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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 47

JANUARY 1957

INO!

BOTANY .—New plant names published by Luigi Castigliont. Hu1-Lin Lr, Morris

Arboretum, University of Pennsylvania.

(Received October 5, 1956)

A very interesting but much neglected

work on early American history in general

and especially on the flora of eastern North

America was written in Italian by Luigi

Castiglioni and published in 1790 in Milan,

Italy, in two volumes, entitled Vzaggio

negli Stati Uniti dell’ America Settentrionale

fatto negli anni 1785, 1786 e 1787 da Luigi

Castiglioni. Con alcune osservazioni sut

vegetabili piu utile di quel paese.

Luigi Castiglioni visited the early United

States in 1785-1787, traveling through all

the 13 states and a portion of Canada. His

purpose was, in his own words, twofold. One

was to witness the political birth of a repub-

lic composed of diverse nationalities extend-

ing over a vast area with varied climates

and products. Secondly, he desired to in-

vestigate the natural productions of the

country, particularly those of the vegetable

kingdom, studying methods of cultivating

and propagating these plants and their uses,

with a view of introducing the more useful

ones to Europe.

Shortly after his return to Italy Casti-

ghoni published the two volumes of his

travels and observations. The book is di-

vided into two parts. The main portion

consists of a narrative of his travels in the

various states, commenting extensively on

their histories and governments, with notes

on the manners and customs of the people

and on the natural products of the land. The

second part, entitled Osservazioni sui vege-

tabilt pia Stati Uniti, covers from page 169

of the second volume to page 402, the end

of the book. This part gives in alphabetical

order after the manner of Marshall’s Arbus-

tum, descriptions and observations on all

MAR oO 7 10%

the common trees and shrubs and some of

the more interesting herbs.

Elsewhere I have treated the observations

made by Castiglioni on the intriguing rela-

tionship between the flora of eastern Asia

and that of eastern North America.! The

present paper deals with the new plant

names given in Castiglioni’s work.

Castiglioni followed consistently Lin-

naeus’s binomial nomenclature. Aside from

Linnaeus, to whom he credited most of the

species he described, the other most fre-

quently quoted author is Humphrey Mar-

shall, his Arbustum Americanum of 1785.

The pre-Linnaean Flora Virginica, 1739, of

Gronovius is also often quoted. Other

authors frequently mentioned include Miller

and Lamarck.

As a taxonomic contribution, Castigloni’s

work is perhaps not comparable in impor-

tance to that of his immediate predecessors

Wangenheim and Marshall. However, he

consistently adopted a broad concept of

species, treating many specific names of

other authors as varieties of a single species.

Such species of inclusive nature were in

most cases not accepted by later authors,

but they did indicate relationships between

the component varieties, at least as Casti-

glioni interpreted them.

Most of the new names in Castiglioni’s

work are of varietal status. Only 14 new

species names are noted, indicated by

Castiglioni with the letter ‘“‘N”. Some of

these are actually the same as Linnaeus or

Marshall or other author’s earlier names

IL, H. L. Lwigi Castiglioni as a pioneer in

plant geography and plant introduction. Proc.

Amer. Philos. Soc. 99: 51-56, 1955.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

but without citation of these authors; some

of them were perhaps not intended as new

names by Castiglioni although he seems to

attach with care author’s names to all other

species. A few others, however, are genuine

new names first proposed by Castiglioni.

None of these specific names have been

taken up by Index Kewensis.

Castiglioni’s work, as noted above, has

been much overlooked by most later bota-

nists. In 1891 Faxon published a note? calling

attention to this interesting work especially

because of Castiglioni’s early notice of the

floristic relationships between eastern Asia

and eastern North America. But in sub-

sequent years Castiglioni’s work still re-

ceived little attention from taxonomists as

well as writers on early American botany.

So far as | am aware Sargent was the first

botanist who took account of any of Cas-

tiglioni’s taxonomic notes. He quoted

Castiglioni, though only occasionally and

sporadically in the biblographical refer-

ences given in his Sylva of North America

(1891-1902). He was the first and only one

to adopt for use a Castigloni epithet:

Populus balsaminifera var. virginiana (Cast.)

Sargent in Journ. Arnold Arb. 1: 63. 1919,

basing it on Populus negra B virginiana

Cast. Actually, Castiglioni is not to be

credited with this epithet, as he cited

clearly in the synonymy the earher Populus

virginiana Fouger. Sargent’s name was

later changed to Populus deltoides virginiana

(Cast.) Sudworth, Check List Forest Trees

U.S. (U.S. Dept. Agr. Cire. 92): 65. 1927.

Rehder adopted this name in his Manual of

cultivated trees and shrubs in 1940 but later

reduced this name into the straight syn-

onymy of Populus deltoides Marsh. in his

Bibliography of cultivated trees and shrubs of

1948.

In Rehder’s above-mentioned bibliogra-

phy, Castiglion1’s varietal names received the

most complete listing. However, only 20 out

of the total 44 new varietal names, and none

of the specific names are listed.

Rehder apparently did not give Castigli-

oni’s work a complete examination for its

2 Faxon, C. E. Castiglioni’s travels in the United

States. Garden & Forest 4(159): 110-111. 1891.

Iam indebted to Dr. Roland M. Harper for bring-

ing this article to my attention.

VOL. 47, NO. 1

botanical names. His varied versions in

abbreviating Castiglioni’s work indicate

that it had been consulted at random and at

separate intervals. In one instance, this

work is quoted in parenthesis. In other

instances, Castiglioni’s work is cited in

numerous variable forms as Viaggio Stat.

Un. Am. Sept. (sic); Viaggio Stati Un.;

Viagg. Stati Uniti; Viagg. Stati Unit.;

Viagg. Stat. Uniti; Viagg. St. Uniti; Viag.

Stati Uniti.

Most of the varietal names are found in

Gray Herbarium Card Index, but at least

six such names are noted to be unlisted there

and none of the specific names are listed.

The following notes list all the new names

appearing in Castiglioni’s work following

the same alphabetical order given by him.

The identifications are made from his

descriptions, given in all cases in Latin, his

citations of synonymy, common English

names, and his notes and observations. In

only one instance, Campsis radicans var.

minor, is a Castiglioni name herein adopted

to replace a name of current usage. Besides

the following, in his text on page 333,

Castiglioni mentioned a ‘Helianthus spec. |

nov.”’ from Virginia with the common name

“S. Andrew’s Cross.”

Ascyrum hypericoides Linn. Again, on

page 383, under Spiraea, he mentioned

Hypericum frutex, a name (nomen nudum)

which has also not appeared elsewhere. In |

the following list * marks those names that

are not recorded by Rehder (1948), ° those |

not recorded by Gray Card Index (to date),

and + marks specific names not listed in |

Index Kewensts.

*+° Aesculus pavia Cast. Viaggio 2: 187. 1790. =

Ae. pavia Linn. 1753. Castiglioni does |

not cite Ae. pavia Linn.

*+° Aesculus lutea Cast. Viaggio 2: 187. 1790. = —

Ae. octandra Marshall 1785. Castiglioni |

does not cite Ae. lutea Wangenheim |

1788.

* Betula lenta a rubra Cast. Viaggio 2: 207.

1790. = B. migra Linn. 1753.

* Betula lenta B papyrifera Cast. Viaggio 2:

207. 1790. = B. papyrifera Marshall

1785. Castiglioni does not cite Marshall’s |

hame.

This is probably |

JANUARY 1957

* Betula lenta y populifolia Cast. Viaggio 2:

207. 1790. = B. populifolia Marshall,

1790. Castiglioni does not cite Mar-

shall’s name.

* Betula lenta 6 humilis Cast. Viaggio 2: 207.

1790. = B. pumila Linn., 1767. Gray

Card Index considers this as based on B.

humilis Marshall, but Castiglioni does

not list that name.

* Bignonia radicans 8 minor Cast. Viaggio 2:

210. 1790. = Campsis radicans var.

speciosa (Parsons) Voss, 1911. =

Campsts radicans var. minor (Cast.),

comb. nov. This is undoubtedly the

variety with smaller more reddish

flowers. Castiglioni’s name should be

adopted to replace Parsons 1887 which

is a nomen nudum. See Rehder (1948,

cited above) for complete synonymy.

*7° Cercis canadensis Cast. Viaggio 2: 223.

1790. = C. canadensis Linn., 1753.

Castighoni gives Siliquastrum canadense

Tourn. in synonymy. The omission of

Linnaeus’s name might be just an over-

sight on the part of Castiglioni as he

otherwise cites C. stliquastrum Linn.

correctly.

* Fraxinus americana 8 alba (Marshall) Cast.

Viaggio 2: 244. 1790. = F. americana

Linn., 1753. Based on F. alba Marshall,

1785.

* Fraxinus americana y pennsylvanica (Mar-

shall) Cast. Viaggio 2: 244. 1790. (as

pensylvanica). = F. pennsylvanica Mar-

shall, 1785. Rehder gives F. americana

var. pennsylvanica Wesmael, 1892, in the

synonymy.

*Fraxinus nigra 8 juglandifolia (Lamarck)

Cast. Viaggio 2: 244. 1790. = F. ameri-

cana var. juglandifolia (Lamarck) D. J.

Browne, 1846. Based on F. juglandifolia

Lamarck 1788.

* Fraxinus nigra y pubescens (Lamarck) Cast.

Viaggio 2: 244. 1790. = F. pennsylvanica

Marshall, 1785. Based on F. pubescens

Lamarck 1788.

*Fraxinus nigra 6 sambucifolia (Lamarck)

Cast. Viaggio 2: 244. 1790. = F. nigra

Marshall, 1785. Based on F. sambuct-

folia Lamarck 1786. Rehder gives F.

migra var. sambucifolia D. J. Browne,

1846, in the synonymy.

Gleditschia triacanthos 8B aquatica (Marshall)

Cast. Viaggio 2: 249. 1790. = Gleditsia

aquatica Marshall, 1785.

Gleditschia triacanthos y inermis Cast.

Viaggio 2: 249. 1790. = Gleditsia tri-

acanthos {. inermis (Linn.) Zabel, 1903.

LI: CASTIGLIONI’S PLANT NAMES

(J)

Juglans alba € pacana Cast. Viaggio 2: 262.

1790. = Carya illinoensis (Wangen-

heim) K. Koch, 1869. Apparently based

on J. pecan Marshall, 1785, but Casti-

glioni gives a different spelling for the

specific epithet.

Lonicera sempervirens a virginiana (Mar-

shall) Cast. Viaggio 2: 284. 1790. = L.

sempervirens Linn., 1753. Based on L.

virginiana Marshall, 1785.

Lonicera sempervirens 8 caroliniana (Mar-

shall) Cast. Viaggio 2: 285. 1790. = L.

sempervirens f{. minor (Ait.) Rehder,

1903. Based on L. caroliniana Marshall,

1785.

*7° Mespilus Oxyacantha (Linn.) Cast. Viaggio

2: 292. 1790. = Crataegus Oxyacantha

Linn., 1753. Based on Linnaeus’s name.

Mespilus Oxyacantha B americana Cast.

Viaggio 2: 292. 1790. = Crataegus

marshallii Eggleston, 1908.

*1° Mespilus Azarolus (Linn.) Cast. Viaggio 2:

292. 1790. = Crataegus Azarolus Linn.,

1753. Based on Linnaeus’s name.

Mespilus Azarolus B americana Cast. Viaggio

2: 292. 1790. = Crataegus Azarolus

Linn., 1753.

Mespilus Azarolus 6 aurea (Marshall) Cast.

Viaggio 2: 292. 1790. = Crataegus uni-

flora Muenchhausen, 1770. Based on M.

Oxyacantha aurea Marshall, 1785.

*1° Mespilus coccinea (Linn.) Cast. Viaggio 2:

293. 1790. Based on Crataegus coccinea

Linn., 1753, an ambiguous name now

referred to C. pedicellata Sargent and C.

intricata Lange. Rehder lists a different

name M. coccinea Waldstein & Kitaibel,

1812, in the synonymy of Crataegus

tomentosa (Ait.) Lindl. Mesptlus cocci-

nea Marshall, based on the same Lin-

naean name, is not cited by Castiglioni

or by Rehder.

Mespilus coccinea 8 viridis (Linn.) Cast.

Viaggio 2: 293. 1790. = Crataegus viridis

Linn., 1753.

*1° Mespilus tomentosa (Linn.) Cast. Viaggio 2:

293. 1790. = Crataegus crus-galli Linn.,

1753. Castiglioni’s name is based on

Crataegus tomentosa Linn., an ambiguous

name. He considers it as synonymous to

Mespilus cunetformis Marshall. Rehder

lists M. cunetformis Marshall twice,

under Crataegus crus-galli Linn. and C.

punctata Jacq.

* Mespilus tomentosa 8 lutea Cast. Viaggio 2:

293. 1790. = Crataegus calpodendron

(Erh.) Medicus, 1798.

Mespilus amelanchier 8 nivea (Marshall)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Cast. Viaggio 2: 293. 1790. = Ame-

lanchier arborea (Mich. f.) Fernald,

1941. Based on M. nivea Marshall, 1785.

Mespilus amelanchier y prunifolia (Marshall)

Cast. Viaggio 2: 298. 1790. = Aronia

prunifolia (Marshall) Rehder, 1938.

Based on M. prunifolia Marshall, 1785.

* Mespilus amelanchier 6 canadensis (Linn.)

Cast. Viaggio 2: 294. 1790. = Ame-

lanchier canadensis (Linn.) Medicus,

1793. Based on M. canadensis Linn.

1753.

*1° Mespilus crus-galli (Linn.) Cast. Viaggio 2:

294. 1790. = Crataegus crus-galli Linn.,

1793. Based on Linnaeus’s name.

Castiglioni does not cite M. crus-galli

Marshall, similarly based.

* Mespilus crus-galli 3 lucida (Miller) Cast.

Viaggio 2: 294. 1790. = Crataegus crus-

galli Linn., 1753. Based on C. lucida

Miller, 1768.

* Mespilus arbutifolia B virginiana Cast.

Viaggio 2: 294. 1790. Castiglioni’s name

is derived from ‘Crataegus virginiana

Miller Dict. no. 4.” This name probably

refers to Mespilus virginiana Miller ed.

8. 8 m. no. 11. 1768. = Amelanchier

canadensis (Linn.) Medicus, 1793, and

is therefore not referable to Aronia

arbutifola (Linn.) Persoon, 1806.

° Myrica cerifera a arborescens Cast. Viaggio

2: 302. 1790. = Myrica cerifera Linn.,

1753.

*° Myrica cerifera B frutescens Cast. Viaggio 2:

302. 1790. = Myrica cerifera Linn., 1753.

*1° Nyssa aquatica Cast. Viaggio 2: 304. 1790. =

Nyssa aquatica Linn., 1753. This species

is described by Castiglioni without

citing Linnaeus as the authority but

evidently referring to the same plant

now circumscribed as Nyssa aquatica

Linn., the latter in its original form

being a composite name including in

part NV. sylvatica Marshall and N. ogeche

Bartram. The two latter species are also

correctly differentiated and described by

Castiglioni and properly credited to the

two authors. Sargent in his Sylva of

North America 5: 73-84. 18938 disregards

Linnaeus’s N. aquatica and credits all

three species to Marshall. Castiglioni,

however, attaches only Marshall’s name

to N. sylvatica. Sargent also cites in the

same work the references to Castiglioni

under NV. sylvatica and N. ogeche but

fails to mention him under N. aquatica.

Pinus Taeda B echinata (Miller) Cast.

VOL. 47, No. 1

Viaggio 2: 312. 1790. = Pinus echinata }

Miller, 1768.

*+ Pinus Taeda vy rigida (Marshall) Cast.

Viaggio 2: 313. 1790. = Pinus rigida

Miller, 1768. Based on “P. rigida

Marshall” listed in the synonymy.

* Pinus Taeda, 6 palustris (Miller) Cast.

Viaggio 2: 313. 1790. = P. palustris

Miller, 1768.

Pinus sylvestris 8 norvegica Cast. Viaggio 2:

313. 1790. = P. resinosa Aiton, 1789.

* Pinus sylvestris y novo-caesariensis Cast.

Viaggio 2: 313. 1790. = P. virginiana

Miller, 1768.

Pinus sylvestris 6 flava Cast. Viaggio 2: 314.

1790. = P. ecinata Miller, 1768.

*t° Pinus Balsamea Cast. Viaggio 2: 314. 1790.

= Abies balsamea (Linn.) Miller, 1768.

It is conceded that Castiglioni does not

intend to name this plant but has

failed to record Linnaeus as the au-

thority.

*1° Pinus americana (Miller) Cast. Viaggio 2: |

314. 1790. = Tsuga canadensis (Linn.)

Carriere, 1855. Castiglioni cites Abzes

americana Miller, 1768, and Pinus Abies

americana Marshall, 1785. Castiglioni’s

name is a later one than Pinus americana |

DuRoi, 1771, as given by Rehder.

Pinus canadensis a alba Cast. Viaggio 2:

314.1790. = Picea glauca (Moench) Voss, |

1908.

Pinus canadensis 8 nigra Cast. Viaggio 2: 315...

1790. = Picea mariana (Miller) Britton, |

1888. Gray Card Index considers this |

as based on P. nigra Aiton, 1789, but

Castiglioni does not give the latter

name.

“Pinus Larix B rubra, y nigra, 6 alba Cast. |

Viaggio 2: 315. 1790.” Rehder gives

these three names as synonyms of

Larix laricina (DuRoi) K. Koch and |

credits them to Castiglioni. Actually as |

clearly noted by Castiglioni, these were

named earlier by Marshall.

Populus nigra 8 virginiana (Fouger.) Cast.

Viaggio 2: 334. 1790. = P. deltoides

Marshall, 1785. This is the only name of |

Castiglioni that appears in current |

usage. As Castiglioni cites P. virginiana

Fougeroux, 1787, this is apparently the |

origin of this epithet, a fact neglected by |

later authors like Sargent and Sud- |

worth. Sargent is the first and only one —

to adopt a Castiglioni name, effecting

the combination Populus balsamifera

var. virginiana (Cast.) Sargent in

JANUARY 1957 LI: CASTIGLIONI’S PLANT NAMES 5

Journ. Arnold Arb. 1: 63. 1919. This was

subsequently changed to P. deltoides

virginiana (Cast.) Sudworth, Check

List Forest Trees U. 8. (U. 8S. Dept.

Agr. Mise. Cire. 92): 65. 1927, appar-

ently without verifying the original

work of Castiglioni. This is considered

as the typical form of the species in

Rehder’s Manual (1940) and as a

straight synonym of Populus deltoides

in his Bibliography (1948).

*7° Populus canadensis Cast. Viaggio 2: 334.

1790. = P. deltoides Marshall 1785.

The description shows that this species

is referable to P. deltoides Marshall

which Castiglioni lists as a synonym

with a question mark. Rehder gives P.

canadensis Michaux f. 1813 in the

synonymy of P. deltoides, which is ap-

parently the same name earlier estab-

lished by Castiglioni.

° Prunus domestica 8 americana (Marshall)

Cast. Viaggio 2: 339. 1790. = P. ameri-

cana Marshall 1785.

° Prunus lusitanica 8 serratifolia (Marshall)

Cast. Viaggio 2: 340. 179 = P. caro-

hniana (Miller) Aiton, 1789. Based on

P. Laurocerasus serratifolia Marshall,

1785.

*Quercus Prinus 8 platanoides Cast. Viaggio

2: 346. 1790. = Q. bicolor Willdenow,

1801.

*° Quercus nigra 8B aquatica Cast. Viaggio 2:

346. 1790. = Q. nigra Linn. 1753.

Rehder gives Q. nigra aquatica La-

marck, 1785.

*7° Quercus pumila Cast. Viaggio 2: 347. pl. 13.

1790. = Q. ilicifolia Wangenheim 1787.

In the synonymy Castiglioni gives Q.

pumila Banister and Q. rubra nana ?

Marshall. I have not been able to locate

Banister’s name in other references. It

appears that other then the nomen

nudum Quercus pumila W. Young, Q.

pumila Cast. is the earliest name bear-

ing this specific epithet. Quercus ilicifolia

Wangenheim, however, takes prece-

dence.

* Quercus rubra B hispanica Cast. Viaggio 2:

347. 1790. = Q. palustris Muench-

hausen, 1770.

*° Vaccinium corymbosum 8 myrsinites (La-

marck) Cast. Viaggio 2: 391. 1790. =

V. myrsinites Lamarck, 1783.

*T° Vaccinium laevigatum Cast. Viaggio 2: 391.

1790. This species is described by

Castiglioni as follows:

“2. V. LAEVIGATUM, floribus corym-

bosis, bracteis, corymbis alternis;

foliis lanceolato-oblongis, acuminatis,

subserratis, utrinque glabris, N.

“Obs. Frutex orgyalis. Differt a V.

corymboso, Linn. foliis subtus majis

venosis, utrinque glabris, a V. ligus-

trino. Linn. floribus corymbosis

bracteatis; foliis amplioribus magis

venosis.

“High-blue-berry nel Massachusset’’.

This plant appears to be referable to

Vaccinium corymbosum f. glabrum (Gray)

Camp. However, in this highly com-

plex genus, it will be more desirable to

leave the disposition to the experts. In-

cidentally this specific name is not

recorded in Index Kewensis and_ it

actually invalidates V. laevigatum Boj.

ex Dunal in DC. Prodr. 7: 571. 1838, of

Madagascar.

* Vaccinium oxycoccus B hispidulum Cast.

Viaggio 2: 392. 1790. = V. macrocarpum

Aiton, 1789. Castiglioni cites ‘“Vac-

ctnium hispidulum ? Lin.” in synonymy,

which is Chiogenes hispidula (Linn.)

Torrey & Gray, 1843.

* Xanthoxylwm clava-herculis $8 americanum

Cast. Viaggio 2: 399. 1790. = Zan-

thoxylum americanum Miller, 1768. Casti-

glioni does not cite Miller’s species. His

varietal name is also antedated by Z.

clava-herculis var. americanum (Miller)

C. F. Ludwig, 1783, as given by Rehder.

SSE

ACADEMY MEMBERS IN THE NEWS

Harry WExXLeER, chief of the science services

division of the U. 8S. Weather Bureau, has been

given the highest civilian award of the U. S.

Air Force, the Exceptional Service medal.

James M. Hunptry, former chief of the

Laboratory of Nutrition and Endocrinology,

NIAMD, is on a 2-year leave of absence, to ad-

minister a research program for the United

Nations Childrens Emergency Fund and_ the

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations.

JAMES A. SHANNON, director of the National

Institutes of Health, is the senior author of a

recent paper in Science, Medical Research in

Perspective.

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 47, No. 1

BOTANY .—New species of Erythroxylon from Colombia. WaurER A. GENTNER.!

(Communicated by Lyman B. Smith.)

Four new species were determined while

preparing a field guide to the genus Hryth-

roxylon in Colombia. The guide in its

entirety was submitted to the faculty of the

Columbian College of the George Washing-

ton University in partial satisfaction of the

requirements for the degree of master of

arts. Plans for the publication of this guide

have been delayed, and it seems well to

record the new species here.

Measurements in the descriptions are all

from dry material to keep the relative pro-

portions of all parts. In the illustrations the

details are from boiled material, but they

are not appreciably larger except in the case

of the stipules.

Erythroxylon cuatrecasasii Gentner, sp. nov.

Arbor 8 m alta; cortice obscure purpureo-

brunneo, verruculoso, lenticellis dilute rubris;

petiolo 3-6.5 mm longo, foliis lanceolatis, basi

acutis, apice acuminatis, 79-148 mm longis, 21—

44 mm latis, bilineatis; stipulis non persistentibus,

1.5-2 mm longis, triangulatis, asetulosis; floribus

uno vel plurimis in axillis foliorum vel ramen-

torum; pedicellis 4-9 mm longis, ad apicem

versus incrassatis, 5-angulatis; calyce ad 34 par-

tito, laminis 1-2 mm longis, late lanceolatis.

Floribus brachystylis: calyce superante urceolum

stamineum, orificio subintegro, staminibus 1.5

mm longis, stylis liberis, 1 mm longis, stigmatibus

depresso-capitatis. Floribus dolichostylis: non

visis. Drupa 8.5-10.5 mm longa, 3.5-4 mm

diametro.

VALLE DEL Cauca: Rio Yurumanguil, alt.

5-50 m, February 19, 1944. J. Cuatrecasas 15736.

This species differs from HL. gracilipes and E.

acutum in having lanceolate leaves.

Erythroxylon acutum Gentner, sp. nov.

Frutex vel arbor 3-4 m alta; cortice obscure

purpureo-brunneo, verruculoso, lenticellis minu-

tis dilute rubris; petiolo 3-7 mm longo, folis

oblongo-ellipticis, basi rotundatis, apice acumi-

natis, 30-81 mm longis, 14-32 mm latis, bilineatis;

stipulis persistentibus, 1-1.5mm longis, fimbratis,

triangulatis, 3-setulosis; floribus uno vel plurimis

1 Field Crops Research Branch, ARS, USDA,

Beltsville, Md.

in axillis foliorum vel ramentorum; pedicellis 4-6

mm longis, ad apicem versus incrassatis, 5-angu-

latis; calyece ad 14 partito, laciniis 1-1.5 mm

longis, triangulatis, acutis; floribus dolichostylis

non visis. Floribus brachystylis: urceolo stami-

neo calycem subaequante, orificio subintegro;

staminibus 2.5-3 mm longis; stylis liberis, 2 mm

longis; stigmatibus depresso-capitatis; floribus

brachystylis e fragmentis solum cognitis. Drupa

7.5-9 mm longa, 2.5-3 mm diametro.

Narino: Gorgonilla Island, alt. 130-200 m,

February 28, 1939, E.P. Killip and H. Garefa-

Barriga 33082.

This species differs from H. cuatrecasasii in

having oblong-elliptic leaves.

Erythroyxlon acrobeles Gentner, sp. nav

Frutex parvus, cortice griseo-brunneo, verru-

culoso; petiolo 3-5 mm longo, foliis obovatis vel

ellipticis, basi acutis vel rotundatis, apice acutis,

cuspidatis, mucronatis, 72-173 mm longis, 26-60

mm latis; stipulis 3.5-5 mm longis triangulatis,

apice acutis, 2-setulosis; floribus uno vel plurimis

in axillis foliorum vel ramentorum; pedicellis 4-9

mm longis, ad apicem versus incrassatis, 5-angu-

latis; calyce ad 14 partito, laminis 1-1.5 mm

longis, ovatis, mucronatis. Floribus brachystylis:

non visis. Floribus dolichostylis: staminibus

inaequalibus, episepalis 0.4 mm longis, epipetalis

1.5-1.75 mm longis, urceolo stamineo calycem

superante, orificio subintegro, stylis liberis, 0.75

mm longis, stigmatibus depresso-capitatis, ovario

obovoideo. Drupa 13 mm longa, 7 mm diametro.

VALLE DEL Cauca: Pacific coast at Rio Ca-

jambre, May 5-15, 1944, J. Cuatrecasas 17581.

This species differs from H. cwmanense and E.

havanense in having cuspidate leaves 72-173

mm. long.

Erythroxylon haughtii Gentner, sp. nov.

Frutex ultra 2 m alta; cortice griseo-brunneo,

verruculoso, lenticellis dilute rubris, ramulis

recurvatis, compressis; petiolo 3-6 mm longo,

foliis ovatis vel ellipticis, basi apiceque rotundatis,

22-57 mm longis, 23-32 mm latis; stipulis per-

sistentibus, 1.5-2 mm longis, fimbriatis, triangu-

latis, 3-setulosis; floribus 1-4 in axillis foliorum

vel ramentorum; pedicellis 7-11 mm_ longis,

graciliter obconicis, 5-angulatis; calyce ad 34

OF ERYTHROXYLON

SPECIES

NEW

AR?

GENTNE

JANUARY 1957

5 : ¢ X ‘atndiys ‘q fe X ‘suawIeys

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SUUSDSDIALIONI UO xLOLY id ~— | “OLA

VOL. 47, No. |

SCIENCES

ACADE

WASHINGTON

THI

JOURNAL OF

*¢ x ‘atndiys ‘qf fe x ‘KBvAo ‘qq {¢ X ‘AxBAO pu suduIeys ‘9 ‘¢ X ‘arndiys “oT *¢ X ‘AIeAO ‘qq fg X ‘AIBAO puk SUOUIRYS ‘OD

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a (

JANUARY 1957

partito, laciniis 1.5-2 mm longis, late lanceolatis;

petalis 2.5-3 mm longis, laminis 2.5-3 mm longis,

ligula laminam ad 34 aequante. Floribus brachy-

stylis: urceolo stamineo calycem subaequante,

orificio 10-crenulato; staminibus 2.5 mm longis,

stylis liberis, 1 mm longis, stigmatibus depresso-

GENTNER: NEW SPECIES OF ERYTHROXYLON 9

capitatis, ovario ovoideo. Floribus dolichostylis:

non visis. Drupa non visi.

Cauca: Near Mercaderes, alt. 1100 m, October

27, 1946, Oscar Haught 5148.

This species differs from EH. orinocense and E.

hondense in having pedicels 7-11 mm long.

—

PROTECTIVE COATINGS FOR TITANIUM

The National Bureau of Standards has

successfully electrodeposited hard, adherent

protective coatings on titanium. The pro-

cedure involves forming a titanium fluoride

film on the metal surface, electroplating with

chromium, and heat-treating the plated

specimen at 800°C. Developed for the

Springfield Armory by C. L. Stanley and A.

Brenner of the Bureau staff, the process is

expected to extend considerably the utility

of titanium metal, particularly for high-

temperature applications.

Because of titanium’s high strength-to-

weight ratio, it ranks with steel and alumi-

num as a structural material. However ti-

tanium has disadvantages for some applica-

tions: it tends to gall or seize when in loaded

contact with itself or other metals, and it

oxidizes at elevated temperatures. These dis-

advantages could be minimized if titanium

were coated with hard, oxidation-resistant

metals such as chromium or nickel, but pre-

vious attempts to produce such coatings

have not been entirely successful. Although

the Bureau had obtained good adhesion of

aluminum to titanium in an earlier investi-

gation using a nonaqueous plating bath, the

method was not suitable for job-shop appli-

cations and the results were not sufficiently

consistent.

The main problem in depositing metals on

titanium is lack of adhesion—some deposits

have actually exfoliated during the plating

operation and others have been easily pulled

off with the fingers. Poor adhesion has been

blamed on an oxide film on the base metal,

but attempts to remove the suspected film

with acid etches or anodic films were not

successful. For this reason, the present in-

vestigation included a study of the influence

of oxide films and methods to remove them.

In a preliminary investigation, the Bureau

designed an experiment intended to remove

any oxide film and to plate the titanium

specimen before it could reoxidize. In this

procedure, a small piece of titanium was en-

closed in an evacuated tube containing sili-

con carbide and ceramic balls. The tube was

tumbled for several hours to abrade the

metal surface and then placed in a chromium

plating bath, where it was crushed so as to

expose the metal specimen to the bath before

the atmosphere could touch it. In a control

experiment, a titanium specimen was simi-

larly abraded in an open tube. The adhesion

of the first specimen was distinctly better

than that of the control, supporting the hy-

pothesis that a film, probably an oxide, exists

on the surface of titanium and impairs adhe-

sion of metal deposits.

The Bureau investigated a number of

etching and plating procedures and obtained

the best chromium plates by pretreating

titanium to form a coating of titanium flu-

oride before plating the specimen. This pro-

cedure appears to prevent the formation of

an oxide and, when the specimen is placed

in the plating bath, the titanium fluoride

dissolves permitting the chromium to bond

directly to the basis metal.

Titanium specimens are thoroughly de-

greased and cleaned before this treatment.

Next they are dried and suspended in a solu-

tion of hydrofluoric and acetic acids. After

10 or 15 minutes a 60-cycle alternating cur-

rent is passed through the specimen for

another 10 minutes. The specimens are then

rinsed and transferred to a conventional

chromium plating bath, where they are

plated at a temperature of 85°C and a cur-

rent density of 120 amp/dm?.

Chemical analysis indicates that the film

produced by the preliminary acid treatment

contains a low valence titanium compound.

A sample of the dried film contained 37 per-

cent of titanium and 54 percent of fluorine,

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and examination by X-ray diffraction

showed no lines characteristic of titanium

tetrafluoride.

Tensile strength tests indicate that ad-

herence of the chromium coating to titanium

is greatly improved by heat-treating the

plated specimen for two minutes at 800°C in

an inert atmosphere. Coating adhesion was

determined by the nodule method. Essen-

tially this procedure consists in electrode-

positing a cobalt nodule, 14¢ in. in diameter,

on the coating and then determining the

force necessary to detach the nodule to-

gether with the coating from the basis metal.

The bond strength of the heat-treated speci-

mens ranged from 4,000 to 18,000 Ibs/in.

Although the highest value obtained is some-

what below the tensile strength of heat-

vou. 47, no. 1

treated chromium, fracture occurred in all

cases in the chromium plate and not between

the two metals.

Coatings on titanium consisting of 0.02

mm of chromium plus 0.15 mm of nickel were

found to be moderately adherent without

heat treatment, but not comparable to that

of chromium on steel. If such specimens 0.5

inch wide are broken by repeated bending,

the chromium-nickel coatings can be

stripped from the titanium with a force of

about 10 pounds.

