JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

VOLUME II, 1912

BOARD OF EDITORS

George K. Burgess Barton W. Evermann Frederick Leslie Ransome

BUREAU OF STANDARDS BUREAU OP FISHERIES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY

EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY,

BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

OFFICE OF PUBLICATION

THE WAVERLY PRESS

BALTIMORE, MD.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. II, JANUARY 4, 1912. No. 1.

PHYSICS. — Wave lengths of Neon. Irwin G. Priest. Com-

municated by S. W. Stratton. To appear in the Bulletin of

the Bureau of Standards, 8: No. 4. 1912.

Ten wave-lengths in the spectrum of neon have been deter-

mined by the method of flexure with reflection fringes previously

described.1

The following values result from a long series of determinations.

The probable errors are in every case less than one part in

10,000,000. Confirmatory results and counter checks indicate that

the values given are accurate within about one or two thousandths

c

of an Angstrom unit. A detailed discussion of the accuracy will

appear in the complete paper.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— The hydrolysis of sodium oxalate

and its influence upon the test for neutrality. William

Blum, Bureau of Standards. Communicated by C. E.

Waters. To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of

Standards (Reprint No. 178) and in the Journal of the

American Chemical Society.

In connection with the testing of sodium oxalate for use as a

primary standard in acidimetry and oxidimetry, a knowledge

1 Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 6: 573. 1911.

1

2 lotka: discontinuous evolution

of its normal alkalinity is essential. Calculations based on the

generally accepted theory of hydrolysis, using the most probable

values of the dissociation constants, indicate, that in a decimolar

solution of sodium oxalate, [H+]18° = 2.0- 10~9. In such a

solution phenolphthalein should be converted into its pink salt

to the extent of 7.8 per cent, if we accept the simple theory of

indicators, and employ the value 1.7- 10-10 as the dissociation

constant of phenolphthalein. Pure sodium oxalate was pre-

pared by recrystallization in platinum of two samples, contain-

ing respectively slight excess of acid and alkali. After two

crystallizations, products of uniform and constant alkalinity

were obtained; which was accepted as the criterion of purity.

This material was found to produce a color equal to only 4 per

cent transfromation of phenolphthalein instead of the calculated

7.8 per cent. Calorimetric comparisons with solutions based

based upon Sorensen's E.M.F. measurements indicate that

[i/+]is° for 0.1 M sodium oxalate is 2.5- 10-9, and that the salt

is hydrolyzed at 18° to the extent of 0.0024 per cent. The

error involved in a titration for neutrality, if this "normal

alkalinity" is neglected, is only about 0.02 per cent, which is

practically negligible in all analytical work. It was found that,

contrary to statements of Sorensen, sodium oxalate solutions

do not decompose on boiling, but that in glass they do become

more alkaline, due to the attack of the vessel. Of various

kinds of glass tested, "Durax" was found to be most resistant

to such solutions. It was also found that commercial samples

of sodium oxalate may contain "excess C02," either as NaHC03

or as occluded C02; which is not readily expelled at 240°C.

Before testing the neutrality of sodium oxalate it is therefore

necessary to boil the solutions in quartz or Durax to expel

such C02.

EVOLUTION. — Evolution in discontinuous systems.1 I. Alfred

J. Lotka. Communicated by J. A. Fleming.

In the minds of most of us the term "evolution" is associated

probably more closely with the biological than with the physical

1 Paper read before the Philosophical Society of Washington on November 11, 1911.

lotka: discontinuous evolution 3

sciences. Yet the concept is essentially physical in character,

and is definable in exact terms probably only in the language of

physics. For in its last analysis we may define evolution as

the history of a material systern undergoing irreversible transforma-

tion. To the physicist, therefore, the study of evolution is essen-

tially the study of irreversible changes, and the law of evolution

is the law of increasing entropy, or, more generally, of the increas-

ing probability of the successive states of any real material system.

Now among the infinite variety of changes of which matter

is susceptible, there is a certain class which stands in a measure

apart — the so-called "changes of state" in the narrower sense.

If an iron rod is placed in the fire, its temperature rises gradu-

ally, and finally the rod may become incandescent. In a per-

fectly general sense we might speak of this as a "change of state."

It is customary, however, to restrict the use of this term to denote

such changes as that from ice to water, from water to steam, and

so forth. What distinguishes these changes, and places them in

a class by themselves, is their discontinuity.

In general the state of a material system may be defined by

indicating the values of a number of suitably chosen variables

xh x2. . . , and changes in the state of the system then natur-

ally find expression in terms of the changes in the values of these

variables. Now in the case of "change of state" in the narrower

sense certain of these variables are masses MiM2. . . , for

the system is composed of a number of separate portions AXA2

. . . , differing from one another in their properties in a

discontinuous manner. The mass Mi of any one At of these

separate portions is in general susceptible of change by the trans-

formation of matter of the species A{ into other forms Ai} A^

It is this passage of matter from one such portion

of the system into another or into others, which constitutes

"change of state" in the narrower sense.

If, as we noted above, the separate portions A] A2 . . . of

which the system is composed, differ from one another in a dis-

continuous manner, implicitly this conveys the idea, that each

portion for itself is in some sense continuous (not necessarily as

regards distribution in space). In the realm of physical chemis-

4 lotka: discontinuous evolution

try this continuity shows itself on the one hand in the so-called

"phases," on the other hand, in a somewhat different form, in

the "chemical individuals," i.e., elements, compounds, dissociates,

associates, etc. Quite generally such a continuous portion of a

discontinuous system shall be called a "continuum."

Now, aside from the continua known to us in the field of physi-

cal chemistry, there are other material aggregates of a very differ-

ent kind, which display the same continuity, each within itself,

while each is fenced off from the others of the same system by a

discontinuity: the biological species are of this character.

The term "species" is here used provisionally, as being the

word in our existing vocabulary which most nearly expresses my

meaning. For the sake of exactitude and to avoid conflict with

biometricians, who have appropriated the term "species" for

use in a more restricted sense, it will be preferable to employ some

other phrase, such as "kindred-group," to denote a group of

organisms that stand in blood-relationship to one another, either

actually or potentially.2

It is worth while to note in passing, that the cause of the con-

tinuity within a kindred-group lies in its mode of growth: A

germ of the parent-substance serves as the nucleus for the forma-

tion of the young individual, which, by heredity, resembles its

parent. This is what Wo. Ostwald3 has called " autocatakinetic

growth," in analogy with the autocatalytic growth of the solid

phase upon a crystal germ introduced into a supersaturated solu-

tion.

Two other types of aggregates deserve brief mention. In the

beehive, the anthill, or a human community we have instances

of a "social continuum." Such a continuum comprises a number

of different social elements joined together in a definite, though

not invariable proportion, a proportion essential for the proper

functioning and life of the continuum. Such an aggregate also

2 Barren hybrids, such as the mule, are here to be left out of account ; in nature

they will presumably never number more than a small proportion of the total of

the crossed groups.

3 tJber die zeitlichen Eigenschaften der Entwickelungsvorgange; published by

W. Engelmann, Leipsic 190S, in the series " Vortrage und Aufsatze uber Entwicke-

lungsmechanik der Organismen," edited by W. Roux; p. 36.

lotka: discontinuous evolution 5

grows by autocatakinesis, each new portion added resembling

in general character the original stock.

The third and last type of biological aggregate which we shall

note here is seen in its fullest development in connection with the

human race. From the moment when man learnt to till the soil,

to raise cattle, and so forth, when therefore the crop in the field,

the herd upon the pasture grew in synchronism and in controlled

proportion with the human population, from that moment man,

together with the plant and animal stock raised and nurtured

by him, formed one " economic continuum." This again grows

by autocatakinesis, and is seen in its most highly developed type

in modern civilized man and his agricultural, industrial, commer-

cial and political equipment.

To recapitulate, we have noted the following types of continua:

1. Physical continua — Phases.

2. Chemical continua — Elements, Compounds, Associates, Dis-

sociates.

3. Biological continua — (a) Physiological: Kindred-Groups

(Species), (b) Sociological: Societies, (c) Economical: Eco-

nomic systems.

A complete discussion of the subject of "Evolution in Discon-

tinuous Systems" should, then, cover all those "changes of state,"

in which any of the types of continua noted in our table are suf-

fering changes in character or in mass. It would therefore include

the physics of change of state, the whole of physical chemistry,

the study of radioactive transformations, and the discussion of

certain biological, sociological, and economic questions.4 I pro-

pose to restrict myself here on the one hand to considerations

relating to the subject as a whole, as embodied in this introduction,

and on the other hand to the treatment of one or two specific

examples which have not hitherto received much attention from

this point of view.

A point has just been touched, which requires our more detailed

consideration: the dual character of the changes to which a

continuum is subject, namely changes in character and changes

4 Compare A. J. Lotka, Am. Jl. Sci. 24: 216, 1907, the first paragraph of the

summary.

6 lotka: discontinuous evolution

in mass. The simplest example in point comes to us from physi-

cal chemistry. In general a change of state, such as crystallisa-

tion from a supersaturated solution, involves a change in com-

position, as well as in mass, of one or more phases.

When we turn to biological systems, composed of a number of

"kindred-groups," we observe an analogous state of affairs. In

general the individuals comprised within a kindred-group are

not all precisely similar. Thus, expressing the matter analytic-

ally, out of a total N} of individuals of some group Ah a certain

fraction

-W1C1 (P> 0.1 r> - • • ) dpdqdr . . .

will have the values of certain characteristic features P, Q, R,

. . . comprised between the limits

p and (p + dp)

q and (q -f- dq)

r and (r + dr)

A similar statement holds for each of the other groups A2,

A.3,

As time goes on both the values of JVi, N2, . • • will in

general change, and also the form of the frequency functions

Ci, C2, . . . In other words, the matter of the system under-

goes a change in distribution: (1) among the several kindred-

groups; (2) among the several types of individuals of which each

group is composed. The former change may be spoken of as

"Inter-Group Evolution," the latter as "Intra-Group Evolu-

tion."5

It is intra-group evolution, the change in time of the character

of a species, with the possibility of the origin of a new species as

its outcome, which has hitherto mainly engaged the attention of

the biologist.

We, on the contrary, will here turn our attention chiefly to

certain aspects of inter-group evolution.

6 Annalen der Naturphilosophie, p. 69. 1911.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

PHYSICS. — The density and thermal expansion of linseed oil and tur-

pentine. H. W. Bearce. Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

1912.

Sixteen samples of linseed oil and twelve samples of turpentine were

examined with a view to determining their physical and chemical charac-

teristics; special attention was given to the density and thermal expansion.

Tables have been prepared for obtaining the densities of these sub-

stances at temperatures between 10° and 40° C. from their densities at a

single temperature; also conversion tables for changing pounds to

gallons and gallons to pounds. H W. B.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. — Preliminary report on the ternary system

CaO — A120 — SisCV A study of the constitution of Portland cement

clinker. E. S. Shepherd and G. A. Rankin, with optical study by

Fred. E. Wright, Geophysical Laboratory. Journal Industrial

Engineering Chemistry, 3: 1. 1911.

In the earlier work with mixtures of pure lime and silica, two com-

pounds, the metasilicate (CaO.Si02) and the orthosilicate (2CaO.Si02),

were definitely established, but no trace of the hitherto generally accepted

tricalcic silicate (3CaO.Si02) could be found in mixtures of pure lime

and pure silica. In the three-component system, on the other hand, the

tricalcic silicate appears promptly with the addition of alumina to mix-

tures of appropriate lime-silica concentration, and after a long and diffi-

cult experimental investigation, involving the study of about 1,000 heat

treatments of various compositions, many of which required to be stud-

ied at temperatures between 1800° and 1900° C, it has finally been

prepared pure, excepting for a small excess (between 1 and 2 per cent)

of orthosilicate or lime or both.

Tricalcic silicate appears to be unstable at its melting temperature,

and so does not form from a melt of this composition. For the same

reason, it does not form eutectics with the adjacent compounds, calcium

7

8

abstracts: physical chemistry

orthosilicate and lime. Neither is there any evidence that the trical-

cic silicate takes up calcium orthosilicate or lime in solid solution.

In addition to the tricalcic silicate, a new and probably unstable

form of the orthosilicate has been discovered which may prove to be of

importance in Portland cement.

The general boundaries of the different phases occurring throughout

the entire diagram of the ternary system CaO— AI0O3— Si02, have been

established, together with the course of the boundary curves. From

these it is possible to predict the compounds which will crystalline out

of a lime-silica-alumina cement of any composition, provided only that

the compounds are intimately mixed and the heat is sufficient to bring

the mixture to equilibrium during formation. The exact location of the

quintuple points, with the exception of points 13 to 17, and the isotherms

remains to be established. The location of these quintuple points is

as follows:

Portland-cement clinker within the concentration limits set by Rich-

ardson, when in equilibrium, may exist in the following combinations,

depending primarily upon relatively small changes in the quantity of

lime present:

Richardson's typical cement corresponds to class II. The relative

cement-forming value of the above mixtures has yet to be determined.

The more intimate the mixture of the raw material, and the more uni-

form the heat treatment, the closer will be the approach to equilibrium

and therefore to constant relations and the more uniform the behavior

of the final product. Classes III and IV are predicted from the general

direction of the boundary curves and the quintuple points 14 and 15.

( 'hiss V will occur in cements low in lime and will differ only in the rela-

tive amounts of the different phases from pure slag cements whose

compositions lie below the line joining the calcium orthosilicate and

abstracts: mineralogical chemistry 9

2CaO.Al2O3.SiO2 compositions. Type V is dependent on the nature and

location of point 13 and is to be regarded as tentative.

If solid solutions are formed they are very limited in extent and are

not sufficient to affect the optical properties of either silicate, the lime

or the aluminate. This fact serves to give greater defmiteness to the

problem and an unexpectedly clear field for studies of the cement-

forming quality of ciinkers of nearly related composition but different

chemical constitution. It therefore seems inevitable that such studies

will lead to more reliable standards in cement practice.

The diagram indicates that the constitution of slag cement will be

seriously affected by relatively small differences of composition in the

neighborhood of the line joining the compounds calcium orthosilicate

and 2CaO.AbO3.SiO2. It is, however, unwise to draw positive conclu-

sions about the character of this portion of the diagram until it has been

more carefullyr studied.

Incidentally, it has been observed that Fe203 appears not to form solid

solutions with CaO, 2CaO.Si02, or 3CaO.Al203. It does appear to

react in some wajr with 5Ca0.3Al203, but the nature of this reaction has

not yet been studied. Attention should also be called in passing to

the important fact that Fe2Os dissociates at about 1400° with the for-

mation of Fe304.

Finally, too great importance can not be given to the constant use

of the microscope in cement study and practice. It is not improbable

that microscopic examination will eventually provide much of the infor-

mation desired about the constitution of test samples, with the advantage

over chemical methods of giving immediate results.

It remains to determine the isotherms of the diagram and to deter-

mine whether or not the five typical "clinkers" possess any differences

in properties when hydrated to form cement. The work on the iso-

therms is well under way. E. S. S. and G. A. R.

MINERALOGICAL CHEMISTRY.— The mineral sulphides of iron.

E. T. Allen, J. L. Crenshaw, and John Johnston; with Crystal -

lographic Study by E. S. Larsen. Am. J. Sci. (In press.)

. The formation of iron disulphide was accomplished (1) by the action of

hydrogen sulphide on ferric salts, or the action of sulphur and hydrogen

sulphide on ferrous salts; (2) by the addition of sulphur from solution to

amorphous ferrous sulphide or pyrrhotite; (3) by the action of soluble

poly sulphides on ferrous salts; (4) by the action of soluble thiosulphates

on ferrous salts according to the equation 4M2S2O3 + Fex2 = 3M2S04

10 ABSTEACTS: MINERALOGICAL CHEMISTRY

+ FeS2 + 2Mx + 3S. The first three methods may be generalized as

the action of sulphur on ferrous sulphide: (1) in acid solutions; (2) in

nearly neutral solutions; and (3) in alkaline solutions, since in (1) we

may assume that ferrous sulphide first forms by the action of hydrogen

sulphide on the ferrous salt, and in (3) we know that polysulphides first

precipitate a mixture of ferrous sulphide and sulphur. Marcasite was

obtained with certainty only by method (1); low temperatures and free

acid favor its formation. A solution containing about 1 per cent of

free sulphuric acid at 100° gives pure marcasite. Less acid solutions

at higher temperatures give mixtures of marcasite and pyrite. The other

methods give pyrite, which, under certain conditions, may be mixed

with amorphous disulphide. It is possible that some marcasite may be

formed by method (4).

Marcasite and pyrite were identified in the above products: (1) by

microscopic examination and crystallographic measurement. Marca-

site crystals with the proper axial ratio were prepared for the first time ;

(2) by Stokes's oxidation method. This method serves also for the

analysis of mixtures of the two minerals.

Marcasite changes to pyrite with evolution of heat. The change

proceeds very slowly at 450° and is not accelerated by pressures even of

10,000 atmospheres. Marcasite is monotropic toward pyrite. This

is in accord with the greater inclination of marcasite to oxidize, its

assumed greater solubility, and the fact that its formation is conditioned

by the composition of the solution from which it crystallizes.

The fact that marcasite never occurs as a primary constituent of

magmas, while pyrite sometimes does, is explained by the fact that

marcasite can not exist above 450°. The formation of pyrite in deep

veins and hot springs is explained by the fact that the waters from which

it came contained no strong acid. The marcasite of surface veins was

probably formed from cold acid solutions, while mixtures of marcasite

with pyrite were probably conditioned by higher temperature (up to

300° or 400°), or the presence of less acid, or both. Micro-organisms

may have been active in the formation of pyrite and marcasite by giving

rise to hydrogen sulphide.

Pyrrhotite was formed by the decomposition of pyrite or by heating

marcasite, or by heating iron with excess of sulphur. The dissociation

of pyrite into pyrrhotite and sulphur is readily reversible. At 565°

(about) pyrite and pyrrhotite are in equilibrium with the partial pres-

sure of sulphur in H2S, which here amounts to about 5 mm. (data of

Preunner and Schupp); at 550° in hydrogen sulphide, the pyrrhotite

abstracts: mineralogtcal chemistry 11

passes into pyrite, and at 575° the reverse action proceeds. At about

665° the evolution of sulphur from pyrite becomes rapid and a marked

absorption of heat results. The pressure of the sulphur-vapor here

reaches one atmosphere.

Pyrrhotite is of variable composition. Its composition at anytempera-

ture depends on the pressure of sulphur-vapor in which it is heated.

Tho it has not been found feasible to vary the temperature and pres-

sure independently, a series of products were prepared by first decom-

posing pyrite and then reheating the resulting material to various meas-

ured temperatures in hydrogen sulphide and then chilling in the same

or cooling in nitrogen. The products lowest in sulphur were obtained

in the latter way. These products all resemble natural pyrrhotite in

physical and chemical properties. Their specific volumes vary continu-

ously with composition and pyrrhotite is therefore to be regarded as

a solid solution of sulphur in ferrous sulphide. The maximum per-

centage of dissolved sulphur in synthetic pyrrhotite was 6.04 per cent

at 600°. By extrapolation the saturated solution at 565°, below which

point pyrite forms, was estimated to be 6.5 per cent. This corresponds

closely to the maximum percentage of sulphur reported in natural pyrrho-

tite.

Equilibria between pyrrhotite and the partial pressure of sulphur in

dissociated hydrogen sulphide were determined at different tempera-

tures, by sufficiently long heating and then rapid cooling. The dissolved

sulphur varied under these conditions from 6.0 per cent at 600° to 2.0

per cent at 1300°. The curve shows a discontinuity at the melting

temperature, at the beginning of which there is a sudden decrease in

the percentage of sulphur.

The melting-point of pure ferrous sulphide could not be exactly deter-

mined, because the compound dissociates at high temperatures into its

elements. By heating it in a vacuum this dissociation was placed be-

yond doubt, though the dissociation was so slow that the melting-point

could be located approximately. It may safely be put at 1170° =fc 5°.

In hydrogen sulphide, the melting temperature is raised because the

solid solution thus formed contains more sulphur than the first portion

of liquid to which it melts. The limits of the melting interval can not

be determined as yet, but the maximum heat absorption falls at 1183°.

In one atmosphere of sulphur-vapor this temperature rises to 1187°.

Crystals of pyrrhotite, the measurements of which are recorded under

the crystallographic study, were repeatedly formed at various tempera-

tures between 80° and 225° by the action of hydrogen sulphide on slightl

12 abstracts: phytopathology

acid solutions of ferrous salt containing some ferric salt. The product

usually contained some crystals of disulphide.

Troilite is only the end-member of the pyrrhotite series and not a

distinct mineral species. Thus far it has not been prepared free from

metallic iron. E. T. A.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— The control of the chestnut bark disease.

Haven Metcalf and J. Franklin Collins. Farmers' Bulletin

U. S. Department Agriculture No. 467. Pp. 24, figs. 4. 1911.

This bulletin describes the chestnut bark disease and recommends

methods for its control. This disease, caused by the fungus Diaporthe

parasitica Murrill, first came prominently to the public attention in

1904, and since that time has proved itself perhaps the most serious tree

disease known to science. First noted in the general vicinity of New

York City, it has now spread into at least ten States. It attacks the

American chestnut, the European chestnut, the chinquapin, and, rarely,

the Japanese chestnut; but so far has not been found growing parasiti-

cally outside of the genus Castanea. The total financial loss is now esti-

mated at $25,000,000. If the disease is not controlled thru human

agency, there appears to be no reason to doubt that the chestnut tree

will become largely extinct in North America within the next ten years.

The fungus gains entrance at any point where the bark is broken,

borers' tunnels forming the most common means of entrance. From the

point of entrance, the disease spreads primarily in the inner bark and

produces characteristic lesions which girdle the tree at the point attacked.

Conspicuous symptoms are the development of bunches of sprouts

below the girdling lesions; the half-formed yellowish leaves in the spring

on the previously girdled branches; the reddish-brown leaves on branches

girdled in summer, and the yellow, orange, or reddish-brown pustules

of the fruiting fungus on the bark. It is practically useless to attempt

systematic location of the disease from October to April, inclusive.

The spores may be carried considerable distances on chestnut nursery

slock, tan bark, and unbarked timber; also by birds, insects, squirrels,

etc., which have come in contact with the sticky spore masses. Water

quickly dissolves these spore masses and the minute spores are in this

way carried along with water, as, for instance, with rain water running

down a tree

The only known practical way of controlling the disease in a forest

is to locate ami destroy the advance infections as soon as possible after

they appear and, if the disease is well established near by, to separate

ABSTEACTS: PHYTOPATHOLOGY 13

the area of complete infection from the comparatively uninfected area

by an immune zone. Advance infections should be located by trained

observers and destroyed by cutting and burning. As the disease de-

velops almost entirely in the bark, this must be completely destroyed

(burned).

In order to carry out the above methods it is essential that the several

States concerned secure necessary legislation and appropriations, follow-

ing the example of Pennsylvania, as no law exists whereby the federal

government can undertake such work and cooperation among private

owners without State supervision is impracticable.

Chestnut nursery stock should be rigidly inspected for the disease and

only perfectly healthy plants passed.

The life of valuable ornamental trees may be greatly prolonged by

promptly cutting out all diseased areas and removing all disease-girdled

branches and then covering the cuts with tar. Spraying is of no use

in stopping the fungus after it has once started growth in the bark.

It is recommended that owners of infected woodland cut down and

utilize the diseased chestnut timber as soon as possible.

For the present the planting of chestnuts anywhere east of Ohio is

not advised, but there is no apparent reason why chestnut orchards west

of Ohio may not be kept free from the disease. H. M

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— Root knot and its control. Ernst A. Bessey,

Bureau of Plant Industry. Bulletin No. 217, pp. 89, 3 pi., 3 figs.

1911.

The disease known as root knot is abundant in sandy soils thruout

the warmer parts of the United States and more sporadically in other

regions. It is due to the attack of a nematode, Heterodera radicicola

(Greef ) Miiller, a near relative of the European sugar beet nematode, H.

schachtii. The disease was first recognized in Europe in 1855. Its

first mention in print in this country seems to be in the latter part of the

eighties altho it had been observed by florists in greenhouses as early

as 1876. It has been found to be present in North and South America,

West Indies, Europe, Asia, Africa, East Indies, Australia and Hawaiian

Islands. It seems to be tropical in its origin, probably having been na-

tive to the Old World. A list of plants susceptible to root knot is given,

including 480 species, on 291 of which the author observed the parasite

himself, the highest previous list including only 235 host plants. The

plants included represent almost all of the more important families

of dicotyledons and monocotyledons as well as one gymnosperm and one

14 abstracts: phytopathology

fern. They include both herbaceous and woody plants and annual,

biennial and perennials. The anatomy and development of the parasite

is discussed, followed by a comparison between this nematode and the

one causing the disease of the sugar beet in Europe, they having been

shown to be decidedly distinct as long ago as 1890 by Voigt. It is shown

that the chief method of introducing the pest into a new location is by

means of live plants, especially nursery stock, and when once introduced,

it spreads from place to place in the soil adhering to tools, hoofs of ani-

mals, wagons, etc. The presence of the nematode within the roots causes

hypertrophy of the tissue resulting in a gall. These galls are usually con-

fined to the roots but in some cases were seen to occur on the stems, leaves

and fruits where these have come in contact with infested ground. The

water-conducting tissues within these galls are very much twisted and

dislocated so that when the galls are abundant, the plants are subject

to wilting much more easily than the uninfected plants. These fleshy

galls also form the center of infection for various parasitic fungi. Con-

ditions favoring root knot are high temperature and sandy soil with

plenty of moisture altho the soil must not be entirely saturated. This

pest is practically inactive at a temperature lower than 10° C, but is

able to survive in unprotected soils at — 35° C. The control of root knot

is discussed under the following headings: Greenhouses, seed beds, etc.;

in the field with no crop present; and in the field occupied by perennial

crops. In the first, live steam is most satisfactory altho fresh soil can

be used if obtainable nematode free, and formaldehyde, one part of 40

per cent solution to 100 parts of water, is successful under certain condi-

tions. In the field with perennial crops, practically no treatment is

satisfactory except the stimulating of the plants to abundant growth by

the use of extra amounts of fertilizers. For exterminating the pest in

fields not occupied by perennial crops, rotation methods with non-sus-

ceptible crops were the most successful. Those that were most success-

ful in the South were the use of Cowpeas {{Vigna unguiculata) , Velvet

Bean. (Stizolobium deeringianum) , Florida Beggar weed (Meibomia

mollis). Only the non-susceptible varieties of the first can be used, for

example, the variety known as Iron. These are grown as summer crops

and in the fall rye or oats is sown. Two years of each crop is neces-

sary to free the field and in some cases perhaps three would be more

successful. There seems to be considerable promise in breeding varieties

that are non-susceptible to the trouble. E. A. B.

abstracts: forestry 15

FORESTRY. — -Reforestation on the national forests. William T. Cox.

Bulletin Forest Service, No. 98. 1911.

Next to the importance of protecting the national forests from fire

and disposing of the mature timber to secure good natural reproduction

is the task of starting forest growth upon the vast areas of untillable

mountain lands which have been rendered unproductive by fires,

insects, and other agencies. Of this class of land within the national

forests there are approximately 7,500,000 acres which must be arti-

ficially sown or planted. The policy of the Forest Service in artificial

reforestation on the national forests is first, to conduct experiments

to find out what can be done, and what is the best way to do it; second,

to reforest by direct seeding where this is possible; and third, to plant

nursery seedlings where direct seeding is too uncertain. In selecting

sites for artificial reforestation preference is usually given in the following-

order: First, watersheds of streams important for irrigation or municipal

water supply; second, lands which produce heavy stands of quick-

growing trees; third, lands suitable for the production of especially

valuable species, or where conditions are favorable for improving the

character of the forest; fourth, sites which offer good opportunities for

object lessons to the public in the practice of forestry; and fifth, denuded

lands which have no special claim for attention except that they will

grow some kind of trees. The Forest Service itself collects most of

the seed of native tree species needed for planting on the national forests.

This is done usually for considerably less than the seed would cost if

purchased from regular collectors of seed growers. During the autumn

of 1910 it collected 107,780 pounds of native tree seed, and purchased

54,100 pounds of the seed of European species, a total of 161,780 pounds.

There are three methods of collecting cones; from felled trees, from

standing trees, and from squirrel hordes. The cones are dried and the

seed extracted promptly after collection. Some cones can be opened

by spreading them on canvas sheets to dry in the sun. Other species

must be taken to the drying house and opened by artificial heat.

Of the two methods of artificial reforestation — -direct seeding and

planting — the first offers for certain species on many of the national

forests by far the greater promise of success. In general, hardy trees,

the seed of which is easily and cheaply obtained, can be reproduced

satisfactorily by direct seeding, while species like red pine, which bear

small crops of seed that are difficult to collect, can be reproduced

more cheaply by planting. W. T. C.

16 abstracts: forestry

FORESTRY. — Columbian mahogany: Its characteristics and use as a

substitute for true mahogany. George B. Sudworth and Clay-

ton D. Mell. With a description of the botanical 'characters of

Cariniana pyriformis. Henry Pittier. Circular Forest Service,

No. 185. 1911.

One of the best imitation mahoganies now marketed is the so-called

Columbian mahogany Cariniana pyriformis, Miers. It is not true

mahogany, but belongs to an entirely different family of trees, the

monkey-pod family, Lecythidaceae. The true mahogany, Swietenia

mahagoni, Jacq., is a member of the family Meliaceae, to which the

well known China tree belongs. Tho the consumption of material

passing in the markets as mahogany amounts annually to about 40,000,-

000 feet, the cut of real mahogany is only about 18,000,000 feet. How

long the wood of Cariniana pyriformis has been used in the United

States for mahogany is not known. It has been exported from Carta-

gena, Columbia, to Havre, France, for more than thirty years, and

there sold in immense cargoes as genuine mahogany. Practically all

of the "Columbian mahogany" now marketed is cut at points from

100 to 200 miles inland, and shipped from Cartagena. Columbian

mahogany and true mahogany are as botanically unlike as an oak and

a maple, but a superficial resemblance in the grain and color of their

woods has made it possible to substitute the Columbian wood for the

other. It seems possible now when the demand for mahogany is greater

than the supply that there could be accepted use for such woods as

Cariniana pyriformis, acknowledged not to be mahogany, but which

are so similar to it in color, grain effects, and working qualities, as to

serve for the rarer wood. There should be no objection to calling such

woods by their proper names.

Cariniana pyriformis first became known botanically in 1874, while

true mahogany was first described in 1760. Adequate information

regarding the botanical characteristics of Cariniana pyriformis and of

the structural nature of the wood has never before been published.

G. B. S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 41st annual (701 regular) meeting was held on December 9, 1911,

President Day in the chair. The meeting was devoted to hearing the

annual reports of the secretaries and the treasurer, and to the election of

officers for 1912. The following were chosen:

President: E. B. Rosa. Vice-Presidents: C. G. Abbot, G. K. Burgess,

W. S. Eichelberger, L. A. Fischer. Treasurer: L. J. Briggs.

Secretaries: W. J. Humphreys, R. L. Faris. General Committee:

Wm. Bowie, E. Buckingham. E. G. Fischer, J. A. Fleming, B. R.

Green, D. L. Hazard, R. S. Harris, P. G. Nutting, F. A. Wolff.

R. L. Faris, Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 76th regular meeting of the Society was held at the Cosmos Club,

Tuesday, December 5, 1911. President W. A. Orton presided. Thirty-

three members were present.

The following papers were read:

Thrips as pollinators of beets. Harry B. Shaw.

Thrips tabaci were observed to be numerous on seed beets in Utah.

They were always abundant on flowering racemes, as many as 190 being

collected from one small branched raceme. They were not observed to

interfere with seed production. On the contrary, it appeared more

probable that they acted as agents of pollination. An examination

showed them to bear numerous pollen grains scattered about their bodies.

As many as 140 beet pollen grains being counted on one adult thrips.

An experiment, started August 7 and 8, 1911, under carefully arranged

isolation conditions on emasculated beet flowers, resulted in 17.2 per cent

of the flowers to which thrips had been introduced being fertilized and

producing seed. All the controls remained sterile. The conclusions are

that thrips are probably important beet pollinators; that they may act

similarly with other plants; that their absence or too small number may

account for the non-fertilization of flowers in some localities and seasons;

that they may fertilize flowers under supposedly isolation conditions

and may even cross plants not regarded as capable of being crossed by

insects, e.g., barley; and that they may also spread fungus spores and

bacteria.

Forest types. Raphael Zon.

An ecological survey of the forests of western Idaho, in connection with

the preparation of yield tables, revealed three main forest types, or, in

the terminology of ecologists, "formations." Two of these are final or

17

18 PROCEEDINGS PROGRAMS

climax and one an intermediate or transitory type. The climax types

are yellow pine-Douglas fir and cedar-hemlock. The transitory type is

white pine-larch. The yellow pine-Douglas fir is both a pioneer and

climax type. When burned or cut over it invariably succeeds itself.

The cedar-hemlock type is a climax type preceded by the larch-white

pine. The order of succession from the pioneer to the climax forest is

as follows:

First the larch (Larix occidental-is) comes in as the pioneer, shading

the ground and offering the protection necessary in order that the white

pine (Pinus monticola) might establish itself. The white pine, soon after

becoming established, begins to crowd the larch, overtopping and exter-

minating gradually all but the most vigorous specimens. Under the

shading of the white pine and larch cedar {Thuja plicata), hemlock

(Tsuga heterophylla) , and white fir (Abies concolor), begin to come up,

crowd out the white pine and finally become the sole occupants of the

ground.

This ecological study had a practical bearing upon the management

of the forest as it pointed out the possibility of leaving larch and selling

the white pine, which alone at present commands any price, without

danger of eliminating it from the future stands. This study furnishes a

concrete example of the value of ecological studies as a basis for forest

management.

Phytochemical Studies on Cyanogen. Dr. C. L. Alsberg and 0. F.

Black (by invitation).

W. W. Stockberger. Corresponding Secretary.

PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

702nd Meeting, January 6, 1912. Cosmos Club at 8.15. R. A.

Harris: KrummeVs Handbuch der Ozeanographie, Vol. II. J. M.

Miller: The Determination of the Pole Distance of a very Small Magnet.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Vol. II, JANUARY 19, 1912. No. 2.

GEOLOGY. — Applied geology.1 Alfred H. Brooks.

The science of geology, generally regarded as having originated

in the vague speculations of the cosmogonists hardly two centuries

ago, has today become of great practical utility. During the

past decade all geologic investigations have shown a marked

tendency toward material problems, which is in contrast with the

previous decade, when the interests of pure science were much

more strongly emphasized. No one will deny that economic, or

as I prefer to call it, applied geology is attracting more and more

attention from professional geologists. It is appropriate that the

members of this Society should take cognizance of this trend in

geologic thought, analyze the conditions which have brought it

about, and decide, it may be, whether it makes for the good or the

evil of the science.

Before discussing this subject it will be well to attempt a defini-

tion of the term " applied geology." Some appear to believe that

when the geologist emerges from the tunnel's mouth he is at once

transplanted into the realm of pure science, and that the miner's

candle illuminates only the so-called practical or even commercial

problems. I submit that such opinions are not justified. The

surveys made as a basis for geologic maps and structure sections,

usually classed as belonging to the realm of pure seicnce, often

yield results which are the most concrete examples of applied

geology. On the other hand, the exhaustive study of mineral

deposits is essential to the solution of many fundamental geologic

1 Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological

Survey.

Presidential address delivered before the Geological Society of Washington,

December 13, 1911.

19

20

brooks: applied geology

problems. A close analysis will make it evident that the line of

demarcation between the fields of pure and applied geology is in

a large measure arbitrary. The collection today of a new group

of facts or the determination of new principles relating to pure

science, may result to morrow in their application to industrial

problems. Mr. Gilbert has recognized two fields of geologic

research, the one embracing the study of local problems of strati-

graphy, structure, etc., the other, the general problems of geo-

Fig. 1. Geologic publications, state and federal appropriations for geologic

work, and percentage of total number of states supporting geologic work for

the years 1886 to 1909

logic philosophy, and has shown that both may yield results of the

highest industrial importance. As David Paige has expressed it :

There indeed can be no antagonism between science and art, between

theoretical knowledge and its economic application. The practical

expression of a truth can never be divorced from its theoretic conception.

If, in spite of what has been said, the two fields of science are to

be differentiated, applied geology may be defined as the science

which utilizes the methods and principles of pure geology to supply

the material needs of man.

brooks: applied geology

21

While the present tendency of geologic science toward the inves-

tigation of problems of everyday life is patent to all, yet it is

desirable to express this tendency quantitatively. For this pur-

pose, I have determined the percentage of geologic publications

issued annually during the last quarter of a century devoted in

part or entirely to applied geology. The result of this analysis

is graphically presented in the diagram (Fig. 1) in which the one

curve represents the total number of publications; another,

those classed as bearing upon applied geology. This diagram is

based on an actual count, judging by the titles, of the publica-

tions included in the annual bibliography of North American

geology. It is conceded, of course, that a mere enumeration of

titles is, at best, but a crude method, which neither takes into

account the extent of the individual publications nor attempts to

Percentage of Total Publication* of U. S. Geological Survey Relating to Applied Geology

Fig. 2

appraise their value to science. However, I trust it will serve as

a rough measure of the activities of North American geologists.

On this basis, the diagram clearly records a very rapid increase

during the past decade in the ratio of publications dealing with

applied geology to the total of geologic literature.

The figures show that applied geology was at its lowest ebb in

1890, when only 12 per cent, and at its highest flood in 1909, when

47 per cent of the total publications related to this subject. To

consider the percentage of economic papers by decades: In

the ten years ending in 1895 the average was 22 per cent; for the

following decade, 30 per cent; and for the last five years, 44 per

cent.

Another measure of this trend in geology has been obtained by a

similar classification of the publications of the United States

Geological Survey. The result of this enumeration is shown in a

22 brooks: applied geology

second diagram (Fig. 2). In this, it will be seen that in 1890 less

than 1 per cent of the publications issued by the federal survey

treated of applied geology, and in 1910 the percentage was 98.

Considering it by decades: For the ten years ending in 1895 the

average of economic papers was 11 per cent of the total number

of publications; in the following decade, 71 per cent; and in the

last five years, 92 per cent.

These figures are not to be interpreted as evidence that pure

science has not been recognized in these publications of the federal

survey. I have classed with the applied geology group all publi-

cations which treat in any measure of this subject, though many

of them deal chiefly with problems of more purely scientific inter-

est. For example , the geologic folios, which include some of the

most notable contributions to pure science, are here included in the

literature of applied geology. To me it is less surprising that

nearly all the recent publications contain some practical deduc-

tions than that most of those of twenty years ago omitted all

data of this kind.

The marked tendency toward practical problems, as indicated

by these figures, is by no means confined to one organization, for

it is exhibited in the same degree by state surveys and is also

reflected in the work of the universities. Nor is it limited to this

continent, for countries as widely separated geographically and in

scientific traditions as South America, Japan, and Germany show

similar signs. Everywhere geologic research of practical prob-

lems is receiving more and more support, both publicly and pri-

vately.

It is pertinent to consider the attitude of the public at large

toward this economic tendency. There are undoubtedly those

who believe that the direction of scientific work should rest entirely

with the investigator and not with the people. Let them bear

in mind that geologic investigations, since they involve heavy

expenditures and trespass on private property, can, for the most

part be properly carried on only through government agencies, in

this differing from such sciences as chemistry, physics, or biology,

which can be furthered by private means. If geologic surveys

are properly a function of the state, in the last analysis the people

brooks: applied geology 23

must be the final arbiters as to what phase of the science is to be

emphasized. In our democracy the citizen has a right to inquire

what he, as a member of the body politic, is gaining by expendi-

tures from the public purse.

It is estimated, on the best data available, that during the past

quarter century the total grants for geologic work made by state

and federal governments aggregate over eight million dollars.

This may be regarded as evidence of public confidence. More

significant to the present discussion is the annual grant of funds

during this interval, and this is illustrated by a curve on the same

diagram with those showing character of publications (Fig. 1).

This curve is in part based on estimates, but these are without

doubt sufficiently accurate to indicate that the total annual

appropriations of state and federal governments for geology have

been augmented at a rate which proves that they are affected by

some other factor than that of increase of population. The annual

grant of funds is now more than double that of twenty-five years

ago. It is probably safe to interpret this as indicating that the

present economic tendency in geology is approved by the people

of the United States. The close parallelism between the lines

marking the publications relating to applied geology and the

annual allotments of public funds for geologic surveys is probably

not entirely fortuitous.

Perhaps the best measure of popular confidence in the results

of geologic research is the number of different geologic organiza-

tions supported by public funds. We are apt to credit the obtain-

ing of government support for this or that research entirely to

some individual or organization, forgetting that, until the general

public has in a measure been persuaded of its value, all ef-

forts would be useless. Therefore, when we find geologic sur-

veys thruout the country supported by commonwealths having

widely different social and industrial conditions, it is fair to pre-

sume that the average citizen has acquired the belief that these

are attaining results beneficial to the community. The numerical

increase of state geologic surveys during the last twenty-five

years is illustrated by the curve on the diagram before you which

marks the percentage of total number of states supporting geo-

24 brooks: applied geology

logic work (Fig. 1). In 1886 24 per cent of the states had geo-

logic surveys; in 1895 the percentage was 42, and in 1910, 80.

This growing public interest is also manifested by the increase

in geologic teaching at colleges and universities. I interpret the

statistics published by Prof. T. C. Hopkins as indicating that in

1886 there were about 220 of the higher institutions of learning

in which geology was taught, while in 1894, there were 378. Of

these, 51 had geology organized as a separate department. I have

been unable to find any more recent data on geologic education,

but that it has made great strides in the last seventeen years will

be conceded by all. It will also be generally admitted that the

teaching of economic geology is receiving constantly greater

attention in the colleges and technical schools. More significant

evidence of the present status of geology among the people is the

fact of the large number of geologists now in private employment.

There are many professional geologists who are engaged in consult-

ing practice. Nearly every large mining company and many

railways include in their personnel one or more geologists. In a

commercial directory of mining experts recently published fully

10 per cent classed themselves as geologists, while an edition of

the same directory issued ten years ago included only one who

claimed to be a geologist. While at that time, as now, many min-

ing engineers were in fact professional geologists, they did not

care to advertise the fact.

All this indicates that applied geology has during the last

two decades become a dominating element in our geologic work;

also that this tendency toward industrial problems pervades all

geologic investigations, whether under federal, state, or private

auspices. Furthermore it has been made evident that this trend

is not limited to the North American continent, but is world-

wide. It is clear, also, that since emphasis has been laid upon the

economic side there has been a marked increase in the support

given to geologic work, from which fact may be drawn the logical

conclusion that the public endorses this policy. It does not

necessarily follow that this dominating practical note in geology

has made for the advancement of the science. Before discussing

this important question it will be well to trace briefly the origin

of geology as an applied science.

brooks: applied geology 25

It seems to be generally assumed that the application of geology

to industry was not attempted until after its development into

a more or less complete rational science. It can not be denied that

the application of the principles of a science must await the estab-

lishment of those principles through scientific inquiries. It is

true, however, that long before geology had developed as a science

men observed the geologic phenomena that bore on certain voca-

tions and often correctly interpreted such observations.

The science of applied geology, therefore, had its origin among

those who, like the miners, were by vocation brought into inti-

mate contact with natural phenomena. Many of the elementary

facts relating to mineral deposits were forced on the attention of

the miner, and as the correct interpretation of these facts added

to his material welfare, some deductive reasoning was undoubtedly

applied. The rudimentary conceptions thus formed were more

likely to be correct than those of the early closest academician,

whose science for generations began and ended in pure specula-

tion.

Therefore, to trace the origin of applied geology the oldest

archives treating of mining, quarrying, agriculture, engineering,

and mineralogy must be searched — a task which has been quite

beyond me. And reaching far back of any written record was the

traditional lore bearing on geologic phenomena of countless gener-

ations of miners and husbandmen. Even the man of the stone

age must have subconsciously acquired knowledge of the distri-

bution of the materials which he fashioned into implements of the

chase and war. If we are to allow our imagination full scope, we

can conceive of some primitive economic geologist who, by finding

a deposit of copper and revealing the superiority of the new mate-

rial for weapons, became the hero of his tribe.

