition

and was published by me in Hong Kong.

The series continued with accounts of new

or rare fishes collected by me in various

parts of the world and was published in

various journals in this country.

South China abounds with a great variety

of fishes, both marine and fresh water,

which even yet are imperfectly known. This

is particularly true of the region from Hong

Kong southward, which has never been ex-

plored by an ichthyologist. Ten days were

spent in Hong Kong during March 1941,

and many rare cold-blooded vertebrates

were secured. Two trips were made to the

New Territory to study the fish-pond in-

dustry and to do a little collecting. A new

species of Vaimosa was obtained and is here

presented. This genus is rich in species in

the regions bordering on the South China

Sea, including the adjacent islands.

The coastal waters of India have never

been adequately explored for littoral fishes;

this is true alike for the coral reefs of the ex-

treme south and the long reaches of the

Coromandel and Malabar coasts. Investiga-

tion of the coastal waters, including brack-

1 Received July 2, 1945.

ALBERT W. C. T. Herre, Stanford University.

(Communicated

ish lagoons and the river mouths, should

give us a greatly extended knowledge of

fish distribution, as well as add many fishes

to the known Indian fauna, some new spe-

cies, and others known only from more or

less remote regions. In this paper is re-

corded a fish hitherto known only from a

single Philippine example, but really com-

mon in the Bay of Bengal. In addition, two

gobies, an eleotrid, and a scorpaenid are

presented as new. I have no doubt that

collecting in the Andaman Islands would

add 200 species to the known Indian fish

fauna.

The labors of the competent staff of the

Indian Zoological Survey, particularly of

Dr. 8S. L. Hora, have added greatly to our

knowledge of the fresh-water fishes of

India, and as a result those of northern and

central India are fairly well known. Much

less has been done on the fishes of the

streams of south India, and it is to be ex-

pected that new fishes should be found in

that region, particularly in the hill streams.

I have already described a new catfish

from the Anamallai Hills, and now present

a member of the genus Homaloptera from

the same locality. Dr. Hora has already

described two homalopterid fishes from

Travancore and Mysore. One of them,

Bhavania australis, was described by Jerdon

400

in 1848 under the name of Platycara aus-

tralis. Because of its peculiarities Dr. Hora

created the genus Bhavania for it and ex-

tended our knowledge of the fish. The other

homalopterid, Travancoria jonest, was first

described by Dr. Hora.

The Puthutotam Estate in the Anamallai

Hills, where I collected the new Homalop-

tera, is not far from the region in Travan-

core where both Bhavania australis and

Travancoria jonesit occur, although sep-

arated by forest-clad mountains. That the

fauna of the two areas is much the same is

shown by the fishes common to their

streams; one of them, Tvravancoria jonest,

which I also collected at the Puthutotam

Estate, is of special interest as showing that

it is not confined to the streams at the foot

of the Travancore mountains.

The members of the genus Homaloptera

occur in the East Indies, Malaya, and Bur-

ma, and apparently this is the first time

that a member of the genus has been found

in South India. The earlier accounts of

Homaloptera from south India all refer to

Bhavania australis. Burma is the nearest

region to south India from which Homalop-

tera has been known hitherto. It is therefore

a matter of much interest to students of

geographical distribution to ffnd a species of

Homaloptera in the mountain streams of

south India. It has been known for a good

while that many of the fishes of south In-

dian streams have their closest relatives in,

or are identical with, species in the streams

of Malaya. Dr. Hora has paid much atten-

tion to the problems involved, and I agree

with his theory that the homalopterid

fishes and other torrential dwellers reached

south India by migrating along the Satpura

Trend.

Lengths given are always the standard

length.

Family HOMALOPTERIDAE

Genus Homaloptera Van Hasselt

Homaloptera montana, n. sp.

Dorsal II-6; anal I-5; pectoral VI-8; ven-

tral, II-7 on one side, IIJ—6 on the other side;

lateral line about 72; transverse series of scales

16-112. )

The depth is 9.6, the head 4.8, the pectoral

3.8 times in the length; the caudal and ventral

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 35, NO. 12

equal the head. The eye is 4.3, the snout 2, the

postorbital length of the head 2.5 times in the

head; the flat interorbital is a little more than

the eye; the least depth of the caudal peduncle

is twice in its own length.

The form is slender, the posterior half lat-

erally compressed, the dorsal profile little ele-

vated,.the eyes dorsolateral; the snout de-

scends steeply, with rather flat tip; the arched

mouth is small, the barbels small and incon-

spicuous. The dorsal origin is well behind the

ventral origin and behind the middle of the

length, the distance from the tip of the snout to

the dorsal being 52 percent, to the ventral ori-

gin 43 percent, of the total length; stated dif-

ferently, the ventral origin is opposite the nine-

teenth tubule of the lateral line, the dorsal ori-

gin opposite the twenty-sixth. The tip of the

pectoral touches the ventral origin when de-

pressed, but the ventral falls short of the anus,

which is noticeably in advance of the anal ori-

gin. The caudal is nearly truncate, the corners

little projecting. The head and entire lower sur-

face back to a little behind the ventral base are

naked.

The color in alcohol is brown, the underside

yellowish; 10 short dark brown bars across the

back, but not extending down to the lateral

line; a poorly defined dark longitudinal stripe

below the lateral line from the eye to the caudal

base; top of the head very dark brown; a black-

ish-brown spot on the ventral base; caudal with

a blackish blotch on its base and another near

its tip; other fins all clear.

Described from the type and only specimen,

48 mm long, which I took from a brook on the

Puthutotam Estate in the Anamallai Hills at

about 3,600 feet altitude, Valaparai Postoffice,

Madras Presidency, South India.