Procedures for depositing nickel and cop-

per on titanium have been formulated that

are similar to the process for depositing

chromium. However, the nickel and copper

deposits have not adhered as well as chro-

mium and have frequently blistered.

AWARDS FOR SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT

As part of its program of encouraging science in the Washington area, the ACADEMY makes

annual awards of recognition for achievement. At the 1957 annual meeting, on January 17,

President Gibson presented certificates to the following:

In the biological sciences:

EARL REESE STADTMAN

National Heart Institute

National Institutes of Health

FOR THE DISCOVERY OF THE ENZYME TRANSCETYLASE AND THE

DISTINGUISHED STUDY OF ITS INTRICATE PART IN FATTY ACID METABO-

LISM.

In the engineering sciences:

M. L. GREENOUGH

National Bureau of Standards

FOR DISTINGUISHED SERVICE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF UNIQUE

METHODS FOR AUTOMATIC DATA PROCESSING. :

Physical sciences:

K11as BuRSTEIN

Naval Research Laboratory

FOR DISTINGUISHED STUDY OF IMPURITY LEVELS AND EFFECTIVE

ELECTRON MASSES IN SEMI-CONDUCTORS.

Teaching of sciences:

PHOEBE Hau KNIPLING

Arlington County Public Schools

FOR DISTINCTION BOTH IN FOSTERING

AND IN THE PERSUASIVE

TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

JANUARY 1957 PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWICZ

AND VON

BRAND: 4A. GLABRATUS EGGS 11

PHYSIOLOGY Studies on the oxygen consumption of Australorbis glabratus eggs.

Aina PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWICzZ! and THropor von Branp2

(Received November 29, 1956)

The possibility has been pointed out that

studies on the physiology of the intermediate

hosts of schistosomiasis may yield clues to

the development of chemical control meas-

ures, (von Brand, Nolan, and Mann, 1948).

This reasoning led to extensive studies on

snails by several investigators (Mehlman

and von Brand, 1951; von Brand and Mehl-

man, 1953; von Brand, McMahon, and No-

Jan, 1955; Newton and von Brand, 1955; von

Brand, 1955). They investigated the anaero-

bie and postanaerobic metabolism, the rela-

tion between the pre- and postanaerobic

oxygen consumption and the oxygen tension,

the effect of temperature and tissue hydra-

tion on anaerobic survival, and physiological

differences between geographical strains.

Such studies led to investigations of meta-

bole pathways potentially vulnerable to

chemical attack. Weinbach (1952, 1953)

studied the intermediate metabolism of A ws-

tralorbis glabratus, and subsequently the

mechanism by which pentachlorophenol

kills snails was elucidated (Weinbach, 1954,

1956, Weinbach and Nolan, 1956).

In marked contrast to these studies on

adult snails is the complete lack of knowl-

edge concerning the metabolism of snail eggs

and the mode of action of chemicals on them.

Studies on eggs of other animals suggested

that certain compounds such as di and tri-

halophenols block cleavage of fertilized Ar-

bacia eggs (Clowes et al., 1950). It seems

then possible that chemical control of the

developing eggs of disease-transmitting

snails may help in the control of certain

parasitic diseases. To lay a foundation to-

wards such an approach, a study of the res-

piration of Australorbis glabratus eggs was

_ undertaken and is reported below.

. 1 Permanent address: Instituto de Endemias

- Rurais do DNER, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The

| present work was done at the National Institutes

of Health during a tenure of a WHO fellowship.

_ Requests for reprints should be addressed to the

_ Laboratory of Tropical Diseases, National In-

stitutes of Health, Bethesda, Md.

* Laboratory of Tropical Diseases, National

Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases,

National Institutes of Health.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The eggs were obtained from Awstralorbis

glabratus, laboratory reared from Venezuelan

stock. Twenty-five to thirty adult specimens

were kept at room temperature (approx.

25°C) in jars containing 3 to 4 liter dechlo-

rinated tapwater which was renewed once a

week. The snails were fed abundantly with

lettuce leaves and calcium carbonate was

added to the water occasionally. Eight such

jars were lined with glass slides on which the

snails deposited the egg capsules. Egg

clutches were collected daily at 9 a.m. thus

permitting a rigorous control of their age.

They were carefully removed from the slides

with the help of a razor blade and placed in

open dishes containing 200 to 300 ml water.

Most of the eggs maintained in this way ap-

peared to develop normally and only 5 to

10 percent died before hatching time. Dead

eggs could, after some experience, be recog-

nized even macroscopically, at least in the

later stages of development. They usually

became moldy and heavily contaminated

with bacteria and were of course discarded.

A further check, especially important with

the young stages (zero and one day), was

provided by examining the egg capsules

under an entomological microscope.

The rate of oxygen consumption of the

eggs was studied by means of Warburg ma-

hnometers equipped with flasks of approxi-

mately 6 ml capacity containing 1 ml of

dechlorinated tap water as respiratory me-

dium. The carbon dioxide was absorbed in

the customary manner by means of 10 per-

cent IKOH. An equilibration period of 30

minutes was allowed, and readings were

taken at 30 minute intervals for 2 to 3 hours.

The manometers were shaken with an am-

plitude of 4 cm 100 times per minute. The

temperature in all experiments was 28°C.

The data were calculated per egg. In order

to minimize errors, the eggs contained in

each egg capsule used in a given experiment

were counted both before being introduced

into the Warburg flask and at the end of the

experiment.

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

Because the respiratory rate was higher in

older eggs than in young ones, the number

of clutches, that is of eggs, had to be varied.

In most experiments with 0 to 2 day-old

eggs, 30 egg capsules were used per flask,

while 10 to 15 clutches containing older em-

bryos sufficed to give adequate manometer

changes. When it was desired to follow a cer-

tain group of clutches during its entire de-

velopment, the 30 egg clutches used per

flask during the first days were divided into

smaller lots during the later days, and all

these lots were tested on the same days sepa-

rately, when possible. The egg clutches were

introduced into the flasks individually by

means of a very fine spatula and at the end

of the experiment, they were washed out by

means of a little water. Although these ma-

nipulations were done with great care, an

occasional injury to an egg clutch could not

always be avoided. Any damaged clutch

was rejected.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Data on the embryology of various spe-

cies of fresh water snails are available in the

literature (Lymnaea spp., Lankester, 1874,

Crabb, 1927; Stagnicola, Lowrance, 1934;

various Planorbidae, Holmes, 1900, Roney

1943, Baker, 1945), but no information con-

cerning Australorbis glabratus specifically has

come to our attention. We therefore record

here briefly some pertinent observations.

The number of eggs per egg capsule is

quite variable. It varied in the 855 clutches

used in the present study from 5 to 58. But

it should be pointed out that clutches con-

taining only 2 to 3 eggs are frequently de-

posited by very young snails, while old speci-

mens occasionally lay capsules containing

over 60 eggs. The individual eggs are en-

closed by an inner capsule. In it, the ovum

proper usually occupies an eccentric posi-

tion, although it can also be located cen-

trally. Inner capsules containing two ovas or

none, occur occasionally. The inner capsule,

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 47, No. 1

are arranged in a matrix im irregular, or

sometimes parallel rows (Fig. 1 (1, 2)) and

are bounded by a thin membrane.

Embryos allowed to develop at room tem-

perature of about 25°C started hatching on

the 6th to 8th day after oviposition. In-

creasing the temperature slightly mereased

the number of young snails hatching on the

6th day. Decreasing the temperature by 3

to 5°C retarded the development; the first

hatchings occurred as late as the 9th or 10th

day. There was some variation in the hatch-

ing time even among snails of a single egg

clutch; the first ones could, for example,

hatch on the 6th day with the remainder

following during the next 2 to 3 days.

A detailed study of the embryology of

Australorbis was not done. However, we did

make sufficient observations to indicate that

this snail follows the usual planorbid pat-

tern. Representative stages are shown in

Fig. 1 (3 to 9). They show the main stages

used during our determinations of the oxy-

gen consumption on the following days: 0, 1,

2, 4, 5, and 6, and, since taken at the same

magnification, can serve as indication of the

increase in living substance. The stage

reached on day 3, although tested for oxy-

gen consumption, was not photographed; it

corresponded approximately to pre-veliger

stage. Of some interest in connection with

our respiratory studies is the motility of the

embryos. First rotation of the developing

ova occurred on day 2. On day 4 the em-

bryos were already very active, moving

actively around within the inner capsule; at

this stage the heart beat was clearly visible.

During the last day of development some

variation in motility was noticed. Some of

the now fully developed young snails were

very active and were escaping the egg clutch.

Others were more quiescent, and these re-

quired one or two days more to leave the

clutch.

Two independent sets of experiments were

conducted in which the rate of oxygen con-

Fra. 1.—Representative stages in the development of the eggs of Australorbis glabratus : (1) Complete

egg clutch, 0 day, showing the arrangement of the inner capsules within the clutch, 10 X.

plete egg clutch, 6th day, showing the growth of the embryo, 10 X.

(4) Single egg, Ist day, probably trochophore stage, 90 X.

(6) Single egg, 3 days, veliger stage, 90 X.

(8) Freshly hatched snail in water, 90 X.

hatched snail in air, retracted into the shell. 90 X.

stage, 90 X.

post-trochophore stage, 90 X.

well developed embryo within the shell, 90 X.

(2) Com-

(3) Single egg, 0 day, cleavage

(6) Single egg, 2 days,

(7) Single egg, 5 days,

(9) Freshly

JANUARY 1957 PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWICZ AND VON BRAND: A. GLABRATUS EGGS 13

Fie. 1—(See opposite page for legend).

TABLE 1—OxXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A UST RA-

LORBIS GLABRATUS EGGS FROM TIME

OF DeEposITION TO HaTCcHING

Number Number | Number of eggs| Age Mm‘ oxygen con-

experi- of egg- in a single in sumed by one egg

ments | capsules | experiment days in one hour

8 224 811 0 0.005

(867, 992) (0.004, 0.006)

7 203 774 iL 0.007

(589, 866) (0.006, 0.009)

8 206 703 2 0.014

(494, 992) (0.011, 0.018)

10 238 582 3 0.017

(367, 872) (0.014, 0.024)

8 189 554 4 0.031

(815, 877) (0.028, 0.034)

14 285 467 5 0.044

(280, 752) (0.035, 0.059)

13 245 438 6 0.057

(254, 752) (0.048, 0.068)

11 215 464 7 0.061

(266, 752) (0.049, 0.074)

11 146 357 8 0.066

(283, 504) (0.054, 0.088)

ao 60

Gq) oS

S45

ep)

(Hy G0)

(©)

inj oS

O 30

©) ZS

SS 20

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= Je

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von. 47, No. 1

sumption was determined. In the first series,

the same egg clutches were used from 5 to 6

times on alternate or successive days. In

view of the rapid development of the ova,

care was taken to control the time intervals

rigidly, that is, all the experiments started

at 9 am. Because initially some doubts

existed whether the repeated handling of the

egg clutches and the shaking in the Warburg

flasks might interfere with normal develop-

ment, a second set was done in which ini-

tially a large number of freshly deposited

clutches were collected. Of these, certain

numbers were selected each day for the ex-

periments (2 to 7 experiments on the various

days of development), but they were not

used again. The data derived from this sec-

ond series coincided very closely with those

of the first series, both therefore, can be dis-

cussed together. The stages reached by the

developing embryos were also identical in

both series; it is hence justified to assume

4 S) 6 iG 8 9

DAVar Obs DEVIEIZO PR MENT

Fic. 2.—Rate of oxygen consumption of developing eggs of Australorbis glabratus

JANUARY 1957 PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWICZ

that we were dealing with ‘normal’

clutches. This point was further checked by

comparing the developmental stages of our

experimental clutches with clutches that

were not handled at all; we were unable to

observe any differences.

Table 1 and Fig. 2 summarize the average

results, while Table 2 gives details of the

first series. It is evident that the variability

in oxygen consumption was relatively small.

This is true especially for the very young

stages, but even in the older ones uniform

results were obtained. This, undoubtedly,

was due to the large number of embryos used

per Warburg flask. The average values ar-

range themselves to a smooth curve (Fig. 2)

which has an S-shaped form. This is exactly

the same type of curve as found during the

development of the embryos of higher ani-

mals, e.g., hen’s egg (Bohr and Hasselbalch,

1900, 1903; Murray, 1925) or turtle egg,

(Lynn and von Brand, 1945).

This finding has a bearing on another 1m-

portant point. In working with the type of

material as ours, a perennial question is

whether the results obtained are really ex-

clusively due to the material one wishes to

study, or whether bacterial contaminants

obscure the picture. Our egg clutches were

certainly not bacteriologically sterile and we

cannot exclude categorically shght bacterial

contamination. Gross contamination is easily

AND VON BRAND: 4A.

GLABRATUS EGGS 195

recognized and occurs only when dying eggs

are present; as mentioned previously, such

clutches were always discarded immediately.

It does not seem likely that a smooth curve

as shown in Fig. 2 would have been obtained

if bacterial respiration had been superim-

posed to a marked degree on the respiration

of the developing snails. Furthermore, in

experiments unrelated to the present ones,

we tested the respiratory rate of 4 groups of

freshly hatched snails, each group compris-

ing 100 to 150 specimens. The egg clutches

from which these snails were derived con-

sumed per embryo, just before hatching,

0.064, 0.075, 0.087, and 0.088 mm? O» per

hour. The corresponding values after hatch-

ing were 0.086, 0.116, 0.117, and 0.117 mm*

per young snail per hour. The average value

for the embryos was 0.078 mm and for the

newly hatched snail 0.109 mm.* Bacteria

would of course not have developed to a

marked degree within the developing em-

bryos, but rather in the matrix. If a large

number would have been present, one would

have expected the respiration of the embryos

to have been higher than that of the young

snail, while the opposite was true. That the

freshly hatched snail should consume some-

what more oxygen than the fully developed

embryo is not surprising; the greater activ-

ity of the former alone is probably sufficient

to explain the difference. We are therefore

TABLE 2.—OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF DEVELOPING EGGS OF AUSTRALORBIS GLABRATUS

Number N f pEatreme Number of Nema of : ‘4

Gee Aa eges'in each Feegeebeulee ee edit each Mm? Oxygen consumed by one developing egg in one hour on day

ese a cs eh capsule eaais ypeaalitest seth

aes 5 8th day 3

min. | max. 0 1 2 3) 4 5 5 if 8

30 872 16 42 16 395 0.005) — — {0.018} — |0.039) — |0.061 |0.064

30 851 15 45 20 504 0.005) — |0.016) — — |0.0400.055|0.058 |0.088*

32 992 14 43 20 410 0.005) — |0.018) — — |0.041)0.056|0.064 |0.073*

30 877 16 30 20 395 0.006) — — 0.031|0.059,0.068; — |0.087*

30 670 12 41 18 350 0.004) — — |0.017/0.033) — |0.049/0.059 —

18 367 13 40 18 367 0.005) — — |0.018 = = = —

24 589 5 42 18 423 — |0.008)/0.014; — — |0.047/0.057/0.060t| —

30 790 10 45 30 727 — |0.008|0.014/0.024) — = — |0.062 aa

30 854 12 42 29 752 — |0.006\0.013 — |0.043)0.050/0.074T| —

29 689 14 38 28 624 — |0.006) — — |0.030\0.040) — |0.066t) —

30 680 9 44 30 661 = — — |0.020/0.034/0.055/0.065)| = — —

20 410 a 34 20 381 = — — |0.014 0.040/0.058) —

20 512 6 43 20 493 = — — |0.016) — |0.044/0.061; — —

20 528 11 45 20 497 — — — |0.017} — |0.049|0.062) — —

20 397 7 30 16 358 0.042) — |0.067 —

* Many hatched snails attached to the surface of outer capsule.

7 After test hatched embryos present in the Warburg flask.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

confident that our data truly reflect the

respiratory activity of the developing snail.

SUMMARY

The rate of oxygen consumption of the

developing egg of Australorbis glabratus in-

creases from the time of oviposition to hatch-

ing, following a curve strikingly similar to

that found in egg-laying vertebrates.

REFERENCES

Baker, F.C. The molluscan family Planorbidae.

University of Illinois Press, 1945.

Bour, C., and Hasserpatcu, K. A. Uber die

Kohlensdureproduktion des Htihnerembryos.

Skand. Arch. Physiol. 10: 149. 1900.

— Uber die Wédrmeproduktion und den

Stoffwechsel des Embryos. Skand. Arch. Phys-

iol. 14: 398. 1903.

Branp, T. von Anaerobiosis in Australorbis

glabratus: Temperature effect and tissue hy-

dration. Journ. Washington Acad. Sei. 45: 373.

1955.

——, McMaunon, P., and Notan, M. O. Ob-

servations on the post-anaerobic metabolism of

some fresh water snails. Physiol. Zool. 28: 35.

1955.

———, and Meniman, B. Relations between pre-

and post-anaerobic oxygen consumption in some

fresh water snails. Biol. Bull. 104: 301. 1953.

———, Noan, M.O., and Mann, E.R. Observa-

tions on the respiration of Australorbis glabra-

tus and some other aquatic snails. Biol. Bull.

95: 199. 1948.

Crowes, G. H. A., Kevrcn, A. K., SrRITTMATTER,

C. F., and Watter, C. P. Action of nitro-

and halophenols upon oxygen consumption and

phosphorylation by a cell-free particulate system

from Arbacia eggs. Journ. Gen. Physiol. 38:

555. 1950.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 47, No. l

Craps, E.D. The fertilization process in the snail

Lymnaea stagnalis appressa Say. Biol. Bull.

53: 67. 1927.

Hormes,S.J. The early development of Planorbis.

Journ. Morphol. 16: 369. 1900.

LanKkesterR, E. R. Observations on the develop-

ment of the pond snail Lymnaeus stagnalis and

on the early stages of other Mollusca. Quart.

Journ. Mier. Sei. 14: 365. 1874.

Lowrance, E. On the early development of Stag-

nicola kingi (Meek)—the Utah ribbed snail.

Bull. Univ. Utah. 1934.

Lynn, W. G., and Brann, T. von Studies on the

oxygen consumption and water metabolism of

turtle embryos. Biol. Bull. 88: 112. 1945.

Meutman, B., and Branp, T. von Further

studies on the anaerobic metabolism of some

fresh water snails. Biol. Bull. 100: 199. 1951.

Murray, M. A. Physiological ontogeny. A.

Chicken embryos. II. Catabolism. Chemical

changes in fertile eggs during incubation.

Selection of standard conditions. Journ. Gen.

Physiol. 9: 1. 1925.

Newton, W. L., and Branp, T. von Comparative

physiological studies on two geographical strains

of Australorbis glabratus. Exp. Parasitol. 4:

244. 1955.

Roney, H. B. The effect of temperature and light

on oxygen consumption and rate of development

of Helisoma. Ecology 24: 218. 1948.

Wernsacu, EH. C. Metabolic block in minced snail

tissue. Federation Proceed. 11: 307. 1952.

Studies on the intermediary metabolism of

the aquatic snail Australorbis glabratus. Arch.

Biochem. Biophys. 42: 231. 1953.

The influence of pentachlorophenol on

oxidative and glycolytic phosphorylation in snail

tissue. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 64: 129.

1956.

———, and No.an, M. O. The effect of pentachloro-

phenol on the metabolism of the snail Australor-

bis glabratus. Exp. Parasitol. 5: 276. 1956.

Vague similarities in certain properties are never sufficient to determine

a person who earnestly seeks for the truth and is not shackled by hypoth-

eses.— J. BERGMAN.

JANUARY 1957

HESS AND SHAFFRAN: CORTISONE AND FORMATION

OF GLYCOGEN 17

BIOCHEMISTRY .—The effect of cortisone on the formation of glycogen from 2-C-14

labeled alanine and lactic acid.| W. C. Hess and I. P. SHarrran, Georgetown

University School of Medicine.

(Received November 26, 1956)

The mechanism whereby cortisone stimu-

lates the production of liver glycogen is un-

known. Ever since the classical study of

Long, Katzin, and Dry (/) it has been gen-

erally accepted that tissue protein is the

source of the carbons in the glycogen. Using

the glyconeogenic amino acids glycine and

alanine, Hess and Shaffran (2, 3) showed

that cortisone did not increase the produc-

tion of liver glycogen from glycine but did

produce a slight increase from alanine. When

2-C-14 labeled DL-alanine and glycine were

fed the amount of labeled carbon incorpo-

rated at the time of maximum liver glycogen

formation was found to be the same whether

or not cortisone acetate was injected into the

animal (4).

It is possible that cortisone acetate may

act by influencing the rate of release or in-

corporation of amino acids in tissue protein

and consequently affect liver glycogen pro-

duction. The previous experiments (4) gave

no information on rate of incorporation of

the labeled carbon in either liver or muscle

glycogen and protein. In the present series

of experiments cortisone acetate and either

2-C-14 labeled DL-alanine or DL-lactic acid

were given to fasting normal rats at the same

time. Determination of liver and muscle gly-

cogen and protein nitrogen were made at in-

tervals up to 72 hours. The radioactivity of

the liver and muscle glycogen and protein

were measured, and also that of the respired

carbon dioxide and in the urine.

EXPERIMENTAL

The same procedures for the administra-

tion of the DL-alanine and DL-lactic acid

and the determination of glycogen were em-

ployed as previously described (3, 4). Rats,

weighing 100 to 150 g, were fasted for 24

hours and then given either 500 mg of 2-C-

14 DL-alanine or DL-lactic acid. When corti-

sone acetate was given 5 mg were injected

intramuscularly at the same time that the

1 These experiments were supported, in part,

by a contract with the Atomic Energy Com-

mission.

compound was fed by stomach tube. The

radioactivity of the compounds fed varied

from 1.0 to 1.5 X 10° counts per minute,

carrier DL-alanine and carrier DL-lactic

acid were used to dilute the activity of the

radioactive compounds, the 2-C-14 lactic

acid was purchased and used as the zinc salt.

The proteins from a weighed aliquot of liver

and muscle were isolated by the procedure

of Levine and Tarver (5) and the nitrogen

content determined. The radioactivity of the

isolated liver and muscle glycogen and pro-

tein was determined using an open window

gas flow counter. In one series of experiments

the rats were placed in a glass metabolism

cage and the activity of the respired carbon

dioxide and in the urine was counted.

RESULTS

Table 1 contains the data on the glycogen

content of the liver in all the experiments

and also the amount of the labeled carbon

that was incorporated. For each series of ex-

periments the average values are given, at

least six rats were used in each experiment.

The specific activity of the liver glycogen,

calculated as percent of the administered

dose per 100 mg of glycogen, is charted for

each of the experimental series in Fig. 1.

The data on the relationships between

liver weight and body weight are given in

Table 2, the results on the determinations of

the liver protein nitrogen and the percent

incorporation of the 2-C-14 activity in the

liver protein are also included. In order to

provide a uniform basis for comparison the

values are expressed per 100 g of body weight’

The initial weights and also the weights

at the end of 72 hours of the rats on the sev-

eral experimental regimens are given in T’a-

ble 3. The urine nitrogen values are also

included in this table and are expressed as

mg. of nitrogen excreted during the 72 hours

period per 100 g of body weight. Table 4

gives the data on the glycogen content of the

muscle and the nitrogen content of the iso-

lated muscle protein.

The radioactivity of the respired CO,

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 47, No. 1

= 2g

@) ~{s}

—}

ro)

eee

1S)

x ©

ro)

Gy 5

a |

(ep)

Ope

LACTIC ACID

" "+ CORTISONE

ALANINE

W + CORTISONE

40 50 60 70 80

HOURS

Fra. 1.—Specifie activity/time relationships of the 2-C-14 fed to that found in the liver glycogen

after 2, 4, 6, 8, and 24 hours from 2-C-14

DL-alanine was 2.1, 5.6, 30.4, and 62.8 per-

cent respectively of the administered dose.

When DL-alanine and cortisone acetate were

given the values for the same periods were

1.8, 5.3, 28.3, 32.8, and 63.8 percent, respec-

tively. The activity in the urine for the 24

hour DL-alanine periods was 15.2 percent of

TABLE 1.—LiveR GLYCOGEN CONTENT AND C-14

INCORPORATION

Alanine Lactic acid

, Cortisone Cortisone| Cor-

Time tisone

(hours) Gly.

Tac. (Gly) Tac. |G | Tne. [SY Ine. | S| 7

% ° | % CN % 1% v

1 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.9 0.4

3 123) | OL9e 1 Se eS 226 2s 22a 2s: Ona

6 8.9 | 3.5 |10.3 | 4.5 | 6.1 | 4.0 | 8.4 | 5.1 1.6

8 6.5 | 2.5 | 7.8 | 38.2 | 6.9 | 3.2 | 6.7 | 4.0 ily

12 6.1 | 2.2))| 8:1) | 2.8 |.6.7 | 1.29) |k5.1 | 354 Werf

16 PRU ORS | Zale Ro 4a Sin) eileen zial btm |leoy3 0) 2.4

24 0.2 | 0.1 | 7.9 | 3.6 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 3.8 | 2.5 2.5

31 9.8 | 4.1 10.2 | 4.3 3.8

40 12.9 | 4.3 16.1 | 4.8 4.0

48 10.7 | 4.6 7.4 | 4.0 3.8

72 6.0 | 4.3 2.9 | 3.4 3.3

the administered dose and for the DL-ala-

nine plus cortisone periods 14.5 percent.

DISCUSSION

The 2-C-14 of the DL-alanine and DL-

lactic acid was rapidly incorporated into the

liver glycogen, 9 and 7 percent, respectively,

of the administered doses were found at the

end of 6 hours, the peak period for glycogen

production. Disappearance of the glycogen

and the labeled carbon was likewise rapid,

at the end of 16 hours 1.1 and 3.8 percent

remained from the alanine and the lactic

acid respectively. When 5 mg of cortisone

acetate was given at the same time either

DL-alanine or DL-lactic acid was given the

fate of the labeled carbon was quite differ-

ent. The initial incorporation was just as

rapid and approximately to the same extent

as when cortisone was not given but subse-

quently the labeled carbon remained in the

glycogen. There was a slight dip both in the

actual percent incorporated and in the spe-

cific activity between the eighth and the

twenty-fourth hours, and then there was a

JANUARY 1957

marked increase both in the amount incor-

porated and in the specific activity. The in-

crease in specific activity must mean that

some of the labeled carbon has been held

elsewhere in the animal body and was then

released and incorporated into the glycogen.

There was no change in the rate of oxida-

tion of the DL-alanine as reflected by the

rate of appearance of the labeled carbon in

the respired CO, with or without the ad-

ministration of the cortisone acetate. The

rate of elimination was approximately the

same as that found for glycine and serine

(6, 5). Boutwell and Chiang have reported a

slight decrease in the rate of CO. formation

from C-14 labeled glucose following corti-

sone acetate administration (7). However,

Welt et al. were unable to find any difference

in the rate of CO, production in rats fed

glucose with or without cortisone (8).

TABLE 2.—LiveR WEIGHT, PROTEIN NITROGEN

CONTENT, AND C-14 INcoRPORATION

| 6 6

Time Mee Lactic acid Gar ieeealigtneng

(hours) Cortisone Cortisone

6 FAG e350, 3.5 3.7 | 3.6 3.7 3.5

B| 95 88 87 | 92 86 90

€} 0.88 1.16 0.88 | 1.00

12 AU 3s6 3.50 3.5 SAD 3.6 3.6

|B} 96 90 90 97 96 94

1G] 1.40 2.00| 1.28 1.20

ZAGEAU|S- Onn |i) 1354 3.7 3.3 3.5 3.4

B/93 | 107 92 100 104 96

(G@aee20) | 1.28 1.00 1.12

48 Al} 3.4 | 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.9 3.4

Bi 95 | 117 94 108 117 98

Cc} 0.72 1.12 0.60 0.75

72 WNW Boch ae en 3.4 3.9 4.0 3.3

B| 95 122 98 120 125 104

C} 0.80 | 1.14 0.40 | 0.60

N g. liver mg. liver protein N d

~ 100 g. body wt. 3 100 g. body wt. 5

% ince. in liver protein

100 g. body wt.

TaBLE 3.—INITIAL AND 72-Hour Bopy WEIGHTS

AND URINE NirroGEN CoNnTENT

Weight A

Loss Urine Urine nitrogen

Init. |72 hrs.| 7 g. | 100 g. body wt.

g. g.

Alanine 130) |) 110) | 15 | 0.46 0.42

+ Corti- THOS 925 21 Oe sul 0.55

sone

Lactie acid 126 | 102 | 19 | 0.40 0.39

+ Corti- 112 | 86 23 | 0.39 0.45

sone

Fasting | 135 | 113 | 16 | 0.40 0.35

Cortisone 110 | 86 | 22 | 0.42 0.49

HESS AND SHAFFRAN: CORTISONE

AND FORMATION OF GLYCOGEN 19

There are several possible places where the

labeled carbon could have been held and

subsequently released, among these are liver

protein or lipide, muscle glycogen, protein,

or lipide or in the intracellular fluid. The

ratio of liver weight to the nitrogen content

of the liver protein was greater when corti-

sone was administered than that of the con-

trol that received only DL-alanine or DL-

lactic acid. Other investigators have also

noted the increase in the protein content of

the liver following cortisone administration

(9, 10). A slight increase at the end of 24

hours in the percent incorporation of the

labeled carbon in the liver protein was found

following cortisone administration. At the

end of 72 hours most of the labeled carbon

had disappeared, however the total amount

leaving the liver was too small to account for

the increase in the specific activity of the

liver glycogen. Pesch and Clark (11) used

the liver slice technic and found that corti-

sone increased the uptake of labeled glycine

into liver protein.

The muscle glycogen content was in-

creased following the administration of cor-

tisone, it reached a maximum value at the

end of 24 hours and then decreased, at the

end of 72 hours the values were still higher

than those found on fasting or with DL-

alanine or DL-lactic acid alone. The activity

of the muscle glycogen formed at the end of

24 hours was not affected by cortisone but

the loss in activity was slightly more rapid

following cortisone at the end of 72 hours.

The effect of cortisone on the extent of in-

corporation of the labeled carbon in muscle

protein was somewhat more noticeable. At

the end of 24 hours the amount incorporated

following cortisone was almost half of that

found with either DL-alanine or DL-lactic

acid alone. At the end of 72 hours there was

no labeled carbon left in the muscle protein

with cortisone and DL-alanine and only 0.06

percent with DL-alanine alone.

These findings with muscle protein sug-

gest the possibility that cortisone may pre-

vent incorporation of the carbon from the

deaminized amino acid residue into muscle

protein, thus increasing the size of the pool

for glycogen formation. These residues could

then return to the liver and be incorporated

into glycogen. As a result the specific activ-

ity of the liver glycogen would increase as

was found, Fig. 1. Marshall and Friedberg

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(12) have found a decrease in uptake of the

C-14 label of carboxy] labeled glycine in the

protein fraction of muscle and kidney after

giving cortisone. Collateral evidence for this

explanation of the increase in specific activ-

ity is also found in the data of Tilton, To-

nalba, and Ingle (73) who gave cortisone

acetate subcutaneously to adrenalectomized,

eviscerated rats and found an increase in the

plasma level of amino acids. These amino

acids could come from tissue turnover and

reflect the blockage by cortisone of the syn-

thesis of protein in the peripheral tissue.

There was a greater decrease in the pro-

tein nitrogen per gram muscle after cortisone

administration than on fasting or feeding the

labeled compounds without cortisone. Like-

wise there was a greater decrease in total

body weight, Table 4. The total nitrogen

excretion during 72 hours per 100 g of body

weight was greater following cortisone, aver-

aging 80 mg. per 100 g. Since the muscle

contains 3.2 percent protein nitrogen this

amount is equivalent to 2.2 g of muscle. The

average increase in weight loss induced by

cortisone was 5.6 g per 100 g of body weight.

TaBLe 4.—Muscite GuycoGEN AND PROTEIN

NiTRoGEN ContTENT, C-14 INCORPORATION

Time in hours

Compound

6 12 24 48 72

Alanine A | 0.56 | 0.56 | 0.55 0.55

B | 0.12 | 0.16 | 0.22 0.15

D | 0.03 | 0.15 | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.06

Alanine A | 0.57 | 0.70 | 0.86 0.70

+ B | 0.13 | 0.21 | 0.27 0.10

Cortisone © 1-864 1 8.3.) 8.0 |] Bs! |) Bez

D | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.00

Lactic acid | A | 0.55 0.58

B | 0.10 0.25

Or] Bob NN BB | BoB | BsB Boil

D | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.15 | 0.08 | 0.06

Lactic acid | A | 0.59 0.72

B | 0.08 0.32

Cortisone C | B68 B50 | BO | Be” | 2.6

D | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.03 | 0.00

Fasting A | 0.58 0.60 0.47

Cortisone A | 0.60 0.70 0.50

A per cent glycogen;

RB Pet cent C-14 incorporated in glycogen

gram muscle :

cq per cent nitrogen in muscle protein |

g. muscle i 4

per cent C-14 incorporated in protein

g. muscle

vou. 47, No. 1

Less than half of the weight loss can be ex-

plained by loss of muscle, a concomitant loss

of water and perhaps of lipide most prob-

ably occurred. Kinsell et al. (14) have sug-

gested the possibility that part of the liver

glycogen formed by cortisone action comes

from body fat.