While our Aryan ancestors appear to have been ignorant of the

use of metals when they first invaded the Mediterranean countries,

yet they acquired a knowledge of them from the Semitic races

long before the dawn of history. In winning these metals

primitive man used methods which required neither any high

degree of technical skill nor a knowledge of the form of their

occurrence. Mining, being second only to agriculture in its

26 brooks: applied geology

importance to the human race, became more systematized with

the progress of civilization. By the time historical records began

the recovery of metals and the quarrying of building stones were

well-developed arts, and there is no reason to suppose that the

mode of occurrence of the deposits exploited were ignored by those

whose livelihood was involved.

The rulers of this early period, keenly alive to the value of the

metals, undoubtedly caused this source of wealth and power to be

investigated by able men. It is recorded that Philip of Macedon

evinced his interest in mining by examining in person some under-

ground workings in Thrace. Jason's search for the golden fleece

pictures the prospector of those days as a national hero. In any

event, it is certain that millions of ounces of gold and silver and

many tons of copper, as well as tin and iron, had been produced

centuries before the Christian era. We must believe that this

production indicates a sufficiently developed industry to employ

not only skilled artisans but also those who delved deeper into

the problems of mining. The ancient Egyptians were eminently

practical and developed a high degree of skill in certain branches

of engineering. Undoubtedly the Egyptian engineers paid some

heed to the distribution of building stones as well as to methods

of quarrying, while among other peoples who excelled in metal

mining it is presumed there were engineers who specialized in

mining matters, as do their successors of today.

It is far easier to speculate on the knowledge the ancients may

have had of some of the principles of applied geology than to

trace the actual extent of this knowledge. Ancient Hebrew liter-

ature abounds in references to the metals and their utilization,

but furnishes little clew as to what was known of them. The same

is true of the records of ancient Egypt, in which both placer and

lode gold are mentioned. One document that has come down to

us shows that location of mineral wealth was considered worthy

of note. An ancient papyrus, dating about 1350 B.C., displays

a crude map for the purpose of locating Nubian gold mines. It is

one of the oldest maps in existence and the first which can be

said to impart geologic information. The oldest written record

of geology or allied subjects is Theophrastus' descriptions of

brooks: applied geology 27

metals, stones, and earths, dating back to 315 B.C. Pliny's

work of four centuries later seems to have been the first attempt

at a complete treatise on minerals of economic importance, but he

was more concerned in the utilization of the metals than in their

mode of occurrence. Other of the ancient writers, notably Aris-

totle, touched on geologic subjects, but rather from the standpoint

of speculative philosophy than of interest in material problems.

Some of the early geographers and historians, like Strabo and

Herodotus, discussed the geographical distribution or the exploit-

tation of metals. Another field of applied geology is found in

treatises on agriculture containing references to character and

distribution of soils. Even Virgil in his Bucolics attempts a

practical classification of soils. As this dwells on the physical

rather than the chemical properties of soil, it would seem to have

at least the merit of being in accord with some of the latest scien-

tific maxims.

I have dealt with this subject as if the nations of Europe and

western Asia had alone made advances in technology. Mining

and metallurgy, even in very early times, were important indus-

tries in both India and China, and it is not unlikely that there may

be in those countries a literature of practical geology which ante-

dates our own.

The meager records of the early period of mining give no clew

to the knowledge of applied geology held by the ancients. But

that they were not entirely ignorant of its principles is to be pre-

sumed from the importance of the mining industry, and the ab-

sence of written records does not argue against this theory. The

same is true of other arts. We do not assume, for example, that

the principles of mechanics applied to structures were not under-

stood because there were no written treatises on architecture until

centuries after many periods of architecture had successively

developed and declined.

Scant as is the literature of mineralogy and mining up to the

early part of the Christian era, the succeeding ten or twelve cen-

turies are almost entirely without records. This was the medieval

period of intellectual stagnation — the eclipse of scientific and

critical thought. The Arabs, who alone preserved the traditions

28 brooks: applied geology

of antiquity during this lapse, made considerable contributions to

scientific knowledge, not neglecting mineralogy. Aside from this,

there are only a few minor references to the subject in the chron-

icles of that time.

While science was neglected in the middle ages, the arts con-

tinued to progress, and among these mining was important. It

is recorded that in Charlemagne's time thousands of miners were

employed in the metal industry of northern Tyrol, and many other

countries made notable contributions to the metallic wealth of the

world. Coal mining began in England and Germany in the

twelfth century. In fact, the mining industry assumed an im-

portance which attests a high degree of administrative and tech-

nical skill.

With the revival of learning in the fourteenth and fifteenth

centuries, scholars began again to turn their attention to the

natural sciences. At first they labored solely to verify and am-

plify the theories of the ancient writers, never doubting that the

classical philosophers had encompassed the entire realm of human

thought. Generations of scholars sought their science in the

Greek and Roman literature. But with the renaissance scholas-

tic thought was freed, and then the first epoch of scientific geol-

ogy began.

The wide chasm which separated the academician from the

technician at that time prevented any utilization of the great

store of geologic facts accumulated by miners. The miner had

neither education nor incentive to record the facts so laboriously

collected; the scholar had yet to realize that nature must be

studied by observation and deduction, not by speculation alone.

The cosmogonist wrote his treatises on the origin of the world

with his vision limited by academic walls, while the miner held

his knowledge as important only for his need.

Agricola was one of the first scholars to consider the practical

problems of the miner. His works, published in the middle of the

sixteenth century, show both keen observation and realization of

the importance of applied geology. The German mining indus-

try had at that time advanced sufficiently to have a large tech-

nical vocabulary of its own. But as Agricola wrote in Latin, he

brooks: applied geology 29

was forced to translate these technical terms as best he could.

German mining methods and terminology must then have found

wide acceptance in Europe, for Pierre Belon, the French naturalist

recorded that in 1546 they were in use in the Thracian gold fields —

then as now a part of the Ottoman Empire.

In Agricola's day there appeared a number of other treatises

dealing with some phase of applied geology. These were mostly

devoted to mineralogy, which was destined to become a science

long before geology had passed beyond the speculative stage.

Most of this early literature was in Latin and therefore calcu-

lated to have little influence on mining practice. It did, however,

bring the scholar into closer touch with the phenomena of nature

and thus pave the way for a rational science of geology.

In the early history of the science pure and applied geology can

be compared with two confluent rivers having widely separated

sources — the one springing from the high realm of speculative

philosophy, the other having a more lowly subterranean origin.

These two streams of thought gradually drew together, for a

space flowing side by side, and finally merged into one great

stream.

The following passage, written by Peter Martyr, in 1516, while

describing the golden wealth of Hispaniola, reflects something of

the status of geology in his day:

They have found by experience that the Vein of gold is a living tree,

and that the same by all ways spreadeth and springeth from the root,

by the soft pores and passages of the Earth, putteth forth branches,

even to the uppermost part of the Earth; and ceaseth not until it dis-

cover itself unto the open air; at which time it sheweth forth certain

beautiful colours in the stead of flowers, round stones of golden Earth

in the stead of fruits, and thin plates in stead of leaves For

they think such grains are not engendered where they are gathered,

especially on the dry land, but otherwise in the Rivers. They say that

the root of the golden Tree extendeth to the center of the Earth, and

there taketh nourishment of increase: for the deeper that they dig, they

find the trunks thereof to be so much the greater, as far as they may fol-

low it, for abundance of water springing in the Mountains.

This fantastic account of gold deposits contains a sufficient

kernel of truth to indicate that the writer had at least some com-

prehension of the form of auriferous veins and their relation to gold

placers.

30 brooks: applied geology

One of the earliest recorded attempts of a practical application

of geology is that of George Owen, a country squire of Wales,

who about 1600 prepared a lengthy description of Pembrokeshire

in which he discussed the occurrence of limestones and coal. He

appears to have been the first to note the change of bituminous

coal to anthracite. Owen's practical purpose is made clear by the

following quotation from his writing:

. it may be a guide to some parties to seek the lymestone

where it yet lieth hidden and may save labours to others in seeking it

where there is no possibility to find it.

While men of the Agricola type were assembling and classifying

observations on minerals and ore bodies, another group of scien-

tists was engaged in wordy wars about such problems as to

whether fossils had been formed by the influence of stars or were

the remnants of former living organisms. It is noteworthy that

among the most rational contributions to this discussion, which

continued over a century, were those of Leonardo da Vinci and

Nicholas Steno, the first of whom based his arguments on his

own observations as an engineer, while the second had some prac-

tical experience in the study of ore bodies. These two belonged

to the class of scientists designated by John Webster in his History

of Metals, published in 1671, as " experimental observers," of

whom he says:

For either they were such as attended the mines, or went thither to

converse with the workmen to inform themselves, or bore some office

about those places, or were those that either for curiosities sake, or to

enrich their knowledge, did gather together all the minerals they could,

or used the most of all these ways to gain understanding. And therefore

I commend these above all the rest before named, to be read and studied

of all officers and men belonging to any mineral or metallick works;

and of all young students and beginners that seek after mineral knowl-

edge: because these authors speak not altogether by opinion, fancie, and

conjecture; but forth of their own experience, and the experience of

those that were conversant about the mines, and getting of ore, and

purifying and refining of them ; and therefore more certain to be relyed

upon for leaders and teachers. And more, because they have written

what they knew, openly and plainly as the subject would bear; and not

in parables, and senigmatical expressions.

This treatise contains, amid much that now appears childish,

some practical hints for the discovery of ore bodies. Webster

brooks: applied geology 31

laments the almost universal ignorance of this subject, which he

accounts for as follows :

That the way and means to discover the nature of minerals, is not

onely difficult and dangerous, but in itself is so sordid, base and trouble-

some, that the most men of parts, will hardly adventure themselves into

the pits or shafts where ores are usually gotten; nor can indure to stay

so long, that they can rightly inform themselves of anything that may be

satisfactory to their inquiries. And the Miners or Workmen (for the

most part) being but people of the most indigent sort, and such as whose

knowledge and aims reach no higher than to get a poor living by that

slavish labour, regard to inform themselves of no more then what may

conduce to such a poor and servile land of living; by which means they

are little able to give any learned man satisfaction to those necessary

inquiries that might tend to enable him to judge rightly of the nature of

the things in that subterraneous kingdom.

The prejudice of the scholar against learning from the miner,

so quaintly described by Webster, gradually died out in the eight-

eenth century. Thereby the science profited much, through

acquiring a better ground-work of fact, while, on the other hand,

technology derived assistance from applied science. Even before

Werner's day a number of mining officials discussed in print the

occurrence of mineral deposits. As a result of this better under-

standing between the scientist and the practical man geology

developed from a condition of pure speculation into a science

which approached the rational and concrete. It need hardly be

added that the advances made in chemistry, physics, and biology,

were essential to this progress.

By the latter part of the eighteenth century conceptions of

stratigraphy began to take definite form. In this field, again, the

miner to a certain extent forestalled the scholar, for he had recog-

nized that locally, at least, the earth crust was built up of super-

imposed strata having a definite order. He had also noted that

this order was sometimes interrrupted by breaks and in the under-

ground workmgs had opportunity to grasp some details of tectonic

geology.

The advancement of science and arts toward the end of the

eighteenth century had been such as to create a demand for trained

engineers. In the field of technical education mining was given

the first recognition, for the school at Freiberg was established in

32 brooks: applied geology

1765, twenty years before the existence of any other school of

engineering, except those devoted to military science. This

school was to have a world-wide effect on geology, through the

influence of Werner, the first great teacher of the science. The

founding of other mining schools followed rapidly, indicating a

need throughout continental Europe for trained mining engineers.

With the exception of Freiberg none of these schools gave special

heed to science, but their establishment was of great importance

to applied geology, as it gave definite recognition to the fact that

mining was to be directed by engineers and not by artisans. The

advent of the trained mining engineer was of first importance, for

on him was to fall much of the work of advancing the new science.

On the continent mining was chiefly carried on by or under the

direct supervision of the state, and the need of properly trained

engineers was probably the chief reason why technical mining edu-

cation began before other branches of engineering. In England,

on the other hand, mining was mostly a matter of private enter-

prise, and technical education lagged far behind the continent.

The men entrusted with the direction of mining affairs seem to

have been drawn from the practical school of experience and were

known as mineral surveyors. To this class belonged William

Smith, the founder of stratigraphic geology.

Worthy of note also is John Williams, a mineral surveyor, who

preceded Smith by one generation. Williams was a Welshman,

who was bred as a miner, served as a soldier under the Dutch

flag, and held various responsible positions in the coal and lead-

mining industries. In 1789 he published a Natural History of the

Mineral Kingdom, which is remarkable for expressing some of the

modern views on applied geology. It contain a large number of

accurate observations, notably on coal and lead deposits. In dis-

cussing ore deposits Williams suggests a probable genetic relation

between intrusive dikes and mineral veins. Unfoftunately for

Williams' standing as a scientist, he considered it necessary to

present a theory accounting for all geologic phenomena and to

show the errors in Hutton's conclusions, which had then just

appeared.

Inasmuch as Williams treated coal deposits quantitatively he

was far ahead of his generation. He pointed out that coal beds

brooks: applied geology 33

are definitely limited, and this at about the time that Werner was

preparing to launch his theory of "Universal formations." A

few quotations from his book will serve to illustrate Williams' atti-

tude :

The result of his investigation refutes by inference another erroneous

opinion concerning coal, which I have often heard asserted with great

confidence, viz., that coal is inexhaustible. That the fund of coal treas-

ured up in the superfices of the globe, for the accommodation of society,

is very great, I readily acknowledge; but that it is inexhaustible, in the

proper sense of the word, I deny.

If our coals really are not inexhaustible, the rapid and lavish consumpt

of them calls aloud for the attention of the Legislature, because the

very existence of the metropolis depends upon the continued abundance

of this precious fossil, and not only the metropolis, but also the existence

of the other cities and great towns, and of the most fertile countries in

the three kingdoms, depend upon the abundance of this valuable article;

and moreover, most of our valuable manufactures are in the same pre-

dicament, and, therefore, if our coal mines are not inexhaustible, it is

high time to look into the real state of our collieries.

I feel in myself a strong reluctance against sounding the alarm to my

country in a matter of so much importance. I am but an obscure indi-

vidual of very little consequence in the world, and I have not the least

doubt that I shall be severely censured by many for my presumption,

and therefore I proceed with sensible remorse; but it is not guilty re-

morse; on the contrary, my heart tells me, that were I to temporize with

my own feelings of reluctance, and to conceal a truth which so nearly

concerns the welfare of the community, for fear of incurring censure,

my silence would be unpardonable.

The present rage for exporting coals to other nations may aptly be

compared to a careless spendthrift, who wastes all in his youth, and then

heavily drags on a wretched life to miserable old age, and leaves nothing

for his heirs.

While Williams' dire prophesies, made a century and quarter

ago, of the early exhaustion of England's coal have not been jus-

tified, yet he seems to have been one of the first to urge upon

public attention the close relation between the prosperity of a

nation and its fuel supply. He was also a pioneer in recommend-

ing governmental surveys and investigations of mineral resources.

After pointing out the value of the Cape Breton and other coals

in the British North American possessions and recommending

their development, he goes on to say:

34 brooks: applied geology

•

In discussing this topic, we presume to suggest, that, in the first place,

it is necessary for Government to explore and discover these coals, and

lay them bare for the inspection of British coal masters or companies,

and with this view, the first thing to be done, is to employ a prudent

man of abilities and skill in the theory and practice of the coal business;

to survey the West India coals and coal fields; to make such trials upon

the coals alread}r discovered, and those he may discover, as may be

necessary to ascertain the thickness, quality, and situation of each

stratum of coal that may be judged worth attention; and to make out a

full and substantial report of all the material circumstances relating to

each coal, for the information and use of Government, and of such gentle-

men and companies as may wish to look into this interesting subject.

These recommendations for governmental surveys of mineral

resources were made a generation before they were followed and

fully a half century before the nations of the world were generally

to accept the principle. Williams also touches on some of the

problems which absorb us today. After advocating the inves-

tigation of the colonial coal fields, he says, in words which have a

familiar ring:

When this report is made and considered by Government, suitable

encouragement should be offered to gentlemen and to companies of

character, stock, and abilities for such undertakings, to open and work

some of these coals

The first undertakers should be allowed a sufficiently extensive coal-

field, and every reasonable privilege and indulgence; but the> should

not have a monopoly. Other adventurers should have room to employ

their skill and capitals in this line of business in the west as well as in

Britain. Monopolies seldom do much good. The views of monopolists

are always too selfish and confined to be of extensive utility and public

benefit.

While Williams was among the first to recommend govern-

mental mineral surveys, the idea of showing mineral deposits

on maps appears to have been part of a plan for soil maps con-

ceived by Martin Lister a century before, and put into practice

by Guettard in 1746. Sir Archibald Geikie has credited the first

geologic map to this eminent French naturalist, but has not suf-

ficiently emphasized the fact that Guettard's map also showed the

distribution of mines and mineral deposits. Others followed his

example, and before the close of the eighteenth century the carto-

graphic representation of geology and mineral deposits had be-

come well established.

brooks: applied geology 35

The nineteenth century opened during the epoch of intellec-

tual freedom which followed the turmoil of the French Revolution.

The time was favorable to the progress of science. The scholar

felt free to follow scientific inquiries to their logical conclusions

untrammeled by the interdict of authority. Nowhere was this

more true than in the field of geology, for, notwithstanding the

efforts of dogmatic theology for upwards of half a century to

dominate geologic thought, its edicts could hamper the growth

of the science but little.

Further incentive sprang from the development of new political

ideals. As the nation began to concern itself with the needs of

the individual citizen the application of science to human needs

was encouraged. Under the old regime, so long as the wants of

the ruling classes were supplied no thought was given to the wants

of the masses. When this attitude was changed it was natural

to seek the aid of the scientist in ameliorating conditions. There-

fore, the dawn of the new century was propitious not only to the

advancement of pure science, but also to a general appreciation

of applied science.

Nowhere were conditions for the evolution of geologic science

better than in our own land. Being far removed from the con-

troversies which occupied the s"ole attention of many European

geologists we could accept or reject without prejudice this or

that theory. Our people had entered upon the exploitation of a

new land, with boundless possibilities of natural wealth, and

pioneer conditions brought most of them into intimate contact

with natural phenomenon. Books of travel written in the early

part of the century bear witness that a close observation of geo-

logic facts was forced upon every traveller.

A general interest in science and its application was prevalent

in America, even in colonial times. This was reflected in the

scientific and practical character of educational ideals. In its

first advertisement, issued in 1754, Columbia College (then called

King's) provided for the instruction of youths —

"in the arts of numbering and measuring; of surveying and navigation;

of geography and history; of husbandry, commerce, and government,

and in the knowledge of all nature in the heavens above us and in the air,

water, and earth around us, and in the various kinds of meteors, stones,

36 brooks: applied geology

m

mines, and minerals, plants and animals, and everything useful for the

comfort, the convenience and elegance of life; and in the chief manufac-

tures of these things."

This was half a century before the idea of scientific and tech-

nical instruction had taken root in European countries. In the

period extending from 1768 to 1811 chairs of chemistry were

established in eleven colleges of the United States. In 1824 the

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute was founded — the first school

of applied science in any English-speaking country. The avowed

aim of this school was to apply " sciences to the common purposes

of life." Van Rensselaer, who founded it, was a patron of geo-

logic science, and Eaton, the geologist, its first president.

Geology had, however, received recognition in several American

colleges long before the founding of the Rensselaer Institute.

According to Professor Hopkins there were 31 American colleges

which offered courses in geology previous to 1845. Of these, one

began teaching geology in 1804, one in 1807, one in 1819, and

one in each of the years from 1820 to 1845. The large number of

scientific societies founded at this time shows the widespread in-

terest of the people in science. Nearly every town had its lyceum

of natural history, while the larger cities boasted of academies of

science and similar associations, of which several have survived

to the present day. In 1819 the American Geological Society

was organized — only twelve years after the founding of the Geo-

logical Society of London and nearly thirty years before that of

the Deutsch Geologische Gesellschaft.

Numerous journals devoted to science and art were established

during the period under discussion. While some of these were

only short lived they attest the interest in science of the American

people. Another example of this interest is found in the course

of lectures on natural history which, according to Dr. Merrill

were delivered before the New York State Legislature by Amos

Eaton in 1818. This is probably the only instance in our history

where a body of law makers have welcomed serious instruction

in scientific matters.

Most of the collegiate instruction and the scientific societies

had for their purpose the promoting of knowledge in pure rather

brooks: applied geology 37

than applied geology, but it was in the latter that geology really

had the support of the American people. One far-reaching influ-

ence on the development of applied geology in the early part of

the last century was the scarcity of mining engineers or experi-

enced operators, while the vocation of prospecting was almost

non-existent. Our mining industry was in the early stages and

there were almost no engineers and but few so-called practical

men to whom the people could turn for information. In European

countries, on the other hand, centuries of mining had developed

a class of professional men other than geologists who were con-

sidered authorities on mineral wealth. But in our own country

it was the scientist rather than the engineer or the practical miner

who was called upon for information. This not only led to the

utilization of science in the preliminary work of seeking mineral

deposits, but also had the effect of forcing the scientists to give

their investigations a practical turn.

Either from choice or necessity, the early American geologists,

like their successors of today, always emphasized in their work the

needs of the community. McClure devoted much of the brief

text which accompanied his geologic map of the eastern United

States to the relation of geology to agriculture. Eaton's first

work bore on the resources of the region adjacent to the Erie

Canal. Rodgers elucidated the structure of the coal fields, while

Jackson attempted a classification of the public lands of the State

of Maine.

I venture the opinion that one reason why the investigators of

this continent have accomplished so much for the advancement of

geology is that their research has never been entirely divorced

from the field of applied science. We have had no distinct schools

of pure and applied geology, as there were until recently in other

lands. In Europe there was the practical school of the miner,

whose scientific conception seldom reached beyond his immediate

environment; and there was the school of the scholar, whose

angle of vision was apt to be too wide to focus on facts near at

hand. There were, indeed, some exceptions, for the scholar

Agricola learned from the miner; Werner's teaching was, in theory

at least, an application of geology to the mineral industry; and

38 brooks: applied geology

William Smith used his knowledge of stratigraphy in the practice

of his engineering profession. Even in Europe the distinction

between the work of these two schools has now almost disappeared.

The general interest and faith in science during the early his-

tory of our country is well exemplified in the attitude of public

men. Our first two presidents, in spite of the fact that they

differed greatly in temperament and experience, showed more

interest in scientific work than almost any of their successors.

Washington's training as an explorer, surveyor, and planter and

his close connection with the beginnings of the iron industry is

perhaps sufficient to account for his attitude toward science.

He is probably the only president who, by his own efforts, at-

tempted to advance applied science. While president he started

an investigation of the soils of the eastern states through personal

correspondence. More important, however, was the work of

Jefferson, in bringing about the establishment of the chair of

chemistry at the University of Virginia, thereby introducing

scientific teaching into this country. He also discussed the min-

eral resources of Virginia in his book on that commonwealth,

wrote, while vice-president, geologic paper, and above all inaug-

urated that system of exploration and investigation of the trans-

Mississippian region which was to yield such fruitful results in

the century to follow. John Adams, while he took no personal

part in promoting scientific research, manifested interest in it

by helping to establish the American Academy of Arts and Sci-

ences.

A review of the conditions which brought about the rapid

growth of geologic work in this country during the first decades

of the nineteenth century cannot fail to consider the political and

industrial situation. The war of 1812 had united as one nation

the commonwealths which up to that time, in spite of the feder-

ation, had strong centrifugal tendencies. Duing the war with

Great Britain New England had been on the verge of rebellion,

while the Trans-Appalachian region was not held to the East by any

strong bonds. The country, rent by domestic quarrels and the

turmoil of opposing political factions, paid small heed to the prob-

lems of industry and commerce.

brooks: applied geology

39

After the war the people thought less about state rights and

more about industrial prosperity. There was no longer a French

party or an English party, but men of all political faiths had come

to the conclusion that we must work out our own salvation. We

had learned to supply our own material needs during the war

when English frigates, cut off European sources of supply. In

short, the nation had found itseff and was ready to begin to har-

vest the resources of the vast territory which the war had settled

for all time was to be our own. Our people, while possessing the

self-confidence of the pioneer, were facing new problems, and,

guided by their scientific instincts, turned to the scientist for help.

In spite of the fact that the war had developed a relatively

strongly-centralized federal government, yet our political theory

Fig. 3. Total number and percentage of total number of states supporting

geologic work, 1825 to 1910

was still one of state rights. Moreover, the Republicans were in

power, with a hopelessly small Federalist minority. It was

natural, therefore, that the people, loyal to their political faith,

should turn to the commonwealths for aid in developing the new

land. This aid for the most part took the form of large grants for

public improvement of transportation facilities — at first for canals

and wagon roads, later for railways. During the period ending

with 1838 the states borrowed sums aggregating over $160,000,000

for purposes of public improvement. Compared with this sum,

the expenditures for geologic surveys were small. It is a signifi-

cant fact, however, that in 1838, a larger percentage of the states

supported geologic surveys than in any subsequent year until

1898. This is graphically illustrated in Fig. 3. The upper

40 brooks: applied geology

curve shows the total number of states, and the lower the per-

centage of total number which supported geologic surveys between

1826 and 1910.

The very rapid increase in state surveys is all the more signifi-

cant when compared with the status of governmental surveys in

Europe. Though much geologic work was done in European

countries during the early part of the century, it was not until

about the middle, that the governments began organizing sys-

tematic surveys. England led by establishing her survey in

1832. Next came surveys of Austria-Hungary and Spain, organ-

ized in 1849, of Bavaria in 1851, and France in 1855. Most

European countries did not undertake systematic geologic surveys

until about 1860, or more than twenty years after our first maxima

of state surveys had been reached.

As already indicated, the principal influence that led to this

first era of state surveys, as Doctor Merrill has called it, was the

wide-spread interest in scientific investigations and the great

industrial advancement which created a demand for the practical

results of such investigations. A good example of the faith the

people had in applied geology is found in the first geological sur-

vey made in Georgia, which was paid for by land owners of two

counties— a condition that has never been repeated until recently

in some of the rich mining districts of the west.

Another reason for the large number of state grants for geologic

work lay in the general westward movement of population from

the Atlantic states. This had a two-fold effect on geologic

surveys. First it gave rise to a demand for information about the

new lands, and second, it put the older states on their mettle to

hold their population. So rapid was the westward movement

that the Atlantic states became alarmed for their future. In 1815

and 1816 the legislatures of both North Carolina and Virginia

appointed committees to divise means for checking the drain on

their population. This was unquestionably the motive in estab-

lishing many of the eastern state surveys, and in directing their

activities toward agricultural problems.

Meanwhile the federal government had undertaken the inves-

tigation of the resources of the unorganized western Territories.

brooks: applied geology 41

The chief purpose seems to have been a classification of the public

lands — a work which was to be interrupted for over half a cen-

tury and then resumed as the proper function of federal geologists.

According to Doctor Merrill2 the first epoch of state surveys

declined even more rapidly than it arose, due, largely to the

financial crisis of 1837. An era of promotion, inflation, and strain-

ing of state credits to their uttermost, accompanied by a waste of

the borrowed millions and the lack of any sound federal financial

policy, resulted in a money panic, the collapse of many ill-advised

enterprises, the repudiation of their public debts by several of the

states, and a wide-spread commercial depression. It is no wonder

that, under these conditions, geologic surveys were regarded as

luxuries that might well be spared; particularly since these first

governmental surveys, it must be admitted, hardly justified

themselves from the standpoint of practical results. This fact

does not detract from the credit due the pioneer geologists who

carried on these surveys under almost insuperable difficulties.

They learned much about real distribution of the larger geologic

units, but most of the investigations were not detailed enough to

yield results of practical value. Moreover, even in that day

many geologists were still living in "flat land" — they considered

formations in only the two horizontal dimensions; for while the

vertical element was by no means ignored, it was not closely

understood.

During the decade following the panic, few states had surveys

and no great progress was made in the science, beyond the pub-

lication of results attained in the previous era. Though the con-

tributions to geologic literature by the class of professional geolo-

gists'— whose appearance was perhaps the most important result

of the activity of the previous decade — were not unimportant,

yet as a whole both pure and applied science were at a rather low

ebb.

The panic was but a temporary check to the industries, how-

ever. The estimated production of pig iron was 347,000 tons in

1840, and 600,000 in 1850, while the coal production during the

2 The extensive use 1 have made of "Contributions to the History of American

Geology" by G. P. Merrill will be evident to all who have read that work.

42 brooks: applied geology

same period increased from 2,000,000 to 7,000,000 tons, and the

railway mileage from 2818 to 9021. These industrial advance-

ments were accompanied by the rapid settlement of the middle

west, by the beginnings of copper mining in Michigan in 1844, and

of iron mining in Michigan and Missouri in 1853, and most im-

portant of all, the discovery of gold in California in 1848. All

this activity gave a new impetus to geologic work, which is re-

flected in the revival of interest in state surveys. At this time,

too, men began to dream of a trans-continental railway and there-

fore the federal government undertook a more systematic explor-

ation of the western cordilleran region than had previously been

made. The curve of state surveys, as seen in the diagram, con-

tinued to rise until the outbreak of the civil war. In this second

epoch of geologic work the states of the middle west — then the

frontier — led. This was but natural, because history has proved

geology always appealed more strongly to the pioneer than to

any other class of people.

It is difficult to measure the accomplishment of this second

period of geologic activity under state and federal auspices, owing

to its abrupt termination by the civil war, which interrupted many

important investigations. One fact stands out clearly: that

applied geology was the mainspring of most of the research, and

the results indicate that pure science had not been the loser there-

by.

The prosperous time following the civil war in the north and

west, with its almost unique industrial advancement, again cen-

tered public interest on mineral resources. This caused the

federal government to resume explorations in the west, which

took the form of areal geologic surveys and in some cases detailed

study of mineral deposits. Many states undertook similar work,

and the curve of geologic surveys arose until the interruption by

the panic of 1873.

The results thus attained proved a final justification of geology,

not only as an intellectual pursuit, but also as a practical- aid to

mankind. While the immediate benefits of these investigations

were large, they were not so important as the institution of geolo-

gic mapping, based on accurate mensuration. Crude as those

brooks: applied geology 43

maps were compared with the present standards of refinement,

they represent the earliest general attempt in this country to

apply engineering methods to geologic problems. It was very

unfortunate that this first epoch of engineering geology, as it

might be called, was so soon interrupted and the work practically

discontinued for over a decade. The people were, in fact, hardly

educated up to an appreciation of its value; moreover, the natural

resources that could be readily exploited without the aid of sci-

ence were so extensive that the time was hardly ripe to make full

use of this new geology.

We have seen that the period following the civil war was espe-

cially favorable to the development of applied geology. The same

is true of pure science. This, in fact, has been the history of

geology in this country — advances in pure science were always

in more or less direct proportion to advances made in the applied

science.

It has been shown that, in the early history of the nation, the

genius of the American people was essentially scientific. A deep

interest was felt both in the facts and deductions of science, and

in the affairs of life deference was paid to the opinion of the inves-

tigator. Unfortunately, for reasons which are difficult to fathom,

this scientific attitude gradually declined. At the beginning of

our national existence we were in close contact with the intel-

lectual life of Europe, which was then essentially scientific. This

gave us our first intellectual stimulus and led us to do our full

share of the work of advancing both pure and applied science.

Then came an interim between the time when we forsook the intel-

lectual standards of the old world and before we fully established

those of our own. Meanwhile, the opening of a continent, with

its unbounded resources, was calculated to bring out the char-

acteristic efficiency and self-reliance of the average American.

Then gradually developed what may be called the era of the

"practical man" — an era characterized essentially by unscientific

thought among the mass of the people. The " practical man"

now became a national fetish, and the people, overlooking the

fact that his success was due to energy and opportunity, attrib-

uted it rather to the absence of technical and scientific knowledge.

44 brooks: applied geology

Nowhere was this national trait better shown than in the mineral

industry, where the era of the " practical man" cost the nation

untold millions. His distrust of applied science was deep-rooted.

For a generation every mining community swarmed with these

self-styled experts, whose technical and scientific limitations

were only exceeded by their blatant self-assertion.

Unfortunately, at this time there also developed between the

geologist and the mining engineer an antagonism, which was detri-

mental to the advance of the science. A school of geology arose

which revived to a certain extent the ancient practice of specula-

tion without observation and regarded itself as moving in a higher

intellectual sphere than that of the engineer, wTho dealt with

practical problems. On the other hand, many engineers came

to regard all work of the geologist as either visionary or purely

speculative.

Since the rise of the modern school of applied geology, which

may be said to have begun in the eighties, this antagonism be-

tween the engineer and the geologist has gradually disappeared.

The geologist has made his results of more value by adopting some

of the methods of the engineer, while the engineer no longer hesi-

tates to use geology in his own field. Both professions have been

improved by this mutual help, and the geologist has by no means

gained the least. The modern mining engineer now recognizes

that, even in his own special field, scientific investigations are

essential. This is evidenced by the general hearty support given

by engineers to the new federal Bureau of Mines.

It is not necessary to describe in detail the recent progress in

applied geology. While most of the countries of the world have

taken part, it is a field that the American geologist has made

peculiarly his own. Among our important contributions in this

field is the geology of mineral oils, presented by Mr. Campbell to

this Society last year. In this, as in the survey of coal deposits,

stratigraphic and structural geology have almost come to be

exact sciences. Equally important to the nation are the results

achieved in underground water investigations. The tectonics

of mineral veins now also approaches an exact science; while

many of the conclusions on the genesis of ore bodies, notably that

brooks: applied geology 45

of secondary enrichment, are among the triumphs of applied

geology.

Moreover, the field is being extended. In Germany the work

of the geologist is regarded almost as essential to railway or canal

location as that of the engineer — a lesson we have only recently

learned at Panama. The investigations of soils is now a distinct

science, based largely on applied geology. Questions of public

health, such as purity of water and sanitation problems, also in

part fall in the domain of the geologist.

A significant phase of the new epoch in applied geology is its

contributions to political economy. A striking example of this

is the geologic survey of Korea, executed by the Japanese during

their war with Russia. It need hardly be said that this was not

made for the purpose of advancing geologic knowledge, but solely

to gain a scientific valuation of the land which was costing so

much blood and treasure. Though the present status of the

science does not permit of a quantitative determination of re-

sources which is more than approximate, yet the fact that geolo-

gists are being called upon by political economists for assistance

indicates how fundamentally the science affects the welfare of the

nation.

This historical survey of applied geology, in which special em-

phasis has been laid on its progress in this country, seems to point

to several conclusions. First, that much of the modern science

of geology originated in the field of applied science. It was the

striving of mankind to solve problems of material welfare that

gave the first impulse to geologic thought. Second, that, as a

rule, the science has made most rapid strides at those times when

its study was inspired by a desire to achieve some practical end.

Whenever geology has become entirely divorced from industry, it

has drifted towards pure speculation. The geologists of the past,

like those of the present, received much of their inspiration from

the fact that they were adding to the material welfare of mankind.

Werner, Humboldt, von Buch, de la Beche, were not only trained

as mining engineers, but continued for most of their careers to be

intimately connected with the mining industry. William Smith

was an engineer before he was a geologist, and even Hutton knew

46 brooks: applied geology

from personal experience the value of applying the sciences of

agriculture and chemistry. On this continent McClure, Eaton,

Rodgers, Owen, Leslie, Logan, Whitney, Orton, Cook, Dawson,

and King, with a host of others, were all identified with the indus-

trial application of their science. The elder Silliman, in an

account of his own training in geology, said: "I learned in the

mining districts how and what to observe." The years that Dana

spent on explorations may be counted in the field of applied

geology. James Hall, for two generations the leader in American

geology and the founder of that organization which for three-

quarters of a century has preserved the highest scientific ideals,

gained his early inspiration in studying practical problems. An

enumeration of the leading geologists of the present generation

will, I think, show that the larger part have given much attention

to the material application of geology.

The recent economic trend of geology is only a counterpart of

similar tendencies in most fields of scientific research. The intro-

duction of science into practical affairs is a feature of the present

age. It has come about not only because, as the sciences pro-

gressed, their results were more directly applicable to material

problems, but more specially because of the gradually changing

conditions throughout the world. With a sparse population and

abundance of natural resources the need of applied science is

never so evident as when the lands become crowded and the more

readily accessible resources depleted. The people of a virgin land

need pay small heed to exhaustion of soil or destruction of forests,

and can carry on shallow mining operations with little recourse to

science or technology. It is only when increasing population re-

sults in a demand for a greater food supply and makes sanitation

important; when the depletion of timber becomes a factor in cost

of structures; and the superficial deposits can no longer yield

sufficient minerals, that the need of scientific knowledge becomes

strongly emphasized. This stage has been reached in most of the

civilized countries of the world to a greater or less extent, and the

evils of relative over-population and depletion of nature's wealth

are resulting in an appeal to applied science. China stands alone

among the great nations of the world in not utilizing scientific

brooks: applied geology 47

thought to better the conditions of her people. The present

turmoil in China can probably be interpreted, in the last analysis

as a protest against the affairs of state being guided by the classi-

cist rather than by the scientist.

While we may criticise China for not accepting the dictum of

science, we have only recently departed from a similar attitude,

though our abundant resources have made our own faults less

conspicuous. In this respect the present generation has made

greater strides than all "that preceded. We are now applying

science to the affairs of the nation as never before. The old-

fashioned publicist, with his classical education or, at least,

traditions, is being shouldered out of the way by the man who

analyzes the problems of public welfare on scientific principles.

The trained investigator is being more and more appealed to in

the affairs of the nation. In this we are following Germany, whose

long leadership in pure science has now been overshadowed by her

leadership in applied science. We have begun to realize, that

it is one thing to win prosperity and happiness out of the bounty

of a new land, another to gain it by utilizing resources which can

only be made available by scientific genius.

Mr. Gilbert has said that " pure science is fundamentally the

creature and servant of the material needs of mankind." Yet it

is not uncommon to find the devotee of pure science assuming that

his field is on a higher plane than that of those studying problems

which involve the material welfare of the human race. This

seems specially true in the field of geology. If a bacteriologist

finds a new toxin for a disease germ, a botanist a new food plant,

a sanitary engineer a measure for preserving human life, all unite

in commending his work. Yet there are not a few geologists,

though I believe a constantly decreasing number, who seem to

view with suspicion any attempt to make the science of geology

more useful. Those who are devoting themselves to economic

geology are charged with commercializing the science, as if the

applying of its principles to better the conditions of the people

were not the highest use to which scientific research could be put.

One reason for this attitude is because much which has been mas-

querading as applied geology is not science at all. The commer-

48 brooks: applied geology

cial exploitation of natural resources under the cloak of geology

is not to be confounded with geologic research, which has for its

aims the application of scientific principles to the needs of man.

The geologist who is studying the resources of the public domain

to the end that a sound policy may be adopted for their utiliza-

tion, or he who is gaging the exhaustion of our mineral wealth by

studying statistics of production, is doing his share of scientific

work no less than he who is engaged in the more pleasing task of

evolving new geologic principles. The masters of the science have

not hesitated to turn their attention to economic problems.

Clarence King deserves no less credit for his aid in opening up the

west by economic investigations than for his contributions to

knowledge on the age of the earth. We think of Major Powell

as one of the founders of physiographic geology, but his memory

will live rather for employing science to make available the latent

fertility of the arid regions of the West. Surely no one will charge

King or Powell with commercializing their science.

As I see it, there lies no danger in the present trend toward

applied geology, provided our applied geology rests on a broad

basis of scientific research. If the spring of pure science is cut

off, the stream of applied geology must soon run dry. There is

no field of pure geology which will not yield results applicable to

questions of material welfare. On the other hand, any given

investigation in applied geology may lead to problems of paleon-

tology, petrography, geophysics, or other branches of pure science.

In view of the pressing demand for results, we are justified in

giving precedence to those fields of investigation which promise

the earliest returns of material value. There is, however, grave

danger that, carried away by the present furor for practical re-

sults, we may lose sight of our scientific ideals. Applied geology

can only maintain its present high position of usefulness by con-

tinuing the researches which advance the knowledge of basic

principles. Future progress in applied geology depends on pro-

gress in pure geology.

umpleby: stratigraphy of idaho 49

GEOLOGY. — Note on the stratigraphy of east-central Idaho.

J. B. Umpleby, Geological Survey.

During recent field studies much additional information has

been obtained concerning the stratigraphy of east-central Idaho.

During September 1910 the writer examined the area about the

head of Lemhi Valley, and a year later, in company with Dr.

George H. Girty, revisited the locality about Gilmore and made

a fairly complete collection of fossils.

The Paleozoic section at Gilmore is made up of a great succes-

sion of sedimentary rocks, striking north-south and usually dip-

ping about 45° east. Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian

(?) and Mississippian formations are present. At the base is a

clear-white, fine-grained quartzite at least 2,000 feet thick. It

is well exposed above Meadow Lake. Conformably above it is

massive blue dolomitic limestone about 500 feet thick. This is

assigned to the Richmond stage of the Ordovician. Then fol-

lows 300 feet of massive white dolomitic limestone of Silurian

age. The formation next above comprises about 2,000 feet of

thin-bedded blue and white dolomitic limestones, with occasion-

ally a siliceous band. This formation is tentatively considered

as Devonian. It is presumably conformable with the Mississip-

pian, altho its upper contact was not seen. Only a portion of the

latter formation is exposed, but from this it is known to be more

than 300 feet thick.

The Paleozoic series rests upon intensely metamorphosed rocks

of Algonkian age which outcrop along its western border. On the

east it disappears beneath Miocene lake beds. Mesozoic forma-

tions are absent.

EVOLUTION. — Evolution in discontinuous systems. II1. Alfred

J. Lotka. Communicated by J. A. Fleming.

One of the principal types of change of state with which we are

concerned in discussing inter-group evolution in biological sys-

tems is the passage of matter from one kindred-group into another

thru the process of " feeding," the one group serving as food for

xSee this Journal 2: 2. 1912.

50 lotka: discontinuous evolution

the other. Among the various possible cases of this kind we can

distinguish the following:

1. A group Ai feeds on living portions of a group Ah, which

are either

(a) expressly killed in the act of feeding, or

(b) continue to live, at least for a time, while A\ is parasitic

upon them (parasites, disease germs).

2. The waste products An of a group Ah. serve as food for A\.

3. Several groups, such as A, and A] feed competitively on

the same group Ah.

Schematically we may represent these three cases by the

following diagram

(1) Ah-^A^Ak

(2) Ah(->AH)->A,->Ak

(3) A

In the case of type (1) Ai will as a rule tend to exert a prejudi-

cial influence upon the growth of Ah. An exception occurs where

there is symbiosis with mutual benefit, the term being here used

in a general sense, to include for example the relation between

man and farm plants and animals.

In the case of type (2) the influence of Ai upon Ah will be rather

beneficial than otherwise, since waste products are by the very

nature of things more or less harmful to the group from which they

originate. So long, however, as there is no undue crowding, so

that the waste products are sufficiently spread out in space ("di-

luted"), this effect will as a rule be small, and may often be negli-

gible.

Case (3) may be regarded as a special form of cases (1) and (2).

If we denote the mass of any given group by the letter M with

the proper subscript, we may express in analytical form the state-

ments made in the last three paragraphs. Arranging the facts

in a table we have:

lotka: discontinuous evolution

51

d Mi \ it

COMMONLY

(1)

(2)

Ah(-

*AH)

^4k

.4,

/Ik

SPECIAL CASE

0 or

We now proceed to discuss in greater detail a case of the type

(2) noted in our table:

Ah(->A

H

A,

that is to say a kindred-group A\ feeds on the waste products

AH of other groups which we denote collectively by Ah. Thus

for example Ah may represent a number of carnivorous species,

AH the carbon dioxide and other matter excreted by them, and

Ai some green plant which assimilates such waste products,

but is not itself consumed by Ah.

Fixing our attention first on A i We note that

dflf,

dt

= Bi- Z,

(1)

where B\ is the total food consumed by Ai per unit of time, and

Z\ is the total waste matter (including the bodies of dead indi-

viduals) discarded by Af per unit of time.

We will write

dMx

dt

= (6,-2i)Mi = r,Mi

Similarly we have for A H

dMn

dt

Bn~ Zn

(2)

(3)

We will suppose that the groups Ah have had time to arrive

at a state of equilibrium with their environment, and that the

waste products AH exert at most a negligible influence on Ah.