Family ScoRPAENIDAE

Genus Scorpaena Linnaeus

Scorpaena lacto-maculata, n. sp.

. Dorsal XI-I-9; anal III-—5; about 60 scales in

a longitudinal row above the lateral line; 25

tubulated scales in lateral line; about 38 scales

in transverse series, 8 from the sixth dorsal

spine to the lateral line.

Depth 5.5, caudal 6.9, head 4.18, pectoral

5.8, ventral 7.4 times in the length. The eye is

5.5 times in the head and is a little more than

the interorbital breadth; snout 3.4 times in

Dec. 15, 1945

head. The longest dorsal spine is approximately

a third of the head; the longest dorsal rays

equal the second anal spine, 2.6 times in the

head; the third anal spine is as long as the sec-

ond but is much slenderer; longest anal ray is

half as long as the head. The 6 upper pectoral

rays are divided, the 12 lower ones simple.

Interorbital deeply concave, the prominent

supraorbital ridge with 3 spines, followed by a

large spine behind the ridge; a spine on each

side of the prominent hump on the snout; 2

spines, very close together, on each side of the

nuchal area; behind the middle of the eye is a

group of small spines, followed by a row of 3

rather widely spaced spines; 2 opercular

spines; 4 spines on the bony stay below the eye

and a row of spines on the hind margin of the

preopercle; a spine on the shoulder girdle above

the pectoral base. Head scaleless or with a very

few small scales on the opercular flap; many

tentacles, often large and fringed, on the head,

between or on spines, on the broad maxilla and

overhanging it, on the chin and along the rami

of the lower jaw, on the cheeks, and 2 or 3 small

ones on the upper part of the eye ball; simple

flaps along the lateral line and on numerous

scales on the sides of the body. The large mouth

is oblique, the maxilla extending beyond the

hind margin of the eye; no palatine teeth.

The color in alcohol is freckled reddish

brown, with 2 or 3 bands of darker brown ex-

tending across fins and body; just above the

lateral line and beneath the ninth dorsal spine

is a circular milky spot, larger than the pupil;

beneath the eye is a similar but much smaller

spot; at the hind end of the soft dorsal base is a

larger milky spot, partly on the fin but mostly

on the body; the numerous tentacles or flaps

below the lateral line are also milky white; these

spots and tentacles were probably opalescent in

life. The pectorals, dorsal, and caudal have

broad pale or white, but not milky-white, cross

bands.

Described from two specimens taken from

“Shallow water near Bombay,’ India, each of

them 222 mm in length. The type is in the In-

dian Museum, the paratype in the Natural

History Museum of Stanford University.

Genus Brachypterois Fowler

Brachypterois serrulifer Fowler

Brachypterots serrulifer Fowler, Proc. U. S. Nat.

Mus. 85: 79, fig. 35. 1938.

HERRE: NEW FISHES FROM CHINA AND INDIA 401

This fine scorpaenid was described from a

single specimen, dredged 8.4 miles off San Fer-

nando Point, on the west coast of Luzon, Phil-

ippine Islands. To Fowler’s description I can

add that the pectorals are black and that the

ventral rays are also black except basally.

This species must be rather common in the

northern end of the Bay of Bengal. One speci-

men, 73 mm long, was taken by the Bengal

Fisheries Department on the Arakan coast.

Another of 65 mm was caught off Gopalpur,

Orissa. Fifteen examples from 43 to 80 mm in

length were dredged at the mouth of the Hugli

River by the Lady Fraser.

Dorsal XIT—I—10; anal III—5; pectoral 16.

Family ELEOTRIDAE

Genus Hypseleotris Gill

Hypseleotris raji, n. sp.

Dorsal VI-I-8; anal I-7; scales ctenoid, 28 in

lateral series plus 2 on caudal base, 9 in trans-

verse series; 12 predorsal scales.

The body is moderately plump and stout, the

dorsal profile well arched, descending steeply

from the dorsal origin to the tip of the snout;

the depth and caudal are equal, 4%, the head 3

times in the length; the large eye is in the an-

terior half of the head, dorsolateral, scarcely

larger than the broad snout, 4 times in the

head; the interorbital is 1.35 times in the eye;

the postorbital is slightly more than half the

head. The fins are all low, the longest dorsal

spine 3.14 times in the head or 9.4 in the length;

the last ray of the second dorsal is longest, 2.44

in the bead or 7.33 times in the length; the ulti-

mate and penultimate anal rays are longest, 2.2

in the head or 6.6 in the length; the pectoral ex-

tends above the anal, 3.66 in the length; the

ventrals reach the anal, four and an eighth in

the length. All scales are ctenoid, those on the

cheeks very small; anal papilla thin, slender,

blunt, inconspicuous.

The ground color in alcohol is pale tan, with

4 double cross bands of dark brown, the first

over the nape, the last on the caudal sbduntie

the ground color appears as pale bands and

rows of spots through the cross bands; a black-

ish-brown cross bar on the caudal base; dark

brown bands from the eye on the snout and

across the cheek, at least two of them continu-

ing on the under side of the head to meet simi-

lar bands from the other eye. The first dorsal is

largely black; the second dorsal has a blackish

402

band basally, then a clear band, the outer third

or half blackish; the anal and ventrals have

black rays with dark or blackish membranes;

the pectoral base has a large dark brown spot,

the fin clear; the caudal has 4 circular black

spots on its base.

The type and only specimen is a male 33 mm

long, taken from the Adyar River, Madras.

Named for Dr. B. Sundara Raj, former director

of fisheries for the Madras Presidency, who did

so much to make my visit to Madras successful.