SUMMARY

Cortisone acetate and 2-C-14 labeled DL-

alanine or DL-lactic acid were fed to previously

fasted rats for periods of time varying from 1 to

72 hours. Control experiments omitting the

cortisone acetate were also run. Liver and muscle

glycogen and protein were determined and the

degree of incorporation of the labeled carbon was

measured. The excretion of the labeled carbon in

carbon dioxide and in the urine was also deter-

mined.

The carbon-14 from both DL-alanine and DL-

lactic acid was rapidly imecorporated into the

liver glycogen and also rapidly released, peak in-

corporation was at 8 hours and negligible amounts

were left after 16 hours. Cortisone acetate pre-

vented the rapid release of the carbon-14, the

specific activity of the liver glycogen increased up

to 40 hours and then began to decline. A small

amount of the carbon-14 was incorporated into

liver and muscle protein. Cortisone increased

slightly the extent of incorporation into the liver

protein but not the muscle protem. There was

no effect upon the elimination of the isotope in

the carbon dioxide or the urine.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Lone, C. N. H., Karzin, B., and Fry, E.

Endocrin. 26: 309. 1951.

(2) Hess, W. C., and SHarrran, I. P. Proc.

Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med. 83: 804. 1953.

(3) ———. Ibid. 86: 287. 1954.

(4) ———. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 46: 20.

1956.

(5) Levins, M., and Tarver, H. Journ. Biol.

Chem. 184: 427. 1950.

(6) GREENBERG, D.M.,and Winnicx,T. Journ.

Biol. Chem. 173: 199. 1948.

(7) Boutwe.u, R. K., and Curane, R. Arch.

Biochem. and Biophys. 50: 461. 1953.

(8) Weut, I. D., Sverren, Jr. D., Inez, D. J.,

and Morey, ©. H. Journ. Biol. Chem.

197: 57. 1952.

(9) Strper, R.H.,and Porrpr,C.C. Endocrin.

52: 518. 1953.

(10) CuarKx,I.J. Biol. Chem. 200: 69. 1953.

(11) Pescu, L. A., and Cuark, J. H. Proc. Soe.

Exp. Biol. and Med. 91: 510. 1956.

(12) Marsuaut, L. M., and Frrepsrere, F. En-

docrin. 48: 113. 1951.

(13) Truton, M. M., Tonasie, G., and Inetz, D.

J. Metab. Clin. and Exp. 4: 424. 1955.

(14) Kinsey, L. W., Micnants, G. D., Marcen,

S., Oarrripce, J. W., Boutne, L., and

Batcu, H. E. Journ. Clin. End. and

Metab. 14: 161. 1954.

January 1957

REED: HERPETOFAUNA OF VIRGINIA 21

HERPETOLOGY —Conitributions to the herpetofauna of Virginia, 2: The reptiles

and amphibians of Northern

municated by Doris M. Cochran.)

Neck. CiypE F. Ruep, Baltimore, Md. (Com-

(Received September 12, 1956)

Northern Neck is the peninsula that hes

to the south of the Potomac River and is

bounded on the north by that river, on the

south by the Rappahannock River, and on

the east by the Chesapeake Bay. As the

Maryland State line goes to the shore of

the Potomac River on the southern side,

many of the deep-sea turtles that get up the

Potomac River may be considered both as

Maryland and Virginia records. Five coun-

ties make up the peninsula (from the

northernmost to the southernmost): King

George, Westmoreland, Richmond, North-

umberland, and Lancaster.

The Peninsula is made up of coastal soils

only. There are some swampy areas and

mill ponds, but for the most part of the land

it is dry and woodsy. Several plants reach

their northern limit of distribution, west of

the Chesapeake Bay, on this Peninsula,

as for example Asarwm virginicum (heart-

leaves), Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood),

and Galax aphylla (wandflower).

Since collections of the herpetofauna are

rather meager in museums for this penin-

sula, the author has collected rather exten-

sively in this region for several years. Some

species have never been found which un-

doubtedly are there, as Hyla cinerea, Hyla

versicolor, Plethodon cinereus, and the Am-

bystomas. Descriptions of “swamp pup-

pies” may be Ambystomas, but I have not

been able to find any. Large red salamanders

with black spots were reported to the author

by natives around Moraticco in Lancaster

County. While inquirmg about toads, the

author was told that all the toads vanished

some years ago, with apparently no cause.

However, in the last few years, they have

been reappearing. Both species have been

caught on the peninsula by the author.

Deep-sea turtles seem to be quite common

off the eastern shores of Northumberland

and Lancaster Counties in the Chesapeake

Bay and up the lower end of the Potomac

River (which would actually be Maryland

waters). Capt. Walter J. Biddlecomb of

Fairport is a fisherman in this region and

reported to the author that several of the

sea turtles are very common at certain times

of the year. As many as four Caretta or

loggerheads have been caught at a time in

the nets. Three were presented to the author

by Captain Biddlecomb from a_ single

eatch, along with a Ridley’s turtle. A picture

of a leatherback caught by Capt. Biddle-

comb in 1952 is illustrated herem (Higeal)):

Diamondbacks are fairly common, there

being two types as mentioned below.

(es Sore

mLinGe 1.—Capt. Walter J. Biddlecomb and son

with largest turtle (Dermochelys c. corvacea)

eyercauent in Chesapeake Bay. See listing no. 35,

p. 20.

22, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Below is given an annotated list of speci-

mens that have been collected or studied

by the author. With more extensive collect-

ing, the several species which should be

here may be added in the future.

1. Hyla cructfer crucifer Wied—Northern

spring peeper. LancastprR County: White

Stone, July 6, 1948, R. L. Hoffman (U.S.N.M.

no. 131939).

2. Scaphiopus holbrooky holbrooki (Harlan)—

Spadefoot toad. (Fowler, Copeia, 1918, no. 55: 44.

Tappahannock, Essex County, which is just

across the Rappahannock River from Richmond

County.)

3. Rana clamitans Latreille—Green frog.

LANCASTER County: 2 miles south of Lively,

August 17, 1948, R. L. Hoffman (U.S.N.M. no.

132404); 1 mile north of Moraticco. May 27,

1956, Reed 1047. Ricumonp County: Ivondale

near Farnham, June 5, 1954, Reed 899-904;

June 29, 1954, Reed 931 and 988.

4. Rana palustris WeConte—Pickerel frog.

Lancaster County: Kemper’s Mill Pond near

Kilmarnock, June 5, 1954, Reed 905-906.

5. Rana catesbeiana Shaw—Bull frog. Lan-

CASTER County: Kemper’s Mill Pond near

Kilmarnock, June 5, 1954, Reed observ.; pond

near Lancaster, May 27, 1956, Reed observ.

6. Bufo woodhousei fowlert Hinckley—Fowler’s

toad. NorTrHUMBERLAND County: fields _ be-

tween Reedville and Ophilia, June 9, 1956, Reed

1157-58.

7. Bufo terrestris americanus Holbrook—

American toad. WESTMORELAND CouUNTY: near

Chandler’s Mill Pond, May 29, 1954, Reed 896.

8. Desmognathus fuscus fuscus (Green)—

Dusky salamander. Kine Groree County:

U.S.N.M. no. 45875. RicuMonp County: Near

Village, edge of pond, May 29, 1954, Reed 889.

Lancaster County: Under log near Chinn’s

Mill, June 29, 1954, Reed 936. NorTHUMBER-

LAND County: Heathsville, May 29, 1954, Reed

888.

9. Hurycea bislineata bislineata (Green)—Two-

lined salamander. LANcAsTER County: U.S.N.M.

nos. 131927-28.

10. Pseudotriton montanus montanus Baird—

Eastern mud salamander. KiInG GrorRGE

County: Aylett, Dr. Paul R. Burch, Radford

College. (See Hoffman, Herpetologica 4 (2): 68.

1947.)

11. Cnemidophorus sexlineatus (Linnaeus)—

Eastern race runner. LANCASTER COUNTY:

Kemper’s Mill Pond, on dry hill slopes, plentiful,

May 29, 1954, Reed 884. RicHMonp County:

Near Village, July 1955, Reed. WrestMORELAND

County: Observed on sandy slopes, June 5,

VOL. 47, No. 1

1954, Reed; Kina Grorce County: Near

Shiloh, August 10, 1955, Reed observ.

12. Humeces fasciatus (Linnaeus)—Five-lined

skink. LANCASTER County: North of Kilmarnock,

May 29, 1954, Reed 891; south of Lively, June 5,

1954, Reed 915. RicuMonp County: South of

Warsaw. June 5, 1954, Reed 916-917. Wust-

MORELAND County: Chandler’s Mill Pond, June

5, 1954, Reed 909. Kine Grorce County: Near

Shiloh, August 10, 1955, Reed observ.

13. Eumeces inexpectatus Taylor—Florida five-

lined skink. NorTHUMBERLAND County: 1 mile

north of Heathsville, May 15, 1954, Reed 954

(verified by Walter Newman). (See Reed,

Herpetologica, 1956.)

14. Humeces laticeps (Schneider)—Greater five-

lined skink. Lancaster County: North of

Kilmarnock in wood pile, May 29, 1954, Reed

894. Kina Groren County: Near Shiloh, Aug.

10, 1955, Reed observ.

15. Sceloporus undulatus hyacinthinus (Green)

—Northern fence swift. LANcAsTER CoUNTY:

Near Kemper’s Mill Pond, May 29, 1954, Reed

890; June 5, 1954, Reed 908; south of Lively,

June 5, 1954, Reed 907. NorrHuMBERLAND

County: South of Wicomico Church, May 29,

1954, Reed 885-886; 1 mile north of Heathsville,

May 29, 1954, Reed 892-893. RicoMonp County:

Near Haynesville, May 29, 1954, Reed 887;

south of Warsaw, June 5, 1954, Reed 918; near

Village, July 10, 1955, Reed observ. Kine

GrorGE County: Near Shiloh, August 10,

1955, Reed observ.

16. Natrix sipedon sipedon (Linnaeus)—Com-

mon water snake. WESTMORELAND CouNTY:

Chandler’s Mill Pond, north of Montross,

August 10, 1955, Reed observ.; Dunn, Copeia,

1918, no. 53: 25.

17. Opheodrys aestivus (Lumaeus)—Rough

green snake. LANcAsTER County: U.S.N.M. no.

131930. NorTHUMBERLAND County: Climbing

over shrubs, south of Wicomico Church, May 29,

1954, Reed 895. WrsTMORELAND County:

Chandler’s Mill Pond, north of Montross, August

10, 1955, Reed observ.

18. Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta (Say)—Pilot black

snake. WESTMORELAND County: Hampton Hall

Creek, May 29, 1954, Reed; Chandler’s Mill

Pond, north of Montross, August 10, 1955, Reed

observ. RicuMonp County: At Ivondale near

Farnham, June 29, 1954, Reed observ. Kine

GrorGe County: Near Shiloh, 6-7 foot long,

August 10, 1955, Reed observ.

19. Elaphe guttata guttata (Linnaeus)—Corn

snake. WESTMORELAND County: Hague, DOR,

May 27, 1956, Reed 1046.

20. Coluber constrictor constrictor Linneaus—

Black racer. Kine GrorGe County: Oak Grove,

JANUARY 1957

DOR, June 9, 1956, Reed observ.; DOR, south

of Potomac River Bridge near Dahlgren, June 9,

1956, Reed 1156.

21. Thamnophis sauritus sauritus (Linnaeus)—

Eastern ribbon snake. LaNcasTER County: Near

Laneaster, climbing over shrubs along creek,

June 29, 1954, Reed 935.

22. Carphophis amoena amoena (Say)—East-

em worm snake. Shore of Potomac, Virginia,

U.S.N.M. no. 59954.

23. Storeria dekayt dekayt (Holbrook)—De-

Kay’s snake. RicHMonD County: Ivondale near

Farnham, June 5, 1954, Reed 913.

24. Storeria occipitomaculata occipitomaculata

(Storer)—Red-bellied snake. LANCASTER County:

South of Lively in sawdust pile, June 5, 1954,

Reed 914; shed skin, June 15, 1954.

25. Heterodon platyrhinos platyrhinos Latreille

—Hog-nosed snake. KING GEORGE COUNTY:

Near Shiloh, August 10, 1955, Reed observ.;

Dunn, Copeia, 1918, No. 53: 25. WESTMORELAND

Cotnty: Chandler’s Mill Pond, north of Mon-

tross, August 10, 1955, Reed observ.

26. Ancistrodon contortrix (Linnaeus)—Cop-

perhead. WESTMORELAND County: Reported by

natives from Chandler’s Mill Pond region, north

of Montross, August 10, 1955 (Reed).

27. Terrapene carolina carolina (Linnaeus)—

Common box turtle. King GrorGe County:

DOR, near Potomac River Bridge, June 10,

1956, Reed observ.; near Osso, August 10, 1955;

3 miles west of King George, August 10, 1955,

Reed observ. WESTMORELAND County: Oak

Grove, June 10, 1956, Reed observ.; west of

Montross, June 10, 1956, Reed observ.; south of

Oak Grove, May 29, 1954, Reed 882. NortHuMB-

ERLAND County: Near Burgess Store, May 29,

1954, Reed 880; near Remo, May 27, 1956, Reed

observ. LANCASTER County: Near Lancaster,

May 27, 1956, Reed observ.

28. Lepidochelys kempi (Garman)—Ridley

turtle. NoRTHUMBERLAND County: Reedville,

U.S.N.M. no. 86814; 3 miles off Great Wicomico

Lighthouse, in Chesapeake Bay, June 6, 1956,

Capt. Walter J. Biddlecomb collector. Specimen

donated to the U.S.N.M. (no. 137573) by Reed,

31 pounds.

29. Chelydra serpentina serpentina (Linnaeus)—

Snapping turtle. NorrHuMBERLAND CouNTY:

Village, crossing road, May 27, 1956, Reed

observ. WESTMORELAND County: South of Oak

Grove, May 29, 1954, Reed 881; near Colonial

Beach, May 15, 1954, Reed 855. LAaNcASTER

County: Near Lancaster, June 29, 1954, Reed

observ.

30. Chrysemys picta picta (Schneider)—Eastern

painted turtle. NoRTHUMBERLAND County: Mill

pond 4 miles east of Callao, June 29, 1954, Reed

REED: HERPETOFAUNA OF VIRGINIA 23

932; north of Heathsville, May 29, 1954, Reed

878-879. WESTMORELAND County: South of Oak

Grove, May 29, 1954, Reed 882; DOR, just west

of Potomac Beach, June 10, 1956, 6 observed on

logs in pond, Reed observ.; near Maple Grove,

August 10, 1955, Reed observ. LANCASTER

County: Near Lancaster, June 29, 1954, Reed

observ. Kane Grorce County: DOR, near

Potomac River Bridge, June 10, 1956, Reed

1065; just north of Maple Grove, August 10,

1956. Reed. Ricamonp County: Ivondale near

Farnham, June 5, 1954, Reed 912.

31. Sternotherus odoratus (Latreille)—Common

musk turtle. NoRTHUMBERLAND County: North

of Heathsville in pond, May 29, 1954, Reed 897;

LANcAsTER-RicHMoND County Line: Chinns

Mill. June 29, 1954, Reed 934.

32. Kinosternon subrubrum subrubrum (La-

cépede)—Common mud turtle. NoRTHUMBER-

LAND County: North of Heathsville in pond,

May 29, 1954, Reed 898; same locality, June 5,

1954, Reed 911; 4 miles east of Callao, June 29,

1954, Reed 933. LancastER County: Near

Lancaster, June 29, 1954, Reed observ. Wust-

MORELAND County: Dunn, Copeia, 1918, no.

53: 20.

33. Malaclemys terrapin terrapin (Schoepff)—

Northern diamondback terrapin. NoRTHUMBER-

LAND County: Off Fairport, Capt. Walter J.

Biddlecomb, observ., 1956.

34. Malaclemys terrapin centrata (Latreille)—

Southern diamondback terrapin. WrsTMORE-

LAND County: Near Machadoc, U.S.N.M. no.

65117. Carr gives the range as “vicinity of Cape

Hatteras southward to southern peninsula of

Florida”’; Schmidt gives the same range. Captain

Biddlecomb, who has collected in the mid-

Chesapeake Bay for many years, states that

there are two types of diamondbacks which he

catches off Fairport, Northumberland County,

Va. This would indicate that both subspecies live

in the lower Chesapeake Bay.

35. Dermochelys coriacea coriacea (Linnaeus)—

Leatherback turtle. NorTHUMBERLAND CounNTY:

2 miles southeast of Great Wicomico Light

House, near Fairport, May-June 1952, Capt.

Walter J. Biddlecomb collector (June 7, 1952,

Richmond News Leader), 700 pounds, 7 feet long,

8-foot flipper span. Fig. 1.

36. Caretta caretta caretta (Linnaeus)—At-

lantic loggerhead turtle. NoRTHUMBERLAND

County: 3 miles off Great Wicomico Lighthouse,

near Fairport, June 6, 1956, Capt. Walter J.

Biddlecomb collector. Three specimens caught

and observed. Two weighed about 110 pounds

each and let go. The third specimen weighed 134

pounds, donated to U.S.N.M. (no. 137572) by

Reed.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 47, No. 1

ZOOLOGY .—Spongilla discoides Penney: A correction. JamEs T. Penney, Uni-

versity of South Carolina. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.)

(Received October 9, 1956)

The identification of Spongilla discoides

Penney (1933a) as a new species was based

upon the presence of gemmules in the shape

of biconvex discs, the absence of gemmule

spicules, the presence of small equibirotu-

lates (microscleres) in the dermal mem-

brane, and the presence of two types of

flesh spicules (also microscleres) in the

tissue. Specimens containing these gem-

mules were first collected in 1930, and

many others were obtained for four or five

years afterward. They were extensively

used in reduction experiments (Penney,

1933b). The same sponge, without gem-

mules, was used for routine class experiments

and in dermal membrane studies for many

years. Most of this work was conducted

during the spring and summer and no at-

tempt at year round collecting was made.

No gemmules were observed during this

period. The pond from which this sponge

was collected has been dry for the last two

years.

Recent collections from various areas

within South Carolina have yielded speci-

mens in close association with bryozoans.

The presence of the latter led to the idea

that the gemmules of Spongilla discoides

may have been statoblasts of a bryozoan.

The United States National Museum was

requested to send my slide of the ‘gem-

mules” of Spongilla discoides to a competent

authority on the bryozoa. Dr. Mary D.

Rogick identified these ‘“‘gemmules” as

statoblasts of a phylactolaematous bryozoan.

Many hundreds of young sponges of this

species have been reared on slides in the

laboratory from adult specimens by a

method described earlier (Penney, 1932).

All distinctive characters listed above with

the exception of gemmules and absence of

gemmule spicules were constantly observed.

It was noted in the original description

(Penney, 1933, p. 4) that the two types of

flesh spicules. resembled closely the gemmule

spicules of Heteromeyenia ryderi and that a

new genus was possibly indicated.

Jewell (1952) remarked upon the similar-

ity of the birotulate dermal spicules to those

of Corvospongilla and Corvomeyenia and also

the similarity of the two types of flesh

spicules to the birotulate gemmule spicules

of Heteromeyenia ryderi. Jewell also stated

that on several occasions typical gemmule

birotulates had been found ‘‘embedded in

the flesh, when no gemmules were present,

in both Corvomeyenia everetti, and Hetero-

meyenia ryderiv. It is possible that the

scleroblasts had formed these spicules in

anticipation of the development of gem-

mules around which they would later have

been arranged, or that some condition in-

hibited the development of gemmules

without equally affecting the formation of

the spicules which should surround them”’

(p. 454). This writer has also observed free

gemmule spicules in Heteromeyenia rydert.

Owing to the lack of gemmule spicules and

the close similarity of other spicules to those

of the subfamily Meyeninae, Jewell very

soundly established the genus Parameyenia,

with Spongilla discoides Penney, 1933, as

genotype.

Weltner (1913) created the genus Corvo-

meyenia for the species of Heteromeyenia

having birotulate dermal spicules.

With the knowledge that Spongilla dis-

coides 1s now without known gemmules, that

it does have birotulate dermal spicules, and

on the basis of Jewell’s and my own observa-

tion of free gemmule spicules, I propose that

Spongilla discoides become Corvomeyenia dis-

coides (Penney).

LITERATURE CITED

JEWELL, Minna E. The genera of North American

fresh-water sponges. Parameyenia, new genus.

Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 55: 445-457. 1952.

PENNEY, James T. A simple method for the study

of living fresh-water sponges. Science 75: 341.

1932.

———. A new fresh-water sponge from South Caro-

lina. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 88: 1-5. 1933a.

———. Reduction and regeneration in fresh-water

sponges (Spongilla discoides). Journ. Exp.

Zool. 65: 475-492. 1933b.

WELTNER, W. Stisswasserschwémme (Spongillidae)

der Deutschen Zentralafrika-Expedition 1907-

1908. Wiss. Ergebn. Deutsch. Zentr. Afr.

Exped. 1907-1908, Bd. 4, Zoologie 2, Lief 12:

475-485. 1913.

JANUARY 1957

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 25

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1419TH MEETING, DECEMBER 16, 1956

Joun R. Mayer, of the American Association

for the Advancement of Science and the Uni-

versity of Wisconsin, spoke on Scientists and the

secondary schools.

His talk ranged widely, with abundant

quotations, over a number of aspects of the

problem of getting enough good teachers and

enough attention to the superior student in the

secondary schools. Some of the points made

were: In reply to the State Department of Edu-

cation head, who said: “We get better teaching

if we employ those who are not too good,”

he suggested that we have to find teachers who

are able to help all three groups: backward,

average, and superior, and that currently there is

little challenge to the better student. He urged

the necessity for a diversified program, one that

would treat better students differently, and

replied to the criticism that this was “un-

democratic” with the argument that in Speech,

Dramatics and Athletics, we give special treat-

ment with no thought of invidious implications.

Why should not Science be special in this sense

too?

In his view we have done a better job of pro-

viding a general education for more people than

ever before in the world’s history, particularly in

finding common ground for the gifted and the

less gifted, and in doing more for the backward.

He pointed out that the many new offerings

in the secondary schools compete with Science

when course elections are to be made. In the

AAAS program, the first responsibility for im-

proving science teaching in secondary schools lies

with the science department of universities and

colleges. They have to a large extent abdicated

this responsibility. Teacher education of science

teachers must be their function. Too many in

summer schools elect Education rather than

Science. He would like to see all teachers have

MA’s in their respective subjects: this is now

impossible but should be the ideal.

Our pressing current problem is better edu-

eation for the more gifted. He quoted Lippmann:

America is now rich enough to do both; that is,

give a general education to all and special treat-

ment to gifted. He also touches on the interesting

development called ‘‘Frontiers of Science” now in

progress in Oklahoma, and closed with a quota-

tion from the Illinois Chapter of the Mathe-

matics Association of America: “Knowledge and

the Wisdom to use it are essential to survival”.

In the discussion, Messrs. Potter, Tuckerman,

Eisenhart, Henderson, Melton, Frenkiel, Page,

Rotkin, Lashof, and others took part. Some of the

points made were: that current mathematics

texts may be seriously in error: that primary

school teaching in mathematics is wretched and

that the abominations contained in the texts are

past belief; and that it is always possible to give

instruction but never to give brains. Questions

asked were: What are the reasons for students not

taking algebra as much as they used to? Are

the teachers not there or have they lost interest

by the time they get to it? Mayer answered that

this is not known but that schools were trying to

meet the slump by providing two-track courses:

(1) General Mathematics for the 7th and 8th

erades, and (2) Algebra for those able and ready

for it. Mr. Eisenhart noted that he was glad that

Universities are now providing programs for

future teachers different from those provided for

men going in for stochastic processes or Hilbert

space. He also urged that teachers should be

checked as to their continued performance, and

that good teachers should be used for freshman.

“Should we turn out teachers or abstract papers?”

What are the motivations of teacher candidates?

Why do they enter, or more often, not enter the

profession? Answer: We do not yet know.

It was pointed out that many scientists, or

potential scientists were “lost before the sixth

grade’.

A brief notice was given of the program for

replacing the science teachers for two days, during

the Science Teachers’ Conference here in Wash-

ington. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1420TH MEBTING, JANUARY 13, 1956

Laurence A. Woop, of the National Bureau

of Standards, delivered the retiring president’s

address, Elasticity of rubber. The following is the

abstract provided by Mr. Wood. “Rubbers,

natural and synthetic, are unique in being highly

extensible and in retracting forcibly and quickly

to substantially their original dimensions when

released.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 47, No. 1

“Tt has been found that the stress-strain curves

for extension and compression of most of the

simplest vulcanizates of natural rubber and of

the three most important synthetic rubbers are

similar in shape. The relationship is expressed by

the equation F/M = (L1 — LT *)X exp

(A-(L — L)). where F is the stress, Z the ratio

of stretched to unstretched length, and M and A

are constants. The constant M depends on the

nature of the rubber, the extent of vulcanization,

and the time of creep. The constant A has a value

of about 0.38.

“By the study of the stress-temperature re-

lations it is found that the most important

factor in the retraction of stretched rubber is the

tendency of long-chain flexible molecules to re-

turn to a configuration statistically more prob-

able than the one that the stretching has forced

them to assume. Calculations of entropy changes

arising from stretching can be made from

probability considerations, and a strain-energy

function deduced from the entropy changes.

Stresses calculated from the strain energy func-

tion agree with those observed in compression,

but are greater than those observed in extension

by almost 50 per cent at L equals 3.

A phenomenological approach shows that the

strain energy should be expressible as a function

of certain quantities called strain invariants,

calculable from the deformations. The simplest

behavior is found in the region of compression

(L less than 1), where the strain energy is merely

the first invariant times a constant calculable

from the entropy changes. For values of L

between 1.5 and 3, a different constant and an

added term involving the second strain in-

variant are required. The explanation of this

behavior in molecular terms is one of the most

important current problems of rubber elasticity.”

1421st MEBTING, JANUARY 27, 1956

Rospert M. Pace of the Naval Research

Laboratory spoke on Cosmological theories

ancient and modern. The address has been pub

lished in this Journal 46: 244-252. 1956.

FEBRUARY 10, 1956

1422pD MEETING,

JosrepH Kapnan, of the University of Cal-

ifornia at Los Angeles and chairman of the U.S.

National Committee on the IGY, read a paper

on The International Geophysical Year program of

the United States, commonly called the IGY.

International cooperation in the study of

man’s Physical environment is not new, as

witness the first International Polar Year in |

1882-83 and the Second IPY in 1932-33, but in

scope, intensity, wide-ranging geographical

coverage extending not only horizontally but

vertically to unprecedented heights (and in-

cidentally in cost) the 1957-58 international

effort surpasses them by orders of magnitude.

The year 1957-58 was proposed as the date of

this effort because a period of maximum solar

activity 1s expected then, and world-wide co-

ordinated efforts to measure the many effects to

be expected therefrom can best be carried out

through such an activity as the IGY. Histori-

cally, the story of the IGY goes back 5 years and

to meetings of the International Union of

Geodesy and Geophysics and of the International

Scientific Radio Union. These Unions recom-

mended that the International Council of

Scientific Unions do the technical planning.

Following this lead the ICSU has established a

special committee, and appropriate bodies in

cooperating countries have been called upon to

plan their national programs. In the USA the

National Academy of Sciences has established the

National Committee for the IGY, and this com-

mittee has the responsibility. Funds have been

provided by congress through the National

Science Foundation: so far in the amount of

$12,000,000. At least twice as much more will be

required in the scientific program alone before

the collection of data is completed.

Within the scope of these minutes it is im-

possible to do much more than list the current

projects and programs in which the United

States is interested. They are as follows: Aurora

and Afterglow, Cosmic Rays, Geomagnetism,

Glaciology, Ionospheric Physics, Longitude and

Latitude Determinations, Meteorology, Oceanog-

raphy, Seismology and Gravity, Solar Activity,

and Upper Atmosphere Rocket and Satellite

Studies. Each of these topics was discussed

briefly and the high lights of the programs de-

scribed. Of particular interest was a description

of the proposed satellite vehicle and the program

involving it, which goes under the same name of

“Project Vanguard”. This pioneering venture

involves launching a 21.5 pound satellite vehicle

by means of a three-stage rocket assembly which

will carry the vehicle to 300 miles before pro-

pelling it into its orbit to circle the earth at

18,000 mph, or once around the earth in 114

hours. An elliptical orbit, inclmed at about 40°

JANUARY 1957 PROCEEDINGS:

to the equator is anticipated, and the orbit will

precess forward around the earth about 25° per

revolution, while it covers all latitudes from 40°

N to 40° S. The satellite will be tracked during

its flight and will at times actually be visible to

the naked eye.

Half the satellite’s weight will be instrumenta-

tion including the telemetering system. Eight

experiments will be undertaken: air density,

composition of the earth’s crust and geodetic

determinations, temperature and pressure, meteor

observations, studies of the extreme ultraviolet

and cosmic ray intensity.

It is proposed to launch about 10 such satel-

lites, with the hope that at least five or six will

be successful.

From the program as a whole the speaker an-

ticipates startling discoveries, and an immense

body of data. Its digestion will take years and

tax even the newest systems for handling it.

The practice in cooperation gained in this field

may lead to more cooperation in other fields, and

a longed-for reduction in international tension.

In the discussion Messrs. McNish, Melton,

Tuckerman, Heilbron, Yagoda, Sangster, and

several other took part. Points were: On the

question of cost, the total over-all cost is, of

course, much in excess of $40 million if all

expeditions and the like are charged to the

IGY. Much of the satellite’s time will be spent

over uninhabited country. The orbit will be

elliptical “‘Because we probably can’t make it

circular.”” The weather balloon program is not

part of the IGY. Agreements to exchange data,

when made in advance, are usually kept. The

USSR has not announced a rocket or satellite

program of her own. The life of the satellite may

lie between 2 weeks and a year or so; we don’t

know the density of the air well enough to

predict it. There is no diplomatic problem here.

About 2000 people will be directly engaged on

the IGY in the USA. And there will probably be

different shapes of satellite, after the first

spherical one. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1956

T. H. Stmpson, of the U. S. Weather Bureau,

spoke on Aircraft instrumentation and recorders

for hurricane investigation.

The hurricane (including all storms of its type

however called: such as_ willi-willi, typhoon,

tropical storm, cyclonic storm, or equinoctial

gale) is the greatest geophysical killer we have.

1423D MEETING, FEBRUARY 24,

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 27

In its life of 8 to 10 days covering areas of

diameter of 3-400 kilometers, and traveling

thousands of miles, it dispenses energy in the

neighborhood of 300 trillion (3 X 10") KWH.

How it draws on the available energy of the at-

mosphere is a fascinating problem, as well as one

of immense practical importance. The cooperation

of the Air Force, Navy, and the Special Services

has borne fruit in the ‘‘National Hurricane Re-

search Project,” with the objective of under-

standing the formation, mechanics and move-

ment of these storms, ultimately with the hope

that some modification in their course or in-

tensity may be achieved.

The energy of hurricanes is provided in two

ways: by the spreading and sinking of air-

masses, releasing potential energy, as in a cold

front, and secondly, and predominantly, by the

release of latent heat in the rising and condensa-

tion of moist, warm air. The latter is recognized as

primary, but at the same time other energy is

fed in from anti-cyclones in the east to north to

northwest sector. If this supply fails the storm

dies very rapidly.

Several slides of wind directions in the course

of Edna, and of the seas, wind force and track of

typical storms were shown. It is apparent that

the track of such storms is not a monotonic

curve, but has wobbles of considerable amplitude.

These wobbles make detailed prediction of course

very difficult, but since the inundation caused by

the hurricane is the “real killer’, and this occurs

only in a path of limited width, precise predic-

tion is vital. We must know the internal forces.

An extensive description of the organization

and instrumentation of the project followed. It is

proposed to use Aircraft, balloons, and rockets

in the data collection program. There will be

photographs of the entire cloud system from 50

to 100 miles up using rockets; also balloons to

85-90,000 feet and aircraft at three levels 1,000

to 1,500, 15-20,000, and 30-42,000 feet; 2 B-50s

and a B-47 are used. From the data collected by

these agents, it is hoped to construct the com-

plete “energy budget” of the storm.

For navigation the APN-82 automatic Doppler

radar observes and computes position contin-

uously and automatically, gives the wind speed

and direction, and punches the data on a punch

card every 0.1 mile. PPI search radar scopes

photographed continuously, show the “rain

bands”. For temperature there are three types of

thermometer: vortex, aspirator, and stagnation.

(The problem here is to get a dry bulb temper-

ature in the midst of a tropical downpour.)

For humidity, the infra-red airborne hygrometer,

using the H»O absorption band is the instrument

of choice. For pressure, the radar altimeter is

continuously checked against the pressure al-

titude.

There are vertical and horizontal acceler-

ometers, time lapse cloud cameras, sea-surface-

temperature measuring instruments, cloud

physics instruments to measure icing, nuclei,

electric charges and fields, and other things; and

a battery of recorders beginning with a standard

movie camera and including a photopanel with

24 channels to record all navigation and meteor-

ological data as a back-up system to the Heiland

Recorder, and the IBM Digital Recorder with

5-23 Gang punch and Card Program Computer.