Then we have for the mass Mh of the groups Ah

M h = constant (4)

52 lotka: discontinuous evolution

This being so, the mass Zh eliminated per unit of time by Ah

will, under otherwise similar conditions, also be constant, so that

Bn = %h = constant (5)

Again, ZH the rate of elimination of mass per unit of time from

AU} stands in a simple relation to the rate of formation Bi of Au

If AH lost mass only through A{ feeding upon it, while on the

other hand Ai gained mass by feeding exclusively on A-^, we

should have simply

ZR = Bi (6)

In general we can not, however, suppose these conditions to be

satisfied, so that we must introduce a coefficient 6, and write

ZH = dB{ = ebMi (7)

Substituting (7) in (3) we obtain

^Ms^H-fl&.Mi (8)

dt

We are supposing all other conditions constant, and only Mn

and Mi changing. Under these circumstances bh r, and 0 will

be functions of MK and Mi alone

6, = h (MH, Mi) n = n (MH, M,) d = 9(MH, Mi).... (9)

Our immediate problem is to find a general solution of the set

of differential equations (2) and (8), expressing MH and Mi as

functions of t. For this purpose we will first of all simplify our

notation by dropping all subscripts, and writing

MH = X Mi = Y (10)

Equation (8) and (2) then assume the form

dX. = B-dbY (11)

dt

clY

^=r = rY (12)

at

lotka: discontinuous evolution 53

Let us expand the right hand member of (11) by Taylor's

theorem in the neighborhood of the point X„ Fro given by

^ = R-e„ba,YCB = Q (13)

dt

^=riFm = 0 (14)

dt

We thus obtain

(B - ebY) = (B- e^b^Yj - \ d [b ■ Ya I (X ■ - X J

+<MY^S)^x^Y~Y^

+(Ur--**^-Y4- (15)

or, in an obvious notation, and putting

(X -IJ'=.u (16)

(F-FJ = y (17)

— = ax + @y + yx- + ixy '+ ey2 + . • • (18'

dt

Similarly

dl = a'x+p'y+y'x*+8'xy+eY+' • • (19)

dt

The solution of the system of differential equations (18) (19)

is

x = Aie-ht + Bie-kt + A2e-2ht + B2e-(h+k)t + C,e-2kt

+ yl3^3ht + 53e-l-h+k,t + CV-(h+2k,t + i)3e~:3kt+ • • • ■ .(20)

2/ = aie-ht + &ie-kt+- . :' (21)

The values of h, k, A i,A2, . . . ax, a2, .... can

be determined by substituting the solution in the original equation

and equating the coefficients of homologous terms. It is unnec-

54 lotka: discontinuous evolution

essary to carry this out in detail here; the expressions thus

obtained for h and k are, however, of special interest

h =--{(« + f) + l/(a-j8')* + 4a//3} (22)

* = - o" { (a + j8') - l/~(a-/302 + 4c?i8} (23)

From these expressions it will be seen, that the solution becomes

oscillatory as soon as

(a-|S0* + 4a'j8<0

It is then convenient to write the solution in trigonometric

form, as follows

x = e-pt{A\coaqt+B\fm\qt} +e"2pt {A'2cos2^+£'2sin2gH-C"2}

+ e-3pt{A/3cos3gi + JB,3sin3gi + (7/3Cosg/ + Z)/3sin^} (24)

y = e-pt [a\ cos qt + b'i sin qt) + • • • (25)

where

1 1

p=---(a + 0O and g=-l/ -{(a-/302+4a'l3} ...(26)

For lack of numerical data we can not apply the solution thus

found to a concrete example of the particular case here considered.

However, for a certain type of reaction, which the writer has dis-

cussed elsewhere,2 the laws of chemical dynamics lead to a set

of equations

- — = Lx + Ky + xy (I)

at

-^ =Lx + xy (ID

at

which will be recognized as a special case of (18) (19); their solu-

tion is, in point of fact, of the form (20) (21) (24) (25).

In order to illustrate the character of the function represented

by the series (24), a concrete example of such a reaction has been

»J1. Phys. Chem. 25: 271. 1910. Zeitschr. phys. Chem. 72: 50S. 1910.

Only the firsl two terms of the series are given in these publications.

lotka: discontinuous evolution

55

worked out, arbitrarily assuming the following values for the

constants occurring in equations (I) and (II)

K = 0.505 L = 0.2

whence follows

V = 0.1 q = 0.302

Fig. 1. Solution of Equations (24) and (25)

The first three terms of the solution were worked out. The

constants thus obtained for x are tabulated below, together with

the corresponding constants for y and x.

56

lotka: discontinuous evolution

No attempt was made to investigate the convergence of the

series, but the solution was tested by substituting it in the right

hand member of (I) and comparing the values thus obtained with

dx

the corresponding values of — obtained directly from the solution

at

as tabulated above. These latter are shown as a continuous

curve x in the accompanying diagram while the crosses indicate

corresponding values obtained by substitution. Beyond the

last cross shown the agreement was complete within the limits

of plotting error.

While the curves shown in the diagram refer specifically to the

reaction mentioned above, in their general appearance they are

typical of the solution (25) of the general case, and we may here

discuss them as if they related to the groups Au and A{ which

we have been considering.

We note, then, that at the start there is an abundance of the

food material x, and accordingly the feeding group y increases

rapidly, with the result that soon the increased consumption causes

the total food supply to dimin sh, tho it is sti 1 for a time quite

plentiful, and y accordingly continues to increase. After a cer-

tain time, however, when x, the food supply, has fallen below

a certain value,3 the feeding group y now also begins to diminish.

This alternate rise and fall of the two curves, with a certain phase

difference, would go on indefinitely if we extended our curves to

infinity, for it can be seen by inspection of (24) (25), that for

very large values of t the solution reduces simply to the form of

damped harmonic oscillation. Actually the curve for x has been

3 That this value happens to be zero is peculiar to the special case here consid-

dv

ere'd, x being a factor of — (see Equation II) : in general this is not the case. To

at,

be precise, x represents not the food sujply, but the excess of this over its equi-

librium value. See Equation (16).

lotka: discontinuous evolution 57

drawn for one entire fundamental period, and the curve for y for

one-half-period.

The significance to a biological kindred-group of such alter-

nating periods of prosperity and depression as are indicated in our

oscillating curve, representing a function of the form (24) is so

obvious as to call for no further comment. In particular, the

question suggests itself to our minds, whether the curve of growth

along which the human race is at present ascending, leads to a

maximum, to be followed by a downward incline. That we have

been living on our capital of natural resources is only too clear.

But we are awakening to a realisation of this fact, and are taking

stock, and looking ahead in preparation to meet such emergencies

as may arise. Our reflections here lead us to the consideration

of such topics as the preservation of our natural resources, the

production of nitrogen compounds from the air, and the exploita-

tion of the radiant energy received from the sun. These things

have been discussed at length in the current scientific and tech-

nical literature, and their mere mention here in their logical place

must suffice.

As an example of a case of the type (1. b) (page 50), we will

consider a bacterial disease, such as pulmonary phthisis, which is

more or less constantly present in the population (i.e., not epi-

demic in its occurrence). Brief reflection shows that we can

apply to this case a mathematical treatment precisely analogous

to that of the growth of a population. For we may think of the

diseased part of the population as a separate aggregate, into which

new individuals are recruited by fresh infection, just as new indi-

viduals enter an ordinary population by births. On the other

hand members are continually eliminated from the aggregate,

firstly by deaths, and secondly by recoveries. On the basis of

these considerations formulae can without difficulty be estab-

lished to express a relation between the total and the diseased

population, which in this case is of more immediate interest than

the ratio of the total mass of the population to that of the bac-

teria. Such general furmulse however involve certain functions

which are unknown, and whose determination by statistical

methods would at best present great difficulties. The matter

58 lotka: discontinuous evolution

assumes a somewhat more favorable aspect if we are satisfied

with the discussion of the simple special case of a stationary popu-

lation, in which the disease also is supposed to have reached

equilibrium.

We may then proceed as follows:

Let A" be the total number of the population, and

A"i the number afflicted with the disease.

Let S = Ns be the total number of deaths per unit of time,

and let

Si = Ni Si be the number of deaths per unit of time, due

to the disease considered.

Let Aicri =A"i — be the total number of individuals eliminated

T

from the aggregate of diseased persons

per unit of time from all causes, including

deaths by the disease under consideration,

by other diseases, and also recoveries.

When a stationary condition is reached, <n must be equal to

the reciprocal of the mean duration L of the disease. In this

case we have, then

NlSl=N^ (27)

Furthermore, if 7 is a factor indicating that fraction of the

total deaths, which is due to the disease considered, then

N1s1=N1^ = yNs (28)

Hence

Ai yLs

or, solving for L

(29)

A T

L = ~- (30)

N ys

By the way of a numerical example, let us substitute in the

formula thus obtained some data gathered from the statistics

lotka: discontinuous evolution 59

for New York City. The supposition of a stationary popula-

tion and an equilibrium condition of the disease is quite unwar-

ranted here, but in the absence of more suitable material, and in

view of the great uncertainty of the figures obtainable, we shall

have to rest content with this very crude illustration.

In 1909 the total population of New York was about 4.5 mil-

lions. The total number of consumptives at the time has been

Ni

estimated at about 45,000. Hence — = 0.01. The death rate

N

per head, per annum, from all causes, was 0.016; that from tuber-

culosis alone 0.002. Hence

s =.0.016

7s = 0.002

7 = 0.125

The coefficient r represents a measure of the "deadliness"

of the disease, i.e., it expresses what fraction of the persons once

struck with the disease untimately die therefrom. It is difficult

to obtain any kind of estimate of the value of r. We will assume

that r = 0.8

We then have by (30)

L _ 0,01 xQ,8_1

0,002 '

In view of the crudity of the data on which it is based, this

calculation must be regarded purely as an illustration of the prin-

ciples involved, and not in any sense as an attempt to determine

L, although the endeavor has been made to preserve at least the

right order of magnitude in the example given.

The mathematical treatment of the phenomena presented by

infectious diseases has been developed in some detail by Sir

Ronald Ross, especially with respect to insect-carried diseases,

in his book The Prevention of Malaria,4 and, quite recently, in

a paper published in Nature.'0

4 Published by Murray, 1910; Second Edition, 1911.

5 "Some Quantitative Studies in Epidemiology," Nature, Oct. 5, p. 466. 1911.

60 proceedings: biological society

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 488th regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, November

18, 1911. Four new members were elected. The first communication

was an illustrated paper on a Study of distribution based upon the family

Pyramidellidae, by Paul Bartsch.

The second communication was entitled The peculiar migration of the

Evening Grosbeak, by Wells W. Cooke.

Most species of North American birds have migration routes that are

approximately north and south, while the migration route of the Even-

ing Grosbeak is nearly east and west.

The species is rather common in the mountainous parts of western

North America from central Alberta to southern Mexico. It has been

divided into three farms : montana includes all the breeding birds of the

United States and southern British Columbia; mexicana, all the breed-

ing birds of Mexico; and vespertina, the remainder of the breeding birds

of Canada.

The species was originally described from migrants taken in April, 1823,

at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., but it was more than half a century later

before the first eggs were found. The first published description of the eggs

was by Bryant in 1887 of a set found May 10, 1886, in Yolo County,

Calif. A set of eggs had been taken two years earlier at Springerville,

Ariz., but an account of it was not published until 1888. Ten years

elapsed before the next set was taken in 1896 near Lake Tahoe, Calif.

There had been only three sets found, therefore, up to 1901, when Mr.

F. J. Birtwell found at Willis, N. M., five nests in one small colony. He

secured the eggs from two of the nests and lost his life by an accident in

climbing after the third. Only a few nests have been found in the last

ten years, so that there are scarcely a dozen sets of the eggs of the Even-

ing Grosbeak in existence at the present time. All of these eggs belong

to the subspecies montana; the eggs of the type species vespertina are still

unknown to science, although young have been found in the nest.

The form montana is not migratory in the strict sense of the word.

It nests in the mountains and spreads out in winter time into the valleys

and the neighboring plains. The form vespertina, nesting entirely north

of the United States in the mountains of Alberta, is strongly migratory,

but instead of moving south in the fall, which would bring it into the

district occupied throughout the year by montana, it journeys eastward

and is a common winter visitant in Manitoba and Minnesota. Hence it

spreads less commonly to Iowa, Wisconsin, Michigan and western

Ontario. The species was scarcely known further east until the winter

of 1889-90, when a remarkable invasion of the Evening Grosbeak was

noted throughout much of the northeastern United States. So numer-

ous were they that more than a thousand were killed in the vicinity of

proceedings: biological society

61

Fig. 1. Evening Grosbeak

• Breeding

O Winter

Heavy line separates montana from vespertina on the north and mexicana

on the south.

62 proceedings: biological society

Toronto, Ontario, and the birds for the first time appeared in New Eng-

land. Ten were seen in this part of the country for the next ten years,

but during the last few years they have become increasingly common and

the winters of 1909-1910 and 1910—11 witnessed the presence of almost

as many individuals as had appeared twenty years earlier.

The species is known to have ranged east, southeast and south to the

city of Quebec, Canada, Bucksport, Me., Seabrook, N. H., Cape Cod,

Mass., Woonsocket, R. I., Portland, Conn., Fairhaven, N. J., Williams-

port, Pa., Granville, 0., Hickman, Ky., New Haven, Mo., Onaga, Kans.,

and Ellis, Kans.

During the invasion of 1889-90, the birds remained until May 1,

the last being seen on that date at Henniker, N. H. During 1910-11,

they remained until May 15 at Leominster, Mass.

Not all of the migrants go eastward, for the Evening Grosbeaks of

Sundance, Wyo., belong to the Canadian farm, vespertina, and must

have made a long migration from Alberta; though montana breeds but a

short distance to the westward.

D. E. Lantz, Recording Secretary.

PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 492nd meeting will be held at the Cosmos Club at 8 p.m.

Saturday, January 20, 1912. Program: Brief notes and exhibition of

specimens. Elk heads in Jackson Hole, Wyoming; illustrated; E. A.

Preble. A naturakst among the Igerotes of the Philippine Islands;

illustrated; H. V. Harlan.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. II, FEBRUARY 4, 1912 No. 3

ELECTRICITY. — The four-terminal conductor and the Thomson

bridge. Frank Wenner. Communicated by E. B. Rosa.

To appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards.

In the measurement of low resistances the resistances of con-

nectors and contacts are often as large as the resistances with

which we may be concerned. It is therefore necessary, if a high

precision is desired, to use a method of measurement by which

the effects of the resistance of the connecting leads and contacts

are eliminated. That is the method must be such that we can limit

the resistance measured to that of a part of a conductor which con-

tains no variable connecting resistances. The first requisition then

is that the conductor have four terminals suitable for making

electrical connections to other conductors or leads. Usually two

of the four terminals are designed for making connections to cur-

rent leads while the other two are designed for making connections

to the potential leads.

When a current enters through one of "the current terminals

and leaves through the other, there is a difference in potential

between the potential terminals. The ratio of this potential

difference to the current is the resistance of the four-terminal

conductor.

When such a conductor is to carry a large current, as is often

desired, the current terminals must be large so the current distri-

butions in the conductor depends to some extent upon the way in

which the current leads are connected. Where this is the case

we are not surprised when we find the resistance of the conductor

somewhat indefinite. Where, however, this matter is given due

consideration in the design the resistance can be made definite

within the limits of measurement, even where the conductor is

made of sufficient section to carry 1000 amperes or more.

63

64 wenner: four-terminal conductor

If the current leads are connected to the potential terminals

there is, when a current is flowing, a difference in' potential be-

tween the current terminals. The ratio of this potential differ-

ence to the current is the same as with the regular connections.

If the current leads are connected to one of the current terminals

and to a corresponding potential terminal, there may be a differ-

ence in potential between the other two terminals when a current

flows. The ratio of the difference in potential to the current is

what we may call the cross resistance.

Y

Fig. 1. Thomson Bridge Method

Where the cross resistance is appreciable, errors may be intro-

duced unless the method of measurement is such as to eliminate

its effect as well as the effect of the connecting resistances.

Of the different methods available for the comparison of low

resistances, we shall consider here only the Thomson bridge

method. This method has been in use for about a half century1

and many of its advantages were pointed out in the original paper.

The arrangement of the conductors in the bridge is shown in Fig.

1. Here X and Y designate the low resistance conductors to be

compared and A and B the conductors of the main ratio set.

1 Sir Wm. Thomson, Phil. Mag., 24: 149. 1862.

wenner: four-terminal conductor 65

Later we shall use X and Y to designate the values of the low

resistances and A and B to designate the values of the resistances

in the ratio set between p and y, and y and p.' We shall also use

Xm and Ym to designate the inductances of the low resistance con-

ductors. The equations generally given for use with this method

have been derived without taking into consideration the cross

resistances of the four terminal conductors. The relations given

by the equations are therefore not exact as has generally been

supposed. Recently Prof. Searle has derived new equations2

giving the relations between the various resistances including the

cross resistances. These equations are necessarily somewhat

complicated and in order to be able to use them in calculations,

it is necessary to know the values of a large number of resistances.

If, however, adjustments are made so that the bridge is in balance

using alternately p and p,' and q and q' as branch points and if the

balance is not disturbed on removing the connector Z it can be

shown that

X/Y = A/B (1)

Low resistance standards are sometimes used in alternating

current measurements. In such cases it is generally necessary

to know both the resistance and inductance or to know that the

inductance is so small that at the frequency used, the phase angle

may be considered zero. The Thomson bridge method may be

used for measuring both the resistance and inductance.

A general equation, giving the relations between the resistances

inductances and frequency of the alternating current necessary

for a balance, would be very complicated. If however, adjust-

ments are made so that, under the conditions given above, the

bridge is balanced both when using direct current and when using

alternating current the relations become much simpler and as a

particular case it can be shown that

Xm/Ym =X/Y = A/B (2)

Here it is assumed that the inductances of A and B are so small

in comparison with their resistances that their time constants

may be considered zero.

5 Electrician, 67: 57. 1911.

66 lotka: discontinuous evolution

INVOLUTION. — Evolution in discontinuous systems. III.1

Alfred J. Lotka. Communicated by J. A. Fleming.

In our considerations so far we have supposed ri} the fractional

rate of increase of any group Ai} to be a given function of the

general conditions of the system, and in particular of the masses

Mh and ikf,.

Let us now look a little more closely at this function r, and

examine it in its relation to the physical properties of the living

organism.

In the first place we note that

r = _L *K = JL (B - Z) (31)

M dt M K

If m is the average mass of one individual, we have

M = Nm (32)

For our present purpose it will be sufficiently near the truth

to assume m to be constant. In that case

1 dM 1 dN 1 trt Q\ , N /ooX

r= ■ = = — (G — S) = (q — 8) (33)

M dt N dt NK y y '

where

G = total number of births per unit of time, and

S = total number of deaths per unit of time.

Our problem, then, is to investigate G and S, or g and s as

functions of the physical properties of the organism.

It may appear at first sight the most logical procedure to

discuss first of all B or G. On looking into the matter, however,

we find that B can always be referred back to Z, and that the

latter appears really more directly related to the physical

properties of the system, so that its discussion naturally takes

first place.

The statement has just been made, that B can always be

referred back to Z. This is evidently true, for whatever material

is gained by one group, must be lost by one or more other groups,

or to express this in the form of an equation,

1 See this Journal, 2: pp. 2 and 49, 1912.

lotka: discontinuous evolution 67

u=co

B^^\VZV (34)

u=l

where the coefficients A,,„ have an obvious import.

But in many cases there is also a simple relation between g

and s. Thus for a stationary condition we have

9 = s (35)

while, under constant conditions, birth and deathrate tend to

approach the relation

- = fVfg-8)ap(a)da (36)2

g Jo

where p(a) is the probability, at birth, that an individual picked

out at random from among newly born shall reach age a.

We obtain still another relation between g and s if we suppose

that matters have so adjusted themselves, that the birthrate is

the one that gives the maximum rate of increase for the popu-

lation, a condition which is presumably approached in nature.

In such a case we must have

dr = d(g-sl=0 (37)

dg dg

or

^ = 1 (38)

dg

Our immediate task, then, is to discuss the influences which

determine the deathrate of a given group. Obviously such

deathrate will depend (1) On external conditions; (2) On the

the properties of the group.

As regards the first of these two factors, we note that in general

the external influences to which the individual is exposed vary

from point to point in space and from instant to instant at a

given point. For the purposes of our present discussion we shall

2 Lotka, Am. Jl. Sci., 24: 201. 1907. Science, 26: 22. 1907. Sharpe and

Lotka, Phil. Mag., p. 437, April, 1911.

68 lotka: discontinuous evolution

suppose that the mode of variation is given, so that we may

restrict our discussion to the second factor, the dependence of

the death rate, under given external conditions, on the properties

of the group.

We noted at the outset, that the distinguishing characteristic

of the kind of changes with which we are here concerned, is

their discontinuity. Let us consider a little more in detail how

this discontinuity enters into play in the case of an aggregate

of living organisms. If we single out some one particular indi-

vidual, and follow up its history, we shall see it exposed, in its

travel through time and space, to fluctuating internal and ex-

ternal conditions. This will in general lead to changes in the

distribution of energy both within the individual and between

it and the environment. With regard to such redistribution of

energy the following observation is to be made:

In general an infinitesimal change in the distribution of energy

in a material system brings with it an infinitesimal change in the

condition of the system. If, however, such change in distri-

bution continues in a given direction, sooner or later a point will

in general be reached, beyond which any further change, even

if infinitesimal, will now cause a finite change in the condition

of the system. Thus a discontinuous change takes place.

Analytically we might express these facts somewhat as follows:

Let P be some one of the parameters which serve to define the

state of the system under consideration. Let the distribution

of energy in the system suffer a change by the passage, in stated

manner, of a quantity dQi of some form of energy E} from one

portion of the system into another, or from the surroundings

dP

into the system. Then in general —r- is a finite and continuous

dQi

function of Qx. After a certain quantity Qc has been trans-

ferred, however, and the parameter P has reached a corresponding-

critical value P0, any further increment dQ1} however small,

now causes a finite change in P — in other words the function

— — has a discontinuity at this point. We may speak of Pc as

the " critical" or "limiting strain" of the system for the par-

lotka: discontinuous evolution 69

ticular form of energy and mode of redistribution of the same.

Each system has a definite set of such limiting strains, which

represent characteristic properties, and which we may speak of

collectively as the " passive resistance" of the system to im-

pressed modifications.

If we turn our thoughts back now to the consideration of the

individual organism whose history we were following up, we

observe that in general, among the fluctuating influences to

which it is subjected, there will sooner or later arise conditions

in which a "limiting strain" is exceeded — the individual suffers

a discontinuous change, which may be of such character as to

kill it, i. e., eliminate it from the aggregate.

Under the conditions of the problem as it presents itself to

us in nature we can not in general foretell when a particular

individual will meet with the fatal variation. We may know,

however, in a statistical way, what fraction p(a) out of some

large number of individuals, picked out at random and counted

at the moment of their birth, will reach age a, or, what amounts

to the same thing, what proportion /x(a) of individuals at age a

are eliminated per unit of time. Our problem is to analyse

/*(a) in its relation to the properties of the organism.

An analysis of the factors which determine ,u(a) leads us first

of all to a division of these into two classes. For the probability

that a given individual shall be eliminated from its continuum,

in a small interval of time dt say, depends on two kinds of con-

ditions: Firstly on the "passive resistance" of the individual,

as defined above, and as measured by the set of values of the

several Pc ; secondly on the probability that the individual shall

be exposed to any stated strain during the interval dt. This

latter probability itself in turn depends on two factors; firstly

on the relative frequency of the several fluctuations in the con-

ditions of the system; and secondly on the probability that a

given fluctuation occur in such relation to time and space that

the individual under consideration is affected thereby. Finally,

this last probability depends on the distribution and disposition

(arrangement) of the individuals in space. And in this respect

there are two cases to be distinguished. On the one hand the

70 lotka: discontinuous evolution

arrangement of the individuals in space may be independent of

the distribution of the " fluctuations " in the system — at least so

far as the critical limits are not exceeded — ; thus, for example,

according to the simpler form of the kinetic theory, which regards

the molecules as elastic spheres, the probability of finding a

molecule at the point x, y, z is independent of the coordinates

and velocities of the other molecules, provided only that x, y, z

does not fall within the radius of another molecule. If we

suppose that chemical action takes place at the time of a col-

lision between two molecules, then we see that in this case, the

occurrence at a given point, of a fluctuation which would cause

a molecule placed at that point to be eliminated from the aggre-

gate (namely the presence there of another molecule with certain

velocity components), has no influence upon the probability

that some molecule or other shall be moving upon the point in

question at the moment considered.

But in an important class of cases the arrangement of the indi-

viduals in space is not independent of the distribution of the fluctu-

ations in space ; on the contrary, there is a more or less close

" correlation " between the occurrence of certain fluctuations in the

general conditions of the system and the presence of an individual

at the corresponding point of time and space. In fact, it is

hardly too much to say, that the dominant tendency in the

evolution of the highest types of living organisms, and of modern

man in particular, is to make this correlation as close as possible.

Before we proceed to consider more in detail the manner and

means by which this correlation is secured, it will be well to

summarise in tabular form the essential points of our analysis.

Expressing successive dependencies on the pattern of genea-

logical tables, we obtain the following picture :

lotka: discontinuous evolution 71

Probability of elimination

of individual

depends on

Passive resistance Probability of meeting any

stated strain

Relative frequency of the Arrangement of

several fluctuations of individuals in

the system space

May be independent of the May be correlated3 with

fluctuations in condition fluctuations in condi-

of system tion of system

Let us now briefly consider how this correlation between the

conditions of the system from point to point and the disposition

of the individuals in space is established. It will be useful to

illustrate by means of a simile the phenomena here involved.

The individual in its struggle for existence may be likened to

a fencer A, whose opponent B represents the external world.

We will think of B as being immortal, a condition which might

be realized for example by immediately replacing him by a

substitute as soon as he received a serious injury. Then, how-

ever excellent A's fencing might be, short of absolute perfection,

sooner or later he must succumb to the attack of his assailant.

Now we may roughly represent the course of the combat as

follows : B makes the attack. Let x' y' z' be the coordinates of

the point of his sword. For the sake of simplicity we will suppose

that these coordinates define B's position at every moment

sufficiently for our purposes. A's task is to parry each of B's

thrusts. In other words, if x y z are the coordinates of A's

swordpoint, A's problem is to make x y z such functions of

x' y' z', that the latter coordinates at no instant fall within the

geometrical boundaries of his vital organs.

3 Such correlation is probably possible only in a system having a fund of

free energy. The phenomenon is closely related to "relay action," in which

"action and reaction" are not equal.

72 lotka: discontinuous evolution

Now A's success will evidently depend on two factors:

Firstly on his determination and skill in the selection of a suitable

function; and secondly on the precision with which he attains

the functional relation aimed at. This precision in turn depends

on two factors: on the one hand on the accuracy of his sense

organs (receptors), as measured for example by the frequency

curve of his observational errors; on the other hand the pre-

cision of A's fencing depends on the agility with which his body

and limbs (effectors) carry out the actions aimed at, i.e., those

corresponding to the function selected.

Leaving now our simile,4 and considering the actual case of a

living organism, such as man, we observe that thruout all his

activities there runs the so-called " sensory-motor circuit," which

comprises the following steps:

1. The external world is " represented " (in the mathematical

sense)5 in the individual. This is effected partly by the sense

organs (receptors), and partly also with the assistance of the

thinking organ, which, by logical argument, further develops

the representation formed directly by the sense perceptions.

2. The representation of the external world so obtained

calls out another representation of a " modified external world."

(The modification may involve both the external world and the

individual.) If this modified " representation " be a subject of

consciousness in the individual, we recognise it as a "desire,"

"purpose," or "intention." If several alternatives of this kind

are presented, in general one of these is selected. If this choice

is made by a conscious process, it is determined by a faculty

which may be termed the "judgment of value" of the individual.

3. The third and terminal step in the circuit is an "action"

of the individual, whereby the external world is so modified as

to, correspond with greater or less accuracy to the "modified

representation" of the external world, which we noted under

(2). At this step also, as in (1), thought-processes may assist in

4 This simile is of course incomplete in so far as we have supposed A to remain

purely on the defensive, whereas the typical living organism must necessarily

make active attack. This does not, however, materially affect the argument,

since the same principles apply to its actions in either attitude.

5 The German word "abgebildet" is particularly expressive.

lotka: discontinuous evolution 73

the carrying out of the "purpose" in view, i. e., in impressing

upon the external world the form corresponding to the modified

representation just referred to.

Now the efficiency of the "receptor-effector system" depends

on the perfection with which each of the steps of the sense-

motor circuit is carried out. The investigation of the function

r in its relation to the physical properties of an organism such

as man for example therefore resolves itself into the discussion

of the several sources of "error" in the working of the receptor-

effector system, and the influence of such errors upon the rate

of increase of the group. No attempt shall be made here to

attack this problem, or even to put it in mathematical setting,

tho this latter offers no difficulty, and might prove instructive.

We will rest content on this occasion with a tabular synopsis of

the principal sources thru which errors enter into the functioning

of the receptor-effector system. Such a table appears as follows:

Synopsis of the Steps in the Sensory-Motor Circuit, with the

Corresponding Sources of Error.

1. Representation of the external world in the individual

A. Sense perceptions Observational error

B. Reasoning (as a step in the further

development of the image formed Logical error

by the senses)

2. Determination of the "Modified Representation"

A. Unconscious (Reflex) Deviation from the "best adapted"

modified representation6

B. Conscious: "Valuation" of several

possible "modified represent a- Error of the "judgment of value"7

tions" and selection of one of

them

3. Action

A. Actuation of limbs, etc. Operational error

B. Reasoning (as a step in the realisa-

tion of the "modified represent a- Logical error

tion")

G It is presumably by such a "false reflex" that a moth is drawn into the

destroying flame.

7 Flagrant errors of this kind are seen for example in the case of the drunkard,

the gambler and so forth.

74 SCHULTZ AND JORDAN: STUDIES IN ANAPHYLAXIS

While this table must be regarded as more or less provisional,

it represents perhaps a first step in that analysis of the phenomena

involved, which must necessarily precede any quantitative treat-

ment of the problem before us, namely the investigation of the

rate of increase of a given type of organisms, as a function of

their physical properties. So much, perhaps, has been made clear,

that the subject is closely related, on the one hand to the theory

of observational error, and on the other to the theory of value.

This last point, on closer inspection, seems to offer some specially

alluring prospects for further study. Mathematically the prob-

lem at this point takes the form typical of the calculus of varia-

tions: In an evoluting system of the kind considered, certain

functions must tend to assume such form as to make the prob-

abilities of a fatal encounter a minimum.

If on the other hand we contemplate the subject of our

" judgment of value" in its philosophical relation to human life

again we are met by a number of interesting suggestions.

But at this point my subject merges into the realm of sentiment,

which one is reluctant to enter.

PHARMACOLOGY. — Physiological studies in anaphylaxis. VI.

The reaction of the opossum to horse serum. W. H. Schultz

and H. E. Jordan, Hygienic Laboratory. Communicated

by J. W. Kerr. To appear in a Bulletin of the Hygienic

Laboratory.

The intact non-sensitized opossum reacts only slightly to large

intraperitoneal doses of horse serum, this action being evidenced

chiefly by signs of abdominal cramps. The anesthetized non-

sensitized animal records a temporary fall, and sometimes a

slight rise of blood pressure and a change in the rate and force of

respiration when injected intravenously with 0.0025 cc. of horse

serum per gram body weight.

The intact opossum sensitized toward horse serum reacts very

energetically to intraperitoneal and intravenous injections of

serum, as is evidenced by the passage of urine and feces, the fre-

quent yawning, the slowing and deepening of the respiration, vom-

iting, muscle weakness, and signs of abdominal cramps. The

SCHULTZ AND JORDAN: STUDIES IN ANAPHYLAXIS 75

animal may or may not recover, depending upon the gravity of

the symptoms elicited by the toxic dose of serum. For example

there was observed in one sensitized opossum, under ether anes-

thesia, a sharp fall of blood pressure from 122 to that of 20 mm.

of mercury, at which latter level the pressure remained for three

or more minutes. The respiration changed from a rate of 44 per

minute, before the fall of blood pressure, to one of 54 during the

fall, with a diminished respiratory output. As soon as the blood

pressure reached its lowest level the respiration was greatly slowed

and increased in force. The oscillation of the intrapleural pres-

sure was also greatly increased and accompanied by a gradually

increased inspriatory period until finally respiration ceased in the

semi-inspiratory stage; whereupon the animal, after some min-

utes, gave a series of gasps and recovered, whereas in another

animal the respiratory gasps were absent and the animal failed

to recover.

The blood vessels of the opossum's lung react much as do those

of the guinea-pig while the bronchi react more like those of the

cat-lung.

One of the most interesting phenomena observed in one highly

sensitized animal, but which may not prove to be characteristic

of the anaphylactic opossum, is the reaction of the blood. In this

animal the arterial blood became milk-red in appearance and upon

bleeding the animal a milk-like layer floated to the surface and

was pipetted off. If the horse serum was present in large quan-

tities in a large blood vessel masses of the white material seemed

present and in time became tough, but where the serum was more

thoroughly mixed with large quantities of blood the particles as

seen thru the microscope were extremely small. This very finely

divided emulsion when dried as a film upon a cover slip revealed

a rich supply of fat droplets after staining with Sudan III, or

with osmic acid. There was also other material, the nature of

which has not yet been determined, but which took Hasting's

and also Wright's stain and appeared like cellular and protein

debris. Animals that did not prove to be hypersensitive toward

horse serum yielded a fat layer in the blood, to about the same

extent as does cat-blood, but so far the phenomenon to which

76 SCHULTZ AND JORDAN: STUDIES IN ANAPHYLAXIS

we refer is, quantitatively at least, much more marked, and

apparently different from the fat phenomenon in cats.

Large quantities of this material seemed distributed thruout

the body so that the voluntary muscles of the chest, the surface

of the right heart, the large veins up to the lungs, the diaphragm,

and especially the upper portion of the alimentary tract, appeared

whitish. The large blood vessels of the stomach and upper half

of the intestines stood out in striking contrast as a white net-work.

The large veins being at the same time greatly distended.

After a lethal dose of horse serum the heart continues to beat

some time after cessation of respiratory movements, the ventricles

contract with rapidly diminishing force and frequency until finally

only occasional twitches are recorded, while the auricles beat

quite vigorously for some time later. The heart muscle, how-

ever, even after ceasing to beat rhythmically responds to mechan-

ical stimuli for some minutes thereafter.

The respiratory muscles of the chest, the diaphragm, as well

as other voluntary muscles respond to mechanical stimuli after

stoppage of the heart.

The appearance of the respiratory and circulatory phenomena

in the anaphylactic opossum, therefore, lies between those des-

cribed for the cat and those for the guinea-pig, and death prob-

ably ensues from asphyxia and low blood pressure. This low

blcod pressure being due to a weakening of the heart, increased

pulmonary resistance and a consequent engorgement of the right

heart and large veins, the primary cause of which is doubtless

to be found in the chemical and physical changes in the bleed

and tissue cells after a toxic dose of serum.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

ASTRONOMY.— Catalogue of 23521 stars between 13° 35' and 45° 25'

south declination for the equinox 1850. From zone observations made

at the United States Naval Observatory 1846-1852. Compiled by

W. S. Eichelberger and F. B. Littell. Publications of the United

States Naval Observatory, Second Series, 7: Pp. XLVII + 558,

4°. 1911.

These observations were made in pursuance of an ambitious plan of

the first superintendent of the observatory for "a regular and systematic

exploration of the whole heavens from 45° South with

the intention of penetrating with the telescopes every point of space

from that parallel of Declination up to the North Pole, and of assigning

position to every star, down to the 10th magnitude." The plan was

much too large for execution by the force available at the Observatory

within any reasonable time, and after a desultory campaign extending

over about six years, it was apparently abandoned. During that time

the region of the sky from south declination 45° to south declination

10° was partially covered in an irregular way, some parts being covered

repeatedly, some once, and some not at all.

Three instruments were used, the meridian circle, the mural circle

adapted for right ascension work as well as its usual declination work,

and the transit instrument adapted for declination work in addition to

its usual right ascension work. All the work was strictly zone work,

the instrument being clamped in a given position and stars being ob-

served as they passed through the field of the telescope.

The journal publication of the bulk of the' zones has already been

issued. The first publication was issued in 1860 and contained the

results of the Meridian Circle Zones observed in 1846, compiled by Assist-

ant Astronomer James Ferguson. The completion of the reductions

of the other zones was turned over to Dr. B. A. Gould in 1861, and in

77

78 abstracts: astronomy

1867 the results were sent to the Observatory ready for printing. In

1872 the Mural Zones were published with an introduction by Prof.

Asaph Hall, U.S.N., and later in the same year the Meridian Transit

Instrument Zones were similarly published, In 1873 the remaining

Meridian Circle Zones were published and in closing the introduction

Professor Hall says, "On account of the inexperience of some of the

observers and the lack of good organization these observations contain

many errors, and the whole work needs a careful revision. In order to

facilitate this revision, and the final arrangement of the stars into a cata-

logue, a list of 415 stars has been selected from the Mural Zones, and

these stars will be observed anew with the Pistor and Martins Meridian

Circle. With this new data, combined with the results obtained from

southern observatories, it is hoped that we may have the means of deriv-

ing from these zones a valuable catalogue of southern stars." This

particular plan of reducing the zone observations, however, was never

executed.

In 1892, as a preliminary step to the formation of a catalogue all the

observations were copied on cards under the direction of Prof. J. R.

Eastman, U.S.N.

In 1902, a considerable number of unreduced zone observations were

found in the files of the observatory. They were reduced under the direc-

tion of Prof. F. B. Littell, U.S.N., and they furnish about 6000 of the

44900 observations in this volume. Nearly all of these observations

were taken in 1851 and 1852 using the then newly introduced method of

the electric chronograph for recording transits. It is interesting to

note that the increase of accuracy due to this change was, as is generally

conceded to be the case, not great for a transit over a single thread,

the results of these observations indicating an advantage of about 6

per cent in accuracy for the chronographic method. However, as five

threads could be observed by this method in the time taken to secure two

threads by the eye and ear method, and as many of the earlier observa-

tions were restricted to but one or two threads on account of lack of

time, the real gain from the introduction of the chronographic registra-

tion by which five threads were usually secured was much greater. In-

deed for this particular work, as it was done, it is likely that the increase

of accuracy due to the use of the chronographic method averaged nearly

75 per cent. With the transit instrument in 1851-52, the declinations

were obtained by means of chronographic transits over sets of oblique

threads inclined at an angle of 45° to the right ascension threads. From

a comparison of the results however, no gain was shown by this method

abstracts: astronomy 79

over the more usual one employing a zenith distance micrometer which

had been used with this instrument in the earlier observations. These

observations have not been published in journal form.

In 1901, the demand for a catalogue of these observations for use in the

preparation of the Geschichte des Fixsternhimmels became so insistent

that Prof. W. S. Eichelberger, U.S.N. , undertook the work of forming the

catalogue, with such reduction as might be necessary. The plan adopted

was to select a catalogue rich in stars in this region, and using its posi-

tions as standards, to reduce these zones to the system of the selected

catalogue with the greatest rigor possible. The catalogue selected as

the standard was the Cordoba General Catalogue. The work involved

was very great, especially as there were an excessive number of blunders

of record due to the inexperience of many of the observers. To the pains-

taking care with which this plan has been carried out must be ascribed

the value of the resulting positions.

Without the Cordoba General Catalogue, it would have been impossi-

ble to have made a satisfactory discussion of these zones, as no other

catalogue would have furnished a sufficient number of reference stars

to determine the peculiar errors which affect many of the zones. Fur-

thermore, without the assistance of the Cape Photographic Durch-

musterung which was published 1896-97, it would have been impossible

to have corrected many of the numerous errors of record of the stars too

faint to be in other catalogues. The column of notes bears testimony

to the necessity for such a check on the observations. While, therefore,

the formation of a catalogue of these observations may be regarded as

having been unduly delayed, it is in some respects fortunate that it was

not done until these works were available for use in its formation.

The catalogue gives the separate positions resulting from each obser-

vation. The probable errors vary considerably for the three instruments,

the average being about ± 0?07 for a single observed right ascension and

=•= 173 for a single observed declination. For comparison it may be

stated that the corresponding probable errors for the Astronomische

Gesellschaft zone observed at this Observatory from 1894 to 1901 were

±0?050 in right ascension and ^O'/SS in declination. A considerable

part of the excess in probable error of the earlier observations is undoubt-

edly due to the large zenith distance, averaging about 66°, at which the

observations were made. All things considered, it appears that the right

ascensions determined by the Transit Instrument and the Mural Circle,

and the declinations determined by the Mural Circle are fairly satisfac-

tory.

80 abstracts: navigation, atmospheric electricity

Inasmuch as one important use of this catalogue will be in the statisti-

cal study of proper motions, since for many of these stars these are the

earliest observations ever made, it was highly desirable to determine

corrections which would reduce the system of the catalogue of reference,

the Cordoba General Catalogue of 1875, back to 1850 the epoch of this

catalogue. This was done by making a comparison between the Cordoba

General Catalogue and the Cape Catalogue of 1850, and the systematic

corrections resulting from this investigation have been applied so that

the positions in this catalogue are virtually those which would have been

obtained by the use of a reference catalogue of its own epoch. The sys-

tem of this catalogue is therefore that of the Cape Catalogue of 1850.

F. B. LlTTELL.

NAVIGATION. — Daylight observations on Venus. J. P. Ault Bulle-

tin American Geographic Society. October, 1911.

The writer gives a summary of his experience in making daylight ob-

servations on Venus as navigating officer on board the Carnegie, the

magnetic survey yacht of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, during

her first cruise in the North Atlantic, 1909-1910. The usual instru-

ments and methods used in making observations on the Sun were em-

ployed in observing on Venus. Tabulations of observations both for

latitude and longitude are given. The observations for latitude were

usually made by two and sometimes by three observers and the results

never differed by more than 0.5 minute of arc and usually agreed within

0.1 minute. The observations for longitude also indicated that uni-

formly good results can be obtained. The novelty of observing a star

by daylight adds enough interest to the work of the navigator to warrant

undertaking the operation without any other inducement, but there is

added to this at least two opportunities for an accurate determination

of the ship's position entirely independent of the operation of dead reck-

oning. J. A. Fleming.

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.— Atmospheric electricity observa-

tions on the second cruise of the " Carnegie," from New York to Col-

ombo. Edward Kidson. To appear in the Journal of Terrestrial

Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity.

This paper gives tabulations together with a synopsis of the observa-

tions taken for the specific conductivity of the atmosphere, radioactivity,

and potential gradient of the atmosphere, as determined on board the

Carnegie on her second cruise between New York and Colombo during

ABSTEACTS: PHYSICS 81

June 1910 to June 1911. As a rule the conductivity observations so

far obtained by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism seem to indi-

cate a diminution of the conductivity in equatorial regions and, at any

rate during the daytime, in the near neighborhood of land. At the same

time the ratio of the conductivity of positive electricity to that for nega-

tive becomes smaller. The equatorial regions are perhaps regions of

upward currents. Gerdien's apparatus was used for the determination of

the specific conductivity of the atmosphere, the aluminum leaf electro-

scope, however, being replaced by a string electrometer as described by

Lutz. The amount of radioactivity obtained varied in very irregular

maimer, but. little activity was shown in miclocean. The potential

gradient observations indicate a low potential gradient, being associated

in general with high conductivity and vice versa. Thus, when the con-

ductivity was very low during a fog the potential gradient was high.

J. A. Fleming.

PHYSICS. — The influence of pressure on the melting points of certain

metals. John Johnston and L. H . Adams, Geophysical Laboratory .

American Journal of Science, (4) 31 : 501. 1911.

The authors have been engaged in developing methods and apparatus

by means of which it will be possible to investigate the effects of high

temperatures and pressures on certain systems and reactions, and

especially those in which water plays an important part. The work

has progressed until now we are able to introduce into the bomb

current leads and thermo-element wires in such a manner that the

wires are all thoroughly insulated electrically, and the joint remains

absolutely pressure-tight. Thus, it is possible to heat a substance to

somewhat over 400°, under pressures up to 2,000 atmospheres, and to

measure both temperature and pressure with precision. Moreover, the

whole system, by reason of the special methods of construction adopted,

is absolutely free from pressure leaks, even when the bomb is repeat-

edly closed and opened, disconnected from, and reconnected with, the

remainder of the high-pressure system. For instance, on one occasion

heating was continued for 30 hours continuously at a pressure of 1800

atmospheres, without sensible loss of pressure in the whole interval.