Family GoBIIDAE

Orissagobius, n. gen.

Dorsal VI-I-8 or 9; anal I-8 or 9; scales large,

finely ctenoid, 22 to 24 in longitudinal, 6 in

transverse series; a narrow naked predorsal

strip, the nape otherwise covered with cycloid

scales almost to the eyes; preopercle covered

with large deciduous cycloid scales; opercle

naked except for one or two cycloid scales at the

upper inner corner. Eye large, in anterior half

of head, interorbital very narrow; snout short,

two-thirds or less of eye; mouth strongly

oblique, each jaw with an outer row of stout,

enlarged, sharp-pointed and curved teeth, fol-

lowed by 3 rows of minute teeth, at least the

outer rows of teeth visible when the mouth is

closed; tongue large, fleshy, truncate or slightly

notched; gill opening extending forward to be-

neath the hind margin of the preoperculum.

Fins all elongate, the upper rays of the caudal

greatly extended, some specimens with the

caudal half the standard length; the antepenul-

timate ray of the second dorsal longest, equal

to or longer than the head, the same ray in the

anal nearly as long; pectoral about four-fifths of

the head, its base long and fleshy; no free pec-

toral rays; ventrals large, with a well developed

frenum, free from abdomen. Tissues of this fish

fragile, showing that it lives in rather deep

water.

Type of genus: Orissagobius cometes (Al-

cock). Known only from the Ganjam coast,

Orissa, India. Dredged from depths of a little

more or less than 100 fathoms, by the S.8. In-

vestigator, of the Indian Marine Survey. Eight

specimens, 61 to 73 mm in length, were ex-

amined.

Genus Macgregorella Seale

Macgregorella indica, n. sp.

Dorsal VI-I—9; anal I-8; predorsal scales 4;

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 12

about 50 longitudinal scales, 14 in transverse

series; the head is entirely naked.

The depth equals the rounded caudal, 6

times in the length; the large broad flat head

is 3.47 in the length, its depth 1.6 times in its

breadth, which is 1.28 in its own length; the

broad blunt snout is 3.95 times in the head; the

small eyes are dorsolateral and in the anterior

half of the head, 7.3 in the head and 1.38 times

in the broad interorbital; the teeth are typical

of the genus.

The snout, sides, and underparts of the head

are marked by numerous rows of sensory

papillae, some of them elongated and some-

what resembling barbels, especially on the chin

and underside of the head. A large pore before

the inner margin of each eye, and a transverse

row of 4 large pores behind the eyes and inter-

orbital space. The dorsals are low, the height of

the first 4.75 in the head; the posterior rays of

the second dorsal and anal are longest, 8.25

times in the length or 2.375 in the head; the

broad pectoral is eight-ninths of the head, 3.88

in the length; the ventrals are typical goby ven-

trals with a strong and well developed frenum,

and are contained a trifle over 5 times in the

length or 1.46 in the head.

The color in alcohol is pale reddish brown

with 4 broad conspicuous dark reddish-brown

cross bands on the trunk and a narrow stripe of

the same color on the caudal base; the first

band extends upon the pectoral on both its in-

ner and outer faces; between the cross bands

are blotches and streaks of reddish brown; the

second cross band extends upon the first dorsal,

the third and fourth upon the second dorsal;

the anal and caudal are obscurely barred by

brown.

Described from the type and only specimen,

33 mm long, taken from coral at Krusadai Is-

land in the Gulf of Manaar, Pamban District,

Madras Presidency, South India. Such speci-

mens as this show the fallacy of placing all

gobies with ridges of papillae on the head, and

the body barred with brown, in the genus Cal-

logobius, which is marked by weak ventrals

with a very slight fragile frenum. In spite of

Kouman’s assertion, Macgregorella is a good

genus.

Genus Vaimosa Jordan and Seale

Vaimosa adyari, n. sp.

Dorsal VI-I-7; anal I-7; scales in lateral se-

Dec. 15, 1945

ries 26, plus 3 on the caudal base, in transverse

series 8; predorsal scales 7, the anterior one

much enlarged and projecting forward between

posterior part of the eyes; opercular scales 6.

The compact body is little compressed, the

dorsal profile almost horizontal, the ventral

profile slightly curved; the depth is 5 to 5.25,

the head 3.8, the caudal 2.8, the pectoral 3.33 to

3.8, the ventral 4.2 times in the length. The

snout is broad, blunt, convex, 5.2 to 5.5 times in

the head; the eye is moderately large, lateral, in

the anterior half of the head, in which it goes

3.4 times; the postorbital is slightly longer than

the eye and snout together; the narrow inter-

orbital is not more than a fourth of the eye; the

oblique mouth is subterminal, the lower jaw

weak, the maxillary extending beneath the an-

_terior margin of the eye, or a little beyond; the

vertical fins are small, the dorsals rather far

apart, the second and third spines of the first

dorsal longest, 2.1 or 2.2 in the head, 8 times or

a little more in the length; the second dorsal

and anal are of equal height, both falling far

short of the caudal base when depressed, six

and two-thirds or 7 times in the length; the

pectoral equals or slightly exceeds the head, 3.5

to 3.8 in the length; the ventrals are broadly

pointed, with strong well developed frenum, 1.1

in the head; the least depth of the caudal pe-

duncle is about 1.7 times in its own length; the

small inconspicuous anal papilla is slender and

pointed in males.