With this array of devices it is possible to process

the data from three planes in 24 hours.

We do not know explicitly what makes the

hurricanes move, nor how fast. If more heat is

produced in some area ahead of the storm there

will be more circulation through it and a reduc-

tion in pressure, and the storm will then move

that way. If we could release the energy in a

selected area we might move the storm a sig-

nificant amount. Possibly through the use of

“freezing nuclei’ it may be possible to do this.

There are of course always plenty of condensa-

tion nuclei.

In discussion Messrs. Mahan, Page, McNish,

Tuckerman, Frenkiel, Henderson, Mason, Steeler,

and others took part. The influence of land

masses in cutting off the supply of latent heat;

the circulation of tornadoes, particularly anti-

cyclonic ones; the controversy as to whether air

goes up or down in a tornado; laboratory models

of tornadoes, eye and all; and the proper way to

approach the center of a hurricane by air were

points discussed, if not exactly settled. Others

were the use of AgI and dry ice as nuclei, the

absence of cycles in weather, and Wexler’s theory

involving the increasing cleanness of the atmos-

phere owing to the lack of a renewed supply of

voleanic dust since Krakatoa and the accom-

panying increase of solar constant. (Secretary’s

abstract.)

14247H MEETING, MARCH 9, 1956

Z. 1. Suawsxy, of the Naval Ordnance Labor-

atory, spoke on High speed gas dynamics.

What happens when the impact forces be-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 47, NO. 1)

tween molecules are so great that they no longer

act as rigid spheres? These forces can arise at,

high Mach numbers. Here we should distinguish

between real Mach numbers at room temper- —

ature, and the so-to-speak “‘fake’”? Mach numbers |

of a wind tunnel, where the expansion has —

lowered the temperature to such a degree that |

the velocity of sound is much reduced. Small

nylon spheres, 8mm in diameter, are fired at 104

ft/sec into various gases. A luminous zone in

front of the missile appears at Mach 17 in Xenon.

The shock wave can be photographed, even |

though the velocity is 8 mm/microsecond, and

the distance from missile to shock front measured.

If there is ionization, or other means of absorbing

the energy, the shock moves closer to the missile.

Slides of the shock in Bromine at Mach 17.5

were also shown.

A theoretical discussion of the limits of gun

performance shows that guns are hard to im-

prove, as is always the case with devices that are

historically old, and shows also that there are

limiting muzzle velocities for any propellant no

matter how much is loaded in the chamber. The

best propellant has the lowest ‘“‘pc’’ 1.e. acoustic

impedance, and the highest temperature. The

maximum velocity an air gun can produce is

about 5500 ft/sec. Knowing the velocity of a

projectile at any point in its flight as it is being

accelerated in a gun gives a measure of the

“oc” of the propellant and thus of thermo-

dynamic properties.

By using a microwave radar interferometer

the position and time can be measured every

314 mm for 200 stations. The propellant giving

best performance is ‘steam heated helium,”

i.e., helium with oxygen and hydrogen added in

explosive proportions, and then touched off with

a spark. With this propellant, a 40 mm nylon

bullet has been accelerated to 11,000 ft/sec.

15,000 is expected to be the maximum attain-

able.

Question and comments were offered by Page,

Henderson, Hersey and several others. Measure-

ments are made from the muzzle end, and the

barrel is partially evacuated. The shock wave in

the remaining gas breaks the vacuum seal,

permitting the bullet to emerge undistorted by

any impact. Xenon was used in order to make a

study of ionization uncomplicated by dissoci-

ation. In general the energy in the shock is dis-

tributed in a complicated way between dis-

sociation, ionization, and excitation.

) JANUARY 1957

Informal Communications: Mr. Potter asked

Mr. Tuckerman to report on the talk given that

_ morning by Mr. Synge at the NBS, on the sub-

ject of the meaning of Time and Space. Mr.

Tuckerman obliged.

Mr. Henderson reported on the hearings be-

fore the Sub-committee on Government In-

formation of the Committee on Government

Operations, at which the question of the impact

of secrecy upon scientific progress was under

examination.

Mr. Potter reported on a book by Synge,

Science: Sense and Non-sense, and gave a brief

account of some of his own space models.

Mr. Tuckerman commented briefly on the in-

adequacies of modern education, and the small

amount of science, and most of it wrong, that

youngsters are expected to learn.

Mr. Frenkiel reported on the winners of the

Westinghouse science awards.

Mr. Brode noted that the offspring of multiple

births, of order M, and inherited brain NV, do not

have brain power of order N/M. (The speaker

and Mr. Brode are both members of identical

twin pairs.)

The Secretary commented that, in his ex-

perience, the number of informal communica-

tions at the meeting was an all-time record:

namely 6. (Secretary’s abstract.)

1956

F. G. Brickwepbb, of the National Bureau of

Standards, and a Past President of the Society

spoke on Temperatures in atomic explosions.

A great deal of information concerning the

sequence of growth of the “fireball”? and the

transfer of energy therein may be obtained

classically. The “fireball” is the familiar luminous

mass of air formed after a nuclear detonation.

For a “20 kiloton bomb” it reaches a radius of

about 500 feet.

Nuclear explosions are remarkable because of

their difference from chemical explosions. In-

eredibly high temperatures and pressures arise

in the tiny volume occupied by the fissioned sub-

stance, The energy release per cm* of TNT is

about 1.45 X 10% cal/em? whereas for WS, OF

Pu, it is about 3.5 x 10" cal/em?.

TNT and U2** have ordinarily about the same

specific heat, 0.3 cal/cm’, hence the temper-

atures that might be expected upon their det-

onation, calculated from C, = AH/AT, are

6000°K and 100 billion °K respectively. A TNT

explosion actually reaches 5000°K, but with

14257H MEETING, MARCH 23,

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 29

nuclear detonations the value is about one

thousand times less than expected: ie. only

about 50 million degrees K. Reversing the

calculation one therefore finds an apparent

specific heat of about 600 cal/em’ for the nuclear

material. This large value is due to the large

number of degrees of freedom which are pro-

vided by over 80 free electrons per fissioned

atom, and to the large heats of excitation and

ionization of the fragments.

At the enormous temperatures of nuclear

explosions the principal mode of energy transfer

is by radiation processes. The interior of the ball

of fire is in thermal equilibrium owing to the

high speeds imparted immediately to the atoms

of the engulfed atmosphere. The wavelength of

maximum energy density is 3 IN, hence the

photons are absorbed so soon after their emission

that the propagation is by diffusion of photons.

At a later stage of fireball growth the radiation

energy propagation is actually slower than the

propagation of the pressure shock. This fact has

an interesting consequence.

There are three stages of growth of the

“fireball.” The first is dominated by the radi-

ation conditions in the isothermal sphere. As the

pressure shock passes the boundary of the iso-

thermal sphere it now heats the atmosphere. The

heating is great and so the pressure front is

luminous but the temperature of the shock

heated air is not as high as the temperature of the

isothermal sphere inside the shock front. As the

“ball of fire’ grows the temperature of the

pressure shock decreases and “breakaway”

occurs; the pressure shock continuing its ad-

vance but not luminously. After a short time

the expanding iso-thermal sphere reaches the

outer surface of the fireball and is once again

seen and appears more brilliant (7) ~ 7500°K)

than the second stage (7 ~ 2000°K). The times

involved are exceedingly short, “breakaway”

occurring one hundredth of a second after

detonation.

Ten slides were shown illustrating these

points and developing the simplified model of

the complex process dominated by radiation

properties of space.

Comments and questions were offered by

Montroll, Henry, Maxwell, MeNish, Shuler,

and others. In the diffusion of radiation the mean

free path may be of less importance than the

“sitting time” of photons in the atoms and

results in radiation imprisonment. For atomic

explosions at high altitudes the rarified atmos-

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

phere would change the character of the ex-

plosion fireball as would underwater explosions

in the relatively dense medium. The tremendous

energy gap between chemical and _ nuclear

explosions, tenths of electron volts versus 100

million volts indicates an improbable if not im-

possible solution for tapping energies of inter-

mediate values. It would be interesting to

calculate the rate entropy is produced in the ball

of fire as well as the thermodynamic quantities

presented by the speaker.

After announcing the speaker for the next

meeting, the spirited but sober discussion was

adjourned for beer and other refreshments.

All data from the AEC unclassified public

report: “The Effects of Atomic Weapons.”

(Secretary’s abstract.)

1426TH MEETING, APRIL 6, 1956

H. P. Brora, of the National Bureau of

Standards, spoke on the Stabilization of free

radicals at low temperatures.

A “free radical’ is an unstable chemical sub-

stance which lasts usually a very short time and

which is very reactive—combining with itself and

with other things. It is easier to give examples

such as nitrogen atoms, NH, CHs, etc., than

to define quite what is meant by such a sub-

stance. Reaction rates are very temperature

dependent: since at low temperatures the

velocities and the particle collision frequencies

are both reduced. It should therefore be possible

to, in a sense, ‘‘freeze’’ free radicals so that they

do not react, or at least react so much more

slowly that they can be studied at relative

leisure. It proves possible to do this at liquid

helium temperatures.

A dramatic demonstration of the actual re-

search apparatus was given by the speaker and

his assistants, in which nitrogen, after bom-

bardment in a glow discharge tube run by a

2450 MC radar generator, was collected on a

surface cooled by liquid helium. Various phe-

nomena, not always predictable, were observed,

including various green glows, colored flashes,

and exponential decays. Unobservable by the

audience, but vouched for the speaker, were

radiations in the near infrared and ultraviolet, as

well as considerable amounts of heat. Calcu-

lations from the heat released showed that the

order of 10% of the nitrogen condensed as atoms

in the solid state. Their recombination to mole-

cules then produced the various phenomena.

Several slides of the spectra of nitrogen dis-

charges and afterglow were shown for com- »

parison with the actual spectra from the tube.

One strange result is that the solid nitrogen gives

many sharp lines, an unusual phenomenon for a

solid. The doublet D and the quintet sigma levels

account for some of the bands observed, but the

Wegard-Kaplan bands are not seen. The ten-

tative explanation advanced is that the green

comes from the 2D to 4S atomic nitrogen transi-

tions. The origin of the yellow lines is not known.

The blue is molecular nitrogen *2 to *2 and the

UV from NO gamma and beta in the solid.

Other gases have been tried, and a very

efficient means of producing ozone was dis-

covered, having a yield of nearly 30 per cent.

Absorption spectra of the solids have been

photographed, and they show sharp absorption

edges. In the case of hydrogen it was found that

while molecular hydrogen is solid and opaque,

atomic hydrogen is clear and viscous. Water

vapor gives two different solids, and some HOs.

The work should be of significance in the

understanding of the solid state, will increase our

knowledge of reaction kinetics, and may lead to

new products with commercial possibilities.

In discussion Mr. Kaplan pointed out that

Wegard’s bands would not be expected, that

there might be O2 bands in the infra red, and

that there is a problem in the understanding

of quintet sigma levels. Mr. McNish mentioned

the history of aurorae and Wegard’s postulate of

glow from frozen N particles, and also Babcock’s

work on oxygen. Mr. Burstein asked if these free

radicals are the same as those postulated by

G. N. Lewis in solution. Mr. Tuckerman asked

if this was nascent nitrogen, in the old-time sense.

Both answers were yes. Mr. Herzfeld commented

on the auroral problem. Mr. Maxwell asked

about the production of O; and H.O., and

suggested that the measurement of paramagnetic

susceptibility might prove useful. Mr. Shuler

asked about the NH radical, and Mr. Rice

commented on its discovery in his laboratory,

which he made sound somewhat informal.

(Secretary’s abstract.)

1427TH MEBTING, APRIL 20, 1956

Sir Grorce P. THomson, Master of Corpus

Christi College, Cambridge, England, delivered

the 25th Joseph Henry Lecture, on the subject

Atomicity and patterns. The address has been

published in this Journal 46: 201-205. 1956.

vou. 47, No. 1,

January 1957 PROCEEDINGS:

142STH MEETING, MAY 4, 1956

Terri Hit, of the Naval Medical Research

Institute, Bethesda, Md., spoke on A model for

muscular action on a molecular level.

The speaker’s colleagues, Messrs. Moralis and

Botts, have suggested a scheme to account for

muscle action and the speaker’s contribution has

been in making the relations quantitative. The

picture they propose is that the contractile

forces come from the configurational entropy of

long chain protein polymers and from electro-

static forces within them.

It is well known that the basic contractile

material in muscle is the protein myosine: a long

chain molecule whose component amino acids

are known as to quantities, not as to actual

arrangement. Myosine itself has a net negative

charge, when in biological materials at pH 7, but

the magnesium ions that are always present,

eancel this negative charge and leave a net

positive charge of one unit for each ninth amino

acid.

The other component in muscle action is

Adenosine triphosphate, a compound of adenine

and a five-carbon sugar plus three phosphate

molecules; known as ATP. ATP has nearly 4

negative charges per molecule. ATP is unstable

relative to the di-phosphate, ADP, with a reac-

tion energy of 7 to 8 KCal per mole, but the

reaction rate is negligible at pH 7. There is in

fact a resonance between the two.

Now myosine is an enzyme for this reaction.

ATP is believed to be the source of most of the

free energy for biological processes, and this

energy does the mechanical work of contraction.

How the release becomes contraction is the

problem to be solved.

Proteins have molecular weights of 70,000

within one power of ten, so there are hundreds of

amino acids per chain. Each acid can be oriented

in almost any direction with respect to its

neighbor, so in calculating the average length

of a protein molecule we have the statistical

“random walk” problem, and the most probable

configuration turns out to be a short one. Short

but not zero, since space is filled up by the chain

itself. An electric charge on the parts of the

protein molecule will tend to counteract this

tendency toward shortness. The Moralis and

Botts picture is that a relaxed protein at rest

has a net charge, furnished by Met, and the

ATP is remote from it. On contraction the ATP

attaches itself to the Mg, cancelling the charge

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 31

and causing the protein to seek a shorter con-

figuration and its lowest entropy. The enzyme

action of the myosine then splits the ATP into

ADP, which is not so closely bound to the myo-

sine, and it goes back into solution as ADP and P

while the molecule extends again. In this cycle

mechanical work has been performed. The ATP

is then reformed through the burning of fuel in

the body of the muscle.

While this proposed mechanism seems simple,

it is highly controversial. It is not known just

when the work is done, and there is a question

whether a real change in length can occur

through a change in charge. A relation between

length and tension is needed both with and

without charge. In a muscle fiber the change in

length is the order of 2:1.

The speaker has carried out calculations of the

Helmholtz free energy A, as a function of 1, V,

and N (length, volume, number of ions) on two

different pictures of the structure of the fiber:

one a random mass of molecules, the other a

‘combed” structure, in which all molecules lie

roughly parallel. The calculations can be done in

steps, from the dry protein, uncharged, through 1)

solution in water, 2) binding ions on the protein,

and 3) charging it. We then get A, and dA /dl

is T. Curves for both models were shown. The

“combed” or “accordion” model gives the greater

sensitivity to charge change because it permits a

type of ‘‘phase change” familiar to workers with

high polymers. In any case the proposed mecha-

nism seems to provide adequate extension and

contraction.

In the discussion Messrs. Henderson, Green,

Duryee, and _ several others took part. The

resemblance to the theories of the elasticity of

rubber was noted. The proposal of Flory, that

muscular action represents a change from random

to regular array, was mentioned. Other points

were: that the enzymatic action is fast, that

myosine has been studied in thread form at low

temperatures, that other ions such as bromine

will cause contraction too.

It is not known whether this model will account

for the extreme rapidity of insect wing’s motion or

not. And lastly, calcium is being studied as one

of the “relaxing factors,’’ since one alternative

theory is that ATP is already bound and the

muscle is relaxed by calcium ions. (Secretary’s

abstract.)

14297rH MEETING, MAY 17, 1956

At this joint meeting with the Washington

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Academy of Sciences, GEoRGE WALD, of Harvard

University, delivered an address on The mecha-

nism of quantum sensitivity. This address con-

tinued the program of the Academy, which had

been devoted to the quantum aspects of vision

during the afternoon.

After a skillfully adapted paraphrase of “TI

come to bury Caesar, not to praise him’’—

Caesar being the photochemical theory of vision—

and the whole speech ironical in intention, a

series of slides showing the physiology and

biochemistry of the eye was shown. The relations

between vitamin A, retinene, and the various

“_opsins” was carefully sketched out. The

synthesis and the bleaching of rhodopsin and

iodopsin is the first reaction in line: admittedly

vision is a great deal more than this, but the

whole physiology of vision depends upon it.

The spectral sensitivity of vision as a function

of light intensity is determined by the differing

absorption spectra of rhodopsin and iodopsin.

That is to say, scotopic (dim light) vision has a

different sensitivity than does photopic (bright

light) vision, because the component purples in

the rods and cones absorb differently. This fact

underlies the Purkinje phenomenon.

A second problem is the question of dark-

adaptation. “It is the physical manifestation of

bleaching and synthesis of the pigments.” A

slide of the variation in sensitivity of the eye as it

becomes dark-adapted was illuminating, showing

that the cones gain sensitivity and approach an

asymptotic level quite quickly, while the rods

take nearly 45 minutes to develop their maxi-

mum. Analysis of the eye shows that these are the

growth curves of, respectively, iodopsin and

rhodopsin in the cone and rods.

A plot of the log of the sensitivity (reciprocal of

threshold) against the concentration of pigment

is a straight line.

A slide of the effect of vitamin A deprivation on

scotopic vision showed the dramatic character of

the recovery of this vision when the vitamin is

restored to the diet.

The third problem is the mechanism of con-

version of light to nervous excitation: What

happens? By dissolving rhodopsin in a glycerol-

water mixture and cooling to —S80°C the reac-

tions are so slowed down that the individual

steps can be followed. Light converts the rho-

dopsin to lumidopsin, which persists until

warmed to 23°, when it splits into half retinene

and half recreated rhodopsin, losing color in so

VoL. 47, No. lj}

doing. This behaviour is reminiscent of the —

photographic plate, with its latent image:

bleaching is a dark reaction, light produces only

the latent image. The bleaching is a restoring |

reaction and probably the conversion to lumi- i)

dopsin produces the excitation. Hi

For rhodopsin 45 KCal/mole is the bleaching |.

energy, and one mole of 600 my are needed to | i

bleach it. There is no temperature coefficient for — \

this reaction as long as the light is of shorter |

wavelength than this, but above this limit there

is a constantly falling sensitivity as more and

more energy is required to help the quanta excite

the rhodopsin.

Parenthetically, there are no real limits to the

sensitivity of the eye: the 4000 to 7006 A limits

merely express an average, the sensitivity out in

the red falls continuously.

It is clear from all this that the photochemical

theory is not dead.

By using a water model of the human eye the

speaker had demonstrated that bleaching a

small amount of this pigment raises the threshold

ereatly: specifically, with 006% bleached, the

threshold was up by 8.6 times. Most adaptation

seems to depend on the first little bit bleached, or

the last bit of pigment reconstructed.

A slide of the cone structure in the Perch eye

showed that the layers of pigment—rhodopsin—

are exactly one molecule thick: 41 A being their

thickness and equalling the diameter of the

molecule. Other eyes have layers twice, and four

times this. How can just one quantum stimulate

such a structure? This is still an undecided

question, and the speaker spent some time

examining the possibilities.

The symposium has made real contributions to

our understanding of the eye. The facts are —

clear: “The quantum demand for excitation rises |

in light adaptation” and ‘The concentration of

pigment is proportional to the logarithm of the

sensitivity’.

Messrs. Baumgardt, Jones and Potter took part

in the discussion, as did several others. It was

pointed out that the reactions are all in the solid

state: that all of the layers in a cone are equally

sensitive, except for a certain amount of filtering;

and that we don’t really know what happens

when the “light goes off’. The eye is in a sense

like a geiger counter, or scintillation counter, in

that one quantum can set it off, and to speak of a

threshold in such a case is perhaps misleading.

(Secretary’s abstract.)

Vice-Presidents of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Representing the Affiliated Societies

Philosophical Society of Washington.......................000- (Mr.) Brucz L. WiLson

Anthropological Society of Washington........................ (Mr,) Frank M. SEerzuEr

BrolosicaléSociety of Washington. ~.........-.-........+---. (Mr.) Herpert G. DEIGNAN

@Ghemicalisociety, of Washington.............0.2..+.6-000--- (Mr.) Bourpvon F. ScriBNER

Entomological Society of WashingtoOn......... 255.00. eec ence essence (Dr.) Frep W. Poos

ational Geographic Society... <....25 o2cesecic evacesee casas (Dr.) ALEXANDER WETMORE

Geological Society of Washington......................20000. (Mr.) Epwin T. McKnicut

Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................... (Dr.) FREDERICK O. CoE

COMM IAEMSTOTICAL SOCIELY = 2:5 0:05). 216: ere ee se eivinie cicileew hea sen

Botanicalgoociety, Of Washington. .-. 5.25 ..sce%seee senses cece cise (Dr.) E. H. WALKER

Washington Section, Society of American Foresters............ (Dr.) G. Furppo Gravatt

Washington Society of Engineers. ....................0e2000: (Mr.) Herpert G. Dorsry

Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers..... (Dr.) ARNoLD ScotrT

Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers......

Helminthological Society of Washington.....................200000 (Dr.) J. S. ANDREWS

Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists............ (Dr.) L. A. BuRKEY

Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers... (Lt. Col.) FLoyp W. Houcu

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers...............0.-

D. C. Section, American Society of Civil Engineers.......... (Mr.) Doueuas E. Parsons

D. C. Section, Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine..(Dr.) Grorer A. Hottie

Washington Chapter, American Society for Metals............. (Mr.) THomas G. Dicers

Washington Section, International Association for Dental Research...

Washington Section, Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences........ (Dr.) F. N. FRENKIEL

D. C. Branch, American Meteorological Society............. (Dr.) F. W. REICHELDERFER

CONTENTS

Botany.—New plant names published by Luigi Castiglioni. Hvu1-Lin Li

Botany.—New species of Erythroxylon from Colombia. WatTer A.

GENTNER 48.55 2 fogs ee dl ha Sos Ja Oe ee

PuHysioLocy.—Studies on the oxygen consumption of Ausiralorbis

glabratus eggs. ALINA PERLOWAGORA-SZUMLEWICZ AND THEODOR

VONSBRAND): ooc.0 Se Ge bo delod cnt als Gate dies «ce

BIocHEMISTRY.—The effect of cortisone on the formation of glycogen

from 2-C-14 labeled alanine and lactic acid. W. C. Hess and

Te PeSHarrrany oa U.P oh ML ee

HERPETOLOGY.—Contributions to the herpetofauna of Virginia, 2:

The reptiles and amphibians of Northern Neck. Ciypr F. Resp..

-Zootocy.—Spongilla discoides Penney: A Correction. James T. PENNEY

PRocEEDINGS: Philosophical Society of Washington...................

Notestand) News 02/05 OTe es oS Bia i, 5, 9,

tei dae

=m NM , 4

i VA"

Beiux 47 February 1957 NUMBER 2

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

—_—-

————

Published Monthly by the

AS HINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MOUNT ROYAL & GUILFORD AVES., BALTIMORE, MD.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Editor: CHESTER H. Pace, National Bureau of Standards

Associate Editors: RoNaALD Bamrorp, University of Maryland

Howarp W. Bonp, National Institutes of Health

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 47 February 1957 No. 2

BOTANY —The evolutionary significance of the endosperm and its bearing on the

origin of angiosperms. Hvt-Lrn Li, Morris Arboretum, University of Penn-

svlvania.

(Received November 6, 1956)

The process of ‘‘double fertilization,” first tenable (Brink and Cooper, 1947). To avoid

described by Navashin (1898) and Guignard confusion, it 1s highly desirable to restrict

(1899) over half a century ago, is one of the the term ‘‘endosperm”’ to angiosperms and

most important finds in botany. It is a proc- to designate the endosperm of gymnosperms

ess peculiar to the angiosperms, involving, as simply megagametophyte or to use some

as is well known, the fusion of one male other term for it.

nucleus with the egg nucleus to form the There is no phenomenon in gymnosperms

zygote and the fusion of the second male to suggest double fertilization and _ triple

nucleus with two polar nuclei to form the fusion. In addition, there are other unique

primary endosperm nucleus. The endosperm features in the angiospermous endosperm.

develops usually into a short-lived nutritive These features and their possible evolution-

tissue nursing the growth of the embryo. ary and phylogenetic significance are re-

The study of the endosperm in the past viewed below.

has been largely morphological. For some

time there was much discussion about its

phylogenetic origin. In recent years more Besides one of the male nuclei, two polar

emphasis has been placed on its physiologi- nuclei take part in triple fusion. To trace the

eal and genetic significance. (Brink and origin of the endosperm therefore means

Cooper, 1944, 1947; Cooper and Brink, tracing the origin of the megagametophyte

1944). of angiosperms.

However, no evolutionary significance or All proposed explanations regarding the

historical explanation has so far been at- origin of the megagametophyte of angio-

tached to this remarkable event in the plant sperms attempt at homologizing it with that

kingdom. This is undoubtedly due in part to of the gymnosperms. There are three princi-

the confusion in terminology of the endo- pal views (Maheshwari, 1948, 1950): that of

sperms of gymnosperms and angiosperms. Schirhoff (1928) which considers the mega-

The endosperm of gymnosperms is a rela- gametophyte as formed by two archegonia

tively undifferentiated tissue, essentially nu- with prothalhal tissue; another of Porsch

tritive in function. It is, however, derived (1907) which considers it as formed by two

directly by the repeated cell divisions in the archegonia without prothallial tissue; and a

megagametophyte. In this respect, it is fun- third emphasizing the similarities between

damentally different from the angiospermous the megagametophytes of angiosperms and

endosperm, which is formed by the fusion of the Gnetales (Thompson, 1911; Fagerlind,

a male nucleus with one or more nuclei of the 1941) assumes that all the nuclei possess the

megagametophyte. In the light of modern same value and any one of them could de-

cytology and genetics, the older view that velop into an embryo. It is not necessary to

the endosperm of angiosperms should be go into detail concerning the objections to

considered as a gametophytic tissue is un- these theories (Langlet, 1927; Maheshwari,

ORIGIN

APR 15 1957

oA JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

1948) except to mention that none of these

explains the origin of the fusion of the two

polar nuclei and one male nucleus in the for-

mation of the endosperm.

As Maheshwari aptly poimts out, “The

question may well be asked as to why we

should at all expect to be able to explain the

angiospermous embryo sac in terms of that

of the gymnosperms, when there is no evi-

dence that the former group was derived

from the latter.”’ I am inclined to agree fur-

ther with him in his statement that “It is

far more likely instead that the angiosperms

have long passed the stage of archegonia and

probably never had them at any time in

their fossil history”’.

DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE

While ultimately the endosperm may be-

come wholly or partly cellular, it originates

in three main structural types, namely, nu-

clear, cellular, and helobial (Schnarf, 1929;

Maheshwari, 1950).

The nuclear type, generally found in the

supposedly primitive angiosperms, develops

from the successive mitotic divisions of the

primary endosperm nucleus resulting in the

formation of a large multinucleate ceono-

cyte. This free-nucleate condition may be of

short duration or may persist for several

days or weeks. The number of free nuclei is

usually very large, ranging from over a hun-

dred to several thousand. Then follows cell

formation and the endosperm usually be-

comes entirely cellular, although in some

plants a central noncellular portion may per-

sist throughout the development of the seed.

In the cellular type, nuclear divisions are

accompanied by wall formation right from

the beginning. Some of the cells at one or

both ends may become differentiated as elon-

gated haustorial cells which may remain uni-

nucleate or become multinucleate.

The third type or helobial type is so called

because it is of common occurrence in the

Helobieae. Here the primary endosperm cell

divides into two cells of unequal size: a large

micropylar and a small chalazal cell. The

micropylar cell becomes multinucleate and

later cell formation occurs in it as in the

nuclear type. The chalazal cell may remain

uninucleate or may develop into a multi-

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vot. 47, NO. 2

nucleate cell. The helobial type is generally

considered to be intermediate between the

nuclear and cellular types.

The multinucleate condition is an unique

feature which does not exist elsewhere in the

higher plants except in early stages of the

development of the megagametophytes and

also in the proembryos of the Cycadaceae

and Ginkgo. Another peculiarity of the endo-

sperm is the process of cell division. There

are two methods of wall formation in the

endosperm: by cell plates or by furrowing

(Schnarf, 1929). The formation of cell plates

is as in other tissues. In the following

method, cleavage furrows are formed at the

outer wall and advance inwardly until they

meet and divide the protoplast into uni-

nucleate cells. It is a process frequently ob-

served in the lower plants but its occurrence

in the higher plants is restricted only to

pollen and endosperm formation. In pollen,

however, the pollen mother cell is limited to

four nuclei only. The extremely large num-

ber of nuclei formed in the angiospermous

endosperm and the subsequent divisions by

furrowing resulting into cellular condition

has no parallel in plant groups above the

thallophytes.

Aside from these distinctive characteris-

tics, it is noteworthy that the endosperm is

not only cellular but often highly differen-

tiated structurally, while the ‘“‘endosperm”’

of gymnosperms is more or less undifferen-

tiated. Some of the cells usually develop into

elongate haustorial cells or absorbing or-

gans. Sometimes the cells may branch at

their tips.

The endosperm persists in the seed of

many species as a storage organ. While the

mature endosperm generally has a more or

less smooth surface, in two whole families

the Annonaceae and the Myristicaceae and

in many genera of other families, it is ‘“‘ru-

minated.’”’ The significance of the latter con-

dition is subject to further investigation.

TIME RELATIONS

The fusion of the two polar nuclei shortly

before fertilization is also an unique feature

of the angiosperms. Both the endosperm and

the embryo seem to initiate more or less

simultaneously at the time of double fer-

FEBRUARY 1957 HUI-LIN LI:

tilization. Their subsequent developments

are, however, not parallel events.

The primary endosperm nucleus divides

soon after fertilization and by rapid succes-

sive divisions forms an active growing endo-

sperm within a short time. The zygote, on

the other hand, usually undergoes a period

of maturation before division starts. By this

time there are already from several hundred

to over a thousand nuclei in the endosperm.

The latter may even have completed its

growth entirely as in Fouquieria (Johansen,

1936). Only rarely does the zygote divide

concurrently with the primary endosperm

nucleus and the few reports that the division

of the zygote precedes that of the primary

endosperm nucleus have either proven erro-

neous or are doubtful (Brink and Cooper,

1947).

NUTRITION RELATIONS

The endosperm not only has a decided ad-

vantage in the time of development as com-

pared with the embryo, but in their nutri-

tional relationships also the endosperm

occupies apparently an earlier phase than

the embryo.

The endosperm is dependent on the sporo-

phytic tissues. In the nuclear type, the nu-

cellus furnishes the nutrition for the rapid

nuclear division and expansion of the endo-

sperm. The cellular type of the endosperm

develops in an ovule that has a much re-

duced nucellus already absorbed by the

megagametophyte. The endosperm develops

absorbing haustorial cells and obtains nu-

tritive materials from the conducting tissues

in the funiculus. The large single-celled hau-

storium in the helobial type has a similar

absorbing function.

The embryo depends in turn on the endo-

sperm for nutrition. The endosperm is di-

gested and absorbed during the growth of

the embryo. After the cotyledons are formed,

they digest their way through the endo-

sperm and absorb it until it nearly disap-

pears. Only remnants of the endosperm are

usually left in the mature seed, the cotyle-

dons becoming storage organs. In some spe-

cies the endosperm persists as storage tissues

while the cotyledons store little or no nutri-

tive materials.

SIGNIFICANCE OF ENDOSPERM oy)

Recent studies on the cultivation of ex-

cised embryos in vitro have shown that, dur-

ing the early period of development of the

embryo, there is an unique physiological

relationship between embryo and mother

plant through the endosperm. The mother

plant is only indirectly host to the offspring

through the medium of the endospermous

tissue. Cultivation of very young embryos is

extremely difficult and few investigators

have succeeded in growing seedlings from

them. The young embryo is, as stated by

Brink and Cooper (1947), initially incapable

of performing certain essential growth funce-

tions, and these functions are mediated for

the embryo by the endosperm.

CHROMOSOME NUMBER

The endosperm of gymnosperms, since it

is derived by continuous cell division of the

haploid megaspore, is haploid in its chromo-

some number. In the angiosperms, the endo-

sperm is triploid, having a diploid set from

the two polar nuclei and a haploid set from

the male nucleus. The triploid endosperm is

an unique structure characteristic of the

angiosperms. Not only nothing comparable

is found in the gymnosperms, but also in the

ferns, the ‘“‘fern-allies’’, and the bryophytes

as well. The triploid nature of the endosperm

indicates that it is neither sporophyte tissue

with 2n chromosomes, nor gametophyte tis-

sue having n chromosomes.

On chromosome number alone, there is no

basis to homologize the so called endosperm

of gymnosperms with the endosperm of an-

giosperms. The two tissues are only similar

in their function in nursing the developing

embryo. This distinct product of syngamy

must have a more fundamental and profound

significance in the history of angiosperms

than merely the provision of a nutritive tis-

sue to the developing embryo. This may well

be a collateral and incidental function, espe-

cially as maternal sporophytic tissues are

readily available to perform such a function.