With this apparatus, the melting-points of tin, bismuth, cadmium,

and lead were determined, first at atmospheric pressure, and afterward

with a gradual increase of the pressure up to 2,000 atmospheres. The

change of melting temperature with pressure was found to be an accu-

rately linear function of the pressure.

7^

82 abstracts: chemistry

By substitution in the Clausius-Clapeyron equation of the data of

Vicentini and Omodei on the volume-change at the melting-point, and

of Person on the latent heat of fusion, dt/dp was calculated for each of

the four metals. The calculated values are in satisfactory agreement

with those observed. Incidentally, a convenient standard curve for

the calibration of copper constantan thermo-elements at temperatures

from 0 to 425° has also been computed and included in the paper.

L. J. and L. H. A.

CHEMISTRY. — The phenomenon of occlusion in precipitates of barium

sidphate and its relation to the exact determination of sulphate. John

Johnston and L. H. Adams. Journal American Chemical Society,

33: 829. 1911.

The occlusion by barium sulphate of other sulphates is a general

phenomenon. The amount of this occlusion depends upon (a) the com-

position of the original solution; (b) the fineness of the precipitate, which

in turn is conditioned by the degree of solubility of barium sulphate in

the particular medium, the rate of precipitation, and the time and man-

ner of standing between precipitation and filtration. The phenomenon

is therefore in all probability an absorption at the surface of the grains

of the precipitate, since it is affected by the factors just mentioned.

On the basis of the knowledge gained in this way, attempts were made

to find a direct method for the determination of sulphate which should be

generally applicable, exact, and require only small and easily determined

corrections. The following procedure is suggested: To the solution

(300 cc. for a precipitate to weigh 2 grams) add 50 cc. of concentrated

hydrochloric acid, heat to boiling, and precipitate, stirring constantly,

with a 10 per cent solution of barium chloride. This should be added

at such a rate that about four minutes is required in running in the 22

cc. necessary; the rate is best regulated by attaching a suitable capillary

tip to the burette containing the barium chloride solution. Evaporate

the whole to dryness on the steam-bath (this may be done immediately

after precipitation), take up with hot water, filter thru paper, wash

until the washings are free from chloride, ignite very carefully (so as to

obviate reduction), and heat to constant weight over a Bunsen burner.

The necessary correction is determined by a concurrent calibration of

the method; that is, by dissolving an equivalent weighed amount of

pure dry sodium (or potassium) sulphate in a medium such that the

resulting solution is as nearly as may be of the same composition as the

solution to be analyzed; the sulphate in this comparison solution is then

abstracts: geochemistry, petrology 83

determined precisely as above. The difference between the calculated

amount of barium sulphate and that actually found is the correction to

be applied to the weight of the precipitate obtained in the actual analysis.

This procedure, as compared with that advocated by Allen and John-

ston, is easier and much more rapid; it is, however, not so generally

applicable, but may be used whenever the composition of the solution

containing the sulphate to be determined is known approximately; and,

we believe, will yield results, accurate to ± 0.05 per cent of the total

sulphate present, ir. most cases likely to occur in general analytical work.

J. J. and L. H. A.

GEOCHEMISTRY.— The data of geochemistry (second edition). F.

W. Clarke. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 491. Pp.782.

1911.

This work was first published in 1908. The present volume has been

revised and much enlarged. F. W. C.

PETROLOGY. — The methods of petrographic-microscopic research:

Their accuracy and range of application. Fred. Eugene Wright.

Publication No. 158, Carnegie Institution of Washington. (In

press.)

During the past six years the work with artificial silicate preparations

in the Geophysical Laboratory has imposed new and difficult problems

to be solved by the microscope. Not only are such preparations very

fine-grained, but the degree of accuracy of each measurement must be

definitely known if it is to be applied without reserve to geophysical

problems. To meet these new conditions, it has been necessary to devise

new methods, involving extensive alterations in the microscope, and

also to test the different methods available for the determination of the

optical constants of minerals in the thin section and to ascertain their

relative accuracy and general applicability. As a result of these tests,

the methods best adapted for work with artificial and all fine-grained

preparations are now fairly well established and their application has

become in large measure a matter of routine.

The present publication aims to offer a connected presentation of the

entire investigation of the petrographic microscope so far as it has been

carried, in which the different methods are coordinated and the signifi-

cance and usefulness of each particular method is made to appear in its

proper relation. An effort has been made to establish the limits of accur-

acy of each method as ordinarily used, and also the limits of accuracy

theoretically attainable in measurements of this kind.

84 abstracts: geology

It may be stated, as a result of experience, that on clear individual

grains measuring from 0.01 to 0.03 mm. in diameter, all the optic prop-

erties ordinarily employed in the petrographic microscopic investigation

of minerals in the thin section can now be determined with a satisfac-

tory degree of accuracy.

The introductory chapter contains a statement of the general theory

of the microscope and the uses of its individual parts and accessories.

Chapter I includes the application of the microscope in the determina-

tion of properties of the first class (color, pleochroism, absorption,

crystal habit, optical, character, dispersion, etc.), which do not admit of

numerical measurement. The properties of the second class which

admit of accurate determination and numerical expression are treated

in the following chapters: Chapter II, Refractive indices; III, Birefrin-

gence ; IV, Extinction angles; V, Optic axial angles. F. E. W.

GEOLOGY. — Geology of the Berners Bay region, Alaska. Adolph

Knopf. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 446. Pp. 58, with

2 maps. 1911.

Berners Bay is a broad and deep indentation from Lynn Canal, in

latitude 58° 42' north and longitude 135° west. The region under con-

sideration, whose areal extent is 50 square miles, embraces the long,

tapering peninsula and its mountainous background that lies' between

Berners Bay and Lynn Canal, and is at the northwestern extremity of

the long zone of auriferous mineralization on the mainland of south-

eastern Alaska, known as the Juneau gold belt.

The Berners formation of slates and graywackes occupies the larger

part of the area and is well exposed on both sides of Berners Bay. The

strata show locally intense plication, but as a rule strike northwest and

southeast and dip steeply northeast. Fossil plants, consisting chiefly

of ferns, are indicative of Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous age. The older

view that the rocks of the Juneau gold belt are Carboniferous therefore

needs modification; it is probable that the rocks of the productive part

of the velt are mainly late Mesozoic.

Northeast of the sedimentary rocks is a belt of much altered lavas,

chiefly basaltic amygdaloids. Northeast of these is an intrusive quartz

diorite gneiss, which constitutes the crushed and foliated margin of the

granitoid core of the Coast Range.

The most important rock in the region from an economic point of view

is the Jualin diorite, which invades both the sedimentary and volcanic

rocks. The main ore bodies lie within its area. These are auriferous

deposits of low grade, most of which are well-defined fissure veins or

abstracts: geology 85

irregular stockworks. The veins are up to 15 feet wide, but the average

is 5 feet. The stockworks are up to 80 feet wide, averaging from $3 to

$5 a ton in gold, and constitute the principal deposits. The gangue

material of the ores is quartz with subordinate calcite, and the principal

sulphide is pyrite with which are subordinate chalcoyprite, galena, and

sphalerite. Free gold is rarely seen.

The wall rock of the ore bodies has been affected by locally intense

hydrothermal metamorphism, characterized by the development of

albite in small veinlets. This metamorphism is similar to that which

has transformed the Treadwell albite-diorite dike into an auriferous lode.

The ores are therefore of deep-seated and probably of magmatic origin.

The diorite rocks of the Berners Bay and Juneau regions are part

of the great chain of batholithic Mesozoic intrusions that extends from

the Sierra Nevada of California northward into Alaska. Here, as in

California, the ascent of these magmas was accompanied by metalliza-

tion of great economic importance. A. K.

GEOLOGY.- — Geology and mineral resources of parts of the Alaska

Peninsula. Wallace W. Atwood. Bulletin U. S. Geological

Survey No. 467. Pp. 137, with maps, sections, and views. 1911.

The Aleutian Range forms the axis of the Alaska Peninsula, which

is the land mass separating the northern Pacific from Bering Sea. On

the Pacific side the mountains lie close to the sea, and the shore line is

broken by numerous embayments; on the Bering Sea side they are

separated from tidewater by a coastal plain which is notched by several

shallow bays and lagoons.

The geologic history of the Alaska Peninsula, so far as it has been deter-

mined, is limited to Mesozoic and Cenozoic times. Some granitic rocks

in the northwestern portion of the province are known to be of pre-Upper

Jurassic age, but no rocks on the peninsula are definitely known to be

pre-Triassic. Since the opening of Mesozoic time sedimentation has

been going on in some portion of the peninsula during each of the great

geologic epochs, with the possible exception of the Pliocene and Oligo-

cene. The Triassic is represented in at least one locality. Large areas

of Jurassic sediments represent at least portions of the Middle Jurassic

and the Upper Jurassic series. The Lower Cretaceous and the Upper

Cretaceous are also present. There are also Eocene, possibly some Oli-

gocene, and certainly some Miocene sediments in the province. From

the Eocene epoch to the present time there have been numerous volcanic

outbursts at various places on the peninsula, and a portion of the mate-

rial ejected from the volcanoes is possibly of Pliocene age. The Pleisto-

86 abstracts: bacteriology

cene or glacial epoch is represented by morainic deposits and some uncon-

solidated sands, clays, and gravels. Since the close of Pleistocene time

there has been an accumulation of alluvial deposits in the valley bottoms,

along the shores and at the heads of the bays.

The structure of the peninsula is that of an anticlinorium. Faulting

has occurred as many places. In some faults the movement along a

single plane was as much as 1000 feet, and in others systems of distrib-

utive faults developed, with movements ranging from a few inches to

several rods along the separate fault planes. Much of the lava that

rose beneath the peninsula during the periods of volcanism failed to

reach the surface. Some of this remained in vertical or nearly vertical

fissures as dikes, other masses spread out between sedimentary strata

as intrusive sheets or sills, and some entered the sedimentary series as

great laccoliths and lifted the overlying beds in large domes.

A. H. Brooks.

BACTERIOLOGY.— XI V. The artificial cultivation of the bacillus

of leprosy. Donald H. Currie, Moses T. Clegg, and H. T. Holl-

mann, Public Health and Marine Hospital Service. Public Health

Bulletin 47.

Lepri bacilli were first cultivated artificially in 1909 by Clegg, who

grew them in symbiosis with amoebae and s. cholerae. The authors

refer to the bearing of this epoch making discovery on subsequent stud-

ies of transmission and serum therapy of leprosy, present a review of the

literature on the subject, and record the growth of nine strains of acid

fast organisms, six being different strains of leprosy bacilli, one the grass

bacillus of Moeller, one the bacillus Margarine, and one the Smegma

bacillus. The investigations were made at the U. S. Leprosy Investi-

gation Station, Hawaii. The cultural characteristics of the above men-

tioned organisms are described, and a summary of the results presented.

No appreciable difference was noted between the individual cultures

of the six strains of lepri bacilli worked with. Only slight differences

were noted in any of the organisms, and these are not regarded as being

of practical importance as a means of differentiation. The serum of a

horse that had been immunized to lepri bacilli strongly clumped all of

the strains of this organism worked with, but failed entirely to clump

the other three organisms. As a result of their work, the authors con-

clude that by the method of Clegg, it is frequently possible to grow an

acid fast bacillus morphologically similar to the leprosy bacillus from the

tissues and organs of lepers, and that it is possible to isolate this acid

; st organism in pure culture. The acid fast organism thus isolated

abstracts: bacteriology, epidemiology 87

resembles culturally other members of this group, but serum tests are

capable of differentiating it from the other organisms worked with.

J. W. Kerr.

BACTERIOLOGY. — XVII. Further observations in rat leprosy. Don-

ald H. Currie, and Harry T. Hollmann, Public Health and Ma-

rine Hospital Service, Honolulu, T. H. Public Health Bulletin

50.

The authors refer to a previous article ("A Contribution to the Study

of Rat Leprosy," Public Health Bulletin No. 41, Public He lth and

Marine-Hospital Service of the United States, Washington, D. C,

November, 1910) in which they found that a broncho-pneumonia with

septicemia, due to the bacillus of rat leprosy, often preceded the better

known lesions of the disease. They further observed that a certain

mite (Laelaps echidninus) when found on the bodies of infected animals,

often contained the bacillus of rat leprosy.

In the present article, they record further observations of a similar

character, and close by concluding as follows:

"First: In the disease that we are dealing with, whether the animal

is inoculated by a laboratory method or simply allowed to develop the

disease from coming into contact with infected rats (i.e., the natural

mode of infection) the lesions met with are practically the same."

"Second: With the exception of the local lesion, occasionally pro-

duced at the site of artificial inoculation, infection of the viscera seems

to usually precede the lesions of the skin."

"Third: Of the visceral lesions, a broncho-pneumonia is often the

earliest, and the most constant. Infection of the spleen is also often an

early event."

"Fourth: The heart blood of infected rats often contains the bacilli

of rat leprosy, and no difficulty is experienced in demonstrating the

presence of acid-fast bacilli in the mites, contained on the bodies of these

animals, when the latter's heart blood contains the organism."

"Fifth: The fact that these mites contain the bacilli so frequently

naturally leads one to suspect that they may be one of the means of

transmitting the disease from rat to rat, but up to the present time we

have no positive evidence that such is the case." Donald H. Currie.

EPIDEMIOLOGY. — The Causation and prevention of typhoid fever,

with special reference to conditions observed in Yakima County, Wash-

ington. L. L. Lumsden, U. S. Public Health and Marine-Hospital

Service. Public Health Bulletin 51.

The bulletin presents (1) a general consideration of the causation and

prevention of typhoid fever with particular reference to conditions in

88 abstracts: pathology, references

the United States; (2), a detailed discussion of the typhoid fever situa-

tion in Yakima County, taken as a somewhat typical instance of high

typhoid fever prevalence in American communities; and (3) a report on

an investigation of typhoid fever in North Yakima, Washington. Fol-

lowing the body of the report are two appendices. The first (A) being

on the subject of the construction and maintenance of a sanitary privy

and the second, (B) on the subject of measures to prevent the spread of

infection from the bedside of a typhoid fever patient. The bulletin is

well illustrated, and is written in semi-popular style so as to be readily

intelligible to the lay reader.

The section on typhoid fever in North Yakima deals particularly with

an outbreak of the disease in May and June, 1911, which was attributed

to infection in water pumped into the city mains from a pond used as an

auxiliary source of water for a large lumber mill on the edge of the city,

and with a sanitary campaign carried out in the city in the summer of

1911. The author concludes that as a result of the campaign the rate

of prevalence of typhoid fever in North Yakima for the summer and fall

of 1911 was reduced by over 90 per cent. L. L. L.

PATHOLOGY. — XVIII. A statistical study of the nasal lesions in

leprosy. Harry T. Hollmann, U. S. Public Health and Marine

Hospital Service, Honolulu, T. H. Public Health Bulletin 50.

This article gives the results of the examination of the nasal mucous

membrane of 500 lepers, and shows that of these cases, 152 of the nodular

type of this disease showed lesions of the nasal mucous membrane, while

19 of the same type showed no nasal lesions. Of the anaesthetic type,

174 presented nasal lesions, while in the case of 53 the nasal mucosa

appeared normal. Of the mixed type of the disease, 84 presented nasal

lesions, while 18 were free from them.

The nasal lesions mentioned included hypertrophic rhinitis, atrophic

rhinitis, perforation of the nasal septum and absorption of cartilage. Of

these several types of lesions, the latter was the one most commonly

met with. Donald H. Currie.

REFERENCES

AGRICULTURE. — Publications of the bureau of plant industry since January,

1911: Bulletin 198 — Dimorphic branches in tropical crop plants; cotton, coffee,

cacao, the Central American rubber tree, and the banana, O. F. Cook. Bulle-

tin 192 — Drought resistance of the olive in the southwestern States, Silas C.

Mason. Bulletin 203 — The importance and improvement of the grain sor-

abstracts: references 89

ghums, Carleton R. Ball. Bulletin 194 — Summer apples in the Middle Atlan-

tic States, H. P. Gould. Bulletin 213 — Crown-gall of plants: its cause and

remedy, Smith, Brown and Townsend. Bulletin 202 — The seedling-inarch

and nurse-plant methods of propagation, George W. Oliver. Bulletin 201 —

Natural vegetation as an indicator of the capabilities of land for crop produc-

tion in the great plains area, H. L. Shantz. Bulletin 205 — Seeds and plants

imported during the period from October 1 to December 31, 1909. Inventory No.

21. David Fairchild. Bulletin 204 — Agricultural explorations in the fruit

and nut orchards of China, Frank N. Meyer. Bulletin 211 — Bacteriological

studies of the soils of the Truckee-C arson irrigation project, Kellerman and

Allen. Bulletin 208 — Seeds and plants imported during the period from April

1 to June 80, 1910; Inventory No. 23. David Fairchild. Bulletin 207—

Seeds and plants imported during the period from January 1 to March 31, 1910;

Inventory No. 22. David Fairchild. Bulletin 210 — Hindi cotton in Egypt.

O. F. Cook. Bulletin 209 — Grimm alfalfa and its utilization in the Northwest.

Charles J. Brand.

Farmers Bulletins: Bulletin 428 — Testing farm seeds in the home and in the

rural school, F. H. Hillman. Bulletin 431 — The peanut, W. R. Beattie. Bulle-

tin 432 — How a city family managed a farm, J. H. Arnold. Bulletin 434—

The home production of onion seeds and sets, W. R. Beattie. Bulletin 437 — ■

A system of tenant farming and its results, J. W. Froley and C. Beaman Smith.

Bulletin 433 — Cabbage, L. C. Corbett. Bulletin 436 — Winter oats for the

South, C. W. Warburton. Bulletin 446 — The choice of crops for alkali land,

Thomas H. Kearney. Bulletin 443 — Barley: growing the crop, H. B. Derr.

Bulletin 448 — Better grain-sorghum crops, Carleton R. Ball.

Circulars: Circular 73 — The distinguishing characters of the seeds of quack-

grass and of certain ivheal-grasses, F. H. Hillman. Circular 74 — The sulphur

bleaching of commercial oats and barley, LeRoy M. Smith. Circular 75 —

Agricultural survey of four townships in Southern New Hampshire, E. H.

Thomson. Circular 76 — The relation of crown-gall to legume inoculation,

Karl F. Kellerman. Circular 35 (Sec.) — T he adulteration and misbranding

of the seeds of alfalfa, red clover, Kentucky bluegr ass, orchard grass, andredtop,

Wm. A. Taylor. Circular 78 — Agricultural observations on the Truckee-C arson

irrigation project, F. B. Headley and Vincent Fulkerson. Circular 77 —

A study of the improvement of citrus fruits thru bud selection, A. D. Shamel.

Circular 81 — The shrinkage of corn in storage, J. W. T. Duvel and Laurel

Duval. Circular 85 — Crown-gall and sarcoma, Erwin F. Smith. Circular

79 — Winter wheat in western South Dakota, Cecil Salmon.

Documents: Document 633 — Distribution of cotton seed in 1911, Leon M.

Estabrook. Document 631 — Farm fertilizers, S. A. Knapp. Document 619

— The production of cotton under boll-weevil conditions, S. A. Knapp. Docu-

ment 648 — The control of cotton wilt and root-knot, W. A. Orton. Document

644 — Boys' demonstration work; the corn clubs, S. A. Knapp and O. B. Martin.

Document 647 — Results of boys' demonstration work in corn clubs in 1910,

S. A. Knapp and O. B. Martin.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, PHILOSOPHICAL,

AND BOTANICAL SOCIETIES

A joint meeting of the Philosophical Society with the Washington

Academy of Sciences was held October 28, 1911. President Clarke

of the Academy introduced Prof. Arthur Schuster, who spoke on

The foundations of physics.

This subject is one that affects the whole of physical science. There

is at the present moment a general feeling of unrest which has definitely

altered some of our scientific beliefs and shaken our belief in others.

The great discoveries of recent years have revolutionized our ideas of

matter and force which we had considered settled. We must often

accept revolutions when they are accomplished, tho we may not like

them, but we may also bear in mind the warning of Kepler, and in the

words of a German proverb, be careful when emptying the bath-tub not

to turn out the baby with the dirty water.

The science most of us have learned in our youth was based on the

laws of motion, established by Galileo, Huygens and Newton. Its

fundamental principles were : Constancy of Mass ; Action and Reaction,

involving Constancy of Momentum; to these was added later Conserva-

tion of Energy. The consideration of these together led to the view that

they could explain all physical phenomena, giving the materialistic sys-

tem of which we may take Kelvin as the most typical exponent. The

phenomena of light added the ether as a definite substance being able

to contain energy and therefore possessing mass. To Kelvin the ether

could have no properties not inherent in ordinary matter. The third

law of Newton in the past was true affecting matter only, but if necessary

ether may contain momentum; this requires a revision of our ideas con-

cerning the laws of motion.

There has always been a concurrent stream of metaphysics as illus-

trated in some of the writings of Kirchhoff, Hertz, Mach and others.

But independently, the idea of the Conservation of Energy introduced

quasi-metaphysical ideas such as Potential Energy, Energy Paths, and

the Atomic Constitution of Energy. Physical science must get rid of

the metaphysics, and a good deal of unnecessary trouble existing in our

ideas on physics is due to the tendency to mix physics and metaphysics.

( Joncerning the question of cause and effect, the doctrine of Kirch-

hoff that in physical science it is only necessary to describe things as they

are and not to explain them, is not sufficient nor is it physics.

90

PKOCEEDINGS: WASHINGTON ACADEMY 91

The matters thus far spoken of really belong to the old physics. Max-

well's theory of light was the origin of the new. This theory requires

the assumption of an ether with properties not hitherto known, an ether

that would transmit electrical energy and also transmit light, and which

need not have the properties of matter as we know it. When light is

transmitted thru ether there is momentum, hence the concept of the

pressure of light. The momentum in Maxwell's theory comes out just

one-half that in the corpuscular theory of light.

Electricity is probably of an atomic nature, but we need not attach

any idea of mass, in the old sense, to the atom of electricity, yet it possess

energy and will behave as tho it had mass. Whether or not we may con-

sider the mass of a body to vary with the surrounding energy, it is not

legitimate to assume that the mass of an atom is the sum of the com-

ponent electrons. There are many difficulties in satisfactorily account-

ing for the relations of mass to gravitation and at the same time reaching

a satisfactory electron theory of matter.

The new idea of mass then, places it in the ether and involves the

abolition of the constancy of mass: it must change with velocity and the

addition theory does not hold. The expression " Ether and Matter"

should be "Ether no Matter." From consideration of the instability

of motion we are led also to postulate both a longitudinal and a trans-

verse mass.

The really great revolution of modern physical science is based on a

single experiment, that of Michelson and Morley who found the ether

apparently had no velocity with respect to the earth's motion. No

satisfactory explanation of this fact has been found which will also

account for many other well known phenomena. Generalization to the

principle of relativity sometimes leads to a denial of the ether, tho

space carries energy and momentum. We are again in a quandary when

we attempt to surmount the difficulties due to rotation. It is an inter-

esting problem that of creation founded on the theory of relativity the

expounders of which appear to postulate that we can never find any rela-

tions between ether and matter. Are we, then to reject all questions treat-

ing of the structure of the ether? Concerning the structure of matter,

are really all intramolecular forces of electrical origin and are they the

same for molecular and large distances? Do we know that magnetic

fields can be calculated inside molecules in the same way as outside?

In conclusion, we must reject the purely materialistic views of Kel-

vin and must also resist the meta-mathematician who tempts us with

a new apple of knowledge disposing of time as merely a fourth dimension

of space and promising to unravel the mystery of creation with a formula.

In the discussion Mr. R. S. Woodward stated that the physics of

today is yet untried, and that we must be patient and not be scared out

of our ancient learning, and that the foundations of the older physics

are yet quite unshaken. We should revise our earlier ideas about mass,

but the certainty of the conservation of mass is strong. The law of

gravitation is doubtful and the most in proof of it is yet to be done.

Physics and mathematics are often not distinguished, physics is not

92 proceedings: Washington academy

mathematics. Mathematics is only an instrument. Kelvin appealed

to observation, some others used mathematics to reach their conclusions.

We should cultivate the principle of relativity, and in doing this it was

predicted that our earlier views would prove to be but first approxi-

mations. That matter is essentially atomic, and that ether can be

placed in the same category, which was also Lord Kelvin's view, is the

greatest advance in the last twenty years.

A joint meeting of the Botanical Society and the Washington Acad-

emy of Sciences was held on the evening of November 14. Prof. W.

Johannsen, of the University of Copenhagen, was introduced by Presi-

dent Clarke and spoke upon Heterozygosis in pure lines of beans and

barley.

He began by stating that the title of the paper being technical might

possibly not be understood by those unfamiliar with the nomenclature

applied to cross-breeding in plants and animals. The essential sexual

element of an individual is called agamete. These unite forming zygotes.

A zygote is therefore a dual being. When these zygotes are like the

parent gamete they are called homozygotes, when different heterozy-

gotes. Heterozygosis may therefore be defined as mixed interbreeding.

Two flowers may look alike but give rise to offspring quite different in

appearance. These different forms serve to show the latent characters

existing in the parent and inherited from previous ancestors. There

appear to be influences at work here which resemble the affinities shown

in some chemical compounds.

A pure line is one that produces homozygotes. There are apparently

chemical laws at work here but what they are we at present but dimly

surmise.

The lecturer illustrated his remarks by reference to diagrams showing

the effect of crossing certain strains of beans, barley, snails, etc.

In commenting upon the lecture President Clarke said that the ques-

tion of the coloration of flowers was doubtless a chemical phenomenon

and that the intimate study of the chemistry of these compounds will

probably yield some results. As to how chemical substances or reac-

tions can influence form we are at present almost entirely in the dark.

Mr. McDougal said that the work in a botanist's laboratory was neces-

sarily limited, more definitely than actually occurred in nature as he

could perform artificial selections at will. Doubtless mechanical as

well as chemical factors are at work to produce the varied forms of off-

spring. These were the problems which the modern physiologist has

to face. Frank Baker, Secretary.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 489th regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, December 2,

1911, with President David White in the chair.

Under the head of Brief notes and exhibition of specime?is, General

Wilcox told of finding many pieces of white quartz in the stomachs of

the blue grouse.

proceedings: biological society 93

Barton W. Evermann reported the arrival in the United States of

ten more young fur seals from the Pribilof Islands. Two of them were

left with Professor Trevor Kincaid of the University of Washington, at

Seattle, two were sent to the New York Aquarium, four to the National

Zoological Park, while two were retained at the Bureau of Fisheries

building. Of ten brought last year, four escaped at Seattle, and the

other six died. This leaves the two 2-year-old animals at the Fisheries

building as the only specimens of the fur seal that have ever been kept

in confinement for over a year. The male on November 20 weighs 64

pounds, the female, 43.

L. 0. Howard reported that Mr. R. S. Woglum of the Bureau of

Entomology had just arrived from Asia bringing with him from the

Punjab, India, six cases of living parasites of white fly (Aleyrodes citri)

now so destructive to citrus fruits in Florida. Much is expected as a

result of this introduction.

The regular program consisted of three communications:

1. The hooting of the Blue Grouse. E. A. Preble.

During his stay in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, in the spring and early

summer of 1911, the speaker had an opportunity to observe and

photograph the blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus richardsoni) in the

act of hooting. The birds were quite tame and many characteristic

attitudes were shown in the lantern slides presented.

2. Notes on the fishes of the District of Columbia and vicinity. Alfred

C. Weed.

The waters of the region were divided into five classes, River, Low-

land Streams, Creeks, Upland Brooks, and Pools, and some of the more

prominent species in each environment were named with general notes

on their habits, especially where these differ markedly from those of

most other members of the same group, as in the case of the Catfish,

Schilbeodes insignis, which lives under stones, etc., in the most rapid

waters; and the Darter, Boleosoma olmstedi, which is found in all waters

from the swiftest and coldest to the most stagnant.

In regard to the more prominent introduced species mention was made

of their economic importance and of their relation to other species, both

native and introduced. The speaker expressed himself as being firmly

of the opinion that the German Carp does not destroy eggs and nests of

the Black Bass to any appreciable extent, but that it does furnish ar

abundant food for this fish which could not be supplied by the native

minnows. Several of the small native minnows destroy many more

eggs and fry than the Carp.

Brief mention was made of some of the more recently discovered native

fishes, with statement of the probable reasons for their having so long

remained unnoticed.

The talk was illustrated by lantern slides of fishes and their habitats.

3. On another supposed fruit-bearing fern-like plant of the American

Permian. David White.

94 proceedings: biological society

The 490th regular, and 32nd annual meeting was held December 16

1910. The reports of the various officers were received.

The following were elected as officers for 1912: President: E. W.

Nelson. Vice-Presidents: J. N. Rose, W. P. Hay, Paul Bartsch, A.

D. Hopkins. Recording Secretary: D. E. Lantz. Corresponding

Secretary: N. Hollister. Treasurer: J. W. Gidley.

Members of Council: Vernon Bailey, A. K. Fisher, A. B. Baker,

Hugh M. Smith, Wm. Palmer.

D. E. Lantz, Recording Secretary.

PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

704th Meeting, Cosmos Ciub at 8.15 p. m., February 10. Program:

Frank Wenner: Constancy of wire resistance standards. Arthur W.

Gray: Measurement of inaccessible displacements, production of tempera-

ture uniformity, and determination of expansion of gas-thermometer bulbs.

(Illustrated).

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. II, FEBRUARY 19, 1912 No. 4

PHYSICS. — The density and thermal expansion of ethyl alcohol

and its mixtures with water. N. S. Osborne, E. C. McKelvy

and H. W. Bearce. Communicated by L. A. Fischer. To

appear in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards. 1912.

Part I. The preparation of pure ethyl alcohol. E. C. McKelvy.

Ethyl alcohols from different sources were subjected to purifica-

tion treatments. The lower boiling impurities were completely

removed by heating the alcohol for a considerable time under a

reflux condenser, the water of which was held at about 60° C.

Dehydration was accomplished by means of lime, aluminium

amalgam, and metallic calcium, giving an alcohol of nearly identi-

cal physical properties. The first two gave equally good results.

The density values obtained with metallic calcium were somewhat

higher. The physical properties used as criteria of purity were

the density and the critical solution' temperature of alcohol-

kerosene mixtures (Crismer). These two methods are of approx-

imately equal sensitiveness. An alcohol was obtained which

when subjected to an additional dehydration and fractionation

gave alcohol of the same density and with no separation into

fractions of different densities. Dehydration and subsequent

fractionation under reduced pressure gave alcohol of essentially

the same density. These results indicate that the alcohol was

pure within the limits set by the accuracy of determination of the

physical constants used as criteria of purity. Dissolved acetic

aldehyde increased the density while ethyl ether and air decreased

it.

95

96

OSBORNE, M'KELVY AND BEARCE I ETHYL ALCOHOL

The low results obtained for the density of anhydrous ethyl

alcohol by Messrs. Squibb could not be obtained by a repetition

of their procedure. A repetition of the procedure of Mendel6ef

gave results closely agreeing with his. Tables are given showing

the comparison of results with those of former investigator?,. The

mean density of fifteen of the fractions regarded as the purest was

found to be 0.78506, at 25° C.

Part II The thermal expansion of mixtures of ethyl alcohol

and water. N. S. Osborne. Twelve mixtures of alcohol and

water were prepared and their densities at 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, 30°,

35°, and 40° C. determined by the method of hydrostatic weigh-

ing. The observations of density for each mixture were reduced

by the method of least squares and the coefficients of the assumed

equation

Dt = D25 + a (t-25) + |8 (t-25f + y (t- 25)3

determined. The values of Z)25, a, /3 and y for the twelve mixtures

are shown in Table I.

TABLE I

* Water according to Chappuis.

The values of a, /3 and y for each integral per cent of alcohol

between 0 and 100 were then obtained by interpolation.

OSBORNE, m'kELVY AND BEARCE : ETHYL ALCOHOL

97

Part III. The density of ethyl alcohol and its mixtures with

water. N. S. Osborne. The mean of fifteen determinations of

the density at 25° C. of the purest alcohol obtained was found to

be 0.78506 gram per milliliter. A series of twenty-five mixtures

of known percentages of alcohol and water were prepared as close

as possible to integral per cents and their densities at 25° C.

determined, partly by the method of hydrostatic weighing and

partly by the use of special picnometers; the same constant tem-

perature bath being used in both methods. The densities of the

various mixtures, reduced to the nearest integral per cent, are

shown in Table IT. The values for 90 and 95 per cent are each

the mean results of two mixtures.

TABLE II

These density values are for mixtures saturated with air.

Tables I and II permit the calculation of the density of any

mixture of ethyl alcohol and water at any temperature between

10° and 40° C. (Circular No. 19, Bureau of Standards).

Part IV. The density and thermal expansion of ethyl alcohol

and its mixtures with water. H. W. Bearce. A second and in-

dependent series of mixtures of known percentages of alcohol and

water were prepared and their densities determined at 15° and

25° C, thus furnishing, at the same time, a check on both the

98

OSBORNE, M'KELVY AND BEARCE : ETHYL ALCOHOL

density at 25° and the change of density between 15° and 25°,

as determined in Parts II and III. A comparison of the two

series is given in Table III. The .results obtained in Parts II

and III are shown in the columns headed Osborne, those from

Part IV in the columns headed Bearce.

TABLE I\I

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorised to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

METEOROLOGY. — The earth's radiation zones. W. J. Humphreys.

Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, 4: 129-135. 1911.

If, as it is now generally believed, the temperature of the atmosphere

above the level of vertical convection is determined by radiation from

lower levels, then it follows that the greater this radiation the greater

also will be the resulting temperature of the upper atmosphere.

Also, since water vapor has a high coefficient of absorption for long

wave lengths, the lower atmosphere of any place may, without materially

affecting the temperature of the corresponding isothermal region, be

replaced by an equivalently radiating black surface. From this it can

be shown that the absolute temperatures of these equivalently radiating

black surfaces at different parts of the world would be to each other

approximately as the absolute temperatures of the isothermal region in

the corresponding places.

Hence, to the same degree of approximation, the intensity of the out-

going radiation at one place is to that at another as the fourth powers of

the corresponding absolute temperatures of the isothermal region.

The curious conclusion this leads to is, that the intensity of the earth's

outgoing radiation is muclrgreater in middle latitudes, than it is in equa-

torial regions, as shown in the accompanying table.

Earth Radiation (Guam Calories per Square Centimeter per Minute)

at Different Latitudes

99

W. J. H.

100 abstracts: geology

GEOLOGY. — Economic geology of Richmond, Virginia, and vicinity.

N. H. Darton. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 483. Pp.

48. with maps, sections, and views. 1910.

The Richmond region belongs in part to the Piedmont province, in

part to the Coastal Plain. Granite of undetermined age constitutes the

oldest rock of the area, and is succeeded by sedimentary formations as

follows: (1) Patuxent (Lower Cretaceous), Aquia, (Eocene), Calvert

(Miocene), Lafayette (Pliocene?), and terrace alluvium (Columbia).

All these formations except the Columbia dip gently to the east and are

separated by unconformities. A. H. Brooks.

GEOLOGY. — Reconnaissance of the geology and mineral resources of

Prince William Sound, Alaska. U. S. Grant and D. F. Higgins.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 443. Pp. 89, with maps,

sections, and views. 1911.

Prince William Sound lies within highlands which form a part of the

Chugach Mountains. The fairly accordant tops of these mountains,

composed of highly folded strata, suggests an elevated peneplain which

has been warped and highly eroded. In this erosion glaciation has

played a prominent part. The topography of Prince William Sound is

that of a maturely eroded mountainous district with the forms of river

erosion modified by ice erosion. Into such a district the sea has come,

filling the main basin of the sound and extending far up the valleys that

lead into it. The evidence of glaciation are smoothed and striated rock

surfaces, roches moutonnees, hanging valleys, U-shaped valleys, fiords,

etc., with some deposits of till and glacial gravels.

The sedimentary rocks of the region are chiefly closely folded slates

and graywackes, separable into two unconformable series, a lower, the

Valdez group, and an upper, the Orca group. Locally a conglomerate

formation occurs at the base of the Orca, with which is also associated

a large amount of greenstone. These greenstones are altered basic

lavas having in many places an ellipsoidal character. Intruded in these

series are granites and acid and basic dikes.

The copper-bearing lodes occur along zones of fracture and mainly in

the greenstones, but some are in slates and graywackes, and some in the

contact between the sediments and the greenstones. Mineral deposi-

tion in the shear zones in part followed open spaces, in part impregnated

the country rock. The deposits are not definitely known to be related

to intrusives, but some basic dikes occur which may have had some miner-

alizing influence. A. H. Brooks.

abstracts: therapeutics and pharmacology 101

THERAPEUTICS. — XV. Attempts at specific therapy in leprosy.

Donald H. Currie, Moses T. Clegg,, and Harry T. Hollmann,

U. S. Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, Honolulu,

T. H. Public Health Bulletin 47.

The authors, after fully reviewing an extensive literature, bearing on

previous attempts at specific therapy in leprosy, describe several sub-

stances that they have prepared from their artificial cultures of B. leprae.

These substances were given to several cases of leprosy for varying per-

iods of time, and in some instances caused general and local reactions.

Up to the time this article was prepared, there was no evidence that

any of these substances were of benefit to the patients receiving them,

nevertheless, experiments of this nature are being continued in hopes

that more success will be met with in future.

Among the substances employed was the serum of a horse, which

animal had been partially immunized to live cultures of B. leprae.

This animal's serum showed distinct evidence of containing agglutin-

ins, it being able to clump B. leprae in dilutions of 1 to 1000.

Donald H. Currie.

PHARMACOLOGY. — Digest of comments on the Pharmacopoeia of the

United States of America (eighth decennial revision) and the National

Formtdary (third edition) for the calendar year ending December 31,

1909. Murray Galt Motter and Martin I. Wilbert, U. S.

Public Health and Marine Hospital Service. Bulletin of the Hy-

gienic Laboratory 79. 1911.

The present bulletin is the fifth of the series of "Digests of Comments "

on the Pharmacopoeia of the United States and the National Formula^,

now in course of revision. These books, as is well known are recognized

by the Food and Drugs Act of June 30, 1906, as the standard authority

with reference to the identity, purity and strength of the medicaments

therein described and are, therefore, of direct interest and value as pub-

lic health measures.

The available literature of the year 1909 containing matter of inter-

est to the revisers of the Pharmacopoeia and the National Formulary

has been carefully reviewed and practical suggestions and references,

bearing on the improvement of the two books as standards under the

law, are presented in as concise a form as possible.

As in previous Bulletins of this series, considerable space is devoted

to the consideration of the possible development of international stand-

ards for potent medicaments, and the gradual compliance of foreign

102 abstracts: bacteriology

Pharmacopoeias, with the provisions of the treaty signed at Brussels in

1906, is noted. The Pharmacopoeias published during 1909 and 1910

are reviewed and a summary of the compliances with the Protocol of the

Brussels Conference as evidenced by the Pharmacopoeias published from

1905 to 1910 is presented in the form of a table.

Several additional tables presenting a comparison of the standards

for various official articles are also included and will no doubt prove to

be of value in connection with the present revision of the Pharmacopoeia

of the United States.

In addition to their direct use as a ready reference to the comments on

the articles included in the Pharmacopoeia and the National Formulary

these Bulletins will also be found to be of value as a resume of the cur-

rent literature relating to widely used medicaments. M. G. M.

M. I. W.

BACTERIOLOGY. — XVI. Complement deviation and agglutination

in leprosy-immunity. Donald H. Currie and Moses T. Clegg,

Public Health and Marine Hospital Service. Public Health Bul-

letin 50.

The authors report on complement deflection and on the presence of

agglutinins in immune sera, as a means of differentiating acid-fast bac-

teria.

They used for their experiments acid-fast bacilli, cultivated from

leprous lesions, as well as a number of acid-fast bacilli isolated from other

sources. The authors found that similar extracts of both the lepra bacillus

and the Margarine bacillus would deflect the complement when com-

bined with certain lepers' serum, and further the serum of artificially

immunized animals against B. leprae would deflect the complement

when extracts of the Margarine bacillus was used as the antigen.

Physiological salt solution, extract of the acid-fast bacilli and extracts

prepared with alkalinized hydrogen peroxide would bind the complement,

whereas very small amount of alcohol extracts and alcohol chloroform

extracts absorbed the complements.

The authors were able to produce specific agglutinins in a horse by

repeated injections of increasing amounts of a suspension of the culti-

vated leprosy bacillus. This serum agglutinated in relatively high dilu-

tions, all acid-fast bacilli cultivated by the writers from patients suffer-

ing with leprosy. On the other hand agglutination did not occur with

suspension of acid-fast bacilli other than B. leprae.

Donald H. Currie.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The seventy-seventh regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club,

Tuesday, January 9, 1911, at 8 p.m., with President W. A. Orton in the

chair. Prof. E. 0. Wooton and F. D. Farrell, both of the Bureau of

Plant Industry were elected to membership.

Papers were read as follows :

Botanical gardens of the east. LysterH. Dewey. A trip to Java to

attend the International Fiber Congress and Exhibition held at Soera-

baia in July, 1911, afforded an opportunity to visit several botanical

gardens at points along the route. The gardens visited were as follows:

Alameda Garden, Gibraltar; Jardin d'Essais and University Grounds,

Algiers; Botanical Garden, Penang; Botanical Garden and Experimental

Grounds, Singapore; Botanical Garden, Buitenzorg; Public Gardens,

Hongkong; and Botanical Garden, Taihoku, Taiwan (Formosa).

The Alameda Garden is an attractive tho rather formal little public

park in the upper part of the town of Gibraltar at the foot of the great

rock. It is in about the same latitude as Raleigh, N. C, but the vege-

tation is more like that of southern Florida.

The Jardin d'Essais, at Algiers, extends from the sea shore back to

about 200 feet up the hillside and covering an area of 80 hectares. It

was founded in 1832, and is doubtless the oldest and certainly the most

important garden of its kind in Africa. Its avenues of plane trees, date

palms, magnolias, bamboos, chamaerops, latanias and dracaenas are

especially worthy of note. Eucalyptus and Araucaria from Australia

are growing well in the upper part of the garden. Many of the plants

in the older part of the garden are crowded and labels are sadly lacking.

The University Grounds, mostly blasted out in terraces on the rocky

hillside in Mustapha, the upper part of Algiers, is the special production

and field of study and work of Dr. Trabut, for many years botanist at

the University and botanical authority of northern Africa. This col-

lection of thousands of plants crowded together and made to grow under

difficult conditions, with the large number of hybrid agaves, eucalyptus,

papayas, solanums, citrus, etc., bear evidence of the tireless energy and

devotion to work of this botanical gardener of Algiers.

The twelve-hour stop at Colombo, Ceylon, was too short to visit the

garden at Peridiniya.

At Penang, in the Straits of Malacca, is one of the most beautiful botani-

cal gardens in all the world. Its Malay name, "Ayerterjun," is derived

103

104 proceedings: botanical society

from the waterfall coming over a cliff at the back of the garden. The

exquisite beauty of this garden is due to the well kept green lawn, the group-

ing of many kinds of palms and especially to the splendid specimens of

rajah palms, Cyrtostachysl akka, with brilliant scarlet midribs and graceful

feathery leaves. There are many economic as well as ornamental plants

in this garden and all are well labeled.

The large and well planted Botanical Garden on the island of Singa-

pore, about 2\ miles from the heart of the city, is the most attractive

feature of this combined Gibraltar and Liverpool of the Orient. It is

only one degree north of the equator, less than 100 feet above sea level,

and is watered with 100 to 140 inches of rain annually. There isn't

a water pipe or piece of garden hose in all Singapore. The numerous

palms and bamboos are among the most attractive features, while not

the least interesting are the Para rubber trees, Heva braziliensis, from

which have developed the great rubber plantations of the East Indies.

One of these trees, planted in 1879, measures 10 feet 3 inches in circum-

ference. Dr. Ridley, who recently resigned the position of Director,

has kept the garden in remarkably good condition, considering the lack

of funds and the small force at his disposal.

The Botanical Garden at Buitenzorg, founded in 1817, is justly regarded

as the great botanical garden of the world. It is 5° 20" south of the

equator, 861 feet above the sea, covers 83 acres all planted, and with 219

rainy days a year has about 16 feet of rain. The garden is strictly tropi-

cal and one looks in vain for plants of temperate or even semitropical

regions. Among hundreds of palms, the date palm and palmetto are

conspicuously absent. The plants, all perennials and largely trees,

are arranged by families, each species represented by two specimens,

and each specimen labeled with a number and the technical name. The

visitors' laboratories connected with this garden, where visiting botan-

ists may carry on research work, is a feature for which the. generous

management of the gardens deserves the gratitude of the botanical world.