The color in alcohol is very pale yellowish,

with 5 short-brown dorsal cross bands, the first

predorsal, the second under the first dorsal, the

next two under the second dorsal, and the fifth

on the caudal peduncle; along the middle of the

side are 5 oblong brown spots, the last on the

caudal base, with another spot below it; on the

sides are also scattered flecks of brown; a spot

on the pectoral base, one on the opercle, and

one below the eye; the posterior half of the first

dorsal is black; the second dorsal has 3 cross

rows of black or brown spots, the caudal 56 ir-

regular cross rows of brown spots; some of the

rays of the anal and ventrals are dotted with

black and there are 3 to 5 black spots on the

median line of the body between the anal origin

and the caudal base.

Described from 2 male specimens, the type

21 mm long and paratype 20 mm, and a juve-

nile specimen 15.5 mm in length. They were

taken by me on January 4, 1941, from the Ad-

HERRE: NEW FISHES FROM CHINA AND INDIA

403

yar River, opposite ‘‘The Anchorage,”’ the resi-

dence of Dr. B. Sundara Raj, former director of

fisheries of the Madras Presidency. This is not

far from the Bay of Bengal, and the Adyar

River is more or less brackish at this point.

Vaimosa crassa, N. sp.

Dorsal VI-I-7; anal I-8; scales in longi-

tudinal series 36, plus 3 or more on the caudal

base, 12 in transverse series; predorsal scales

15, extending through the interorbital space to

the front margin of the eyes; preopercular scales

9 or 10.

Body thick, plump, only the posterior third

being laterally compressed; dorsal outline very

slightly arched, nearly horizontal; ventral pro-

file gently arched; the head is contained 3.7 to

3.8, the depth 4.55 to 4.7, the short rounded

caudal 4.85 to 5.14 times in the length; the

large eye equals or exceeds slightly the length

of the snout, 3.8 times in the head; the post-

orbital is a trifle less than the eye and snout

together; the broad interorbital equals or

slightly exceeds the eye; the wide mouth is in-

ferior, the maxillary extending beneath the

front third of the eye, or almost to its middle;

in males the maxillary probably extends be-

yond the eye. The fins are all small, the vertical

fins low, the second spine of the first dorsal 2.2

to 2.6 in the head or 8.3 to 9.5 times in the

length, the dorsals far apart; the height of the

second dorsal is approximately 2 to 2.4 times in

the head or 7.5 to 8.9 in the length; the longest

anal ray is 2.3 to 2.4 in the head or 8.9 to 9

times in the length; the anal and second dorsal

fall far short of the caudal base when depressed;

the short rounded pectoral is 1.3 to 1.4 in the

head or 4.85 to 5.5 times in the length; the ven-

tral extends but half way to the anal papilla,

1.85 or 1.9 in the head and 6.8 to 7.2 in the

length; the least depth of the caudal peduncle is

1.4 times in its own length. Females have a

short, broad, bluntly rounded, and inconspicu-

ous anal papilla.

Alcoholic specimens are marked by broad

dark brown diagonal bands inclined forward

and downward, with narrow and very pale tan

stripes between; one specimen has the head and

body before the first dorsal all brown, mottled

with dusky. On the middle of the front margin

of the opercle is a blackish spot, with a dark

stripe descending from it to the underside of

the head; a black spot near the upper end of the

404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 35, NO. 12

caudal base; the first dorsal is blackish, the sec- the type 34 mm long. and paratype 36 mm long

ond dorsal and anal more or less dusky; the They were taken from a brook near Un Long,

other fins are colorless. New Territory, Hong Kong. No other speci-

Here described from two female specimens, mens were secured.

APPEAL TO AMERICAN SCIENTISTS

Many scientists and their families are enduring severe hardships in occupied countries.

We, the undersigned, wives of American scientists, want to help these innocent victims

of the Axis. We suggest the desirability of supplementing the work of the established

relief agencies by sending gift packages of clothing and food directly to individual scien-

tists and their families. Some of us have already sent packages to friends whose present

addresses are known, and the acknowledgments we have received leave no doubt of the

urgent need which these packages are helping to meet. Used clothing and shoes are

genuinely appreciated. )

American scientists who would like to send packages to colleagues in the occupied

countries may obtain names and present addresses from the Secretary of this group. It is

suggested that you indicate the country of your greatest interest and the ages of the chil-

dren for which you can supply clothing.

A package sent now is worth six sent next spring.

LANGHORNE H. BricKWEDDE

LovisE McD. Browne

EmitigE H. Conpon

Loua 8. DEMING

Epitu O. HENDRICKS

Miuprep R. Masi

Grace H. RuarkK

GrRacE H. Situ, Secretary

National Bureau of Standards,

Washington 25, D.C.

ten: Mee — oo ea

INDEX TO VOLUME 35

An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society of Washington. 103.

Botanical Society of Washington. 167.

Chemical Society of Washington. 102.

Geological Society of Washington. 196.

Philosophical Society of Washington.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

97, 367.

164, 230, 298.

AUTHOR INDEX

Aserc, Ewrrt, and Wiess, G. A. Irregular

barley, Hordeum tirregulare, sp. nov. 161.

ALLARD, H. A. A new form of the moonvine

Calonyction aculeatum with divided corolla

limb, and length-of-day behavior and flower-

ing of the common form. 33.

ALLEN, V. T. *Sedimentary and volcanic proc-

esses in the formation of high-alumina clays.

198.

ANDREws, DONALD H.

lute zero. 370.

BAKER, Epwarp W. Five mites of the family

Ereynetidae from Mexico. 16.

Scheloribates chauhant, a new species of

oribatid mite from India (Acarina: Cerato-

*Explorations near abso-

-zetidae). 386.

BartscuH, Paut. New urocoptid mollusks from

Mexico. 92.

The West Pacific species of the mol-

luscan genus Aforza. 388.