A phylogenetic interpretation of the alter-

nation of generations in plants has been

offered by Allen (1937). He considers that a

regular alternation of generations in green

and brown algae and possibly also in the

ancestors of pteridophytes and of seed

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

plants, seems to have been established by a

diploid duplication of the haploid genera-

tion. While in long-cycled red algae, alterna-

tion came about through duplication as well

as transfer, the latter referring to the trans-

ference of the post-zygotic phase from the

haplont to the diplont. Among other things,

he compares the extremely reduced haploid

generation in the angiosperms with that of

Fucus. The reduction series as represented

in seed plants is compared with parallel

series in algae. Allen’s interpretation, given

in the light of some obvious genetic con-

siderations, 1s a valuable contribution to a

much neglected subject. However, he does

not mention anything about the endosperm.

Taking the latter into consideration, the life

cycle of the angiosperms, following Allen’s

argument, probably approaches more closely

the red algae in general than other plant

groups.

GENETIC RELATIONS

Genetically, the endosperm differs from

the embryo in that it receives a double com-

plement of inheritance from the megagame-

tophyte. As a result of triple fusion, the

anglospermic seed is unique in being geneti-

cally a most diverse structure. The normal

chromosome ratio between the maternal

sporophytic tissues, the endosperm and the

embryo is 2:3:2. The successful formation

of the seed thus depends on the maintenance

of the genetical balance of the three com-

ponents. Seed collapse in interspecific hy-

brids is generally believed as due primarily

to embryo disfunction. However, recent

studies, as summarized by Brink and Cooper

(1947), have shown that impairment in de-

velopment or death of the embryo is fre-

quently due to the failure of the endosperm

formation. Young embryos in abortive seeds

with underdeveloped endosperm can some-

times be excised and cultured artificially into

seedlings (Sawyer, 1925; Werckmeister, 1937;

Lenz, 1954).

That the endosperm behaves genetically

differently from the embryo can be further

illustrated by the phenomenon known as

xenia, namely, the effect of foreign pollen on

visible characters of the endosperm, of which

there are several examples in maize (Hmer-

vou. 47, No. 2

son et al., 1935). This is due to the fact that

the two fertilizations occurring within a sin-

gle megagametophyte occasionally involve

participation of male nuclei from different

pollen grains, a phenomenon called ‘“‘hetero-

fertilization” by Sprague (1932).

Thus double fertilization actually involves

two distinct processes which may occur in-

dependent of each other. There are occa-

sional cases of plump grains found among

cereals without embryos. The immediate

cause of these embryoless grains is assumed

to be single fertilization whereby only the

endosperm develops (Brink and Cooper,

1947). All these observations show that both

the genotype and phenotype of the endo-

sperm are independent of the constitution of

the embryo with which it is associated.

ENDOSPERM AND THE ORIGIN

OF ANGIOSPERMS

As the embryo is directly in the line of

descent, it is necessarily the cardinal com-

ponent of the seed. Nevertheless, it is now

clearly demonstrated that the endosperm is

primarily responsible for the maintenance of

the continuity of the life cycle of the plant

at the early seed stage. During this critical

period, the embryo is dependent entirely on

the endosperm for performing certain growth

functions.

Brink and Cooper (1947) are of the opin-

ion that ‘the double complement of inheri-

tance perceived by the endosperm from the

maternal parent is an adaptation which fa-

cilitates functioning of the endosperm in its

intercalary position between mother plant

and embryo. The secondary fertilization is

thus interpreted as a method to confer on

the tissue the physiological advantage in

reproduction associated with the extreme re-

duction of the female gametophyte’’.

Compared with the gymnosperms which

have a massive megagametophyte readily

available to nourish the embryo at the time

of fertilization, the simple megagametophyte

of angiosperms is in a decidedly disadvan-

tageous position. As a device to compensate

this deficiency, the endosperm performs the

function very well. But the problem still

left unexplained is the de novo appearance

of this unique and complicated phenomenon

of double fertilization and triple fusion.

—

—————

FEBRUARY 1957

As mentioned before, I am inclined to

agree with Maheshwari (1948) in that the

origin and development of the megagameto-

phyte of angiosperms cannot be explained in

terms of the gymnosperms. Similarly, the

origin of the angiospermous endosperm, as

attested by its many distinct characteristics

discussed before, also cannot be sought

among the gymnosperms. An historical ex-

planation of the origin of the endosperm has

never been offered.

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Fic. 1—Life cycle of an angiosperm.

The triple fusion and the consequent tri-

ploid condition of the endosperm, in my

opinion, clearly indicate that it is an equiva-

lent to the gametophytic and sporophytic

generations. Morphologically, physiologi-

cally, cytologically, and genetically as dis-

cussed before, the endosperm is distinct from

both the sporophyte and the gametophyte.

In other words, the life cycle of angiosperms

should be interpreted anew as constituting

three instead of only two distinct phases,

the third one represented by the endosperm

@Eye5 1):

While the endosperm and the embryo be-

gin more or less simultaneously at the time

of double fertilization, the precocious de-

velopment of the endosperm, the strict de-

pendence of the embryo on the latter in its

early life, as well as the relative position of

the two seem to suggest that the endosperm

represents a slightly prior phase in their se-

quence of development.

HUI-LIN LI: SIGNIFICANCE OF

ENDOSPERM ON

From an evolutionary point of view, the

origin of the angiospermous endosperm can-

not be sought among the bryophytes, the

ferns and the so called fern-allies, as well as

the gymnosperms, for any comparable struc-

ture is not found among these groups of

plants, at least among all the living forms.

On the other hand, among the algae and

fungi, the life cycles of many plants involve

three or more distinct phases, such as among

the red algae and in many fungi. Sometimes

two of the phases may develop almost simul-

taneously. The life cycle of angiosperms is

thus reminiscent of the situation common in

the thallophytes. The fusion of the two polar

nuclei is also a unique process but more or

less similar conditions are also found in many

of the algae and fungi, such as in the forma-

tion of teliospores in rusts (Uredinales) and

chlamydospores in smuts (Ustiginales),

where a binucleate condition eventually be-

comes uninucleate. An exceptionally similar

condition to triple fusion is found among the

Florideae, where a diploid connecting cell is

fused with a haploid axillary cell, though in

this case the nuclei concerned are probably

not actually united. (Fritsch, 1945). More-

over, the most unique morphological feature

of the endosperm, the large multinucleate

body with the furrowing method of cell for-

mation, also cannot be traced to the imme-

diate lower groups of plants, but it occurs

also only in some algae and fungi. It is espe-

cially common in the development of the

sporangia such as in the brown algae like

in the Ectocarpales and the Laminariales

and in fungi like in the Saprolegniales and

the Mucorales.

In my opinion, the origin of the endosperm

has important bearings on the larger prob-

lem of the origin of the angiosperms. It seems

futile to seek the origin of angiosperms in

some groups of plants that offer no clue to

the origin of the endosperm. The evolution-

ary significance of the endosperm deserves

critical evaluation. The many distinct fea-

tures mentioned above indicate relationships

traceable from the angiosperms more or less

directly toward the thallophytes but not

through the ferns or gymnosperms. The

angiosperms apparently represent a line of

development parallel to that of the ferns

and gymnosperms from a general algal an-

cestry, but not a derived group originated

from any of the gymnosperms.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper is presented primarily to pro-

pose a different approach for research to-

ward the problem of the origin of angio-

sperms. It calls attention to a neglected

field of study that seems to offer great pos-

sibilities. As yet our knowledge concerning

the endosperm is very limited. With new

developments in technique such as tissue

culture and advancement in some fields of

knowledge such as morphogenesis, physio-

logical genetics, and others, the study of

endosperm can be of great value in inter-

preting the evolution and phylogeny of the

plant kingdom. Lacking fossil evidence, dis-

cussions at present on the origin of angio-

sperms are still largely a matter of conjec-

ture. To quote the words of the late Sir

Albert Seward (1921), commenting on the

origin of angiosperms, ‘‘While admitting our

inability at present to do more than suggest

possibilities, we may encourage research by

speculation’.

SUMMARY

To summarize, the following point of view

is suggested as a working hypothesis toward

the problem of the origin of angiosperms.

The endosperm represents, in addition to the

gametophytic and the sporophytic genera-

tions, a third phase in the life history of the

angiosperms, possibly the remnants or a

much more reduced form of a formerly more

elaborate structure. Since a similar structure

is not found in the life histories of the gym-

nosperms and other lower groups of plants,

the origin of the angiosperms probably lies

in some extinct groups of plants derived

directly from the thallophytes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am indebted to Drs. Ralph O. Erickson,

John M. Fogg, Jr., P. Maheshwari, and E.

H. Walker for valuable suggestions and criti-

cisms in the course of preparation of this

paper. I am, of course, solely responsible for

the opinions herein expressed, and for all

errors and omissions.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 47, No. 2

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{

FEBRUARY 1957

LOEBLICH AND TAPPAN: A NEW FORAMINIFERAL GENUS 39

PALEONTOLOGY—W oodringina, a new foraminiferal genus (Heterohelicidae)

from the Paleocene of Alabama. ALFRED R. Lorsiicu, Jr., U. 8. National

Museum, and HELEN Tappan, U. 8S. Geological Survey.

(Received January 7, 1957)

In the course of investigations of the

planktonic species of Foraminifera occur-

ring in the Paleocene strata of the Gulf and

Atlantic Coastal Plains, a distinctive and

minute species was obtained from the Pine

Barren member of the Clayton formation

of Alabama. Although tiny, the relative

abundance and distinctive characters of

this species suggest that it may prove valu-

able as an horizon marker for strata of early

Midway age. These distinctive characters

necessitate the proposal of both new generic

and specific names to accommodate this

form.

Family HETEROHELICIDAE Cushman, 1927

Woodringina Loeblich and Tappan, n. gen.

Type species —W oodringina claytonensis Loeb-

lich and Tappan, n. gen., n. sp.

Test free, early stage with a single whorl of

three chambers, followed by a biserial stage;

chambers inflated; wall calcareous, radial in

structure, finely perforate; aperture a low arched

slit, bordered above by a slight lip.

Remarks.—W oodringina, n. gen. differs from

Tosaia Takayanagi in having a much reduced

early coil consisting of a single whorl of three

chambers, whereas Tosaia has an early trochoid

stage followed by a triserial and finally a reduced

biserial stage.

It superficially resembles Heterohelix Ehren-

berg, but has a reduced ‘“‘triserial’’ stage and

lacks the early planispiral stage of that genus.

It has a low slitlike aperture instead of a high,

arched, and open one. Chiloguembelina Loeblich

and Tappan has a high narrow aperture bordered

with lateral flanges, and the test is wholly bi-

serial.

The generic name is in honor of Dr. Wendell

P. Woodring in recognition of his work on the

Tertiary stratigraphy and paleontology and for

his encouragement of micropaleontological stud-

ies in the Caribbean area.

Woodringina claytonensis Loeblich and Tappan,

n. sp.

Fies. 1, a-d

Test free, tiny, flaring rapidly; early stage

with a single whorl of three chambers (reduced

“triserial’’), commonly followed by three, or more

rarely up to five, pairs of biserial chambers, the

plane of biseriality slightly twisted in develop-

ment; chambers few in number, subglobular, in-

creasing rapidly in size; sutures distinct, con-

stricted; wall calcareous, finely perforate and

very finely hispid; aperture a low, arched slit

Figs. la-d.—Woodringina claytonensis Loeblich and Tappan, n. gen., n. sp: la, Side view of holo-

type, showing small test, appearing from this view to be biserial throughout; 1b, edge view, with speci-

men slightly tilted to show asymmetrical low arched aperture; 1c, opposite side, showing protruding

third chamber above proloculus, which forms the reduced triserial stage of a single whorl, characteristic

of this genus, and the later biserial stage; 1d, basal view, showing proloculus, single whorl of three

chambered stage, and biserial later development. All X 280. Camera lucida drawings by Patricia Isham,

scientific illustrator, U. S. National Museum.

40 JOURNAL OF THE

bordered above by a slight lip, somewhat asym-

metrical in position.

Length of holotype 0.15 mm, greatest breadth

0.12 mm. Other specimens range from 0.12 to

0.22 mm in length.

Remarks.—This_ species superficially resem-

bles Tosaia hanzawai Takayanagi from the Plio-

cene of Japan, but differs in being about one-

third as large, in having a reduced “triserial”’

stage of three chambers, and better developed

biserial stage, whereas the Japanese form has a

trochoid whorl, followed by a triserial stage, and

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 47, No. 2

only an occasional specimen has the poorly de-

veloped biserial stage. The chambers of the pres-

ent species are also more inflated and sub-

globular.

Types and occurrence.—Holotype (U.S.N.M.

P5685) from the Pine Barren member of the

Clayton formation (Paleocene), blue-black mi-

caceous clay exposed in road cut opposite small

country store, 0.8 mile west of Alabama River

bridge on Alabama State Highway 28, Wilcox

County, Ala. Collected by Alfred R. Loeblich,

Jr., July 1956.

— Be

EMISSION SPECTRA OF ACTINIUM

Detailed information about the configuration

of electrons around the actinium nucleus has

been obtained in a study of emission spectra of

actinium recently completed by W. F. Meggers,

chief of the National Bureau of Standards spec-

troscopy laboratory. The results also establish

that the elements following actinium in the

periodic table form a series of “rare earths’’

analogous to the series that follows lanthanum.!

The spectrograms were made by M. Fred and

F. 8. Tomkins of the Argonne National Labora-

tory, and the actinium for the study was pro-

duced at the Argonne laboratory by transmuting

radium.

Because of its low abundance, radioactive in-

stability, and lack of commercial uses, actinium

has never been concentrated in pure form from

mineral sources. For a long time, therefore, little

was known about its physical properties. The

situation changed during the past decade when,

after the discovery of nuclear fission and the

construction of uranium piles, neutrons became

available in sufficient quantities to produce

ponderable amounts of any desired element by

transmutation. Thus, several milligrams of

actintum were made at the Argonne National

Laboratory by bombarding radium with neu-

trons, thereby transmuting radium of atomic

number 88 and mass 226 (ssRa”°) to actinium of

atomic number 89 and mass 227 (ggAc”"),

Although actinium was artificially prepared

primarily for chemical research, portions of the

samples were loaned to physicists for investiga-

tion of the optical emission spectra. Because the

Argonne laboratory was fully equipped with

devices for the safe handling of “hot” materials,

the actinium spectra were photographed there;

the spectrograms were then shipped to the

National Bureau of Standards, where they were

measured and interpreted.

1 For further technical details, see The emission

spectra of actinium, by W. F. Meggers, M. Fred,

and F. 8. Tomkins, Journ. Res. NBS (in press).

EARLIER STUDIES

In 1899, André Debierne, assistant to Madame

Curie, discovered a new chemical element in

pitchblende. After chemically removing uranium,

polonium, and radium, he found a residue 100,000

times more radioactive than uranium. He ealled

this new element actinium.

After many years of research in radioactivity

it has been established that actinium occurs in

nature only as the daughter of protactinium,

which in turn results from the spontaneous decay

(emission of alpha and beta particles) of the

relatively rare isotope of uranium, 9:U23°—the

isotope that produced the first atomic bomb. The

half-life of actinium is only 22 years, and its

unstable atoms quickly decay to a stable end

product, actinium-lead (s»Pb?). For this reason,

the abundance of actinium in igneous rocks is

only about 3 x 101° grams per metric ton, Le.,

3 parts in 101°,

About thirty years ago the quantum theory

of atomic spectra had developed to the point

where all atomic and ionic spectra could be inter-

preted in terms of energy levels described by

quantum numbers, and spectral terms were

correlated with configurations of the outer

(optical or valence) electrons. This provided a

positive and practically unique method of deter-

mining the electronic structure of any and all

atoms, thus giving meaning to the periodic ar-

rangement of the chemical elements that the

Russian chemist D. Mendeléef had proposed in

1869. The method could not be applied to

actinium, however, until sufficient quantities of

the pure element were available.

In the modern periodic chart of the atoms,

scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium

each occupy third place in the fourth, fifth, sixth,

and seventh periods respectively. All have 3

electrons in the outer, unfilled “shells” and,

consequently, have similar chemical properties.

In the language of the chemist, they are homolo-

FEBRUARY 1957

gous trivalent elements. The emission spectra of

scandium, yttrium, and lanthanum were de-

scribed, interpreted, and published by the Na-

tional Bureau of Standards between 1924 and

1932. In each case it was found that the normal

electron configuration includes one of type d.?

This suggested that instead of 8 elements as in

the two previous periods, the fourth, fifth, and

sixth periods could contain at least 18 elements,

since 10 electrons of type d are permitted by the

Pauli exclusion principle.

Although the spectra of scandium, yttrium,

and lanthanum exhibited common features, as

just indicated, the spectra of ionized lanthanum

proved to be more complex than those of the

other two elements. It was necessary to conclude

that additional excited states of lanthanum are

caused by the presence of electrons in f orbits,

thus anticipating the firmer binding of type f

electrons in the elements immediately following

lanthanum in the periodic table. The presence of

f-type electrons gives the 6th period a total of 32

elements, since the exclusion principle permits 14

electrons of that type to be added. The extra 14

elements in period 6 are commonly called “rare

earths” or ‘‘Janthanides.”

METHOD AND RESULTS

Although Bureau scientists were eager in 1932

to investigate the spectra of actinium to see if

they resembled those of lanthanum, it was

necessary to wait until a sample of actinium was

synthesized from radium and neutrons. For the

present study, the Argonne spectroscopists made

are and spark spectrograms of actinium by

“burning” one-milligram samples on silver elec-

trodes and again on copper electrodes. The two

kinds of electrodes were used so that any spectral

lines of actinium that were masked by silver lines

could be seen in the copper spectra, and vice

versa. Two different excitations, are and spark,

were employed in order to distinguish actinium

lines (Ac I) emitted by neutral atoms from those

(Ac II) belonging to single ionized atoms, or

those (Ac III) that arise from doubly charged

ions. More intense spectral lines were obtained,

at the expense of reduction in the wavelength

range that could be photographed, by the use of

a diffraction grating with a “blaze”, i.e., with

specially shaped saw-tooth rulings.

Although blaze of grating and smallness of

sample restricted the spectral observations to the

visible and near ultraviolet regions, the data

were adequate to reveal the principal features of

the first three spectra of actinium. Wavelengths

were measured and intensities estimated for

2 Literal symbols, s, p, d, f, stand for electrons

having angular orbital momentum of 0, 1, 2, 3

units of h/27, respectively. They correspond to

“‘subshells”’ in the older shell picture of the atom.

EMISSION SPECTRA OF

ACTINIUM A]

approximately 500 lines in the wavelength range

from 2,062 to 7,887 angstroms. The measured

wavelength of each line was first converted to

the vacuum wavenumber (number of wavelengths

per em in vacuum), which is proportional to

radiation frequency or atomic energy emitted

per photon. Then constant differences between

the wavenumbers were sought. In this way

atomic energy levels were found from each of the

spectra, and these levels could then be interpreted

as spectral terms that arise from a specific electron

configuration according to rules given by the

quantum theory.

Analysis of the spectra shows the ground state

of Ac III to be (7s) 2so:; that of Ac II (7s?)'So;

and that of Ac I is (6d 7s’)?Diz. Thus, it is shown

that neutral actintum atoms, just like those of

scandium, yttrium, and lanthanum, each have

one d-type and two s-type electrons as valence

bonds. Again, it is found that Ae II, like La IT,

is more complex than either Se II or Y II; and

to explain the extra lines it is again necessary to

conclude that, in excited states, electrons of type

fas well as type p are present, though less tightly

bound. This is the most spectacular result of the

investigation. It shows that actinium introduces,

in the 7th period, another group of 14 “rare

earths” in which f-type electrons will be more or

less firmly incorporated into the outer structure of

the heavier elements: thorium, protactinium,

uranium, neptunium, plutonium, etc.

Between 1926 and 1946, there was much

theoretical speculation’ about the first appearance

of f-type electrons in the outer structure of

neutral heavy elements. Most authorities con-

tinued to regard thorium, protactinium, and

uranium as homologs of hafnium, tantalum, and

tungsten, respectively, which have only d and s

electrons. In 1946, spectroscopic investigations

of the first spectrum of uranium‘ were published

which proved conclusively that the normal elec-

tron configuration of uranium was f?d's? (.e.,

three f, one d, and two s electrons). Since that

time no further information of this kind has been

disclosed, but the present work on actinium

spectra indicates that f-type electrons will appear

only in highly excited states of Th I, and that the

normal electron configuration of neutral thorium

atoms will indeed be found to be d?s?. It seems

probable that type f electrons will first be found

in the normal configuration of protactinium

atoms.

2 Hlectron configurations of “rare earth’ ele-

ments, by W. F. Meggers, Science 105: 514. May

1947.

4 Preliminary description and analysis of the

first spectrum of uranium, by C. C. Kiess, C. J.

Humphreys, and D. D. Laun, Journ. Res. NBS 37:

57. July 1946. RP1729. The information in this

paper was first made available in February 1944 to

the Manhattan Project.

42 JOURNAL OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 47, No. 2

ENTOMOLOGY .— Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States National

Museum: IV, The genus Culex (Diptera, Culicidae).! ALAN Svone, Entomology

Research Branch, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Kenneru L. Knicur,

Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, U. S. Department of the Navy?

(Received December 20, 1956)

The introductory remarks in the first

paper of this series, particularly those on

early, possibly questionable holotypes, also

apply to this one. Following our treatment

of nominal taxa requiring special attention,

we present a list of those in the collection

based on unique specimens or for which

holotypes were clearly designated.

Culex abominator Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Mise. Coll. 52: 257. 1909.

The lectotype from Plano, Tex., selected by

King and Bradley (1937, p. 353), is in the col-

lection.

Culex (C.) acharistus Root, Amer. Journ. Hyg. 7:

578. 1927.

Both sexes were described, but there is only

one type specimen in the collection now. This is

a fragmentary male with the thorax and one leg

on a pin and the terminalia on a slide. We select

this specimen as lectotype. The data are: “Agua

Limpa, Brazil, March 27, 1925. F. M. Root

No. 64-1.”

Culex (C.) aglischrus Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 12:

121. 1924.

The syntypes were three females and three

males selected from 80 specimens. These are in

the collection and we select as lectotype a male

bearing the labels “1904/B2/Barranquilla, Co-

lomb./L. H. Dunn Coll. 1923/Type No. ——U.

S. N. M.” The terminalia are on slide no. 1904.

1 Harlier papers in this series are: I, The genera

Armigeres, Psorophora, and Haemagogus, Journ.

Washington Acad. Sci. 45: 282-289. 1955; JT,

The genus Aedes, ibid. 46: 213-228. 1956; IIT, The

genera Anopheles and Chagasia, ibid. 276-280.

1956.

2 Studies upon which this paper is based were

conducted under an exchange of funds from the

Office of Naval Research (Biological Science

Division) to the Smithsonian Institution. The

opinions or assertions contained here are the pri-

vate ones of the writers and are not to be construed

as official or reflecting the views of the Navy De-

partment or the Naval Service at large.

Culex aikenii Dyar and Knab, Proc. U.S. Nat.

Mus. 35: 61. 1908.

The three male syntypes are in the collection,

all bearing the labels “Feb. 17, O8/J. Aiken

Collector/Bred from larvae /F6 & / from long

syphon larva 17.2.08 / Type No. 11977 U.S.N.M.

/ Culex aikenti D. & K.”’ We select one of these

as lectotype. The terminalia of none of the

specimens have been cleared.

Lutza allostigma Howard, Dyar, and Knab,

Mosquitoes of North and Central America

and the West Indies 3: 471. 1915.

The original description gives no indication of

the number of specimens in the type series, but

lists 11 localities in Nicaragua and Panama with

dates of collection and collectors for most of them.

The type no. 14501 is given, but no specimens

bear type labels, and only the name was entered

in the type catalogue. Although a considerable

number of topotypic specimens in the collection

were with little doubt before the describers, there

are only 13 specimens that agree in locality, date,

and collector with the original data. We select as

lectotype a male bearing the labels ‘149 / A. H.

Jennings Collector / See Slide No. 592 / Las Cas-

cadas, Canal Zone, Panama / Jan. 16, 08”. The

terminalia are on slide No. 592 and this bears the

number 149.8. The larval and pupal skins for this

rearing number have been mounted on another

slide.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) alogistus Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 6: 126. 1918.

The specimen from Surinam that Rozeboom

and Komp (1950, p. 87) accepted as lectotype is

in the collection. These authors are in error in

stating that Dyar selected a lectotype, but we

consider Rozeboom and Komp to have selected

it. The mounted terminalia, pinned adult, and

associated larval skin are all part of the same

lectotype, but the slide of the larval skin could

not be found.

FEBRUARY 1957

Culex amitis Komp, Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 29:

333. 1936.

Two male syntypes were originally stated to be

deposited in the U.S. National Museum. We have

found only the male terminalia of one specimen

from Quiriquire, Venezuela, June 14, 1935,

mounted on a slide. We select these terminalia as

leetotype of the species.

Culex (Choeroporpa) aneles Dyar and Ludlow,

Military Surgeon 50: 63. 1922.

This species was described from a male and a

female syntype collected at Cardenas, Canal

Zone, February 11, 1921. They are both in the

collection, and we select as lectotype the male,

mounted on a slide and bearing the label ‘““Type

No. 25069 U.S.N.M.”

Culex anips Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 4: 48. 1916.

This species was described from a pair of

specimens from San Diego, Calif., and assigned

type no. 20304. These specimens are in the col-

lection, and we select as lectotype the male with

terminalia mounted on slide no. 747.

Culex (Melanoconion) antillum-magnorum Dyar,

Mosquitoes of the Americas: 344, 1928.

Three of the four male syntypes are in the col-

lection, the one numbered Pazos 786 not having

been found. We select as lectotype the one

bearing the labels ‘416 / Slide 785 / Cotype No.

40778 U.S.N.M.” This was collected by J. H.

Pazos at San Antonio de los Banos and the

terminalia are mounted on slide no. 785.

Culex apateticus Howard, Dyar, and Knab, Mos-

quitoes of North and Central America and

the West Indies 3: 321, 1915.

This species was described from an unstated

number of males and females and assigned type

no. 12707. According to the type catalogue there

were eight specimens, and according to the origi-

nal description these were collected by A. H.

Jennings at Tabernilla, Canal Zone, December 12,

1908, and Upper Pequini River, March 27, 1909.

There are six specimens with Jenning’s numbers

in the collection bearing the label “Type no.

12707 U.S.N.M.” Three are numbered 498 and

were collected at Porto Bello, February 19, 1909,

and are therefore not of the type series; two bear

the number 454 and were collected at Tabernilla,

December 15, 1908. Since Jennings’ notes show

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. IV 43

no collections made on December 12, we can

assume that the date was incorrectly transcribed

and that these are the Tabernilla types. One

specimen is numbered 522 and was collected on

the Upper Pequini River, March 27. Since this

specimen is a male bearing exact original data, we

select it as lectotype. The terminalia are on slide

no. 512.

Culex (Microculex) aphylactus Root, Amer. Journ.

Hyg. 7: 584. 1927.

This species was described from one male and

two females, but the only type material in the

collection consists of the male terminalia on a

slide. The data are ‘‘Rio Soberbo, Brazil, May 1,

1925, F. M. Root No. 79.” Weselect this fragment

as lectotype of the species.

Culex aseyehae Dyar and Knab, Ins. Inse. Mens.

B38 WY, IP,

The syntypes consist of one female and three

males. We select as lectotype a male labeled

“RPI, New Providence, Bahamas 1915 / Collec-

tion Dr. H. G. Dyar / Slide 748 / Type No. 19978

U.S.N.M.” The terminalia are on slide no. 748.

Culex badgeri Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 12: 125.

1924.

The syntypes are a male and a female, and we

select the male as lectotype. This bears the labels

“1945 / 34A / Bakersfield, Cal. Jan. 29, 1924 /

C. K. Badger / Type No. U.S.N.M.” The

terminalia are on slide no. 1945.

Culex bahamensis Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 210. 1906.

This species was described from larvae only,

collected in the Bahamas by T. H. Coffin. No

adults were reared. No material in the collection

is marked as type, but there are four larvae on

one slide labeled ‘‘bahamensis Coffin.”’ There is no

other larval material from the Bahamas in the

collection, and so we think that this is, with little

doubt, the original material, and we select the

larva nearest the label as lectotype.

Culex basilicus Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc.

Washington 19: 169. 1906.

The five syntypes are in the collection, all

bearing the labels ‘“‘Trinidad W.I. / F. W. Urich

Collector / Type No. 10021 U.S.N.M.” Although

only the female and larva were described, one of

the syntypes is a male. We select as lectotype

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the female bearing the additional labels “26-10 /

Culex basilicus D. & K. Type.’’ Since there are

two specimens labeled 26-10, it is not possible to

establish the larval skin of the lectotype, nor has

one bearing this number been found.

Culex bastagarius Dyar and Knab, Proc. Biol.

Soe. Washington 19: 170. 1906.

It is not entirely clear from the original descrip-

tion whether this is based on a single male from

Laventille, Trinidad, or also on two others from

Arima, Trinidad. Only the first one bears a type

label, and to establish this specimen as type

without question we select it as lectotype.

Fragments of a larval skin of this specimen are

on one slide and the terminalia are on slide no.

275.

Culex bidens Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 10: 190. 1922.

The five syntypes bear the labels ‘Rosario

Bolivia (L. Rocagua) Wm. M. Mann / Mulford

Biological Exploration 1921-22 / Nov. 1921 /

Type No. 25760 U.S.N.M.” The single male

bears the additional labels ‘‘1687 / Culex bidens

Dyar Type.” We select as lectotype this male,

with terminalia on slide no. 1687.

Culex ([sostomyia) bifoliata Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 10: 94. 1922.

The four syntype males are in the collection.

We select as lectotype the one bearing the labels

““Miraflores, C.Z., Pan. 1921 / Dec. 15 / J. B.

Shropshire Collector / 1644 / Type No. 25254

U.S.N.M.” The terminalia are on slide no. 1644.

Culex (Carrollella) bihaicolus Dyar and Nunez

Tovar, Notas Sobre Nuevos Dipteros Hema-

tofagos de Venezuela, Maracay: 4. 1927.

This species was described from an unstated

number of specimens of both sexes collected by

Nunez Tovar in the flowers of Heliconia bihar

in July 1927 at Ocumare de la Costa, Venezuela.

There are four specimens in the collection, labeled

“Maracay, Aragua, Venezuela VII.5.1927 M.

Nufiez Tovar Coll. Bihai.” Since these are not

topotypic and since the only specimen from

Ocumare de la Costa was collected August 12, we

must assume that the syntype series is not in the

collection. It is probable that these four speci-

mens were labeled following the second publica-

tion of the name in English (Dyar and Nunez

Tovar, 1928, p. 91).

VOL. 47, No. 2

Micraedes bisulcatus Coquillett, Proc. Ent. Soc.

Washington 7: 185. 1906.

Two syntypes are in the collection, one male

and one female, bearing the labels ““Guadeloupe,

W.1. July / Aug. Busck Collector / Type No.

8291 U.S.N.M.,” the male syntype from Santo

Domingo not having been found. We select as

lectotype the male bearing the additional labels

“82.3 / 1648 / Micraedes bisulcatus Coq.,” with

terminalia on slide no. 1648 and the larval and

pupal skins on a second slide.

Culex bonneae Dyar and Knab, Ins. Insc. Mens.

7: 3. 1919.

The two males and three female syntypes are

in the collection, all labeled “3 / Paramaribo

Dutch Guiana Mrs. J. Bonne-Wepster / Culex

palus? Theobald / Type No. 21646 U.S.N.M.”

We select as lectotype the male with terminalia

on slide no. 882. Five larval and two pupal skins

of this series (no. 3) are mounted together on a

slide.

Culex (Carrollia) bonnet Dyar, Ins. Inse. Mens. 9:

155. 1921.

Dyar proposed this as a new name for what

Dr. and Mrs. Bonne determined as iridescens

Lutz in Surinam. He attached the U.S. N. M.

type no. 24862 to a male and two females col-

lected by Mrs. Bonne-Wepster in Surinam. One

female bears the label “‘Carrolla iridescens Lutz’”’

in Mrs. Bonne’s hand. The male has had the

terminalia clipped but no slide has been found

bearing them. However, we select this male as

lectotype, hoping that the terminalia slide will

eventually be found in the collection.

Culex (Choeroporpa) borinquent Root, Amer.

Journ. Hyg. 2: 400. 1922.

This species was described from an unstated

number of males, females, and larvae from Rio

Piedras, Martin Pena, and Aguirre, Puerto Rico.

There is a male and a female labeled type in the

collection, and we select as lectotype the male,

bearing the labels “Rio Piedras, Porto Rico,

July 7, 1921 F. M. Root / Culex (Choeroporpa)

borinqueni Root 1922 Type &.” The terminalia

have not been mounted.

Lutzia brasiliae Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 11: 67.

1923.

The syntypes consist of one male and one

female collected by A. Lutz in Sao Paulo, Brazil.

FEBRUARY 1957

We select as leectotype the male, with terminalia

on slide no. 1778.

Culex brehmei Knab, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington

29: 161. 1916.