The Public Gardens at Hongkong are perched on terraces on the steep

mountain side above the town, and are accessible to no conveyance

except a Sedan chair. The 16 acres in the gardens contain plants of

the tropics, semitropic and warmer temperate climates. The herbarium

at this garden contains one of the best collections of south China plants

in existence. One of the most attractive trees in the garden is Araucaria

rulea from New Caledonia, about 6 m. high and almost perfect in form

and color.

The small garden at Taihoku, the Japanese capital of Taiwan (For-

mosa), is only a few years old. The Japanese effect produced by ponds,

mounds, rustic bridges and dwarfed trees is quite different from any-

thing seen elsewhere. Camphor and other trees of Taiwan are repre-

sented and plants are being introduced from other countries.

These botanical gardens are fulfilling a many sided mission, in attract-

ing tourists, educating even the casual observer as to the identity of

plants, indicating the sources of plant products, introducing and dis-

proceedings: geological society 105

tributing plants of economic value, and affording research workers

exceptional opportunities for study.

Fermentation of cellulose. K. F. Kellerman, I. G. McBeth and

F. M. Scales. In the formation and maintenance of humus in agri-

cultural soils the fermentation of cellulose is probably of fundamental

importance yet our knowledge of this question is inadequate. Omelian-

sky's generally accepted conclusions that cellulose is destroyed only

under anaerobic conditions and gives rise either to hydrogen or methane

are erroneous.

Two species of cellulose-destroying and five species of contaminating

bacteria were isolated from a culture of Omeliansky's hydrogen organism,

and one cellulose-destroying and two contaminating forms from his

methane culture; none of the three fermenting species showed any

resemblance to Omeliansky's hydrogen or methane ferments. In addi-

tion to the species isolated from Omeliansky's cultures eleven other spe-

cies have been isolated from various other sources; one isolated from

manure belongs to the thermophile group.

Contrary to Omeliansky's observation that cellulose-destroying bac-

teria do not grow upon solid media, most of the species isolated were

found to grow readily upon such media as beef agar, gelatin, starch, and

potato. Some are facultatively anaerobic, but none are strictly anaer-

obic.

It is usually supposed that filamentous fungi are of little importance

in agricultural soils; these investigations show them to be at least as

important as bacteria in destroying cellulose. About seventy-five

species of molds have been isolated representing a large number of

genera; species of Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Fusarium are perhaps

most numerous.

In the destruction of pure cellulose either by bacteria or molds in syn-

thetic media the associative action of organisms which presumably

have no cellulose-dissolving enzymes frequently stimulates the growth

of the cellulose organism and increases its destructive power.

Some phases of microscopical detection of decomposition in food prod-

ucts. B. J. Howard.

W. W. Stockberger, Corresponding Secretary.

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 247th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, November 8, 1911,

President Brooks presiding. As an informal communication Mr.

Charles A. Davis discussed the presence of locomotive cinders in salt

marsh deposits near Boston as affording evidence of continuing subsid-

ence during the last half century.

106 proceedings: geological society

regular program

Is there a Permian Series?: Laurence La Forge. The question

might be better put "Is there a Permian system, or a Permian series in

the Carboniferous system?" Probably nowhere is the entire "Permian"

found in conformable sequence with Demetian (Pennsylvanian) below

and Triassic above. Where lower "Permian" conformably overlies

Demetian it is with difficulty separated from it and is limited above by

an unconformity and upper Permian is commonly absent; likewise where

upper Permian is conformably succeeded by Triassic it is limited below

by an unconformity and lower Permian is absent. Where lower and

upper Permian are found together they are commonly separated by an

interval of mountain-building with a consequent strong unconformity.

Evidences of Permian glaciation have been discovered in all the conti-

nents, indicating a marked epeirogenic uplift, occurring generally thruout

the world and accompanied in several continents by mountain-building,

early in Permian time.

These facts seem to indicate that to form the Permian system or series

there were combined formations and stages not properly belonging to-

gether, and the earlier and later of which are separated by a deformation

of world-wide importance. This time of epeirogenic uplift, glaciation,

and mountain-building would seem to be the best-defined and most

reasonable point of separation of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras.

Hence it is suggested that Permian be abandoned as a separate system or

as a series in the Carboniferous, and that the lower part be included in the

Demetian (Pennsylvanian), while the upper part forms a new series in

the Triassic.

In the scheme of the International Geological Congress the Permian

series is subdivided into the Autunian (or Artinskian) , Lodevian, and

Thuringian stages. In the United States the Dunkard group of the

Ohio valley, the Chase and Wichita groups of the Great Plains, and the

Cutler formation of Colorado are Autunian, which stage appears to be

wanting in England, but is well developed in continental Europe. In

the proposed new scheme it becomes the closing stage of the Demetian

(Pennsylvanian) and remains Carboniferous. The Lodevian stage is

sparingly developed in America, but the Sumner and Clear Fork groups

of the Great Plains are correlated with it. It is well developed in Europe

and farther east. In the western United States the Kiger, Salt Fork

and Double Mountain groups, and the lower part of the Chugwater

group, with perhaps other formations farther west, are Thuringian, which

stage includes the typical Permian of Russia, the Zechstein of Germany,

and the bulk of the English Permian. In the new scheme the Lodevian

and Thuringian stages make up the initial series of the Triassic system,

for which scries the name Permian (or Permic) might well be retained.

This is virtually a return to the original classification, in which the

middle and upper parts of the present Permian of Europe were combined

with the present Triassic in the New Red Sandstone or Poikilitic system,

while the lower part was considered Carboniferous. It is not proposed,

proceedings: geological society 107

however, to revive the name Poikilitic, but simply to retain the name

Triassic, extended downward to include the new, reduced, Permian

series. It will be seen that the new scheme avoids the difficulty in vari-

ous regions of distinguishing between Permian and Carboniferous,

resulting in the hybrid name Permo-Carboniferous, since all such strata

fall within the Carboniferous by virtue of the establishment of the base

of the Permian at a higher horizon.

The bonanza of National, Nevada: Waldemar Lindgben. This

paper gave the preliminary results of a reconnaissance examination in

the vicinity of the National mining camp, which is remarkable for the

richness of the gold ore in its principal mine.

The northern end of the Santa Rosa Range, from the Oregon line for

almost sixteen miles south to Canyon Creek, is made up of a succession

of basalt flows, interbedded with tuffs. Some of these flows are scoria-

ceous, others massive; they are well exposed north of Eight-Mile Creek,

where the whole series, over 2000 feet in thickness, dips east at gentle

angles. They form part of the great volcanic area of the Columbia

River lavas ar>i extend far to the north, east and west of National.

They were erupted in early Tertiary time, a time of intense volcanic

activity all over the Cordilleran region.

In the earlier portion of this epoch of vulcanism the lavas in the Na-

tional district were basaltic in character. At a later time rhyolites were

poured out, and at the same time dikes and masses of rhyolite and obsid-

ian, generally trending north and south, forced their way up thru the

basalts and tuff beds, in places disturbing them greatly. Big blocks

of basalt are sometimes imbedded in the rhyolite. A third and later

intrusion was of a dark, fine-grained rock provisionally called an andesite.

It is of importance because of the ore bodies that it contains. Still

later volcanic activity produced successive basalt flows covering the

rhyolites, and basalt dikes cutting those of rhyolite.

i The formation of mineral veins followed the eruptions of rhyolite and

andesite. Shortly after these eruptions fissures trending north and

south were opened, mainly along the rhyolite dikes, sometimes also

breaking into the basalt flows and the tuffs. The fissures are generally

small, rarely over a few feet in width, and commonly much less. The

fissure filling is mainly quartz, with drusy structure, and the character-

istic combination of metals is antimony (stibnite), iron (pyrite or mar-

casite) gold and silver. Lead, copper and zinc are generally absent.

Oinnabar has been observed at a few places. The veins thruout bear

evidence of having been deposited by hot, ascending springs at a moder-

ate depth below the surface. The majority of the veins so far described

are clearly dependent upon the rhyolite eruptions; they sometimes

carry considerable amounts of stibnite and the silver values usually

prevail over those of gold. None of the veins of the type so far described

has as yet yielded any considerable amount of shipping ore. The

case of the National vein is somewhat different. It is mainly con-

tained in an andesitic rock but it also cuts into basalt and rhyolite.

Tho its ore yields some antimony (both as stibnite and ruby silver) the

108 proceedings: geological society

quartz is distinctly different from that of other veins, being more mas-

sive and milky and less drusy, and there is in fact some reason to believe

that its mineralization took place a little later than that of the veins

following the rhyolite dikes.

This quartz vein, of very moderate thickness, contains along a well-

defined shoot a most remarkably rich bonanza ore, consisting of coarse

and hackly pale gold (possibly electrum) firmly imbedded in the white

quartz. An interesting characteristic is that within the bonanza shoot

rich and barren quartz may intermingle capriciously. The gold is not

a secondary deposit; in fact, there is scarcely any evidence at all of such

secondary solution and redeposition of the gold by descending surface

waters, while there is evidence that some of the silver has been leached

by surface waters and redeposited as ruby silver. There is also some

secondary marcasite. The shoot has been followed for a distance along

the dip of the vein of about 800 feet, the lowest level being opened by a

cross cut from Charleston gulch. The production of this extraordinary

bonanza since its discovery two years ago is said to have been no less

than $2,000,000 up to last fall, mainly in gold. Most of the ore had a

tenor of from $10 to $40 per pound. Some high silver values were

found at the surface, but the apex of the gold shoot was not encountered

until about 60 feet below the surface. No placers have been found in

Charleston gulch or in Eight-Mile Creek, in spite of the fact that a

great deal of rock has been removed by erosion. Hence it is probable

that this gold shoot never reached the surface, and that no other of a

similar nature existed within the rock volume carried away by erosion.

The almost inevitable conclusion is that such shoots must be scarce below

the present surface.

The exploration of the Noatak River, Alaska: P. S. Smith.

The 248th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club, November 22, 1911,

Vice-President Stanton in the chair. As an informal communication

Mr. Robert Anderson gave an account of the formation of a new island

two miles off the south coast of Trinidad by an outburst of gas from the

Tertiary oil and gas-bearing strata of the submerged coastal shelf. The

island is of mud, sand and boulders, is about 10 acres in extent and has

a height of 10 or 15 feet above the sea. The later stage of the eruption

of this mass was accompanied by a great flame, due to the ignition of the

gas. This ignition probably resulted from friction between sulphur-

bearing rocks which were shot out.

REGULAR PROGRAM

The Carlyle oil field of Illinois: E. W. Shaw. The Carlyle oil field is

about forty miles east of St. Louis and was discovered in the spring of

1911. It lies about fifteen miles west of the Sandoval oil field which was

discovered in 1909. The excitement at Carlyle was intense and fabulous

prices were paid for leases on farms which later proved to be outside the

proceedings: geological society 109

productive territory. In structure the rocks have the form of an arch

about 50 feet high on a general eastward dip of about 20 feet to the mile.

The oil is found in a soft, porous sandstone in the uppermost part of the

Mississippian series, a little over 1000 feet below the surface. There

are many layers of barren sandstone above and below, which, like the

producing sand, are arched; but they differ from it in that they extend

out beyond the borders of the field, whereas the producing sand pinches

out on three sides of the pool. On the fourth side this sand is full of

salt water. All of the wells yield gas, oil, and water, the initial pro-

duction of oil ranging up to 2000 barrels a day. There are now over a

hundred wells and the total production is about 6000 barrels a day. The

oil has a gravity of 33 to 37 degrees Baume. Most of the wells are shot

with about forty quarts of nitro-glycerine.

An old erosion surface in eastern Utah, its age and value in time deter-

minations: Joseph B. Umpleby. During reconnaissance studies in

1910 and 1911 an old erosion surface was recognized in eastern Idaho. It

was seen to be older than one group of mineral deposits but to truncate

the other. Thus its age if definitely established would place limits on

two great periods of mineralization. The aim of this paper is (1) to

show that an old erosion surface extends over much of Idaho and into

adjacent regions; (2) to outline the evidence for the conclusion that it

is of Eocene age; (3) to suggest that the elevation of the highlands which

were later planed down was accompanied by great granitic intrusions,

and (4) to point out the relations of the Eocene surface to the ore deposits.

1. A correlation is suggested between the erosion surface in eastern

Idaho and the plateau-like surfaces that have been recognized in west

central Idaho and the Clearwater Mountains by Lindgren, in the Coeur

d'Alene range of Idaho and the Cabinet and Purcell ranges of western

Montana by Calkins, in the Galton and possibly also the Livingston and

Lewis ranges farther east by Willis, in the Interior Plateau of British

Columbia, where Dawson describes an Eocene peneplain, and in the

Republic district of Washington by the speaker.

2. Early Miocene sediments, laid down in great erosion valleys de-

veloped after the last important elevation of the old erosion surface, indi-

cate its pre-Oligocene age, allowing Oligocene time for the development of

the valleys. On the other hand the surface cuts all the older formations,

including the Idaho granite which is post-Triassic. Furthermore, the

Eocene sediments of the Northwest surround the plateau region and

were evidently derived from it. They could not have come from this

region after its last elevation for two reasons: (a) It is doubtful if

there has been sufficient dissection of the plateau to supply the volume

of sediments represented, and (b) all the more important later valleys of

the region drain westward. The conclusion, therefore, is that the Eocene

sediments were derived from the plateau region during that cycle of

erosion which resulted in gentle topographic forms, and hence that the

old erosion surface is of Eocene age.

3. The plateau region as before defined is characterized by numerous

granitic batholiths which are of about the same age and comprise pos-

110 proceedings: geological society

sibly one-third its area. It is safe to assume that the intrusion of this

material either caused or accompanied a profound elevation of the sur-

face; yet the area of granitic intrusions shows no significant relation to

surrounding sedimentary deposits until the Eocene. It is suggested,

therefore, that the granitic intrusions initiated or accompanied the

initiation of the cycle of erosion which resulted in the gentle topographic

forms of Eocene age.

4. The Eocene erosion surface truncates the earlier mineral deposits.

On the other hand these are younger than the granite which encloses

some of them. They are therefore assigned to the late Cretaceous or

early Eocene. The later veins are enclosed in or associated with erup-

tive rocks which occupy valleys developed after the elevation of the

Eocene surface. Allowing the Oligocene period for the development of

these valleys and evaluating the amount of erosion that took place be-

tween the extravasation of the lavas and the beginning of the Pleisto-

cene, it is concluded that the younger veins are Miocene or early Plio-

cene.

Mines and prospects of southwestern Oregon: J. S. Diller. This

paper presented the preliminary results of a study not yet completed,

which will later be embodied in a report by the Geological Survey. A

general geological map of northwest California and southwest Oregon

illustrated the distribution of the larger groups of formations and called

attention to the fact that the Sierra Nevada and Klamath Mountains

are composed in large measure of the same formations and that these

formations are closely allied also to those of the Blue Mountains of

eastern Oregon. All these mountains are important mining regions.

The rocks of the Klamath Mountains have been subjected to vigorous

compressive stresses in two directions approximately at right angles to

each other. One set of stresses folding the rocks along axes running

northwest and southeast, and prevailing in the southwest portion of the

Klamath Mountains, connects them with the Sierra Nevada; the other

set of stresses folding the rocks along axes running southwest and north-

east, and prevailing in the northeast portion of the mountains, connect-

ing them with the Blue Mountains of Oregon.

As a result of the divergent stresses there has been widespread crush-

ing on diverse lines among the rocks of the Klamath Mountains. Con-

sequently the later igneous intrusions with their mineralizing ore-bearing

solutions from within the earth found many scattered lines of egress

towards the surface, and the ore deposits, though abundant, represent

in general a low instead of a high degree of concentration.

On a map of southwest Oregon was shown the location of the principal

gold and copper mines from the California line thru the Grant's Pass

region to Bohemia, and on a special sketch map was outlined the geology

and mines in the vicinity of Galice and Kerby. Attention was called

to the fact that the Galice slates contain fossils characteristic of the

Mother Lode district in California.

Robert Anderson, Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. II, MARCH 4, 1912 No. 5

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. — Damped and undamped oscillations.

L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Wireless Telegraphic Laboratory.

The idea has occurred to me that the ground absorption of

damped and undamped oscillations might differ from each other,

other Conditions being the same. Therefore the following exper-

iment was carried out between the Naval Academy at Annapolis,

Md., and the Radiotelegraphic Laboratory at Washington. The

antenna at Annapolis is of the harp form, approximately 150 feet

high. In this damped oscillations were produced by a Fessenden

rotary gap 2 kw. sending set of the type used in our long distance

quantitative measurements.1 The continuous oscillations were

produced by a Poulsen arc. In both cases the resonance curve

of the antenna was examined by means of a wave meter to make

certain that only one definite wave length was emitted The

coupling of the Fessenden set was made extremely loose so as to

reduce the antenna current to the value obtainable from the arc,

the decrement being approximate y 0.15. This antenna current

was 3.5 amperes and the wave length with each set was 1060

meters. •

The antenna at the Radiotelegraphic Laboratory is an eight

wire harp approximately 180 feet high at top and 60 feet high

at bottom. This makes the center of capacity 120 feet above

the earth. Taking the height of the center of capacity of the

Annapolis antenna as 75 feet from the earth, from the data

1 Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7:315. 1911.

Ill

112 AUSTIN: HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE

given in Table XVI of the paper already cited it is possible to

calculate the amount of energy which would have been received at

the given distance ( 30 miles) over salt water. The current reduced

to a receiving antenna resistance o" 25 ohms would amount to

21O10-6 amperes. The actual current received was 7610-'

amperes, therefore, the ground absorption amounts to 64 per cent.

The currents were measured as in the former experiments2 by

means of a rectifying detector with galvanometer in a circuit

coupled to the antenna. The galvanometer deflections amounted

on an average to 80 millimeters and no certain difference could

be detected between the deflections due to the damped and to

the undamped oscillations. The uncertainty of the observations

amounted to probably 10 per cent. No correction was made for

the difference in effective resistance of the receiving antenna for

the damped and undamped waves. This might amount to from

10 to 20 per cent.

The conclusion to be drawn is that the absorption of the energy

of the waves in passing over the country in question was the same

in the case of the undamped and moderately damped oscillations

within the limits of the errors of observation.

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY. — Suitable wire sizes for high frequency

resistance. L. W. Austin, U. S. Naval Wireless Telegraphic

Laboratory.

It often becomes necessary in high frequency testing to intro-

duce definite amounts of resistance into the circuits. For the

sake of convenience in calculation it is usually desirable to have

the wires composing the resistances of such size as to make the

so-called skin effect negligible since in this way it is possible to

measure the resistance by direct current methods and to be sure

that the high frequency resistance will be practically the same

in value. If the experimenter does not take the trouble to calcu-

late the relation between high frequency a>nd direct current resist-

ance, he is frequently led to use resistance wires of too small size,

thus unnecessarily sacrificing current carrying capacity.

2 Bulletin Bureau of Standards, 7:295. 1911.

AUSTIN: HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE

113

I have, therefore, from data given by Professor Zenneck*

graphically computed the sizes of wire which may be used at

various wave lengths without causing the difference in direct

and high frequency resistance to exceed 1 per cent. Doubling

the diameter given in the table will produce a difference between

direct and high frequency resistance of approximately 10 per

cent, while one-half the diameter given in the table will reduce

the difference to approximately ^ percent, (Zenneck). The val-

ues are given for copper and platinum as well as the high resist-

ance materials constantan and manganin. Advance wire is

practically identical electrically with constantan, while for high

resistance German silver the values are nearly the same as for

manganin.

TABLE OF WIRE SIZES

For Which the High Frequency Resistance Will be Less Than 1 Per Cent

Greater Than Direct Current Resistance

The column of the table under Maximum Current gives the

approximate current which may be carried by the various sizes

of constantan wire without undue heating. The current capacity

of the manganin is very nearly the same.

1 Zenneck, Leitfaden der drahtlosen Telegraphie, p. 352.

114 fairchild: phosphoric acid determination

Of course carbon and various electrolytes may be used instead

of the metals, with even smaller corrections but the temperature

resistance coefficients of these are so large that they are generally

less suitable for use as resistances than constantan or manganin.

When a greater current carrying capacity is desired the wires

may be frequently used in parallel soldered between parallel

metal strips, provided the spacing is not too small.

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.— The accurate volumetric deter-

mination of phosphoric acid in phosphate rock. John G.

Fairchild. Communicated by F. W. Clarke. To appear

in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.

The method here proposed is a modification of Pemberton's

caustic alkali titration. In its original form Pemberton's method

gives results 1.5 per cent low in comparison with the standard

method of weighing the phosphoric acid as magnesium pyrophos-

phate. This error is reduced to zero by precipitation of the sol-

uble phosphate with barium chloride in excess. The greatest

error resulting in the analysis of eight phosphate rocks by this

method was 0.32 per cent of P206, parallel determinations being

made by the gravimetric method. The average error was 0.03

per cent of P205. The accuracy is 99 per cent as compared with

an accuracy of 99.5 per cent for the gravimetric method. The

advantage of the volumetric method is its rapidity, not more

than one hour being required for a complete determination.

Attention is called to the fact that the barium phosphate precip-

itated undergoes hydrolysis, necessitating moderate sized portions

for titration. Also, that without this modification the apparent

percentage of phosphoric acid is less, the larger the portions

titrated.

GEOLOGY. — Age of the Worcester phyllite. David White.

The Worcester phyllite consists largely of altered clay shales,

some of which are very highly carbonaceous, but comprises also

thin beds of sandy shale and sandstone. The rock, which has

generally been termed an argillite, is, under the name phyllite,

white: age of the Worcester phyllite 115

clearly described in great detail, by Perry and Emerson in the

"Geology of Worcester, Massachusetts,"1 and is mapped as occu-

pying two synclines lying with a northeast trend beneath the

city of Worcester. The formation in the eastern syncline is best

exposed by the Boston and Albany Railway cut, between the

Union Station and Lake Quinsigamond. Another outcrop, clas-

sic in the literature, occurs at the "Old coal mine" northwest of

Wigwam Hill, in the grounds of the Normal College of the Sisters

of Notre Dame. Several times during the last century attempts

have been made at this old "mine" to work a thin bed of graphit-

ized impure coal. Here the strata, which dip steeply to the north-

northwest appear to be less altered than in most places, and

the bedding is fairly distinct.2 The minerals resulting from

the metamorphism are fully described by Perry and Emerson.

Dark, slaty phyllite and schist, richly carbonaceous, accompany

the graphitic bed. A lower stratum still retains certain features

which to the writer strongly suggest the so-called fire-clay beneath

a coal bed. Veins of quartz or other minerals are inconspicuous

at this locality, though the results of deformation are obvious in

the slicken-sided layers. The more graphitic portions of the

section now consist largely of thin, curly, slicken-sided, carbon-

aceous scales.

The phyllite rests on a quartzite described by the above-named

geologists as the Worcester quartzite. The agreement of the

quartzite with the phyllite in structure, probable conformity, and

comparable alteration, is made a basis for regarding both as

probably belonging to the same period. Both the phyllite and the

quartzite are reported to be less altered at Worcester than else-

where. Away from this point the phyllite is said to change to a

mica schist, and the quartzite to a mica quartzite, which, accord-

ing to Perry and Emerson, becomes their Paxton schist on the

west, in the plateau of central Massachusetts, and the Bolton

1 "The Geology of Worcester, Massachusetts," by Jos. H. Perry and Benj. K-

Emerson. Worcester, 1903, pp. xii and 166, with map and numerous plates.

2 The outcrop is photographically shown opposite p. 12 of the work just cited.

The term "phyllite" is employed in conformity with the usage of Merrill (Rept.

U. S. Nat. Mus., 1S90, p. 390).

116 white: age of the Worcester phyllite

gneiss, on the east, the sediments having been more argillaceous

westward, and more arenaceous eastward. The Brimfield schist,

described by Emerson and Perry as overlying their Paxton schist,

is accordingly correlated by them as a more highly metamorphosed

phase of the Worcester phyllite.

Tho these beds were described more than three-quarters of a

century ago and have been visited by scores of geologists, the

widest views have prevailed regarding their age. As often hap-

pens in graphitic argillites, mineral or cleavage forms accidentally

resembling graphitized remains of plant fragments are plenti-

ful. Some of these closely imitate imperfect fragments of Cor-

daites, Calamites, Lepidodendron, etc. In 1883 a specimen was

found by Professor Perry which appeared to be a true fossil, con-

sisting of a fragment of a Lepidodendron stem impression, in

which the somewhat indistinct leaf cushions were still compar-

atively regular in their quincunxial arrangement. This specimen

was submitted by Perry to Leo Lesquereux,3 who regarded it

as probably belonging to Lepidodendron acuminatum, a Carbon-

iferous species. On the evidence of the relatively minor degree

of alteration, the occurrence of the graphitic bed, and this unfor-

tunately rather obscure fossil,4 Perry and Emerson have courage-

ously insisted on the Carboniferous age of the phyllite, notwith-

standing the scepticism of most geologists and paleontologists,

some of whom, denying the validity of the fossil, have continued

to regard the beds as not younger than Algonkian. Spurred by

criticism, Professor Perry continued the search, with the result

that after sixteen years the counterpart or reverse of the same

stem fragment impression was discovered. This side, however,

was scarcely more distinct than the other, and accordingly added

nothing to the evidence as to the age of the phyllite.

Since it was evident that in the midst of soft clay shales, after

such squeezing and alteration as at Worcester, there could be

3 Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIX, 1885, p. 157. See frontispiece "Geology of Wor-

cester, Mass.," 190H.

4 Another specimen, never reported on by a paleontologist, is said to have been

sent to Columbia University.

white: age of the Worcester phyllite 117

little chance for the recognizable preservation of the delicate types

of land plants most useful for age determination, the writer on the

occasion of his brief visit to the old "mine" in October, 1911, set

about the search for either clay ironstones or pyritic nodules

("niggerheads") which when occurring in the shales above coal

beds are so often found to contain vestiges of more or less decayed

but undeformed organic structures. The expectation that such

sulphide nodules when surrounded by soft, plastic, and therefore

compensating material, might, if present, have escaped serious

deformation, was essentially borne out by the discovery of con-

cretions containing recognizable fossils in the graphitic argillite.

However, contrary to expectation, the concretions were found to

contain brecciated shale fragments of various sizes and in varying

attitudes. It appears that this shale was fractured or brecciated

prior to the segregation of the sulphide. At present the inter-

stices between the shale pieces, some of which were found to be

as large as the palm of the hand, are largely occupied by asbesti-

form prochlorite (after fibrous pyrite?), though more or less iron

sulphide is present.

The concretions above the graphite bed in the phyllite are few

and rather hard to extract, and the included plant fragments in

the particular shale layers represented therein appear to be scarce

and generally small, but fortunately they are fairly distinct and

practically undisturbed, the pieces of shale being less deformed

so that the paleobotanical details are clear. In the relatively

few fragments found during the writer's brief search, small

portions of Cordaites leaves, probably C. borassifolius, are rela-

tively plentiful. Other fragments include a small leaflet of Sphen-

opteris comparable to S. dicksonioides Stur; an isolated leaf cush-

ion of Lepidodendron, possibly L. obovatum; a Sporocystis, and a

small Equise'talean cone.

Thru the courtesy of Professor Perry the opportunity has been

given the writer to examine and photograph one side of the Lepi-

dodendron found by him in gritty schist. As to the validity

of this impression there is no room for doubt. Though the bol-

sters are partially defaced and alteration products largely mask

118 safford: annona diversifolia

the surface, there may be seen at several points imperfect out-

lines of what are, presumably, deformed leaf scars instead of

mere pseudo-fossils. The trunk, which was perhaps a foot in

diameter, may have belonged to Lepidodendron Veltheimii, or

possibly L. obovatum.

Description of the fossils is deferred in the expectation that new

efforts will bring to light additional material in the protected

brecciated shale fragments. The specimens at present in hand,

tho few and very fragmentary, are such as to put beyond ques-

tion the Carboniferous age of the phyllite at Worcester, thus con-

firming the opinion of Professors Perry and Emerson. Judging

by the details of the few pieces collected, the writer suspects that

further discoveries will show the beds to be of Pennsylvania!!,

possibly Pottsville, age.

BOTANY. — Annona diversifolia, a custard-apple of the Aztecs.

W. E. Safford, Bureau of Plant Industry.

While engaged in the study of Annonaceae the writer found a

specimen of Annona, or custard-apple, in the U. S. National Her-

barium, remarkable on account of certain large, orbicular, leaf-

like bracts at the base of the flowering branches, from which appear

the peduncles, or flower stems, a peculiarity found in no other

Annona thus far known, except A. macroprophyllata Donnell

Smith. It proved to be an undescribed species, and a short de-

scription of it was published in Science,* under the name Anona

diversifolia. The type material included bark, leaves, flowers,

and immature fruit, (fig. 1) and the collector's field notes stated

that the fruit, locally known as ilama or izlama, was reported tc

be edible. No description of the mature fruit was given, how-

ever, and it remained to be proved whether or not it could be

identified with the celebrated illamatzapotl, or "zapote de las

viejas," of the ancient Mexicans, the' specific identity of which

had never been established.

This fruit was first mentioned by Francisco Hernandez, the

"protomedico" of Philip II, who was sent in 1570 to study the

1Newser.,23:471. March 24, 1911.

Fig. 1. Annona diver si '/oh'a Safford, natural size

119

120 safford: annona diversifolia

products of New Spain. A figure of it was published in the first

edition of his works, under the name ylla?natzapotli,2 and in a

subsequent edition it was said to be identical with the guand-

bano (Annona muricata L.),3 tho the original figure does not

show the fruit to be muricate like the latter.

Nearly all writers on Mexican fruits have mentioned the ilama,

or illamatzapotl, but there is a wide diversity of opinion among

them as to its botanical identity. Altamirano and Ramirez

thought it to be Annona excelsa of Humboldt, Bonpland and

Kunth;4 Dr. Urbina identified it with Annona muricata of Lin-

naeus;5 and Professor Alcocer calls it Annona reticulata Linn.6

In a monograph on the edible Annonaceae of Mexico, Professor

Felix Foex, citing Ramirez as authority, refers the ilama of Colima

and Guerrero to Annona excelsa H. B. K., without describing its

flowers or fruit, and referring to its leaves as u acumina&as" a

description which applies to Annona excelsa but not to the ilama

of Colima and Guerrero.7

At the request of the writer much valuable information relat-

ing to economic Annonaceae has been obtained by Mr. David

Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in charge of Foreign Seed and

Plant Introduction, chiefly from our consular representatives in

Mexico and Central America, thru the courtesy of the State

Department.

In reply to inquiries regarding the fruit known as ilama growing

in the vicinity of Acapulco, Mr. Marion Letcher, American con-

2 Recchi, Nardo Antonio: Nova Plantarum, Animalium et Mineralium Mexi-

canorum Historia a Francisco Hernandez Medico. . . . compilata. p. 444.

Rome. 1651.

3 "Illamatzapotl, quam Haitini Guanabanum vocant" — Francisco Hernandez.

Opera, 1 : 178. Madrid. 1790.

"Altamirano, Fernando and Ramirez, Jose: "Lista de nombres vulgares y

botanicos de drboles y arbustos propios para repoblar los bosques de la Reptiblica."

p. 3. 1894.

6 Urbina, Manuel : "Los zapotes de Hernandez." Anales del Mus<§o Nacional,

7: 212. 1902.

6 Alcocer, Gabriel V. : " Cata4ogo de los frutos comestibles mexicanos." Anales

del Museo Nacional, segunda epoca, 2: 419. 1905.

7 Foex, Feliz: "Algunas Anonaceas frutales de Mexico." Estacion Agr.

Centr. Bob, No. 9: 25. 1908.

safford: annona diversifolia

121

sul at that port, forwarded seeds and photographs, which showed

it to be an Annona somewhat resembling the chirimoya (Annona

cherimola) and sugar-apple (Annona squamosa) but quite distinct

Fig. 2. Annona diversifolia Safford, showing fruit leaves and bracts, one-

half natural size.

.specifically from them both. Photographs, taken by Dr. H. K.

Pangborn about two leagues back from the coast, show a tree

with dense glossy foliage and pendant conoid fruit which appeared

to be covered with whitish felt or cotton (fig. 2). The leaves are

122

safford: annona diversifolia

distinctly rounded at the apex, very different in shape from the

leaves of the other species mentioned, and the photograph of

fruits, fully ripe and bursting open, show them to be shaped "like

pine apple cheeses," as Mr. Letcher aptly describes them (fig. 3).

The seeds forwarded by Mr. Letcher were totally unlike those of

any known species of Annona. They resembled, however, some

seeds in the economic collection of the U. S. Department of Agri-

culture of an unidentified An-

nona growing in the republic of

El Salvador.

Photographs of the Acapulco

fruit were accordingly sent by the

writer to the Agricultural Depart-

ment of Salvador, and a prompt

and courteous reply was received

from the Director General of

Agriculture of that republic, Don

Rafael Castillo, who identified

it with the species called in Sal-

vador "anona blanca." Sefior

Castillo also forwarded seeds and

leaves of the "anona blanca,"

which identified it unmistakably

with the ilama of Colima( Annona diversifolia) and with the ilama

of Acapulco. The following is an amended description of the

species.

Annona diversifolia Safford. ilama, or illamatzapotl Fig. 1.

Anona diversifolia Safford. Science, n. ser.; 23: 471. 1911.

Leaves petioled, blades varying from broadly elliptical, near

the base of the flowering branches, to obovate-oblong and oblan-

ceolate, higher up, rounded or obtuse at the apex, and rounded

or acute at the base, membranaceous, glabrous, feather-veined,

punctulate with minute dots; peduncles solitary 1 -flowered, long

and slender, recurved or pendent, issuing from one or two sub-

orbicular, amplexicaul, glabrous, leaf-like bracts near the base

of the flowering branches; flower buds obpyriform; petals linear-

Fig. 3. Mature fruit of Ilama

(Annona diversifolia) one-third natu-

ral size.

safford: annona diversifolia 123

oblong, swollen and concave at the base; fruit conoid or broadly

ovoid, covered with dense felt-like pubescence, the individual

carpels scale-like when immature, and projecting in thick blunt

points directed toward the apex when mature, but sometimes

suppressed so that the fruit is ovoid or subglobose in shape ; seeds

golden-brown or buff colored, obovoid to oblong, with a hard

smooth testa devoid of a marginal groove or wing, enveloped in

a thin membranous covering when fresh, and surrounded by a

richly flavored, cream-colored or rose-tinted, edible pulp.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, No. 398834, collected

near the city of Colima, western Mexico, July 1897, by Dr.

Edward Palmer (No. 60).

Distribution: Colima and Acapulco, western Mexico, to El

Salvador; cultivated for its edible fruit. Local names: llama,

Hilama, Illamatzapotl (Mexico); Anona blanca (Salvador).

Annona diversifolia is a small tree with deep green foliage, and

light-colored brownish-gray bark, longitudinally furrowed and set

with numerous lenticels. The tender young leaves at first are

reddish or copper-colored, somewhat like those of a mango in

color, but at length turn green and have a parchment-like texture.

They differ essentially from the leaves of the closely allied Annona

macroprophyllata Donn. Smith in size and form and in the length

of the petiole. Diversity in shape and size of the leaves is com-

mon to many species of Annonaceae, usually the smaller and

relatively broader leaves being found near the base of the flower-

ing branches, and larger and relatively narrower leaves following

in succession; but in the present species this diversity is most

pronounced. The possession of persistent leaf-like clasping

bracts at the base of the petioles separates this species together

with A. macroprophyllata from the rest of the Annonas thus far

known, and places them in a section apart, which I have called

llama.8 These bracts are glabrous in the present species, while

in ,4. macroprophyllata the bracts are ciliate on the margin. The

smaller and relatively broader leaves at the base of the branches

8 See Safford, W. E. : "The Genus Annona: the derivation of its name and its

taxonomic subdivisions.''' Journ. Washington Acad: Sci., 1: 118-120. Septem-

ber, 1911.

124 safford: annona diversifolia

are 5 to 6 cm. long and 3.8 to 4.8 cm. broad; the largest are 10 to

14 cm. long and 4 to 6 cm. broad, rounded or obtuse at the apex

and usually acute or cuneate at the base, with petioles 12 to 16

mm. long. The basal amplexicaul bracts are 25 to 35 mm. in

diameter; the floral peduncles, remarkably long for this genus,

are 4 to 5 cm. long. The small ovate or triangular calyx divisions

are ferrugineous-ciliate on the margins. The fresh petals (20

to 24 mm. long) are described by Dr. Palmer as "light reddish or

chocolate colored within and mauve or purple on the outer surface,

becoming snuff-colored with age." They differ from those of

Annona cherimola and its close allies in opening to the base when

mature.

The fruit may be described as having the form of an enormous

artichoke with an axis of 13 to 15 cm. and a diameter of 12 to 13

cm. On the same tree specimens may be

found with the salient points of the carpels

quite pronounced while in others they are

scarcely apparent. In comparing it with

the fruit of the chirimoya (Annona cheri-

mola), Mr. Letcher states that the flesh of

Fig. 4; a, seed of Anno- the ilama is usually pink, sometimes deep

na diversifolia, b, seed of rose-colored, the hard nutlike seeds are

Annona cherimola, natu- yellow or yellowish brown (fig. 4 a), and the

peel or rind is scurfy and inclined to be

covered with projecting points. The chirimoya, on the other

hand, has white flesh; dark brown seeds with a thin testa easily

cut with a knife and surrounded by a marginal ridge (fig. 4 b);

and an almost smooth skin usually with a wart-like protuberance

near the apex of each outlined areole.

Seeds sent by Mr. Letcher from Acapulco and by Don Rafael

Castillo from Salvador are exactly alike; they resemble pine-nuts

rather than ordinary Annona seeds. They are 20 to 21 mm.

long, 12 to 11 mm. broad, and 10 mm. thick, so that they have a

broadly elliptical or oval cross-section. The basal hilum is more

or less depressed and is devoid of the thickened caruncle which

usually surrounds the hilum in other species of Annona and in the

allied genus Rollinia.

cook: primitive social states 125

Mr. Letcher describes the fruit as " quite delicious" and in a

recent communication received through the State Department

from Mr. Samuel E. Magill, American consul at Guadalajara, he

refers to the "ilama of Colima" as having a richer flavor than the

chirimoya, the species which has hitherto been considered the

queen of the custard apples.

ETHNOLOGY.— Definitions of two primitive social states. O. F.

Cook.

Primitive social systems are usually classified by standards

borrowed from legal or political science, such as the different

systems of inheritance of property or rank. Familiarity with

two groups of primitive people, in West Africa and Central Amer-

ica, has suggested the possibility of a different system of socio-

logical classification, based on facts that have a more fundamental

relation to the development of civilization.

That a primitive society be matriarchal or patriarchal, or that

it be governed by a priestly or a military caste, does not deter-

mine its possibilities of progress, for progressive peoples have

shown many differences and have survived many changes in

these respects. More important factors have been contributed by

the external environment, but none of these can be considered

indispensable. Capable peoples have developed in apparently

unfavorable environments, until they were able to choose their

own environments. The underlying question of civilization is to

know what conditions are really favorable for the development of

human talent.

The essentials of civilization, considered as characters of human

races, are not transmitted from one generation to another by pre-

natal inheritance like the instinctive arts of animals. Human

arts and social adjustments have to be acquired by postnatal

inheritance, thro the medium of contacts with parents and

elders during the years of childhood and youth. It is reasonable,

therefore, to believe that any factors or conditions that tend to

increase or diminish these contacts are of practical importance

in the development of civilization.

126 cook: primitive social states

Two types of social organization may be distinguished by ref-

erence to the contacts between parents and children. In the

choripedic state the children of different families are kept apart

from each other, and remain associated with the parents and

older members of the family. In the sympedic state the children

of a community are associated in groups with others of similar

age. The choripedic state provides complete contacts with the

parents, the sympedic state only partial and imperfect contacts.

In his most primitive condition man may be thought of as

roaming thru the forests in simple family groups, as the anthro-

poid apes and some very backward savages still do. After settled

agricultural habits are adopted and permanent food supplies

assured it becomes possible for the original family group to ex-

pand into a community. The dwelling may expand with the

family into a large communal house, or the community may live

in a cluster of houses, constituting a village. Both of these con-

ditions are found among the natives of Liberia. The Kroo

people of the coast live in large communal houses that may

shelter two or three score of people. The interior tribes, such as

the Veys, Golahs and Pessahs, live in very small, closely clus-

tered houses. The social condition of the children is the same in

the two kinds of communities, both representing the sympedic

state. Children of nearly the same age spend most of their

time playing together or chattering about in little groups, much

like the squads or gangs of street children with us.

The social organization of the Kekchis and other related tribes

of eastern Guatemala is essentially different from that of the

Africans. Although these tropical Indians are even more strictly

agricultural than the natives of tropical Africa, they do not asso-

ciate in communal dwellings or villages. Each family lives by

itself, often quite remote from any other. The Kekchis and

neighboring tribes were aptly described by Otis T. Mason as

"poor relations of the Mayas." Though unusually primitive

and unorganized, they are closely related in language and other

respects to the tribes that were farthest advanced toward civil-

ization at the time of the Spanish invasion.

cook: primitive social states 127

When families live isolated on the land, as among the Kekchis,

the children have full opportunities to learn all the facts and

acquire all the skill that the parents may possess, and transmit

these arts in turn to their descendants. Capable parents not

only produce more capable children, but give them a more effec-

tive equipment for life. It is easy to understand that civiliza-

tion develops under such conditions, by gradual accumulation of

the experience and accidental discoveries of successive generations.

Among the Africans, on the other hand, the premature socializa-

tion of the children interferes with progress toward civilization.

Postnatal inheritance is restricted when contacts between the

generations are inadequate. There are smaller chances that prog-

ress made by capable individuals will be preserved and trans-

mitted to their descendants.

With this difference of social organization in mind, it becomes

easier to understand the striking contrast noted by so many travel-

lers, historians and ethnographers, between the natives of Africa

and America. The general distribution and diversity of archae-

ological remains on the American continent afford evidences of a

generally favorable condition for the development of civilization.

In tropical Africa, on the other hand, civilization has not only

failed to develop but many introduced civilizations have degen-

erated into barbarism. This is not because the Africans are infe-

rior as individuals to the Indians, for they generally have both

physical and mental superiority. But the Indians were able to

make more progress because they retained the superior social

organization of separate families instead of taking the false step

of premature socialization. It is true that many tribes of Indians

in different parts of the American continent went over to the com-

munal, sympedic system, but it does not appear that such tribes

made progress toward civilization, even as far as the Africans.

The sympedic condition is not confined, of course, to primitive

peoples, but supervenes whenever the family organization is

weakened by crowding people together in villages or cities,

becoming most intensified among urban populations that have

ceased to practice any of the agricultural arts. Village-dwelling

agricultural or pastoral people may preserve effective contacts

128 cook: primitive social states

between the parents and the children, for the families usually

separate for several months of the year, to plant their crops or

tend their herds.

Agriculture is to be considered as the basis of civilization, not

only because it affords the physical support of civilized man, but

because it represents the condition of existence necessary for the

development of civilization. Farm life usually supplies both

society and solitude, the prime essentials of intellectual progress.

All of the highly civilized races seem to have developed their

powers during a primitive agricultural stage, preparatory to more

conspicuous exploits in other lines of activity, military, political,

industrial or artistic. The highest developments of specialized

arts are often attained after civilizations reach the urban stage,

but urban conditions are finally destructive of civilization.

When people leave the land and become continuously occupied

with urban pursuits constructive contacts between parents and

children are at an end. The home may still supply food, lodging

and clothes, but other parental responsibilities are disregarded or

transferred to the school. The child really belongs to a group of

school children of his own age, rather than to a family group.

He spends all his active hours with the other children, thinks

their thoughts, speaks their language, and sees the world entirely

from their point of view. Under farm conditions the children

share in all the activities of their parents, instead of being rele-

gated to an artificial scholastic state, apart from the life of the

community.

The school makes for progress when it serves to supplement the

parental contacts with other opportunities of learning. Civili-

zation is a synthetic process, as some ethnologists have pointed

out, but herding young children together does not advance civil-

ization. Compulsory instruction of parents in the interest of

home rearing of children would be a much wiser measure than

compulsory attendance at schools. The school becomes an agent

of disorganization when it weakens the family relations and gives

the child less than he might have obtained from his parents. The

juvenile savagery now recognized as a regular feature of our city

populations is not a normal state of the children of civilized races,.