Berry, Epwarp W. Harry Fielding Reid

(obituary). 31.

. The Lower Eocene flora of southeastern

North America. 87.

BuAKE, Doris H. Five new flea beetles from the

West Indies. 89.

Six new species of beetles of a eumolpid

genus new to the West Indies. 323.

BuakE, S. F. Dipterocypsela, a new genus of

Vernonieae from Colombia. 36.

BoosaupA, JOHN K. *Plastics—today and to-

morrow. 369.

Bovine, ApAmM H. Description of the larva and

pupa of the scarab beetle Ancylonycha min-

danaona (Brenske). 13.

Brapy, FREDERICK J. See DEAN B. Cowrr. 192.

Brown, WiiuiaM F., Jr. *Ferromagnetic do-

mains. 371.

BuURINGTON, RicHARDS. *Invariance in science.

99.

CHANDRASEKHAR, 8. *Galactic evidences for the

time scale of the universe. 98.

CLaBAuGH, S. E. *Paragenesis of the tungsten

ore of the Ima mine, Idaho. 198.

Cuiarxk, Austin H. A new starfish of the genus

_ Luidia from the coast of Georgia. 19.

Cor, WresLEY R. Malacobdella minuta, a new

commensal nemertean. 65.

Core, Eart L. Two new species of Scleria from

the Upper Amazon Valley. 322.

Cowi18, Dean B. *The 60-inch cyclotron at the

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. 102.

,,uAWTON, ALFRED H., Ness, A. T.,

Brapy, FREDERICK J., and OGDEN, GLEN E.

Localization of radioactive antimony follow-

ing multiple daily injections to a dog infected

with Dirofilaria immitis. 192.

CRITTENDEN, E. C. John Franklin

(obituary). 168.

DARNELL, RICHARD C.

craft fire control. 100.

Dixmans, G. Two new lungworms, Proto-

strongylus gracilis and Varestrongylus sinicus

(Nematoda: Protostrongylinae), from sheep

and goats in China. 294.

Dopegs, Ernest 8. Notes from Six Nations on

the hunting and trapping of wild turkeys and

passenger pigeons. 342.

DorsEy, HERBERT G. *Radio applied to ocean

current observations. 100.

DrRaKkE, C. J., and HAMBLETON, E. J.

ing Neotropical Tingitidae

356.

Epwarps, Harry T. Lyster

(obituary). 200.

FENTON, WILLIAMN. SeeJ. N. B. Hewitt. 301.

FisHerR, W. K. Unusual abnormalities in sea-

stars. 296.

Fraser, C. McLean. Notes on some recently

collected hydroids in the United States Na-

tional Museum, with descriptions of three

new species. 21.

GAMOwW, GEORGE A.

Meyer

*The problem of antiair-

Concern-

(Hemiptera).

Hoxie Dewey

*Weizsacker’s planetary

theory. 367.

GaRDNER, H. A. George Whiteley Coggeshall

(obituary). 199.

GARNER, CLEMENT L. The utility of geodetic

control surveys. 137.

Gates, G. E. On the oligochaete genus Syngeno-

drilus and its taxonomic relationships. 393.

Gautt, H. R. *Geology and zinc deposits in the

Groundhog and Glacier Basins, Wrangell

district, southeastern Alaska. 198.

GILBERT, WiLLIAM H., Jr. The Sinhalese caste

system of central and southern Ceylon. 69,

105.

The Wesorts of southern Maryland: An

outcasted group. 237.

GLASSELL, STEVE A. Four new species of North

American crabs of the genus Petrolisthes. 223.

405

406

GRIFFIN, JAMES B. The significance of the fiber-

tempered pottery of the St. Johns area in

Florida. 218.

HAMBLETON, HE. J. See C.J. DRAKE. 356.

HARRINGTON, JoHN P. Origin of the word

‘““maize.’’ 68.

Phonematic daylight in Lhiinkit, Na-

vajo of the North. 1.

Six common Navajo nouns accounted

for. Sto:

Hass, W. H. *Conodont morphology. 196.

HENDRICKS, STERLING B. *Photoperiodic flow-

ering response of plants. 372.

Herre, ALBERT W.C.T. Notes on fishes in the

Zoological Museum of Stanford University:

XX, New fishes from China and India, a

new genus, and a new Indian record. 399.

Hewitt, J. N. B., and Fenton, WiLrram N.

Some mnemonic pictographs relating to the

Iroquois condolence council. 301.

Hosss, Horton H., JR. The subspecies and in-

tergrades of the Florida burrowing crayfish

Procambarus rogerst (Hobbs). 247.

HuuBert, E. O. *Optics of distilled water and

sea water. 368.

HyneEk, J. ALLEN.

367.

INSLEY, HERBERT. Contact deposits in an arti-

ficial silicate magma. 156.

JAMES, Maurice T. A new larvaevorid parasite

of the social butterfly Huchetra soczalis

Westwood (Diptera). 328.

JENKINS, ANNA E. Scab of Cinchona in South

America caused by Elsinoé. 344.

KARMAN, THEODORE VON. Faster than sound.

144.

KENG, Kwan-HOv. See Yi-LI KENG. 374.

Kene, Yi-t1, and Kenge, Kwan-Hov. Koko-

noria, a new genus of Plantaginaceae from

Tsinghai Province, China. 374.

KENNARD, E. H., and Taytor, Davin.

be scientific? 99.

Kine, P. B. *Tectonics of northeasternmost

Tennessee. 197.

Kirk, Epwin. Gaulocrinus, a new inadunate

crinoid genus from the Mississippian. 180.