The published type number of this species 1s

20411, and there are in the collection 13 specimens

(of an original 15), each bearing the label “Type

No. 20411 U.S.N.M.” Only one specimen bears

the locality label, which is “Newark, N. J. 12.

VI. 1916 H. H. Brehme.” The original locality is

given as Laurence Harbor, Middlesex County,

New Jersey, and the specimens emerged from

pupae April 29 and 30, 1916. There are no speci-

mens in the collection bearing the original pub-

lished data, but perhaps the specimens were

labeled before Knab received the correct data on

the material, which had been sent to him in

June, and when he did get the field notes and

rearimg data he did not correct the label on the

specimen. We believe that this can be considered

the type series, and we select as lectotype the

female, with the locality label cited above and

the label “Culex brehmet Knab. Types.”

Culex caraibeus Howard, Dyar, and Knab, Mos-

quitoes of North and Central America and

the West Indies 3: 257. 1915.

The syntype series consists of four females,

each bearing the labels “59 / Barbados, W. I.

July / Aug. Buseck Collector / Type No. 12207

US.N.M.” Two other specimens bear the same

labels except for the type label. We select as

lectotype the specimen bearing the additional

label, “Culex caraibeus D. & K. Type.” Although

the larva was described, there are no larval skins

individually associated with the specimens.

Culex carcinophilus Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 220. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected from crab holes near Santo Domingo City

by Busck (nos. 89 and 94). We select as lectotype,

larval skin no. 89.3 with associated pupal skin

and male.

Culex carmodyae Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 210. 1906.

This species was described from larvae only,

collected in two localities in San Domingo. These

are represented by Busck numbers 88 and 151.

There are five specimens bearing these numbers

in the collection, two males and three females, but

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. IV 45

the larval skins of only two of the females have

been found. We select as lectotype larval skin no.

151.2. The associated pupal skin and female are

also lectotypic. The larva was collected in a slow

running water course inthe San Francisco Moun-

tains, Santo Domingo, West Indies, September

28, 1905.

Mochlostyrax caudelli Dyar and Knab, Journ.

New York Ent. Soc. 14: 224.1905.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected by Busck (no. 47) at Arima, Trinidad,

June 15, 1905. There are six adults of this series

(no. 47) in the collection. None of them is asso-

ciated with a larval skin, but there is a slide with

two larval skins and one larva, and we select as

lectotype the larval skin farthest from the label.

Culex (Choeroporpa) cenus Root, Amer. Journ.

Hyg. 7: 591. 1927.

Root refers to this as a common species with

males bred from several places, but there is only

one male, bearmg the labels ‘Type No. 40527

U.'S.N.M. / Magé, Brazil June 21, 1925, No.

115-1 / Culex (Choeroporpa) cenus Root. Type.”

We select this male, with terminalia on a slide, as

lectotype.

Culex (C.) chidesteri Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 9:

Is WEAN

The two male syntypes are in the collection,

bearing the labels “Colon Hosp. Sereen, Pan.

June 24, 1921 / W. F. Chidester Coll. /Thru

James Zetek / Type No. 24716 U.S.N.M.” We

select as lectotype the one with the additional

labels ‘1520 / Culex chidesteri Dyar Type”

with terminalia on slide no. 1520.

Culex chryselatus Dyar and Knab, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 7: 5. 1919.

The one male and two female syntypes are in

the collection, all labeled “23 / Paramaribo

Dutch Guiana Mrs. J. Bonne-Wepster / Type

No. 21647 U.'S.N.M.” We select as lectotype the

male with terminalia on slide No. 885. There are

a number of larval and pupal skins, at least one of

them from the original series, but they are not

individually associated with the adult specimens.

Culex chrysonotum Dyar and Knab, Proc. U.S.

Nat. Mus. 25: 57. 1908.

The lectotype (male terminalia slide) selected

by Rozeboom and Komp (1950, p. 88) is in the

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

collection. The pinned specimen from which these

terminalia came is also lectotypic. The type data

are ‘“Ancon, C. Z., Pan., Aug. 14, 1908.”

Culex comitatus Dyar and Knab, Proc. Ent. Soc.

Washington 11: 35. 1909.

The only specimens bearing type labels or

entered in the type book are three males and

three females. We select as lectotype the male

labeled “Nat. City June 3 / Dyar & Caudell /

See Slide No. 374 / Type No. 12201 U.S.N.M.”

The terminalia are on slide no. 374.

Culex conservator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 221. 1906.

The original material of this species, described

from larvae only, was collected at St. Joseph,

Trinidad, by Busck (no. 13) as well as other

localities, but specimens other than those of

series no. 13 were doubtfully determined by the

authors. There are eight adults reared from this

collection. We select as lectotype larval skin no.

13.12 with associated pupal skin on the same

slide and associated male with terminalia un-

mounted.

Culex conspirator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 217. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected at Almoloya, Mexico, and Las Loras, near

Puntarenas, Costa Rica. No larval material from

Las Loras has been found and only a few skins

from Almoloya, although there are 20 adults of

the Almoloya series. We select as lectotype larval

skin No. 312f, with which is associated a pupal

skin and a female that emerged July 24, 1905,

and was labeled as type by Dyar.

Culex consternator Dyar and Knab, Proc. U. 8.

Nat. Mus. 35: 59. 1908.

Thirty-five of the 39 syntypes are in the col-

lection, a male and two females being labeled as

types. We select as lectotype the male with ter-

minalia unmounted. This is no. 429.1 of Knab’s

notes, and was reared from a larva collected at

Cérdoba, Veracruz, Mexico, March 7, 1908.

Culex (Choeroporpa) corentynensis Dyar, Ins.

Insc. Mens. 8: 65. 1920.

The lectotype (slide of male terminalia) from

Surinam selected by Rozeboom and Komp (1950,

VOL. 47, NO. 2

p. 89) is in the collection. The pinned adult from

which the terminalia came is also lectotypic.

Culex coronator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 215. 1906.

This species was described from many larvae

collected in Trinidad, Mexico, Guatemala, El

Salvador, and Costa Rica. We select as lectotype

larval skin No. 7.2 collected in St. Joseph, Trint-

dad, June 12, 1905, by August Busck. Associated

with this is the pupal skin and an intact male

reared from it, also lectotypic.

Mochlostyrax cubensis Dyar and Knab, Journ.

New York Ent. Soc. 14: 225. 1906.

This species was described from badly damaged

larvae collected in Havana, Cuba. There are five

adults in the collection, but they are not individ-

ually associated with larval skins. No original

larval material has been found; so we assume

that all the syntypic material is lost.

Culex (Choeroporpa) curryi Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 14: 112. 1926.

This species was described from a male and a

female from Panama. We select as lectotype the

male mounted whole on a slide. It was collected

in the Mojinga River Swamp, April 20, 1926, by

D. P. Curry.

Culex daumastocampa Dyar and Knab, Proc.

U.S. Nat. Mus. 35: 58. 1908.

The three syntypes are in the collection, two of

them bearing type labels. We select as lectotype

the only male, labeled “135.4 / A. H. Jennings

Collector / Type No. 11967 U.S.N.M. / See Slide

No. 402.”” The terminalia are on slide no. 402, and

fragments of the larval skin on another slide.

Culex daumasturus Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 220. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected by Busck (no. 48) in leaf sheaths of a

century plant on the pitch lake at La Brea,

Trinidad. There are two pinned adults, one with

an associated larval and pupal skin, of this series

(no. 43). The larval skin is extremely fragment-

ary, but it is the only larval specimen available

for lectotype designation, and therefore we so

designate it, the fragmentary pupal skin and

reared female also being lectotypic.

FEBRUARY 1957

Phalangomyia debilis Dyar and Knab, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 2: 58. 1914.

In describing this species, the authors refer to

“Types and paratypes in the U. 8S. National

Museum”’, etc. There are nine females and nine

males in the collection, one female being labeled

as type, and one male as allotype, and the re-

mainder as paratypes. Each bears the label

“Matucan, Peru, June-July 1913. 7300 ft. C. T.

Brues.”” The “type” is in poor condition, with

damaged thorax, one leg and one wing only

remaining. Since the authors did not select a

holotype or select a sex for the type in the original

publication, we feel that it is permissible to

select as lectotype one of the ‘“‘paratype” males,

with terminalia and three legs mounted on slides

numbered 597 and 598.

Culex deceptor Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Mise. Coll. 52: 257. 1909.

The two female and one male syntypes of this

species are in the collection, all bearing the labels

“Ht. White, Fla. H. Byrd / Type No. 32104

US.N.M.” We select as lectotype the male with

terminalia on slide no. 346.

Culex declarator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 211. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected in Trinidad (Busck no. 21). The collection

contains two larval skins, two pupal skins, frag-

ments of another of each, a female in balsam, and

a pinned male of this series. We select as lectotype

larval skin 21.1 with associated pupal skin and

male. The male was labeled as type by Dyar, and

the terminalia are on slide no. 268.

Culex decorator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 218. 1906.

We have been unable to find any original

material of this species, which was described from

larvae that were brought to Washington alive

but failed to complete their development. This

material seems to have been from Busck lot no.

53, but no specimens have been found with this

number.

Culex (Choeroporpa) degustator Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 9: 39. 1921.

This species was described from two males,

both in the collection. We select as lectotype the

one labeled “Scott, Ark. 11 Aug. 09 / J. K. Thi-

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. IV 47

bault Coll. / 1333 / Type No. 23833 U.S.N.M. /

Culex degustator Dyar Type.” The terminalia are

on slide no. 1333.

Culex derivator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 216. 1906.

This species was described from a larva or

larvae collected at Cérdoba, Mexico, by Knab.

No adults were reared and no type larvae have

been found.

Culex dictator Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian Misc.

Coll. 52: 255. 1909.

The one female and five male syntypes are in

the collection, and we select as lectotype a male

bearing the labels “75.1 / Dominica, W. I. July /

Aug. Busck Collector / Type No. 12099

U.S.N.M.” The terminalia and larval skin of this

specimen are on one slide.

Culex (Phalangomyia) diplophyllum Dyar, Amer.

Journ. Hyg. 9: 509. 1929.

For this species Dyar wrote, “Types, two

males, paratypes three males and sixteen females,

Verrugas Canyon, Lima, Peru, April 5, 1928

(R. C. Shannon).”’ Nineteen of these specimens

are in the collection, 6 males and 13 females. It is

evident that Dyar miscounted the number of

males. All the specimens bear red type labels,

without number, but two males have “Type”

written in the space for the number. We can

assume that these are the two male “types”

selected by Dyar, and we select as lectotype the

one with terminalia on slide no. 2398.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) distinguendus Dyar, Mos-

quitoes of the Americas: 305. 1928.

The lectotype (slide of male terminalia) from

Mojinga Swamp, Panama, selected by Rozeboom

and Komp (1950, p. 89), is in the collection. The

pinned specimen from which these terminalia

came is also lectotypic.

Culex divisior Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 222. 1906.

The type series of this species, which was

described only by key characters and a figure of

the larva, consisted of specimens reared by Urich

in Trinidad (B15). Ten adults of this series are

in the collection and a number of fragmentary

larval and pupal skins. The larval material is in

such poor condition that selection of a lectotype

is of questionable value, but we select the frag-

mentary larval skin B15-6 with which is associ-

ated fragments of a pupal skin and an intact

male, labeled by Dyar, “Culex divisor (sic) D &

K. Type.”

Culex (Melanoconion) dunni Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 6: 128. 1918.

The two syntypes, one of each sex, bear the

labels ““Mandingo R., Pan. C-93 L. H. Dunn /

Type No. 21714 U.S.N.M.” We select as lecto-

type the male, with terminalia on a slide.

Culex duplicator Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Misc. Coll. 52: 258. 1909.

The four male and one female syntypes are in

the collection, all bearing the labels “S Frnesco

Mts. St. Domingo, W. I., Sept. 05 / Aug Busck

Collector / Type No. 1211 U.S.N.M.” We select

as lectotype the male with terminalia on slide

no. 740.

Culex (Choeroporpa) dysmathes Dyar and Ludlow,

Ins. Insc. Mens. 9: 47. 1921.

All but one of the 14 syntypes are in the col-

lection. We select as lectotype the male bearing

the labels “1346 / Cativa, Pan. Oct. 19, 1920 /

thru Dr. C. S$. Ludlow / Type No. 23943

U.S.N.M. / Culex (Choeroporpa) dysmathes D. &

L. Type.” The terminalia are on slide no. 1346.

Culex educator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 217. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected near the Aranjuez River near Puntarenas,

Costa Rica, by Knab (no. 337). Since no isolations

were made, the six adults reared from the series

are not individually associated with their larval

or pupal skins. A mass of broken larval skins and

one larva on one slide are all the larval material

of the type series in the collection. We do not

select a lectotype, because the whole larva is in

poor condition, and no larval skin is complete.

Culex egberti Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 15: 214. 1907.

This species was described from three females,

all in the collection, from Warner’s Camp, North

Shore, Lake Okeechobee, Fla., March 1906, J. H.

Egbert Collector. One bears the red type label

No. 10876, one bears the label in Knab’s hand,

“Culex egberti D. & K. Type,” and the third is

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 47, NO. 2

labeled ‘“‘egberti.”” We select as lectotype the first

of these, which is the least rubbed.

Culex (Choeroporpa) egcymon Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 11: 68. 1928.

The syntypes consist of a male and four

females collected at Tabernilla, C. Z., Panama,

May 2, 1907, by A. Busck. These are in the

collection, and we select as lectotype the male

with three legs dry mounted and the rest on slide

no. 1780.

Culex (Transculicia) eleuthera Dyar, Ins. Inse.

Mens. 5: 184. 1917 [1918].

The four syntypes are in the collection, all

bearing the labels ‘‘Gov. Harbor, Bahamas 03 /

T. H. Coffin Coll. *19 / Type No. 21570

U.S.N.M.” We select as lectotype the intact male

bearing the label “Culex (Transculicia) eleuthera

Dyar Type.”

Culex elevator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 217. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected at Puerto Limén, Costa Rica, by Knab

(No. 355). It was stated that adults were not

bred, but there are four adults from this series,

one female being labeled as type. Larval skin

355a is associated with the specimen labeled type.

We select this larval skin, with head capsule

missing, and the associated pupal skin, and reared

female as lectotype of the species.

Culex elocutilis Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Mise. Coll. 52: 255. 1909.

The type series consisted of two specimens

from Coscajar River, Porto Bello Bay, Panama.

These specimens are in the collection, each bear-

ing the labels ‘339. / Type No. 12051 U.S.N.M.”

The female is labeled “Culex elocutilis D. & K.

type,” and the male ‘“‘elocutilis” and ‘See Slide

No. 340.” We select as lectotype the male, with

terminalia on slide no. 340.

Culex equivocator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 15: 208. 1907.

The five females and three male syntypes

(Busck no. 49) are in the collection, a male and a

female being labeled as types. We select as lecto-

type the intact male bearing the labels ‘49.10 /

Tabernilla, Canal Zone, Panama / Collected by

August Busek / Type No. 10873 U.S.N.M.”

FEBRUARY 1957

Culex eremita Howard, Dyar, and Knab, Mosqui-

toes of North and Central America and the

West Indies 3: 261. 1915.

There are three syntypes, a male and two fe-

males, in the collection. We select as lectotype

the male bearing the labels ‘94.7 / St. Domingo

W. I. Aug / Aug. Busck Collector / Type No.

12798 US.N.M. / See Slide No. 398 / eremita.”

The terminalia are on slide no. 398.

Mochlostyrax erraticus Dyar and Knab, Journ.

New York Ent. Soc. 14: 224. 1906.

This species was described from larvae only,

collected by Dupre at Baton Rouge, La. King and

Bradley (1937, p. 348) refer to a slide of one

larval skin in the National Museum labeled

“Oulex erraticus D. & K. Dupre.” Such a slide is

in the collection, but it includes three larval skins.

We select as lectotype the skin nearest the label.

Culex erythrothorax Dyar, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus.

32: 124. 1907.

This species was described from 80 specimens

collected in California. One female only bears a

type label, and this we consider the holotype. The

labels on it are “Nigger Slough, June 6. 06 / Dyar

& Caudell / Type No. 10009 U.S.N.M. / Culex

erythrothorax Dyar Type.”

Culex eumimetes Dyar and Knab, Proc. U.S. Nat.

Mus. 35: 61. 1908.

The 10 syntypes are in the collection, a male

and a female being labeled as types. We select as

lectotype the male, bearmg number 437.6, with

terminalia unmounted.

Culex (Choeroporpa) evansae Root, Amer. Journ.

Hyg. 7: 593. 1927.

The original material consisted of specimens

reared from larvae collected in two places. The

collection contains only two of the original speci-

mens, both from Magé, Brazil, February 26, 1925,

F. M. Root (No. 34). Both have U.S.N.M. type

labels, but only the male is labeled ‘‘type’’ by

Root. Larval and pupal skins of these two speci-

mens are on one slide, and so it is impossible to

determine with certainty which larval skin is

associated with the male. We select the male,

with terminalia on slide no. 34a as lectotype of

the species.

Rozeboom and Komp (1950, p. 91) selected as

lectotype a slide No. 30-1 from Magé, February

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. IV 49

26, 1925. This was apparently an error in tran-

scription of the number, since Root’s No. 30-1

was from Porto das Caixas, Brazil, February 24,

1925, and is one of the syntypes of C. exedrus

Root. The two slides are adjacent in the type

slide collection, which presumably accounts for

the error.

Culex (Melanoconion) exedrus Root, Amer. Journ.

Hyg. 7: 580. 1927.

Both sexes were described, but only a male of

the type series is in the collection. This bears the

data “Porto das Caixas, Brazil, Feb. 24, 1925,

F. M. Root No. 30-1.” The head is missing and

the terminalia are on a slide. We select this speci-

men as lectotype.

Culex exilis Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 12: 127. 1924.

Only one of the two original male syntypes is

in the collection. This bears the labels ‘“Vladi-

vostok, Siberia, Cockerell 1923 / 1950 / Type

No. US.N.M.” The terminalia are on slide

no. 1950. We select this specimen as lectotype.

Culex extricator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 211. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected at Cedros, Trinidad, by Busck (no. 27).

The only adult in the collection under inflictus

(= extricator) of the original series is a female

(No. 27xx) labeled “Culex extricator D. & K.

Type.” The larval skin of this specimen is in

very poor condition, with the last abdominal

segments and air tube missing. There are two

larvae on a slide and other skins, pupae, and

larvae in alcohol. Since all the material is in

poor condition and of questionable identity, we

do not feel justified in selecting a lectotype.

Culex factor Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 212. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected in four localities in Mexico. We select as

leetotype larval skin no. 296s, collected by Knab

at Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Mexico, July 3, 1905.

With it are associated the pupal skin and male,

the skins and the male terminalia being on slide

no. 234.

Culex falsificator Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Mise. Coll. 52: 257. 1909.

There are seven females and one male in the

collection, all bearing the labels “Havana Cuba /

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 47, No. 2

J. R. Taylor Coll. 2/15/14/ U.S.D.A. No.October 25, 1908, by Major Fuller. There are

10399.”’ Four of these specimens bear type labels.

Since there were only seven original syntypes, it

is not possible to say which of the four not labeled

as type is not syntypic, and Dyar and Knab

might have miscounted. We select as lectotype

the single male with terminalia on slide no. 408.

Culex federalis Dyar, Ins. Inse. Mens. 11: 187.

1923.

The syntypes are two males, both in the col-

lection, with the terminalia of both mounted on a

single slide. We select as lectotype the specimen

with terminalia mount no. 1821. The data are

“Regino Balzanario, Xochimilco, D. F. Mex.

19232

Culex (Neoculex) fidelis Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 8:

180. 1920.

Three of the four syntype males are in the col-

lection, bearing the labels ‘“Los Bafios, P. I. 28.

VII.1915 / Type No. 23720 U.S.N.M.” We

select as lectotype the specimen bearing Dyar’s

determination and type label with terminalia on

slide no. 1309.

Mochlostyrax floridanus Dyar and Knab, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington 19: 171. 1906.

This species was described from larvae only

collected at Estero, Fla., by J. B. Van Duzee. No

specimens have been found bearing the type no.

10025 given by Dyar and Knab. There is one

larval skin labeled “Culex pilosus D. & K.”

mounted since Dyar’s time, that bears original

data, but one cannot be certain that it is one of

the type specimens of floridanus. In the absence

of specimens labeled as the type series, we must

assume that no material is available for lectotype

designation.

Culex fragilis Ludlow, Journ. New York Ent)

Soc. 11: 142. 1903.

The male and female were described from Oras,

Samar, Philippine Islands. There are 18 speci-

mens in the collection bearing unnumbered type

labels, one male being labeled “Culex fragilis

Ludlow, Types, Oras, Samar, P. I., Aug. 6, 02...

Presumably all are of the same collection. We

select as lectotype this male, with terminalia on

slide no. 45.1X.10a.

Oculiomyia fulleri Ludlow, Can. Ent. 41: 97. 1909.

The syntypes consisted of several females col-

lected at Parang, Mindanao, Philippine Islands,

seven specimens bearing unnumbered type labels.

A female bears the label “Oculiomyia fulleri n. sp.

Parang, Mindanao, Oct. 28, 8 p. m.”’, and a male

is labeled ‘“Oculiomyia fulleri Ludlow, male

types, Parang, P. I., Feb. 21. Fuller.” Since this

male does not bear original data and since the

female only was originally described, we select as-

leucotype the female bearing nearly the original

data.

Culex (Microculex) gairus Root, Amer. Journ.

Hyg. 7: 583. 1927.

The male and larva were described apparently

from several specimens, but the collection con-

tains only one male of the type series. This bears

the data “Rio, Brazil, Feb. 15, 1925. No. 22c.”

The male terminalia of this specimen are on

one slide and the associated larval and pupal

skins on another. We select this male as lectotype.

Culex jenningst var. gaudeator Dyar and Knab,

Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 15: 204. 1907.

See Culex jennings.

Culex gravitator Dyar and Knab, Journ New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 218. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected at Cérdoba, Mexico, June 14,° 1905.

Although specimens of this no. 261 series have

been found, there are no Culex larval skins, but

only those of Aedes, with which the culture

became contaminated later. We must consider

that there is no type material in existence.

Culex habilitator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 212. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected in Santo Domingo, August 10, 1905, by

Busck (no. 102). We select as lectotype larval skin

no. 102.2 with associated pupal skin and male.

The terminalia are on slide no. 409.

Culex hesitator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 15: 205. 1907.

The seven syntypes of this species, bearing

the labels ‘75 pupae / Las Cascadas, Canal Zone,

Panama / Collected by August Busck” are in

the collection, one pair labeled as types. We

select as lectotype the male of this pair with

terminalia unmounted.

{

FEBRUARY 1957

Culex ignobilis Dyar and Knab, Proc. Ent. Soc.

Washington 11: 39. 1909.

This species was described from four specimens

collected at San Antonio de los Bafios, Cuba, by

J. H. Pazos. There are four pins bearing type no.

12239, but the specimen is missing from one. The

only data are four different Pazos numbers. We

select as lectotype the specimen no. 648 bearing

a determination label, with a hind leg mounted

on slide no. 424.

Culex incriminator Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Mise. Coll. 52: 257. 1909.

The two male and one female syntypes, all

bearing the labels ‘‘Agric. Coll. Miss. 8-18-05 /

W. V. Reed Collector / Type No. 12105

U.S.N.M.” are in the collection. We select as

lectotype the male with terminalia on slide no.

407.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) inducens Root, in Dyar,

Mosquitoes of the Americas: 307, 1928.

The female and male were described from

Venezuela, with no indication of the number of

specimens and no type selection. There are four

male and one female specimens of the Root

material in the collection. Two of the males

(157.1 and 157.2) are labeled as ‘“‘Types”’ and the

entire abdomens of both are on one slide. A third

male, bearing the same data “Sombrero, Ven.,

Aug. 10, 1927, No. 157,” is intact. We select the

abdomen to the right, farthest from the determi-

nation label, as lectotype. It is not possible to

determine from which pinned specimen this

abdomen came. It should be noted that the slide

is labeled Maracay, not Sombrero.

Culex inhibitator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 216. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected in the San Francisco Mountains of Santo

Domingo by Busck (no. 135). The collection

contains a slide of approximately seven larvae in

poor condition, a fragmentary larval and pupal

skin with an associated female, and four other

pinned adults. Female no. 135.1, for which no

associated immature skins have been found, was

labeled as type by Dyar. Since the larval material

is sO poor, we have not selected a lectotype.

Culex inimitabilis Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 221. 1906.

This species was described from larvae only

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. IV ol

collected by Urich in Trinidad. There are two

adult specimens collected by Urich in Trinidad,

but no associated larval skins have been found.

We must assume that the larval material has

been lost and there are no specimens available for

lectotype designation.

Culex inquisitor Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 211. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected in Trinidad, Dominica, Mexico, and Costa

Rica. We select as lectotype larval skin No. 29.1

collected by Busck June 27, 1905, at Montserrat,

Trinidad. There is an associated pupal skin and

female. The female bears the label “Culex in-

quisitor D. &. K. Type.” The locality was given

as Cedros, Trinidad, but this does not agree with

Busck’s notes.

Culex (C.) interfor Dyar, Mosquitoes of the

Americas: 372, 1928.

The two male and three female syntypes are

in the collection. We select as lectotype the male

bearing the labels ‘2364 / 532 / at light on train /

bet. Tucuman and Jujuy, Argentina / M.Kisliuk

Jr. May 4, 1927.” The terminalia are on slide no.

2364.

Culex interrogator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 209. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected at Rincén Antonio, Mexico. There are 10

pinned adults reared from these larvae. We select

as lectotype larval skin no. 270y. This was col-

lected June 23, 1905, by Knab. With it is the

associated pupal skin and adult male which can

be considered lectotypic also. We have mounted

the skins on slide no. 231, which also bears the

male terminalia.

Culex investigator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 216. 1906.

This species was described from a larva or

larvae collected in Santa Lucrecia, Mexico, by

Knab. There is no specimen labeled as type and

only a larval head capsule and poor pupal skin

from the original material. Knab’s notes for this

specimen (265a) state that the larval skin may

not belong with this pupa. Since the specimen is

uncertainly associated and nearly worthless, we

do not think that it should be selected as lecto-

type.

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Culex invocator Pazos, An. Acad. Cienec. Habana

45: 426. 1908; Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Mise. Coll. 52: 258. 1909.

This species, credited to Dyar and Knab by

Pazos and described as new in the Dyar and

Knab reference, must be credited to Pazos by

priority. We think that the type material can be

considered the same for the two publications of

the name. The syntype series was given as 16

specimens. The collection contains 22 collected

by Pazos in Cuba, bearing numbers but no data,

and two of them bear type labels. We select as

lectotype the male of this pair, with terminalia on

slide no. 337.

Culex jenningst Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 15: 204. 1907.

There are 13 specimens of Busck series no. 191

in the collection under this name. A male and a

female bear the label “Type No. 10867

U.S.N.M.,” and are two of the four syntypes of

jenningst. We select as lectotype the male, with

terminalia unmounted. Another pair of speci-

mens bear the label ‘“Type No. 10871 U.S.N.M.”

and are two of the seven syntypes of Culex jen-

ningst var. guadeator Dyar and Knab. We select

the male of this pair with terminalia unmounted

as the lectotype of this variety. It is difficult to

say which of the other nine specimens not bearing

type labels are the other two and five syntypes,

respectively, of genningst and guadeator. All the

specimens were collected at Tabernilla, C. Z.,

Panama.

Culex jubilator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 15: 201. 1907.

Twelve of the 16 syntypes have been found, a

male and a female being labeled as types. We

select as lectotype the male bearing the labels

“3 / Taboga I., Panama / A. H. Jennings Collec-

tor / Type No. 16916 U.S.N.M.”

Culex lactator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 209. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected in several places in Mexico and Costa Rica.

There are no specimens labeled as type, but there

are many that were reared from the type locali-

ties and with associated larval and pupal skins.

We select as lectotype larval skin no. 270i, col-

lected at Rincén Antonio, Mexico, June 23, 1905,

by Knab. With it is associated a pupal skin and

VOL. 47, NO. 2

an adult male with terminalia on slide no. 226.

The adult was labeled ‘‘lactator’’? and the slide

“Culex lactator.”’ The larval and pupal skins have

been mounted on the same slide as the male

terminalia.

Culex lamentator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 219. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected in the San Francisco Mountains, Santo Do-

mingo, August 28, 1905, Busck no. 124. There are

nine individually reared adults as well as a

number of others mass-reared. Dyar labeled

specimen 124.1 as the type, and since all the indi-

vidually reared specimens are females, we select

as lectotype the larval skin of this specimen. The

pupal skin is on the same slide.

Tinolestes latisquama Coquillett, Proc. Ent. Soc.

Washington 7: 185. 1906.

The lectotype from Limén, Costa Rica, se-

lected by Rozeboom and Komp (1950, p. 92) is

in the collection.

Culex leprincet Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 15: 202. 1907.

This species was described from 16 specimens

collected at Tabernilla and Pedros Miguel, Canal

Zone, Panama, by August Busck. A male and a

female are labeled as types in the collection, and

there are eight other specimens from Tabernilla

that are presumably syntypes. No early material

from Pedro Miguel has been found. We select as

lectotype the male “type”? with terminalia un-

mounted.

Culex (Choeroporpa) ligator Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 12: 1238. 1924.

The syntypes are two females and one male.

We select as lectotype the male, bearing the labels

“1910 / Barranquilla, Colomb. / L. H. Dunn

Coll. 1923 / Type No. —— U.S.N.M.” The ter-

minalia are on slide no. 1910.

Culex lactator var. loguaculus Dyar and Knab,

Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 52: 254, 1909.

The original description states, “We have se-

lected six specimens as types from the Panama

Canal Zone.” We find only one specimen bearing

the label “Type No. 12050 U.S.N.M.,” and no

others that can be definitely recognized as of the

syntype series. We select this female, from Coro-

zal, as the lectotype. ;

FEBRUARY 1957

Culex (C.) lygrus Root, Amer. Journ. Hyg. 7: 579.

1927.

Both sexes of this species were described, but

the only type material in the collection consists

of a male bearing the data “‘Magé, Brazil, June 21,

1925, No. 115.2.’ The terminalia are on a slide.

We select this specimen as lectotype.

Culex mastigia Howard, Dyar, and Knab, Mos-

quitoes of North and Central America and

the West Indies 3: 426. 1915.

There are two male and two female syntypes

in the collection. We select as lectotype a male

bearing the label ‘793 / See Slide No. 499 /

Type No. 12679 U.S.N.M.” The terminalia are

on slide no. 499. The type locality is San Antonio

de los Banos, Cuba.

Culex (C.) maxi Dyar, Mosquitoes of the Ameri-

cas: 387. 1928.

The two male syntypes, both mounted on

slides, are in the collection. We select as lectotype

the one on slide no. 2360 labeled “‘San Pedro,

Arg. June 11, 1927, M. Kishuk Jr., Type.’’ Some

of the legs of this specimen remain on a pin

mount. The other slide is also labeled ‘“Type.”’

Culex (Choeroporpa) maxinocca Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 8: 71. 1920.

The lectotype (slide of male terminalia) from

Surinam, selected by Rozeboom and Komp

(1950, p. 92) is in the collection. The pinned adult

from which the terminalia came is also lectotypic.

Culex (Choeroporpa) merodaemon Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 9: 100. 1921.

It was not clear from the original description

that a holotype was selected for this species. The

collection contains the original 32 specimens col-

lected at Orotina, Costa Rica, Dec. 20, 1920,

one male being labeled as type, the other speci-

mens as paratypes. We consider this male, with

terminalia on slide no. 1391, as the holotype.

Culex (Carrollia) metempsyta Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 9: 154. 1921.

The syntype series consisted of “seven males

and eleven females, No. 24863 U.S. Nat. Mus.;

Alajuela, Costa Rica, July and August 1921 (A.

Alfaro).”’ These specimens are in the collection.

We select as lectotype an intact male collected

July 4.

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. IV 53

(r=

Culex (Microculex) microphyllus Root, Amer.

Journ. Hyg. 7: 586. 1927.

The original description referred to specimens

from both Rio de Janeiro and Magé, but there is

only one specimen in the collection. This male

bears the data ““Magé, Brazil, May 26, 1925,

F. M. Root No. 92-1.”’ We select as lectotype this

male, with terminalia on a slide.

Culex carmodyae mollis Dyar and Knab, Proc.

Biol. Soe. Washington 19: 171. 1906.

The four male and two female syntypes are in

the collection, bearmg numbers 27-1 to 27-6,

respectively. Only one female (27-5) bears the

red type label and a label in Dyar’s hand, “Culex

carmodyae subsp. mollis D. & K. Type.” Since

the recognition of this taxon is dependent upon

the male terminalia, we have selected as lectotype

male no. 27-4, with terminalia on slide no. 283,

and fragmentary larval and pupal skins on a

second slide.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) mooret Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 6: 108. 1918.

The one male and two female syntypes are in

the collection, and we select as lectotype the male

bearing the labels “19 / larvae in ditch Pln.

Plaisance, Georgetown, B. G. April 10, 1916.

H. W. B. Moore / See Slide No. 571 / Type No.

21573 U.S.N.M.” The terminalia are on slide no.

Hiple

Culex mortificator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 210. 1906.