HOPKINS: EVOLUTION 129

as some educators have inferred, but is a result of the sympedic

state, the premature association of the children with each other,

and the lessening of contacts with parents and elders.

EVOLUTION. — The story of evolution as revealed by a scolytid

beetle. Andrew D. Hopkins.

If the principle of evolution has the broad application we

believe it to have, one should find in any individual form of life,

as for example, a scolytid beetle, some evidences of its origin,

some records of the more important events and progressive

changes in its line of descent and of its near and remote relation-

ship to other forms.

A review of this evidence and the facts made available by the

living beetle shows that its body is composed of organic elements,

that it is rendered active by the element of life, and that in this

and other evidences of its relationship to organic and inorganic

nature there is proof of universal unity. In its development from

an organic unit or mother cell it has furnished some of the evi-

dences of its line of descent from a simple protozoid source to a

complex metazoid form, from a simple vermiform type to a com-

plex larval-form type, and thence thru radical changes and trans-

formations to the adult, so that the development of the individual

indicates the processes in the development and evolution of the

race. It suggests that, since all organisms develop from a prim-

itive cell, all existing forms of life have evolved from a common

unicellular base. It also indicates that each major division of the

various classes of animals and plants have descended thru more

or less direct and independent lines of divergence from a primi-

tive mass rather than from pairs of individuals.

This scolytid beetle represents, in its structural characters, the

order Coleoptera, suborder Rhynchophora, superfamily Scoly-

toidae, family Scolytidae, genus Scolytus, and species scolytus.

Thus, it belongs to a great coordinate system, and in its combina-

tion of elements of structure and vital and social activities it

manifests the fundamental processes, principles, and laws under

which it is enabled to exist as a unit of this system.

Therefore, we do find in the individual beetle much of the story

130 HOPKINS: EVOLUTION

of evolution, both in a restricted and broad application to organic

and inorganic nature. In other words, we find the story revealed

by existing evidences and facts rather than by those of the past.

The dominant elements of structure and habit which serve to

distinguish the individual beetle from all other forms are signifi-

cant. In a review of the morphological evidence, we find that

in addition to the fundamental cellular structure common to all

forms of life, it is distinguished from the protozoans by characters

common to the metazoans, from the vertebrates by characters com-

mon to the invertebrates, from other invertebrates by characters

common to anthropods, from the other anthropods by charac-

ters common to the hexapods, from other hexapods by characters

common to the Coleoptera, from other Coleoptera by characters com-

mon to the Rhynchophora, and so on, down to the characters

of the family, genus, and species, and finally, to those peculiar to

the individual. But this is only an outline of the chapters and

volumes of the story of evolution as revealed by the morphological

elements alone. The story is continued and verified in the physio-

logical evidence revealed by the characteristic activities com-

mon to the various groups it represents, such as those found in the

methods and processes of acquirement, ingestion, digestion, and

assimilation of food, the processes of development and reproduc-

tion, the struggle for existence, and finally the influences of hered-

ity and environment on the character of the individual, the species,

and the race.

Thus, the individual in its ontogeny and its morphological and

physiological elements, reveals a long interesting story — a story

with many complex and poorly defined features which are subject

to a wide range of interpretation and theories as to the funda-

mental and minor features of the processes of evolution.

The more plausible theories that have been advanced are not

entirely satisfactory because in the final analysis there is so much

that is yet to be explained. As applied to biology, the principle of

natural selection is the most satisfactory but natural selection is

only one of the many and complex factors in the process of evo-

lution as applied, in its broadest sense, to matter and conscious-

ness.

HOPKINS: EVOLUTION 131

A study of the scolytid beetles 10 determine their relation to

forest trees and other plants, to each other, and to nature in gen-

eral, has suggested some lines of thought and interpretation which

have led to the consideration of some of the problems of evolution

from a viewpoint somewhat to the reverse of the usual.

It seems to me that there is a higher, more powerful, more

dominating, and universal principle of evolution than has yet

been recognized; a principle which is manifested to a greater or

ess extent in all progressive changes in inorganic and organic

forms and activities.

That there is a universal law of progressive adjustment towards

an equilibrium between opposing elements and manifestations

in matter and consciousness and a dominant law of progressive

and parallel development and modification of structural and

physical elements towards ultimate and definite forms, and that

these laws are fundamental in all evolutionary processes.

That evolution from a primitive source has been by the pro-

cess of accession, combination, and progressive modifications of

structural and physical elements rather than by that of reduction

and loss of elements. That a specific element once acquired is

never entirely lost.

That among organisms natural selection and heredity, Mendel's

law and the mutations of DeVries exert their greatest influence

on the minor characters and characteristics of the individual, the

variety, and the local section of the species, rather than on the

characters and characteristics of the species as a whole, the genus,

or the major division of the greater systems of so-called natural

affinities.

That the independent origin and development of the same kinds

of animals and plants in different parts of the world under con-

tinued similar environments is no more remarkable or improbable

than the independent origin and development of the same kind

of crystal, elemental metal, or chemical element.

That the development of the same kind of appendages in dif-

ferent classes and orders of animals could not have been due to

phylogenetic descent from a common ancestor with similar appen-

dages unless we admit special creation. Therefore, the origin

132 HOPKINS! EVOLUTION

of the same or similar elements of structure and activity, in widely

separated classes and orders, must have been independent. It

is also evident that the progressive modification of these elements

from the simple to the complex must have been along parallel

lines in response to the momentum of a dominant tendency to-

wards a common plan under the strain of similar requirements in

the struggle for individual and racial existence and supremacy.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

METEOROLOGY. — Waves of pressure in the atmosphere recorded by an

interferometer barograph. Albert C. Crehore and George 0.

Squire. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, 4: 115-118.

1911.

In addition to the large changes in atmospheric pressure that are indi-

cated by every barometer, there are numerous minute and rapid fluctua-

tions that are neither recorded nor shown by any ordinary barometer,

whether mercurial or aneroid.

Several methods have been developed, however, for showing and

recording these minute and often nearly rhythmical changes in atmos-

pheric pressure ; but the one under review probably is the most exact and

delicate of all.

It consists essentially of a vertical pile of aneroid cells capped by a

silvered flat that, with change of pressure, correspondingly changes its

distance from a fixed half -silvered surface.

When properly supplied with monochromatic light the resulting inter-

ference rings are almost constantly in motion, first in one direction and

then the other, in quick and delicate response to every pressure change.

By the aid of a slit across the interference rings, a camera, and a uni-

formly moving film, the pressure changes can be permanently recorded:

— -the negatives and the prints they yield looking like ribbons of

watered silk. W. J. Humphreys.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.— Distribution of the magnetic declin-

ation in the United States for January 1, 1910. R. L. Faris, Coast

and Geodetic Survey. Special Publication No. 9, pp. 14, with 1

map.

This publication just issued by the Coast and Geodetic Survey con-

tains secular change tables of the magnetic declination and a magnetic

declination chart of the United States for the year 1910. On the chart

are also shown the lines of equal annual change of the magnetic declina-

133

134 abstracts: physical chemistry, mineralogy

tion in 1910. Since the publication of the 1905 declination chart so

many additional data have been accumulated and the secular change

has undergone such material modification that a new chart was needed.

January 1, 1910, was chosen for the date of the chart in order that the

reduction of the declination data to a common epoch, might be based

upon actual observations of the annual change. Special attention was

given in 1909 and 1910 to obtaining observational data of the secular

change.

The isogonic lines are shown on the chart for each degree of magnetic

declination. The distribution of the lines of equal change shown on the

chart differs materially from that of the lines on the 1905 chart (which

the present chart now supersedes), the most marked characteristic

being a crowding of the lines toward the line of no annual change. West

declination is increasing much more rapidly in the North Atlantic states

than was supposed in 1905, the annual change now being about six

minutes in the New England states. On the Pacific coast east declin-

ation is increasing more rapidly than it was in 1905, but apparently the

region of maximum annual change is now some distance inland.

Under the present conditions of rapidly varying annual change it is

not possible to predict accurately what these changes will be even for a

few years in advance.

In connection with the present large annual change in New England

it may be noted that west declination is ir creasing about seven minutes

a year in Bermuda and about nine minutes per year at Vieques Island,

Porto Rico. R. L. F.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY.— Die Untersuchung von Silikaten. Arthur

L. Day. Z. Elektrochem., 17: 609. 1911.

An address given at the annual convocation of the Bunsen Gesell-

schaft, held at Kiel, Germany, reviewing some of the more interesting

phases in the laboratory investigation of silicates compared with some

of the more familiar fields of physico-chemical research.

MINERALOGY. — The melting points of minerals in the light of recent

investigations on the gas thermometer. Arthur L. Day and Robert

B. Sosman, Geophysical Laboratory. American Journal of Science

(4) 31: 341. 1911.

Before the completion of the gas thermometer measurements to 1550°

C. at the Geophysical Laboratory, the temperature measurements made

in this laboratory with thermo-elements had been interpreted in the

abstracts: geology 135

usual way, by extrapolating the curve of temperature and thermal

electromotive force. These results now require to be corrected by the

amount of the difference between the old temperature scale and the new,

which makes it necessary to recalculate the existing temperature data

of this laboratory in terms of the new gas scale. This paper presents

a summary of the values resulting from this recalculation.

Some of the European students of silicate solutions have encountered

difficulties in the determination of mineral melting-points which have

led to the belief that most or perhaps all minerals do not melt at a deter-

minable "point," but rather that the phenomena of melting extend

through a considerable temperature interval. Experimental evidence

is here offered, in the case of two of the typical minerals in question,

that this uncertainty was merely the result of the experimental method

employed. This is a matter of some importance, because the above

conclusion, if true, would necessitate a new system of definitions for

melting silicates. A. L. D. and R. B. S.

GEOLOGY. — Geologic atlas of the United States, Folio No. 174, Johns-

town, Pa. W. C. Phalen. U. S. Geological Survey, Pp. 15,

with maps, sections, and views. 1911. Mineral resources of Johns-

town, Pa., and vicinity. W. C. Phalen and Lawrence Martin.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 477. Pp. 142, with maps,

sections, and views. 1911.

The Johnstown quadrangle, embracing 228 square miles, is situated

in west-central Pennsylvania near the eastern escarpment of the Appa-

lachian Plateau. The rocks are entirely sedimentary and range in age

from Devonian (Catskill formation) to the Conemaugh formation of the

Pennsylvanian series of the Carboniferous. They have a thickness of

about 3200 feet and are bent into northeast-southwest folds. The

structure as worked out differs in some particulars, especially near Johns-

town, from the results obtained by the Second Geological Survey of

Pennsylvania.

The mineral resources include coal, clay, shales, limestone, and cement

materials, building stone, paving block, concrete materials, glass sand,

and iron ore. Numerous analyses of these commodities are given with

the results of steam, coking, briquetting, cupola, producer-gas, and float

and sink tests of the coals.

At least five coals, confined to a vertical interval in the Allegheny

formation, ranging from 150 to 200 feet, are locally workable.

W. C. P.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 75th meeting, the 14th annual meeting, of the Washington Acad-

emy of Sciences was held at the Cosmos Club, 8 p.m. January 20, 1912,

with President F. W. Clarke in the chair, and forty-two members

present. The minutes of the previous annual meeting, and abstracts

from the minutes of all subsequent meetings were read and approved.

The reports of the officers and Auditing Committee were received.

The following were elected resident members:

Eugene Thomas Allen J. A. Le Clerc

William Bowie William Gerry Morgan

Charles John Brand John B. Nichols

Edgar Brown Perley Oilman Nutting

A. Hugh Bryan Carl S. Scofield

Edgar Buckingham Homer Le Roy Shantz

Guy N. Collins Cornelius Lott Shear

Charles Albert Davis Philip S. Smith

Edgar Curtis Franklin George Owen Squier

Albert W. C. Herre Paul C. Standley

William Francis Hillebrand William Alton Taylor

The report on the ballot by mail for officers for 1912 showed the fol-

lowing elections: President, F. V. Coville. Non-resident Vice-Pres-

idents: T. C. Chamberlain, David Starr Jordan. Corresponding

Secretary: Arthur L. Day. Recording Secretary: W. J. Humphreys.

Treasurer: Alfred H. Brooks. Managers, Class of 1915: J. S. Diller,

David T. Day.

The following were elected resident vice-presidents as nominated

by the affiliated societies: Anthropological Society: F. W. Hodge.

Archeological: Mitchell Carroll. Biological: E. W.Nelson. Botanical:

W. R. Maxon. Chemical: J. A. Le Clerc. Engineers: George W.

Littlehales. Entomological: L. O.Howard. Geographic : Henry Gan-

nett. Geological: David White. Historical: James Dudley Morgan.

Medical: John B. Nichols.

It was moved by Dr. Briggs and seconded by Dr. Howard, that a vote

of thanks be extended to the retiring Corresponding Secretary, Dr.

Frank Baker, for his long and valuable services to the Academy. This

was unanimously carried by a rising vote. Dr. Baker made an appre-

ciative reply.

A unanimous vote of thanks was also extended to the retiring Presi-

dent, Dr. F. W. Clarke.

136

proceedings: anthropological society 137

The newly elected President, Mr. F. V. Coville, then took the chair,

and after a few happy remarks, introduced the speaker of the evening,

Dr. F. W. Clarke, who traced the origin and history of the Washington

Academy of Sciences, and dwelt especially on the need for and value of

the Academy's newly established Journal.

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 455th regular meeting of the Soc:ety was held October 24, in the

New National Museum. The first paper read was by Mr. J. Mooney, on

Indian Survivals in the Carolinas. He gave a brief account of his sum-

mer's work with the eastern Cherokee on their reservation in the moun-

tains of western North Carolina, and with some mixed-blood survivors,

locally known as Croatan Indians, in the eastern part of the state. The

east Cherokee numbering about 2000, are descendants of those who fled

to the mountains when the body of the tribe was removed to the Indian

Territory in 1838. They still retain most of their aboriginal customs

and beliefs, together with their language, although the larger tribal cere-

monies are nearly obsolete.

The Croatans, so-called from an attempt to identify them with Ra-

leigh's lost colony of 1585, are centered chiefly in Robeson County, to

the number of about 8000 according to the last census, with bands in

adjoining counties and in South Carolina. They appear to be descend-

ants of the original native tribes of the same region, largely mixed with

alien blood, the Indian blood still predominative, altho they have com-

pletely lost all knowledge of Indian customs, language or tribal names.

They are intelligent and prosperous people, farmers and small tradesmen,

fully up to the level of their white neighbors. They have official recog-

nition from the state as Indians, with a separate school appropriation

and support of a small paper called the Indian Observer devoted to

their interests.

Mr. Hodge gave an exhibition and talk on the speech and civiliza-

tion of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in New Mexico. Dr.

P. Radin spoke on Some Archeological problems of the Winnebagoes. Dr.

Hrdlicka suggested that the fact that physical anthropology found of the

skulls in the Wisconsin mounds should be taken into consideration by

the speaker.

The 456th regular meeting of the Society was held in the New National

Museum November 14. The speaker of the evening was, Mr. W J

McGee on Conditions limiting the growth of population in United States.

His talk was an elaboration of his paper in Science. (Oct. 6, 1911, pp.

428-435.)

The 457th regular meeting of the Society was held in the New National

Museum January 16. Dr. J. W. Fewkes' lectured on the Western

neighbors of the Prehistoric Pueblos, illustrating his remarks with lantern

slides. The early Spanish discoverers designated the habitations of

the sedentary Indians of the Southwest by several names as pueblos,

casas grandes, rancherias, and trincheras, the word pueblo being espe-

138 proceedings: anthropological society

cially assigned to a compact several storied community house of terraced

form represented most abundantly along the Rio Grande. The large

houses on the Gila river they called casas grandes and they gave the

name rancherias to fragile walled dwellings made of brush and clay

supported by logs. Defensive walls were sometimes called trincheras.

Each of these names indicates distinct architectural types altho they

were not used with accuracy. In late years it happens that all ruined

buildings of the Southwest, especially those independent of cliffs are

called pueblo ruins, the culture of the people that once inhabited them

being designated, the pueblo culture. It is well to preserve the term

pueblo for the crowded terraced many storied buildings to which it was

originally applied, and when this is done the distribution of the pueblo

type in our Southwest is considerably restricted. The stone ruins

ascribed to the ancient sedentary inhabitants of Arizona from the upper

Verde river west to the Colorado are not true pueblos. In this region

there predominated massive stone forts of magnitude and fragile walled

houses with stone foundations; a duality everywhere evident. The

indications are that both kinds of buildings were constructed and used

simultaneously by the same people. The forts being situated on inac-

cessible hill tops were asylums for safety, and more perishable buildings

on the river terraces were habitations near aboriginal farms. The

great number of these forts on the western border of the pueblo region

implies a great necessity for defense along the whole western border of

Arizona and Sonora in Mexico.

Dr. Fewkes gave a brief account of the different forts and terrace

dwellings on the upper Gila and its tributaries, Sycamore, and Granite

creeks, the Chino and Williamson valleys and Walnut creek to the mouth

of the Santa Maria and other tributaries of the Colorado, all examples

cited substantially agreeing in the duality of architectural type and the

absence of true pueblo structure.

The simple construction of the forts and the rude character of the

masonry made of undressed stone, without mortar, was referred to.

Views of the remains of dwellings or rancherias on the river terraces were

shown and commented upon. Terrace sites indicated by rectangular

and circular rows of stones and low mounds occur all along the Chino

and Walnut valleys to Aztec Pass. These show no evidences of kivas

or sacred rooms, or many storied dwellings. The pottery found near

them is rude, sometimes decorated, the pictography is characteristic,

the people made extensive irrigation ditches.

The most important forts mentioned were those on the upper Verde

near del Chino, and on the limestone ridge west of Jerome Junction.

Two important forts (one is situated near the mouth of Walnut creek

and the other at Aztec Pass, the latter being the "Pueblo" first described

by Wheeler) were referred to. Maps of the Walnut creek region are

defective, the most prominent elevation, Mount Hope, being wrongly

located on some of the latest maps issued by the Land Office. Big Burro

and other streams west of Aztec Pass have forts overlooking enormous

canyons of great scenic interest.

proceedings: philosophical society 139

The geographical distribution of the forts and trincheras in western

Arizona corresponds in a general way with the northern extension of the

Yuma stock according to Major Powell's linguistic map. The country

west of the Verde valley in which the ruins occur was peopled by Yava-

pai, Hualapai, Havasupai, and other Indians called by Cortez, Apaches.

The Havasupai who now live in the depths of the Cataract Canyon, and

the Hualapai are said to have legends that their ancestors constructed

some of the buildings considered. The Hopi Indians dwelling in the

pueblo Oraibi claim that certain of their clans came from the west and

are of Yuma stock. The question of the kinship of the ancient builders

is of interest to the physical anthropologist as well as to the linguist and

student of culture history. As the Indians of Yuma stock formerly

extended to the Pacific the possible kinship of the western neighbors of

the pueblos to tribes of southern California is significant.

Dr. Hrdlicka in discussion said that the results of the direct study

of man himself in the region west of the pueblos agree in a large part

with the conclusions arrived at by Dr. Fewkes, but in part they also

differ. It is quite possible that the region about and west to southwest

of the Aztec Pass was once occupied by either the Mohave or Yuma.

The people against whom they had to defend themselves, however,

were more probably the Apaches. The Walapai and Supai who today

speak the Mohave language, are physically Apache and the same is

true of the Yavapai. As the Apache type is a very distinct one, this con-

clusion is quite definite. Both tribes contain, of course, some Mohave

and probably also Pueblo admixture.

Dr. Hrdlicka showed a series of views of special Supai and Walapai

huts which are related to those of the Apache but are totally distinct

from those of the Mohave and Yuma, and numerous types of men and

women from the several tribes, showing great resemblance between the

Walapai and Supai and the Apache, while the Mohave resemble much

more closely the pueblos.

Mr. George Stetson then spoke on the code of Hammurabi. His

remarks showed how humanitarian the code was, and what advance it

was on Roman law in several respects tho antedating the latter by cen-

turies. The speaker also demonstrated how the laws of various states

of the union and certain foreign nations might well be advantageously

amended on the lines of the code under discussion.

Truman Michelson, Secretary.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 702nd meeting was held on January 13, 1912. Two papers were

read. KrilmmeVs Handbuch der Ozeanography, Vol. II: R. A. Harris,

of the Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The speaker gave a condensed review beginning with the treatment

of ocean waves. The errors concerning the energy of waves were pointed

out. Then seiches, tides, ocean currents, vertical circulation and ocean

streams were discussed. This extensive and valuable treatise on ocean-

ography contains a lot of information not elsewhere brought together.

140 proceedings: philosophical society

The determination of the pole distance of a very small magnet: J. M.

Miller, of the Bureau of Standards.

If two circular coils, which are linear single turns, are adjusted so

that they are coplanar and concentric, and if two currents are sent in

opposite sense around the coils, the two magnetic fields will annul each

other at the common center if the ratio of the two currents is equal to

the ratio of the radii of the two coils. This gives a method of comparing

the radii of coils experimentally. In such a comparison the neutraliza-

tion of the two fields is usually indicated by a short magnetic needle

which is suspended at the common center of the two coils and lies in their

common plane.

On account of the finite length of the magnet an error is introduced

into the comparison equal to f K where K is a known function of the

pole distance of the magnet and the radii of the coils. If, however, the

needle is rotated by torsion or otherwise, out of the plane of the coils,

the ratio of the neutralizing currents is changed by a factor -j- K siira

where a is the angle through which the magnet has been rotated. Hence

by measuring the angle a and also the change in the ratio of the neu-

tralizing currents, K can be determined and from this, the pole distance

of the magnetic needle can be calculated.

A piece of steel of only 2.314 mm. length was used as the magnetic

needle and the pole distance for this very short magnet was determined

to an accuracy of about three per cent. The resulting value for the

pole distance was 1.956 mm.

Kohlrausch's modulus which is the ratio of the pole distance to the

total length of the magnet is, therefore, equal to 0.845. Thus in the

case of this extremely short magnet, the poles are situated approximately

one-twelfth of the total length from the ends, which agree closely with

the results obtained by Kohlrausch and others for long magnets.

R. L. Faris, Secretary.

THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 78th meeting was held February 6, 1912. Mr. W, W. Ashe, of

the Forest Service, and Dr. H. W. Wollenweber, of the Bureau of

Plant Industry, were elected to membership. The following papers

were read:

Conditions favorable to Septoria ly coper sici Speg.: J. B. S. Norton.

The author gave a brief resume of a series of observations on the de-

velopment of Septoria under different conditions influencing growth.

The relation of soil acidity to plant societies: A. W. Sampson.

The plant ecologist has long recognized the fact that different soils

support different plants. The significance of characteristic plant socie-

ties and communities, with respect to the acidity or alkalinity of the

soil and its effect on the growth of cultivated plants, was strikingly

brought to my attention in a study of the revegetation of depleted

grazing lands on the Wallowa National Forest in northeastern Oregon.

It was found that the soil preference of some of the most promising

proceedings: philosophical society 141

cultivated species, such as Trifolium repens, for example, like a great

many other Leguminosae, was extremely sensitive to acid or sour soils.

Many such plants can exist only for a couple of seasons in a soil requir-

ing more than 6000 pounds of lime per acre foot, that is, to a depth of

one foot. On the other hand, some forage species, notably Agrostis

alba, as evinced by the luxuriant growth made, prefer sour soils. Thus,

in a judicious reseeding of the native depleted grazing lands, a study of

the native plant societies, as indicators of acid alkalinity or neutrality

of the soil, is imperative.

In general, strongly acid habitats are characterized by a superabun-

dant supply of moisture coupled with poor drainage. Locally, such

lands usually support dense stands of vegetation, such as Carex, which

often produce a matted surface and an entanglement of long root stalks

which bind the soil firmly.

When this study was first undertaken, it was presumed that the latter

soils — those with an intricate mass of interwoven roots and having an

air dry weight of 15 pounds per cubic foot, were the more acid. Later,

however, it was found that the sour soils are those of the well-drained

lands which support the mountain bunchgrass (Festuca viridula) society.

The soils upon which this society occurs vary in lime requirements for

neutrality from 5000 pounds as a minimum to 41,000 pounds as a maxi-

mum. Such habitats are found to be acid to a depth of about five feet.

The greatest lime requirements for neutrality occur in the superficial

layer.

The acid endurance and requirements of the various local conspicuous

plant societies follows : They are arranged in accordance with the de-

gree of acidity of the substratum.

(1) Festuca viridula society, (2) Carex society, (3) Alnus-Salix

society, (4) Veratrum-Rudbeckia-Mertensia-Valeriana society, (5)

Phleum-Elephantella-Dodocatheon society, (6) Vaccinium-Phyllodoce

society, (7) Deschampsia-Juncoides society, (8) Pinus-Calamagrostis

society, (9) Pinus-Abies-Polemonium society, (10) Panicularia-Cinna

society.

The mountain bunchgrass {Festuca viridula) society, as stated, has

the most acid soil. It occurs throughout the extensive well-drained

meadows, and bald buttes of the Hudsonian zone on the characteristic

basaltic clay loam soils.

While the genera that make up these associations are mainly confined

to sour soils, some species seem to show no particular preference for

acid lands, or at least they occur abundantly alike on sour, neutral, and

alkaline soils. The most important genera that inhabit the calcareous

rock formations are: Pteridium, Aquilegia, Achillea, Pentstemon,

Lupinus, Erigeron, Agropyron, Elymus, Sitanion, Stipa, Berberis,

Artemisia, and Populus. Of these it is definitely known that Pteridium,

Lupinus, Stipa, and Populus occur also on somewhat sour soils.

Ever since the day of Unger and Thurmann, there has been consider-

able difference in opinion regarding the relationship between soil acidity

and vegetation. A grouping together of plants into societies, doubt-

142 proceedings: philosophical society .

less depends both upon the physical and chemical condition of the sub-

stratum. In the regions studied, however, the physical texture and the

water content seem to be of secondary importance.

Notes of travel in Central America: A. S. Hitchcock.

Having visited the Canal Zone as members of the Smithsonian Bio-

logical Survey, Mr. Hitchcock and his son, made a two months' side

trip to Central America. Collections were made in Costa Rica at

Port Limon, San Jose and Puntarenas, in Nicaragua at San Juan del

Sur, Corinto, Masaya and Jinotepe, in Honduras at Amapala, in Sal-

vador at La Uni6n, Acajutla, Santa Ana and San Salvador, in Guatemala

at Guatemala City, Volcano Agua, and Port Barrios.

The botanical results of the trip were very satisfactory, consisting of

760 numbers of grasses, and many photographs illustrating the habit

of growth of the larger species. The collections in the National Her-

barium from Central America, with the exception of Costa Rica, were

meagre, especially from Nicaragua and Salvador. There appear to be

several new species in the collections and also many species that have

been rare in herbaria but have proven to be abundant in this region.

Among the rare species may be mentioned: Bouteloua pringlei, from

Salvador, only known heretofore from Guerrero, Mexico; B. americana,

known only from the West Indies; B. disticha, common on the Pacific

slope, of Central America; Uniola pittieri, common on sandy beaches

from Puntarenas to Panama; Jouvea straminea, abundant at Corinto

and Acajutla. In a recent monograph upon the genus Panicum in

North America all our knowledge of this group was brought together

but many species of the southern portion of this region were very im-

perfectly known. In the subdivision of the genus, known as Parvi-

glumia, many collections during the past season from various localities

have shown certain species such as Panicum virgultorum and P. par-

viglume to be widely distributed and not uncommon. The genus Lasi-

acis, allied to Panicum of which it was formerly considered a section,

has presented many difficulties because herbarium specimens have

shown only the panicles and a few leaves. The plants however are large,

usually much branched and woody. Notes and photographs taken from

the living specimens show that there are good characters based upon

habit, method of branching and the appearance of the young shoots.

The species of this group are numerous and well-marked and it is hoped

that the distinctive characters observed in the field may be coordinated

with those observed in herbarium specimens and thus lead to a satis-

factory revision of the genus. One outlying member, L. procerrima

(Panicum procerrimum) , known only from the type collection in Costa

Rica, was found to be wide spread, though not abundant, from southern

Mexico to Panama. It is remarkable that this species, growing to the

height of 5 to 8 feet, and having a panicle as much as two feet broad,

should have been so little-known. These collections made in Panama

and Central America together with those made the preceding year in

Mexico give a fair knowledge of the grass flora of these regions.

W. W. Stockberger, Corresponding Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. II, MARCH 19, 1912 No. 6

MINERALOGY. — The crystallography of variscite. Waldemar

T. Schaller, Geological Survey.

In a recent publication1 1 gave a description of variscite crys-

tals from Utah. All of the material then available showed the

same crystal habit, a rectangular, tabular one which was illus-

trated by crystal drawings and by a photograph. Thru the kind-

ness of Messrs. Edison and Bird, of Lucin, Utah, I have recently

examined a larger number of specimens and found that the mineral

crystallizes in several additional habits, such as very thin plates,

long prisms and octahedral pyramidal crystals of which the unit

pyramid {ill} is the dominant form. Beautiful little twin

crystals were also found in a measurable condition.

The number of crystal forms has been extended from the four

given in the paper above cited to over fifteen. A full description

of these crystals with their angular measurements is to be given

in a paper nearly ready for publication.

MINERALOGY.— New manganese phosphates from the gem

tourmaline field of Southern California. Waldemar T.

Schaller, Geological Survey. To be published in a Geolo-

logical Survey Professional Paper, entitled : ' ' The Gem Tour-

maline Field of Southern California."

The various properties of these new minerals and their relation

to each other will be fully described in the report referred to above.

1 Schaller, Waldemar T.: Crystallized Variscite from Utah. Proc. U. S.

National Museum, 41 : 413-430, plate. 1912.

143

144 schaller: gem tourmalines

All of these minerals were found at Pala, San Diego County, Cali-

fornia.

Palaite.1 Probably monoclinic. A flesh-colored hydrous man-

ganese phosphate, resulting from the alteration of lithiophilite.

D. 3.14 — 3.20; mean refractive index about 1.655, slightly lower

than that of hureaulite; double refraction low. Forms crystal-

line masses in the cavities of which are found distinct crystals.

In thin section colorless, and non-pleochroic. Formula 5MnO.

2P205.4H20, (Analysis 1). It alters to hureaulite. Found in

the Stewart Mine at Pala, from which the name of the mineral is

derived.

Stewartite. Probably triclinic. A hydrous manganese phos-

phate from the Stewart Mine, after which it is named. It is

very abundant as an alteration product of lithiophilite which it

replaces along its cleavage cracks. The first formation of stew-

artite is in fine fibers arranged normal to the cleavage cracks of the

lithiophilite. Irregularly bounded areas and minute but distinct

crystals of stewartite were also noted. The crystal form and opti-

cal properties of these minute crystals serve to characterize the

mineral and to show that it cannot be identified with any known

species. Altho abundant, it is so intermingled with the other

minerals of similar composition that a pure sample of it, sufficient

for quantitative analysis, could not be obtained. Its importance

in the alteration of lithiophilite necessitates a name for the mineral

which its physical properties suffice to establish. D. 2.94. Mean

refractive index about 1.65. Double refraction very high, prob-

ably not under 0.05. Pleochroic: colorless, pale yellow, yellow.

Extinction inclined on all crystal edges. Axial angle large, nega-

tive, dispersion strong. Probably the same as the unknown

mineral "A" described by Lacroix.2

Salmonsite. Named after Mr. Frank A. Salmons, formerly of

Pala, and found in the Stewart Mine. It results from the par-

tial oxidation and hydration of hureaulite, and forms cleavable

masses of a buff color, seamed by small veins of fibrous palaite

and sprinkled with small masses of blue strengite. D. 2.88.

1 Pronounced Pa-la-ite.

2 Lacroix, A. : Mineralogie de la France, 4: part 2, p. 506. 1910.

schaller: gem tourmalines

145

Mean refractive index about 1.66, double refraction low. In

thin section yellow and non-pleochroic. Formula Fe203.9MnO.

4P205.14H20, (Analysis 2).

Sicklerite. Named after the Sickler family, formerly of Pala.

Found in cleavable masses at the Vanderburg-Naylor Mine on

Hiriart Hill near Pala. Dark brown color with a light yellow-

brown streak. D. 3.45. Refractive indices about 1.74, double

refraction moderate. Pleochroic in yellow and brown. For-

mula Fe203.6Mn0.4P205.3(Li,H)20, (Analysis 3). Readily fusible

before the blowpipe giving a lithium flame. Results from the

alteration of lithiophilite.

In addition to the above named new minerals, there occur at

Pala, associated with them, the following whose properties and

relations to one another will be given in detail in the full report :

lithiophilite, hureaulite, strengite (the same as the angelardite of

Lacroix,3) triplite, purpurite,4 manganite and psilomelane.

Analyses and Ratios of New Minerals

FeO

MnO

CaO

Fe203

Mn203....

P205

H2O(110°)

H20+. .

Li20

Insoluble.

PALAITE

Analysis

7.48

40.87

1.77

0.16

39.02

10.43

trace

0.89

100.62

Ratios

5.00

1.93

4.07

SALMONSITE

Analysis

0.13

37.74

1.06.

9.53

34.86

0.43

15.30

1.40

100.45

Ratios

9.18

1.00

4.10

14.17

SICKLEBITE

Analysis

33.60

0.20

11.26

2.10

43.10

1.71\

3.80/

4.18

99.95

Ratios

6.28

1.09

4.00

2.92

3 Loc. cit., p. 522.

4 Compare this Journal, 1: 113.

1911.

146 JAMIESON AND WOLLENWEBER : FUSARIUM TRICHOTHECIOIDES

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.—^ external dry rot of potato tubers

caused by Fusarium trichothecioides, Wollenw. C. O. Jamie-

son and H. W. Wollenweber, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Communicated by C. S. Scofield.

Certain types of decay of potato tubers have been ascribed by

various authors to the action of the fungus Fusarium (Clinton,

1895; Smith and Swingle, 1904). Conclusive infection experi-

ments have been performed by several (Pizzigoni, 1896; Wehmer,

1897; Pethybridge and Bowers, 1908; Longman, 1909 and others).1

In most cases Fusarium solani (Mart.), or a species thought to be

a synonym of it, is said to be the real cause of the rot. The differ-

ent kinds of decay described on the one hand, and the negative

results often secured on the other, directed attention to a more

complete study of the morphology of potato Fusaria and their

differentiation. During this study, which was done in Germany,

not less than fifteen species were isolated, of which nine have oeen

published (Appel and Wollenweber, 1910). As a result of recent

and as yet unpublished experiments at Dahlem-Berlin only two of

the nine species have been found to be wound parasites of the stored

tuber: F. coeruleum (Lib.); F. discolor var. sulphureum (Schlecht.

s. sp.). Closely related to the latter is a new species, found in the

United States and characterized by a peculiar injury known as

external dry rot. This disease has been studied by Miss Jamie-

son during the past two years.

Attention was first called to the disease in February, 1910, in

potato tubers sent from Spokane, Washington. Since then we

have examined samples of similarly diseased tubers from the

same locality, as well as from Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska,, and

South Dakota. Symptoms of this disease have been noticed in

the field at the time of harvesting potatoes, in one instance the

estimated infection being about 10 per cent of the crop, but it is

1 See also Appel and Kreitz. Der derzeitige Stand unserer Kenntnisse von den

Kartoffelkrankheiten und ihrer Bekampfung. Mitt. a.d. Kais. Biol. Anst. f.

Land und Forstw., Heft 5, 1907. Berlin. (With lists of the more important

references up to 1907), and Pethybridge and Bowers. Dry Rot of the Potato

Tuber. The Economic Proceedings of the Dublin Society, vol. I, 14, 1908, p.

547-558. 1 Tab.

JAMIESON AND WOLLENWEBERI FUSARIUM TRICHOTHECIOIDES 147

concerning the loss of potatoes in storage that complaint is most

frequently heard.

Potatoes affected with this external dry rot are characterized

by wrinkled, discolored, and somewhat sunken external spots,

frequently but not always occurring at the "eye" end of the tuber,

and varying in diameter from a few centimeters to several inches

according to the progress of the disease. The color of these dis-

eased areas is in general brownish, considerably darker than that

of the normal epidermis and often having a slightly grayish cast.

In a more advanced stage of the disease the epidermal tissue often

breaks or cracks irregularly, exposing a substratum of fungus

mycelium within. The surface of the tuber about the cracks

may also be overgrown with a delicate pinkish-white, powdery

growth, composed of fungus threads and spores. From sections

made thru diseased tubers, the internal fleshy portion is seen to be

seriously affected, often to a greater extent than is apparent from

the external appearance. The internal discoloration is sepia

brown, a cross section of a badly diseased potato often showing a

pronounced contrast of shades varying from light to deep brown.

As infection proceeds internal cavities are formed, from one to

several centimeters in diameter, within which the fungus mycelium

grows abundantly, presenting the same powdery appearance as

noticed on the surface of the tuber. Gradually the whole sub-

stance of the potato becomes involved, until finally it is reduced

to a dry, powdery, brownish-colored mass of broken-down cells,

starch grains, fungus mycelium and spores. Tissue from various

parts of infected tubers showed a fungus belonging to the genus

Fusarium thruout the discolored portions as well as in the firmer

tissue bordering upon these areas. A pure culture of this Fusa-

rium was isolated from the inner tissue by the agar plate method.

During our further investigations the same fungus has been iso-

lated several times from dry-rot infected potatoes.

The following description and diagnosis of this Fusarium is

now being added in the monograph of Dr. Wollenweber:

Fusarium trichothecioides Wollenw. In general appearance

this fungus closely resembles Trichothecium roseum (Link) ; Conidia

in nature as a rule not in sporodochia, but, in pure culture the

148 JAMIESON AND WOLLENWEBER : FUSARIUM TRICHOTHECIOIDES

sporodochium or Pionnotes stage also occurs: Conidia of the for-

mer 1-3 septate, medium size, 15-26 x' 4-5 \ microns, formed as a

slightly curved comma, ellipsoidally rounded on both sides;

conidia of the latter type 3-5 septate, 24-42 x 4^-5| microns;

form of the Discolor type. Conidia masses and plectenchyma

salmon colored to carrot red when slightly moist, but lighter and

usually rosy-white when powdery dry and intermixed with my-

celium. Yellowish to brown stromata may be formed. Conidi-

ophores of the comma type, mostly irregularly branched, with

prominent sterigmata, the arrangement of which is scattered, or

especially at the top, trifurcate. Conidiophores in the sporodo-

chia more highly developed, like those of F. discolor. Chlamy-

dospores seldom occur, and when present are intercalary, in chains

or single.

Causes decay of potato tubers, especially under storage con-

ditions. Diseased spots sepia-brown within. The early stage

shows a very brownish black discoloration of the layer border-

ing the sound tissue. Spokane, Washington; St. Paul, Minne-

sota; Dayton, Iowa; Alliance, Nebraska; and Spearfish, South

Dakota.

The two stages of conidial development above mentioned give

this fungus an individual place in the genus. Less developed

spores of other species may occur under abnormal conditions, but

disappear when grown on a favorable host; but F. trichothecioides

as a rule produces this smaller form abundantly both in nature

and in pure culture. Spores of this stage resemble (Fig. A, E, F)

exactly Trichothecium (Link) Corda, described and figured by

Corda.2 The sterigmata of the conidiophores, often trifurcate

at the tops (Fig. C), seem to indicate a relationship to Basidiomy-

cetes. Most important for the determination of the fungus, how-

ever, is the development of the higher type (Fig. B) in pure cul-

tures. It forms salmon-colored sporodochia of the well known

tubercularia-like type on the surface of sterilized, not too moist

grains of cereals and mature stems of plants. The conidiophores

of these sporodochia (Fig. D) are verticillately branched and show

2 Icones fungorum, 1838, p. 10, cum tab., IX, fig. 48, 49.

JAMIESON AND WOLLENWEBER : FUSARIUM TRICHOTHECIOIDES 149

a striking contrast to the smaller form (Fig. C). All the intermedi-

ate grades from the comma stage (like Trichothecium) to the

sporodochia stage are easily produced by a selection of media.

Beginning with the higher (sporodochia) stage we can reduce the

fungus to the inferior (comma) stage by means of a transfer of

mycelium; on the contrary, spores of the comma type once or

repeatedly transferred on grains or stems, will give normal sporo-

dochia with three to five-septate spores, sharply pointed at the

ends (Fig. B).

The relationship to the discolor group may be determined only

by the higher form ; a confusion of the new fungus with F. discolor

and its variety " '' sulphureum" is impossible because F. discolor

differs by producing a purple mycelium, while that of ' ' sulphur-

eum" is brimstone-colored, and both differ from F. trichothecioides

by the absence of the comma stage.

The occurrence of F. trichothecioides on other hosts is as yet

unknown. A comparison with earlier studies of other authors

shows that 5 different Fusaria cause similar tuber rots, 4 of which

are fully described:8 F. solani (Mart.), F. coeruleum (Lib.), F. dis-

color var. sulphureum (Schlecht. s. sp.), F. trichothecioides Wol-

lenw. Probably Miss Longman4 has dealt with a species differ-

ent from the four. She names it F. solani, but to judge from her

figures and her description, she had to do with a quite distinct

species.

In order to prove the parasitic nature of Fusarium trichothe-

cioides, inoculation experiments have been carried on under con-

trolled conditions in our greenhouses during the past two seasons.

Potato plants, grown in sterilized soil, from selected and disin-

fected seed were used, and pure cultures of F. trichothecioides

inoculated into the stem just above the surface of the ground

(Dec. 1910). In twelve days a wilting of the foliage was noticed

accompanied by a yellowing of the leaves and a discoloration of

3 Appel and Wollenweber: "Grundlagen einer Monographie der Gattung Fusa-

rium (Link)," Bd. VIII, Heft ], m., 10 Textfig.,2 schwarz.. 1 farbig. Doppeltafel.

Berlin: P. Parey u. ,). Springer. 1910. Preis, 10 M.

4 Longman, Sibyl: "The Dry-Rot of Potatoes," T.innean Society's Journal,

Vol. XXXIX, Aug., 1909.

150 jamieson and wollenweber: fusarium trichothecioides

the tissue about the inoculation pricks. In three weeks time the

fungus infection had produced a pronounced effect upon the

plants, shown in the wilted condition of the foliage, in the constric-

tion of the stem at point of inoculation, and in a brownish black

Explanation of the Figure

A,E, F. Conidia of the comma-stage, grown on sterilized potato stems. Fi

seen from the back, F2, F3, extra large and highly septate. B. Conidia of the

sporodochia-stage, grown on sterilized grains of corn (twenty days old). C.

Conidiophore which in masses forms a dense growth on the surface of the medium

like Trichothecium roseum, and produces spores shown in A, E. F. D. Conidio-

phore from a sporodochium, that forms the spore shown in B. Magnification 870.

discoloration of the tissue above and below the constriction.

Upon the surface of the discolored area could be seen a growth of

powdery slightly pinkish mycelium and spores. Microscopic

examination and isolation showed this fungus to be F. trichothe-

JAMIESON AND WOLLENWEBER : FUSARIUM TRICHOTHECIOIDES 151

cioides. Pure cultures of this same Fusarium were later obtained

from tubers produced upon a plant diseased thru inoculation.

Further experiments are now being made to determine the most

favorable conditions under which the infection of F. trichothe-

cioides takes place. For this experiment sound healthy potato

tubers of Burbank and Early Ohio varieties were selected, dis-

infected and placed in inoculation chambers. Two methods of

inoculation were tried, one by stabbing the tuber with a thick

needle and inserting fungus mycelium and spores from a pure

culture of F. trichothecioides, the other by rubbing the surface with

a platinum loop bearing the fungus. The ten inoculation cham-

bers were then placed under different conditions of heat and mois-

ture and examined at definite intervals. Thus far, results from

this test indicate that of the two methods stabbing is the most

effective, altho infection follows the rubbing of the fungus on the

surface of the tubers. Discoloration of the tissue was noticed in

the inoculation chambers after ten days and this was followed by

a decay which penetrated into the tissue 2-3 cm. in twenty days.