KirkKwoop, JoHN G. *The structure of liquids.

101.

KOUWENHAVEN, WiuuiaAmM B, *Electric shock—

physiological manifestations and treatment.

372.

Lawton, ALFRED H. See Dran B. Cowig, 192.

LINDBERG, Marig L. *Heavy mineral correla-

tion of the Fox Hills, Hell Creek, and Can-

nonball sediments, North Dakota. 196.

Lone, W. H. Notes on four eastern species of

Gymnosporangium. 182.

Mao, Yine-Tov. Three new species of Lamini-

tarsus Fullaway from Singapore and the

Philippines (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). 189.

Marmer, H. A. *Meansealevel. 367.

McCuvre, F. A. The vegetative characters of

the bamboo genus Phyllostachys and descrip-

tions of eight new species introduced from

China. 276.

*The ‘“‘science”’ of astrology.

*Whyvy

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 12

McNisu, A. G. *The odograph. 370.

MILLER, Rosert R. Anchoviella analis, a new

engraulid fish from the west coast of Mexico.

265.

Four new species of fossil cyprinodont

fishes from eastern California. 315.

Snyderichthys, a new generic name for

the leatherside chub of the Bonneville and

Upper Snake drainages in Western United

States. 28.

Moore, J. Percy. Two new leeches (Hirudinea)

in the collection of the United States Na-

tional Museum. 261.

Morrison, Haroup. The mealybug genus Het-

erococcus Ferris and some of its relatives

(Homoptera: Coccoidea). 38.

Morton, C. V. Seven new species of Gesneri-

aceae from Peru and Colombia. 126.

Ness, A. T. See Dean B. Cowie. 192.

Oak EY, R. G. Preliminary life-history studies

in Guam of the scarab beetle Ancylonycha

mindanaona (Brenske). 7.

OcpEN, GLEN E. See DrEaAn B. Cowie.

OrLeER, Morris Epwarp. Japanese folk belief

concerning the cat. 269.

PickForRD, Grace E. Additional observations

on the oligochaete genus Syngenodrilus. 397.

Rawpon, H.S. William Malcolm Corse (obitu-

ary). 32

RIpLEY, 8. Ditton. Suggested terms for the in-

terpretation of speciation phenomena. 337.

Rivas, Luis Rent. The discovery and rede-

scription of the types of Rivulus marmoratus

Poey, a cyprinodont fish from Cuba. 95.

192.

Rogserts, JoHN W. Merton Benway Waite -

(obituary). 268.

Roginson, G. D. *The molybdenite deposit at

Shakan, Alaska. 196.

RossER, J. BARKLEY. *Many-valued logics. 367.

RvussELL, LovisE M. A new genus and twelve

new species of Neotropical whiteflies (Ho-

moptera: Aleyrodidae). 55.:

SayLor, LAWRENCE W. Synoptic revision of the

United States scarab beetles of the sub-

family Dynastinae, No. 1: Tribe Cycloce-

phalini. 378.

ScHAEFFER, C. E. See F. G. Speck. 169.

Scuuttz, Leonarp P. Emmelichthyops atlanti-

cus, a new genus and species of fish (family

Emmelichthyidae) from the Bahamas, with

akey torelated genera. 132.

Pygidium mondolfi, a new catfish from

Venezuela. 29.

The leatherjackets, carangid fishes of

the genus Oligoplites Gill, inhabiting Ameri-

can waters. 330.

SETCHKIN, NicHouas P. *The ignition tempera-

ture of liquids. 369.

SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. Notes on the am-

phipod genus Bactrurus Hay, with descrip-

tion of a new species. 24.

Simua, Roperr. *Elasticity and flow in high

polymers. 97.

Speck, F. G., and ScHAEFFER, C. E. The mu-

tual-aid and volunteer company of the east-

ee eee Se

aa ee ae

_ ° 3

Dec. 15, 1945

ern Cherokee: as recorded in a book of min-

utes in the Sequoyah syllabary, compared

with mutual-aid societies of the northern

Iroquois. 169.

Stimson, H. F. The measurement of some ther-

mal properties of water. 201.

Strong, A. H. *Electrical networks and ‘“‘squar-

ing the square.”’ 371.

Srurz, Groree F. A. *Luminescent pigments.

101.

Tayutor, Davip. See E. H. KENNARD. 99.

TucCKERMAN, L. B. *Mathematics as she are

taught: Fit the second. 97,

INDEX 407

VENNING, FRANK D. Accessory vascular bun-

dles in Murraya koenigiit (Linn.) Spreng.

(Rutaceae: Aurantioideae). 352.

VesTINE, E. H. *The geographical distribution

of aurora. 370.

Warner, L. A. *Magnetite deposits of Kasaan

Peninsula, southeastern Alaska. 197.

WieBE, G. A. See Ewerr ABERT. 161.

WiInNEK, Dovuauas F. *Trivision—a direct-vi-

sion color stereograph. 370.

YaGcopa, H. J. *Localization of chemical con-

stituents by chemical patterns. 199.

SUBJECT INDEX

Archeology. The significance of the fiber-tem-

pered pottery of the St. Johns area in

Florida. James B. GRIFFIN. 218.

Astronomy. *Galactic evidences for the time

scale of the universe. S. CHANDRASEK-

HAR. 98,

*The ‘‘science”’ of astrology. J. ALLEN

HyYNEK. 367.

Biology. Suggested terms for the interpretation

of speciation phenomena. S. DILLoNn

RIPLEY. 337.

Biophysics. *Photoperiodic flowering response of

plants. Sreriine B. HENDRIcKs. 372.