This species was described from larvae only

collected at Zent, Costa Rica, September 26,

1905, by Knab. All the larvae died before pu-

pating. No original specimens have been found.

Culex mutator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 216. 1906.

Rozeboom and Komp (1950, p. 93) selected as

lectotype a slide of male terminalia No. 1811,

Knab 259b. Since the original description is of a

larva only, we do not consider these terminalia

solely to be available for lectotype designation.

The collection contains five specimens of the 259

series from Cérdoba, Mexico, bearing museum

type labels, and two are also labeled in Dyar’s

hand, “Culex mutator D. & K. Type.” Fortu-

nately the larval and pupal skins of specimen

259b were found. These have been mounted, and

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the larval skin, except for the loss of antennae and

head hairs, agrees well with Dyar and Knab’s

original description. We select this as lectotype

and can consider the pupal skin, the pinned adult

which emerged June 14, 1905, and the terminalia

slide as lectotypic also, thereby confirming Roze-

boom and Komp’s designation.

Culex neglectus Bourroul, Mosquitoes do Brasil:

27. 1904.

Although this species has been credited to Lutz,

the original description is in that portion of

Bourroul’s work not credited to Lutz; so it seems

necessary to credit the description to Bourroul.

Lane and Whitman (1951, p. 364) have selected a

specimen in the U. 8. National Museum as

lectotype.

Culex nematoides Dyar and Shannon, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 13: 84. 1925.

The syntypes of this species are six females and

one male, all collected at ‘“Haghthorpe, 234 miles

south of hospital, August 5, 1922” [Philippines].

Since the male has no abdomen we select as

lectotype one of the females.

Culex ocossa Dyar and Knab, Ins. Insc. Mens. 7:

6. 1919.

The six syntypes, three of each sex, are in the

collection, all bearing the labels ‘14 / Type No.

21705 U.S.N.M. / Georgetown,. Br. Guiana /

H. W. B. Moore.” We select as lectotype the only

male with terminalia on a slide. This specimen

also bears the authors’ determination and type

label.

Culex (Choeroporpa) oedipus Root, Amer. Journ.

Hyg. 7: 588. 1927.

The single specimen in the collection is the

male collected at Magé, Brazil, February 4, 1925,

F. M. Root No. 8-1, with terminalia on a slide.

Rozeboom and Komp (1950, p. 94) selected the

terminalia slide as the lectotype, but the entire

specimen can be considered lectotypic.

Culex (Choeroporpa) opisthopus Komp, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 14: 44. 1926.

The two male and three female syntypes are

in the collection. We select as lectotype a male

bearing the labels “2177 / Pto. Castillo R.,

Honduras / III. 1925 W.H.W. Komp, Coll.”

The terminalia are on slide no. 2177.

VOL. 47, No. 2

Culex pallens Coquillett, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.

21: 303. 1898.

The ten original specimens are in the collection,

one only bearing a type label (No. 3963) and

Coquillett’s determination label. This female we

consider to be the holotype.

Culex (Melanoconion) panocossa Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 11: 120. 1923.

The collection contains 18 of the original 19

syntypes, all from Bas Obispo, Canal Zone, Feb-

ruary 1923. We select as lectotype a male with

terminalia on slide no. 1809.

Lutzia patersont Shannon and Del Ponte, in

Dyar, Mosquitoes of the Americas: 268.

1928.

The two male syntypes are in the collection.

We select as lectotype the specimen bearing the

labels, ‘2356/San Pedro Jujuy 4.27.26/Ins. Bac.

Ent. nota 44/Shannon & Shannon/Lutzia argen-

tiniae S. & DP Type.” The terminalia are on

slide no. 2356. It is evident that the name of

the species was changed before publication, since

the name argentiniae was never published and

the second syntype is also labeled patersoni.

Culex peccator Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Misc. Coll. 52: 256. 1909.

The two male and nine female syntypes are

in the collection, all bearing the same data.

Rozeboom and Komp (1950, p. 94) selected as

lectotype, “‘slide 396, J. K. Thibault, Scott, Ark.

U.S.N.M.,” bearing male terminalia. The speci-

men from which the terminalia came can also

be considered lectotypiec.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) peribleptus Dyar and Knab,

Ins. Inse. Mens. 5: 181. 1917 [1918].

The two male and two female syntypes are in

the collection, along with 22 other specimens

bearing the same data. The males are both on

slides, and we select as lectotype the one bearing

the label ‘Culex peribleptus D. & K. Type, Parr

Shoals, 8.C. 18 Aug. 1915, Larvae in grasspond.

T.H.D. Griffiths.”

Mochlostyrax pilosus Dyar and Knab, Journ.

New York Ent. Soc. 14: 224. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected by Knab at Santa Lucrecia, Mexico,

June 21, 1905 (No. 267). There are four pinned

adults of this series (no. 267), but the one that

FEBRUARY 1957

was labeled type by Dyar has no associated lar-

val skin; so we select as lectotype larval skin

no. 267b, with associated pupal skin and intact

male.

Culex pinarocampa Dyar and Knab, Proc. U. 8.

Nat. Mus. 35: 59. 1908.

Of the 117 syntypes of this species, 113 are

in the collection, a female and a male only bear-

ing type labels. We select as lectotype the male

with terminalia unmounted. This was reared

from a pupa collected at Cérdoba, Veracruz,

Mexico, January 31, 1908.

Culex (Choeroporpa) plectoporpe Root, Amer.

Journ. Hyg. 7: 589. 1927.

It is not evident from the original description

whether it was based on more than one speci-

men. There is only one original specimen in the

collection now, a male from Bangt, Brazil,

June 11, 1925, F. M. Root no. 109-1, with ter-

minalia on a slide. We select this male as lecto-

type.

Culex proclamator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 211. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected by Knab at Santa Lucrecia and Almoloya,

Mexico, and Puntarenas, Costa Rica. We found

one male, six females, and seven larval and pupal

skins of the original series, not all associated. We

select as lectotype larval skin no. 262p. with

associated pupal skin and pinned female.

Culex proximus Dyar and Knab, Proc. Ent. Soe.

Washington 1: 38. 1909.

There are three male and two female syntypes

in the collection. We select as lectotype a male

bearing the labels “5.10/Taboga I., Panama/A.

H. Jennings Collector/See Slide No. 397/Type

No. 12208 U.S.N.M./prozimus.” The terminalia

are on slide no. 397.

Culex (Choeroporpa) psatharus Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 8: 173. 1920.

Rozeboom and Komp (1950, p. 95) selected a

lectotype from Célon, Panama, and this, with

terminalia on slide no. 1318, is in the collection.

Culex reflector Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Misc. Coll. 52: 256. 1909.

The two male and two female syntypes from

Ancon, Canal Zone, Panama, are in the collec-

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. IV 55

tion, and we select as lectotype the better of the

two males.

Culex regulator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 213. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected by Busck (no. 119) in Santa Domingo,

August 22, 1905. We select as lectotype larval

skin No. 119.3 on slide no. 423, with associated

pupal skin and male terminalia, the rest of the

male being mounted on a pin.

Culex rejector Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 221. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected in a large bromeliaceous plant in Cérdoba,

Mexico. According to the authors, a'l the larvae

died, and we have been unable to find any pre-

served larvae. Knab did collect and rear the

species at Cérdoba in 1908, and it may be desir-

able to select one of these specimens as a neo-

type in the future, but we prefer not to do so at

the present time.

Culex restrictor Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 222. 1906.

This species was described from a single larva

collected by Knab at Almoloya, Oaxaca, Mexico,

July 21, 1905. This was 3lle of Knab’s notes,

and the larval skin is in very poor condition,

with much of it missing. We have mounted these

fragments and the associated female pupa, which

did not produce an adult, on a slide, and this

material constitutes the holotype.

Culex revelator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 15: 202. 1907.

Two of the four syntypes have been found in

the collection, one of each sex. We select as lecto-

type the male bearing the labels “25.2/Taboga

I., Panama/A. H. Jennings Collector/See slide

No. 341/Type No. 10917 U.S.N.M./revelator.”’

The terminalia are on slide no. 341.

Culex revocator Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Mise. Coll. 52: 256. 1909.

The 25 syntypes are in the collection, 14 males

and 11 females. We select as lectotype a male

from Hope Gardens, Jamaica.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) rooti Rozeboom, Ann. Ent.

Soc. Amer. 38: 251. 1935.

Only the male terminalia were described, and

it was stated that the type slides had been de-

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

posited in the U. 8S. National Museum, no holo-

type beimg designated. There are two slides of

male terminalia in the collection, labeled ‘‘col-

lected near Panama City, R. de Panama, Nov.

24, 1934/Type No. 50942 U.S.N.M.” One is

labeled type, the other paratype, and we select

the first as lectotype.

Culex salinarius Coquillett, Ent. News 15: 73.

1904.

The only information on type specimens given

in the original description is that they were bred

from larvae collected in the salt marshes of New

Jersey in the autumn of 1902. They had also

been previously determined by Coquillett as

Culex nigritulus Zetterstedt. There are no speci-

mens marked as types in the collection but two

males and three females bear the labels ‘‘Eliza-

beth, N. J. VIII.30 [one of them X-VIIT]/SIt

Meadows, N.J.,’’ and are, we believe, the origi-

nal specimens. One female bears, in Coquillett’s

hand, “Culex nigritulus Zett.” and “Culex sali-

narius Coq.” We select one of the males as lecto-

type.

Culex saxatilis Grossbeck, Can. Ent. 37: 360.

1905.

Three of the six syntype females are in the

collection, one labeled as type and the other two

as cotypes. We select as lectotype the specimen

bearing the labels ‘Garret Mts., N. J. [X.1/

Paterson/Culex saxatilis Gross. 2 type.”

Culex simulator Dyar and Knab, Journ. New

York Ent. Soc. 14: 218. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected by Busck at Arima, Trinidad, July 10,

1905. The only specimens in the collection are

three larvae on one slide. We select as lectotype

the larva farthest from the label.

Culex sphinx Howard, Dyar, and Knab, Mos-

quitoes of North and Central America and

the West Indies 3: 301. 1915.

There are 25 original specimens of this species

in the collection, but only one female and one

male bear type labels. We select as lectotype the

male, bearing the labels “Nassau, Bahamas

7-2-03/T. H. Coffin Coll. *142/Type No. 12196

U.S.N.M./See Slide No. 394/sphinz.” The ter-

minalia are on slide no. 394.

VOL. 47, NO. 2

Culex stenolepis Dyar and Knab, Proc. U. 8.

Nat. Mus. 35: 60. 1908.

Of the 47 syntypes of this species 44 are in

the collection, a male and a female bearing type

labels. Since the male ‘‘type’”’ has lost its abdo-

men, we select another male as lectotype. This

bears the number 431.9 and the terminalia are

on slide no. 780.

Culex stigmatosoma Dyar, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.

32: 123. 1907.

This species was described from 321 speci-

mens from California and Oregon. We consider

as holotype the single specimen bearing the label

“Type No. 10008 U.S.N.M.” The additional

labels are “Iss May 26 C78mr/Dyar & Caudell/

Culex stigmatosoma Dyar Type.” This is a fe-

male, collected in a cement-lined pool at Pasa-’

dena, May 21, 1906.

Culex (Microculex) stonei Lane and Whitman,

Rev. de Ent. 14: 401. 1943.

This name was proposed for a species from

Trinidad that had been determined by Dyar as

Culex ocellatus Theobald. The authors also re-

ferred to this species, specimens collected in

Surinam by Bonne and Bonne-Wepster. The col-

lection contains eight of the Trinidad specimens

and three from Surinam, but no types were la-

beled. We select as lectotype a male bearing the

labels ‘‘24-4/Trinidad W.I./F. W. Urich/See

Slide No. 247 /ocellatus.’”’ The terminalia are on

slide no. 247.

Culex (C.) surinamensis Dyar, Ins. Inse. Mens.

6: 121. 1918.

The number of specimens in the syntype series

was not originally stated. There are three fe-

males and four males from Paramaribo, Surinam,

each bearing the label ‘Type No. 21912 US.

N.M.” We select as lectotype a male with the

additional labels ‘‘21 Slide 975/Paramaribo,

Surinam/Mrs. J. Bonne-Wepster Collector /Culex

surinamensis Dyar Type.” The terminalia are

on one slide; the larval and pupal skins on an-

other.

Culex (Choeroporpa) sursumptor Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 12: 128. 1924.

The syntypes are three females and a male.

We select as lectotvpe the male, bearing the

labels ‘1909/Barranquilla, Colomb./L. H. Dunn

Coll. 1923/Type No. —— U.S.N.M.” The ter-

minalia are on slide no. 1909.

FEBRUARY 1957

Culex tarsalis Coquillett, Can. Ent. 28: 43. 1896.

The original material consisted of one male

and four females from the Argus Mountains and

Folsom, Calif. There are four specimens in the

collection from the former locality, but none from

Folsom. Only one specimen, the male, bears a

type label, and we select this as lectotype. The

labels are “Argus Mts. April 91 K/Type No.

904 U.S.N.M./Culex tarsalis Coq.”

Culex (Choeroporpa) tecmarsis Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 6: 124. 1918.

The lectotype (slide of male terminalia) from

Trinidad River, Panama, selected by Rozeboom

and Komp (1950, p. 97) is in the collection. The

pinned adult from which this came is also lecto-

typic.

Culex (C.) thriambus Dyar, Ins. Inse. Mens. 9:

33. 1921.

The three syntypes are in the collection. We

select as lectotype the male bearing the labels

“VY6/Kerrville, Tex. Aug. 20, 1920/H. G. Dyar

Coll./1356/Type No. 23926 U.S.N.M./Culex

thriambus Dyar Type.” The terminalia are on

slide no. 1356.

Culex toweri Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 15: 13. 1907.

This species was described from 39 specimens

collected at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, by W. V.

Tower. There are 61 specimens bearing these

data in the collection, but only one female bears

a type label, and so we consider this the holo-

type.

Culex trachycampa Dyar and Knab, Can. Ent.

41: 101. 1909.

This species was described from a male and a

female. We select as lectotype the male, bearing

the labels ‘“54.1/Las Cascadas, Canal Zone,

Panama/Collected by August Busck/Type No.

12194 U.S.N.M./See slide No. 401 /trachycampa.”

The terminalia are on slide no. 401.

Culex (Helcoporpa) trifidus Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 9: 115. 1921.

Rozeboom and Komp (1950, p. 97) selected

as lectotype “slide 1436, U.S.N.M.”’ This slide

has mounted upon it the terminalia of a speci-

men collected at Riverside, San José, Tiribi,

Costa Rica, January 7, 1921, by A. Alfaro. These

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. IV 57

terminalia and the specimen from which they

came comprise the lectotype.

Culex (Microculex) trychnus Root, Amer. Journ.

Hyg. 7: 585. 1927.

The syntypes consisted of one male and one

female, but only the male has been found in the

collection. This bears the labels “Rio Soberbo,

Brazil, May 1, 1925 No. 79/Type No. 40531

U.S.N.M./79-2/Culex (Microculex) trychnus Root

Type.” We select this male as lectotype. The

terminalia are on a slide.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) wnicornis Root, in Dyar,

Mosquitoes of the Americas: 291, 1928.

Rozeboom and Komp (1950, p. 97) selected

“specimen no. | (on left); slide labeled, Maracay,

Venezuela, June 27, 1927. Nos. 92-1, 2, 3” as

lectotype. They assumed that the male termina-

lia farthest from the red cotype label was No. 1.

Since this is only an assumption, we cannot be

sure from which pinned specimen this terminalia

came, but accept the terminalia only as lecto-

typic.

Culex usquatissimus Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 10:

19. 1922.

The syntype pair is in the collection, and we

select as lectotype the male bearing the labels

“Toro Point, C. Z. 1921/Oct. 27/J. B. Shrop-

shire Coll./1588/Type No. 25147 U.S.N.M/

Culex usquatissima Dyar.”’ The terminalia are on

slide no. 1588.

Culex (C.) usquatus Dyar, Ins. Insc. Mens. 6:

122. 1918.

The collection contains two male and three

female syntypes, each bearing the labels ‘“Type

No. 21913 U.S.N.M./Paramaribo, Surmam/Mrs.

J. Bonne-Wepster Collector/3.”’ We select as lec-

totype the male bearing the additional labels

“Slide 967/Culex ousquatus (sic) Dyar Type.”

The terminalia are on slide no. 967. There are a

number of larvae and larval skins mounted on

one slide, also labeled ‘“Type.”’

Culex (Choeroporpa) vapulans Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 8: 69. 1920.

The lectotype (slide of male terminalia) from

Surinam selected by Rozeboom. and Komp

(1950, p. 88) is in the collection. The pinned adult

from which these terminalia came is also lecto-

typic.

ind

Culex (Choeroporpa) vaxus Dyar, Ins. Inse. Mens.

8: 73. 1920.

The three original specimens are in the collec-

tion, one labeled as type, and the other two as

paratypes. It is not clear from the original de-

scription that a type was selected, particularly

since the specimens bear Bonne and Bonne-

Wepster numbers but no locality other than

Surinam and no dates of collection. We select as

lectotype the specimen labeled ‘“Type No. 22748

U.S.N.M./BBII 671.’ The terminalia are on a

slide.

Culex vector Dyar and Knab, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 14: 220. 1906.

This species was described from larvae col-

lected from bromeliads in Trinidad by Urich.

The only larval specimen we find is a larval skin

No. B 12-1 with associated pupal skin and reared

male. We select this series as lectotype.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) vexillifer Komp, Ann. Ent.

Soc. Amer. 29: 320. 1936.

Rozeboom and Komp (1950, p. 97) selected a

lectotype (male terminalia on slide) from Barro

Colorado Island, Canal Zone. We have found

no pin mounted adults of the type series.

Culex vindicator Dyar and Knab, Smithsonian

Mise. Coll. 52: 255. 1909.

This species was described from four speci-

mens from Dominica collected by A. Busck in

July. These consist of three males and one fe-

male, each with the label “Type No. 12098

U.S.N.M.” The female also bears Dyar’s label

“Culex vindicator D. & K. Type.” This is in poor

condition. We select as lectotype one of the

males, which bears the labels ‘‘74.25/Dominica,

W.1. July/Aug. Buseck Collector /Slide 776.”’ The

terminalia are on slide no. 776. The larval and

pupal skins have been mounted on another slide.

Culex (Choeroporpa) xivylis Dyar, Ins. Insc.

Mens. 8: 78. 1920.

The four original male specimens are in the

collection, one labeled as type and the other three

as paratypes. It is not clear from the original de-

scription that a type was selected, particularly

since the specimens bear Bonne and Bonne-

Wepster numbers, but no locality other than

Surinam, and no dates of collection. Rozeboom

and Komp (1950, p. 92) recognize the specimen

labeled as type, No. BB714c, as the holotype,

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 47, No. 2

and we recognize this as lectotype selection if

this was necessary.

The following species are based either on

unique specimens or on clearly designated holo-

types:

Culex

(Aedinus) accelerans Root, 1927.

(Choeroporpa) alfarot Dyar, 1921.

Culex (Choeroporpa) andricus Root, 1927.

Culex (Phalangomyia) archegus Dyar, 1929.

Culex (Neoculex) arizonensis Bohart, 1948.

Culex aureopunctis Ludlow, 1910.

Culex (Choeroporpa) automartus Root, 1927.

Culex azymus Dyar and Knab, 1906.

Culex (Carrollia) babahoyensis Levi-Castillo, 1953.

Culex (Isostomyia) bamborum Rozeboom and

Komp, 1948.

Culex barbarus Dyar and Knab, 1906.

Culex (Melanoconion) batesi Rozeboom and Komp,

1948.

Culex (Acallyntrum) belkini Stone and Penn, 1948.

Culex (Choeroporpa) bequaerti Dyar and Shannon,

1925.

Culex (Choeroporpa) bibulus Dyar, 1920.

Culex bicki Stone and Penn, 1947.

Culex (Melanoconion) bilobatus Galindo and Blan-

ton, 1954.

Culex (? Neoculex) binigrolineatus Knight and

Rozeboom, 1945.

Culex (Isostomyia) browni Komp, 1936.

Culex (Neoculex) caeruleus King and Hoogstraal,

1947 (terminalia only).

Culex coronator camposi Dyar, 1925.

Culex (Melanoconion) caribeanus Galindo and

Blanton, 1954.

Culex (Lophoceraomyia) carolinensis Bohart and

Ingram, 1946.

Culex (Melanoconion) changuinolae Galindo and

Blanton, 1954.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) colombiensis Dyar, 1924.

Culex (Choeroporpa) comminutor Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Melanoconion) confundior Komp and Roze-

boom, 1951 (terminalia only).

Culex consolator Dyar and Knab, 1906.

Culex corrigani Dyar and Knab, 1907.

Culex (Choeroporpa) crybda Dyar, 1924.

Culex (Choeroporpa) cuclyx Dyar and Shannon,

1924.

Culex delys Howard, Dyar, and Knab, 1915.

Culex (Choeroporpa) dornarum Dyar and Shannon,

Culex (Choeroporpa) dyius Root, 1927 (terminalia

only).

Culex (Choeroporpa) eastor Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Melanoconion) elaphas Komp, 1936.

Culex (Microculex) elongatus Rozeboom and Komp,

Culex (Choeroporpa) epanastasis Dyar, 1922.

Culex (Microculer) erethyzonfer Galindo and

Blanton, 1954.

Culex (Melanoconion) fairchildi Galindo and Blan-

ton, 1954.

Culex (Choeroporpa) fatuator Dyar and Shannon,

1924

Culex (Melanoconion) flabellifer Komp, 1936 (ter-

minalia only).

Culex (Melanoconion) foliafer Komp and Roze-

boom, 1951 (terminalia only).

Culex frickii Ludlow, 1906.

Culex fur Dyar and Knab, 1907.

FEBRUARY 1957

Culex (Culiciomyia) fuscicinctus King and Hoogs-

traal, 1946.

Culex (Melanoconion) galindot Komp and Roze-

boom, 1951 (terminalia only).

Culex (Upsiloporpa) haynet Komp and Curry,

1932 (terminalia only).

Culex (Microculer) hedys Root, 1927 (terminalia

only).

Culex (C.) hensemaeon Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Choeroporpa) holoneus Dyar, 1921.

Culex (Melanoconion) homoeopas Dyar and Lud-

low, 1921.

Culex (Choeroporpa) idottus Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) inadmirabilis Dyar, 1928.

Culex (C.) inelegans Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Melanoconion) intonsus Galindo and Blan-

ton, 1954.

Culex (Choeroporpa) iolambdis Dyar, 1918.

Culex (Neoculex) jenkinsi Knight, 1953.

Culex (Melanoconion) jocasta Komp and Roze-

boom, 1951 (terminalia only).

Culex (Choeroporpa) jonistes Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Choeroporpa) jubifer Komp and Brown,

1935 (terminalia only).

Culex (Lophoceraomyia) kuhnsi King and Hoogs-

traal, 1955.

Culex (Melanoconion) kummi Komp and Roze-

boom, 1951 (terminalia only).

Culex (Melanoconion) lacertosus Komp and Roze-

boom, 1951 (terminalia only).

Culex (C.) laticlasper Galindo and Blanton, 1954.

Culex (Lophoceraomyia) lavatae Stone and Bohart,

944

Culex (Lophoceraomyia) leet King and Hoogstraal,

1955.

Culez (C.) lepostenis Dyar, 1923.

Culex (Melanoconion) limacifer Komp, 1936 (ter-

minalia only).

Culex (C.) litoralis Bohart, 1946.

Culex (Melanoconion) loturus Dyar, 1925.

Culex (Melanoconion) lucifugus Komp, 1936 (ter-

minalia only).

Culez (Choeroporpa) macaronensis Dyar and Nu-

fiez Tovar, 1927 (terminalia only).

Culex (Culiciomyia) pullus maplei Knight and

Hurlbut, 1949.

Culex (C.) annulirostris marianae Bohart and In-

gram, 1946.

Culex (Lophoceraomyia) marksae King and Hoogs-

traal, 1955.

Culex marquesensis Stone and Rosen, 1953.

Culex (Neoculex) mattinglyi Knight, 1953.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) megapus Root, 1927 (termi-

nalia only).

Culex (Helcoporpa) menytes Dyar, 1918.

Culex (Choeroporpa) meroneus Dyar, 1925.

Culex (Melanoconion) mistura Komp and Roze-

boom, 1951.

Culex (Melanoconion) mulrennani Basham, 1948.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) mychonde Komp, 1928 (ter-

minalia only).

STONE AND KNIGHT: MOSQUITOES. IV 59

Culex (Culiciomyia) nailont King and Hoogstraal,

1946.

Culex (Neoculex) okinawae Bohart, 1953.

Culex (C.) ousqua Dyar, 1918.

Culex (Melanoconion) paracrydba Komp, 1936.

Culex (Carrollia) paraplesia Dyar, 1922.

Culex (Choeroporpa) pasadaemon Dyar, 1921.

Culex (Neoculex) pedicellus King and Hoogstraal,

1947.

Culex (Acallyntrum) perkinst Stone and Penn,

1948

Culex (Transculicia) petersont Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Choeroporpa) phlabistus Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Choeroporpa) phlogistus Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Mochlostyrax) pose Dyar and Knab, 1918.

Culex (Melanoconion) pseudotaeniopus Galindo

and Blanton, 1954.

Culex putumayensis Matheson, 1934.

Culex (Melanoconion) quadrifoliatus Komp, 1936

(terminalia only).

Culex (Melanoconion) quasthibridus Galindo and

Blanton, 1954.

Culex (Neoculex) reevesi Bohart, 1948.

Culex (Culiciomyia) ryukyensis Bohart, 1946.

Culex (Melanoconion) ruffinus Dyar and Shannon,

1924.

Culex (C.) saltanensis Dyar, 1928.

Culex (C.) scutatus Rozeboom and Komp, 1948.

Culex (Choeroporpa) serratimarge Root, 1927.

Culex (C.) summorosus Dyar, 1920.

Culex taeniopus Dyar and Knab, 1907.

(Eubonnea) tapena Dyar, 1919.

Culex (Choeroporpa) terebor Dyar, 1920 (terminalia

only).

Culex termi Thurman, 1955.

Culex (Choeroporpa) tosimus Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Lophoceraomyia) tuberis Bohart, 1946.

Melanoconion urichii Coquillett, 1906.

Culex vomerifer Komp, 1932 (terminalia only).

Culex (Melanoconion) wepsterae Komp and Roze-

boom, 1951 (terminalia only). This is an emen-

dation of wepsterz, since it was named after

Mrs. C. Bonne-Wepster.

Culex (Choeroporpa) ybarmis Dyar, 1920.

Culex (Melanoconion) zeteki Dyar, 1918.

LITERATURE CITED

Dyar, Harrison G., anp NuNez Tovar, M. De-

scription of new species of mosquitoes from

Venezuela. Amer. Journ. Hyg. 8: 89-92. 1928.

Kine, W. V., ano Braptey, C. H. Notes on Culex

erraticus and related species in the United

States. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 30: 345-357. 1987.

Lane, J., AND WHITMAN, L. The subgenus Micro-

culex in Brazil (Diptera, Culicidae). Rev. Bra-

zil Biol. 11: 341. 1951.

RozexBoom, L. E., anp Komp, W. H. W. A review

of the species of Culex of the subgenus Melano-

conion. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 43: 75-114. 1950.

The phenomena are our data, and behind them we cannot go

except in Imagination.—ScHOPENHAUER

60 JOURNAL OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES VOL. 47, NO. 2

HERPETOLOGY — Descriptions of two new frogs from Colombia. CoLemMan J.

Gorn, University of Florida. (Communicated by Doris M. Cochran.)

(Received October 30, 1956)

The Silver Springs South American Ex-

pedition of 1956 was organized for the pur-

pose of collecting and bringing back to

Silver Springs for exhibition and study live

specimens of the fresh-water porpoise, /nza

geoffrensis (Blainville), which occurs in the

Amazon drainage. Two members of the

expedition, E. Ross Allen of Ross Allen’s

Reptile Institute and Dr. James N. Layne,

mammalogist from the University of Florida,

in addition to their regular duties, found

time during the evenings to collect repre-

sentatives of about two dozen species of

frogs. Included among them are two hylas

that seem to be undescribed.

Both of these species belong to the group

of South American hylas to which Hyla

leucophyllata belongs. This group is charac-

terized by having immaculate or nearly

immaculate thighs that are bright pink or

red in life; by the presence of a fold of skin

(patagium) extending from the arm to the

side of the body; and, as Dr. Charles F.

Walker recently pointed out to me, by a

pair of glandular areas in the skin of the

pectoral region. Many of the species in this

group are brightly marked in life.

One of these new species is a_ brightly

marked little frog represented by two speci-

mens that were collected on grass growing

in the edge of a stream. It is with pleasure

that I dedicate this species to KE. Ross

Allen, friend of many years standing and

leader of the expedition.

Hyla alleni, n.sp. Hig

Type.—Univ. Florida 8501, adult male, col-

lected near Leticia, Amazonas Comisaria, Colom-

bia, February 24, 1956, by James N. Layne and

E. Ross Allen.

Paratype—Univ. Florida 8502, adult male

from the same locality as the type, collected

March 1, 1956.

Diagnosis.—A small, brightly marked Hyla

characterized by having bright, creamy white,

supraocular spots which may join to form an

interocular bar, and a row of similar spots ex-

tending from the tympanum to above the arm;

by the absence of vomerine teeth; and by the

presence of a pair of glandular areas in the pec-

toral region. From leucophyllata it differs in pat-

tern and in the absence of vomerine teeth while

from sarayacuensis and bifurca it differs in its

smaller size and in lacking definitive white

stripes along the anterior sides of the body.

Description of type—Head broad, width

greater than distance from snout to occiput;

snout nearly rounded as seen from above, upper

jaw very slightly projecting; eyes large and pro-

tuberant; diameter of eye greater than distance

from eye to nostril; nostril very near tip of

snout; interorbital space about equal to diameter

of individual eye; tympanum distinct but small,

not more than one-third the diameter of the eye;

distance from tympanum to eye slightly less than

diameter of tympanum; upper eyelids, top of head

and dorsum smooth. Well developed dises on all

fingers and toes; disc of second finger about equal

to diameter of tympanum (dise of third finger of

left hand partially removed to permit view of

terminal phalanx). Fingers not particularly

slender; third finger fully webbed for only about

one-third its length but a slender margin of web

extends distally to the base of the penultimate

phalanx; fingers 3-4-2-1 in order of decreasing

length with fingers 4 and 2 being nearly sub-

equal. Toes slender, fully webbed except the

fourth toe which has the web extending to the

base of the penultimate phalanx; toes 4-3-5-2-1

in order of decreasing length. Heels slightly over-

lapping when legs are flexed with femora held at

right angles to the body; knees and elbows in

contact when limbs are pressed along the side;

heel extending to anterior margin of eye when

leg is pressed along body. A moderately devel-

oped fold of skin (patagium) extending from the

back of the upper arm to the side of the body.

Venter and under side of thighs rugose; under

side of chin covered by loosely folded external

vocal pouch which is very finely rugose. There is a

pair of glandular areas in the skin of the pectoral

region. Hach area is about 2! mm in diameter

and lies just posterior to the insertion of the arm.

The areas are separated on the median line by

FEBRUARY 1957

about 2 mm. Tongue nearly round, not notched

behind and but slightly free behind, its diameter

about two-thirds the width of the mouth. Vomer-

ine teeth absent. Choanae moderate in size,

rounded, and well separated.

Fre. 1.—Dorsal view of the type of Hyla alleni,

n.sp., Univ. Florida 8501. Drawn by Esther

Coogle. X 2

Coloration of type—Ground color above tan-

nish brown, scattered punctulations of darker

brown on the back between the eyes and the

shoulder region and a similar patch of darker

punctulations above the sacral region. Darker

pigment is also in evidence on the elbows and in

bands across the tibia. There is, above each eye,

a conspicuous creamy patch that extends from

the free margin of the upper lid down onto the

interocular region where it approaches, but does

not quite meet, its fellow from the opposite side.

Similar creamy white patches make up a short,

arched row of light flecks that extends from

above the tympanum on each side to above the

axilla where it becomes obsolescent. The dorsal

surface of the thigh has some tannish pigment

similar to the dorsal ground color on it but is

nevertheless paler than the dorsum and is with-

out a distinct pattern. The entire ventral surface

is immaculate except for a few flecks of dark pig-

ment on each side of the throat near the posterior

portion of the lower jaw.

Measurements of type (in millimeters) —Snout-

to-vent length, 22.8; head width, 8.3; tip of snout

to posterior margin of tympanum, 7.7; diameter

of eye, 3.0; diameter of tympanum, 1.0; hind leg

(vent to tip of longest toe), 38.5; hind leg (vent

to heel), 22.3.

GOIN: TWO NEW FROGS FROM COLOMBIA 61

Coloration in life—When captured this speci-

men was predominately brown above and whitish

below. The thighs were salmon pink below and

somewhat dusky dorsally. The bars above the

eyes and the row of light flecks on each side

behind the head were creamy white. A few tiny

flecks of a similar nature were present along the

shank although these have faded somewhat in

preservative.