Rapid discoloration of the tissue was observed in both moist and

dry chambers placed at a temperature of 10-12° C. In the drier

atmosphere however, there was a deeper penetration of the decay

into the tissue, than occurred at the same temperature under

increased humidity. Two months after inoculation, the potato

tubers were carefully examined and their appearance compared

to the diseased specimens sent in from the field. Externally and

internally the disease characteristics in field and laboratory speci-

mens were similar. The brown grayish spots on the outside of the

inoculated tubers frequently surround the "eyes," except in the

case of the stab inoculations where the discoloration spreads about

the wound. On the surface of the diseased tissue there is usually

an abundant growth of pinkish powdery mycelium in the moist

atmosphere, but very little of the external fungus growth in the

drier air. The discoloration caused by the penetration of the

fungus and extending several centimeters below the epidermis

varies from light to dark sepia brown in color, the darkest por-

tion forming a band which surrounds the cavities. In every

152 JAMIESON AND WOLLENWEBER : FUSARIUM TRICHOTHECIOIDES

instance the decay appears to work from the surface inward.

From results of this experiment it is clear that conditions of tem-

perature and moisture undoubtedly play an important part in

the beginning and in the progress of infection, and a better under-

standing of these conditions may prove of great value in attempt-

ing to control this dry rot disease especially among potatoes kept

in storage.

SUMMARY

1. F. trichothecioides Wollenw. is a wound parasite capable of

destroying potato tubers.

2. This fact is proved by the inoculation experiments of Miss

Jamieson.

3. This disease is clearly differentiated from the wilt and dry

rot ascribed by Smith and Swingle to FusariumoxysporwnSchlecht.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

METEOROLOGY.— Free air data at Mount Weather for April, May and

June, 1911. Wm. R. Blair. Bulletin, Mount Weather Observa-

tory, 4: 144-181. 1911.

Ninety-three free air observations were made at Mount Weather in

these three months, 65 by means of kites and 28 by means of captive bal-

loons. One pilot balloon observation to the altitude of 2626 meters was

made. The kites reached an average altitude of 3257 meters above sea

level, the captive balloons, 2072. These observations have been reduced

and the data tabulated in connection with weather notes made at the

times of observations. Based upon these data charts have been made of

the free air isotherms, two degrees apart, for the three months. The air

temperatures observed during this period, near the earth's surface on the

mountain and in the adjacent valleys, have been charted and discussed.

It is concluded that the important factors in the determination of the

temperatures observed at a station well out in the bottom of the Shen-

andoah valley are insolation and radiation; and that the temperatures

observed at a station close to the foot of the mountain on the southeast

side are those of air being transferred to and from the mountain top by

convection currents. The latter temperatures are comparatively slightly

modified by insolation and radiation at the observing station.

W.R. B.

METEOROLOGY. — The height and temperature of the isothermal region

at different latitudes and under different conditions. W. J. Hum-

phreys. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Observatory, 4: 136-

142. 1911.

The assumption that the height and temperature of the isothermal

region are determined essentially by outgoing radiation has but one

serious objection. This is, the fact that near the equator, where the

surface temperature is highest, the isothermal region is not correspond-

ingly warmer than elsewhere, as its winter to summer changes in middle

latitudes would lead one to expect, but on the contrary much colder.

153

154 abstracts: physics

It is suggested that a greater prevalence of cirrus clouds in the equa-

torial regions than in other parts of the world (and observations indicate

this inequality in their distribution) would largely account for the change

with latitude of the temperature and height of the isothermal region.

These clouds, whenever and wherever present, must act as a shield and

partially protect the outer atmosphere from the radiation of lower levels,

and thus allow it to grow colder through its own radiation to space. The

somewhat entrapped heat below the tropical cirri must expand the atmos-

phere and thus increase its horizontal flow to higher latitudes where

presumably there is less cirrus and freer direct radiation from the denser

and lower atmosphere, and hence a warmer isothermal region.

W. J. H.

PHYSICS. — Recent advances in high-temperature gas thermometry.

Arthur L. Day. Trans. Faraday Society, London. 7: 1911.

An address before the Faraday Society of London, reviewing the more

important features of the recent work with the gas thermometer con-

ducted at the Geophysical laboratory.

PHYSICS. — The detection of small heat effects at high temperatures.

Walter P. White, Geophysical Laboratory. Physical Review,

32: 604. 1911.

The general principle of the method is simple and fairly familiar. No

moving bodies are present, and changes in the temperature of the charge

are brought about solely by changing the furnace temperature. The

heat effects in the charge are inferred from the changes in its tempera-

ture. The temperature of the charge thus depends upon two things:

first, the furnace temperature, and second, the heat effects in the charge.

The manipulation consists in observing the temperature rise, regulating

the furnace current accordingly, and observing the temperature differ-

ence of furnace and charge.

The interpretation of the results may, in theory, be made very simple.

The temperature gradient, G, between charge and furnace, serves as

the measure of heat-flow to the charge. The flow actually is propor-

tional to G, and to the heat-transmittance, F, of the space between fur-

nace and charge. The exact values of both G and F are usually unknown,

and may vary with time, temperature, rate of heating, etc., so that accu-

rate heat determinations by means of them, tho possible, are quite

difficult. But in the detection of a small heat effect we have merely to

determine the change in G caused by the addition of the effect to the

heat which is required to change the temperature of the charge. For

abstracts: geochemistry 155

instance, a silicate charge (2 grams) of specific heat 0.3, heated 10° per

minute, lagged 3° behind the furnace (G = 3°). Hence 3° in G corre-

sponds to 3 calories per minute. If an inversion absorbing 3 calories

and extending over 100° should occur, G would be increased 0.1, or 0.3°

for 10 minutes; if the inversion should take place in one minute, G would

be doubled, or increased 3°, etc. The detection of small heat-effects

is easier: (1) The larger G is, per calorie per minute, (2) the freer G

is from other variations, (3) the quicker the inversion occurs; it is only

sluggish inversions whose detection gives any trouble.

G increases with the furnace-rate; hence a rapid rate is of the first im-

portance. G also increases with the diameter of the charge, but can be

made steadier in the case of a small charge, and the advantage of the

small charge appears to be greater on the whole. Fluctuations in the

furnace rate cause variations in G; these are partly eliminated by measur-

ing G, not between charge and furnace, but between the charge and

another body ("neutral body") closely resembling it. The apparatus

now used is small, two platinum crucibles holding 1 cc. each, 3 mm.

apart, and surrounded by a wider porcelain tube to increase uniformity

of temperature. A differential thermo-element is also used, which gives

directly the temperature difference of the two bodies at any instant. A

complete platinum inclosure shields the whole system from leakage

currents out of the furnace-coil. In one set of determinations made on

different days with the same set-up, conditions were reproduced over

a 300° interval with a maximum variation of from 0.03° to 0.06° in the

different determinations. This was with a silicate charge and indicates

that 1 calorie distributed over 100° could be detected. But this would

be a more difficult case than has yet been found in practice. In one case

it was observed that the first heating in each day which, of course,

occurred immediately after the furnace had been cold, gave results

differing by 0.3° from later heatings, altho the furnace was cooled

300° between all the heatings. This condition reproduced itself at 0.1°

on successive days and could, therefore, be largely eliminated, but might

prove decidedly deceptive if overlooked, and if the heat effect was, as

happens, one occurring only in the first heating. W. P. W.

GEOCHEMISTRY. — The geochemical interpretation of water analyses.

Chase Palmer. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 479. Pp.

31. 1911.

This paper presents a statement of water analyses in purely chemical

terms; a general chemical formula representing water character in terms

of the proportional reaction capacity of the constituents; a similar but

156 abstracts: geochemistry

simplified chemical formula based on groups of constituents and ex-

pressed in terms of properties of reaction; a purely chemical water-

classification scheme based on the simplified formula; applications of the

classification scheme and character formulas to the solution of practical

geologic problems.

The analytical statement is an enumeration of the radicles in terms of

reacting values (milligram-equivalents) as well as in parts per million,

and these reacting values, when expressed as pecentages of their totality,

constitute the general character formula. The radicles are segregated

into their natural groups : Alkalies (represented chiefly by sodium and

potassium) ; earths (represented chiefly by calcium and magnesium) ; a

miscellaneous group of positive radicles represented chiefly by hydrogen,

for which the group is named; strong acids (represented chiefly by chlo-

ride and sulphate); and weak acids (represented chiefly by carbonate

and bicarbonate) . Salinity (saltness) of water is a property such as is

caused by the solution of salts of strong acids and alkalinity is a property

such as is caused by the solution of salts of weak acids; but these general

properties vary in nature in accordance with the proportions of the alkali,

earth, and hydrogen groups in thesalts. The simplified formula is, there-

fore, a statement (in percent) of the proportional reaction capacity of five

special properties, as follows : Primary salinity, salinity such as is caused

by the solution of strong-acid salts of the alkali group; secondary salinity,

salinity such as is caused by the solution of strong-acid salts of the

earths group ; tertiary salinity or persalinity, salinity such as is caused by

the solution of strong-acid salts of the hydrogen group; primary alkalin-

ity, alkalinity such as is caused by the solution of weak-acid salts of the

alkali group; and secondary alkalinity, alkalinity such as is caused by

weak-acid salts of the earths group. Secondary salinity is a measure of

permanent hardness, secondary alkalinity of temporary hardness, ter-

tiary salinity of acidity, primary alkalinity of permanent alkalinity, and

primary salinity of saltness in the more popular acceptation of the term.

The water-classification scheme is based on the proportional reaction

capacity of the five groups of radicles, and five classes of water result.

The first class is characterized by primary salinity, primary alkalinity,

and secondary alkalinity, and is exemplified in general by waters such

as Lake Champlain and Oswegatchie River, derived mainly from igne-

ous rocks. The second class is characterized by primary salinity and

secondary alkalinity and is exemplified by waters such as Shenandoah

River, derived from the older limestones. The third class is character-

ized by primary salinity, secondary salinity, and secondary alkalinity,

and is exemplified by waters such as Miami and Maumee rivers, derived

abstracts: chemistry 157

from sedimentary rocks in general. The fourth class is characterized

by primary and secondary salinity and is exemplified chiefly by highly

concentrated waters such as brines and the ocean. The fifth class is

characterized by primary, secondary, and tertiary, salinity, and is exem-

plified by waters of peculiar origin, such as the mine-polluted Youghio-

gheny River.

There are presented studies of stream waters of southeastern United

States, industrially important by reason of primary alkalinity, in which

the influence of varied geology on character is clearly indicated; studies

showing the persistence of high silica content in primary-alkaline waters;

and studies of the mixing of waters of diverse character in the Lauren-

tian and Mississippi River basins.

The conclusion that natural water may be definitely characterized

if the mineral constituents are considered not as load but as a chemical

system of balanced values is fully justified and the great value and wide

application to water problems of the method of treatment is clearly

shown. Herman Stabler.

CHEMISTRY. — The determination of chromium and its separation from

vanadium, in steels. J. R. Cain. Journal Industrial and Engi-

neering Chemistry, 4: 17, 1912. Technologic Paper No. 6, Bureau

of Standards.

Sources of error in some of the usual methods for determining chro-

mium in chrome or chrome-vanadium steels, which limit the accuracy

of the results, are described.

The precipitation of chromium from solutions of steels and its separa-

tion from practically all the iron can be effected quickly and easily by

boiling with a number of precipitants, herein described.

The chromium may be readily extracted from the precipitates by fusion,

and separated from vanadium by precipitating as lead chromate under

the conditions prescribed, the chromium being determined volumetrically

in the lead chromate. J. R. C.

CHEMISTRY. — A rapid method for the determination of vanadium in

steels, ores, etc., based on its quantitative inclusion by the phospho-

molybdate precipitate. J. R. Cain and J. C. Hostetter. To appear

as Technologic Paper No. 8, Bureau of Standards. Also to appear

in Journal Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.

1 . It was found that vanadic acid may be quantitatively precipitated

by ammonium phospho-molybdate.

158 abstracts: hydrology

2. The vanadium-bearing phospho-molybdate shows different solubil-

ity relations compared with normal phospho-molybdate with respect to

the usual washing solutions used in determining phosphorus.

3. Conditions are given for quantitatively precipitating vanadic acid

when in solution alone, or accompanied by a variety of other elements,

by means of ammonium phospho-molybdate.

4. In order to determine quantitatively the vanadic acid so precipi-

tated, (a) the possibility of freeing it from accompanying molybdic

acid was investigated; (b) conditions for reducing it without reducing

the associated molybdic acid were developed; and (c) a method for

reducing it by hydrogen (and other) peroxides, and titrating it against

permanganate was elaborated.

5. Method (c) was applied to a variety of steels, to iron ores, mangan-

ese ores, and to synthetic mixtures, in all of which the vanadium was

determined accurately. J. R. C.

HYDROLOGY.- — Some stream waters of the western United States, with

chapters on sediment carried by the Rio Grande and the industrial

application of water analyses. Herman Stabler. Water Supply

Paper, U. S. Geological Survey No. 274. Pp. 188. 1911.

This paper presents the results of more than two years' analytical

work at the Berkeley, Cal., laboratory of the U. S. Reclamation Service.

The tables include mineral analyses of water from more than fifty impor-

tant streams of western United States, samples having been collected

daily for a period of one to two years, and miscellaneous analyses of

water from streams, springs, lakes, wells and borings. With the analyses

are tables of stream flow and estimates of daily discharge of suspended

matter and dissolved solids. Analyses of the suspended matter carried

by Colorado River and the Rio Grande are also included.

One chapter is devoted to a study of the quantity of sediment carried

by the Rio Grande at the site of the proposed storage reservoir near

Engle, N. Mex., the conclusion being that the probable mean annual

discharge for a long term of years may variously be expressed as represent-

ing 11,300,000 tons of suspended matter, 3150 acre-feet of rock-matter,

5200 acre-feet of soil, 6110 acre-feet of compacted sediment, or 8650 acre-

feet of freshly deposited sediment. Attention is called to the wide error

likely to be introduced thru the customary method of making such esti-

mates.

The final chapter is a study of the industrial application of water

analyses stated in ionic form. Soap consumption ; water softening; foam-

ing, corrosion, and scale-formation in boilers; and irrigation value are

abstracts: geology 159

discussed in detail and formulas are presented to facilitate the evalua-

tion and classification of waters with respect to these tendencies in qual-

ity. H. S.

GEOLOGY. — Potash-bearing rocks of the Leucite Hills, Sweetwater

County, Wyoming. Alfred R. Schultz and Whitman Cross.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey, No. 512, p. 1 to 39, with maps.

The Rock Springs district in Sweetwater County, Wyoming, consists

structurally of a low anticlinal dome of Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks

plunging to the north and to the south. The major north-south axis

is approximately 90 miles long and the width of the dome is about 50

miles. The beds on the west side of the anticline dip from 5° to 10°.

From the central part of the dome have been removed all of the Ter-

tiary Green River and Wasatch beds, the late Cretaceous ("Laramie"),

and part of the Montana formations.

Resting on or cutting thru the sedimentary rocks in the north half of

this dome are the Leucite Hills, composed of leucite-bearing lavas rich

in potash. These lavas are certainly younger than the Green River beds

and were presumably poured out on the more or less level plain upon

which the Bishop conglomerate was deposited. The masses of leucite-

bearing rock occur as dikes, sills, sheets, stocks and surface flows and rest

upon or come in contact with Green River, Wasatch, "Laramie" and

various formations of Montana age.

The lavas of the Leucite Hills contain on the average a larger per-

centage of potash than any other known igneous rocks. However,

the extraction of the entire potash content of these rocks must be effected

by a process applicable to leucite, sanidine, and phlogopite at least, and

probably to other minerals, as the potash in the leucite-bearing rocks

occurs in each of the above mentioned minerals. A. R. S.

GEOLOGY.— The granites of Connecticut. T. N. Dale and H. E.

Gregory. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No. 484. Pp. 137,

with colored geologic map, 4 text maps, 8 figs., 6 pis. 1911.

To Part I, Gregory contributes a brief outline of the geology and

geologic history of the State with brief descriptions of granite, granite-

gneiss, pegmatite, porphyry, also paragraphs on granitic intrusions and

the age of Connecticut granites and granite-gneisses which, with the

exception of the Becket Gneiss, are regarded as post-Carboniferous.

Dale has in the same part 18 pages on the structure, variation, discolora-

tion, decomposition of granite, repeated from his previous granite bulle-

tins, and a few observations on micro-structure, flow, inclusions, plicated

160 abstracts: geology

gneiss, dikes, mineral veins, contacts, etc. At the end of Part II, which

is economic in character and is by Dale, the commercial granites of Con-

necticut are divided into 10 petrographic groups including 20 well-

defined varieties. T. N. D.

GEOLOGY.— Geologic atlas of the United States, Folio No. 175. Bir-

mingham (Alabama) Folio. Charles Butts. Maps and sections.

1911.

The Birmingham folio deals with an area of 1000 square miles. The

broad surface features are the Birmingham and the Cahaba anticlinal

valleys, with the low synclinal plateaus of the Chaba, Coosa, and Blount

Mountain coal fields, with northeast-southwest trend, in the southeast-

ern part; and the low plateau of the Warrior coal field in the north-

western part. The deeply dissected upland surfaces are probably rem-

nants of the Cumberland plateau or peneplain (Schooley?), and the

valleys may represent the Coosa peneplain.

The geologic section is as follows: Pottsville formation 2300-5100

feet; unconformity; Parkwood formation (new, Mississippian), shale and

sandstone 200-2000; Pennington shale and Bangor limestone to north-

west-Floyd shale to southeast, 1000 feet; Fort Payne chert 250 feet;

unconformity; Chattanooga shale 20 feet; unconformity; Frog Moun-

tain sandstone (Oriskany) ; unconformity (Helderbergian, Cayugan, and

Niagaran absent) ; Clinton formation, sandstone and shale, with fossil-

iferous ore beds, 250-500 feet; unconformity (CincinnatianandMohawk-

ian absent); Chickamauga limestone (mainly Chazyan) 200-450 feet;

unconformity (Canadian absent in Birmingham valley) ; Knox dolomite,

Ketona dolomite (new name) at base 3300 feet; uncomf ormity ; Cona-

sauga limestone 2000 feet; unconformity; Rome formation 500 feet.

The rocks are folded and faulted in the southeast and nearly flat in the

northwest. The Warrior and Cahaba coal fields are bounded on the

east by thrust faults, with displacement of 8000 to 10,000 feet, bringingthe

Cambrian into contact with the Pottsville. Minor thrust and normal

faults occur also.

The principal mineral resources of the quadrangle are (1) coal, (2)

iron ore, (3) limestone and dolomite, (4) shale, and (5) clay. The close

association of the first three is the chief factor in the industrial promi-

nence of the region. In the Warrior field are eight, and in the Cahaba

field are two or more workable coal beds.

The iron ore is hematite, called red "fossil" ore on account of the abun-

dant fossil shells which make it very calcareous. The weathered or

"soft"' ore carries 55 per cent metallic iron and 0.5 per cent lime, and the

abstracts: geology 161

deeper " hard" ore, 37 per cent metallic iron and 20 per cent lime. This

composition of the "hard" ore holds from about 400 feet to the greatest

depths reached, even to 2000 feet in bore holes over a mile from the out-

crop. C. B.

GEOLOGY.— The Sitka mining district, Alaska. Adolph Knopf.

Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey, No. 504. Pp. 32, with maps and

sections. 1912.

The Sitka mining district comprises Chichagof, Baranof, and Kruzof

islands, together with a few smaller islands. The total land area roughly

approximates 4500 square miles, the greater portion of which is included

in Chichagof and Baranof islands.

The rocks lie in broad belts, which strike northwest and southeast, con-

forming thus with the prevailing structural trend of southeastern Alaska.

The cores of the islands are made up largely of granitoid rocks, mainly

quartz diorites, which, as a rule, have been intruded parallel to the strati-

fied rocks.

The ore deposits are auriferous lodes, commonly occupying shear

zones in graywacke. Two mines, both of which are situated at Klag

Bay on the west coast of Chichagof Island, have so far been productive.

The ores, which range in value from $15 to $90 a ton are of higher grade

than the general gold ore of southeastern Alaska, which in 1910 averaged

$2.78 a ton. A large number of ore bodies of the same general character

have long been known to occur near Sitka, but owing to their low grade

none has yet been brought to a producing stage. A. K.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.— Coals of the State of Washington. E. Eggle-

ston Smith. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey, No. 474. Pp.

206, with maps and views. 1911.

Washington coals range from low-grade subbituminous to anthracite;

but as the anthracite owes its character to metamorphism by igneous

intrusions, it is of slight extent and limited range. In general, the highest

grade of coal is found near the Cascade Range and the quality decreases

westward from the mountains.

This is the first thoro systematic attempt to study the quality and

character of the Washington coals. Every mine in the State was visited

and from one to eight samples were obtained from each bed of coal mined,

the samples being analyzed at the Pittsburgh Laboratory of the Bureau

of Alines. Each mine is briefly described, and the location of each sample

is recorded, with a section of the coal bed at that point. The physical

characteristics of the coals and the effects of various impurities are fully

treated.

162 abstracts: botany

These data make it possible to compare the products of different mines

or beds and to determine which is best adapted for any particular use.

The investigation also shows the importance of careful preparation for

the market, in the way of picking and washing.

M. R. Campbell.

BOTANY. — Three new plants from Alberta. Paul C. Standley. Smith-

sonian Miscellaneous Collections, 5633: 1-3. 1912.

The plants described are from a collection obtained in western Alberta

and eastern British Columbia in the summer of 1911 by J. H. Riley and

N. Hollister. Vagnera pumila, Artemisia laevigata, and Gaillardia

bracteosa are described as new while one new combination, Svida pubes-

cens ( = Cornus pubescens Nutt.) is formed. The Gaillardia is espe-

cially interesting, since it is the northernmost representative of the genus

so far discovered. P. C. S.

BOTANY.— -A new leather flower fro7ii Illinois. Paul C. Standley.

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 5634: 1-3, pi. 1. 1912.

Viorna ridgwayi is described from specimens collected by Mr. Robert

Ridgeway in the summer of 1910 near Olney in southern Illinois. The

species is related to Viorna viorna, the common leather flower, but is

distinguished by the peculiar form of the leaves. A brief account is

also given of the trees and shrubs of the locality from which the type

comes. P. C. S.

BOTANY. — Report on a collection of plants from the Pinacate region of

Sonora. J. N. Rose and Paul C. Standley. Contributions from

the U. S. National Herbarium, 16: 5-20, fig. 1, pis. 3-16. 1912.

An annotated list is given of the plants collected by Dr. D. T. Mac-

Dougal in the Pinacate region during the autumn of 1907. The expedi-

tion during which these plants were collected is described by Dr. W. T.

Hornaday in his book C amp-Fires on Desert and Lava. Altogether 83

species are listed, the type locality of each being given. Twelve new

species are described, the most of which are illustrated by line drawings,

and six new combinations are formed. J. N. R. and P. C. S.

BOTANY. — Tumamoca, a new genus of Cucurbitaceae. J. N. Rose.

Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium, 16: 21, pi. 17.

1912.

Tumamoca macdougalii represents a new genus of this family, allied

to Ivervillea. The type was collected by Dr. D. T. MacDougal on

Tumamoc Hill on which the Desert Laboratory of the Carnegie Institu-

tion is situated, near Tucson, Arizona. J. N. R.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The 76th meeting of the Washington Academy of Sciences, a business

meeting, was held at the Cosmos Club, 7:45 p.m., February 13, 1912,

with President Coville in the chair.

The following were elected resident members :

R. V. Anderson C. N. McBryde

E. S. Bastin H. D. McCaskey

W. R. Calvert F. H. Moffitt

R. L. Faris Chase Palmer

N. C. Glover E. W. Shaw

Karl F. Kellerman Daniel W. Shea

Adolph Knopf Herman Stabler

W. T. Lee G. W. Stose

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

The 77th meeting was held on February 13, 1912. Dr. L. A. Bauer

gave an illustrated address on the Recent work of the Carnegie and the

total solar eclipse of April 28, 1911. The speaker, enroute to Colombo,

Ceylon, to join there the magnetic survey vessel, the Carnegie, under his

charge, while awaiting connections at Suva, Fiji, for New Zealand, suc-

ceeded in getting into the belt of totality for the total solar eclipse of

April 28, 1911. Since all the observing parties were to congregate at

various points in the Tonga Islands, he thought it desirable to make the

effort to reach some other point in order to multiply the chances of get-

ting results. At the time that his official duties permitted him to leave

Washington, viz., March 16, 1911, it could not be definitely ascertained

that the necessary connections would be made at Suva, hence only a

limited equipment was taken consisting of magnetic instruments to

determine a possible effect on the earth's magnetism during the eclipse,

and an improvised photographic apparatus. For the same reason it

was not warranted to incur the expense of taking with him specially

trained assistants, all the more so since every possible preparation had

been made by the many astronomers in the Tonga Islands. The photo-

graphic apparatus had to be hastily improvised by Mr. Abbot, Director

of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution; it

consisted of a double-barreled, hand-driven, equatori ally-mounted

camera of about ll^-foot focus. The camera tubes, for convenience in

packing, were made in three sections of stoVe pipe and the tripod in a

similar manner of gas pipe. The entire equipment was packed in water

tight cases to ensure against accidents, as landings on the islands chosen

cannot always be effected safely on account of breakers.

163

164 proceedings: Washington academy

Reaching Pago Pago, Tutuila, on April 24, he was transported,

through the courtesy of His Excellency the Governor, Commander W.

M. Crose, on the U. S. S. Annapolis, to Tau Island, the nearest acces-

sible point in the belt of totality. This island is near the 'western edge

of the belt, the approximate position of the station chosen being latitude

14°. 2 S., longitude, 169°. 6 W. In addition to putting the Annapolis

at Dr. Bauer's disposal, Governor Crose also assigned to him several of

his ablest officers.

The party arrived at the station late Wednesday afternoon, April

26, the remainder of the day being spent in selecting suitable points

of observation and unpacking and assembling the instruments. The

following day, April 27, was more or less cloudy and showers fell repeat-

edly thus hampering considerably the preparations for the morrow's

work. However, the weather on the following day, April 28,- — the day

of the eclipse — was all that could be desired and so final preparations

were made immediately. The photographic work was placed in charge

of Lieutenant McDowell, U. S. N., aided by Dr. Connor and Messrs.

Steffany and Reed. The times of contacts were observed by two inde-

pendent parties, one aboard the Annapolis, anchored in Faleasau Bay,

in charge of Lieutenant Baker, U. S. N., and the other ashore by Dr.

Connor aided by Chaplain Pearce. The readings of the magnetic declin-

ation were made by Quartermaster Urle, Dr. Bauer assuming the general

charge of the entire work, making the necessary astronomical observa-

tions for geographic position, azimuth and time, as well as determining

the magnetic elements.

Owing to the inclement weather of the day before, it had not been

possible to place the camera in final position so as to try out the finder

until a few minutes before the eclipse, when it was unfortunately learned

that the finder did not work satisfactorily and Lieutenant McDowell

was accordingly obliged to improvise some simple device with the aid

of which he might keep the sun's, disk as central as possible on the photo-

graphic plates. For orientations of camera tubes in azimuth and alti-

tude it was necessary to resort to the preliminary lines established by

Dr. Bauer and his calculated azimuths and altitude of the sun for the

totality phases. Four photographs of the eclipse were secured and upon

development of the plates at Apia on May 3, it was found that the pres-

ent corona fulfilled the expectations of chief development in the equa-

torial direction during the sunspot minimum. The totality began

shortly after 10:00 a.m. and lasted 2ra3s according to the ship party,

and lm 59s| according to the shore party, which is as satisfactory an

agreement as could be expected with the limited observing means. No

member of the party observed visually the great equatorial extensions

shown in the photographs. One of the observers aboard ship stated

that he saw two stars. It is possible that although the sky was seem-

ingly clear there may have been a fine haze sufficient to obscure the faint

light from the coronal extensions. Perhaps due to the fact that the

station was not far from the western edge of the belt of totality, it was

not very dark at the time of totality, writing being easily read.

proceedings: philosophical society 165

By special arrangement magnetic observations simultaneous with

those at Tau Island were made at the five Coast and Geodetic Survey

magnetic observatories, also at Melbourne, Christchurch, and Apia,

where quick-run magnetograms were obtained for five hours. Until

the records have been received from stations over the entire globe, it

will not be possible to say definitely whether or not the present eclipse

was accompanied by any minute and temporary change in the earth's

magnetism.

The speaker referred appreciatively to the many courtesies extended

and the valuable assistance rendered not only by Governor Crose and

his able officers, but also by Queen Vaitupu and the Samoan chiefs who

provided for the party's entertainment during their brief stay on the

beautiful island of Tau. The Annapolis being required for other pur-

poses, it was necessary to leave the station immediately after the eclipse

work was over.

The speaker next gave a general account of the results of the work

aboard the Carnegie on her present cruise, referring especially to the

Indian Ocean portion on which comparatively large errors in the charts

used by mariners were disclosed. Some statements pertaining to these

corrections in the western half of the Indian Ocean have already been

published in this Journal (1 : 178-179. 1911). Serious errors have like-

wise been found since in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean. Special

observations were also made for the definite location of the agonic line

which passes through the Arabian Sea, Southern India and the Bay of

Bengal. A preliminary draft of a new'isogonic chart for the Indian

Ocean as based upon the recent observations of the Carnegie was shown.

A brief account was likewise given of the present status of the magnetic

operations of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie

Institution of Washington under the speaker's direction. The hope was

expressed that, judging from the present rate of progress and with the

cooperation of the various organizations engaged in magnetic work, it

would be possible to issue a new set of magnetic charts for the entire

globe within the next five years.

Fuller publication with regard to the matters touched upon by the

speaker will be made in the journal Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric

Electricity.

W. J. Humphreys, Recording Secretary.

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 703rd meeting was held on January 27, 1912. Mr. W. J. Hum-

phreys, of the Weather Bureau, spoke on Some scientific institutions at

home and abroad. An interesting account was given of a visit to a number

of the scientific institutions of Great Britain and the Continent, and of

how some of the scientific societies abroad are conducted, special men-

tion being made of the British Association, the Royal Society of London,

and the French Academy.

The activities were outlined of several meteorological bureaus, includ-

ing those of Great Britain, Netherlands, Germany. Austria and France.

166 proceedings: chemical society

The speaker then mentioned the physical laboratories and astronomical

and astrophysical observatories visited in England, Scotland, Holland

France, Germany, Belgium and Austria, and spoke briefly of the men

and the instrumental equipment at these institutions and the chief

research work now being carried on by them.

Mr. N. E. Dorsey spoke informally of the recent absolute measure-

ment of current at the Bureau of Standards and gave a few figures show-

ing (1) the precision (something better than 1 in 1,000,000) attained in

the determination of the ratio of the radii of two coils, (2) the relative

constancy of the radii of 6 coils over a period of one year, and (3) the

relative constancy of the standard cells used in that work.

R. L. Faris, Secretary.

THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

The 212th regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club, January

11, 1912. President Le Clerc appointed the following committees for

1912: Program: Phelps, Seidell, Moore, McKelvy, Palmer. Enter-

tainment: Boughton, Bunzel, Custis, Lathrop, Nothstine. P. H.

Walker was elected local councilor. The following papers were read:

Notes on the specific gravity of solids. J. Johnston and L. H. Adams

of the Geophysical Laboratory. Read by Mr. Adams. Discussion by

R. C. Wells, Boughton, Walker, Robinson and Byrnes.

Pacific coast kelps. J. W. Turrentine, Bureau Soils. Discussion

by Dole, C. C. Moore, R. B.%Moore, Herstein, Huston.

Chemical investigation of American spearmint oil. E. K. Nelson,

Bureau Chemistry.

Note by Dr. P. A. Yoder on Marking of porcelain crucibles.

Note by Dr. J. Johnston exhibiting the May-Nelson vacuum-pres-

sure ring pump.

A special meeting was held on January 25 in the Cosmos Club. Prof.

Edward Hart, of Lafayette College, gave a lecture on Some early chem-

ists. It was illustrated by numerous reproductions from the lecturer's

collection of rare books on chemistry and alchemy. A smoker followed

the lecture.

The 213th regular meeting was held at the Cosmos Club on February

8. The following papers were read:

A modification of the volumetric determination of phosphoric acid in

phosphate rocks. J. G. Fairchild, Geological Survey (see this Journal,

2:114, 1912).

Standardization of potassium permanganate by sodium oxalate. R. S.

McBride, Bureau Standards. Discussion by Foster, Johnston, Seidell,

Hillebrand, Phelps, Waters.

Refractive index of beeswax. Leonard Feldstein, Bureau Chemistry.

Quantitative oxidase studies. H. H. Bunzel, Bureau Plant Industry.

Discussion by Waters and R. C. Wells.

Robert B. Sosman, Acting Secretary.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. II, APRIL 4, 1912 No. 7

PHYSICS. — The nitrogen thermometer scale from 300° to 630°,

with a direct determination of the boiling point of sulfur.

Arthue L. Day and Robert B. Sosman. Geophysical

Laboratory, Carnegie Institution. To appear in full in the

American Journal of Science.

1. PURPOSE AND PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION

In our recent investigation of the fundamental high tempera-

ture scale with the gas thermometer1 attention was chiefly directed

to the temperature region above 1000°. The lower temperatures

had been determined with considerable accuracy in an investiga-

tion undertaken in the Reichsanstalt2 some years earlier (1900)

and there was no reason to suspect in it any uncertainty of greater

magnitude than the errors of observation determined at that time

(2° to 3°). Our determinations (1911) of the temperatures below

1000° came out about 1° lower than those of the Reichsanstalt

scales.

The situation from our viewpoint at the time of publication of

our final results (1911) was accurately summed up in one of our

closing paragraphs as follows:

1 Preliminary publications : — Day and Clement: Physic. Rev., 24: 531, (Abstract)

1907. Day and Clement: Am. J. Sci. (4), 26: 405-463. 1908. Day and Sosman,,

Am. J. Sci. (4), 29: 93-161. 1910. R. B. Sosman: Am. J. Sci. (4), 30: 1-15. 1910.'

Final publication: — Day and Sosman: Carnegie Institution Pub. No. 157. 1911.

2Holborn and Day: Ann. Physik. (4), 2: 505-545. 1900. Am. J. Sci. (4), 10:

171-206. 1900.

167

168 DAY and sosman: nitrogen thermometer scale

The chief source of present uncertainty [in high temperature gas-

thermometer measurements] is the temperature distribution over the

surface of the bulb in an air bath. It would be possible to eliminate this

error in the lower portion of the scale by substituting a liquid bath which

could be stirred. In fact, this was done for temperatures below 500°

in the earlier work of Holborn and Day, but has not, so far, been tried

in the present investigation because of the relatively secondary importance

of the lower temperatures to the ultimate purpose of the investigation

(the study of silicates) . For the higher temperatures, no sarisfactory

liquid bath has been found.3 (Publication of the Carnegie Institution

of Washington No. 157, p. 115. 1911).

It was nevertheless thought wise to establish the identity and

the magnitude of the error in these low temperature measure-

ments which may have been due to this cause.

2. APPARATUS

No attempt will be made to describe in detail the gas thermom-

eter and accessories used in this investigation. A full descrip-

tion of the apparatus, with illustrations, will be found in the pub-

lications to which reference has been made. No change whatever

was made in the gas thermometer system for these measurements,

except for the substitution, about the bulb, of a liquid bath, made

up from potassium and sodium nitrates in eutectic proportions

(55 per cent KN03, 45 per cent NaN03). This bath was intro-

duced into the furnace bomb described in connection with the

earlier apparatus in place of the platinum-wound furnace pre-

viously used. The insulating material was dry magnesia, as

heretofore, and the bomb was water jacketed thruout to protect

the manometer. The heating apparatus amounted, briefly, to

one bath within another, that is, the tube containing the stirrer

was continued across the bottom of the tank and upward about

the bulb, which it fitted with but little clearance (10 mm.) in order

to insure the very rapid circulation of a thin layer of liquid past

the bulb, while the remainder of the bath remained at an approxi-

mately uniform temperature without. With this arrangement,

no systematic temperature differences greater than the errors of

observation of the thermoelement (0?1) were observed.

3 Professor Holborn has directed attention to the same limitations in our

results at these temperatures (Ann. Physik., 35: 761-774. 1911).

DAY AND SOSMAN: NITROGEN THERMOMETER SCALE 169

3. METHOD OF PROCEDURE

In this apparatus temperatures were read simultaneously (1)

upon the gas thermometer, (2) upon three thermoelements dis-

tributed at different points in the bath — one in a reentrant tube

extending to the center of the bulb, and one each at the top and

bottom of its outside wall.

For the measurements at 4he benzophenone boiling-point,

thermoelements of copper-constantan and of platinum-platin-

rhodium (Heraeus) were used, for the higher temperatures plati-

num-platinrhodium only. After a trial of the copper-constantan

elements at the next higher temperature (zinc) evidence of per-

manent changes in their readings was obtained which was more

than sufficient to offset their increased sensitiveness. They were

accordingly abandoned at the higher temperatures.

Thru the courteous cooperation of the Bureau of Standards,

a sensitive resistance thermometer in charge of Dr. Dickinson and

Mr. Mueller of the Bureau was placed alongside the bulb during

a part of the measurements, and later a similar instrument in-

geniously constructed for the purpose by Dr. Dickinson was intro-

duced into the reentrant tube of the gas thermometer bulb

itself. The resistance thermometer, which was easily sensitive

to a few thousandths of a degree, revealed small temperature

fluctuations (0?05) in the rapidly circulating liquid* outside the

bulb but no systematic temperature differences. Within the re-

entrant tube the fluctuations were no longer felt.

With these precautions to guard against temperature differences

about the bulb, temperatures were measured (1) at the boiling

point of benzophenone, (2) at the melting point of zinc, (3) at the

melting point of antimony.4 The three thermoelements were

then removed from the bath next day and placed in one or other of.

the following: in a vapor bath of boiling benzophenone, in an

apparatus for determining the zinc melting point, or in a similar

apparatus containing antimony; after which they were returned

to the gas thermometer furnace for the verification of their read-

4 The zinc and antimony were the same charges which were used in the previous

investigation. The analyses may be found in Pub. No. 157, pp. 87 and 88; Am. J.

Sci., 29: 159.

170 DAY AND SOSMAN: NITROGEN THERMOMETER SCALE

ings. This series of operations constituted a set of observations

as carried out in the tables which follow. Inasmuch as the gas

thermometer was brought as close as practicable to the tempera-

ture of the points (benzophenone, zinc, etc.) selected as standards,

the intermediaty role of the thermoelements was merely that of a

transfer agent, in which role the individual properties of the ther-

moelements do not appear at all, , provided the wires were origin-

ally homogeneous. The danger of contamination of the elements

and consequent inhomogeneity is negligible at these temperatures.

Even if such contamination had crept in it would have discovered

itself in differences between the readings of the three elements

with each change in the gradient, of which differences no trace

was found.

By way of providing a strictly rigorous test of the accuracy of

the transfer of temperature from gas thermometer bulb to the

reference standards and its independence of the intermediary

thermoelement, a special arrangement was devised in the case of

zinc as follows : A steel bulb was made up with approximately the

dimensions of the gas thermometer bulb and suspended in the

same position in the nitrate bath. Enclosed in this bulb was the

charge of zinc in its graphite crucible. In this crucible the ther-

moelement occupied the same position which it occupied in refer-

ence to the»gas thermometer bulb, and all other conditions were,

of course, identical. The zinc melting points were determined

in this way, i.e., in a nitrate bath in which there were no measur-

able temperature differences in the region about the melting zinc

and with the temperature gradient along the thermoelements

identical with that surrounding the gas thermometer bulb itself.

4. BOILING POINT OF SULFUR

Finally an attempt was made to establish one temperature in

this region from which the intermediary thermoelement should be

completely eliminated. The gas thermometer bulb itself was

immersed in the vapor of boiling sulfur. For this determination

the nitrate bath was replaced by an appropriate sulfur boiling-

point apparatus, all other conditions remaining the same. In

building this apparatus, the experience of the Bureau of Stand-

DAY AND SOSMAN: NITROGEN THERMOMETER SCALE 171

ards was utilized for the most part. To this design certain modi-

fications suggested by the unpublished work of Prof. G. A. Hulett

of Princeton were added by way of rendering the determination as

far as practicable independent of particular experimental condi-

tions emplo3Ted.

Heat was supplied electrically from a coil of high resistance

wire about the sulfur tube, the coil ending about 2 cm. below the

surface of the liquid sulfur (Bureau of Standards usage). An

independent coil surrounded the vapor region, separated from it

by an annular air space of about 1 cm. (Hulett I. The bulb was

surrounded first by a shield of sheet aluminum ( Bureau of Stand-

ards) with holes near the top and bottom to permit the free circu-

lation of the sulfur vapor, and a hole in the center of the bottom

to permit the escape of liquid sulfur which chanced to condense on

the shield. The shield afforded protection against any direct

interchange of radiation with the furnace or with the boiling liquid,

and its steep conical roof diverted the condensing liquid sulfur

away from the bulb. Subsequently, with the purpose of varying

these conditions, the aluminum shield was replaced by another

of similar form but of glass (Hulett) and of somewhat smaller

diameter. This was suspended from the conical aluminum roof

of the first shield, which now overhung the side walls by several

millimeters, with the effect that liquid sulfur condensing upon

the cone could drip from the overhang instead of running down

the side wall past the bulb. The radiation conditions were also

radically altered by the substitution of glass for aluminum both

around the bulb and below it.

Further variation was provided by changing the current in

the two heating coils. Variations of some 40 per cent in the main

coil about the boiling liquid were tried and the upper coil was

varied from zero (Bureau of Standards usage) to nearly 40 per

cent of the current in the main coil. Or, in other terms, the 1 cm.

air jacket about the vapor was varied in temperature from the

normal gradient (without heat in the upper coil) to a temperature

equal to that of the sulfur vapor itself.

None of these changes produced any measurable change in the

temperature of the sulfur vapor as recorded by the gas ther-

172

DAY AND SOSMAN: NITROGEN THERMOMETER SCALE

mometer, provided enough heat was supplied to fill the tube with

vapor. During some of the measurements, the vapor escaped

freely between the glass tube and aluminum cover and burned

there.

TABLE I

Gas Thermometer Measurements in Nitrate Bath

Benzophenone, boiling point

Antimony, melting point

1 Copper-constantan thermo-element.

2 Wide temperature variation on manometer,

mean.

This value is omitted from the

DAY AND SOSMAN: NITROGEN THERMOMETER SCALE

173

5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

In Table I, column 3, P' is the measured pressure of the gas in

mm. of mercury at 0°; the application of the correction for the

"unheated space" gives the pressure P of column 4; t (column 5)

is the gas thermometer temperature in the nitrate bath, and e

(column 6) the corresponding electromotive force of the thermo-

element in microvolts; e (column 7) is the electromotive force of

the same elements in benzophenone, zinc and antimony respec-

tively, and the final column contains the corresponding gas ther-

mometer temperatures.

Table II contains the measurements made in the sulfur vapor

bath, p' and p represent the gas thermometer pressures corrected

as before, t the resulting temperature, followed by the barometer

reading reduced to sea level at lat. 45°, and the boiling tempera-

ture reduced to 760 mm. pressure.

TABLE II

Direct Measurement of Boiling Point op Sulfur

In Table III are brought together all the gas thermometer

determinations of the boiling point of sulfur since 1890 with the

necessary information for an intelligent comparison of the deter-

minations. Column 5 contains the initial pressure of the gas used

and column 6 the original value published by the author with a

reference to the place of publication. Two of these determina-

tions were subsequently corrected by the authors themselves.

These corrections (with the references) are given in column 7.

174

DAY AND SOSMANI NITROGEN THERMOMETER SCALE

TABLE III

Gas Thermometer Determinations of the Boiling Point of Sulfur

since 1890

1 Phil. Trans., A 181 : 119-157. 1891.

2Trav. Mem. Bur. Int., 12. 1902.

3 Ibid., p. 90.

4 Proc. Roy. Soc, A 81 : 339-362. 1908.

6 Ibid., A 83: 106-108. 1910.

6 Ann. Physik, 35 : 761-774. 1911. The value given for N2 is calculated from the

authors' table of experimental results. They give in their paper only the final

mean value on the thermodynamic scale.

7 This determination, often quoted as direct, is in reality indirect. In his first

investigation (Phil. Trans. 1887) Callendar showed that his parabolic formula

represented within 1° the variation of resistance with temperature as determined

by the constant pressure air thermometer to 600°. In his later work (Phil. Trans.