Botany. Accessory vascular bundles in Murraya

koenigit (Linn.) Spreng. (Rutaceae: Au-

rantioideae). FRANK D. VENNING. 352.

A new form of the moonvine Calonyction

aculeatum with divided corolla limb, and

length-of-day behavior and flowering of

the commonform. H.A. ALLARD. 33.

Dipterocypsela, a new genus of Vernonieae

from Colombia. S. F. BuaKke. 36.

Irregular barley, Hordeum irregulare, sp.

nov. Ewert ABERG and G. A. WIEBE. 161.

Kokonoria, a new genus of Plantaginaceae

from Tsinghai Province, China. YI-.I

Kene and Kwan-Hovu Kena. 374.

Notes on four eastern species of Gymno-

sporangium. W.H. Lone. 182.

Seab of Cinchona in South America caused

Elsinoé. ANNA E. JENKINS. 344.

Seven new species of Gesneriaceae from Peru

and Colombia. C. V. Morton. 126.

The vegetative characters of the bamboo

genus Phyllostachys and descriptions of

eight new species introduced from China.

F. A. McCuiure. 276.

Two new species of Scleria from the Upper

Amazon Valley. Earut L. Core. 322.

Chemistry. *The ignition temperature of liquids.

NicHouas P. SETCHKIN. 369.

Entomology. A new genus and twelve new spe-

: cies of Neotropical whiteflies (Homoptera:

Aleyrodidae). Louise M. RussEuu. 55.

A new larvaevorid parasite of the social but-

terfly Hucheira socialis Westwood (Dip-

tera). Maurice T. JAMEs. 328.

Concerning Neotropical Tingitidae (Hemip-

tera). C. J. Drake and E. J. HAMBLE-

TON, 356.

Description of the larva and pupa of the

scarab beetle Ancylonycha mindanaona

(Brenske). Apam G. Bovina. 13.

Five mites of the family Ereynetidae from

Mexico. Epwarp W. Baker. 16.

Five new flea beetles from the West Indies.

Doris H. BLAKE. 89.

Preliminary life-history studies in Guam of

the scarab beetle Ancylonycha mindanaona

(Brenske). R. G. OaAKuEy. 7.

Scheloribates chauhani, a new species of ori-

batid mite from India (Acarina: Cerato-

zetidae). Epwarp W. Baker. 386.

Synoptic revision of the United States scarab

beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae, No.

1: Tribe Cyclocephalini. LAwrencE W.

Sayitor. 378.

The mealybug genus Heterococcus Ferris and

some of its relatives (Homoptera: Coc-

coidea). Harotp Morrison. 38.

Three new species of Laminitarsus Fullaway

from Singapore and the Philippines

(Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Y1ne-Tou

Mao. 189.

Ethnology. Japanese folk belief concerning the

cat. Morris Epwarp OPLER. 269.

Notes from Six Nations on the hunting and

trapping of wild turkeys and passenger

pigeons. Ernest 8. DopGe. 342.

Some mnemonic pictographs relating to the

Iroquois condolence: council. J. N. B.

HewimtT and Wiuu1AM N. Fenton. 301.

The mutual-aid and volunteer company of

the eastern Cherokee: as recorded in a book

of minutes in the Sequoyah syllabary,

compared with mutual-aid societies of the

northern Iroquois. F. G. Speck and C. E.

ScHAEFFER. 169.

The Sinhalese caste system of central and

southern Ceylon. Wrii1amM H. GILBERT,

Jr. 69, 105.

The Wesorts of southern Maryland: An out-

casted group. Wi.i1aAM H. GILBERT, JR.

237.

General Science. *Why be scientific?

KENNARD and Davip Taytor. 99,

B,. A.

408

Geochemistry. Contact deposits in an artificial

silicate magma. HERBERT INSLEY. 156.

Geodesy. *Mean sea level. H. A. MARMER. 367.

The utility of geodetic control surveys.

CiLEMENT L. GARNER. 137.

Ichthyology. Anchoviella analis, a new engraulid

fish from the west coast of Mexico.

RoBERT R. MILER. 265.

Emmelichthyops atlanticus, a new genus and

species of fish (family Emmelichthyidae)

from the Bahamas, with a key to related

genera. LEONARD P.ScuuuitTz. 132.

Notes on fishes in the Zoological Museum of

Stanford University: XX, New fishes

from China and India, a new genus, and

a new Indian record. ALBERT W. C. T.

HERRE. 399.

Pygidium mondolfi, a new catfish from Vene-

zuela. LEONARD P. ScHuuLtTz. 29.

Snyderichthys, a new generic name for the

leatherside chub of the Bonneville and

Upper Snake drainages in Western United

States. Rosert R. MiuuEerR. 28.

The leatherjackets, carangid fishes of the

genus Oligophites Gill, inhabiting Ameri-

can waters. Lronarp P. Scuutrz. 330.

The discovery and redescription of the types

of Rivulus marmoratus Poey, a eyprinidont

fish from Cuba. Luis REN#& Rivas. 965.

Linguistics. Origin of the word ‘maize.’ JOHN

P. HARRINGTON. 68.

Phonematic daylight in Lhiinkit, Navajo of

the North. Joun P. Harrineron. 1.

Six common Navajo nouns accounted for.

JoHN P. HARRINGTON. 373.

Logic. *Many-valued logics. J. BARKLEY Ros-

SER. 367.

Mathematics. *Electrical networks and ‘‘squar-

ing the square.” A. H. Stone. 371.

*Mathematics as she are taught: Fit the

Second. L. B. TucKERMAN. 97.

Obituaries. COGGESHALL, GEORGE WHITELEY.