Variation —The only noteworthy variation

between the two specimens is in the supraocular

pattern. In the paratype the creamy white

patches above the eyes are joined on the median

line, thus forming an interocular bar that extends

from the margin of the upper eyelid on one side

to the margin of the upper eyelid on the other.

In size the two specimensare essentially the same,

the paratype having a snout-to-vent length of

22.5 mm.

The other species is a small spotted Hyla. In

appreciation of Dr. Layne’s zeal as a field collec-

tor and the care with which he kept notes on these

frogs, this species may appropriately be called

Hyla laynei, n.sp. Fig. 2

Type.—Univ. Florida 8503, adult male, col-

lected near Leticia, Amazonas Comisaria,

Colombia, February 28, 1956, by James N.

Layne.

Paratypes—Univ. Florida 8504, 8505, two

adult males collected at the same locality as the

type, February 23 and 24, respectively.

Diagnosis.—A small, brightly marked Hyla

characterized by having a yellowish or tannish

Fic. 2.—Dorsal view of the type of Hyla laynez,

n.sp., Univ. Florida 8503. Drawn by Esther

Coogle. X 2

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY

dorsum with a mid-dorsal row of round, dark

brown spots and a similar row of spots on each

side where the dorsal and ventral ground colors

meet; by the presence of small, rounded patches

of vomerine teeth; and by the presence of a pair

of glandular areas in the pectoral region. The

absence of creamy white markings on a dark

background distinguishes this species from the

forms closely allied to leucophyllata while its

pattern of a row of round spots down the middle

of the back seems to be unique among the more

somber members of the leucophyllata group.

Description of type-—Head broad, width

slightly greater than distance from snout to occi-

put; snout somewhat triangular as seen from

above with the tip broadly rounded; upper jaw

projecting but slightly beyond tip of lower; eyes

moderate in size and not pronouncedly protuber-

ant; diameter of eye about equal to distance

from eye to nostril; nostril near tip of snout;

interorbital space about equal to diameter of

individual eye; tympanum distinct but small,

not more than one-third the diameter of the eye;

distance from eye to tympanum slightly less than

diameter of the latter. Upper eyelids, top of head

and dorsum smooth. Well developed discs on all

fingers and toes; discs of second and third fingers

about equal to the size of the tympanum. Fingers

not particularly slender; fingers two, three, and

four webbed to the bases of their penultimate

phalanges, with a narrow margin of web extend-

ing to the base of the disc of the fourth finger;

fingers 3-4-2-1 in order of decreasing length. Toes

slender, fully webbed except for fourth toe

which is webbed to the base of the penultimate

phalanx; toes 4-3-5-2-1 in order of decreasing

length. Heels slightly overlapping when legs are

flexed with femora held at right angles to the

body; knees and elbows in contact when limbs

are pressed along the side; heel extending to

anterior margin of eye when leg is pressed along

body. A well developed fold of skin (patagium)

extending from the back of the upper arm to the

side of the body. Venter strongly rugose, but

under sides of thighs and chin nearly smooth;

no well marked external vocal pouch. There is a

pair of glandular areas in the skin of the pectoral

region. Each area is about 4 mm in diameter and

lies just posterior to the insertion of the arm. The

paired glandular areas do not quite meet on the

median line. Tongue nearly round, very slightly

notched and slightly free behind; its diameter

OF SCIENCES VOL. 47, No. |

about one-half the width of the mouth. Vomerine

teeth in two small oval patches between the

choanae, each patch about the size of a choana

and the distance between the patches about

equal to the distance between a patch and a

choana.

Coloration of type-—Ground color on top of

head, dorsum, top of arm and top of shank a light

tannish gray; a single median row of dark,

chocolate brown spots extends from between the

eyes to just posterior to the sacral hump. These

spots are roundish and each is about a millimeter

or slightly more in diameter. A dark stripe of the

same nature extends from behind each eye

through the tympanum and then breaks up into

a row of spots similar to, but slightly smaller than,

those on the back, which continues along the side

to the vent. Dark spots similar to those in the

row along the side occur on top of the arms, the

shanks and the feet. The upper lip is whitish,

while rounded brownish spots are distributed on

the loreal region and upper lip. Brown pigment

flecks are distributed along the margin of the

lower jaw, otherwise the entire ventral surface is

immaculate.

Measurements of type (in millimeters) —Snout-

to-vent length, 25.6; head width, 9.5; tip of snout

to posterior margin of tympanum, 7.8; diameter

of eye, 3.0; diameter of tympanum, 1.2; hind leg

(vent to tip of longest toe), 39.8; hind leg (vent

to heel), 24.0.

Coloration in life—In life the ground color of

the dorsum was yellow and the spots were a rich

brown. The hands, feet and thighs were a bright

salmon pink and the venter was tinged with the

same color.

Variation —In dorsal ground color one of the

paratypes is lighter than the type, the other

darker. In the specimen with the lightest ground

color the dark brown spots are double at two

places along the back and between the eyes, thus

giving the impression of a double row of spots

down the back. In the darkest specimen the

ground color is a light brown and consequently

the dark brown spots do not show up quite so

prominently. In this specimen there are five spots

in the middorsal row, not counting those on top

of the head and the spots are somewhat smaller

than in the other two individuals. In life this

specimen had a dorsal ground color of tan and

the under parts of the abdomen and hind legs

were salmon pink.

FEBRUARY 1957

Structurally there is but little variation

amongst the three specimens. The other two do

not have the patagium quite so well developed

as the type but even in them it is prominent. In

none of the three is the external vocal pouch

prominent.

Both of the paratypes are 24.7 mm in snout-to-

vent length.

The two paratypes were collected in grass that

was growing in the water at the edge of a cove

of a small stream. The type was collected when

EMPLOYMENT PROFILE OF SCIENTISTS 63

calling in a wet meadow. Dr. Layne described its

voice as a musical rattling trill—kle-kle-kle-klee.

Acknowledgments.—While full acknowledgment

of all those who helped in identifying the mate-

rial collected by this expedition must await pub-

lication of a general report upon this collection,

I do wish at this time to thank particularly Dr.

Doris M. Cochran of the United States National

Museum and Dr. Robert Mertens of the Sencken-

berg Museum for the help they have given me

concerning these two species.

EMPLOYMENT PROFILE OF SCIENTISTS, 1954-55

Comprehensive information on the employ-

ment and other characteristics of American

scientists is made available in a bulletin released

by the National Science Foundation. The report

—Employment Profile of Scientists in the National

1954-55, is based on the replies of more than

94,000 scientists who supplied information to the

able on so large a number of scientists, including

about 27,000 chemists, 16,300 biologists, 12,200

psychologists, 11,800 geologists (including 3,400

geophysicists), 11,200 physicists, 6,700 chemical

engineers, 5,400 mathematicians, 3,200 mete-

orologists, and 400 astronomers.

More than 41 percent of the employed scien-

tists in the Register held the Ph.D. degree; 25

percent attamed a master’s degree; and 32 per-

cent had the bachelor’s or first professional

degree (M.D., etc.). Fewer than 2 percent of

scientists reported no degree.

Scientists at the doctorate level in 1954-55

reported a median annual salary of $7,000,

those with less than a Ph.D. degree $6,125

($875 less). Highest median salary was for Ph.D.

physicists and meteorologists—$7,850. Lowest

salaries were for psychologists—$5,850. Salaries

are not only dependent on educational attain-

ment, but also on such things as age, sex, type of

employer, and functions to which scientists de-

vote the major part of their time. The data on

salaries are less representative than the informa-

tion on other employment characteristics, how-

ever, because the chemists and chemical en-

gineers did not report salary information.

About one-half of the employed scientists held

a job in industry (private companies, self-em-

ployed, nonprofit foundations, and privately

controlled research foundations). Almost one-

third were employed by educational institutions;

and the remaining 18 percent by the Government

(Federal, State, and local).

Research, development, or field exploration

was the primary function of half the scientists;

management or administration, of 18 percent;

and teaching, of 16 percent. In this as in other

respects, basic differences among the various

scientific fields appear. Teaching, for example,

was reported as the major function of almost 40

percent of the mathematicians, but of only 4

percent of the chemical engineers.

About 7,000 women scientists were included

in the Register total of 94,000, of whom 85 per-

cent were in three scientific fields—psychology,

chemistry, and biology. The psychologists made

up the largest group of women scientists—one

out of every four psychologists was a woman.

Next to psychology in terms of the proportion of

women scientists was astronomy—one out of

every six; in mathematics—one out of every ten.

The National Science Foundation Act of 1950

established the Register, which is administered

jointly by the Foundation and a number of pro-

fessional societies. The information in the bulletin

is based on voluntary registration with these

cooperating societies.

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 47, No. 2

HERPETOLOGY .—Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and Delmarva, 12:

The herpetofauna of Anne Arundel County, Md. Cuypr F. Reerp, Baltimore,

Md. (Communicated by Doris M. Cochran.)

(Received November 13, 1956)

Anne Arundel County hes mainly on the

Inner Coastal Plain in Maryland. The main

Piedmont tributaries that bound the county

are the Patapsco River on the north and

the Upper Patuxent River on the west and

southwest. On the east the county is bounded

by the Chesapeake Bay, in from which

several tidal rivers flow, as the Severn,

Magothy, South, and West Rivers. Each of

these rivers has its headwaters within the

coastal soils of Anne Arundel County.

Other than the meager Piedmont areas

where Anne Arundel, Howard, and Prince

Georges Counties come together, the eco-

logical habitats are typically coastal. Pitcher-

plant, cranberry, and sphagnum bogs are

not infrequent in the northeast-central

areas of the county, as Lake Shore, Mount

Carmel Lake, Lake Waterford, and the

headwaters of Severn.

The author has collected the herpetofauna

in Anne Arundel County since 1936, when

he collected Humeces laticeps and Chelydra

serpentina at Mount Carmel Lake, near

Lake Shore.

New to the county are the author’s and

Daffin’s records for Pseudemys rubriventris

(1088); Desmognathus fuscus (876); Pseudo-

triton ruber (210-211, 504-505, 916-928);

Scaphiopus holbrooki (1077-80); Hyla cruci-

fer (Daffin 242); Rana pipiens (509; Daffin

41, 517, 136, 560); Rana sylvatica (13);

Graptemys geographica (Daffin 388). Of

course, I realize there may be specimens for

many of these species in private and public

collections, but their presence has not been

published, and so the present list constitutes

the first published record for some of these

species in this county.

I wish to thank Dr. Doris Cochran, of the

United States National Museum, for the

use of the data and the specimens from

Anne Arundel County. Also, I wish to thank

Ralph Daffin and Donald Linzey, two

young Baltimore herpetologists, for enabling

me to study and cite their specimens from

this county. In the combined collections

annotated below, there are 47 species of

herptiles represented in Anne Arundel

County, Md.

1. Desmognathus fuscus fuscus (Green): Dusky

salamander. Lake Waterford, along stream,

May 26, 1954, Reed 876.

2. Plethodon cinereus cinereus (Green): Wood

or red-backed salamander. South River (Fowler,

Copeia 1925, No. 145: 62), woods near Solley,

May 21, 1958, Reed 218-219; woods near

Brooklyn. May 21, 1953, Reed 243; woods 214

miles northwest of Friendship Airport, Septem-

ber 25, 1953, Reed 6-12; woods 1 mile south of

Mountain Road on Ritchie Highway, March

7, 1954, Daffin 64.

3. Pseudotriton ruber ruber (Sonnini): Red

salamander. Wet woods near Solley, May 21,

1953, Reed 210-211; August 7, 1953, Reed 504—

505; under logs, 2 miles south of Glenburnie,

June 25, 1954, Reed 926-928; Glenburnie, June

15, 1955, Daffin 376; Priests Bridge (U.S.N.M.

101426; 101427-8).

4. Ambystoma maculatum Shaw: Spotted

salamander. Harwood (U.S.N.M. 103740).

5. Ambystoma opacum (Gravenhorst): Marbled

salamander. Stine (Maryland Nat. 23(1-2):

77. 1953, no specimens cited).

6. Scaphiopus holbrooki holbrooki (Harlan):

Spadefoot toad. Edgewater, July 21, 1956,

Daffin 541; west of Owings, July 22, 1956, Reed

1077-1080; 1.5 miles south of U.S. Highway 50

on Maryland Route 2, near Edgewater, July 21,

1956, Daffin 543; along U.S. Highway 50 at

Maryland Route 2, July 21, 1956, Daffin 544.

7. Bufo woodhousei fowlert Hinckley: Fowler’s

toad. Swampy area near stream, 14 mile south

of Harundale, June 10, 1954, Daffin 133; along

US. Highway 301, 1 mile north of Priests Bridge,

July 14, 1956, Daffin 519, Linzey 148-151; west

of Owings, July 22, 1956, Reed 1076.

8. Acris gryllus gryllus (Le Conte): Cricket

frog. Patuxent River (U.S.N.M. 101222); De-

fense Highway near Bowie (U.S.N.M. 101220-1);

along U.S. Highway 301, 1 mile north of Priests

Bridge, July 14, 1956, Daffin 518, Linzey 142-144.

9. Acris gryllus crepitans Baird: Cricket frog.

Woods near Solley, May 21, 1953, Reed 282;

pond at Alpine Beach, near Fort Smallwood,

FEBRUARY 1957

October 16, 1953, Daffin 32; July 24, 1956,

Dagfin 563; Lake Shore near Mountain Road,

October 16, 1953, Daffin 33 and Linzey 5-10;

Pinehurst near Gibson Island, April 2, 1955,

Daffin 243; sand pits 1 mile north of Priests

Bridge, May 10, 1954, Reed 766-770; August 4,

1956, Reed 1183-1190; July 14, 1956, Linzey

145-147.

10. Hyla cinerea (Schneider): Green tree frog.

Ritchie Highway between Magothy and Severn

Rivers, July 1956 (reported to author by Robert

Simmons; also reported to author from Anne

Arundel County by Dr. Doris Cochran).

11. Hyla crucifer crucifer Wied: Spring peeper.

Pinehurst near Gibson Island, April 2, 1955,

Daffin 242.

12. Hyla versicolor versicolor LeConte: Com-

mon tree frog. Millersville (Noble and Hassler,

Copeia 1936(1); 63-64); Priests Bridge, Brown,

Aschemeier, & East, May 1936 (U.S.N.M.

101429-32): 1.8 mile south of Route 214 on

Maryland Route 2, July 21, 1956, Daffin 540;

Edgewater, 6 miles south of Annapolis, July 21,

1956, Daffin 542.

13. Rana catesbeiana Shaw: Bull frog. Mary-

land Beach near Fort Smallwood, July 28, 1956,

Daffin 566; Rhodes River (Fowler, Copeia 1925,

No. 145: 62); Pinehurst near Gibson Island,

Apr. 2, 1955, Daffin & Reed; Laurel (U.S.N.M.

36091 and 26320-22).

14. Rana clamitans Latreille: Green frog.

Along Old Annapolis Road, April 18, 1953,

Reed 482; woods near Sherwood Forest, June 7,

1953, Reed 288; woods near Solley, May 21, 1953,

Reed 286; along Severn River and Dicus Mill

Road, summer 1953, Reed 488; May 26, 1954,

Reed 877; Mount Carmel Lake, Lake Shore,

August 7, 1953, Reed 510; September 16, 1953.

Linzey 11; stream south of Harundale, June 10,

1954, Daffin 134, 137-143; Priests Bridge (U.S.-

N.M. 101433); 1.5 mile north of Priests Bridge,

July 14, 1956, Linzey 154; along U.S. Highway

301, 2 miles south of Conway, July 14, 1956,

Daffin 520; west of Owings, July 22, 1956, Reed

1074-75; Alpine Beach near Fort Smallwood,

July 24, 1956, Daffin 561; Muddy Creek (Fowler,

Copeia 1925, No. 145: 62).

15. Rana pipiens pipiens Schreber (incl.

sphenocephala): Leopard frog. Mount Carmel

Lake, Lake Shore, August 7, 1953, Reed 509;

‘Patapsco River near Old Annapolis Road, Aug.

31, 1953, Daffin 41; U.S. Highway 301, 1-1.5

miles north of Priests Bridge, May 10, 1954,

Reed 771; July 14, 1956, Daffin 517, Linzey

152-153; stream south of Harundale, June 10,

1954, Daffin 136; August 11, 1956, Linzey 197;

REED: HERPETOLOGY OF MARYLAND AND DELMARVA, 12 65

Alpine Beach near Fort Smallwood, July 24,

1956, Daffin 560.

16. Rana palustris LeConte: Pickerel frog.

Stream south of Harendale, June 10, 1954,

Daffin 135; Muddy Creek (Fowler, Copeia,

1925, No. 146: 62).

17. Rana sylvatica LeConte: Wood frog.

Woods, 215 miles northwest of Friendship Air-

port, September 25, 1953, Reed 13.

18. Cnemidophorus sexlineata seaxlineata (Lin-

naeus): Six-lined skink or racerunner. Sandy

woods 2 miles south of Glenburnie, June 25,

1954, Reed 925; McCauley, 1945: Bodkin Point,

Camp Linstead, Fort Smallwood, Furnace

Branch near Glenburnie, Lake Shore, Priests

Bridge, Severna Park.

19. Sceloporus undulatus hyacinthinus (Green) :

Fence swift. On pine tree, Mount Carmel Lake,

Lake Shore, June 25, 1954, Reed 929; common in

woods near Friendship Airport, June 1955,

Reed; mouth of Barrow Creek (Fowler, Copeia

1925, No. 145: 63); McCauley, 1945: Annapolis,

3 miles southwest of Annapolis, Camp Linstead,

Crownsville, Fort Armstead, Fort Smallwood,

Glenburnie, Lake Shore, Round Bay, Severna

Park.

20. Eumeces fasciatus (Linnaeus): Five-lined

skink. Near Priests Bridge, pinewoods, May 10,

1954, Reed 765; Annapolis (A.M.N.H.); Me-

Cauley, 1945: Annapolis, 11 miles north of

Annapolis, Lake Shore, Priests Bridge, Severna

Park; Severn Run Bridge at U.S. Highway 301,

July 21, 1956, Linzey 167.

21. Eumeces laticeps (Schneider): Greater

five-lmed skink. Lake Shore, summer 1936,

Reed; McCauley, 1945: Indian Landing, Lake

Shore, Severna Park, Shore Acres near Arnold.

22. Carphophis amoenus amoenus (Say): Worm

snake, Along Severn River, under logs, west of

Annapolis, September 7, 1953, Reed 1-3; woods

near Mount Carmel Lake, July 16, 1956, Reed

1167; Joyee Lane, near Briar Cliff-on-Severn,

August 11, 1956, Daffin 573; McCauley, 1945:

Camp Linstead, Crownsville, Little Round Bay,

Priests Bridge, Severna Park.

23. Diadophis punctatus edwardsi (Merrem):

Ring-necked snake. South River (Fowler, Copeia

1925, No. 145: 63); McCauley, 1945: Camp

Linstead near Laurel, Montevideo.

24. Heterodon platyrhinos platyrhinos Latreille:

Hog-nosed snake. McCauley, 1945: Anne Arundel

County, without definite records.

25. Opheodrys aestivus (Linnaeus): Rough

green snake. McCauley, 1945: Camp Linstead,

Crownsville, Glenburnie, Lake Shore, Little

Round Bay Creek, Severn River, Severna Park

near Stoney Run.

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

26. Coluber constrictor constrictor (Linnaeus):

Black racer. Mouth of Barrow Creek (Fowler,

Copeia 1925, No. 145: 63); McCauley, 1945:

Anne Arundel County, without definite records.

27. Elaphe guttata (Linnaeus): Corn snake.

McCauley, 1945: Briar Cliff-on-Severn near

Arnold, Wardaur on Severn River near Annapolis.

28. Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta (Say): Pilot black

snake. McCauley, 1945: Anne Arundel County,

without definite records; Jessup record near

Anne Arundel-Prince Georges County boundary.

29. Lampropeltis getulus getulus (Linnaeus):

King snake. McCauley, 1945: Near Annapolis

Junction; Camp Linstead; Crownsville; near

Glenburnie; Indian Landing; Lake Shore; Severn;

near Severn River; Severna Park.

30. Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata

(Holbrook): Brown king snake or mole snake.

McCauley, 1945: near Annapolis Junction

(UM); road between Millersville and Odenton:

(U.S.N.M. 108753).

31. Lampropeltis doliata triangulum (Lacé-

pede): Milk snake. McCauley, 1945: near Laurel;

intermediates between triangulum and temporalis:

Annapolis; near Round Bay on Severn River

(JHU).

32. Cemophora coccinea (Blumenbach): Scarlet

snake. McCauley, 1945: St. Margaret’s (Steg-

neger, 1905); Mill Creek, June 8, 1947, Dr.

Phillip A. Butler (U.M.); see Littleford, Her-

petologica 11: 104. 1955.

33. Natrix sipedon sipedon (Linnaeus): Com-

mon water snake. Along Severn River near

Annapolis, June 4, 1953, Reed 487; 14 mile south

of Harundale, Ritchie Highway, June 10, 1954,

Daffin 132; Alpine Beach near Fort Smallwood,

July 24, 1956, Daffin 562; Priests Bridge, July

22, 1956, Reed; McCauley, 1945: Anne Arundel

County, without definite records; mouth of

Barrow Creek (Fowler, Copeia 1925, No. 145:

63).

34. Natrix septemvittata (Say): Queen snake.

Along Patapsco River near Linthicum, June 11,

1953, Reed 293; McCauley, 1945: Annapolis;

Camp Linstead; Sawmill Creek, 1 mile north

of Glenburnie.

35. Storeria dekayi (Holbrook): DeKay’s

snake. McCauley, 1945: Anne Arundel County,

without definite records.

36. Haldea valeriae valeriae Baird and Girard:

Eastern ground snake. Woods under log, near

Brooklyn, May 21, 1953, Reed 4; McCauley,

1945: near Marley Creek; Severna Park; near

Annapolis.

37. Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (Linnaeus):

Garter snake. McCauley, 1945: Anne Arundel

County, without definite records, map 32.

VoL. 47, No. 2

38. Thamnophis sauritus sauritus (Linnaeus):

Ribbon snake. McCauley, 1945: Camp Lin-

stead; Furnace Branch; map 31.

39. Ancistrodon contortrix mokeson (Daudin):

Copperhead. Woods near Sherwood Forest,

summer 1953, Reed 466; McCauley, 1945: Briar

Cliff-on-Severn near Arnold; Crownsville; Lake

Shore; map 33.

40. Sternotherus odoratus Latreille: Musk

turtle. McCauley, 1945: Anne Arundel County,

without definite records, map 35 (Brooklyn).

41. Kinosternon subrubrum subrubrum (La-

cépéde): Mud turtle. Magothy River, 1935,

Reed; McCauley, 1945: Glenburnie; Lake Shore;

North River and Defense Highway; Priests

Bridge; Severna Park, South River, 3 miles

southwest of Annapolis.

42. Chelydra serpentina serpentina (Linnaeus):

Snapping turtle. Severn River, near Sherwood

Forest, west of Annapolis, June 7, 1953, several

caught. Reed 1247; DOR, east of Laurel at

Patuxent River, June 13, 1956, Reed; mouth of

Barrow Creek (Fowler, Copeia 1925, No. 145:

64); McCauley, 1945: Anne Arundel County

(Laurel), map. 37; Mount Carmel Lake, summer

1936, Reed.

43. Clemmys guttata (Schneider): Spotted

turtle. DOR, just south of Annapolis Junction,

Baltimore-Washington Parkway, June 4, 1954,

Reed 910; McCauley, 1945: Camp Linstead;

Crownsville; Glenburnie; near Harmans; Lake

Shore; Priests Bridge; map. 38.

44. Terrapene carolina carolina (Linnaeus):

Common box turtle. Friendship Airport, June

20, 1956, DOR, Reed; near Chesapeake Bay

Bridge, DOR, July 13, 1956. Reed; North River

along U.S. Highway 50, July 22, 1956, Reed;

U.S. Highway 301 near Millersville, July 14,

1956, Daffin 516; Joyce Lane near Briar Cliff-on-

Severn, August 11, 1956, Daffin 574; McCauley,

1945: Anne Arundel County, without definite

records, map 41; woods near Friendship in

southern Anne Arundel County, July 22, 1956,

Reed 1245.

45. Graptemys geographica (LeSueur): Map

turtle. Alpine Beach near Fort Smallwood,

August 5, 1955, Daffin 388; Bodkin Point, Daffin.

46. Chrysemys picta picta (Schneider): Painted

turtle. Pond at Maryland Beach near Fort

Smallwood, July 16, 1954, Daffin 167; McCauley,

1945: Anne Arundel County, without definite

records, map 44; Brooklyn, May 15, 1953, Reed

277.

47. Pseudemys rubrwentris (LeConte): Red-

bellied terrapin. DOR, North River and US.

Highway 50, July 22, 1956, Reed 1088—new to

Anne Arundel County. é

FEBRUARY 1957

PREE RADICALS RESEARCH 67

FREE RADICALS RESEARCH PROGRAM

A three-vear program of basic research on free

radicals has been undertaken by the National

Bureau of Standards. The object of the program

will be to increase fundamental knowledge of the

formation, properties, and storage of these highly

reactive molecular fragments. Plans have been

made for a series of experimental and theoretical

investigations which, it is hoped, will not only

provide valuable data but will also stimulate

new areas of research in this important new field.

The work is receiving support from the Depart-

ment of Defense through the Office of Ordnance

Research, U. 8S. Army.

The free radicals research program will consist

of many separate projects to be carried out in

various laboratories of the Bureau, and much of

the investigative work will be done by scientists

on loan from industrial laboratories. However,

overall direction and coordination will be cen-

tered in a Free Radicals Research Section re-

cently established for this purpose.

Ordinarily free radicals exist only for very

short periods in systems such as flames and hot

gases. However, within the past five years numer-

ous methods have been developed in a number

of laboratories for capturing and storing them,

mainly at low temperatures. Recently, by freez-

ing the products of an electric discharge at a few

degrees above absolute zero, scientists at the

Bureau were able to store some types of free

radicals in highly excited states, making it pos-

sible to study and analyze them by spectroscopic

methods! Free radical storage techniques now

promise to provide an important tool for the

study of atomic and molecular physics and for

research in basic chemistry. However, before

these applications can be seriously considered,

much additional research must be done on free

radicals of all types in order to provide informa-

tion on such topics as their properties in solid,

liquid, and gaseous phases; their recombination

rates at various temperatures; and their reactions

with other materials. The free radicals program

was set up to provide an integrated approach to

these problems.

To encourage broad dissemination of the in-

formation obtained in the program, and also to

minimize interference other established

projects at the Bureau, participating scientists

with

1 Low temperature storage of free radicals, NBS

Tech. News Bull. 40: 112. August 1956.

will be drawn largely from other institutions.

Approximately half of the technical staff for the

free radicals research program will be on loan

from industrial research laboratories, working

under a unique cooperative plan. Others will come

from and various

agencies.

The guest scientists will be selected for par-

ticipation on the basis of competence in their field

and interest in the new research problems. It is

expected that the work of this central research

group will be continued and expanded in many of

the industrial laborarories after termination of

the present program.

Insofar as possible, each visiting scientist will

be assigned to the Bureau laboratory most

closely allied with his field of interest. There he

will work with colleagues and facilities in his

special field while retaining the advantage of close

cooperation with the remainder of the staff of

the free radicals research program throughout

the Bureau.

A technical data center is being set up so that

free radical research at other laboratories, both

in the United States and abroad, may be closely

followed. Other activities serving to knit together

the various research projects making up the

program will include weekly colloquia and a

general conference now being planned for mid-

1957.

Although the free radicals research program

is still largely in the planning stage, a number of

projects are already under way. These include

spectroscopic investigations of condensates from

electric discharges; X-ray and electron-diffrac-

tion studies of the structure of solids containing

free radicals; methods of preparing pure free

radicals by photolysis and gamma irradiation;

and theoretical calculations of recombination

rates, heats of reaction, and other properties.

Dr. Herbert P. Broida, who has been named

chief of the new Free Radicals Section, will serve

as technical coordinator for the entire program.

Dr. Arnold M. Bass is to serve as assistant chief

of the Free Radicals Research Section. Dr. James

W. Moyer will serve as consultant for the pro-

gram, and A. K. Stober, formerly of the NBS

eryogenic physics laboratory, will assist with

universities government

low-temperature experiments. Dr. Robert D.

Huntoon, associate director for physics, will

have over-all responsibility for the program.

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 47, NO. 2

INSECT STUDIES

ARMY ANTS

There are ants that build complex, air-condi-

tioned hanging houses out of thousands of their

own suspended bodies. Within these structures

the queen is sheltered, eggs are laid, young

hatched and reared. Much of the time the struc-

tures are built anew each night.

These ants are the Ecitons, one of the two

species of army ants—‘‘the Huns and Tartars of

the insect world’’—of Barro Colorado Island, the

tropical preserve of the Smithsonian Institution

in the Canal Zone. Their curious ways of life are

described by Dr. T. C. Schneirla, of the American

Museum of Natural History, in the most recent

Smithsonian Annual Report. Dr. Schneirla has

observed the Barro Colorado ant colonies for

nearly 25 years.

Aside from the ruthlessness and military

efficiency of their raids, long well known in ento-

mological literature, perhaps the home-building

behavior is the most interesting feature of the

life of these ants. It is unique in nature.

Without any active excavating and without any

manipulating of fallen materials [Dr. Schneirla

says], colonies of these species form a domicile

with their own bodies. A typical bivouac .. . is a

cylindrical mass hanging as most of them do from

the underside of some projecting surface to the

ground. In addition to the sides or under surface

of logs, other typical places are the spaces between

buttressed tree roots, masses of brush, or even the

undercut banks of stream beds or the overhanging

edge of a rock.

“The characteristic Hciton ability to cluster

their bodies, as well as the manner of clustering,

depends first of all upon an anatomical charac-

teristic, the opposed recurved hooks present on the

terminal tarsal segments of the workers’ legs. .. .

The first ants to settle in a new place catch into a

rough or soft surface by means of their tarsal

hooks, or rather are pulled into this anchored

position as newcomers run upon them as they

stand and stretch them out in a hanging position.

In fact, the hooks are really anchored by the

added weight of others that have crawled down

over the body of the first ant, fixing it in place and

soon immobilizing it.

“In the nomadic phase a new bivouac is

formed at the end of each day of raiding, and

this is a most interesting event to watch. In the

advanced and most complicated stages of raid-

ing in the afternoon, caches of booty tend to be

formed at each busy junction of raiding trails,

increasing in size as more and more ants are

knocked around and forced out of traffic. As

darkness comes and raiding ceases, such clusters

grow.”’ Several hanging clusters start from ele-

vated ceilings. ““As each new cluster begins the

initial slender hanging threads may become ropes

which extend to the ground, depending upon a

continued flow of traffic to the place. As the ropes

continue to grow they are joined together into a

single columnar mass. At first this mass is small

in diameter, but as more and more ants pour into

it the wall spreads outward from the center, and

so a symetrical cylinder results.”

In the tropical environment of the army ants

some sort of air conditioning is necessary for

comfortable living—perhaps, with this particu-

lar species, for any living at all. It has been well

developed during the more than 70 million years

the social insects have been on earth. Says Dr.

Schnetrla:

The interior of the bivouac, where the brood is

sheltered and the single colony queen rests, offers

an impressively stable environment to these more

susceptible members of the community as well asa

central resting place for the worker population.

The hanging cluster traps a cubic area of atmos-

phere which does not reach the extremes of

temperature and dryness attained by the general

forest environment. ... Workers cluster more

closely together at night in reaction to the lower

temperatures of the forest at that time, the

bivouac walls become tighter and better conserve

heat produced internally (by the brood in particu-

lar). Conversely, after dawn, when increasing

light excites growing numbers of ants to leave the

bivouae walls, as the raid grows, this wall thins

out, usually develops small apertures, and is

undercut at the bottom. The effect is to increase

the internal air circulation as well as to cool the

atmosphere in the interior through evaporation

so that the internal temperature of the bivouac

does not rise to the height reached at midday in

the environs. The incubation properties of the

bivouac represent an imporant factor in Hciton

life, for with less regular atmospheric conditions

in the nest, the stages of brood development could

not have their typical regularity in timing.

CONTENTS

Botrany.—The evolutionary significance of the endosperm and its bearing

on the origin of angiosperms. Hur-Lin Li......................

PALEONTOLOGY.—Woodringia, a new foraminiferal genus (Hetero-

helicidae) from the Paleocene of Alabama. Atrrep R. LoEBLIcH,

JR., and HELEN, TAPPAN......00.005 2 J40% fuss gee eto ee

ENTOMOLOGY.—Type specimens of mosquitoes in the United States

National Museum: IV, The genus Culex (Diptera, Culicidae).

ALAN STONE and KENNETH L. KNIGHT......................00:

HerPETOLOGY.—Descriptions of two new frogs from Colombia. CoLE-

man Ji GOIN): ices ah os a ee es eee ne eee

HERPETOLOGY.—Contributions to the herpetology of Maryland and

Delmarva, 12: The herpetofauna of Anne Arundel County, Md.

@rypn EoRBED. gyi. «al oe cal o 2 Jor sc neo eee

Page

INotest and sNeGwsiGy moves Sock vice ean eae te ase 40, 63, 67

OLUME 47 March TIS7F NUMBER 3

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

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mea SHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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