1891) he showed by a comparison of two resistance thermometers with the air

thermometer, using sulfur merely as a constant temperature bath, that his original

value of 8 = 1.57 would still represent the results for these thermometers within

the limits of error (about ± 0?3). This value of 8 was then used to calculate the

sulfur boiling point determined with several platinum thermometers in the usual

form of sulfur boiling tube.

DAY AND SOSMAN: NITROGEN THERMOMETER SCALE

175

Inasmuch as these various determinations were made under

somewhat different gas conditions, the results are not directly

comparable without reduction to some common unit. The fair-

est comparison is afforded by reduction to the thermodynamic

scale.

6. SUMMARY

' The new gas thermometer temperatures which this investi-

gation has given us are brought together in Table IV, expressed

(column 2) in terms of nitrogen expanding at constant volume

from an initial pressure of 760 mm., and (column 3) in terms of

the thermodynamic scale. These values replace the correspond-

ing temperatures published in our papers to which reference has

been made.

TABLE IV

Summarized Table

POINT

Benzophenone (Kahl-

baum) boiling point at

760 mm

Cadmium, melting point.

Zinc, melting point

Sulfur, boiling point at

760 mm

Antimony i Kahlbaum),

melting point

Aluminum, melting point

Finally, a comparative table (Table V) is added showing in

terms of the same (thermodynamic) scale a comparison of our

results with those obtained by Holborn and Henning in the latest

work published from the Reichsanstalt.5

5 Holborn and Henning. 1911. Loc. cit.

176 DICKINSON AND MUELLER: RESISTANCE THERMOMETER SCALE

TABLE V

Comparative Table. Thermodynamic Scale

POINT

Benzophenone

Cadmium

Zinc

Sulfur

Antimony

PHYSICS. -^-Comparison of the resistance thermometer scale with

the nitrogen scale from 300° to 630°. H. C. Dickinson and E.

F. Mueller, Bureau of Standards.

The temperature scale which at presents serves as the basis

for the work of the Bureau of Standards in the interval 100° to

600°C. is the scale of the platinum resistance thermometer as

defined by the work of Waidner and Burgess : Platinum resistance

thermometry at high temperatures.1 The resistance thermometer

scale was established by assigning to the temperature of the sul-

fur boiling point the value 444? 70 at normal pressure, as the

best value available at the time. On this resistance thermometer

scale the following temperatures, among others, were found:

Boiling point of benzophenone 306?02

Boiling point of sulfur (by definition) 444?70

Freezing point of antimony 630T71

A direct comparison of the temperatures cale as defined above,

and the temperature scale of the nitrogen gas thermometer pre-

viously described by Day and Sosman, was suggested, and as such

a comparison seemed very desirable we undertook the resistance

thermometer measurements. Two thermometers were used, one

"D" of the ordinary Callendar type which had been in use in the

laboratory, and the other "R" constructed especially for this

work. The latter was made with the lower part bent into the

1 Bull. Bureau Standards, 6: 149-230. 1910. Reprint No. 124. 7:3-11. 1910.

Reprint No. 143.

DICKINSON AND MUELLER: RESISTANCE THERMOMETER SCALE 177

form of a U so that the resistance coil could be placed in the re-

entrant tube of the gas thermometer, occupying the same position

as had the thermocouple in the measurements of Day and Sosman.

These two resistance thermometers represent the temperature

scale already referred to. The thermometers were compared in

the fused salt bath with the gas thermometer, which was operated

by Messrs. Day and Sosman2. The points at which comparisons

were made were approximately 306°, 445°, and 630°. After

the observations in the salt bath the constants of the resistance

thermometers were verified by recalibration. Two series were

made with each thermometer. The results will be seen from the

tables below:

TABLE I

Calibration of Thermometer D

Ro 26.6733

F.I 10. 3171 ±0.0002

5 1.520 ±0.0004

Calibration of Thermometer R

Ro 4.8321

F.I 1.8892*0.0001

8 1.503 ±0.000.3

Eight determinations of each constant were made.

The figures indicate an accuracy of about 0?01 in the deter-

mination of the fundamental interval and about 0?03 in the

determination of the boiling point of sulfur (440.70 in above)

from which 8 is computed, and show that either one of the ther-

mometers adequately represents the resistance thermometer scale

of Waidner and Burgess.

The results of the comparisons in the salt bath with the gas

thermometer are shown in table II.

The figures in the second column are the serial numbers assigned

to the gas thermometer observations. In the fourth column is

given the temperature in the salt bath as indicated by the resist-

ance thermometer. In the next three columns are the nitrogen

thermometer data : p' is the original measured pressure in the

nitrogen thermometer bulb in millimeters of mercury at 0°; the

application of the correction for the "unheated space" gives the

pressures (p) of column six; and in column seven is the tempera-

ture. From the differences in the eighth column and the values

2 This Journal, 2: 171. 1912.

178 DICKINSON AND MUELLER! RESISTANCE THERMOMETER SCALE

given on page 175, the following temperatures on the nitrogen

scale of Day and Sosman are found :

B.P. of benzophenone 305?84

B.P. of sulfur 444?28

F.P. of antimony 629?75

TABLE II

12-7

12-21

304.92 1052.58 1053.71 304.72

305.48 1053.60 1054.73 305.28

306.72 1055.77 1056.92 306.52

306.91 1056.49 1057.64 306.93

+0.20

+0.20

+0.20

-0.02*

+0.18

Rapidly changing temperature, not given lull weight in mean.

For the sake of comparison, these temperatures, reduced to the

thermodynamic scale, and those found by Messrs. Day and Sos-

man3 by transfer with thermocouples, and also by direct measure-

ment with the gas thermometer in sulfur, are shown below:

'This Journal, 2: 171. 1912.

DICKINSON AND MUELLER: RESISTANCE THERMOMETER SCALE 179

The agreement of the transfer methods is complete. The differ-'

ence of 0?17 between the transfer and the direct determination

at the boiling point of sulfur may be due to (1) difference in the

sulfur baths used, (2) an unusual accumulation of accidental errors,

(3) a systematic error affecting all transfer measurements.

TABLE III

1. The two sulfur baths were compared side by side by means of

thermometer "R." The Day and Sosman sulfur bath was oper-

ated by Dr. Sosman. Exploration with the resistance thermome-

ter showed no temperature differences as large as 0?05 within the

aluminium shield which had been used with the gas thermometer.

The temperature in this shield was found to be 0?03 to 0?04 lower

than in the Bureau of Standards gas-heated apparatus, a differ-

ence which is hardly significant.

2. The accidental errors of either the gas thermometer or the

resistance thermometer are not as large as the difference found.

The three values found by transfer with the resistance thermome-

ter as well as the two values found by transfer with the thermo-

couples, give the same value of 8 (1.484) for the resistance ther-

mometer "R."

3. The above agreement, together with the fact that the value

of 8 computed from the value 444.55 for the sulfur boiling point is

1.494, may be taken as indicating a possible systematic error

affecting all the transfer values. On account of the absence of a

direct transfer with the thermocouples, however, this cannot be

considered as proven. The indirect determination of the sulfur

boiling point would appear to have less weight than the direct

determination, since the sulfur bath used for the latter was found

to define the same termperature as that obtained in the conven-

tional form of sulfur boiling apparatus.

180 BUCKINGHAM! WIEN's DISPLACEMENT LAW

The boiling point of sulfur. The evidence based on all the data

at present available is that the best value for the temperature of

the boiling point of sulfur at normal pressure, is 444? 6 to the near-

est 0?1 on the thermodynamic scale.

PHYSICS. — On the deduction of Wien's displacement law. Edgar

Buckingham, Bureau of Standards.

The least satisfactory step in deductions of this law is usually

the treatment of the change of wave-length of perfectly diffuse

radiation upon reflexion from a moving surface. This step maybe

taken in the following manner:

Let a closed evacuated shell, with walls which are perfectly

but somewhat irregularly reflecting, be filled with perfectly diffuse,

approximately monochromatic radiation of wave-lengths between

X and X + d\. Let R\d\.ds.dw be the amount of radiant energy

which passes in unit time from the negative to the positive side of

a small plane surface element of area ds, inside the shell, in direc-

tions comprised within a cone of the infinitesimal solid angle dw

described about the normal to ds. For diffuse radiation, the

" radiant vector" R\ is the same at all points and in all directions.

Let M be a small plane piece of the shell wall of area s, and let

it have a normal velocity @C outward, C being the velocity of

light and /? an infinitesimal. The rest of the shell wall remains

at rest. If T = X / C is the period of the waves at a point fixed

in space, their period of arrival at a point fixed on M, from an

angle of incidence tp, is T' = T/(l — /3 cos <p) and the effect of

arrival at this angle is to increase the period in the ratio

ra = 1 + 13 cos <p (1)

terms of higher orders in /3 being negligible. Similarly, a disturb-

ance starting from a point on M with a period T' and propagated

at an angle of reflexion \p, suffers a further increase of its period,

measured at a point fixed in space, in the ratio

rd = 1 + jS cos yp (2)

Our problem is to find the effect on the original period T, of

all the arrivals and departures at all possible angles <p and \p

BUCKINGHAM: WIEN's DISPLACEMENT LAW 181

between 0 and 71-/2, within a long time t; and we shall evidently

have to evaluate a product of the form

rard . r'ar'd . r"ar"d etc.

But since multiplication is commutative, if we treat all the arrivals

by themselves, then all the departures, and finally multiply the

two results together, we shall arrive at the same value as if we

considered the effects alternately, as they occur in fact.

We start from the consideration that in a sufficiently long time,

every element of the energy within the shell must undergo reflex-

ion from M at any particular angles (<p, \p) just as often as every

other element, so that the number of times n that any element is

affected in a given way within a long time t is the quotient of the

total amount affected in that way by the total amount present

within the shell to be affected.

Taking the arrivals first, the whole energy which strikes M

at angles between <p and <? + dtp, within t, is t • R\ d\ scos <p • 2x sin

<pd<p, and the total energy present within the shell of volume v is

v ■ 4:TR\d\/C, so that we have

CJs

2v

n = z— cos <p sin <p d <p (3)

All these n arrivals together increase the period in the ratio

rl = (1 + /3cos^)n = 1 + ft/3cos <p (4)

Inserting the value of n from (3) and noting that pCts = Av

is the infinitesimal increase of volume which has occurred during

t, we have

rl = 1 + cos2 <p smcp d cp (5)

2 v

The effect of arrivals during t at all possible angles is found by

taking the product of all the factors of this form from <p = 0 to

<p = 7r/2 or, neglecting higher powers of @,

cos2 (p sin <pd <p = \ + - — .

6 v

182 BUCKINGHAM: WIEN's DISPLACEMENT LAW

Similar reasoning on the effect of departures at the angle \p

leads to the same final expression, and we have for the combined

effect of all the alternate arrivals and departures in all possible

directions,

T+AT = / 1 AvV 1 Av

T \ 6 v) 3 v

or, in terms of the wave-length,

AX 1 Av

T 3 V

(6)

This equation holds for any value of X, hence the interval d\

changes in the same ratio as X itself. The result is valid for any

element of the shell which is small enough to be treated as plane,

for we have not assigned to M any special properties different

from those of the rest of the shell wall. Equation (6) may there-

fore be integrated into the form.

X = const Xp (7)

We have treated R\ as remaining perfectly diffuse, but this is

not exact because the motion of M disturbs the diffuseness. The

resulting error, however, may easily be shown to involve only

terms of lower orders of magnitude than those retained — which

are sufficient—- and equation (7) remains valid. There is, also,

no objection to making the long time t infinite, if we still make

pCts an infinitesimal of the first order by making /3s = const X tr2.

Equation (7) gives the effect on wave-length caused by .change

of volume of diffuse monochromatic radiation enclosed within a

non-absorbing envelope. It may be put into words as follows:

if the shell retains its form during expansion or contraction, the

wave lengths change in the same ratio as the linear dimensions of

the shell, and the whole system of waves and shell remains

geometrically similar to itself.'

In the extended form of this paper, to appear in the Bulletin of

the Bureau of Standards, more details are discussed and the

remaining steps required to complete the deduction of the dis-

placement law are given.

nutting: precision colorimeter 183

PHYSIC'S. — A new precision colorimeter. P. G. Nutting,

Bureau of Standards.

It is well known that any color may be analyzed and specified

in either of two different ways: (1) in terms of three primary com-

ponents, red, green and blue (trichromatic analysis) or (2) in

terms of wave length of dominant hue or its complementary and

per cent white (monochromatic analysis). In mathematical

terms, the color point may be located by either trilinear or by

polar coordinates. Of the three elements of color, hue, tone and

luminosity, hue and tone are determined with a colorimeter,

luminosity with a photometer or a photometric part of the color-

imeter.

Colors to be analyzed consist of light either emitted from some

source, transmitted through some selective screen or reflected

from some mat or semi-mat surface. Any of these colors to be

analyzed may be either spectral or purple according to whether or

not its dominant hue lies in the visible spectrum. Any analyzing

colorimeter must then be applicable to emitted, transmitted or

reflected light of either spectral or purple dominant hue.

A trichromatic analyzer, the Ives1 colorimeter, has been in

successful use for several years. A monochromatic method

of analysis was devised and used by Abney2 in a laboratory

investigation as early as 1890. The colorimeter here described

is a monochromatic analyzer designed to be a practical working-

instrument of wide range, high precision and of the utmost sim-

plicity.

The advantage of monochromatic analysis lies in the elimina-

tion of the arbitrary reference standards (red, green and blue),

readings being given directly in wave length and per cent white.

Both methods involve the definition and adoption of some stand-

ard of white. The trichromatic method may be used for either

spectral or purple hues indifferently, the use of the monochro-

matic method involves an interchange of two sources or arms in

passing from spectral to purple hues. Both methods give read-

ings varying somewhat with the observer involving in some cases,

1 F. E. Ives: J. Franklin Inst., 421-3. 1907.

- W. de W. Abney: Color Measurements and Mixtures, pp. 162-6. 1S91.

184

nutting: precision colorimeter

correction to the absolute color scale based on the average proper-

ties of a number of normal eyes.

The new colorimeter is so arranged that light of a pure spectral

hue may be mixed with white light to match the unknown or,

in the case of purples, it is mixed with the unknown to match

white. The match is made with a Lummer-Brodhum photometer

cube.

Fig. 1. Diagram of precision Colorimeter.

The figure is a diagram of the optical parts of the instrument.

Collimator 1 is movable, all the remaining parts are fixed. Colli-

mators 1 and 4 with prism P form an ordinary spectroscope with

pin hole ocular. The white and unknown lights enter thru colli-

mators 2 and 3, in direct or inverse order according as the match is

to be made with the dominant hue or its complementary. In

analyzing reflected light the necessary collimator is raised or

rotated or even removed entirely if sunlight is used.

Wave lengths are varied simply by rotation of collimator 1.

Intensities may be varied by (1) varying slit widths, (2) rotating

sectors, or (3) by rotating one of a pair of nicols placed just inside

each slit. The colorimeter now in use is provided with a bilat-

eral slit on the first collimator while collimators 2 and 3 are pro-

vided with pairs of nicols.

lupton: GEOLOGY OF SAN RAFAEL SWELL, UTAH 185

After a match has been secured, the wave length of the domi-

nant hue is either read from the position of collimator 1 or by

throwing in a small hand spectroscope before the pin hole ocular

of 4.

Intensities are determined by interposing between collimator

4 and photometer cube C, a white 180° (Whitman) rotating disk

illuminated by a standard lamp. This gives the intensity in

meter candles of each of the three component beams separately.

Instead of this flicker photometer arrangement, a simple equality

of brightness photometer may be used to determine the relative

brightness of any two beams. To intercompare beams 1 and 2

for example, the top half of the objective of collimator 1 and the

lower half of 2 are covered with a black card and then the width of

slit 1 is varied until equality of brightness is secured. This slit

width, compared with the original width used to secure a color

match, gives the relative intensities of the two beams.

An experimental colorimeter of the type above described was

assembled at the Bureau of Standards in the early Spring of 1911

and given a thoro test. Later special optical parts were ordered

from Fuess and the instrument constructed in the Bureau shops.

This new instrument has been in constant use at the Bureau since

the first of January 1912 in routine tests and special research work.

A patent dedicated to the public has been applied for.

Various problems arising in colorimetry are being investigated

with the new instrument and will be reported upon in later papers.

The sensibility of the instrument is, of course, that of the eye

(chromatic and photometric) viewing objects directly. The

precision attainable and the systematic errors to which the instru-

ment and method are subject will be reported upon later.

GEOLOGY. — Notes on the geology of the San Rafael Swell, Utah.

Charles T. Lupton, Geological Survey. Communicated by

Alfred H. Brooks.

The San Rafael Swell is an irregular elliptical dome, situated

in east-central Utah between the Wasatch Plateau and Green

River. It extends southwest from Price River almost to the

Fremont or Dirty Devil River, a distance of about 80 miles.

186 lupton: geology of san kafael swell, utah

( i. K. Gilbert, in his monograph on "The Geology of the Henry

Mountains, Utah," C. E. Dutton, in "The High Plateaus of

Utah," and J. A. TafT, in Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey No.

285, refer briefly to this geologic feature. Other than the short

statements in these reports the writer is unaware of any geological

literature on this region.

During the field season of 1911, F. L. Hess spent two days on

the east flank of the Swell on San Rafael River. References to

that portion of the region are based on his observations. A party

under the supervision of the writer, during the same season,

mapped in detail the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous rocks

along the west flank of the Swell in Castle Valley. In August,

1911, in company with W. R. Calvert, the north end of the region

in the vicinity of Cedar Mountain or Red Plateau was visited.

A little later accompanied by W. C. Mendenhall the writer entered

the interior of the dome. At the close of the field season a recon-

naissance trip was made with B. W. Clark to the north end of the

Henry Mountains region, at which time the southern end of the

San Rafael Swell was crossed. The observations made on these

and other excursions form the basis of. these notes.

The most prominent feature of the topography of this region

is a series of buttes, mesas and "castles" which encircle an area,

locally known as "Sinbad," which is 40 to 50 miles long and 10 to

20 miles in width. These fantastically eroded forms represent

the outcrop of a gray massive cross-bedded Jurassic sandstone

800 feet thick. It is practicable to cross the Swell at only a few

places on account of the almost impassable barrier formed by the

sandstone rim. Nearly vertical scarps and canyon walls 300 to

500 feet in height are not unusual. The buttes and "castles,"

above referred to, are conspicuously shown on the San Rafael

topographic sheet. Low "hogbacks," formed by resistant beds

in the overlying strata, the tops of which produce dip slopes of

varying extent depending on the inclination of the beds, encircle

this belt of rugged topography. A view to the west from the

interior of the Swell gives one the impression of looking up a very

gently inclined varicolored stairway, the steps of which increase

in height as the top, represented by the Wasatch Plateau, is

lupton: GEOLOGY OF SAN RAFAEL SWELL, UTAH 187

approached. Badland topography is common, especially near

stream courses.

Structurally, the Swell is an elongated almost flat-topped dome

extending northeast and southwest. The dip of the strata along

the west flank is generally less than 10°, whereas that almong the

east flank is as much as 70°. The strata in the interior of the dome

are comparatively flat-lying, the principal line of flexure being

near the east flank. Local minor domes were noted along the

west side. Faults with displacements ranging up to more than

100 feet were observed in and near Cedar Mountain or Red Plateau

at the north end of the region. Considerable faulting probably

has occurred along the east flank.

Carboniferous (?), Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous formations

are well exposed. The lower part of the section described below

was correlated with the section noted by Gilbert in the Henry

Mountains regions, whereas the upper part is almost equivalent

to the Book Cliffs section to the north. The lowest rocks exposed

in this region are represented by a limestone probably of Carbon-

iferous age noted by F. L. Hess near the San Rafael River on the

east side of the Swell. Above the limestone there is a series of

several hundred feet of sandstone and shale interbedded which

probably are representatives of the Shinarump group (of Permian

and Triassic age) and the Vermilion Cliff sandstone (of Triassic

age). Unconformably (?) overlying these beds is a massive much

cross-bedded gray sandstone 800 or more feet thick. This is the

Gray Cliff sandstone (of Jurrassic age) of Gilbert's Henry Moun-

tains section, which forms the striking topography referred to

above and is, in all probability, the same as the White Cliff sand-

stone of the eastern Uinta and southern Utah sections of Powell.

Conformably overlying this sandstone is a sequence of 1350 feet

of reddish and gray sandstone, sandy shale, and thick beds of

gypsum, which is approximately equivalent to the Flaming Gorge

formation of Powell and corresponds closely with the Flaming

Gorge formation as described by Gilbert in the Henry Mountains.

Five hundred feet of conglomerate, sandstone and sandy shale of

greenish drab color, overlying these strata correspond to the larger

part of the Henrys Fork formation as identified by Gilbert in the

188 lupton: geology of san rafael swell, tjtah

Henry Mountains, but probably should be classified with the

Flaming Gorge formation of Powell. Sixty to one hundred feet

of grayish sandstone (which, near Cedar Mountain, is replaced by

conglomerate) and sandy shale with thin streaks of coal at the

top and base, unconformably (?) overlie the conglomeratic strata

just described and probably represent the Dakota sandstone.

This sandstone corresponds to the uppermost part of Gilbert's

Henrys Fork formation. The Mancos shale, about 4000 feet

thick and consisting of three members, rests upon the Dakota (?)

in apparent conformity. In places, however, a thin bed of con-

glomerate separates the Dakota(?) sandstone from the overlying

shale. The Mancos outcrops in a monoclinal valley, the west

part of which is known as Castle Valley. The lowest member

consists of about 600 feet of bluish drab shale which is sandy in

its lower and upper portions. Overlying this is a sandstone mem-

ber approximately 500 feet thick containing coal beds near the

top. This sandstone probably is equivalent to the Bluegate sand-

stone of Gilbert's Henry Mountains section and is represented at

the north end of the Swell in the vicinity of Sunnyside Junction

by a thin concretionary sandy formation. Overlying the sand-

stone is about 3000 feet of grayish drab shale which is sandy in

its lower and upper parts. Conformably overlying the Mancos

shale is the Mesaverde formation 1100 feet thick (in the vicinity

of Emery) which caps the east scarp of the Wasatch Plateau.

This formation consists mainly of sandstone with beds of sandy

shale and coal intercalated.

Sills and dikes of basalt, which were noted at several localities

near the south end of the Swell, extend as far north as Muddy or

Curtis Creek.

ABSTRACTS

Authors of scientific papers are requested to see that abstracts, preferably

prepared and signed by themselves, are forwarded promptly to the editors. Each

of the scientific bureaus in Washington has a representative authorized to for-

ward such material to this journal and abstracts of official publications should

be transmitted through the representative of the bureau in which they originate.

The abstracts should conform in length and general style to those appearing in

this issue.

GEODESY. — The effect of topography and isostatic compensation upon

the effect of gravity. John F. Hayford and William Bowie.

Special Publication No. 10, Coast and Geodetic Survey, pp. 130,

with illustrations. 1912.

The introduction of isostasy in the determination of the figure and size

of the earth from observed deflections of the vertical resulted in a marked

increase in the accuracy of the values deduced. It was logical that isos-

tasy should be considered in the reduction of gravity observations in

order that a corresponding increase in accuracy of the shape of the earth

might be obtained from these data.

A preliminary report on the reduction of 56 gravity stations in the

United States, by the new method, was made to the International Geo-

detic Association at London and Cambridge in 1909 by Hayford. The

present publication is a complete report on the reduction of 89 gravity

stations in the United States.

By the new method a correction is applied at each station for the

attraction of the topography of the whole earth and also a correction for

the isostatic compensation of the topography in addition to the correc-

tion for the height of the station above sea-level. The compensation is

assumed to be complete and uniformly distributed from the surface to a

depth of 113.7 kilometers. Ihis was the most probable limiting depth

as determined by the first investigation of the figure of the earth and isos-

tasy from measurements in the United States. The better value of

120 kilometers, obtained from the second investigation of the figure of

the earth and isostasy, was not available at the time the tables were

computed for the gravity reductions.

The methods used in applying the effect of the topography and its

compensation are fully described and the necessary working tables are

189

190 abstracts: geodesy

given. Id fact, all the data are given that are necessary for making

reductions at any gravity station in the world.

The procedure at each of the gravity stations was to compute the theo-

retical gravity for the latitude of the station in question by the Heimert

formula, correct this for the elevation of the station above sea level and

then apply the correction for the topography of the world and its compen-

sation. The resulting theoretical value is then compared with the actu-

ally observed value of gravity at the station. The difference between the

computed and observed values is the anomaly which indicates a depar-

ture at that station from the assumed density of the earth's surface and

of the computed excesses and defects of density in the crust to the depth

of compensation.

A comparison is made of the new method anomalies in size and sign,

with the anomalies given by the free air and Bouguer methods and the

result is in practically every case in favor of the new method.

The 89 stations in the United States were arranged in groups with

reference to their relation to topography. The groups are: 16 coast

stations; 18 stations near the coast (within 325 kilometers); 27 conti-

nental stations not in mountainous regions; 16 stations in mountainous

regions, below the general level; and 12 stations in mountainous regions,

above the general level. The mean without regard to sign of the anoma-

lies at 87 stations (two stations not considered) is 0.017 dyne. For the

five groups mentioned above the corresponding means are 0.017, 0.020,

0.018, 0.012, and 0.014 dyne, of which no one is much above the general

mean of all.

The means with regard to sign for the five groups are: — 0.004,

+ 0.002, + 0.002, - 0.002, and + 0.003 dyne. The general conclu-

sion from the examination is that the anomalies by the new method

show no relation to the topography either in sign or average magnitude.

It is shown on the other hand that there are decided relations between

the anomalies by the two older methods of reduction and topography.

It was found that there appears to be a relation between the surface

geologic formation and the size and sign of the new method anomalies.

The mean of the anomalies at seven stations on Pre-Cambrian formation

is + 0.019 dyne, with regard to sign, and 0.026 dyne, without regard to

sign. This indicates an excess of material in the crust in the vicinity of

these stations. The means with and without regard to sign of the anoma-

lies at 20 stations in the Cenozoic are — 0.011 and 0.021 dyne, respec-

tively. This appears to indicate a deficiency in mass in the crust at

these stations. It is shown that these anomalies are probably caused by

abstracts: geology 191

erroneous assumptions as to the density of the surface materials and also

by a departure from a state of complete isostasy.

The mean without regard to sign of the new-method anomalies at the

89 stations in the United States is only 0.017 dyne. An anomaly of

+ 0.017 dyne would be produced by an excess of mass corresponding in

amount to a stratum about 570 feet thick of density 2.67 (the mean

surface density of the earth) with the station at the center of one surface

of the disk and the disk of indefinite extent. An anomaly of — 0.017

dyne would be produced similarly by a deficiency of mass corresponding

to a stratum about 570 feet thick. The gravity observations indicate,

therefore, that the isostatic compensation is everywhere so nearly com-

plete that the excesses and deficiencies of mass above the limiting depth

of compensation correspond upon an average to a stratum only 570 feet

thick. The average elevation of the surface of the ground in the United

States is about 2500 feet, more than four times 570 feet.

The evidence furnished by the new method gravity anomalies in regard

to the location and extent of the continuous areas of excess or deficiency

of mass in the United States, that is, of under-compensation or of over-

compensation, confirms and supplements that given by the observed

deflections of the vertical previously considered and published by the

Coast and Geodetic Survey in the second publication on the Figure of

the Earth and Isostasy. W. B.

GEOLOGY. — The Tertiary gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California.

Waldemar Lindgren. Professional Paper U. S. Geological Sur-

vey No. 73. Pp. 226, with maps, sections, and illustrations. 1911.

This report attempts to trace the Tertiary history of the Sierra Nevada,

by an examination of the Tertiary gravels and volcanic flows which

cover a large part of their western slope. The gravels, as well known,

have had, and still have, great economic importance, altho at present

restrictions connected with the disposal of debris have put a stop to

most of the hydraulic mining. The report is really a summary and

includes observations made not only by the author, but by numerous

other members of the Geological Survey.

In the early Tertiary age this region was a deeply eroded mountain

range, this erosion having occupied the larger part of the Cretaceous

period. Pauses in the erosion, when the topography had been reduced

to gentle outlines, permitted deep rock decay and promoted the libera-

tion of gold from its matrix. Renewed uplift quickened erosion and

facilitated concentration. These conditions continued thruout Cre-

192 abstracts: geology

taceous and Tertiary time. Fluctuations of the western shore line

caused the streams at times to extend far into the areas now occupied

by the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys and. at times to debauch

upon flood planes high on the flanks of the range. Faulting movements

with downthrow on the east side, probably begin ning in Cretaceous

time, had transformed an approximately symmetrical range into a mono-

clinal one with steep easterly slope. Gradually the mountains were

worn down, the rivers flowed from low divides, meandering among

longitudinal ridges, and the whole slope was covered by the dense vege-

tation of a damp semitropical climate.

Toward the end of Tertiary time rhyolite flows filled the valleys,

covered the auriferous gravels, and new stream courses were outlined.

Renewed disturbance began along the scarcely healed eastern breaks,

resulting in a westward tilting of the main blocks, combined with normal

faulting and subsidence of the blocks in western Nevada. In conse-

quence of this disturbance the monoclinal nature of the range became

strongly emphasized, and the streams immediately began to cut their

beds deeper. At the end of the Tertiary, eruptions of andesites and their

tuffs and breccias began in enormous volume and filled the Tertiary

valleys to the rims. During the subsequent canyon-cutting epoch

which belongs in part at least to the Quaternary period, the erosion has

laid bare the old gravels and in most cases completely intersected the

old valleys.

The first part of the book outlines the history of the valley border and

describes the sedimentary and volcanic formations exposed at the west-

ern base of the range. The Tertiary drainage system and the pre-

volcanic surface is then described. The courses of the main rivers of

Tertiary age draining the northern part of the range are traced in detail.

Toward the southern part of the area the present drainage corresponds

fairly well with that of the Tertiary period, the principal difference

appearing to be that many of the Tertiary rivers flowed parallel with the

range in longitudinal valleys which have been in most cases squarely

intersected by the present Quaternary rivers. Feather River, one of

the greatest of the present water courses, had no adequate representative

in Tertiary time, but that part of the slope now belonging to it drained

to the north.

Evidence is adduced by numerous profiles and sections of the charac-

ter of the Tertiary topography, and of the present grade of the Tertiary

stream channels. These profiles, by the infallible relation between

extremely steep transverse grades and extremely flat longitudinal grades,

abstracts: geology, phytopathology 193

proves that a tilting uplift has taken place whereby the grades of the

rivers flowing west have been considerably increased. The increase

is so uniform as to show that the block tilted without deformation.

The tilting of a marginal continental block 80 miles wide and 300 miles

long, with inconspicuous deformation, must have required forces acting

thru depths of miles.

In chapter 3 the fossils of the auriferous gravels are described, princi-

pally by Prof. F. H. Knowlton. Chapter 4 deals with the gold in the

Tertiary gravels, its distribution, size, and value, as well as with the

minerals accompanying the gold in the gravel. A brief account is given

of methods of mining and of legislation concerning mining debris. An

appendix gives a summary of the latest developments in the gold-dredg-

ing industry at the foot of the Sierra Nevada. W. L.

GEOLOGY. — Alunite, a newly discovered deposit near Marysvale, Utah.

B. S. Butler and H. S. Gale. Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey

No. 511. Pp. 64, pis. 3. 1912.

The alunite deposit described in this bulletin is located about 7 miles

southwest of Marysvale, Piute County, Utah, on a spur of the Tushar

range.

The deposit occurs filling a fissure vein cutting volcanic rocks. It

outcrops in places for a distance of 3500 feet and has a maximum meas-

ured thickness of about 20 feet. Much of the vein material is nearly

pure alunite, while in other parts it contains some quartz and kaolin.

The bulletin also contains a brief description of other known occur-

rences of alunite both domestic and foreign and a review of commercial

processes of treatment of this mineral. B. S. B.

PHYTOPATHOLOGY.— The history and cause of the coconut bud-rot-

John R. Johnston, Bureau of Plant Industry. Bulletin 228.

February 5, 1912.

A disease of coconuts called the bud-rot has long been known in Cuba,

Jamaica, British Honduras, Trinidad, and British Guiana; it probably

occurs in the Philippines, Ceylon, British India, German East Africa,

and Portuguese East Africa The symptoms of this disease are the

yellowing and falling of the leaves and the dropping of immature nuts.

Eventually the middle folded leaves shrivel and bend over and the entire

heart of the crown is involved in a vile-smelling soft rot. The tree may

be killed within a few months after infection, and entire groves may be

destroyed within two or three years. The cause of the disease in eastern

194 abstracts: geology, phytopathology

Cuba is an organism practically identical with Bacillus coli (Escherich)

Migula. Inoculations into coconut seedlings with B. coli of animal

origin gave infection similar to inoculations with the coconut organism.

It is believed that birds and insects are carriers of this disease; stomatal

infections are common on the young tissues. The study of the bud-

rot disease of the coconut palm suggests that diseases of several other

palms may be due to the same cause. No coconut district is secure from

danger of infection of the bud-rot disease. The control of the disease

will probably depend upon better sanitation and improved methods of

cultivation. The cutting out and burning of all diseased tree tops and

the removal of fallen leaves and nuts are especially necessary. It is

believed that the bud-rot disease of coconuts does not occur in the island

of Porto Rico. K. F. Kellerman.

PROGRAMS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON

Saturday evening, April 6, 1912; Cosmos Club. Mr. A. F. Zahm:

Evolution of the Aeroplane; its Fundamental Features of English origin.

JOURNAL

OF THE

0

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. II, APRIL 19, 1912 No. 8

PHYSICS.— The Ether.1 P. G. Nutting, Bureau of Standards.

The whole of theoretical Ether-Physics has been profoundly

modified within the past two decades. Many of the fundamental

concepts of electricity, gravitation, radiation and even matter

itself have been revised from their foundations. Our task today

is to examine the storm center, the ether. In anticipation, it

may be stated that the task will prove not to be a mortuary one,

but rather one of removing and getting rid of rubbish. The new

ether is the old ether freed from useless and incongruous

attributes.

What we wish to know about the ether is whether it exists or

not, what are its nature and properties, and what are its relations

to electricity, gravitation, radiation, induction and chemical affin-

ity. Material bearing on these problems is scanty and we can

do little more than review the experimental facts and their inter-

pretation, contrasting their present interpretation with that of

twenty years ago and placing in their proper setting the more

recent important discoveries.

First then, as to the existence of the ether. We shall discuss first

the evidence in favor of an ether and then sum the evidence against

it. The older reasons for supposing the existence of the ether

hold as forcibly today as they ever did and to these have been

added a few new ones of some significance.

1. There is the old question of action at a distance. Wherever

two objects are attracted toward or repelled from each other and

1 Presented before the Physics Association of the Bureau of Standards, Feb-

ruary 5, 1912.

195

196 nutting: the ether

there is no material connecting link, such as a wire or pulsating

fluid, between them, it has always been customary to put the bur-

den upon an immaterial medium. Gravitational attraction, elec-

trical and magnetic attraction and repulsion are of this nature.

Chemical affinity should probably be included but some hold that

a material link actually holds tile atoms together.

In my opinion not much weight can be attached to action at

a distance as evidence for the existence of an ether. The assump-

tion of an ether is doubtless the simplest explanation of the facts,

but it is certainly not the only possible explanation. It is easy

to imagine an intervening medium pulled by one body and itself

pulling a second body. However, in imagining such a medium,

we are endowing it with mechanical properties and with such

extreme properties as no known material possesses. In discard-

ing the mechanical assumption we may either assume a non-

mechanical ether or else assume that these forces really belong

to some higher mechanical system in which the apparent action

at a distance is in reality contact action. Perhaps there are still

other alternatives. I merely cite these two to show how far we

are from a final disposition of the problem.

2. The propagation of electromagnetic energy from one body to

another. Radiation is emitted by one body and received after

an interval of time by another. Where and what was this energy

during that interval of time? Until recently, these questions were

readily answered; radiation travels as wave energy, where waves

are there is motion, where motion is there is something that moves,

namely, the ether. At present with an ether devoid of mechani-

cal properties, there are wide differences of opinion as to just how

electromagnetic energy travels through space, but if we knew how

it is propagated through any material di-electric, we could very

probably give at least a tentative explanation of how it travels

from one body to another.

So far as we now know, such energy could be propagated through

void space only in corpuscular form. If we assume corpuscular

light, we have to contend with a solid array of firmly established

facts. Further, electromagnetic theory itself shows that energy

thus propagated is essentially alternating in character and in

definite relations to the direction of propagation. To my mind,

nutting: the ether 197

all the evidence afforded by the propagation of radiation through

space is against that space being void and in favor of an ether

with very definite electric and magnetic but without mechanical

properties.

3. A third group of evidence bearing on the existence of the

ether consists in those phenomena indicating a storage of energy

in the neighborhood of an electric charge in actual motion. These

phenomena correspond with self induction in the case of ordinary

electric currents. Cathode ray particles, the Beta particles from

radium and similar objects carrying electric charges with high

velocities, carry more energy than corresponds with their material

mass and velocity, electro-magnetic energy of the adjacent me-

dium. This may even be separated from the matter and charge

and measured as energy in the form of Rontgen or of Gamma

rays.

These phenomena, to my mind, supply the most direct evidence

of the existence of a medium. If there were nt> medium how could

a moving charge carry or conduct along with itself, outside it-

self energy of motion. How could a bullet moving in void space

possess energy of motion exterior to itself? It may be thought

that the assumption of lines and tubes of force as physical entities

would provide an escape from the assumption of a medium. But

such an assumption merely displaces the dilemma. If we con-

sider that the region adjacent to a moving charge is filled with

actual tubes of force instead of merely being an electromagnetic

field, how, without a medium, could the sizes and shapes of these

tubes be a function of the velocity of the charge.

4. To most of us it is a significant fact that not one of those

whose work has been largely instrumental in the overthrow of

the mechanical theory — H. A. Lorenz, Poincare, Planck, Larmor,

J. J. Thomson, Schuster, Whittaker, Heaviside, Wiechert, or

Michelson — appears to question the existence of an ether without

mechanical properties.

The no-ether school may fairly be compared with the no-atom

school of Energetics. If we ignore the ether or the atom we may

treat a considerable portion of physics quite satisfactorily but we

must ignore a great many vital and significant phenomena in so

doing.

198 nutting: the ether

The evidence against the existence of the ether falls into two

distinct classes; it is either evidence against the mechanical theory

or else evidence based on the negative results of attempts to detect

ether drift. In the last analysis these two are the same but we

shall discuss them separately.

The mechanical theory never did have high standing with think-

ing men, and but for the support of a few leading physicists hav-

ing mechanical minds, would never perhaps have been developed

beyond a mere tentative hypothesis. We have no reason to think

that even Lord Kelvin himself, chief exponent of the mechanical

theory, ever considered it more than such a working hypothesis.

We are all familiar with the character and properties assigned

to the mechanical ether; its enormous elasticity and infinitesimal

density to give the proper value to the velocity of light, its enor-

mous tensile strength to support gravitational forces, its solid prop-

erties to propagate transverse light waves, its fluid properties to

permit heavenly bodies to move through it with fixed velocities,

and so on. The mechanical ether reached its highest develop-

ment as a vortex sponge at the close of the last century. It has

passed away, not by violence but by starvation. It always was

a monstrosity and we are only too glad to be able to discard it

forever.

The stubborn refusal of all phenomena, both natural and arti-

ficial, to show any indication of absolute motion in space has no

direct bearing on the question of the existence of an electromag-

netic ether. The Lorenz contraction hypothesis, with the elec-

tron theory of matter, offers us one loophole of escape from the

stubborn facts, the relativity theory several. It is too early to

say what will be the outcome, into what framework of theory, our

experimental facts will fit with least violence to themselves.

Some relativists would have us reject the ether entirely on the

ground that it is useless. I, myself, fail to see how it can be dis-

pensed with, any more than atoms or molecules can be dispensed

with, nor how anyone, at all versed in theoretical optics or elec-

tricity, can consider it unnecessary.

In short, the mechanical ether of Kelvin, Lodge and Helm-

holtz, the ether most of us were brought up on, has been proven

nutting: the ether 199

untenable, the electromagnetic Maxwell ether stands just where

it always stood. It has been attacked, without much effect, by

the extreme relativists, strengthened by the electron theory and

brought into prominence by the pruning away of the mechanical

theory.

As the conservation of energy is the simplest general principle

which will make perpetual motion impossible, so the simplest

physical law that will permit of discarding all the mechanical

attributes of the ether is the principle of relativity. Each of

these principles are, however, but limited forms of more general

laws.

Before 'outlining the properties of the ether let us consider

briefly its mathematical framework in the newer physics of which

the relativity theory is the most conspicuous landmark. Mathe-

matical physicists (Lorenz, Minkowski, Abraham, Einstein) have

found that apparent experimental contradictions disappear and

the mathematical framework of physics is greatly simplified if,

instead of referring phenomena to a set of three space axes and

one time axis of reference, they are referred to a set of four inter-

changeable axes involving 4 homogeneous coordinates, three of

space and one of time. There are an infinite number of ways

of projecting the four dimensional (x, y, z, t) space into the x, y, z,

and t space. Phenomena that are ambiguous and contradictory

when one projection is used are simple and harmonious with

another projection. Further, if a star, say, is in motion relative

to one x, y, z, t system, it will be at rest with respect to some other

system of axes. Relativity is a particular instance of the appli-

cation of these principles. Already gravitation, that most recon-

dite of all physical facts, is yielding to this four dimensional

analysis. What we have here to keep in mind is that in order to

explain the lack of ether drift it is unnecessary to annihilate or

ignore either space or time intervals but merely to generalize our

axes of reference.

Three classes of physical phenomena may take place within or

across space void of matter:

(a) Forces may act. Electric, magnetic, gravitational (and pos-

sibly chemical) forces act across space even when no matter inter-

200 nutting: the ether

venes. Electric and magnetic forces may be either positive or

negative, gravitational and chemical forces are negative only.

The signs of these forces can not be altered by ai^ intervening

medium. Electric forces are a maximum when no matter inter-

venes. Magnetic forces are intermediate in value while gravi-

tational force is the same whatever the intervening medium. The

speed of propagation of electric and magnetic forces across space

is a finite constant independent of the sign or magnitude of those

forces. The speed of propagation of gravitational forces is cer-

tainly greater than 1014 cm/sec and probably infinite. In no case

is there any evidence of a force too small or too great to be propa-

gated; that is of any finite maximum or minimum load.- In other

words, there is no evidence that the ether, if the ether be respon-

sible, has any finite inertia or viscosity on the one hand or break-

ing strength on the other, certainly not in any mechanical sense.

(b) The absence of matter is no bar to induction. An electric

charge induces an electric charge as readily across a vacuum as

through matter, and similarly with magnetic and electromagnetic

induction. Induction is always of the same sign, unlimited in

magnitude and propagated with the speed of light.

(c) Electromagnetic radiation is propagated across a vacuum

as freely as through matter. Beams of light and electric waves,

whatever their nature, travel independently of each other, i.e.,

no matter how filled with radiation of one kind and direction a

certain space is, neither the wave length, velocity, direction, damp-

ing or polarization of any other beam traversing the same space

at the same time is in any way affected. Neither electric nor

gravitational strain of any amount produces birefraction in a space

devoid of matter nor does a magnetic field affect the plane of

polarization unless matter be present. That these effects do exist

in matter indicates an actual mechanical strain. Of the two

astronomical methods for determining the velocity of light, the

satellite method gives the group velocity, while the aberration

constant gives the waoe velocity; the close agreement between

the values obtained indicates that wave and group velocity is

the same, hence that there is no dispersion in space, waves of

all frequencies travel with the same velocity.

nutting: the ether 201

Two important facts give us clues to the actual magnitudes of

the constants of the ether (a) the fixed finite nature of the veloc-

ity of propagation (independent of the motion or intensity of the

source) indicates definite electrodynamical properties in the space

traversed, in fact that

c = (k/j,)~2

We but require a second independent relation between c, k,

and ix to determine the actual values of k and ix for the ether.

(b) Again, space has a definite fixed capacity for radiant energy,

a function of the frequency of the radiation, its spectral distri-

bution, the velocity of propagation and the amount already pres-

ent. Expressions for what correspond with entropy and specific

heat may be derived without difficulty. This capacity for energy

is dependent upon boundary conditions while the velocity con-

stant is not.

There exists rather conclusive evidence that short wave and

pulse electromagnetic energy is emitted in even multiplies of a

small but finite quantity proportional to the frequency. On the

other hand there is no evidence that such is the case with the long