199. Corse, Winti1am Matco.im. 31.

Dewey, LysterR Hoxie. 200. Meyer,

JoHN FRANKLIN. 168. ReErp, Harry

Fretping. 31. Waitt, Merton BEn-

WAy. 268.

Paleobotany. The Lower Eocene flora of south-

eastern North America. Epwarp W.

BERRY. 87.

Paleontology. Four new species of fossil cyprino-

dont fishes from eastern California.

Ropert R. Miuuer. 315.

Gaulocrinus, a new inadunate crinoid genus

from the Mississippian. Epwin Kirk. 180.

‘Parasitology. Localization of radioactive an-

timony following multiple injections to a

dog infected with Dvurofilaria immitis.

Dean B. Cowi1z, ALFRED H. Lawron,

A. T. Ness, Freprerick J. Brapy, and

GLEN E. OapEn. 192.

Physics. *Electric shock—physiological mani-

festations and treatment. WiLiiaAm B.

KOUWENHAVEN. 372.

*Elasticity and flow in high polymers.

ROBERT SIMHA. 97.

*Explorations near absolute zero. DoNaLp

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 35, No. 12)

H. ANDREWws. 370.

Faster than sound. THEODORE von KAr-

MAN. 144.

*Ferromagnetic domains. Wuiiiiam PF,

Brown, Jr. 371.

*Invariance in science. RicHarp S. Bur-

INGTON. 99.

*Luminescent pigments. Grorce F. A.

Sr ras Lhe

*Optics of distilled water and sea water.

E. O. Huiperr. 368. .

*Plastics—today and tomorrow. Joun K.

BoosaHpDA. 369.

*Radio applied to ocean current observa-

tions. Hrrsert G. Dorsry. 100.

*The geographical distribution of the aurora.

E. H. Vestine.\ 370.

The measurement of some thermal proper-

ties of water. H.F.Sirmson. 201.

*The odograph. A. G. McNisu. 370.

*The problem of antiaircraft fire control.

RicHARD C. DARNELL. 100.

*The 60-inch cyclotron at the Department

of Terrestrial Magnetism. Dran_ B.

Cowie. 102.

*The structure of liquids. JoHn G. Kirx-

woop. 101.

*Trivision—a ___ direct-vision _stereograph.

Dovaeias F. WInNEK. 370.

*Weizsacker’s planetary theory. GrorGE A.

Gamow. 367.

Zoology. Additional observations on the oligo-

chaete genus Syngenodrilus. Grace E.

PicKForRD. 397.

A new starfish of the genus Luidia from the

coast of Georgia. AusTIN H. CuarK. 19.

Four new species of North American crabs

of the genus Petrolisthes. StTmvE A. Guas-

SELL. 223.

Malacobdella minuta, a new commensal

nemertean. WESLEY R.:Con. 65.

New urocoptid mollusks from Mexico.

Pau BartscH. 92.

Notes on some recently collected hydroids in

the United States National Museum, with

descriptions of three new species. C. Mc-

LEAN FRASER. 21.

Notes on the amphipod genus Bactrurus

Hay, with description of a new species.

CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. 24.

On the oligochaete genus Syngenodrilus and

its taxonomic relationships. G. E. GATEs.

393.

The West Pacific species of the molluscan

genus Aforia. Paun BartscH. 388.

The subspecies and intergrades of the Flor-

ida burrowing crayfish, Procambarus roger-

st (Hobbs). Horton H. Hosss, Jr. 247.

Two new leeches (Hirudinea) in the collec-

tion of the United States National Mu-

seum. J. Percy Moore. 261.

Two new lungworms, Protostrongylus gracilis

and Varestrongylus sinicus (Nematoda:

Protostrongylinae), from sheep and goats

in China. G. Dixmans. 294.

Unusual abnormalities in sea-stars. W. K.

FIisHer. 296.

FY at Diag Pc ised

a Y y ae

| fe / Bt at ac

Lineuistics. ix common Navajo nouns Mgrs: for. JOHN PL ea ae

Hanntnoran ith. il -2S pont oe uate a Rake Abode “Bm ae

Be iy Se

Botany.—Kokonoria, a new genus of Plantaginaceae from Tsinghai | pe

/ Province, China. YI-Li Kene and Kwan-Hovu KEne...... Saal Tk HS

ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States aol papiien: * ee al ia

of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 1: Tribe Cyclocephalini. ae Re isis

LAWRENCE W. SaYLoR...... ome ul Shas oe cee ~ oe peg ae 3B

EntToMoLoGy.—WScheloribates chauhani, a new species of oubelad: mite” Of < ae,

from India (Acayina: Ceratozetidae). Epwarp W. BAKER. te tg SS ee

ZooLocy.—The West Pacific species of the mollusean genus Aforia. YS Senay ae

PauL BaRTSCH)....-.....-. AG BOLT RTL: ee ha aes,

ZooLoay.—On the oligochaete genus Syngenodritus bind its taxonomic ; ie ‘

relationships. G. E. GaTES eee, £ Tt eer ea 52 Se ee "393 ba

. ce SMES gis gi 9

Zoo.ocy.—Additional observations on the Se es genus Syn- Naar 2: seal

genodrilus. Grace E. PICKFORD...............+.. Peet sage Cn ye oer. eee |

IcutHyoLocy.—Notes on fishes in the Zoological een ts Stanford — iy

University: XX, New fishes from China and India, a new genus plats

and a new Indian record. ALBERT W. C. is HEnRe: iN ea ee ee

APPEAL TO AMERICAN SCIENTISTS. .......0-6.0eseeeecseee ees

INDEX TO VOLUME 35..............- siteae Wh ey Mites uh Aine

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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